Metals

1. Metals have been extracted and used for many thousands of years
1.1 Outline and examine some uses of different metals through history, including contemporary uses, as uncombined metals or as alloys The Copper Age was 3200BC to 2300BC. It is the period that archaeological records indicate that copper was the first metal to be extracted from its ore. Copper was heated with charcoal and globules of copper formed. Molten copper was used to make ornaments and domestic utensils. The Bronze Age was 2300BC to 1200BC. It was later discovered that heating copper with tin produces an alloy, bronze. Bronze was harder than copper and more easily melted to be molded due to its low melting point. Bronze was used for tools and weapons. The Iron Age was 1200BC to 1AD. Iron is more reactive than copper, so it need a higher temperature to melt. Hematite was mixed with charcoal in primitive furnaces by blowing air and obtaining a sufficiently high temperature. By 1000BC, iron had replaced bronze for tools and weapons because it was harder and had hard tensile strength. The Modern Age is 1Ad to present. There had been more extraction and uses of other metals such as aluminium, chromium and metal alloys. Iron is the most widely used metal today. Many other metals have come into common use due to the advancement in extraction technology.

Metals
1.2 Describe the use of common alloys including steel, brass and solder and explain how these relate to their properties Alloys are mixtures of metals, which can be mixed in any proportion so they do not have a constant composition or chemical formula o Properties of alloys vary with the composition Alloys are giant lattice structures of metal ions surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons o Alloys are held by strong metallic bonds Alloys are difficult to recycle since the metals are very hard to separate The composition of some common alloys are given in the following table Alloy Carbon Steel Composition 99.8% Fe, 0.2% C Properties Hard but easily worked lustrous gold appearance, hard but easily machined, polishes well Low melting point Adheres firmly to other metals when molten Stainless steel Bronze 74% Fe, 18% Cr, 8% Ni Strong and resists corrosion Hard, resists corrosion, attractive appearance Use(s) Nails, Bridges, Scissors, Car Bodies, Cables & chains Plumbing fittings, musical instruments, decorations.

Brass

65% Cu, 35% Zn & small amounts of other elements eg. Pb, Sn & Al

Solder

33% Sn, 67% Pb

Joining metals together (plumbing and electrical)

Sinks, cutlery & Machinery

85% copper, 15% tin

Statues, medals, weapons

Metals
1.3 Explain why energy input is necessary to extract a metal from its ore Energy is needed to physically break up the ore and separate the mineral from the gangue o It is also needed to chemically decompose the mineral to extract the metal o The most active metals form the most stable bonds, thus they need the most energy to decompose them The easiest metal compounds to decompose (eg. Copper) can be decomposed by roasting with sand The next easiest (eg. Iron) can be decomposed by roasting with coke (carbon) in a furnace The most difficult (eg. Na and Al) are decomposed by electrolysis of molten compounds or aqueous solutions. Only a few metals such as gold, copper and silver occur in nature. Most metals occur as compounds in rocks o Gangue is the unwanted waste of an ore after the mineral has been extracted Pollution can results from inappropriate disposal of this waste Rehabilitation is the process of returning mined areas to their original state The steps in extracting metal are: o Mining the Ore o Separating the mineral from the gangue using physical processes such as froth flotation, or chemical processes such as dissolving o Extracting the metal by chemical processes such as roasting or electrolysis - Chemical reactions used to extract metals from its ore either absorb or release heat, which is a form of energy (extraction reaction). Most metals need energy input for this reaction. - Energy also needed to mine the ore and to purify/concentrate it, and maintain high temperatures needed for the extraction reaction

1.4 Identify why there are more metals available for people to use now than there were 200 years ago Al, Ti, Mg, and NA are examples of metals that were not available 200 years This is due to the lack of technology for separating such reactive metals Development of technological methods of separation have enable compounds such as Al2O3 to be separated, which cannot be decomposed by heat

Metals tend to be harder to extract the more reactive they are. This requires a large amount of energy that could not by supply by charcoal fire or using a furnace. The discovery and implication or electricity has allowed the process of electrolysis to be used to extract the more reactive metals more readily leading to an increased range of metals used today.

