Bloom's Taxonomy - What's Old Is New Again - 2013

PERSPECTIVES
BLOOMS TAXONOMY: Whats Old Is New Again
Cecelia Munzenmaier, MS, with Nancy Rubin, PhD
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Blooms Taxonomy: Whats Old Is New Again
2013 The eLearning Guild. All rights reserved. The eLearning Guild 120 Stony Point Rd., Suite 125 Santa Rosa, CA 95401 1.707.566.8990
Written by: Cecelia Munzenmaier, MS, with Nancy Rubin, PhD Copy Editing: Charles Holcombe Publication Design: Scott Hanson
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Table of Contents
Executive Summary............................................................................................................................................... 1 Blooms Original Taxonomy: The Beginning........................................................................................3
Four Key Principles................................................................................................................................................3 Three Original Domains...................................................................................................................................... 4 One Cognitive Hierarchy.....................................................................................................................................5
Original Blooms in Action: Writing Objectives................................................................................... 8

Cognitive Levels..................................................................................................................................................... 8 Tools for Writing Objectives.............................................................................................................................. 9
Original Blooms in Action: Developing Critical Thinking Questions...............................14 Criticisms and the Need for Revision......................................................................................................16 The Revised Version of Blooms Taxonomy........................................................................................ 17
Changes to the Categories............................................................................................................................... 17 From One to Two Dimensions: Knowledge Levels and Cognitive Processes.................................18
Revised Blooms in Action: Writing Two-Dimensional Objectives....................................20

Develop Performance-based Objectives with Blooms.......................................................................... 21 Try Revised Blooms Yourself..........................................................................................................................24 Try Revised Blooms Yourself: Align Coverage with the Taxonomy Table...................................... 25
Digital Blooms Taxonomy: Adapting the Hierarchy to the Digital Revolution......... 26 Digital Blooms in Action: Choosing Activities for Digital Learning................................ 28 Digital Blooms in Action: Assessing Digital Learning................................................................ 31
Try Digital Blooms Yourself............................................................................................................................. 31
Blooming Applications.....................................................................................................................................34 Digital Blooms in Action: Using Applications to Target Cognitive Levels.................. 35 Alternatives to Blooms Taxonomies...................................................................................................... 37 Conclusion: Blooms Legacy........................................................................................................................ 39
What Matters Most: Theory or Practice?....................................................................................................39 Blooms Criteria of Usefulness........................................................................................................................39
Major Takeaways................................................................................................................................................... 43 References............................................................................................................................................................... 44 About the Author................................................................................................................................................. 47
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Executive Summary
Blooms Taxonomy is there anything in the learning sciences that is more familiar? But is a heuristic from the 1950s still relevant in our tech-savvy world? Surprisingly (or maybe not surprisingly), it is extremely relevant! Those of us who design instruction use Blooms familiar pyramid and verbs to write learning objectives. Online instructors have used it to measure the quality of online discussions, and curriculum planners continue to find innovative applications of the framework. And its increasingly called on to support the new Common Core standards in K-12 education. But as youll see in this research report, educators in all venues can use revised and digital versions of Blooms to support what we now know about cognition, performance objectives, and social learning. Benjamin Blooms eponymous taxonomy emerged from a series of informal discussions with colleagues that began at the American Psychological Association in 1948. He actually intended his work for a narrow audience: assessment experts who were developing new ways to measure what college students learned. But Blooms Taxonomy became the most widely used method of creating learning objectives. Blooms Taxonomy helped make an important shift in educators focus: from teaching to learning. When the original taxonomy was published, as much as 90 percent of classroom time was spent on activities designed to help learners recall facts. Forty years later, Bloom estimated that the percentage of lower-order assessment questions had been reduced to about 70 percent. By correlating assessment questions to Blooms cognitive levels, test developers can ensure that their questions promote both retention of knowledge and critical thinking. Among the dozens of alternatives proposed to the original framework, a revision to the taxonomy was published in 2001: A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Blooms Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. The new version has two dimensionsknowledge and cognitive processesand the subcategories within each dimension are more extensive and specific. The new emphasis on cognitive processes remedies a weakness in the original taxonomy. In the 1956 version, the verbs associated with each cognitive level describe behaviors. However, the same behavior can sometimes be performed at different cognitive levels. Adding a second dimension allows objective writers to differentiate between, say, retrieving a list or constructing one. In 2007, Andrew Churches updated Blooms work one step further when he introduced Blooms Digital Taxonomy. His intent was to marry Blooms cognitive levels
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to 21st-century digital skills. Churches added ways to use Web 2.0 technologies to each cognitive level in Blooms revised taxonomy. Within the report are numerous charts, job aids, and activities that allow you to make the most of the innovations and updates in Blooms Taxonomy for yourself and your work team. Measured against the criteria Bloom established in 1956, his work stands the test of time. His taxonomy is a widely accepted metric that continues to provoke new research, shape best instructional and assessment practice, and provide a common language and framework for collaboration.
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Blooms Original Taxonomy: The Beginning

Benjamin Bloom didnt intend to invent educational dogma. When he began developing his taxonomy of educational objectives (grouping educational objectives into ordered categories), his main goal was to find a common language that educational measurement experts could use to share findings and exchange test items. Blooms Taxonomy emerged from a series of informal discussions with colleagues that began at the American Psychological Association in 1948. At the time, educators were wrestling with a number of questions, many prompted by the influx of World War II veterans enrolling in college. The veterans wanted a good education, but what makes an education good? How could instructors ensure that learners graduated with more than just lower-level factual knowledge? One of Blooms students, Lee S. Shulman, recalls that when these questions were raised, educators were just beginning to consider assessment. Bloom, as the director of the examiners office at the University of Chicago, was developing assessments to measure learning. When he tried to share ideas and test items with other evaluators, he found that instructors agreed that they wanted learners to understand, but they had very different ideas about what understanding meant. Bloom envisioned a taxonomy that would organize educational goals into a hierarchy, much as biologists classify living creatures into categories that ascend from species to kingdom. The taxonomy that bears his name is based on the work of hundreds of collaborators, including reviewers, contributors of case studies and examples, and a core working group of about 30 people. The result of their efforts, published in 1956, is officially known as Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Bloom often called this work The Handbook. However, the educators, instructional designers, researchers, and evaluators who apply this classification generally refer to it as Blooms Taxonomy. This recognizes Blooms foundational contribution to the project: He convinced his collaborators to organize learning behaviors on a continuum from the simplest to the most complex.
Four Key Principles

Bloom identified four principles that guided the development of the taxonomy. Categories should: Be based on student behaviors Show logical relationships among the categories Reflect the best current understanding of psychological processes Describe rather than impose value judgments
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In his discussion of these principles, found in Chapter 1 of The Handbook, Bloom anticipated some of the most frequent criticisms of his work. The taxonomy is based on behaviors that teachers can observe, so its language does not capture the complexities of internal learning processes. The psychological understanding of the 1950s does not reflect what we now know about how learners construct knowledge, monitor their thinking, or regulate their own mental processes. Bloom also acknowledged that the taxonomy does not provide a complete theory of learning. However, he hoped that this classification system would support the development of a comprehensive theory by providing a framework that educators could use to identify research problems, develop hypotheses, plan learning, and identify methods and metrics, and by defining a common language to use when setting learning goals, measuring outcomes, and sharing findings. Today, Blooms Taxonomy is the most widely used method of creating learning objectives. Researchers use its levels to measure outcomes and compare everything from programs to methods of learning. While several modifications have been proposed, Blooms description of learning domains and levels of complexity is still widely used.
Three Original Domains

Blooms original taxonomy consisted of three domains: Cognitiveknowledge-based domain Affectiveattitude-based domain Psychomotorphysical skills-based domain Table 1 (on page 5) outlines the three domains of Blooms original taxonomy and gives a brief overview of each domain with the abilities associated with each domain.
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Table 1: Domains in Blooms original taxonomy
Domain Cognitive
Overview Content and intellectual knowledge: What do I want learners to know?
Abilities Conceptualization Comprehension Application Evaluation Synthesis Receiving Responding Valuing Organizing Characterizing
Affective
Emotional knowledge: What do I want learners to think or care about?
Psychomotor
Physical/mechanical knowledge: What action(s) do I want learners to be able to perform?
Perception Simulation Conformation Production Mastery
Despite Blooms intent to speak to all three domains, The Handbook focuses only on intellectual skill development. The affective domain was addressed by David Krathwohl in his Handbook II: Affective Domain (1964). There was no Handbook III for the psychomotor domain, but authors such as Simpson and Harrow have developed taxonomies for this domain (see the University of Connecticuts Assessment Primer at http://assessment.uconn.edu/primer/taxonomies1.html). The focus of this paper is the cognitive domain.
One Cognitive Hierarchy

