COMPASS

MAGNETIC DECLINATION Magnetic declination at a place is the horizontal angle between the true meridian and the magnetic meridian shown by the needle at the time of observation. If the magnetic meridian is to the right side (or eastern side) of the true meridian, declination is said to be eastern or positive; if it is to be the left side (or western side), the declination is said to be western or negative.

Mariners call declination by the name variation. The declination at any particular location can be obtained by establishing a true meridian from astronomical observations and then reading the compass while sighting along the true meridian. Isogonic line is the line drawn through the points of same declination. The distribution of earths magnetism is not regular and consequently, the isogonic lines do not form complete great circles, but radiating from the North and South magnetic regions they follow irregular paths. Agonic line is the line made up of points having a zero declination.

Variations in Declination The value of declination at a place never remains constant but changes from time to time. There are four types of variations in. declination (a) Diurnal variation (b) Annual variation (c) Secular variation (d) Irregular. (a) Diurnal variation The diurnal variation or daily variation is the systematic departure of the declination from its mean value during a period of 24 hours. It generally varies with the phase of the sunspot period. The difference in declination between morning and afternoon is often as much as 10 of arc. The extent of daily variations depends upon the following factors: (I) The Locality: More at magnetic poles and less at equator. (ii) Season of the year: Considerably more in summer than in Winter. (iii) Time : More in day and less in night. The rate of variation during 24 hours is variable. (iv) The amount of daily variation. Changes from year to year. (b) Annual Variation The variation which has a yearly period is known as annual variation. The declination has a yearly swing of about 1 or 2 in amplitude. It varies from place to place. (c) Secular Variation Due to its magnitude, secular variation is most important in the work of surveyor. It appears to be of periodic character and follows a roller-coaster pattern. It swings like a pendulum. For a given place, the compass needle after moving continuo usually for a period of years in one direction with respect to the true North, gradually comes to a standstill and then begins to move in opposite direction. Secular change from year to year is riot uniform for any given locality and is different for different places. Its period is approximately 250 years. in Paris, the records show a range from 11E in 1680 to 22W in 1820. This magnitude of secular variation , is very great, it is very important in the work of the surveyor, and, unless otherwise specified, it is the change commonly referred to. (d) Irregular Variation The irregular variations are due to what are known as magnetic storms, earthquakes and other solar influence. They may occur at any time and cannot be predicted. Changes of this kind amounting to more than a degree have been observed.

Determination of True Bearing All important surveys are plotted with reference to true meridian since the direction of magnetic meridian at a place changes with time. If, however, the magnetic declination at a place, at the of observation is known, the true bearing can be calculated from the observed magnetic bearing by the following relation True bearing = Magnetic Bearing declination. Use plus sign if the declination is to the East and minus sign if it is to the West. The above rule is valid for whole circle bearings only. If however, a reduced bearing has been observed, it is always advisable to draw the diagram and calculate the bearing.

Example 5.6. The magnetic bearing of a line is 48 24. Calculate the true bearing if the magnetic declination is 5 38 East. Solution. Declination= +5 38 True bearing = 48 24+5 38 = 54 02. Example 5.6. The magnetic bearing of a line AB is S 28 30 E Calculate the true bearing if the declination is 7 30 West. Solution. The position of true meridian, magnetic meridian and the line has been shown in Fig. Since the declination is to be West, the magnetic meridian will be to the West of true meridian.

Hence, true bearing = S 28 30 E+7 30 = S 36 00 E.

Example 5.7. In an old map, a line AB was drawn to a magnetic Bearing 5 30, the magnetic declination at the time being 1 East. To What magnetic bearing should the line be set now if the present magnetic Declination is 8 30 East. Solution. True bearing of the line =5 30+1 = 6 30 Present declination Now, True bearing Magnetic bearing = +8 30 (East) =Magnetic bearing+8 30 =True bearing8 30 =6 308 30=2 (i.e. 2 in the anti-clockwise direction) = 358. Example 5.8. Find the magnetic declination at a place if the magnetic bearing of the sun at noon is (a) 184 (b) 350 20. Solution. (a) At noon, the sun is exactly on the geographical meridian. Hence, the true bearing of the sun at noon is zero or 180 depending Upon whether it is to the North of the place or to the South of the Place. Since the magnetic bearing of the sun is 184, the true bearing Will be 180. Now, True bearing So, 180 = Magnetic bearing + Declination = 184 + Declination = -4 = 4 W.

Or Dec1ination

(b) Since the magnetic bearing of the sun is 350 20, it is at

The North of the place and hence the true bearing of the sun, which is on the meridian, will be 360. Now, true bearing Magnetic bearing +Declination 360 = 350 20 + Declination

or Declination = 360 350 20 = 9 40 = 9 40 E.