Metals
2. Metals differ in their reactivity with other chemicals and this influences their uses
2.1 Describe observable changes when metals react with dilute acid, water and oxygen Reaction with Dilute Acid: Metal + acid metal salt + hydrogen Metals above hydrogen in the electrochemical series react with dilute mineral acids; these metals dissolve, produces bubbles of H2 gas and the colour of the solution changes Metals with passivating oxide layers do not react Metals neutralise the acid All metals except silver, gold and platinum react with dilute HCl and H2SO4 form hydrogen gas. However, Na, K Li, Ca and Ba react with the water in the acid. Tin and lead react slowly unless acid is heated. Acids are substances which produce hydrogen ions H+. This ion is the species which reacts with the metal. Balanced formulae equation: Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) Net ionic equation shows actual ionic species that undergoes change in reaction: Zn(s) + 2H+ (aq) Zn2+ (aq) + H2(g) The chloride ions are spectator ions and are thus omitted. They are included in the complete ionic equation Metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen Water is more energetically stable than dilute acids, thus less metals react with it in comparison to acid The most reactive metals dissolve and produce hydrogen gas with cold water Li, Na, K, Ca, Ba react with water at room temperature Mg, Al, Zn, Fe react with steam at higher temperatures whereas Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Au, Pt do not react at all When reactions occur with water, the products are hydrogen gas and metal hydroxide. With steam, the product is oxide, not hydroxide Metal + oxygen metal oxide

Water:

Oxygen:

Fewer metals react with oxygen than above Many metals react, some violent and rapidly Most produce metal oxide, usually a white substance All metals except silver, platinum and gold react with oxygen to form oxides. Li, Na, K, Ca, Ba react rapidly at room temperature. Mg, al, Fe, Zn react slowly but vigorously if heated. Sn, Pb, Cu react slowly and only if heated. Metals which burn in air form white solids which have none of metals physical property. Al and Zn become coated with a layer of oxide which prevents further reaction. Others form a powdery surface layer of oxide which does not impede further reactions. Cu forms a black surface layer of copper oxide.

Metals
2.2 Describe and justify the criteria used to place metals into an order of activity based on their ease of reaction with oxygen, water and dilute acids The more violent the reaction between a metal and oxygen, metal and water and metal and dilute acids, the more reactive and thus the higher the position of the metal in the electrochemical series. The degree of reaction with oxygen can be used to identify the most reactive metals (less reactive metals do not react). Metals of moderate reactivity can be determined by their reactivity with water (less reactive metals do not react). Metals that are relatively unreactive can be determined by their reactivity with dilute acids (less reactive metals do not react). The more reactive the metal, the more vigorously it reacts with water, dilute acid and oxygen More reactive metals lose electrons more easily From reaction with oxygen: {Na, K, Ca} > {Mg, Al, Fe, Zn} > {Sn, Pb, Cu} > {Au, Ag, Pt} From reaction with water: {Na, K, Ca} > {Mg, Al, Fe, Zn} > {Sn, Pb, Cu, Au, Ag, Pt} From reaction with dilute acid: {Mg, Al, Fe, Zn} > {Sn, Pb} > {Cu, Au, Ag, Pt} Metal Activity Series As we go down list, ease of losing electrons decreases, ease of oxidation decreases and ease of reduction increases. List order determined by displacement reactions + reactions with oxygen, water and acid RULE: A more reactive solid metal will displace a less reactive metal in a solution e.g. Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq)
(aq)

+ Cu(s)

Copper will appear around reaction site (magnesium = reaction site). If copper put into MgSO4, opposite will not happen, as copper is less reactive More active metals more recently discovered as their compounds are stable and the metals are harder to extract (electrolysis- a relatively new discovery- used to extract theses metals) Least active metals (e.g. gold) occur free in nature, and their compounds are unstable. Order of metals discovered and extracted is around the same as least to most active in series. More reactive metals have more stable salts, less reactive metals have less stable salts. Salts are a combined form of the metal, in less reactive metals they wont exist for long breaks down to form pure metal

