Thick Lenses and Lens Systems(6)

Cardinal Points(6.1)
Principle plane: the plane on which the extension lines of the ray incident from the first focus and the ray emerged from the lens intercept. Secondary Plane: the same as the principle plane except that the ray is from the second focus. First principal point : the

intersection of the Principle plane and the optical axis. Second principal point the intersection of the secondary plane and the optical axis. Nodal points and : the :

interception of the incident and emerged rays which pass the optical center with optical axis. Cardinal Points: the two focal, two principal and two nodal points.

Thick Lens Formula

Single Lens

If consider the thick lens as the combination of two spherical refracting surface separated by a distance , the result is

Note that

and are measured from the first and second principal

planes. Also the distance of the principal points and the vertices and are

which are positive when the principal points lie to the right of their respective vertices.

Double Lens The focus becomes

The principle planes are

Analytical Ray Tracing(6.2)

At the First Interface From Snells Law with paraxial approximation,

Since,

and

, we have

Since

, we have

This is called the refraction equation pertaining to the first interface. From the First Interface to the Second

This is known as the transfer equation. At the Second Interface where

Matrix Method At the first interface

Note that in this case let

then Is called the refraction matrix. Similarly, we can define a transfer matrix to relate the ray from the

first interface to the second inside the lens. We have where

At the second interface, we have where \ To sum up, we have Let Substitute , then is called the system matrix of the optical system. , then

Note that

according to the thick lens formula. Image Formation

Suppose the object point is located at Point which describe how the rays travel from transfer matrix from to the lens and However, we do not know to

and the image where

, then is the .

from the lens to

yet since we are not sure where the image

will form. By expanding the compete system matrix, it is possible to find the location of the image such that all rays from meet at .

Aberrations
Chromatic aberrations: due to the fact that refraction index is a function of frequency monochromatic aberrations: spherical aberration, coma, astigmatism, Petzval field curvature and distortion.

Spherical Aberration Since

if instead of

, we keep the third order term, that is

This is called third order approximation. Apply this to the origin derivation of the formula of the refraction of a spherical interface, we have a more accurate formula as follow

Comparing to the original formula , it is obviously that the is the correction term. The result is a dependency of the image location on , the distance of the ray t the interface to the optical axis.

Longitudinal Spherical aberration ( ): the distance between the axial intersection of a ray and the paraxial focus. Positive SA: the marginal rays intersect the central axis before the paraxial focus. Usually, when the lens is convergent. Negative SA: the marginal rays intersect the central axis after the paraxial focus. Usually, when the lens is divergent. Traverse(lateral) Spherical aberration ( ): the height above the central axis where the ray intercepts the paraxial focal plane. Circle of least confusion ( ): for an object point in infinity, the

plane where the image has the smallest diameter.

Reducing SA: 1. Reducing the aperture such that the decreases the number off-axis rays. However, also reduces the amount of light entering the system. 2. Carefully choosing the lens. 3. Choose the right locations of the object and image; a. Let . If the lens is symmetry, then the deviation of the ray is minimum. b. Find the no SA points. Smallest spherical aberration occurs when

4.

, where

Is called shape factor.

Coma (comatic aberration)

In the absence of SA, the light coming off an off-axis object point does not focus at one single point on the image plane is called coma. 1. Negative coma: the focus of marginal rays is closer to the central axis than principle rays positive coma: the focus of marginal rays is further to the central axis than principle rays Coma will causes interference. Coma is dependent on the shape of the lens.

2.

3. 4.

Shape factor q=0.8 for no coma is near the shape factor q=0.714 for minimum spherical aberration.

Astigmatism
1. Caused by the difference in ray configuration in tangential (meridional) and sagittal planes of an off-axis object point. The rays from the offaxis object point focus to two lines called tangential and sagittal focus, and . Astigmatism is approximately proportional to the focal length and is very little improved by changing

2.

3.

the shape of the lens. 4. Loci of the tangential and sagittal images approximately form two paraboloids. 5. Astigmatism can be reduced by proper spacing of the lens elements or by the

proper location of a stop. 6. When astigmatism is completed removed, the two loci of the tangential and sagittal images form into one paraboloidal surface, called Petzval surface.

Field Curvature
When no SA, coma and astigmatism exist, a planar object normal to the axis will imaged into a curved surface instead of a plane in the paraxial region. This aberration is known as Petzval field curvature.

Let

be the distance of an image point at height

on the Petzval

surface form the paraxial image plane. Then,

for an m-lens combination. Note that the spacings of the lenses has no effect on . Suppose , . This is called Petzval condition. Example: , .

Distortion
1. Distortion is caused by the fact that the transverse magnification, , is a function of the off-axis image distance. In other word, distortion arises because different areas of the lens have different local lengths. Positive or pincushion distortion: increases with the axial distance. Negative or barrel distortion: decreases with the axial distance.

2. 3. 4.

Effect of stop a. Distortion is very small for a thin positive lens if the aperture is located at the lens. b. Stop after the lens causes positive distortion. c. Stop before the lens causes negative distortion. d. If two lens are perfectly symmetrical with a stop at the middle, the distortion can be cancelled.

Chromatic aberrations
1. 2. 3. Due to the dependency of the refraction index on frequency. Lights with different wavelengths have different focuses. A@CA: axial chromatic aberration. L@CA: lateral chromatic aberration.

Thin Achromatic Doublets Purpose: to bring the focus of the red and blue lights together by a combination of two thin lens separated by a distance .

Let , then . Let the focus of red light be This leads to and blue light . What we want is .

Case 1: Select

, we have

. Let the focus of yellow light be , then . Therefore, . Definition: 1. 2. Thus, Dispersive power: . .

Dispersive index, or V-number, or Abbe number:

Case 2: Select

, then .

If

, we have

GRIN (GRadient INdex) Systems

1. Homogeneous lenses apply the difference between its refraction index and that of the surroundings medium, and the curvature of its interfaces to reconfigures a wavefront or the direction of the rays. 2. Same effect can be achieve by changing the refraction index profile of the lenses while keeping the lenses flat. 3. Radial-GRIN: refraction index varies axially. Exampe: If a parallel light is to focus at a point as in the figure, all optical path must equal. For a ray located at distance from the center, . Since and ,

Typical index profile: . Light propagates sinusoidally. The period in space: By change the object distance or the length of the lens, an erect, real, magnified image can be formed. Definition: 1. Gradient constant: . 2. Pitch: thickness of the lens in term of the period.

Axial-GRIN 1. 2. 3. Refraction index varies axially instead of radially. Also combined with curve surfaces. Can correct spherical aberrations

Optical sine theorem where , , , and , , are the index, height and slope angle of

the ray in object and image space, respectively. If coma is to be zero,

for all

. For paraxial rays:

, therefore

which is known as the Sine Condition.