# LOCAL ATTRACTION A magnetic meridian at a place is established by a magnetic Needle which is uninfluenced by other attracting forces. However, Sometimes, the magnetic needle may be attracted and prevented from indicating the true magnetic meridian when it is in Proximity To certain magnetic substances. Local attraction is a term used

Denote any influence, such as the above, which prevents the needle from pointing to the Magnetic North in a given locality. Some of the sources of local attraction are magnetite in the ground, wires carrying electric current, steel structures, railroad rails, underground iron pipes, keys, steel bowed spectacles, metal buttons etc., which may be lying on the ground nearby. Detection of Local Attraction The local attraction at a particular place can be detected by observing the force and back bearings of each line and finding its difference. If the difference between the for and back bearing is 180, it may be taken that both the stations are free from local Attraction, provided there are no observational and instrumental errors. Elimination of Local Attraction. If there is local attraction at a station, all the bearings measured at that place will be incorrect and the amount of error will he equal in all the bearings. There are two methods for eliminating the effects of local attraction. First Method. In this method, the bearings of the lines are calculated on the basis of the bearing of that line which has a difference of 180 in its fore and back bearings. It is, however, assumed that there are no observational and other instrumental errors. The amount and direction of error due to local attraction at each of the affected station is found. If, however, there is no such line in which the two bearings differ by 180, the corrections should be made from the mean value of the bearing of that line in which there is least discrepancy between the back sight and fore sight readings. If the bearings are expressed in quadrantal system. The corrections must be applied in proper direction. In 1st and 3rd quadrants, the numerical value of bearings increases in clockwise direction while they increase in anti-clockwise direction in d and 4th quadrants. Positive corrections are applied clockwise and negative corrections counter-clockwise.

Examples 5.9 , 5.10 and S.11 completely illustrate the procedure for applying the corrections by the first method.

Second Method. This is a more general method and is based on the fact that though the bearings measured at a station may be incorrect due to local attraction, the included angle calculated from the bearings will be correct since the amount of error is the same for all the bearings measured at that station. The included angles between the lines are calculated at all the stations. If the traverse is a closed one, the sum of the internal included angles must be (2s4) right angles. If there is any discrepancy in this, observational and instrumental errors also exist. Such error is distributed equally to all the angles. Proceeding now with the line the bearing of which differ by 180, the bearings of all other lines are calculated, as illustrated in example 5.12.

Example 5.9. The fol1wing bearings were observed while traversing with a compass.

Mention which stations were affected by local attraction and determine the corrected bearings.

Solution On examining the observed bearings of the lines, it will be noticed that difference between back and fore bearings of the line DE is exactly 180. Hence both stations D and E are free from local attraction and all other hearings measured at these stations are also correct Thus, the observed bearing of DC (i.e. 209 10) is correct. The correct bearing of CD will. therefore, be 209 1O l8029 10 while the observed bearing is 29 45. The error at C is therefore +35 arid a correction 35 must be applied to all the bearings measured at C. The correct beatings of CB thus becomes 277 535216 30 and that of BC as 276 30l80=96 30. The observed bearing of BC is 96 55. Hence the error at B is +25 and a correction of 25 must be applied to all the bearings measured at B. The correct bearing of BA thus becomes 226 l0-25=225 45, and that of AB was 225 45180=45 45 which is the same as the observed one. Station A is therefore, free from local attraction.

The Results may be tabulated as under:

Line AB BA BC CB CD DC DE ED

Observed Bearing 4545 22610 9655 2775 2945 20910 32448 14448

Correction 0 at A -25 at B -25 at B -35 at C -35 at C 0 at D 0 at D 0 at E

Corrected Bearing 4545 22545 9630 27630 2910 20910 32448 14448

Remark

Stations B and C are affected by Local Attraction

Example 5.10. Apply the corrections if the bearings of the previous examples are measured in quadrantal system as under: Line AB BC F.B. N4545E S3305E B.B. S4610W N8255W Line CD DE F.B. N2945E N3512W B.B. S2910W S3512E

Solution By inspection of observed bearings, stations D and E are free from local attraction and hence bearings of ED, DE and DC are correct. The correct bearing of CD will therefore be N2910E.Since the observed bearing of CD is N2945E, the magnetic needle at C is deflected by 35 towards West. The corrected bearing of CB will therefore be N8255W+35W. The corrected bearing of BC will be S8330E.Since the observed bearing of BC is S8305E,the needle a B is deflected by 25 towards East. Hence the corrected bearing of BA will be S4610W-25-S4545W.The bearing of line AB will be N4545E, which is the same as the observed one. Station A is therefore not affected by local attraction.

