Western Electricity Coordinating Council

Relaying Current Transformer

Application Guide
Relay Work Group
NovemberJul
y 20074
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Title Page No.
Introduction 1
I. CURRENT TRANSFORMER CHARACTERISTICS..............................................................................................1
A. Core Construction and Accuracy Classes............................1
B. Exciting Current..................................................3
C. Remanence.........................................................4
D. Thermal Ratings...................................................7
II. CURRENT TRANSFORMER BURDEN..............................................................................................................13
Internal Resistance of CT...........................................13
III. ESTIMATES OF CT TRANSIENT PERFORMANCE......................................................................................15
IV. ..............................................................................................................................................................................24
I. PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS OF CURRENT TRANSFORMERS FOR RELAYING PURPOSES.......25
A. Distribution Feeders, Phase and Ground Overcurrent...............25
Differentially Connected CT's for Buses, Transformers and Generators 27
C. Directional Overcurrent and Distance.............................36
EHV Transmission Line Systems.......................................39
V. EXAMPLES OF CALCULATIONS....................................................................................................................41
A. Ratio and Phase Angle Error of CT:................................41
B. Estimation of Current Transformer Performance:.................50
C. ANSI CT Relaying Accuracy Classes:..............................56
D. Effect of Current Transformer Connections on Burden.............59
69
General case:.......................................................69
69
E. Estimates of Transient Performance..............................70
VI. REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................................74
VII. LIST OF OPERATIONS COMMITTEE PUBLICATIONS......................75

RELAYING CT APPLICATION GUIDES
Introduction
This guide was prepared by the WSCCWECC Relay Work Group for utility engineers who
apply current transformers for protective relaying. It thus addresses the needs and concerns of
the user. It should prove to be a ready reference, particularly among WSCCWECC members
who are trying to solve a mutual protection problem or operation. It is also suitable as a tutorial
for engineers entering the protection field.
David H. Colwell, who recentlysince retired from PG&E, initiated the writing of this guide and
provided leadership and coordination in its production. He as well contributed to the body of
the guide. The current work group acknowledges his and the other contributors' efforts.
I. CURRENT TRANSFORMER CHARACTERISTICS
A. Core Construction and Accuracy Classes
Although there exist many current transformer designs for various purposes, the basic
types of core construction can be grouped into two categories, toroidal or wound.
The bushing, window, or bar type current transformers are of the toroidal core
construction as shown in Figure 1. The primary winding is the main conductor passing
through the center of the core. The secondary winding is uniformly distributed around
the toroidal core. Essentially, all the flux which links the primary conductor also links
the secondary winding. The leakage flux, and thus the leakage reactance, is negligible.
This is a common construction for HV and EHV current transformers.
Since the leakage flux is negligible, the excitation characteristics (Section I(b)) can be
used directly to determine performance. Current transformers of this type have an
accuracy class designation of C classification per ANSI C57.13, indicating that ratio
correction at any current can be calculated Calculated adequately if the burden,
secondary winding resistance, and the excitation characteristics are known. The C
classC or K classification applies to all tap sections of the current transformer winding.
However, the previous ANSI classification (L) applied only to the full winding. Tap
sections of current transformers with an L classification may not be uniformly
distributed.
K class current transformers are identical to C class devices except that K class current
transformers shall have a knee point voltage at least 70% of the secondary terminal
voltage rating. The secondary terminal voltage rating is the voltage which the
transformer will deliver to a standard burden at 20 times normal secondary current, i.e.
100 amps for a 5 amp nominal CT, without exceeding 10% ratio error.
The presence of such leakage flux has a significant effect on current transformer
performance. When this flux is appreciable*, it is not possible to calculate ratio
correction. Units Current transformers of this type have an accuracy class designation
of T. classification in accordance with ANSI C57.13, indicating that ratio correction
mustis to be determined by Ttest.
Wound type current transformers, T type classification, are usually constructed with
more than one primary turn and undistributed windings. Because of the physical space
required for insulation and bracing of the primary winding and fringing effects of non-
uniformly distributed windings, flux is present which does not link both primary and
secondary windings. Figure 2Figure 1 is included to clearly illustrate the effect but
does not reflect usual construction practice. An auxiliary current transformer is an
example of a wound type current transformer.
* As stated in ANSI C57.13, an appreciable effect is defined as one percent difference
between the actual ratio correction and the ratio correction calculated.
Figure 1 WINDOW, BAR, AND BUSHING TYPE CURRENT TRANSFORMER
B. Exciting Current
In an ideal current transformer, the primary ampere-turns are equal to the secondary
ampere-turns. However, every core material requires some energy to produce the
magnetic flux which induces the secondary voltage necessary to deliver the secondary
current. Thus, in an actual current transformer, the secondary ampere-turns are equal to
the primary ampere-turns minus the exciting ampere-turns. For a C classC or K class, or
a toroidal core constructed current transformer, the simplified equivalent circuit is shown
in Figure 3Figure 2. Figure 4Figure 3, extracted from ANSI C57.13, shows the typical
excitation curves for a multi-ratio C classC or K class current transformer. The
maximum tolerance of excitation values above and below the knee are also specified.
These curves define the relationship of the secondary exciting current (I
e
) to the
secondary voltage (E
e
). The unsaturated slope is determined by the magnetic core
material. The saturated region is the air-core reactance.
When the current transformer core is unsaturated, the error due to exciting current is
normally negligible. When the voltage is above the knee of the excitation curve, the
current transformer is said to be operating in its saturated region where the exciting
current is no longer negligible. Therefore, the ratio error of the current transformer
becomes much greater beyond the knee.
For T class current transformers, the leakage flux could can be appreciable. The exciting
flux should be considered, along with the leakage flux, in determining current
transformer accuracy. Although a test should be done, Figure 5Figure 4, also extracted
from ANSI C57.13, shows typical overcurrent ratio curves for a T class current
transformer
C. Remanence
Remanent flux can be set up in the core of a current transformer under operating or test
conditions. During operating conditions, remanent flux can be left in the core when the
primary current is interrupted while the flux density in the core of the transformer is
high. This may occur when clearing fault current. Testing, such as resistance or
continuity measurements, may also leave remanence.
The remanent flux in the core depends on many factors. The most important ones are the
magnitude of primary current, the impedance of the secondary circuit and the amplitude
and time constant of any offset transient. Since the impedance of the secondary circuit is
generally fixed, the magnitude of remanent flux is governed by the magnitude of the
symmetrical component of the primary current and the magnitude of the offset transient
prior to the primary current interruption. Maximum remanent flux can be obtained under
conditions whereby the primary current is interrupted while the transformer is in a
saturated state.
When the current transformer is next energized, the flux changes required will start from
the remanent value. If the required change is in the direction to add to the remanent flux,
a large part of the cycle may find the current transformer saturated. When this occurs,
much of the primary current is required for excitation and secondary output is
significantly reduced and distorted on alternate half cycles. This phenomenon is
illustrated in Figure 6Figure 5. The performance of both C and T class transformers is
influenced by this remanence or residual magnetism. Relay action could be slow or even
incorrect.
The remanence can be corrected by de-magnetizing the current transformer. This is
accomplished by applying a suitable variable alternating voltage to the secondary, with
initial magnitude sufficient to force the flux density above the saturation point, and then
decreasing the applied voltage slowly and continuously to zero. If there is any reason to
suspect that a current transformer has been subjected recently to heavy currents, possibly
involving a large DC component, it should be demagnetized before being used for any
test requiring accurate current measurement.
Figure 1
LEAKAGE FLUX ASSOCIATED WITH CLASS T CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Figure 2 LEAKAGE FLUX ASSOCIATED WITH CLASS T CURRENT
TRANSFORMERS
D. Thermal Ratings
Current transformer continuous ratings can be increased beyond nominal by use of a
continuous thermal current rating factor. This factor is defined in ANSI/IEEE C57.13-
1978 1993R as "The specified factor by which the rated primary current of a current
transformer can be multiplied to obtain the maximum primary current that can be carried
continuously without exceeding the limiting temperature rise from 30C ambient air
temperature. (When current transformers are incorporated internally as parts of larger
transformers or power circuit breakers, they shall meet allowable average winding and
hot spot temperatures under the specific conditions and requirements of the larger
apparatus". Standard rating factors are 1.0, 1.33, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0.
As an application example, a power circuit breaker with a 1600 amp continuous rating
could use 1200/5 (maximum ratio) current transformers with a thermal rating factor of
1.33. In this way the current transformer could continuously carry 1600 amps primary
and would therefore not limit the breaker capability.
Auxiliary current transformer thermal ratings do not conform to this standard, and thus
are handled differently among manufacturers. For instance, one manufacturer supplies
all auxiliary CTs rated below 20 amps primary with thermal rating factors of 1.0, while
all CTs with primaries rated greater than 20 amps have thermal rating factors of 1.5.
Another manufacturer supplies auxiliary CTs with thermal rating factors varying
between 1.25 and 2.0, depending on the ratio being used.
Figure 2
SIMPLIFIED EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF CT ON SECONDARY N TURN BASE
Figure 3 SIMPLIFIED EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF CT ON SECONDARY N TURN
BASE
Figure 3
Figure 4 TYPICAL EXCITATION CURVES FOR MULTI-RATIO C or K CLASS CURRENT
TRANSFORMERS WITH NON-GAPPED CORES
Figure 4
Figure 5 TYPICAL OVERCURRENT RATIO CURVES
Figure 6Figure 5a Figure 6b
NORMAL HYSTERESIS CURVE
HYSTERESIS CURVE WITH REMANENCE
Figure 5b
HYSTERESIS CURVE WITH REMANENCE
II. CURRENT TRANSFORMER BURDEN
Internal Resistance of CT
A. General