The cognitive domain of Blooms original taxonomy has six levels organized in a hierarchy (Figure 1). The base of the pyramid is the foundation of all cognition, knowledge. Each ascending level of the pyramid depends on the one below it: For example, learners must comprehend what a homesteaders exemption is before they can apply the definition to determine whether someone qualifies for a tax break. Knowledge and comprehension are often referred to as lower-order thinking skills. The skills above them are termed higher-order or critical thinking skills.
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Figure 1: The six levels of the cognitive domain of Blooms original taxonomy
The knowledge level, at the bottom of the hierarchy, is defined as remembering or retrieving previously learned material. Learning objectives at this level often include defining key terms, listing steps in a process, or repeating something heard or seen. For example, an objective for an orientation session might include new hires recognizing a correct description of how employees become vested in the companys retirement plan. In this case, knowledge-level objectives are clearly critical, as they are foundational to understanding additional materials. However, designers tend to write too many knowledge-level objectives because they find it so easy to pick out definitions and details. Comprehension represents the largest category of cognitive skills and abilities. The key skill at this level is processing new information. For example, after orientation new hires might be asked to use the benefits information they were given to answer basic questions such as, if a person starts in the middle of the month, when do medical benefits begin? At the application level, a learner should be able to solve a new problem by applying information without having to be prompted. Objectives at this level might require learners to interpret information, demonstrate mastery of a concept, or apply a skill learned. At an orientation, for example, participants might be asked to apply time-off calculations to their own schedules. Analysis requires learners to recognize relationships among parts. Objectives at this level of the hierarchy often include verbs such as differentiate, compare and contrast, criticize, or experiment. At an employee orientation, participants might be asked to classify workers into different categories according to eligibility for unpaid leave.
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Synthesis calls for creative behavior because learners produce newly constructed and, many times, unique products. At this level, objectives might have learners create a plan, propose an idea, design a product, or organize information. During an employee orientation, for example, participants might plan the best way to maximize use of the 401K plan. Evaluation involves making judgments about value. Learning objectives at this level require learners to measure, value, estimate, choose, or revise something, perhaps information, a productor solve a problem. A newly hired employee, for example, might need to evaluate which insurance plan provides the most appropriate coverage. Instruction that stops too low on the taxonomy doesnt give learners the chance to think critically enough about what they are learning. When objectives focus solely on recall and comprehension, learners may understand what they have learned but fail to recognize when to apply their knowledge. Higher-order objectives require learners to use what they have learned and can give them practice in developing new approaches to problems, identifying critical variables, and making needed judgments. Both the original Blooms Taxonomy and its later revisions can be used to develop muchneeded critical thinking.
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Original Blooms in Action: Writing Objectives

Learning objectives, also called instructional objectives, are statements describing what learners will be able to do upon completion of a unit of instruction. They help us decide what learners should learn and how we will determine whether they have learned that content. This brings up an important point: We write these objectives, at least at the outset, to guide the design of the instruction. Clear objectives guide instructional designers, teachers, and facilitators in choosing appropriate instructional delivery methods and instructional strategies and therefore help learners achieve desired learning outcomes. To ensure that activities and evaluation are valid and properly aligned to instructional goals and content, assessments should be developed from objectives. Suppose that one objective of a lesson calls for nursing students to determine whether a patient in the emergency room needs immediate care. This requires clinical judgment, so students need practice in interpreting assessment data and predicting outcomes. To assess this objective, questions on the knowledge and comprehension levels may be used to determine whether students can recall the facts needed to make an informed decision. However, the objective cannot be met unless students demonstrate that they can use higher-order thinking skills to make a clinical judgment. Objectives can also be used to determine whether instruction aligns with educational outcomes or business goals. Suppose that a company invests in training to improve the performance of its service technicians. If the technicians meet only lower-level objectives, their skill is unlikely to improve. They might be able to label every part of every machine without error, but to do their job effectively they must develop the higher-order skills of diagnosing malfunctions and making repairs.
Cognitive Levels
In the original taxonomy, the verbs in learning objectives describe intended behavior what learners will do to show that they have attained the objective. Learning objectives using verbs from the taxonomy have at least two parts: A noun or noun phrase identifying who is to perform the action A verb phrase describing the required behavior
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For example:
Noun/Noun Phrase The learner The learner Verb Phrase will identify the flammable items. will determine the merits of a proposal to create a new international division to handle international accounts.
In this example, the verb is identify. The cognitive skill required is recalling information. So the first example clearly targets Blooms level 1, knowledge. In the second example, the verb determine could be associated with more than one cognitive level. Trainees might analyze whether the benefits of the proposal outweigh its costs. However, they might also be expected to judge whether the proposal is written in a way that meets criteria for communication excellence. The second objective should be revised so that the verb clearly targets either level 4, analysis, or level 6, evaluation. Much of the power of Blooms Taxonomy lies in its verbs. The verbs associated with each cognitive level identify what students can do to demonstrate that they have met objectives. The secret of alignment, whether at the lesson or program level, is to choose verbs that correlate instructional goals with content and assessment. Suppose a company develops a program to improve managers coaching skills. If the instructional objectives are List the steps in the coaching process and Define coaching, the program has a fatal flaw: its objectives are limited to the knowledge level, but its goals include mastery of higher-order skills that participants may not have learned or practiced. If instruction is limited to the knowledge level and participants must use higher-order skills to show mastery, the misalignment between lower-level instruction and higher-level assessment sets learners up to fail. The lesson here is that it is critical to construct learning objectives at the level that you expect learners to perform.
Tools for Writing Objectives

Because learning objectives are so critical to instruction and assessment, many tools have been created to help writers use the original taxonomy to develop them. The most basic tools are tables that suggest verbs correlated to each level of cognition, such as Table 2 (on page 10) for an example. To use such tables, first identify the cognitive level you want to target; then choose a verb from the key words column and use it to begin your objective.
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Table 2: Blooms Taxonomy cognitive levels and key words
Skill Level 1 Knowledge
Definition Recall information
Verbs Identify, describe, name, label, recognize, reproduce, follow Summarize, convert, defend, paraphrase, interpret, give examples Build, make, construct, model, predict, prepare Compare/contrast, break down, distinguish, select, separate Categorize, generalize, reconstruct Appraise, critique, judge, justify, argue, support
Level 2
Comprehension
Understand the meaning, paraphrase a concept
Level 3
Application
Use the information or concept in a new situation Break information or concepts into parts to understand it more fully Put ideas together to form something new Make judgments about value
Level 4
Analysis
Level 5
Synthesis
Level 6
Evaluation
Objectives at the knowledge level might ask learners to: Define a key term List the steps in a process Label a diagram These objectives require learners to find an application for what they have learned: Predict the answer to a problem given certain variables Select the key concepts to cover in a course unit or training module Some tools add a third element: an observable behavior that learners perform to show that they have met the objective. The result is a three-part learning objective that specifies who is to meet the objective, what is to be done, and what the result will be.
Who The learner The sales representative does what will identify the parts of a Widget2000 will use the jujitsu strategy to accomplish this by labeling a diagram
to develop counters to at least two anticipated objections
Tools that include this third element often show relationships among cognitive levels and components of the objective graphically. For example, the original taxonomy is often depicted as a staircase (Figure 2 on page 11) because it is a cumulative hierarchy.
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Learners are expected to climb the levels in sequence, and mastery of each step is required before moving to the next, more complex, level. In Figure 2, the stairs represent the cognitive levels, arranged in ascending sequence. Above each step is a list of suggested activities for that level. Below each step is a list of verbs that might be used to create objectives targeted to that cognitive level.
Figure 2: Blooms Taxonomy staircase

(Source: ftp://ftp-fc.sc.egov. usda.gov/NEDC/isd/ taxonomy.pdf)
Lets see how the staircase in Figure 2 can be used to create learning objectives. 1) Select the cognitive level of the learning objective. 2) Choose a verb from the list below that step. 3) Connect the verb to an activity above the step. Sample application learning objective: Learners will demonstrate how to create a ticket for a request for computer support. Sample evaluation learning objective: Learners will compare three sales call scripts and judge which is most likely to close the sale. Objectives can be made more specific by basing them on real-world conditions or performance criteria, as shown in Table 3 (on page 12).
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Table 3: Examples of objectives with conditions and performance criteria

(Source: Shank)
Who The student will
Action assess which window treatment(s) will work best. manage client phone complaints
Conditions given window size, facing, type, and budget
Criteria
The customer service rep will
with fewer than 2% escalated to managers
The Blooms Taxonomy question and task design wheel has a more extensive list of ideas for active learning. The wheel, available from CESA 7, is organized as a series of rings. The inner ring identifies the cognitive level of Blooms Taxonomy; the middle ring contains action-oriented verbs; and the outer ring lists products and activities that demonstrate mastery.
Figure 3: Blooms Taxonomy question and task design wheel