Metals
Uses of Activity Series o o o Can be used to make predictions e.g. calcium is high in list, so expected to be active Can be used to choose metals for particular purposes Reflects current and possible future developments in the use of metals

2.3 Identify the reaction of metals with acids as requiring the transfer of electrons Acids: substances which in solution produce hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ion in acid reacts with the metal (metal lose electrons to become positive, hydrogen gains electrons to become negative). Acid molecules break up when they react with metals. Metals form positive ions, thus they give away electrons. These electrons are attracted to hydrogen protons from the decomposed acid molecules. Resulting is the metal combining with the nonhydrogen element of the acid to form stable metal salt compounds while hydrogen atoms combine in twos to form stable diatomic molecules

REDOX REACTIONS (reduction oxidation) Redox reactions involve transfer of electrons from one species to another. Reduction & oxidation occur simultaneously in complete chemical reactions, as there can be no overall gain/loss of electrons. Oxidation is losing electrons (becomes positive), reduction is gaining electrons (becomes negative) O.I.L R.I.G o Loss of hydrogen (oxidation), gain of hydrogen (reduction) o Gain of oxygen (oxidation), loss of oxygen (reduction) Oxidation agent (oxidant) causes oxidation of another species Reduction agent (reductant) causes reduction of another species Metals are always reductants, oxygen/hydrogen is always oxidant Documenting Reactions 1. Balanced formulae equations: show the actual chemical substances used in the reaction Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) 2. Complete ionic equations: shows all ions involved in the solutions used for the equation Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) Zn2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2(g) 3. Spectator ions: ions that do not undergo any change during a reaction (Cl- in above e.g.) 4. Net ionic equation: shows actual ionic species that undergoes change in reaction spectator ions are hence omitted Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2(g) 5. Half equations - Describe the oxidation and reduction process separately in terms of electrons lost or gained Compose half equations from net ionic equation (omit spectator ions) Zn(s) Zn+ + 2e- [Oxidation]

Metals
When electrons are on the right hand side, LOSS of electrons has occurred (oxidation) 2H+ + 2e- H2(g) [Reduction] When electrons are on the left hand side, GAIN of electrons has occurred (reduction) To determine how many electrons are lost/gained, look at valency and how many atoms there are (e.g. H valency of 1, but there are 2 atoms, so gains 2 electrons).

6. Name reductant and oxidant Hydrogen is oxidant, Zn is reductant 2.4 Outline examples of the selection of metals for different purposes based on their reactivity, with a particular emphasis on current developments in the use of metals As we go down the activity series, metal ions become easier to reduce to metal atoms (to turn ions back to atoms, electrons must be added) Therefore the further down the activity series the metal is, the easier it is to extract Some situations where choice of metal is based on reactivity: o o o Roof guttering for houses non-reactive but expensive (e.g. Al) or cheaper but eventually corroding (e.g. galvanised iron) metals? Water pipes: metal must not react with water (e.g. copper) iron sometimes used, as its cheaper, but eventually corrodes Electrical contacts for circuit boards in electronic equipment cheap copper that eventually corrodes or expensive, non- reactive gold?

Metal activity series can be used to choose metals for particular purposes based on reactivity o o o Calcium (active) used in nuclear industry to change uranium tetraflouride to uranium Gold (unreactive) used in jewellery, microchips and electronics- resistant to corrosion Copper used in wiring and electronics due to low corrosion (as its unreactive)

Many metals are being used in alloys for extra strength, especially reactive metals 2.5 Outline the relationship between the relative activities of metals and their positions on the Periodic Table Metals generally decrease in reactivity going across from left to right of the periodic table. - - Metals generally increase in reactivity going down the periodic table. Left-right rule is more dominant than up-down rule (e.g. Na more reactive than Mg, even though they are in the same row, but different columns). No trends/patterns for reactivity of transitional metals hence the rule is only GENERAL Hence most reactive metals are located on the bottom left hand side, least reactive top right (excluding noble gases)