The performance of a current transformer used in protective relaying is largely dependent
on the total burden or impedance in the secondary circuit of the current transformer. The
current transformer core flux density (and thus the amount of saturation) is directly
proportional to the voltage that the current transformer or secondary must produce. So
for a given amount of secondary current, the larger the burden impedance becomes, the
greater is the tendency of the current transformer to saturate.
Ideally, protective relay systems would ignore current transformer saturation. However,
that is usually not possible; so it behooves the relay engineer to minimize current
transformer burden impedance. Manufacturers' publications give the burdens of
individual relays, meters, and other equipment. Adding the resistance of interconnecting
leads and internal resistance of the current transformer gives the total current transformer
burden.
In modern solid state relays with very small burdens, the total relay burden is often
dominated by the lead impedance.
Sufficient accuracy results if series burden impedances are added arithmetically. The
results will be slightly pessimistic, indicating slightly greater than actual CT ratio
inaccuracy. But, if a given application is so borderline that vector addition of impedance
is necessary to prove that the CTs will be suitable, such an application should be
avoided.
The current transformer burden impedance of most electromechanical relays decreases as
the secondary current increases because of saturation in the magnetic circuits of the
devices. Therefore, a given burden may apply only for a particular value of current. If a
publication does not clearly state for what value of current the burden applies, this
information should be requested.
At high saturation, the burden impedance approaches its DC resistance. This effect is
exploited in high impedance bus differential relays. Neglecting the reduction in
impedance with saturation provides a quick conservative analysis, but an accurate
calculation may be necessary if the initial calculation indicates marginal performance.
B. Effect of CT Connections
The interconnection of two or more current transformers supplying a common burden
influences the burden seen by each individual current transformer.
When current transformer primaries and secondaries are connected in series, the burden
on each individual transformer is decreased in proportion to the number of current
transformers in use.
When current transformers are connected in parallel the effect is to increase the burden
on each individual transformer. The amount of increase is dependent upon the number of
transformers and the distribution of current between the transformers. This is the case in
breaker and a half, ring, and double bus arrangements.
In three phase current transformer connections, the burden on an individual current
transformer can vary with the type of connection (wye or delta) and the type of fault on
the system (1 or 2-line to ground or multi-phase). These topics will be discussed further
in Section V.D.
C. Effect of Auxiliary CTs
Beware of attempts to "step-up" current from the main CT to the relay with the use of an
auxiliary CT. The auxiliary CT may be adequate, but remember the main CT will see the
burden impedance multiplied by the auxiliary ratio squared.
III. ESTIMATES OF CT TRANSIENT PERFORMANCE
The primary fault current in the power system is symmetrical only after the transients of the
predominantly R-L circuit have decayed to zero. Considering the worst case conditions of
switching angle and power factor that produce the highest offset, the fault current is of the
form:
]
t
e - t) ( cos [ I' ) (
) /L -(R
1 1
t I
where I' is the peak value of the symmetrical wave,
R1
R
1
the resistance and
Ll
L
1
the
inductance of the entire primary circuit. This isA time response plot is shown in Figure
7Figure 6.
The exponential portion of this wave is a high peak non-directional or DC component, and
is responsible for saturation of CTs when it is present. This is because the DC component
causes the flux in the CT core to exceed the saturation level very easily. The expected flux
and effects on CT performance are illustrated in figures 8, 9A and 9B.
In most applications, the saturation of the CT by the AC component is avoided by properly
selecting the turns ratio, burden, and CT accuracy class. As long as the product of expected
secondary current and burden impedance does not exceed the saturation or knee point
voltage of the CT, then the CT performance will be satisfactory on the AC component.
Figure 10Figure 9 defines saturation voltage on a typical CT secondary excitation curve.
If saturation is to be avoided on the DC component as well as the AC component, then very
severe requirements are imposed on the CT that many times are impractical or impossible to
satisfy. A simplified analysis of the secondary voltage requirements shows that the
available voltage must be
) / 1 ( R L +
(1 + WL
1
/R
1
) times the voltage required for the AC
component. In the worst case this requirement may not be attainable.
Obviously the possibility of saturation should be known and avoided if possible by design
and operation of the CT/relay combination.
The IEEE Power Systems Relaying Committee produced a report on transient performance
of current transformers in 1976. The report titled "Transient Response of Current
Transformers". Publication 76CH113-4 PWR contains very useful discussion and curves
from which the time to saturation can be estimated. In this section we present a method that
permits direct calculation of the time to saturation.
Certain system, CT, and relay parameters must be determined before the curves or
equations can be used. These are as follows:
A. K
s
= Saturation factor.
This is the ratio of the saturation voltage (Figure 10Figure 9) to the voltage determined
by the product of the expected symmetrical secondary current and the total secondary
burden impedance.

1
]
1

,
_

2
2
1
R
N
I
V
K
X
S
K
s
= V
x
/[(I1/N2)R2] K
Where:
V
xX
= saturation voltage of CT.
I1
1
= symmetrical primary current.
N2
2
= secondary turns of CT.
R2
2
= total secondary burden of CT.
This factor is a measure of the margin that exists between the available voltage and the
voltage necessary to reproduce the maximum symmetrical primary current in the
secondary burden circuit.
B. T
1
= primary system time constant.
This time constant influences the core flux-time relationships and is the primary
determinant of the time it takes the core flux to reach saturation.

1
1
1
R
X
T seconds
T1 = X1/(R1w) seconds
Where
X1
X
1
= reactance of the primary system to the point of fault,

1 1
X L
w L1 = X1.
R1
1
= rResistance of the primary system to the point of fault.
w = 377
377
at 60 Hz
C.
T
2
= Current transformer secondary time constant. This time constant also influences the
core flux-time relationship and is most important in determining the time for the flux to
return to and below saturation level as the DC component decays.