(Source: CESA 7; http://www.cesa7. org/tdc/documents/ bloomswheelforactive studentlearning.pdf)
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For an example of how to use Blooms Taxonomy to differentiate outcomes for basic and advanced courses, see the University of Connecticuts Assessment Primer (http:// assessment.uconn.edu/primer/taxonomies1.html). Note that students use higherorder thinking skills in both introductory and advanced courses. The verbs describing cognitive processes do not change; what does change is the amount of critical thinking students are expected to do, which increases as they advance. Another strategy for writing objectives is to complete a prompt. A critical thinking poster in a Flickr photostream by Enokson (no real name given) illustrates how to use sentence frames to create questions and objectives for each level of Blooms Taxonomy. For example, a question for the analysis level is What evidence can you present for _______________? An objective for the evaluation level is Prioritize ________________ according to ______________. The poster, which may be freely used by not-for-profit organizations, is available at http://www.flickr.com/photos/ vblibrary/4576825411/in/pool-27724923@N00/. Still more tools, some interactive, are available on Larry Ferlazzos Websites of the Day blog, which has an entry on The Best Resources for Helping Teachers Use Blooms Taxonomy in the Classroom (http://larryferlazzo.edublogs.org/2009/05/25/the-bestresources-for-helping-teachers-use-blooms-taxonomy-in-the-classroom/).
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Original Blooms in Action: Developing Critical Thinking Questions

Forty years after the original taxonomy was published, Bloom reflected that one reason his work was widely adopted was the need for a systematic approach to educational planning. The taxonomy influenced practitioners to think about objectives, shifting their focus from what teachers did to what was learned. The distinction between higher- and lower-order thinking skills also raised awareness of the need to foster critical thinking. When the original taxonomy was published, as much as 90 percent of classroom time was spend on activities designed to help learners recall facts. Forty years later, Bloom estimated that the percentage of lower-order questions had been reduced to about 70 percent. The tendency for instructors to ask more lower-order than higher-order questions persists, even though student achievement improves when teachers ask more higherorder questions. For a discussion of the correlation between student achievement and critical thinking questions, see Wenglinskys 2001 report for the Educational Testing Service, Teacher Classroom Practices and Student Performance. The same bias toward lower-order questions is found in teacher-made and standardized tests. One reason is that lower-order questions are easier to write and score. However, testing at higher cognitive levels is both more valid and more efficient, according to Usova. When answering higher-level questions, learners must use knowledge and skills from lower cognitive levels. For example, a question might ask learners to analyze the differences between a companys new defined-contribution plan and the pension plan it replaced. To make the comparison, they must know the definition of each type of plan, understand the purpose of each type, and use this information to categorize the differences. Not only is testing at higher cognitive levels more efficient, asking too many lowerorder questions can actually impede learning. If you ask lower-order questions, the result will be lower-order learning, according to Andre (cited in Blooms Reflections). To encourage higher-level learning, you must ask higher-order questions. Effective higher-order questions are often based on real-world experience, so asking learners to think critically in response to questions based on realistic situations develops their thinking and makes them more likely to use what they have learned. Andres conclusions have particular relevance for educators who must provide evidence of student achievement and for trainers and instructional designers who must show how their work contributes to organizational goals.
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By correlating assessment questions to Blooms cognitive levels, practitioners and test developers can ensure that their questions promote both retention of knowledge and critical thinking. The model test items developed for The Handbook are still considered excellent examples of how to construct test questions. The editors of the revised taxonomy believed that they could not improve on the model items in the original.
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Criticisms and the Need for Revision

The original taxonomy is still widely used by teachers, instructional designers, researchers, and assessment writers. However, a revised version of the taxonomy was published in 2001 to update the original and provide more guidance for classroom teachers. The editors also addressed some common criticisms of the original: The hierarchy lacks internal consistency; this is the most frequent criticism. Some categories overlap, and some skillssuch as understandingcan be exercised at many cognitive levels. The taxonomy has not been validated by external evidence. Different raters often assign different cognitive levels to the same items, and the hierarchical relationship of the cognitive levels has not been proven. The taxonomy is too simplistic in the way it represents thinking and learning. Learning does not always follow a step-by-step progression. Also, the categories at the top level of the hierarchy do not adequately describe higher-order thinking processes. The taxonomy is a framework, or set of loosely organized principles, rather than a theory of instruction that can be used to predict how learners will behave. The term lower-level thinking skills has led educators to devalue the foundational knowledge required for higher-order thinking. The original taxonomy was based on the classroom practice and educational psychology of the 1950s. In 1965, Bloom and one of his chief collaborators responded to calls for a revision by calling a meeting to find ways to make the framework easier for elementary and high school teachers to use. Their first effort to revise the taxonomy failed, explains David Krathwohl in The Taxonomy: Past, Present, and Future, largely because of the difficulty of constructing one unified theory of learning. During the 1970s, the use of Blooms cognitive levels became institutionalized. Recipients of Title I funds used the taxonomy to develop objectives that met the federal governments reporting requirements. As states began standardized testing programs, item development guidelines called for questions that targeted both higher- and lower-order thinking. In 1983, a National Commission on Excellence in Education warned that widespread deficiencies in critical thinking were making America A Nation at Risk, as it titled its report. The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development met the following year to consider solutions to the problem. One recommendation called for an update to Blooms Taxonomy. In response, 28 organizations formed a collaborative to revise the original version, but their efforts bore no fruit.
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The Revised Version of Blooms Taxonomy

Among the dozens of alternatives proposed to the original framework, the revision published by Lorin Anderson and his collaborators in 2001, A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Blooms Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, has gained the widest acceptance. Anderson was a student of Blooms, and one of his principal collaborators, David Krathwohl, also collaborated on the original taxonomy. They describe their work as an extension of the original framework rather than a replacement. The original taxonomy was never intended to be definitive. In fact, Bloom expressed concern that people might grant the framework such authority that it would freeze thinking about curriculum, assessment, and instruction. He and his collaborators considered the framework a work in progress. In Blooms ideal world, each field would have its own taxonomy written in the language of its discipline. So the revision published in 2001 is not a heretical departure from the original Handbook, but a continuation of Blooms work. The original taxonomy was revised for two reasons: To refocus attention on the value of the original handbook in developing accountability programs, aligning curriculums, and designing assessments To update the original based on new understanding of learning and new methods of instruction
Changes to the Categories

Figure 4 (on page 18) shows the most obvious differences between the 1956 and 2001 versions. In the revised taxonomy, evaluation is no longer the highest level of the pyramid. A new category, creating, claims the peak. This category was originally known as synthesis. Another significant change is that category names are no longer nouns, but verbs. For example, knowledge is now understanding. As a consequence, objectives developed using the revised taxonomy now describe learners thinking processes rather than behaviors.
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Figure 4: Blooms original and revised taxonomies
Other differences are more subtle. In the original taxonomy, the most important element was the categories. Six categories were arranged in a hierarchy, and it was assumed that learners must master the lowest level of the hierarchy before they could advance to the next higher level. The revised taxonomy also arranges skills from the most basic to the most complex. However, because skills such as understanding can be exercised on many levels, the developers allowed categories to overlap. For example, understand is technically lower on the hierarchy than apply. However, the skill of explaining is more cognitively complex than executing, even though that skill is associated with a higher category. As a result, the hierarchy is no longer considered cumulative, according to Krathwohl.
From One to Two Dimensions: Knowledge Levels and Cognitive Processes

While Figure 4 makes it easy to see changes in the six categories, it does not show two important elements of the revised taxonomy: the new version has two dimensions knowledge and cognitive processesand the subcategories within each dimension are more extensive and specific. Each element is explained below; for a visual representation of how the elements relate to each other, see Figure 5 (on page 22). The first dimension, knowledge, now contains four categories of knowledge arranged from the most concrete to the most abstract: Factualknowledge that is basic to an area of study: essential facts, terminology, details, or elements learners must know or be familiar with in order to understand
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a discipline or solve a problem within a field of study. For example, educational measurement specialists must know the difference between formative and summative assessments. Conceptualknowledge of classifications, principles, generalizations, theories, models, or structures pertinent to a particular disciplinary area. For example, librarians often catalog materials according to the Dewey Decimal System or the Library of Congress classification system. Proceduralinformation or knowledge that helps learners to do something specific within an area of study. It also refers to methods of inquiry, very specific skills, algorithms, techniques, and particular methodologies. This knowledge is often subject- or job-specific. For example, nuclear power plant operators might have to follow emergency shutdown procedures. Metacognitiveawareness of ones own thinking and personal growth. This category was added because recent research has given us new understanding of how learners monitor and regulate their own cognitive processes. For example, an instructional designer might recognize that the objectives for a unit do not align with its content. A learner, aware of a tendency toward bias, might consciously choose to research opposing points of view. The second dimension, cognitive processes (shown in Table 4), organizes 19 cognitive processes along a continuum from the most basic to the most complex. In the revised taxonomy, these cognitive processes are considered more important than the six categories, according to Krathwohl.
Table 4: The cognitive processes dimension categories and cognitive processes and alternative names
(Source: Iowa State University Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching; http:// www.celt.iastate.edu/ pdfs-docs/teaching/ RevisedBloomsHandout.pdf)
Adapted from Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001.
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Revised Blooms in Action: Writing Two-Dimensional Objectives

