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Chapter 3. Generator and Transformer Models; The Per-Unit System (Part III) 3.
13 The Per-Unit System

Let us say that the measure unit of age is 80 years (this is the base unit). Then a person who is 40 years old is half of the base unit. So we say the person's age is 0.5 per unit. age in years Age per unit = age base in years Thus the age per unit is dimensionless. In power systems there are four base quantities required to define a per unit system. These are: power, voltage, current and impedance. Given two of these, all others can be defined using these two. In general for any quantity: actual quantity Quantity per unit = base value of quantity And for power systems we have: S V I Z S pu = V pu = I pu = Z pu = SB VB IB ZB N.B. The value of the numerators above may be a complex number, however, the denominator (the base value) is a positive real number. Normally we select a three-phase power base ( S B or MVAB ) and a line-to-line voltage base (VB or kVB ). From these two the other bases can be computed using circuit laws thus: S 3 S IB = B = B 3 VB 3VB and V ZB = B 3I B Other forms for Z B follow from the above equations: ZB = ZB
(VB )
SB
2 kVB ) ( =
MVAB
Note that VB is line to line voltage base! and I B is line current base. Also, S B is 3-phase power base. Thus in dealing with per-phase quantities, the 3 and into account.
3 need to be taken
Per unit quantities obey the circuit laws, thus: * S pu = V pu I pu and V pu = Z pu I pu In terms of phase quantities, the three phase complex power to a load is given by: * S L ( 3 ) = 3VP I P and the phase current is related to the phase voltage by the load impedance thus: V IP = P ZP Using this value of phase current in the equation above we have (solving for impedance): 2 2 3 VP VL L ZP = * = * SL ( 3 ) S L (3 ) Therefore the phase impedance in per-unit is given by:
Z pu = Zp ZB = VL L
2 * SL (3 ) Z B
and since Z B =
VB2 (see last page) the above expression becomes: SB Z pu V SB = = * = LL * Z B S L( 3 ) Z B VB S L ( 3 )

Z pu = V pu
2
Zp
VL L
or
* SL ( pu )
3.14 Change of Base

Usually if none are specified, the pu values given are on nameplate ratings as base. For example a generator whose impedance is 0.4 pu and whose ratings are 110 MVA and 24 kV, then the base MVA is assumed 110 MVA and base line to line voltage is 24 kV. Often the base for the system is different from the base for each particualr generator or transformer, hence it is important to be able to express the pu value in terms of different bases. This is derived below.
old old and voltage base VB . We Let Z old pu be the per-unit impedance on the power base S B new would like to find Z new and voltage base VBnew . Let Z be pu on the new power base S B the "ohmic" value of the impedance. Then we have:
Z old pu =
old Z SB = Z old 2 ZB (VBold )
and similarly
Z
new pu new Z SB = new = Z 2 ZB (VBnew )
By comparison of these two expressions it is evident that:

new old VB SB Z =Z old new S B VB This last expression is very useful in transforming per-unit values from one set of bases to another. new pu old pu 2
Example. A transformer has a voltage rating of 110/220 V and a power rating of 1000 VA. The impedance of the transformer on the low voltage side is 5 + j33 . Find the perunit impedance viewed from each side assuming the bases are equal to the voltages and power ratings on each side. Solution using Matlab: From the give quantities:
VB1=110; VB2=220; SB1=1000; SB2=1000; Z1=5+j*33; Z2=Z1*4; ZB1=VB1^2/SB1; ZB2=VB2^2/SB2; Zpu1=Z1/ZB1 Zpu2=Z2/ZB2 Zpu1 = 0.4132 + 2.7273i Zpu2 = 0.4132 + 2.7273i
Thus, with proper selection of S base and Vbase on each side of a transformer, the per-unit impedance of the transformer becomes the same viewed from either side! Thus the transformer may be removed and replaced with its per-unit impedance (but we have to keep in mind that now there are two different values of voltage base, one on each side of the transformer). Rules for selection of voltage bases around a transformer: Let the turns ratio of the N transformer be = 1 , and suppose there is a connection gain of k . If this is a Y Y N2 or connected transformer, then k = 1 . If it is a Y connection, then k = 3 . If it is Y then k = 1/ 3 . Select a voltage base on side 1, say VB1 . Then the voltage base on side 2 must be: VB 2 = kVB1 . The power base, of course is the same everywhere in the power system.
3
Example 3.7 The one line diagram of a power system is shown in fig. 3.29 page 92. Select a common base of 100 MVA and 22 kV on the generator side. Draw an impedance diagram with all impedances including the load impedance marked in per unit. The manufacturer's data for each device is given on page 92. The three phase load on bus 4 absorbs 57 MVA, 0.6 power factor lagging at 10.45 kV. Line 1 and line 2 have reactances of 48.4 and 65.43 , respectively. Outline of solution: first find the voltage base in all sections of the system. In this case there are five sections. Note that in this case there is no mention of how the transformers are connected (i.e. Y or delta). Hence we consider only the turns ratio (otherwise there would be some 3 factors as well). The Matlab program follows:
VLL = 10.45; VB1 = 22; VB2 = 22*220/22; VB4 = 220*11/220; VB5 = 22*110/22; Xg = 0.18*100/90 Xt1 = 0.1*100/50 Xt2 = 0.06*100/40 Xt3 = 0.064*100/40 Xt4 = 0.08*100/40 Xm = 0.185*(100/66.5)*(10.45/11)^2 ZB2 = (220)^2/100 ZB5 = (110)^2/100 Xline1 = 48.4/484 Xline2 = 65.43/121 SL = 57*(0.6 + j*sin(acos(0.6))) ZL = VLL^2/conj(SL) ZB4 = (11)^2/100 ZLpu = ZL/ZB4 Xg = 0.2000 Xt1 = 0.2000 Xt2 = 0.1500 Xt3 = 0.1600 Xt4 = 0.2000 Xm = 0.2511 ZB2 = 484 ZB5 = 121 Xline1 = 0.1000 Xline2 =
0.5407 SL = 34.2000 +45.6000i ZL = 1.1495 + 1.5327i ZB4 = 1.2100 ZLpu = 0.9500 + 1.2667i
Note these are then incorporated into the impedance diagram on page 94. Note there are no transformers showing! Just an elementary one phase diagram with impedances. To go back to actual values, we need to know the MVA B and the VB at every point in the system. As stated earlier, the MVAB is the same everywhere, but the VB changes as we go from one side of a transformer to the other.
Example 3.8 The motor of example 3.7 operates at full load 0.8 power factor leading at a terminal voltage of 10.47 kV. (a) Determine the voltage at the generator bus. (b) Determine the generator and motor emfs. The solution is found using ordinary circuit analysis. Of course, the answers will be "pu" all the way! The Matlab program follows:
ZL = 0.95 + j*1.2667; V4=10.45/11 Sm = 66.5/100*(0.8 - j*.6) Im = conj(Sm)/conj(V4) IL = V4/ZL I = Im + IL X11 = 0.45*0.9/(0.45+0.9); V1 = V4+j*X11*I; V1M=abs(V1), V1ang=angle(V1)*180/pi Eg = V1 + j*0.2*I; EgM=abs(Eg), Egang=angle(Eg)*180/pi Em = V4 - j*0.25*Im; EmM=abs(Em), Emang=angle(Em)*180/pi V4 = 0.9500 Sm = 0.5320 Im = 0.5600 + IL = 0.3600 I = 0.9200 V1M =
0.3990i 0.4200i 0.4800i 0.0600i
1.0066 V1ang = 15.9139 EgM = 1.0826 Egang = 25.1445 EmM = 1.0642 Emang = -7.5591

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Chapter 3. Generator and Transformer Models; The Per-Unit System (Part III) 3.

13 The Per-Unit System

VB2 (see last page) the above expression becomes: SB Z pu V SB = = * = LL * Z B S L( 3 ) Z B VB S L ( 3 )

3.14 Change of Base

old Z SB = Z old 2 ZB (VBold )

By comparison of these two expressions it is evident that:

0.3990i 0.4200i 0.4800i 0.0600i

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