( )
2
2 2
2
R
M L
T
+

seconds
T2 = (L2+ M2)/R
2
seconds
Where:
L
22
= burden inductance if any.
M
22
= CT inductance.
R
22
= resistance of total secondary burden circuit (relay + leads + CT winding).
In most cases the burden inductance is negligible and the CT inductance is the equivalent
exciting inductance, determined from the secondary excitation curve at the point of
maximum permeability (see Figure 10Figure 9); thus: T2 = Ve/(Ie R2w)
( )
2 2
R I V T
e e

With these three parameters, the curves in the IEEE report can be used to determine the
time to saturation of the CT.
As an alternative, using equations derived from the results of the IEEE report and from
other references, the time to saturation and the time to exit from saturation can be
calculated.
These give results in close agreement with the curves in the IEEE report.
ts t
S
= tTime to saturation in seconds
t
S
=
1
]
1

,
_

1
1
1
1 ln
T
K
T
s
1
]
1

,
_

1 T
1 Ks
1 n 1 1 T
t
e
te = time to exit from saturation in seconds.
t
e
=
,
_

S
K
T
T
2
1
ln

Ti [ln(T
2
/K
s
)]
Another useful equation can be developed by solving the first equation for K
s
thus:

1
1
1
1
1
+

,
_

T
e
K
T
t
S
S

1
T
1
e 1
Ks
1
1
T
-ts

+
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

If we now assume t
s
goes to infinity, that is saturation does not occur, then we can
determine the value for K
s
required to accommodate the symmetrical and DC components
and not saturate.
then 1
1
+ T K
S
K
s
=

T1 + 1
Combining this equation with the definition of K
s
in section A:
( )
2 2 1
N R I V K
k S
1
1
+ T ; and solving for V
k
K
s
= V
k
/(I1 R2/N2) = T1 + 1; and solving for V
k
,
then
( ) ( ) 1
1 2 2 1
+ T N R I V
k