Metals
More reactive More reactive- dominant 2.6 Identify the importance of first ionisation energy in determining the relative reactivity of metals Maximum number of electrons in each energy level is 2n2 where n is the level number Ionisation energy: energy required to remove an electron from element in the gaseous state. Na(g) + energy Na+(g) + eEquation describes first ionisation energy for sodium atom Na+(g) + energy Na2+(g) + eEquation describes second ionisation energy for sodium atom reactivity of metals increases as their ionisation energy decreases

Ionisation Energy
Increase

Decrease

Reactivity

Increase

Decrease

Metals with high ionisation energies are less reactive, and vice versa - Ionisation energy measured in kilojoules per mole - The lower the ionisation energy, the easier it is to remove an electron - Ionisation energies show that drive to noble gas configuration is basis for chemical bonding

First ionisation energy: energy needed to remove completely the first electron from an atom in the gaseous state - The higher the first ionisation energy, the less reactive (lower in activity series) the metal is - 1st ionisation energy increases across a period as electron shells go from empty to full - 1st ionisation energy decreases down a group as electrons go further away from nucleus - Noble gases have highest ionisation energies as they have stable configurations - 2nd ionisation energy (energy needed to remove a second electron) always greater than 1st, as the electron is being removed from a positive ion, which has greater electrostatic attraction - Ionisation energy will increase greatly when an electron is removed from a lower shell - More energy needed as ionisation levels increase

Metals
elements with low ionisation energies readily form positive ions, hence these elements form ionic compounds (e.g. Na, Ca, Al)

3. As metals and other elements were discovered, scientists recognised that patterns in their physical and chemical properties could be used to organise the elements into a Periodic Table
3.1 Identify an appropriate model that has been developed to describe atomic structure The atomic model has changed drastically over time since its initial development with John Dalton (17661844). Dalton made the atomic theory, which stated that: - Matter is composed of indivisible atoms - All atoms of an element are the identical - Atoms of different elements differ in weight and chemical properties - Atoms are neither created nor destroyed - Atoms of different elements combine in simple, whole number to form compounds In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electron, and proposed the plum pudding model in 1904, which portrayed the atom as a sphere of positive electricity with electrons scattered within it. Rutherford disproved Thomsons theory in 1911 through his experiment of firing alpha particles at a sheet of gold. In doing so, he proved that an atom is mostly empty space with an extremely small, yet massive core, known as the nucleus, with the electrons orbiting the nucleus. In 1914, Niels Bohr introduced the concept of electron shells, as well as stability and radiation caused by jumping electrons. In 1926, Erwin Schridinger replaced the theory of shells with clouds. The current atomic theory is as follows: Protons are positively charged (+ve) particles that are found in the central nucleus of an atom, and weigh 1 amu (atomic mass unit*) Neutrons are neutral particles (no charge) and are also found in the nucleus, and weigh 1 amu Electrons are negatively charged (-ve) particles that are found outside the nucleus. They exist in energy levels of shells that surround the nucleus. The mass of an electron is miniscule 0.00055 amu (1/2000) * 1 amu = 1.661x10-27

- Bohr Atom Model: the currently accepted structure, shows a positive nucleus surrounded by electrons shells of varying energy levels

Bohrs model is an appropriate model to describe the atomic structure. The nucleus is the central part of the atoms which contains the protons and neutrons. It has a positive equal charge equal to the number of protons. The electrons move through a relatively large space outside the nucleus. The electrons are kept moving around the nucleus by

Metals
attractive electro static forces between the positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons.
About 2000 years ago, Democritus suggested the idea that all matter was made of tiny particles o This was dropped since Aristotle did not agree with the idea. In 1808, Dalton put forward the atomic theory, stating that: o Elements are made of very small particles called atoms o Atoms cannot be broken into anything simpler o Each element has its own kind of atoms o Atoms cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction Joseph Thomson showed that atoms were not solve spheres, but made of tinier particles themselves. o He suggested the plum pudding model, where negative particles were scattered throughout the nucleus Ernest Rutherford showed atoms were largely empty space with most of the mass concentrated in a central positively charged nucleus o He states that each negative particle was an electron which orbited around the nucleus Niels Bohr altered this, showing the electrons orbit in energy levels o This model of an atom is referred to as the Bohr model of an atom.