The new emphasis on cognitive processes remedies a weakness in the original taxonomy. In the 1956 version, the verbs associated with each cognitive level describe behaviors. However, the same behavior can sometimes be performed at different cognitive levels. For example, an objective might ask learners to list the three most serious sources of pollution in their state. The behaviorwriting a series of related itemsis the same whether learners are simply recalling information from a source or independently evaluating the most damaging sources of pollution. Adding a second dimension allows objective writers to differentiate between retrieving a list or constructing one. Two-dimensional learning objectives follow a familiar structure:
Subject Verb Object Who does what to accomplish this
However, two-dimensional objectives allow writers to be more specific about the level of cognitive complexity required by first choosing a verb associated with a cognitive process and then targeting the type of knowledge learners are asked to master. For example:
Subject The learner will Cognitive Process remember (recognize, recall ) understand (interpret, classify, summarize) apply (execute, implement) analyze (differentiate, organize, attribute) evaluate (check, critique) create ( generate, plan, produce) Type of Content factual conceptual procedural metacognitive
In the original taxonomy, verbs are associated with six categories of cognitive skills and abilities: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Using the revised taxonomy, objective writers can target either a category or one of the 19 cognitive processes. Airasion and Miranda suggest that writers avoid vague terms such as learn or state by choosing the names of either the categories (bolded in Table 4) or thinking skills (bulleted in Table 4) as verbs when developing objectives. For example, the objective Learners will state the main point could be made more precise by replacing state with recall or summarize.
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Develop Performance-based Objectives with Blooms

If you are using either version of Blooms Taxonomy to write performance objectives, your choice of verbs is critical. Michele Medved of MBM Training identifies three criteria for selecting verbs for performance objectives. Verbs in performance objectives must: Be measurable and observable Specify what the learner (not the instructor) does Require the learner to apply the learning Verbs are the most critical element of a performance objective because they identify what the learner must do to meet the objective. Another component of an effective performance objective is the condition under which the learner performs. One way to identify the conditions is to use the knowledge dimension of the revised taxonomy. First, determine how (or in what context) will learners use what they have learned? Then identify the cognitive process learners must use to apply their knowledge. Objectives for any cognitive process can target any of the four categories of knowledge, as shown below.
Table 5: Job aid using Blooms to target the knowledge dimension
Type of Knowledge: How will learners use what they learn? Factual
Cognitive Process: Remember
Cognitive Process: Evaluate
List the links in the Chain of Survival.
Check whether a performance objective contains all necessary elements. Determine whether a performance objective targets knowledge or skill learners need to do their job. Judge whether performance criteria are fair and appropriate. Reflect on how I can write better performance objectives.
Conceptual
Recognize the symptoms of a heart attack.
Procedural
Recall how to give chest compressions for an adult.
Metacognitive
Identify situations in which CPR is not the appropriate treatment.
Figure 5 shows how the two dimensions of the revised taxonomy relate to each other and to cognitive complexity. The knowledge dimension, shown on the left in
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blue, categorizes the types of knowledge beginning with the most basic (factual) on the right to the most complex (metacognitive) on the left. The cognitive process dimension, shown on the right in red, categorizes increasing cognitive complexity from left (remembers) to right (create). The height of each bar illustrates the relative difficulty of objectives written at that level. For example, the procedural objective Carry out pH tests of water samples is expected to be more difficult than one asking learners to apply knowledge of water testing and less difficult than one that requires learners to judge whether the test supplies the data required by new regulations. An interactive version of this model is available from the Iowa State University Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching (http://www.celt.iastate.edu/teaching/ RevisedBlooms1.html).
Figure 5: Taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: a revision of Blooms Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
(Source: Iowa State University Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching; http:// www.celt.iastate.edu/ pdfs-docs/teaching/ RevisedBloomsHandout.pdf)
Rex Heer, Iowa State University Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching, March 2009.
In Rote versus Meaningful Learning, Richard Mayer recommends using the revised taxonomy to write objectives across the entire range of cognitive processes. When
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your goal is to have learners retain what they have learned, write lower-level objectives to target foundational knowledge. When your goal is to have learners build knowledge or apply what they have learned, write objectives that require higher-order cognitive processing. Mayer developed his explanation of how each higher-level cognitive dimension can be used to promote and assess meaningful learning in collaboration with other members of the team that produced the revised taxonomy. Table 6 shows how an instructional designer might write two-dimensional learning objectives at many levels of the revised taxonomy. Targeting different dimensions allows the designer to assess whether learners have mastered the basics and can apply what they have learned in new situations.
Table 6: Two-dimensional learning objectives
Cognitive Dimension Remember Understand Apply
Knowledge Dimension Procedural Factual Conceptual
Customer Service Module Objective: How to Handle a Complaint List the steps in documenting a customer complaint Summarize the customers complaint Provide advice to a new call center employee about how to handle an irate customer Select the most appropriate way to handle a complaint from a given set of options Critique the way a customer service representative handled a complaint call Develop a plan to improve customer satisfaction with the way we handle complaints
Analyze
Factual
Evaluate
Conceptual
Create
Procedural
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Try Revised Blooms Yourself

Directions: The best way to understand the revised taxonomy is to develop your own two-dimensional objectives. Using Figure 5 and Table 6 as models, write objectives for at least two different cognitive levels.
Worksheet 1: Developing two-dimensional objectives
Cognitive Dimension (remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, create)
Knowledge Dimension (choose at least one)
Objective
Factual Conceptual Procedural Metacognitive Factual Conceptual Procedural Metacognitive Factual Conceptual Procedural Metacognitive Factual Conceptual Procedural Metacognitive
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Try Revised Blooms Yourself: Align Coverage with the Taxonomy Table
Another tool that can be used to analyze the depth and breadth of objectives is the taxonomy table. The example in Table 7 maps the customer service objectives in Table 6 to the knowledge dimensions of each cognitive level. When these objectives are placed into the matrix, its easy to see that they cover facts, concepts, and procedures. However, no objectives target metacognitive knowledge. That may be a deliberate decision, based on the goals of the unit. On the other hand, the designer may decide the lack of metacognitive objectives is an omission that should be remedied. The taxonomy table may also be used to analyze the degree to which instruction matches assessment and program objectives encourage higher-level thinking, as Anderson explains in his article on curricular alignment.
Table 7: Example taxonomy table: customer service objectives from Table 6

(Adapted from Krathwohl)
Knowledge Dimension Factual Knowledge Conceptual Knowledge Procedural Knowledge Metacognitive Knowledge
Remember
Understand
Apply
Analyze
Evaluate
Create
The taxonomy table in this case shows that metacognitive knowledge is missing from the unit but does not show whether the designer of the instruction has designed the instruction appropriately. It is possible, for example, that the designer has used remember objectives in too many places and has not used application objectives where they should have been used. This is only a very high-level look at the objectives.
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Digital Blooms Taxonomy: Adapting the Hierarchy to the Digital Revolution

In 2007, Andrew Churches took the process of updating Blooms work one step further when he introduced Blooms Digital Taxonomy. His intent was to marry Blooms cognitive levels to 21st-century digital skills. The National Education Technology Standards (NETS) developed by the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) define the foundations of digital literacy for K-12 education. Many thinking skills in the NETS standards are also found in Blooms Taxonomy: analysis, synthesis, evaluation, critical thinking, and creativity. However, the technology standards require that learners use digital tools to construct knowledge and demonstrate mastery. Churches added ways to use Web 2.0 technologies to each cognitive level in Blooms revised taxonomy, as shown in Figure 6. Making it easier to retrieve information by bookmarking a site is a way of remembering. Commenting on a blog post is a way of evaluating. Blogging is also a way of creating. What determines cognitive level is not the tool itself, but how the technology is used.
Figure 6: Blooms Digital Taxonomy concept map

(Source: Educational Origami; http://edorigami. wikispaces.com/ Bloom%27s+Digital+ Taxonomy)
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While Churches retains the revised Blooms hierarchical arrangement of categories, he does not believe that learners must always start with remembering and work their way up. Lower-level skills such as searching can be used or even learned within the context of a critical thinking activity. Suppose that an instructional designer is evaluating resources to decide which to include in a digital library. After her first searches return thousands of hits, she decides to learn how to use the advanced features in her favorite search engine. Once she understands how to narrow her parameters, she returns to evaluating resources.
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Digital Blooms in Action: Choosing Activities for Digital Learning