Example 5.11. The following bearings were observed in running a complete traverse: Line AB BC CD DE EA F.B. 755 11520 16535 22450 30450 B.B. 25420 29635 34535 445 1255

Solution By inspection of the observed bearings, it will be noticed that stations C and D arc from free local attractions since the B.B. and F.B. of CD differ by 180. All the bearings measured at C and D are, therefore, correct. Thus, the observed bearing of CD (i.e. 296 35) is correct. The correct bearing of BC will be 296 35 180 =116 35. Since the observed bearing of BC is 115 20, a correction of + 1 15 will have to be applied to the bearing of BA measured at B. Thus, the correct bearing of BA becomes 254 20 + 1 15=255 35. The correct bearing of BA will, therefore, be 255 35180=75 35. Since the observed bearing of AB is 75 5 a correction of +30 will have to be applied to the bearing of AR measured at A. Thus, the correct bearing of AE becomes 125 5 +3=125 35, the corrected bearing of LA will be 125 35 + 180=305 35. Since. the observed bearing of EA is 304 50. a correction of +45 will have to be applied to the hearing of ED measured at E. The correct bearing of ED will thus be 44 5+45 =44 50. The correct bearing of DE will be 4450+180 =224 50, which is the same as observed one, since the station D is not affected by local attraction. Thus, results may be tabulated as given below. Since the magnetic declination is + 5 10 E, the true bearings of the lines will be obtained by adding 5 10 to the corrected magnetic bearings.

Line

Observed Bearing 755 25420 11520 29635 16535 34535 22450 445 30450 1255

Correction

Corrected Bearing 7535 25535 11635 29635 16535 34535 22435 4450 30535 12535

True Bearing

Remarks

AB BA BC CB CD DC DE ED EA AE

+30 at A +1 15 at B +1 15 at B 0 at C 0 at C 0 at D 0 at D +45 at E +45 at E +30 at A

8045 26045 12145 30145 17045 35045 2300 500 31045 13045 Stations A,B and E are affected by Local Attraction

Example 5.12. The Following are the bearings taken on a closed compass traverse: Line AB BC CD DE EA F.B. 8010 12020 17050 23010 31020 B.B. 2590 30150 35050 4950 13015

Compute the interior angles and correct them for observational errors. Assuring the observed bearing of the line CD to be correct adjust the bearing of remaining sides.

Solution: Angle A=Bearing of AE-Bearing of AB = 13015-8010=505 Angle B=Bearing of BA-Bearing of BC = 259-12020=13840 Angle C = Bearing of CB Bearing Of CD = 30150-17050 = 1310 Angle D = Bearing of DC Bearing of DE = 35050 - 23010 = 12040 Angle E = Bearing of EDBearing of EA =49 30310 20+360 = 99 10 Angle A +Angle B+ Angle C+ Angle D+ Angle E = 50 5+138 40+131 0+120 40+99 10 = 539 35 Theoretical sum =(2n4) 90 = 540 error= -25. Hence a correction of +5 Is applied to all the angles. The corrected angles are Angle A = 50 10; Angle B=138 45; Angle C=131 5; Angle D=120 45; and Angle E =99 15. Starting with the corrected bearing of CD, all other bearings can be calculated as under Bearing of DE = Bearing of DC Angle D =350 50 120 45=230 5 Bearing of ED = 230 5 180=50 5 Bearing of EA =Bearing of ED Angle E =50 5-99 15+360=310 50 Bearing of AE =310 5018O=130 50 Bearing of AB = Bearing of AE Angle A = 130 5O50 10=80 40 Bearing of BA = 80 40+ 180=260 40 Bearing of BC = Bearing of BA- Angle B = 260 40 - 138 45=12155 .. Bearing of CB =121 55 +18O= 30155 Bearing of CD = Bearing Of CB Angle C = 30155-1315=170 50 Bearing of DC = 170 50+180=35050

# ERRORS IN COMPASS SURVEY The errors may be classified as (a) Instrumental errors (b) Personal errors (c) Errors due to natural causes. (a) Instrumental errors. They are those which arise due to the faulty adjustments of the instruments. They may be due to the following reasons: (1) The needle not being perfectly straight. (2) Pivot being bent. (3) Sluggish needle. (4) Blunt pivot point. (5) Improper balancing weight. (6) Plane of sight not being vertical, (7) Line of sight not passing through the centres of the ring. (b) Personal errors. They may be due to the following reasons: (1) Inaccurate leveling of the compass box.. (2) Inaccurate centring. (3) Inaccurate bisection of signals. (4) Carelessness in reading and recording. (c) Natural errors. They may be due to the following reasons (1) Variation in declination. (2) Local attraction due to proximity of local attraction forces. (3) Magnetic in the atmosphere due to clouds and Storms.. (4) Irregular variations due to magnetic storms etc.