3.2 Outline the history of the development of the Periodic Table including its origins, the original data used to construct it and the predictions made after its construction

The first scientific discovery of an element was in 1649, phosphorus. In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier published a table of 33 elements, which contained compounds as well. He divided the table into non-metals and metals and started the classification of elements. In 1829, Joltan Dobereiner arranged elements exhibiting similar characteristics into triads. He also stated that the atomic weight in the middle element of the triad was the average of the other two, publishing his own version of the Periodic Table based on this. In 1863, using 62 elements of known atomic mass, John Newlands observed that the properties of elements varied periodically with their atomic masses. He then published his own Periodic Table. In 1870, Dmitri Mendeleev arranged the known elements into horizontal rows in order of increasing atomic mass. Elements with similar properties were arranged in vertical columns. As a result of his work, Mendeleev proposed his periodic table law, which stated that the properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic masses. He made accurate predictions of elements that were not yet discovered by leaving gaps in his table. An example of one element Mendeleev predicted was Germanium. This is the initial basis of the modern Periodic Table.

Metals
In 1910, Henry Mosely changed this by organizing elements in increasing atomic number rather than mass. He stated that when the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number, similar chemical properties reoccur periodically.

- Antoine Lavoiser (French Chemist) 1775-1785: classified the known elements into metal and nonmetal based on physical and chemical properties - Johann Dobereiner (German Chemist) 1829: drew attention to several groups of three elements with very physical and chemical properties - John Newlands (Englishman) 1864: law of octaves where elements were arranged in order of increasing atomic weight and states that every eighth element starting from a given one will have similar chemical and physical properties Realised that there were still elements to be discovered, leaving spaces for future discoveries Identified many similarities but also required similarities which were non-existent - Dmitri Mendeleev (Russian) and Lothar Meyer (German) 1869: had worked independently of each other but had similarly arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic weight, and placed elements having similar properties under one another (forerunner of the modern periodic table) Periodic Law: properties of the elements vary periodically with their atomic weights Made predictions which were very close to the actual characteristics of some elements which had not been discovered at the time - Henry Moseley (British) 1914: resolved the discrepancies within the Periodic Table, which was arranged according to weight, by basing the arrangement on the atomic number Modified Periodic Law: properties of elements vary periodically with their atomic numbers - Eventually, it was recognised that properties were dependent upon the number of protons and hence the number of electrons

In the 1800s, 30 naturally occurring chemical elements were known. French chemist, Antoine Lavoiser classified the elements into two groups, metals and non metals based on their physical properties. In 1829, a German chemist, Dobereiner recognized the similarities of several groups of three elements in which he called the triads.

Metals
In 1864, an Englishman, John Newlands, proposed the law of octaves where the elements were ordered according to their atomic weight. In 1869, Mendeleev proposed the periodic law where the properties of the elements vary periodically with their atomic weight. He arranged the elements with increasing atomic weight and grouped them with elements with similar properties. Mendeleev knew that there were still more elements to be discovered and left spaces in his periodic table. In 1914, a British chemist, Henry Moseley, proposed a modified periodic law where the properties of the elements vary periodically with their atomic numbers.

In 1787, Lavoisier classified the known elements into metals and non-metals, based on their physical and chemical properties Dalton in 1808 put forward his atomic theory. o From this, he suggested that the atomic mass of hydrogen, should be given as 1 since it was the lightest element. o These masses came to be known as relative atomic masses In 1829 Dobereiner, noticed some similarities in some sets of three elements, which he called triads. o Eg. He found Li, Na, and K to have similar properties In 1863, Newlands put forward his law of octaves. o He pointed out that if elements were placed in order of increasing mass, there was a repetition every eighth element. o Newlands work however broke down when some elements did not fit his ideas. In 1869, Mendeleev proposed the periodic law o This states that if the elements were arranged in order of increasing atomic masses, then elements with similar physical and chemical properties (including valency) occurred at regular intervals. o His table was successful because he placed elements where he though they should go and left gaps for elements he predicted would be discovered later. o He could even predict the properties of these unknown elements, due to their position on his table. In 1914, Henry Moseley stated the modern period law. o This states that when atoms are arranged in order of increasing atomic number (number of protons) they show a repeating pattern of properties. o Using atomic numbers rather than atomic mass solved some problems, such as K and Ar, where K after Ar but has a lighter atomic mass. The modern periodic table placed the elements in the vertical Groups and horizontal Periods, and includes the nobles gases discovered between 1893 and 1898