V
k
= (I1 R2/N2) ( T1 + 1).
This equation for V
k
indicates that if saturation is to be avoided when the DC component
is present, then V
k
(the knee point voltage) must be ( ) 1
1
+ T ( T1 + 1) times the
steady state voltage requirement ( )
2 2 1
N R I
I1 R2/N2. This may be quite high and impossible to provide.
Figure 5
Figure 7 PRIMARY CURRENT WAVES
Figure 6
Figure 8 RISE OF FLUX IN THE CORE OF A CURRENT TRANSFORMER
Figure 9Figure 8a DISTORTION IN SECONDARY CURRENT DUE TO SATURATION
Figure 7
Figure 9Figure 8b DISTORTION IN SECONDARY CURRENT DUE TO SATURATION
Figure 8
Figure 10 SECONDARY EXCITATION CURVE 230-kVKv CURRENT
TRANSFORMER
RATIO: 1200-5 AMPERES
FREQUENCY: 650 Hz
IV.
I. PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS OF CURRENT TRANSFORMERS FOR
RELAYING PURPOSES
A. Distribution Feeders, Phase and Ground Overcurrent
Current transformers which operate the time overcurrent relays used for feeder
protection, usually will will typically provide satisfactory protection if they meet or
exceed the applicable ANSI standard. For switch gear voltage classes 8.25 through
43.8kV (where most distribution circuits lie), the accuracy classes are as follows:
(1)
Multi-Ratio
Current
Transformers
Accuracy
Voltage
Classes
600:5 C100
1200:5 C200
2000:5, 3000:5 C400
4000:5, 5000:5 C800
Multi-Ratio Accuracy
Current Voltage
Transformers Classes
600:5 C100
1200:5 C200
2000:5, 3000:5 C400
4000:5, 5000:5 C800
The current transformer primary ratio normally corresponds to the continuous current
rating of the circuit breaker (except that 800 and 1600 amp PCBs use 1200 and 2000 amp
current transformers).
The CT ratio is usually chosen so that approximately 5 amperes flow in the secondary
phase relays for full load in the primary. Where 5 amp meters are used in relay circuits, a
higher ratio may be chosen to permit overload readings on the feeder circuit. Also, the
higher ratio may be necessary or desirable to minimize the secondary current during fault
conditions.
Since overcurrent relays have a wide range of taps, the actual CT ratio is usually not
critical. However, using higher ratio may limit the primary sensitivity of ground
relaying.
In installations, where very high fault currents are available, care should be exercised not
to exceed the short time (one second) rating of devices connected to the secondary.
Another possible problem with high fault currents is severe saturation of the CT core,
resulting in very high voltage peaks or spikes. If the CT burden is high and the primary
current is many times the CT's continuous rating, it is possible to develop voltage spikes
of sufficient magnitude to damage CT insulation or switch gear secondary wiring.
(2)
Also, when the secondary current is very distorted, the induction disk element of an
overcurrent relay will deviate from the published time curve.
(3)
The presence of the DC
component of an offset wave not only causes saturation of the CT but also must be
considered when setting hinged armature instantaneous trip attachments.
Determining CT performance requires the excitation curve, the impedance of the
secondary connected devices and secondary wiring and the resistances of the secondary
CT turns. The impedance of the meters and relays will vary with the amount of current
because their magnetic circuits saturate at high currents. Neglecting this saturation will
yield optimistic results when checking thermal conditions but pessimistic results for
accuracy calculations. At very high currents, (20 times normal), most secondary burdens
become so saturated they are predominantly resistive.
On multi-grounded 4-wire distribution circuits, the ground relay setting is usually kept at
a relatively high value by the unbalanced load flowing in the neutral. Where sensitive
ground relay settings are desired, care must be exercised to assure that the high burden
introduced by a very sensitive residual relay does not drive a poor quality current
transformer into saturation. Also, as shown in the calculation section, the impedance of
the ground relay affects the distribution of secondary current and thereby affects the
primary sensitivity of the ground relaying.
B.
Differentially Connected CT's for Buses, Transformers and Generators
Differentially connected current transformers for equipment protection produces the
most severe test of current transformer performance. This is because sensitivity and
speed of operation of the relay is very important.
In most relay schemes where current transformers are differentially connected, the most
important consideration is that the excitation characteristics of all current transformers
are well matched. This does not always ensure proper operation but it allows much
easier and dependable calculation of performance.
The primary current flow on each of the current transformers that are paralleled and/or
differentially connected can be vastly different and thereby the performance calculation
is very difficult. Modern bus protection can be subdivided into three main categories:
High Impedance Over-voltage Relays, Low Impedance Overcurrent Relays, and Medium
Impedance Percentage Restraint Relays.
1. High Impedance Differentially Connected Bus Protection Relays
Since its introduction in the mid-1950's high impedance relays have dominated
the bus protection practices in the U.S. When properly applied, they are
dependable and secure.
The basic setting for the pick-up of a high impedance relay is made so that the relay
will not operate for a nearby external fault with the CT on the faulted circuit
completely saturated, while the remaining CTs are not saturated at all. The resulting
voltage, developed by the good CTs, must force current through the impedance of the
saturated CT and leads without exceeding the voltage pickup setting of the relay, plus
the safety factor. This calculation is only valid if all CTs are wound on toroidal cores
and have their windings completely distributed around their cores.
The secondary wiring resistance, including the CT secondary winding, is critical in
determining the relay pickup setting. Obviously a CT with an unusually high winding
resistance will limit the sensitivity of the relay protection for the whole bus.
If one or more CTs have an overall ratio that differs from the rest of the CTs on the
bus, there is a temptation to merely connect the common ratios in parallel. On
external faults, the high burden of the relay will result in the design voltage across the
CT tap used. However, by auto-transformer action, a higher voltage will appear
across the full CT winding. This higher voltage may exceed the capability of the
circuit insulation.
Several possible solutions for the problem where the overall ratios differ are shown
below:
(The reader is cautioned that most of these solutions (except Solution #1) are quite
complex in their application. The General Electric publication entitled, "Bus Differential
Protection, GET-6455"
(13)
should be referred to for special curves and formulae needed to
make the proper settings.)
SOLUTION S olution #1
The best solution is to make all CT ratios the same by retrofitting the offending breakers
with slip-on CTs of the proper ratio.
S olution OLUTION #2
The relays most commonly used have four thyrite (or varistor) non-linear voltage
dependent resistor disks connected in series, then in parallel with the relay. These
resistors limit the voltage which appears across the CT circuits for the first cycle (or until
the auxiliary relay has shorted the CT leads). Since the amount of voltage which can
appear is a function of the total relay current and the resistance of the voltage dependent
resistor, reducing the amount of resistance will limit the peak voltage. Using two disks
in series instead of the usual four will cut the peak voltage in half.
However, the energy dissipated in each disk is a function of the current through the disk
and the voltage drop across it so it is usually necessary to add a second pair of two disks
in series in parallel with the first pair to handle the extra energy.
Since the instantaneous or high current tripping relay is in series with the voltage
dependent resistor disk, its pickup increases dramatically. A typical change in pickup
setting might be from 3A to 50A.
Solution #3
This approach is to match the higher CT ratio with the lower one with a special
auxiliary CT. This auxiliary CT must have distributed windings on a toroidal core (a
bushing CT). (Never try to use an ordinary auxiliary CT in a current or voltage bus
differential circuit.)
A variation of this method is to use one of the higher ratio CTs on one of the power
circuit breakers for double duty (auxiliary CT and bus differential CT). The
disadvantages of this scheme is that when the PCB with the higher ratio is removed
from service, the bus protection must be removed from service.
Solution #4
This solution removes the concern about removing the critical matching CT from service,
but the difficulty of determining the CT secondary current distribution in the CT
connections of the 1200:5 CTs limits its application.
Solution #5
This solution presents a hazard to equipment and personnel because of the high voltage
that may be generated. It requires the calculation of the voltage developed by highest
ratio CT when connected as described above. The peak voltage developed must be less
than the circuit insulation rating (1500 volts RMS) by an appropriate safety factor, and
the tapped voltage must be enough to satisfy the relay manufacturer's setting instruction.
Extra thyristors/varistors may be required in the relay, or across the unused portion of the
CT(s).
2. Low Impedance Differentially Connected Bus Protection Relays
Overcurrent relays have been connected in bus differential circuits with varying
degrees of success for over 50 years. A few "rules of thumb" for their application
are:
a. Use the highest available CT ratios. (The maximum through fault current should
not exceed 20 times the CT rating.)
(2)
b. Never use an ordinary auxiliary CT. If an auxiliary CT must be used, use a
toroidal type (bushing CT) with a distributed winding.
c. Never use an overcurrent differentially-connected relay near a generating station
or where high X/R ratios exist since the time constant at these locations will
produce very severe CT saturation problems.
d. Never use plunger type or hinged armature instantaneous relays without time
delay in this type of circuit unless they are set very high. They operate too fast
and operate equally well on DC. (They may be useful, however, when used in
conjunction with induction disk overcurrent relays. If the instantaneous unit is
set for the same pickup as the time unit with the contacts connected in series, by
dropping out faster, it prevents the time unit from false tripping by coasting
closed after the error current is gone. This assumes that the drop out of the
instantaneous device has not been extended by the DC component of an offset
wave.)
e. Never use on buses that have more than three or four sources of fault current.
The current transformer on the faulted line will probably saturate so severely that
the error current will cause the relay to trip for through faults.
f. A stabilizing resistor can be very useful in improving the security of an
overcurrent relay in a differential circuit.
(See example in calculation section)
(2) (6)
3. Medium High Impedance Percentage Restraint Differential Relays
The above relay was introduced in the U.S. about 1970. It violates most of the
application rules, noted above, for other bus differential relays in that it does not
require current transformers with similar characteristics or even the same ratio. The
relay uses rectifying diodes to sum the total of the secondary currents for use as
restraint. The differential current which flows is matched against this restraint and
used to operate a 1 to 2 millisecond tripping relay. The relay is designed to respond
to the output of the current transformers before they saturate and to reject false
information after saturation. Thus, the relay does not require matched CT
characteristics or ratios, low leakage reactances or low secondary circuit resistance.
The high limits of maximum internal or external fault currents, and the high
sensitivity for internal faults even with an extreme umber of sources to the bus, make
this relay easy to apply.
However it is troublesome and expensive to bring the secondaries of all of the PCB
CTs into the relay house instead of paralleling them in the field. Since the relay
operates on 1 ampere, auxiliary CTs are usually required for all of the CTs. This is
also expensive and consumes much space.
4. Transformer Differential Relaying
Current transformers used for transformer differential relaying are subject to several
factors that are not ordinarily present with other forms of differential protection.
Following are application principles pertaining to electromechanical relays, with
comments appropriate to solid state relays incorporated.
a. Because of the current transformation by the power bank, the CT ratios must be
different to compensate for the different primary currents. While many CT taps
and relay taps are available, they seldom make a perfect match. This, of course,
results in error current in the relay. If the transformer has a load tap changer, this
error will change with the tap position.
b. Since the power circuit breakers on the high and low side of the power
transformer are seldom of the same voltage class, the CTs associated with them
have different characteristics and often different accuracy classes.
c.
d. The power transformer has a 30 phase shift if it is connected wye-delta or delta-
wye. This requires the CT to be connected delta-wye (or wye-delta) to shift the
secondary currents into phase so that they may be compared in the relay.
e. A power transformer connected delta-wye grounded becomes a source of zero
sequence currents for external faults on the wye side, so these currents must be
eliminated from the relay secondary circuits.
f. When a power transformer is energized, magnetic in-rush currents appear in the
primary circuit. These currents are often many times the full-load rating and are
seen by the relay as internal faults.
As with other forms of differential protection, transformers were originally protected
with ordinary overcurrent relays connected differentially. They had to be made quite
slow and insensitive to overcome the problems mentioned above. Modern relays use
percentage restraint to take care of the first three problems (noted above), and
harmonic restraint or harmonic blocking for the in-rush current problems.
5. Internal Faults
Faults which occur within the protected zone of the differential relay will often result
in very severe saturation of at least some of the CTs. This is of little consequence
unless the high harmonic content of the CT secondary current blocks the operation of
the differential relay.
A saturated CT produces a highly distorted current. Second and third harmonics
predominate initially, and each may be greater than the fundamental. Eventually the
even harmonics will disappear. The odd harmonics will persist as long as the CT
remains saturated. For these reasons, a high set instantaneous unit should be included
in the differential circuit of harmonic restrained relays that will trip in spite of any
harmonics.
6. External Faults
If only one PCB, hence, one CT is used at each voltage level, the through fault
current is limited by the power transformer impedance and all of the secondary
current flows through the restraint windings of the differential relay. If two PCBs
are used at one voltage level, such as with a ring bus, breaker-and-a half, or double-
bus-double-breaker, the short circuit current is not limited by the power transformer
impedance when it flows through these PCBs. If the CTs are merely paralleled, they
can saturate unequally and produce error currents that may cause an incorrect
operation. If a ring bus or breaker-and- a-half scheme is involved, the chances of
this type of through fault occurring is high enough that each CT should be connected
to its own restraint winding. If the PCBs are part of a double-bus-scheme, the
chances of this through current flowing are remote.
Two PCBs with paralleled CTs also may present problems with security for
through faults on the low side of the transformer because the error current of the
existing CTs is doubled.
Current transformers connected in delta also may cause problems with security for
through faults because the current transformer must circulate current through two
relays and lead burdens for some faults. (See sample problem.)
C. Directional Overcurrent and Distance
The general requirements of minimizing the burden placed upon current transformer
secondaries applies to directional overcurrent and distance relays as well. Using
adequate CT secondary lead conductor sizes, using higher CT ratios, higher overcurrent
relay taps when possible (since the relay burden is inversely proportional to relay tap
squared), and taking care in paralleling several CT polarizing sources for use with
directional elements
(1), (5)
are just a few examples of the areas of concern when applying
these relays. Even when these precautions are taken, relay circuits may be exposed to
transient (ac and dc) and harmonic current waveforms caused by CT saturation effects.
The effects on the different types of relays will depend upon the specific relay design
used.
1. Directional Elements
The directional elements used in relays often utilize a "polarizing" voltage or current
source to establish a reference phasor relationship between the "operating"
(monitored power system) secondary current and the polarizing source value. This
phasor relationship establishes an operating torque (in an electromechanical design)
or digital signal (in a solid state design) for faults in the protected zone.
CT saturation can cause phase shifts and harmonics in ,the operating current source
that are different than what may be generated in the polarizing voltage or current
source. For example, induction cup electromechanical relays tend to be frequency
dependent; operating torque is created only for like-frequency operating and
polarizing waveforms (e.g. the fundamental frequency waveforms' phase angles are
compared)
(2)
.