Churches model can be used to select digital activities appropriate for each level of Blooms Taxonomy. Many of these suggested activities are tried-and-true classroom traditions. Others require learners to use new digital literacy skills, such as collaborating and validating information. Many of the suggested ways to use technology in Figure 7 are relevant to both the classroom and the workplace.
Figure 7: Activities for each level of Blooms Digital Taxonomy

(Adapted from http:// edorigami.edublogs. org/2010/01/12/bloomsdigital-taxonomy-resources)
Some find it tempting to use technology just because its new and exciting; others resist replacing tried-and-true (and relatively inexpensive) learning methods with digital devices. No matter how they feel about new technologies, practitioners can
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easily find themselves overwhelmed by the challenge of integrating digital tools into instruction. Table 8 provides a selective list of some digital tools and maps them to the cognitive levels of Blooms revised taxonomy. Interactive tools such as mind mapping applications offer new ways for individuals to develop their own ideas and projects. Collaborative tools such as chat rooms, discussion boards, and live virtual meetings shift the focus of online learning from content delivery to learning creation by learners themselves. Although each tool is mapped to a specific level, many may be used at more than one cognitive level.
Table 8: Criteria for selecting applications according to Blooms Taxonomy
Blooms Level Remember
Key Words define, describe, find, identify, label, list, locate, match, name, outline, point to, select, show, state, study, what, when, where, which, who, why
Digital Tools Google Documents (https://docs.google.com) and Zoho (https://www.zoho.com) are comprehensive suites of online business, productivity, and collaboration applications. Shared documents allow groups to collaborate on content. Delicious (http://delicious.com/) is a social bookmarking tool that learners can use to save and organize useful websites. Instructors can assemble resources for students and then share them. Some of the best resources for enhancing learners understanding of material and concepts include TED (http://www.ted.com/) and Khan Academy (http:// www.khanacademy.org/). Learners can research topics on their own or instructors can assign videos to be watched before a lesson, so instructor time can be used for Q&A, practice, and other interactions. We can encourage learners to apply what they are learning using a variety of tools such as Skype (www.Skype.com). Picasa (http://picasa.google.com/) is a tool for organizing, editing, and sharing photos. Instructors could ask learners to use this tool to organize images to construct a story.
Understand
compare, conclude, contrast, define, demonstrate, describe, estimate, explain, identify, interpret, paraphrase, predict, retell, rewrite, summarize, understand adapt, choose, construct, determine, develop, draw, illustrate, modify, organize, practice, predict, present, produce, select, show, sketch, solve, respond
Apply
Table continued on next page.
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Blooms Level Analyze
Key Words analyze, ask, classify, compare, contrast, correlate, diagram, differentiate, edit, examine, explain, group, identify, infer, monitor, observe, order, outline, reason, review, select, sequence, sort, survey assess, choose, compare, conclude, consider, construct, contrast, critique, determine, estimate, evaluate, explain, interpret, justify, prioritize, prove, recommend, relate, summarize, support, test, verify
Digital Tools Mindmaps are diagrams that show words, ideas, tasks, or other items arranged around a central key word or idea. Mindomo (http://www.mindomo. com/) is one mindmapping tool that could be used for this purpose. Microsoft Word (http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/ word/) and other word processing programs can be used to create outlines, diagrams, essays, and research papers. Learners can use tools like SurveyMonkey (http:// surveymonkey.com) to construct and deliver surveys and evaluate the results. Rubrics (http://rubistar.4teachers.org/) let learners know how they will be evaluated. Allowing learners to get involved in creating rubrics helps get them engaged in the assessment process. It also helps learners have a better understanding of how they are being evaluated. Something as simple as learning how to create a to-do list (http://www.toodledo.com/) can teach prioritization skills and help learners with timemanagement techniques. Prezi (http://prezi.com/) is becoming an increasingly popular alternative to PowerPoint for creating interactive presentations. Microsoft Excel (http://office.microsoft.com/enus/excel/spreadsheet-software-microsoft-excelFX101825647.aspx) is a tool for communicating information visually through charts and graphs.
Evaluate
Create
arrange, collect, combine, compose, connect, construct, coordinate, create, design, develop, explain, formulate, frame, gather, generate, graph, imagine, incorporate, integrate, interact, invent, judge, make, model, organize, plan, portray, produce, publish, rearrange, refine, reorganize, revise, rewrite, summarize, synthesize, test, write
These digital tools offer opportunities for collaboration, which Trilling and Hood consider to be one of seven knowledge-age survival skills. By giving learners the opportunity to create knowledge, these digital tools shift the instructors role from source of knowledge to co-learner.
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Digital Blooms in Action: Assessing Digital Learning

Collaborative tools also offer new ways to assess learning. For example, screen sharing allows you to see a learners screen as the learner performs a task. The learner might demonstrate mastery of a lower-level skill such as adding headings to a Microsoft Word document. The same tool can be used to assess higher-level skills, such as making an original presentation. The cognitive level depends on the skills and cognitive processes the learner uses, not the technology used for assessment.
Figure 8: Example of a free screen sharing and online meeting application: join.me
(Source: join.me; https:// join.me/)
When learners are producing new knowledge by collaborating and creating original products, assessment can be a challenge. Trilling and Hood argue that knowledge-age cognitive skills are best evaluated with performance-based assessments rather than tests. For examples of how to assess learners use of digital tools, see Churches rubrics in his article Blooms Digital Taxonomy. The collaborating rubric can be used with any technology. Rubrics for audio/video conferencing and use of a whiteboard are also included. Classroom response systems (CRS) are another high-tech way to assess learning. Each learner is given a clicker. Each time a learner clicks in response to a question, software collects and displays the answers. Clicker questions can be written to target various levels of Blooms Taxonomy. For example, students might respond to questions designed to test their understanding of an assigned reading. If students score poorly on a particular item, the instructor might spend extra time reviewing that content. At higher levels, learners might be asked to select the best response to a scenario or analyze data generated by their responses.
Try Digital Blooms Yourself

Directions: Try the digital version of Blooms Taxonomy by using Table 8 as a model for how to fill in the worksheet below for an upcoming lesson. For example, an apply objective might ask students to select at least 10 images and use Picasa to organize them to tell a story.
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Worksheet 2: Tools for Blooms Digital Taxonomy
Blooms Level Remember
Key Words define, describe, find, identify, label, list, locate, match, name, outline, point to, select, show, state, study, what, when, where, which, who, why compare, conclude, contrast, define, demonstrate, describe, estimate, explain, identify, interpret, paraphrase, predict, retell, rewrite, summarize, understand adapt, choose, construct, determine, develop, draw, illustrate, modify, organize, practice, predict, present, produce, select, show, sketch, solve, respond analyze, ask, classify, compare, contrast, correlate, diagram, differentiate, edit, examine, explain, group, identify, infer, monitor, observe, order, outline, reason, review, select, sequence, sort, survey assess, choose, compare, conclude, consider, construct, contrast, critique, determine, estimate, evaluate, explain, interpret, justify, prioritize, prove, recommend, relate, summarize, support, test, verify
Digital Tools
Understand
Apply
Analyze
Evaluate
Worksheet continued on next page.
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Blooms Level Create
Key Words arrange, collect, combine, compose, connect, construct, coordinate, create, design, develop, explain, formulate, frame, gather, generate, graph, imagine, incorporate, integrate, interact, invent, judge, make, model, organize, plan, portray, produce, publish, rearrange, refine, reorganize, revise, rewrite, summarize, synthesize, test, write
Digital Tools
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Blooming Applications
A growing number of schools and businesses are embracing iPads for classroom learning and workplace productivity. iPads and other mobile computing devices are relatively new, but these powerful tools can run thousands of applications with educational uses. New apps are being developed and released almost daily, and educators are finding classroom applications for them. Silvia Rosenthal Tolisano created Blooms Taxonomy for iPads (Figure 9), which maps applications for the iPad to Blooms Taxonomy. Kathy Schrocks Bloomin Apps page has an interactive chart for iPad apps and graphics mapping Android, Google, and Web 2.0 applications to Blooms cognitive levels. Theres an even larger collection at Zaid Ali Alsagoffs blog Zaidlearn.
Figure 9: iPads and Blooms Taxonomy

(Source: Langwitches Blog; http://langwitches.org/ blog/2012/03/31/ipad-appsand-blooms-taxonomy/)
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Digital Blooms in Action: Using Applications to Target Cognitive Levels

The growing number of digital tools that can be used for instruction can make it hard to choose the best application for instructional use. The criteria in Table 9 can help you analyze the cognitive processes supported by each application you are considering.
Table 9: Choosing applications at different levels of Blooms revised taxonomy