In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier published a table of 33 elements. o Contained some compounds which at that time could not be broken down into simpler substances

Metals
o Divided his table into metals and non-metals In 1864, Meyer arranged that elements in order of increasing atomic mass and placed them in groups based on their valency. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev arranged the elements in horizontal rows in order of increasing atomic mass. Elements with similar properties were arranged in vertical columns in the table. Mendeleev was also able to make accurate predictions about elements that bad not been discovered by leaving gaps. In 1913, Henry Moseley proposed the concept of atomic number to fix the irregularities in Mendeleevs table. It was eventually determined that atomic number determines the chemical properties rather than atomic mass.

3.3 Explain the relationship between the position of elements in the Periodic Table, and: - electrical conductivity - ionisation energy - atomic radius - melting point - boiling point - combining power (valency) - electronegativity - reactivity

Property Atomic Radius Electrical Conductivity

Trends down a group Increases Groups 1-3 decreases Groups 4-5 increases Electronegativity Increases Decreases Melting & Boiling Points Increases from Groups 1-4 Groups 1-2 decreases then decreases Transition metals increase Groups 3-4 decrease Groups 5-8 increase Ionisation Energy Increases Decreases - Reactivity: The most reactive metals are found in the lower left corner of the Periodic Table. This can be deduced from the trends in the ionisation energy. The most reactive non-metals are found in the top right corner of the Periodic Table.

Trends across a period Decreases Decreases

Metals
Valence: The most common valence of an element is its group number (if it is in Groups 1 to 4) or 8 minus its group number (if it is in Groups 5 to 7). The transition metals usually have more than one valency, and thus, their valencies cannot be deduced. Noble gases rarely form compounds, therefore their common valence is zero.

- Electrical conductivity Decreases as you go across a period (metal to non-metal) - Ionisation Energy Increases as you go across a period Decreases as you go down a group - Atomic Radius Decreases as you go across a period (the nucleus pulls the valence electrons closer as the positive charge is greater) Increases as you go down a group (more shells are added) - Melting and Boiling Point Variable throughout the table - Combining Power (Valency) Increases then decreases across a period The remains the same down a group - Electronegativity (ability to gain an electron) Increases as you go across a period (charge is higher so attraction is greater) Decreases as you go down a group (distance is greater so it is harder to pull an electron in) Chlorine is the most reactive non-metal - Reactivity Dependent upon electronegativity and ionisation

o Electrical conductivity Across a period, the electrical conductivity of elements decreases because elements are less metallic. Non metals do not have free mobile electrons in their crystal lattice. Down a

Metals
group, the electrical conductivity of elements increases because they are more metallic. Down a group, the valence shell is further away from the nucleus and can more easily escape into the lattice. o Ionization energy Ionization energy in the energy required to remove an electron from an atom of the element in the gaseous state. Across a period, the ionization energy increases because the atomic radius decreases across a period. The valence electrons closer to the nucleus experience a stronger nuclear pull. Down a group, the ionization energy decreases because the atomic radius is bigger and outer electrons are not as attracted to the nucleus of atoms. o Atomic radius The atomic radius is the average distance from the nucleus to the valence shell. Across a period, the atomic radius decreases as the valence shells are closer to the nucleus. Down a group, the atomic radius increases because the number of electron shells increases. o Melting point and boiling point Across a period, the melting point increases from group I to group IV the decrease from group IV to group VIII. The lattice changes from metallic bonding to covalent network and then covalent molecular. Down a group, it decreases from groups I to IV and increases from groups V to VIII o Combining power (valency) The combining power of a group increases down the periodic table. Across the periodic table, the combining power decreases. o Electronegativity Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom of an element to attract electrons. Across a period, the Electronegativity increases as the metallic character decreases. Down a group, the Electronegativity decreases as the metallic character increases. o Reactivity The reactivity of elements down a group increases and it decreases as it goes across a period.