Therefore, the relative phase shift between the compared waveforms
may lessen the operating torque for faults in the protected zone. Under extreme
cases, phase shifts may even cause false operation for faults in the reverse direction.
As in electromechanical relays, solid state relay designs also may use a polarizing
source in addition to an operating current. Some designs incorporate waveform zero-
crossing points for phase reference and therefore may be susceptible to phase shifts
caused by CT saturation effect. Some static relays may be higher speed (less than 1/2
cycle operate time) and lower burden than their electromechanical counterparts.
Therefore, depending upon the CT's time to saturation (see Section III - "Estimates of
CT Transient Performance"), solid state relays may be less likely than
electromechanical relays to operate (or not operate) incorrectly, due to the fact that
the static relays may have completed their measurements prior to CT saturation.
Many solid state designs filter the input waveforms and consequently are frequency
dependent, as well.
2. Overcurrent Elements
The common electromechanical induction disk designs used for time-overcurrent
(TOC) characteristics measure the rms operating current. Under CT saturation
conditions, the actual rms value of the relay current will be less than under non-
saturated CT conditions. Therefore, the TOC relay element will take longer to
operate than desired. Loss of relay coordination may result from this delay,
especially with the applications using more inverse time-overcurrent characteristic
relays. Time overcurrent relays typically are not very susceptible to do offsets due to
the fact that do offsets usually have died out within the delay period of the relay.
Instantaneous overcurrent units (IOC) can be very sensitive to do offsets. The do
offsets may cause high level transient spikes in the relay current which could cause
the IOC element to trip for fault current levels below its set-point. Additionally, for
CT distortion of fault currents near the instantaneous pick up setting, the
instantaneous relay may have an undesirable trip delay (e.g., additional 20-25 ms or
more).
Solid state relay designs using analog or digital techniques (such as microprocessor
based) will typically filter the input current waveform to eliminate dc offsets,
harmonics, etc. This may alleviate some of the problems relating to the
instantaneous elements. However, the time delay elements' operating times may
experience the same type of unpredictability, lower sensitivity, and extra delay times
as experienced with the electromechanical designs.
3. Distance Relays
In general, the reach of distance relays will be affected by CT saturation. This is true
whether the relay design is an electromechanical design utilizing rms current
measurement, or a solid state design referencing peak instantaneous or rms current
levels or various combinations of waveform values for measurement. The distance
relay will be desensitized for faults near the end of its zone, sensing the fault as being
further away than it actually is, based upon the reduced currents produced from the
CT secondary circuits. Short line and particularly zone 1 instantaneous relay
applications with a fault value near the relay operating decision point should be
considered carefully if CT saturation is possible. A guideline referred to by G.D.
Rockefeller from Consolidated Edison Co. of New York is: "To avoid delayed
tripping for faults near the zone 1 decision point, time to (CT) saturation should
exceed 1.5 cycles". Solid state relays with their high speed operation and low burden
may be preferred in these applications, depending on the individual situations and
systems involved.
The directional characteristics of distance relays are generally adequate and selective
for reverse direction faults even with phase shifts in the current waveform
measurement. However, close-in high magnitude faults in the reverse direction may
result in false tripping by directional relays. This may occur if the reference
stabilizing voltage as measured by the relay is below a design minimum value in the
presence of zero-crossing phase shift error in the current waveform caused by
saturated CT's. Electromechanical relays using induction units produce an operating
torque based upon the product of an integrated full cycle of voltage and the
fundamental current waveform. This reduces the possibility of distortion related
false tripping.
In summary, current transformer saturation effects should be considered when
applying directional overcurrent and distance relays. For relay directional
elements, CT saturation may cause false directional interpretation created by
phase shifts between the relative measurement points on the distorted current
and undistorted voltage waveforms (or possibly distorted voltage waveforms if
CCVT's are used). Unpredictable or added time delay and lower sensitivity may
be experienced with overcurrent elements. Inaccurate distance measurements,
maximum torque angle characteristic changes, etc., may lead to false operations
in directional overcurrent and distance relays. The best way to avoid these
potential problems is to take precautionary steps through minimizing CT
secondary burden, by using larger conductor sizes in CT leads, and using lower
burden relays when possible combined with using adequate accuracy class CTs.
The transient response characteristics of the CT's should be considered (e.g.
time to saturation) when deciding on electromechanical or solid state relay
applications. With proper planning measures and consideration of the
aforementioned factors, under the great majority of fault conditions correct relay
operation should result.
D.
EHV Transmission Line Systems
The effects on these relay systems due to CT saturation can be most serious because of
their operating speed, the configuration of current transformer sources and the need for
exactly the same performance at the location of the relaying systems.
The relay operating speed is typically 8-25 milliseconds. In many cases these may
have operated, before any saturation effects take place. However, on an external
fault, although saturation is less likely, the system will be dependent upon correct
CT operation throughout the fault period.
Most phase comparison systems are designed to accept significant phase angle errors
without undue effects. Amore likely source of problem is distortion of the magnitude of
phase quantities and thereby producing incorrect components on which proper operation
depends -primarily internal faults.
Directional comparison systems will have performance problems similar to stand-alone
directional instantaneous elements. One difference is that instead of just one or two
CTs affecting the devices performance the CTs at both ends are involved so there may
be as few as 2 or as many as 6 CTs involved.
The configuration of CTs is an important consideration in the operation of these schemes
since the primary currents in each CT and each CTs history determines what information
is supplied to the relay. This exposes the relay system to possible problems from any of
the connected CTs. In many cases the EHV system was designed for short circuit duty
that has not and may not ever be experienced. This means that it may be many years into
the life of the EHV system before trouble is experienced with CT saturation. However,
the mismatched CTs may produce problems long before the problems of saturation are
evident.
V. EXAMPLES OF CALCULATIONS
A. Ratio and Phase Angle Error of CT:
The Ratio Correction Factor (RCF) is the factor by which the marked ratio must be
multiplied to obtain the true ratio. The true ratio equals the marked ratio times the
ratio correction factor or,
ratio marked
ratio true
RCF
RCF = TRUE RATIO
MARKED RATIO
Where:
tTrue rRatio -= tThe ratio of rms primary current to the rms secondary current,
s
I
Ip
S P
I I

mMarked rRatio = tThe ratio of the rated primary current to the rated secondary
current as given on the nameplate.
The phase-angle of a CT is designated by the Greek letter Beta ()