(Adapted from Darrow)
Blooms Level Remembering
Definition Improves the users ability to define terms, identify facts, and recall and locate information
Criteria: Does the app help the user? Define information? Name facts? Recite information? List facts or details? Recall facts or ideas? Locate facts or ideas? Retrieve information? Describe information? Recognize facts or ideas in context? Summarize facts and ideas? Restate methods or procedures? Interpret relationships? Paraphrase information? Predict consequences? Give examples? Retell information in own words? Retell events? State problem in own words? Explain ideas or concepts? Determine importance?
Understanding
Helps users connect new learning to prior knowledge
Applying
Provides opportunities to implement learned procedures and methods
Demonstrate methods and procedures? Carry out procedures? Use ideas or knowledge? Discover a new purpose for skills or knowledge? Employ knowledge in new situations? Experiment with concepts in a different setting? Adjust knowledge for use in a different context? Apply procedures to unique situations?
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Blooms Level Analyzing
Definition Improves users ability to differentiate between the relevant and irrelevant, determine relationships, and recognize the organization of content by analysis of: Elements (differentiating) Relationships (attributing) Organizational principles (organizing)
Criteria: Does the app help the user? Discriminate fact from hypothesis? Distinguish the relevant from irrelevant? Observe the structure? Select important elements? Determine biases? Recognize intent? Deconstruct content? Understand the relationships? Organize content? Outline content? Check for accuracy? Detect inconsistencies? Monitor effectiveness? Evaluate procedures? Critique soluti ons? Appraise efficiency? Judge techniques? Contrast performance? Check the probability of results? Construct designs? Generate possibilities? Compose ideas? Propose hypotheses? Produce solutions? Brainstorm solutions? Design products? Assemble plans? Rearrange operations? Imagine possibilities?
Evaluating
Helps learners make judgments using: Internal evidence (checking) External criteria (critiquing)
Creating
Provides opportunities to generate ideas, design plans, and produce products. Planning: production of a plan Producing: derivation of a set of abstract relations
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Alternatives to Blooms Taxonomies

Both the original and revised versions of Blooms taxonomies are taught in teacher education programs and used to measure learning, plan programs, and target objectives to cognitive levels. As Booker notes, Blooms work has become educational lore. However, critics find serious flaws in both the original and revised taxonomies: Students should not be forced to work their way up the pyramid Objectives should be performance-based Blooms framework is not internally consistent According to Shelley Wright, Blooms pyramid should be turned upside down. Instruction should begin with the higher order skills of creating, analyzing, and applying. Forcing learners to climb the pyramid step-by-step condemns them to boredom and rote learning. In a flipped classroom, students might begin by testing different substances for conductivity. Next they would categorize the solutions they tested. Finally, they would compare their categories to the standard scientific categories. Their experiments create a context in which knowledge of ionic and covalent bonds is meaningful. Wineburg and Schneider also think that the pyramid should be reoriented. The goal of learning is new knowledge, they argue, so placing knowledge at the bottom of the pyramid devalues both knowledge and the very purpose of learning. These educators are not the only critics to propose alternatives to Blooms Taxonomy. Brenda Sugrues 2002 critique of Bloom is often cited within the performance improvement community. Sugrue argues that that Blooms Taxonomy cannot be applied consistently and is not validated by research. She describes two performancebased alternatives. One is a content-by-performance approach in which content is categorized by type (usually facts, concepts, principles, procedures) and performance is assessed on just two levels (remember and use). Another approach is to ignore cognitive level and write all objectives as performance objectives. Dan Topf, senior vice president of MDI Learning, concedes that Blooms Taxonomy is widely used within the training industry, but notes that widely used is not the same as actually works. A Certified Performance Technologist, Topf finds that taxonomies can actually distract planners from key performance variables. Does any taxonomy help me (the instructional designer) ascertain what procedural and declarative knowledge is needed for high performance? Are you mindful of the learners cognitive load? What other factors outside of the learner are affecting performance (work, workplace, world)? Marzano and Kendall also question the validity of Blooms Taxonomy, primarily on theoretical grounds. They credit Bloom with clarifying the concept of objectives and
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giving educators a powerful tool for working with them. However, they disagree with his fundamental premise: that mental processes can be ordered from the most basic to the most difficult. They also criticize Bloom for conflating what is known with how it is known; for example, the Knowledge category includes both the process of recall and the knowledge that is recalled. In their view, Blooms Taxonomy is a framework rather than a theory because his hierarchy cannot be used to predict behavior. While Bloom intentionally used teachers language to describe behavior, Marzano and Kendall use language intended to capture the flow of information and level of consciousness. In their New Taxonomy, which they developed as a more internally consistent replacement for Blooms, they separate types of knowledge from mental process and extend the application of each learning process across all three domains. For a fuller discussion of Marzano and Kendalls attempt to reconcile the inconsistencies in Blooms work, see The New Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, published in 2007. Table 10 shows how the New Taxonomy compares to Blooms revised taxonomy.
Table 10: Comparison of Marzano and Kendalls New Taxonomy to Blooms

(Adapted from Marzano and Kendall, Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives)
Domains Information
Levels of Processing Self system (engagement and motivation)
Cognitive Level Examining importance Examining efficacy Examining emotional response Examining motivation Specifying goals Process monitoring Monitoring clarity Monitoring accuracy
Mental Procedures
Meta-cognitive system (setting goals and monitoring progress; not found in Blooms) Knowledge utilization (using knowledge to accomplish a specific task) Analysis (using reason to extend knowledge)
Psychomotor Procedures
Decision-making Problem-solving Experimenting Investigating Matching Classifying Analyzing Errors Generalizing Specifying
Comprehension (similar to Blooms comprehension with the addition of symbolizing knowledge) Retrieval (Blooms knowledge level)
Integration Symbolization Recognition Recall Execution
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Conclusion: Blooms Legacy

Critics continue to question the validity of Blooms framework. Opinion about whether its hierarchical structure is internally consistent and supported by evidence is divided. In their review of the evidence, Kreitzer and Madaus concur with an earlier analysis by Seddon, who concluded that available empirical evidence neither disproved nor confirmed the validity of the taxonomy. Blooms categories have been critiqued as though they were dogma, observe Kreitzer and Madaus, when they were intended only as heuristics. A more fruitful approach might be to investigate why the taxonomy is still trusted and used.
What Matters Most: Theory or Practice?

Most of the criticism of Blooms work is based on theory rather than practical application. In Validity vs. Utility, Postlethwaite observed that teachers and curriculum developers found that Blooms cognitive categories simplified the process of writing objectives and planning instruction. He and other test developers tried other systems of developing objectives and test items and concluded these alternatives were too complex to be useful. When weighing validity against utility, practitioners came down solidly on the side of utility (in other words, they found Blooms to be useful). Cannon and Feinstein also believe the taxonomys usefulness as a tool is more important than any theoretical shortcomings. Learning is a complex process that cannot be adequately captured by any one model. However, Blooms revised taxonomy is simple and robust. Its combination of process and content provides a solid framework for planning experiential learning, which requires learners to process vast amounts of knowledge to handle new and rapidly changing situations. Blooms work has also stood the test of time as a model for writing questions that require higher-order thinking. Anderson and Krathwohl believe that the examples of test items in The Handbook are still the best available models. This is in part because few advances have been made in the art of question-writing; however, in their judgment, the model test items remain exemplars of how to write questions that promote critical thinking.
Blooms Criteria of Usefulness