. The Phase-
Angle Correction Factor (PACF) is the factor by which the reading of a watt meter,
operated from the secondary of a CT must be multiplied to correct for the effect of
phase displacement of current due to the measuring apparatus. It is the ratio of the
true power factor to the measured power factor.
PACF = cos /cos ( )
( ) cos cos PACF
Where:
= angle of lag of load current behind load voltage
cos cos = pPower fFactor = cCosine of the angle between the voltage and
current.
The factor by which the reading of a watt meter or the registration of a watt hour
meter must be multiplied to correct for the effect of ratio error and phase angle is the
Transformer Correction Factor (TCF).
TCF = RCF x PACF
PACF RCF TCF
Example 1Example 1::
If a CT has a phase angle error = +15' and is used for measuring a load whose power
factor is 0.500 lagging, determine its phase angle correction factor, PACF.
1. The primary current lags the line voltage by an angle whose cosine equals the power
factor.
( )

60 500 . 0 cos
1

or 500 . 0 60 cos cos cos
-1

(0.500) = 60 =
or cos = cos 60 = 0.500
2. The secondary current leads the primary current by 15'. Therefore, the primary
current actually lags the primary voltage by 59 45' ' 45 59 .
' 60 59 60
= 60 = 59 60'
( ) ' 45 59 ' 15 0 ' 60 59

( - ) = 59 60' - 0 15' = 59 45
thus,
( ) ( ) 5038 . 0 ' 45 59 cos cos
cos ( 0 - ) = cos
59 45' = 0.5038
9925 . 0
5038 . 0
500 . 0
) cos(
cos

PACF
9925 . 0
5038 . 0
500 . 0
) (

B COS
COS
PACF
If the CT has a RCF of 1.0020, what is the TCF at the same power factor?
9945 . 0
9925 . 0 0020 . 1

PACF RCF TCF
TCF= RCF x PACF
= 1.0020 x 0.9925
= 0.9945
Example 2Example 2:
: Calculation of the ratio of relaying CT
Consider a bushing CT with the following characteristics:

0.298 resistance secondary CT

C100 ation classififc relaying
5 600 ratio
Ratio - 600/5
Relaying classification - C100
CT Sec. Resistance - 0.298 ohms
1. The rating of C100 means that the ratio is to be calculated on the basis of 100 volts at the
secondary terminals with 100 amp flowing through the burden which, in turn, means a burden
opf B-1. Referring to Table 1 for a B-1 burden:
inductance mH 2.3 L
resistance 0.5 R


R = 0.5 ohms = resistance
L = 2.3 mH = inductance
2. The inductive reactance,
L
X X
L
, is then calculated:
Where f = frequency
( )

866 . 0
10 3 . 2 60 14 . 3 2
2
3
H
fL X
L

Where f = frequency in Hz
3. To obtain the induced or excitation voltage SE
E
, the resistance of the secondary
winding must be added to the impedance, Z, of the burden.
X
L
= 2 fL
= 2 (3.14) (60) (2.3x10
-3
H)
= 0.8666 ohms
To obtain the induced or excitation voltage Ese, the resistance of the secondary winding
must be added to the impedance, Z, of burden.
2 2
X R Z +
Z =
2
X
2
R + Z
Z = ( ) ( )
2 2
0.866 0.5 298 . 0 + + Z

18 . 1
= 1.18 ohms
The induced voltage is therefore:
( ) ( ) V amps E
SE
118 18 . 1 100
Ese = (100 amp) (1.18 ohms)
= 118 V
Referring to Figure 11Figure 10, the excitation curve for this transformer indicates
that an excitation current, I
e
I
e
, of 0.15 amps is required to produce this voltage.
Since this excitation current is shown as the equivalent secondary current, it should
be compared to the burden secondary current of 100 amps.
The ratio of exciting current to burden current is
0015 . 0 100 15 . 0
0.15/100 = .0015
Therefore the Ratio Correction Factor (RCF) is 1.0015.
Table 1
Standard Burdens for Current Transformers
with 5 amp secondaries
Transformers with 5 A Secondaries
Burden
Designation
Resistance
()
Inductance
(mH)
Impedance
()
Volt
Amperes
(at 5A)
Power Factor
Metering Burdens
B-0.1 0.09 0.116 0.1 2.5 0.9
B-0.2 0.18 0.232 0.2 5.0 0.9
B-0.5 0.45 0.580 0.5 12.5 0.9
B-0.9 0.81 1.04 0.9 22.5 0.9
B-1.8 1.62 2.08 1.8 45.0 0.9
Relaying Burdens
Relaying Burdens
B-1 0.5 2.3 1.0 25 0.5
B-2 1.0 4.6 2.0 50 0.5
B-4 2.0 9.2 4.0 100 0.5
B-8 4.0 18.4 8.0 200 0.5
Figure 9
Figure 11, EXCITATION CURVES FOR MULTI-RATION BUSHING CT WITH ANSI
CLASSIFICATION OF CC OR L 100
B. Estimation of Current Transformer Performance:
A current transformer's performance is measured by its ability to. reproduce the
primary current in terms of the secondary; in particular, by the highest secondary
voltage the transformer can produce without saturation. CT performance can be
estimated by:
- The CT excitation curves.
- The ANSI transformer relaying accuracy classes.
These methods require determining the secondary voltage that must be generated.
( )
B LEAD L L S
Z Z Z I V + +
Vs - IL
(ZL + Zlead + ZB)
Where:
S
V
V
s
= The rms symmetrical secondary induced voltage.
L
I I
L
= The maximum secondary current, in amps
(this can be estimated by dividing the known maximum fault current by the
selected CT ratio).
ZB - The connected external impedance.

L
Z
ZL = The secondary winding impedance.

LEAD
Z Zlead = The connecting lead burden.

B
Z
The connected external impedance

1. Excitation Curve Method
The excitation curve of Figure 11Figure 10 can be used to determine the
excitation current required by the CT for a particular turns ratio, primary current
and secondary burden parameters.
Procedures:
a. a. dDetermine nominal secondary current from primary current and
desired turns ratio: I
L
- I
P
/N
N P L
I I I
.
b. b. dDetermine required secondary voltage from
( )
B LEAD L L S
Z Z Z I V + +
V
S
- I
L
(Z
L
+ Z
lead
+ Z
B
)-
1. d etermine secondary excitation current from Figure 10
c. c. Determine secondary excitation current from
Figure 11 .
d. d. dDetermine approximate burden current by arithmetic subtraction of
excitation current from nominal secondary current.
Example 1:
Given a CT with excitation characteristics as shown in Figure 11Figure 10.
A burden of relays and instruments of 0.15 - instruments and overcurrent
relays with a burden of 0.3 on Tap 5.
Secondary lead resistance including CT winding of 0.15 .
For simplicity, these impedances are assumed to be at the same angle.
( )
B LEAD L
Z Z Z + + Z
L
+ Z
lead
+ Z
B
= 0.15 + 0.15 + 0.3 = 0.6 .
The primary fault current expected is 12,000 amperes.
The desired CT ratio is 80:1, 400:5, or 80:1.
Then I
L
= 12,000/80 = 150 amps
V
S
= 150 (0.6) = 90V
from Figure 11Figure 10, I
e
= 18.0
amp.
Then 150 - 18 = 132 amps of burden current, for an effective ratio of 12,000/132 =
455:5.
This means the performance is not within the intended accuracy of a 10OC100 CT.
(See Section C.)
If a 500:5 or 100:1 ratio is selected then:
I
L
= 12,000/100 = 120 amps
V
S
= 120 (.6) = 72V
I
e
= 0.105 a amps from Figure
11Figure 10
Burden current = 120 -.- 0.1 = 119.9 for an effective ratio of 12,000/119.9
= 500.4:5; well within the intended accuracy.
Example 2:
With the results of Eexample 1, determine the primary operating current for a
residual relay of burden 4.5 ohmsohms on Tap 0.5.
See the sketch of Figure 12Figure
11.
At pick up, there will be 2.25V 25 volts across the residual relay, (0.5A x 4.5).
This voltage also appears across the CT on the un-faulted phases. From Figure
11Figure 10 each of these CTs will require 0.017A exciting current.
The current from the CT on the faulted phase supplies 0.5 + 0.017 +0 .017 or
0.534 amps as shown in Figure 12Figure 11.
This 0.534 amps develops 2.57V across the secondary of the CT on the faulted
phase. This requires an additional 0.018 amps of exciting current.
The total secondary current supplied by the CT on the faulted phase is then
0.5 + 0.017 + 0.017 + 0.018 = 0.552 amps..
Figure 12Figure 11
SECONDARY CURRENT DISTRIBUTION AT PI CK UP OF RESIDUAL RELAY
If the CT ratio is 100:1, then the primary current must be 55.2A at pick up of
the residual relay.
C. ANSI CT Relaying Accuracy Classes:
The ANSI Relaying Accuracy Class is described by two symbols - letter designation
and voltage rating that define the capability of the transformer. The letter designation
code is as follows:
C - indicates that the transformer ratio can be calculated (as for the earlier lOL type
transformers).
T - indicates that the transformer ratio must be determined by test (similar to the earlier
10H type transformers).
The secondary terminal voltage rating is the voltage that the transformer will deliver to
a standard burden at 20 times normal secondary current, without exceeding 10 percent
ratio correction. Furthermore, the ratio correction must be limited to 10 percent at any
current from 1 to 20 times rated secondary current at the standard burden. For example,
relay accuracy class C100 means that the ratio can be calculated and that the ratio
correction will not exceed 10 percent at any current from 1 to 20 times rated secondary
current with a standard 1.0 burden (1.0 times 5A times 20 times rated secondary current
equals 100V).
ANSI accuracy class ratings apply only to the full winding. Where there is a tapped
secondary, a proportionately lower voltage rating exists on the taps.
Example:
The maximum calculated fault current for a particular line is 12,000 amps. The current
transformer is rated at 1200:5 and is to be used on the 800:5 tap. Its relaying accuracy
class is C200 (full - rated winding); secondary resistance is 0.2 ohm. The total
secondary circuit burden is 2.4 ohm at 60-percent power factor. Excluding the effects
of residual magnetism and DC offset, will the error exceed 10 percent? If so, what
corrective action can be taken to reduce the error to 10 percent or less.
The current transformer secondary winding resistance may be ignored because the
C200 relaying accuracy class designation indicates that the current transformer can
support 200 volts plus the voltage drop caused by secondary resistance at 20 times rated
current, for 50 percent power-factor burden. The CT secondary voltage drop may be
ignored then if the secondary current does not exceed 100 amps.
N = 800/5 = 160
I
L
= 12,000A/160 = 75 amps
The permissible burden is given by:
Z
B
= (N
pP
V
CL
)/100
Where:
Z
B
= pPermissible burden on the current transformer
Np
P
= tTurns in use divided by total turns
VV
CL
CL =a cCurrent transformer voltage class
N
pP
= 800/1200 = 0.667 (proportion of total turns in use)
Thus, Z
B
= 0.667 (200)/100 = 1.334 ohms
Since the circuit burden, 2.4 ohms, is greater than the calculated permissible burden,
1.334, the error will be in excess of 10 percent at all currents from 5 to 100 amps.
Consequently, it is necessary to reduce the burden, use a higher current transformer ratio,
or use a current transformer with a higher voltage class.
D. Effect of Current Transformer Connections on Burden
Whenever two or more current transformers have their secondary circuits
interconnected, the effect is to alter the secondary burden on each transformer. The
way in which the burden is affected is dependent upon the particular connection.
Various types of connections are described in the following discussion.
Series Connection:
When current transformers are connected with their secondaries in series, the general
effect is to decrease the burden on each individual transformer. This statement
assumes that the secondary currents are nominally in phase and of equal magnitude.
If N transformers with identical excitation characteristics are connected in series and
are supplying current to a burden Z, then the burden on each transformer equals Z/N.
Parallel Connection:
When two or more current transformers are connected in parallel, the general effect is
to increase the burden on each individual transformer. The amount of increase is
dependent upon the type of connection, the number of transformers, and the
distribution of current between transformers.
When low ratios are required, standard CTs may not be available to supply the
required burden. It is sometimes possible to apply 2 standard higher ratio CTs having
a higher relaying accuracy classification voltage (with the primaries connected in
series and the secondaries connected in parallel) to supply this burden. The desired
overall low ratio is achieved with a substantially improved accuracy. In paralleling the
secondary circuits of CTs the secondary winding shall be paralleled at the meter to
keep the common burden as low as possible. The effective burden on each
transformer should not exceed its rated burden.
The following diagrams show some of the more common ways in which current
transformers are interconnected. General equations are given for the burden on a
typical current transformer. In applying these equations, it should be noted that all
impedances in series, including lead resistance, have been lumped into one value to
simplify the equations.
Parallel connection
General case:
1
]
1

+ +
+
1
2 1
1
....
1
I
I I I
Z Z Z
N
C CT
Special cases:
1. Two CTs in parallel, equal contributions from each CT,
2 1
I I :

C CT
Z Z Z 2
1
1
+
2. Two CTs, unequal contributions:
K I I
1 2
;
( ) K Z Z Z
C CT
+ + 1
1
1
Delta connection
General case:
1
]
1

+
1
]
1

+
1
3
1
2
1
1 1
1
I
I
Z
I
I
Z Z Z
C A CT
Special cases:
1. Symmetrical burdens:

1
]
1

+
+
1
3 2
1
2
1
I
I I
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
L L CT L C B A
2. Symmetrical burdens and balanced 3 phase currents:

L CT
Z Z Z 3
1
1
+
Wye connection
General case:
1
]
1

+ +
+
1
3 2 1
1
1
I
I I I
Z Z Z
N CT
Special cases:
1. three phase fault:
1
1
Z Z
CT


2. phase-phase fault (1-2):

1
1
Z Z
CT


3. line-ground fault:
N CT
Z Z Z +
1
1
4. two line-ground (1-2-G):

1
]
1

+
+
1
2 1
1
1
I
I I
Z Z Z
N CT

Transformer Differential Connection
When used for transformer differential relaying, current transformers can be connected in several
different way depending on the type of transformer being protected. As a general rule, relay
mis-operation due to high burden is a problem only for external faults where false tripping may
occur if one current transformer saturates.
WYE-WYE CT connection (delta-delta transformer)
General case:
1
1
]
1

+
H
I
I
Z Z Z
X
H CT
1
1
0
1
1 1 1
Special Cases:
1. External fault with ideally matched CT ratios:

1 1
H CT
Z Z
2. Internal fault with equal per-unit contributions from each side of the transformer:

1 1 1
0
2Z Z Z
H CT
+
WYE-DELTA connection
General case:
1
1
]
1

+ +
H H
X
I I
I I
Z Z Z Z
X
H CT
3 1
1 3
0 0
1 1 1 1
1
1
]
1

1
1
]
1

+
1
1
]
1

1
1
]
1

+ + + +
X
X
X
X H
X
X H H
X
X
I
I
Z
I
I I I
Z
I
I I I
Z
I
I
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
X
H
X X X CT
1
2
1
2 1 2
0
1
3 3 1
0
1
3
0 0 4
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 4
Special Cases assuming matched CTs and symmetrical burdens
1. External three phase fault:
1 4 1 1
3
4 X CT H CT
Z Z Z Z Z +