Although Blooms hierarchy is often taught as though it were educational dogma, Bloom himself never considered it the final word on either theory or practice. Instead, he judged its value by four criteria of usefulness:
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Comprehensiveness: Does it cover most learning behaviors? Communicability: Does it provide a common language for those who want to promote and assess learning? Provocativeness: Does it help researchers identify problems, develop hypotheses, plan learning, and identify methods and metrics? Can it be used to organize the literature and correlate varied programs and curriculums? Acceptability: Is it used by workers in the field? According to Blooms own criteria, his work has stood the test of time. Neither the original nor the revised taxonomies provides an all-encompassing theory of learning. However, his work made educators aware of the need to write objectives that target desired learning behaviors. His cognitive levels, properly applied, provide a workable framework for targeting two essential types of learning: foundational knowledge and higher-order cognitive processing. Conversations about objectives and lower- versus higher-order thinking are now routine. This in itself is a desirable outcome. This does not mean the tendency to overemphasize memory and comprehension has been corrected. However, critical thinking is receiving greater emphasis. When Bloom first published his hierarchy, over 90 percent of instruction was drill-and-kill. Today that percentage is closer to 70 percent. Two factors may drive that figure lower. Critical thinking is now the most important survival skill for knowledge workers, according to Trilling and Hood. In addition, some companies want evidence of a return on their investment in training, which requires trainers and instructional designers to consider how to develop higherorder thinking skills. Airasian considers the concept of cognitive levels to be Blooms major contribution because it gave teachers a new sense of the range and depth of what could be accomplished in the classroom and has spurred the development of assessments that measure more than rote learning. While his work has not been as influential among curriculum planners, Sosniak credits Bloom with encouraging reflection on how curriculum should be developed and what the outcomes of learning should be. Blooms work continues to provoke thought, as he had hoped. Properly used, a taxonomy should provide a very suggestive source of ideas and materials for each worker and should result in many economies of effort, he wrote in 1956. His work continues to be used as a metric, planning tool, and inspiration for new research or assessment tools, as shown in Table 11 (on page 41).
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Table 11: Applications of Blooms s Taxonomy: representative examples
Who Abudi
Used to Develop training programs that help adults apply learning
Found in Abudi, Gina. Using Blooms Taxonomy: Teaching Adults to Learn Effectively. 2010. http://www. ginaabudi.com/using-blooms-taxonomy-teachingadults-to-learn-effectively/ Ben-Zvi, Tal and Thomas C. Carton. Applying Blooms Revised Taxonomy in Business Games. Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, 35 (2008). http://sbaweb. wayne.edu/~absel/bkl/vol35/35bg.pdf Callister, Paul D. Time to Blossom: An Inquiry into Blooms Taxonomy as a Hierarchy and Means for Teaching Legal Research Skills. Law Library Journal 102, no. 2 (2012012). http://www.aallnet.org/ main-menu/Publications/llj/LLJ-Archives/Vol-102/ publljv102n02/2010-12.pdf Cannon, Hugh M. and Andrew Hale Feinstein. Bloom Beyond Bloom: Using the Revised Taxonomy to Develop Experiential Learning Strategies. Developments in Business Simulations and Experiential Learning, 32 (2005). http://sbaweb. wayne.edu/~absel/bkl/vol32/32cf.pdf Claxton, Nancy. (2010). SMEs and learning objectives. In B. Hoffman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Technology. SDSU Department of Educational Technology. 2010. http://eet.sdsu.edu/eetwiki/ index.php/SMEs_and_learning_objectives Concialdi, Perri-Anne. Blooms Taxonomy: A Helpful Guide for Students. http://www.aultmancollege. edu/Files/Taxonomy.pdf Ellenburg, Kelly. Using Visuals [With Purpose] to Target Learning Outcomes (presentation). October 24, 2011. http://prezi.com/jr-yju4iwrfs/visual-media/ Maynard, John. Blooms Taxonomys Model Questions and Key Words. http://www.cbv.ns.ca/sstudies/ links/learn/1414.html Meyer, Katrina A. The Ebb and Flow of Online Discussion: What Bloom Can Tell Us About Our Student Conversations. JALN 9, no. 1 (March 2005).
Ben-Zvi & Carton
Align business games with instruction and assess learning from games
Callister
Organize collaboration of law librarians and plan legal research courses
Cannon & Feinstein
Develop experiential exercises
Claxton
Structure interviews with SMEs
Concialdi
Teach nursing students how to improve their exam scores Target visuals to cognitive levels
Ellenburg
Maynard
Generate questions
Meyer
Analyze discussions in an online course
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Who North Carolina
Used to Write New Essential Standards
Found in Anderson, Lorin. Common Core State and NC Essential Standards. http://www.dpi.state.nc.us/ acre/standards/ Smyth, Kevin and Jane Hallonen. Using the New Blooms Taxonomy to Design Meaningful Learning Assessments. In The Assessment CyberGuide for Learning Goals and Outcomes, compiled by the American Psychological Association (2009). Tansey, Timothy N. et al. Examining TechnologyEnhanced Coursework in Rehabilitation Counselor Education Using Blooms Taxonomy of Learning. Rehabilitation Education 23, no. 2 (2009). Leech, Linda L. and John M. Holcomb. Leveling the Playing Field: The Development of a Distance Education Program in Rehabilitation Counseling. Assist Technol 16, no. 2 (Winter 2004). Vickery, Annie. The Common Core and Blooms Taxonomy. Reach Common Ground blog. http:// reachcommonground.wordpress.com/the-commoncore-and-blooms-taxonomy/ Wysocki, Robert J., James P. Lewis, and Doug DeCarlo. The World Class Project Manager: A Professional Development Guide. New York: Basic Books, 2001.
Smyth & Halloren
Provide tools for designing learning activities and programs
Tansey et al
Used as metric to compare technologyenhanced and traditional instruction
University of South Carolina
Ensured equivalency of an online masters program and face-toface instruction Align instructional activities to Common Core standards
Vickery
Wysocki
Construct a scale of project management expertise
Finally, Blooms work is accepted around the world. The 93rd Yearbook of the Society for the Study of Education and two special issues of Theory into Practice have been devoted to his framework. Even Marzano, who proposed an alternative taxonomy, acknowledges Blooms pioneering contribution as incredible. Measured against the criteria Bloom established in 1956, his work remains invaluable. His taxonomy is a widely accepted metric that continues to provoke new research, shape best instructional and assessment practice, and provide a common language and framework for collaboration. Blooms heuristic, developed in the mid-20th century, is adaptable to new learning theories and technologies. Whatever its theoretical shortcomings, Blooms influence has endured the test of time.
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Major Takeaways
1) Bloom designed his taxonomy as a heuristic for practitioners, not an allencompassing educational theory or dogma. 2) Bloom distinguished between lower- and higher-order thinking. Target lowerorder cognitive skills to help learners remember key facts and skills. Target higher-order skills to encourage learners to apply knowledge to new situations. 3) When writing objectives, use the names of either the thinking skills or the categories in the revised taxonomy as verbs. 4) Use the taxonomy table (Table 6) to: a) Measure depth of coverage b) Evaluate balance of lower- and higher-order cognitive skills c) Align instruction with assessment and course or program outcomes 5) Critics have proposed alternatives to Blooms, questioning its internal consistency and citing a lack of empirical validation. However, despite any theoretical shortcomings, practitioners continue to find Blooms useful. 6) Bloom developed four criteria for usefulness in 1956: a) Comprehensiveness: covers most learning behaviors b) Communicability: provides a common language c) Provocativeness: inspires new research and applications d) Acceptability: is commonly used by practitioners 7) Blooms Digital Taxonomy, adapted by Churches, provides a framework for designing and assessing eLearning. 8) Educators, instructional designers, researchers, and test developers continue to find new applications for both the original and revised taxonomies. Even those who question the validity of Blooms Taxonomy recognize his widespread and continuing influence.
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References
Airasian, Peter, W. The Impact of the Taxonomy on Testing and Evaluation. Blooms Taxonomy: A FortyYear Retrospective, edited by Lorin Anderson and Lauren A. Sozniak. 93rd Yearbook. (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education). Airasian, Peter W. and Helena Miranda. The Role of Assessment in the Revised Taxonomy. Revising Blooms Taxonomy, edited by Lorin W. Anderson, special issue, Theory Into Practice, 41, no. 4 (2002). Alsagoff, Zaid Ali. Zaidlearn (blog). A Juicy Collection of Blooms Digital Taxonomies! http://zaidlearn. blogspot.com/2012/10/a-juicy-collection-of-blooms-digital.html. Alsagoff, Zaid Ali. Zaidlearn (blog). Use Blooms Taxonomy Wheel for Writing Learning Objectives. http://zaidlearn.blogspot.com/2009/07/use-blooms-taxonomy-wheel-for-writing.html. Anderson, Lorin W. Curricular Alignment: A Re-Examination. Revising Blooms Taxonomy, edited by Lorin W. Anderson, special issue, Theory Into Practice, 41, no. 4 (2002). Anderson, Lorin W. and David R. Krathwohl. A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing. New York: Longman, 2001. Betts, S.C. Teaching and Assessing Basic Concepts to Advanced Applications: Using Blooms Taxonomy to Inform Graduate Course Design. Academy of Educational Leadership Journal 12, no. 3 (2008). Bloom, Benjamin S. Reflections on the Development and Use of the Taxonomy. In Blooms Taxonomy: A Forty-Year Retrospective, edited by Lorin Anderson and Lauren A. Sozniak. 93rd Yearbook. (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education). Bloom, Benjamin S., ed. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals: Handbook I, Cognitive Domain. New York: Longmans, 1956. Booker, Michael J. A Roof without Walls: Benjamin Blooms Taxonomy and the Misdirection of American Education. Academic Questions, 20, no. 4 (2007). Bruff, Derek. Classroom Response Systems (Clickers). Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. http:// cft.vanderbilt.edu/teaching-guides/technology/clickers/. Cannon, Hugh M. and Andrew Hale Feinstein. Bloom Beyond Bloom: Using the Revised Taxonomy to Develop Experiential Learning Strategies. Developments in Business Simulations and Experiential Learning, 32 (2005). http://sbaweb.wayne.edu/~absel/bkl/vol32/32cf.pdf. CESA 7. Blooms Taxonomy Question & Task Design Wheel. http://www.cesa7.org/tdc/documents/ bloomswheelforactivestudentlearning.pdf. Churches, Andrew. Blooms Digital Taxonomy. 2007. http://edorigami.wikispaces.com/file/view/bloom% 27s+Digital+taxonomy+v3.01.pdf. Churches, Andrew. Blooms Digital Taxonomy v2.12. 2008. http://www.scribd.com/doc/8000050/ Blooms-Digital-Taxonomy-v212. Clark, Donald. Blooms Taxonomy of Learning Domains. 2010. http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/ bloom.html.
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Darrow, Diane. K-5 iPad Apps According to Blooms Taxonomy. Edutopia blog. 2011. http://www. edutopia.org/ipad-apps-elementary-blooms-taxomony-diane-darrow. Enokson. Critical Thinking Skills (poster). May 2010. Retrieved from http://www.flickr.com/photos/ vblibrary/4576825411/. Ferlazzo, Larry. Larry Ferlazzos Websites of the Day... (blog). The Best Resources for Helping Teachers Use Blooms Taxonomy in the Classroom. http://larryferlazzo.edublogs.org/2009/05/25/the-bestresources-for-helping-teachers-use-blooms-taxonomy-in-the-classroom/. Forehand, Mary. Blooms Taxonomy: Original and Revised. Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching, and Technology, edited by Michael Orey. 2005. http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index. php?title=Bloom%27s_Taxonomy. Halawi, Leila A., Richard V. McCarthy, and Sandra Pires. An Evaluation of E-Learning on the Basis of Blooms Taxonomy: An Exploratory Study. Journal of Education for Business 84, no. 6 (July 2009). International Society for Technology in Education. NETS for Students. 2007. http://www.iste.org/ standards/nets-for-students/nets-student-standards-2007. International Society for Technology in Education. NETS for Teachers. 2008. http://www.iste.org/docs/ pdfs/nets-t-standards.pdf?sfvrsn=2. Iowa State University Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching. A Model of Learning Objectives. 2013. www.celt.iastate.edu/teaching/RevisedBlooms1.html. Krathwohl, David R. A Revision of Blooms Taxonomy: An Overview. Revising Blooms Taxonomy, ed. Lorin W. Anderson, special issue, Theory Into Practice, 41, no. 4 (2002). Krathwohl, David R. and Lorin Anderson. Blooms Taxonomy. n.d. http://www.education.com/reference/ article/blooms-taxonomy/. Krathwohl, David R., Benjamin S. Bloom, and Bertram B. Masia. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook II: The Affective Domain. New York: Longman, Green, 1964. Kreitzer, Amelia E. and George F. Madaus. Empirical Investigations of the Hierarchical Structure of the Taxonomy. Blooms Taxonomy: A Forty-Year Retrospective, edited by Lorin Anderson and Lauren A. Sozniak. 93rd Yearbook. (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education). Latislaw, Corey Leigh. Android (presentation). (August 13, 2012). http://prezi.com/gqiqbkkumfyt/ android-101-class-1/. Marzano, Robert J. Designing a New Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2000. Marzano, Robert J., and John S. Kendall, eds. Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives: Applying the New Taxonomy. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Marzano, Robert J., and John S. Kendall, eds. The New Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2006. Mayer, Richard E. Rote Versus Meaningful Learning. Revising Blooms Taxonomy, edited by Lorin W. Anderson, special issue, Theory Into Practice, 41, no. 4 (2002).
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Medved, Michele B. Learning Bytes: Episode One (presentation). 2011. https://www.facebook.com/ video/video.php?v=1613304088158. Postlethwaite, T. Neville. Validity vs. Utility: Personal Experiences with the taxonomy. Blooms Taxonomy: A Forty-Year Retrospective, edited by Lorin Anderson and Lauren A. Sozniak. 93rd Yearbook. (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education). Schrock, Kathy. Kathy Shrocks Guide to Everything (blog). Bloomin Apps. http://www.schrockguide. net/bloomin-apps.html Seddon, George M. The Properties of Blooms Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for the Cognitive Domain. Review of Educational Research 48, no. 2 (1978). Shank, Patti. Designing Learning Assessments for Classroom, Online, and Blended Learning. Learning Peaks, 2006. Simpson, Elizabeth J. The Classification of Educational Objectives in the Psychomotor Domain. Washington DC: Gryphon House, 1972. Sozniak, Lauren A. The Taxonomy, Curriculum, and Their Relations. Blooms Taxonomy: A Forty-Year Retrospective, edited by Lorin Anderson and Lauren A. Sozniak. 93rd Yearbook. (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education), pp. 103125. Sugrue, Brenda. Problems with Blooms Taxonomy. 2002. http://eppicinc.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/ sugrue_bloom_critique_perfxprs.pdf. Tolisano, Sylvia. iPad Apps and Blooms Taxonomy. (2012, March 31). Retrieved from http://langwitches. org/blog/2012/03/31/ipad-apps-and-blooms-taxonomy/. Trillig, Bernie and Paul Hood. Learning, Technology, and Education Reform in the Knowledge Age, or Were Wired. Webbed, and Windowed, Now What? 1999. http://www.wested.org/cs/we/view/rs/654. The University of Connecticut. Assessment Primer: Learning Taxonomies. 2013. http://assessment. uconn.edu/primer/taxonomies1.html. Usova, George M. Effective Test Item Discrimination Using Blooms Taxonomy. Education 118, no. 1: 100 110. MasterFILE Premier. Wenglinsky, Harold. Teacher Classroom Practices and Student Performance: How Schools Can Make a Difference. Educational Testing Service Research Report RR-01-19. (September 2001). http://www.ets.org/ Media/Research/pdf/RR-01-19-Wenglinsky.pdf. Wineburg, Sam and Schneider, Jack. Was Blooms Taxonomy Pointed in the Wrong Direction? Phi Delta Kappan 91, no. 4 (December 2009): 56. MasterFILE Premier. Wright, Shelley. Flip This: Blooms Taxonomy Should Start with Creating. Mindshift (blog). http://blogs. kqed.org/mindshift/2012/05/flip-this-blooms-taxonomy-should-start-with-creating/.
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Cecelia Munzenmaier, MS, teaches her college students how to use Blooms Taxonomy to raise their grades. When she writes instructional materials for her educational publishing clients, she uses Blooms to develop learning objectives and assessment items. Her masters degree in adult learning is from Drake University. She has written two books, Write More, Stress Less and Write Better Emails, and several workplace writing assessments and job aids.
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Bloom's Taxonomy - What's Old Is New Again - 2013

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BLOOMS TAXONOMY: Whats Old Is New Again

Cecelia Munzenmaier, MS, with Nancy Rubin, PhD

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Original Blooms in Action: Writing Objectives................................................................................... 8

Revised Blooms in Action: Writing Two-Dimensional Objectives....................................20

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Blooms Original Taxonomy: The Beginning

Four Key Principles

Three Original Domains

Table 1: Domains in Blooms original taxonomy

Overview Content and intellectual knowledge: What do I want learners to know?

Emotional knowledge: What do I want learners to think or care about?

Physical/mechanical knowledge: What action(s) do I want learners to be able to perform?

Perception Simulation Conformation Production Mastery

One Cognitive Hierarchy

Original Blooms in Action: Writing Objectives

Tools for Writing Objectives

Table 2: Blooms Taxonomy cognitive levels and key words

Skill Level 1 Knowledge

Definition Recall information

Understand the meaning, paraphrase a concept

to develop counters to at least two anticipated objections

Figure 2: Blooms Taxonomy staircase

Table 3: Examples of objectives with conditions and performance criteria

Who The student will

Conditions given window size, facing, type, and budget

The customer service rep will

with fewer than 2% escalated to managers

Figure 3: Blooms Taxonomy question and task design wheel

Original Blooms in Action: Developing Critical Thinking Questions

Criticisms and the Need for Revision

The Revised Version of Blooms Taxonomy

Changes to the Categories

Figure 4: Blooms original and revised taxonomies

From One to Two Dimensions: Knowledge Levels and Cognitive Processes

Adapted from Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001.

Revised Blooms in Action: Writing Two-Dimensional Objectives

Develop Performance-based Objectives with Blooms

Table 5: Job aid using Blooms to target the knowledge dimension

Cognitive Process: Remember

Cognitive Process: Evaluate

List the links in the Chain of Survival.

Recognize the symptoms of a heart attack.

Recall how to give chest compressions for an adult.