2. Internal three phase fault with equal per-unit contributions from each side of the transformer:

1 1 4 1 1 1
0 4 0
6 3 2 Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
X CT H CT
+ + +
DELTA -DELTA CT connection (WYE-WYE transformer)
General case:
[ ] [ ] [ ]
3 1 3 1 3 3 1 1 3 1 3 1 1
0
1
3
0
1
2
0 0
1
1
0
1
3
0
1
2
0 0 1
_ Z
I
I
Z
I
I
Z Z
I
I
Z Z
I
I
Z Z
I
I
Z Z Z Z Z Z
H
X
H
X
H
X
H
H
H
H
H H H H CT
+ + + + + + + +
Special cases- assuming matched CTs and symmetrical burdens:
1. External line-ground fault on phase 1
1 1
2
1 H CT
Z Z Z +
2. External three phase or line to line (1-2) fault
1 1
3
1 H CT
Z Z Z +
3. Internal line to ground on phase 1 with equal per-unit contributions from each side of the
transformer
1 1 1
0 1
4 2 Z Z Z Z
H CT
+ +
WYE-DELTA -WYE c onnection
General case:
[ ]
2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1
2 0 0 3 0 0
1
1
1
H H H H CT
Z I Z I Z I Z I
I
Z Z Z Z
H H
H
+ + +
( )
[ ]
Y Y X X H H
Y Y
I I I I I I
I I
Z
Z Z
Y CT 1 3 1 3 3 1
1 3
0
1
1 4
+ +

+
Special case:
External three phase fault with symmetrical burden and ideally matched CTs
1 1
1 H CT
Z Z Z +
1 4
Y CT
Z Z
E. Estimates of Transient Performance
Example 1
CT turns = N2
2
= 240
CT Sat.saturation voltage = V
xX
= 850 volts
CT primary current = I1
1
= 15,000 amps
CT sec. burden = R2
2
= 1 ohm
Primary system X1
1
/R1
1
= 15
Ks Then
2 2 1
N R I
Vx
6 . 13
240 000 , 15
850

=
Then Ks =
2 2 1 /N R I
Vx
=
15000/240
850
= 13.6

X
V or
,
_

+
+
1
377
) 15 ( 377
) 1 (
240
000 , 15 ) 1 (
2
1 2 1
N
T R I
volts 000 , 1
or V
x
=
2
1 2 1
N
l) T ( R I +
=
240
15000
(1)
,
_

+1
377
) 15 ( 377
= 1000 volts
Comparing the calculated V
xX
- (1000) with the available V
xX
- (850) means we can
expect some saturation under fully offset conditions.
The time to reach saturation is given by S
t
t
s
:
1
]
1

,
_

1
1
1
1 ln
T
K
T t
s
S
( ) 04 . 0 377 1 15
1 1 1
R X T
=
1
]
1

,
_

1 T
1 - Ks
- 1 ln T1 -
T
1
= X1/R1

= 15 (1/377) = .04
( ) ( )

,
_

377
1 6 . 13 04 . 0 1
1 ln 04 . 0
S
t Then
Then ts =.04 In
( ) ( )
1
]
1

377
) 1 6 . 13 04 . / 1
1
= .0722 seconds
= 4.33 cycles
Note that the time to saturation is sensitive to the primary system time constant and the
saturation factor K
S
Ks. If the offset is less than full, then K
S
Ks is greater and the time to
saturation is long or saturation may not occur.
The X/R ratio determines the possible dc offset and the system time constant; therefore,
K
S
Ks can be increased from the value calculated to that corresponding to the X/R ratio.
In this case the X/R ratio is 15 and from the following table:
X/R I/I
2 1.18
4 1.38
7 1.52
10 1.54
20 1.68
50 1.73
100 1.75
X/R I'/I
2 1.18
4 1.38
7 1.52 The offset could be
10 1.54 1.64/1.75 or .94 PU per unit
of
20 1.68 the maximum possible.
50 1.73
100 1.75
and K Then
S
47 . 14 94 . 0 6 . 13
0845 . 0
S
t
seconds instead of 0.0722 seconds
Then K
s
= 13.6/.94 = 14.47
t
s
= .0845 seconds instead of .0722 seconds.
The time to leave saturation is given by:
( )
S e
K T T t
2 1
ln
sec 0 . 2
2
T
6 . 13
S
K
( ) sec 161 . 0 6 . 13 ) 2 ( 377 ln 04 . 0
e
t
)
S
T2/K ( n 1
1
T t
e


T2 = 2.0 seconds
K
s
= 13.6
t
e
= .04 In [377 (2)/13.6] = .161 seconds

cycles 66 . 9
= 9.66 cycles

VI. REFERENCES
1. NEMA SG4, Table 3-4.
2. The Art & Science of Protective Relaying, C. Russell Mason, John Wiley & Sons.
3. Industrial and Commercial Power System Applications Series - Relay Current
Transformer Application Guide (a publication by Westinghouse Relay-Instrument
Division PRSC-6, May 1982).
4. American National Standard - Guide for Protective Relay Applications to Power
System Buses.
5. Applied Protective Relaying, Westinghouse Electric Corp.
6. Protective Relays, Their Theory & Practices, A. R. Van C. Warrington, Chapman &
Hall, London.
7. A Half-Cycle Bus Differential Relay and Its Application, T. Forford, J. R. Linders,
IEEE T74 033-7, pp. 1110-1120.
8. a. IEEE Report No. 76CH1130-4 PWR, "Transient Response of Current
Transformers".
b. "Protective Current Transformers and Circuits", P. Mathews. The MacMillan Co.,
New York, 1955.
9. ANSI C57.13.
10. "Current Transformer Burden and Saturation", Louie J. Powell, Jr., Senior Member,
IEEE, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 1A-15, No. 3.
11. "Static Relaying Measuring Techniques Which Optimize the Use of Available
Information", by A.T. Giuliante (ASEA), John Linders (consultant), L. Matele
(ASEA), presented at Western Protective Relay Conference, October 16-18, 1979,
Spokane Washington.
12. "Relaying CT's - A source of Vital Information and Misinformation", G.D. Rockefeller
(System Protection Engineer) Consolidated Edison Co. of N.Y., Inc., presented to 1973
Conference on Protective Relaying, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia.
13. "Bus Differential Protection", General Electric Company, GET-6455.
14. "Transient Response of Current Transformers; Publication 76CH1130-4 PWR (IEEE
Power Systems Relaying Committee Report).
15. ANSI/IEEE C57.13.1-1981, Guide for Field Testing of Relaying Current Transformers
16. ANSI/IEEE C57.13.3-1983, Guide for the Grounding of Instrument Transformer
Secondary Circuits and Cases
VII. LIST OF OPERATIONS COMMITTEE PUBLICATIONS
The following is a list of additional Operations Committee Publications that are available
upon request from:
Western Systems Coordinating Council 540
Arapeen Drive, Suite 203
Salt Lake City, Utah, 84108
(801) 582-0353
1. System Protection Guides and Test Procedures (July 1985)
(Consolidation of the following publications:
Guide for Model Testing of Relay Systems
System Protection Guides
Underfrequency Load Shedding Relay Application Guide
Test Procedure for Power System Stabilizers)
2. Operating Procedures - Compiled in accordance with Article V, Section 3 of the
WSCCWECC Agreement (March 28, 1990)
3. Listing of Spare Transformers Owned by WSCCWECC Members and Affiliate
Members (January 1, 1989)
4. Dispatcher-System Operator Training Manual (June 30, 1986)
5. Dispatcher/System Operator Handbook (July 1986)
6. Communication System Operator's Guide (November 1988)
7. Energy Management System Inter-Utility Communication Guidelines (October
1989)
8. Operations Committee Balloon Diagrams and Inadvertent Interchange Summaries
(Compiled twice weekly and distributed to Operations Committee members)
9. Guide for Development and Testing of Remedial Action Stability Schemes (May
1986)
10. Relaying Current Transformer Application Guide (June 1989)
11. Guide for Specification of a Digital Fault Recording System (June 1988)
12. Guidelines for Synchronization of Oscillographs and Event Recorders
(January 1990)