Across a period Down a group

Metals
Atomic Radius Generally increases due to shielding Electronegativity Generally decreases due to greater radius Ionisation Energy Generally decreases due to electronegativity and radius Melting and Boiling Generally increase till group IV Points before decreasing again Electrical Conductivity Valency Reactivity Generally decreases due to increasing protons and no shielding Generally increases due to decreasing radius and tendency to hold electrons Generally increases due to greater electronegativity Observing non metal groups they increase however decrease down metallic groups Generally decreases from well to Trend can be described in group 4 as negligible (metal non-metal) increasing down the group (non-metal semi- metal metal) Valency refers to number of electrons on outer shell and corresponds with its group number (groups 1 -4) or 8 minus group number ( groups 5-8) Metals: generally increases down a group and decrease across period Non-metals: trend less clear when ionic bonds form reactivity generally decreases down the group

Atomic radius o The radius of an atom decreases across a period due to the increasing nuclear charge causing the valence shell to be attracted closer to the nucleus o The radius of an atom increases down a group due to the extra shell being added onto the atom whilst the number of electrons in the outer shell remain the same. Boiling and melting point o The BP and MP of an atom across a period relates to bonding: From Group I-IV, BP and MP increases since bonding becomes stronger From Group V-VIII, BP and MP decreases since intermolecular forces become weaker o The BP and MP of an atom down a group varies, dependant on the bonding and type of crystal structure Going down Group I-IV, BP and MP decreases Going down Group V-VIII, BP and MP increases Electrical conductivity o Conductivity generally decreases across a period as elements become less metallic (except transition metals where it increases again since they are very metallic) o Conductivity is variable Conductivity of Group I-III decreases as you go down the group Conductivity in Group IV-VII increases as you go up, since the elements become more metallic. Electronegativity o It is the measure of the ability of a atom to attract electrons towards itself o Across a period, electronegativity increases since atomic radii decreases, thus electrons can approach closer to the nucleus to feel a stronger attraction force o Down a group, electronegativity decreases, since atomic radii increases yet the electrons in the valence shell remain the same, causing the electrons to have a weaker attraction force to the nucleus.

Metals
Valency o Maximum valency relates to the number of valence electrons an element has o Maximum valency increases across a period, since the number valence electrons increase across a period o Maximum valency is constant down a group, since the number of valence electrons remain constant down a group.

4. For efficient resource use, industrial chemical reaction must use measured amounts of each reactant
4.1 Define the mole as the number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon 12(Avogadros number)

A mole is defined as the amount of a substance that contains the same number of particles as there are atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12. Chemists have determined that the number of atoms in 12g of carbon-12 is 6.022 x 1023. This number is called Avogadros number after the Italian scientist Amadeo Avogadro. One mole of any substance contains 6.022 x 1023 particles of that substance.

A mole of a substance is that quantity which contains as many elementary units (e.g. atoms, ions or molecules) as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of the carbon-12 isotope. The Avogadro Constant (for which we use the symbol NA) is the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of the carbon-12 isotope. NA = 6.02 x 1023 particles per mole A mole of an element is the mass which in grams is numerically equal to the atomic weight. A mole of a compound is the mass which in grams is equal to the molecular weight. Explanation: It was found that the mass of the carbon atom was 1.99x10-23 grams. Expressed differently, there are 6.02x1023 atoms in 12 grams of carbon. Therefore, is 6.02x1023 atoms of carbon have a mass of 12 grams, then 6.02x1023 atoms of titanium (atomic mass 48) will have a mass of 4x12=48 grams, as each atom of titanium is four times heavier than carbon. For sulfur, 6.02x10 23 atoms (each of which is 3212=2.67 times the mass of a carbon atom) must have a mass of 2.67x12=32 grams. In general:

Metals
If for any element we take the mass which in grams is numerically equal to the atomic weight, then it contains 6.02x1023 atoms. Therefore 63.6 grams of copper will contain 6.02x1023 atoms. 108 grams of silver will contain 6.02x1023 atoms. This concept also extends to compounds. The molecular weight of water is 18. This means a water molecule is 1812=1.5 times heavier than a carbon atom. Hence 6.02x1023 molecules of water must have a mass of 1.5x12=18 grams. In general: If for any compound we take the mass which, in grams, is numerically equal to its molecular weight, then it contains 6.02x1023 molecules. Therefore 46 grams of nitrogen dioxide, NO2, will contain 6.02x1023 molecules. 98 grams of sulfuric acid, H2SO4, contain 6.02x1023 molecules. 342 grams of sucrose, C12H22O11, contain 6.02x1023 molecules. We call this quantity 6.02x1023 atoms or molecules a mole. There are two ways of looking at a mole:
A number of particles (atoms, ions, molecules) 6.02x1023

A mole

A mass (the atomic or molecular weight in grams)

Further reading: Moles of Gaseous Elements When we talk of a mole of oxygen (atomic weight 16), do we mean 16 grams or 32 grams? (Oxygen gas is O2, hence a molecular weight of 32.) Sometimes, to avoid ambiguity, we need to specify which elementary units (atoms, ions or molecules) we are talking about. A mole of oxygen atoms is 16 grams. A mole of oxygen molecules is 32 grams. This mole of oxygen molecules contains 2 moles of oxygen atoms because each molecule of oxygen contains two atoms. Similarly, a mole of chlorine gas (molecules) is 2x35.5=71 grams, whereas a mole of chlorine atoms is 35.5 grams. Converting between mass, moles and numbers of atoms or molecules Mass to moles:
Number of moles = mass mass of one mole = mass molar mass = mass atomic or molecular weight in grams Moles to number of atoms or molecules: Number of atoms or molecules = number of moles x 6.02x1023

Moles and chemical equations 4P(s) + 5O2(g) 2P2O5(s) The above equation tells us that: 1. Qualitatively, phosphorus reacts with oxygen to form diphosphorus pentoxide

Metals
2. Four atoms of phosphorus react with five molecules of oxygen to form to molecules of diphosphorus pentoxide 3. Four moles of phosphorus react with five moles of oxygen to form two moles of diphosphorus pentoxide. That is, the chemical equation can be read in terms of moles as well as in terms of atoms and molecules. Therefore: 4x31.0 grams of phosphorus react with 5x32.0 grams of oxygen to form 2x(2x31.0 + 5x16) grams of diphosphorus pentoxide Or, 124.0 grams of Phosphorus react with 160.0 grams of oxygen to form 284.0 grams of P2O5. Therefore, A Chemical equation tells us the ratios by mass in which substances react or are formed in a reaction.
The mole is a chemical counting unit o 1 mole is defined as the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of the carbon-12 isotope o This number of atoms is: 6.022 x 1023 (Avogadros number) o Number of moles can be calculated by:

Where: o n is number of moles (mol) o m is mass of substance (g) o M is molar mass of substance

4.2 Compare mass changes in samples of metals when they combine with oxygen

The total mass of a system remains constant during a chemical reaction. Masses are transferred from molecules. Stoichiometry is the qualitative description of portions by moles of the substance in a chemical reaction. The stoichiometry of a reaction is the relative qualities as they are represented by the coefficient of the balanced equation. e.g. 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s) During this magnesium and oxygen reaction, 48.62g of magnesium is present, as well as 32g of oxygen. At the end of the reaction, two separate magnesium oxide molecules will be formed, with a total mass of 2x(24.31+16)=80.62 grams. Thus, it obeys the law of conservation of mass.

Metals
- Oxygen has a mass of 16 amu and so a molar mass of 16 g - For every oxygen atom that is added to the compound with a metal, the formula mass increases by 16 amu

Metals exhibit very varied reactivities in their reactions with oxygen. An example, lithium and sodium and potassium tarnish rapidly when exposed to air and must therefore be stored in liquid paraffin old. Also other metals react with oxygen and explode. Due to the different reactivities of metals, the less reactive a metal is, then the more the metal weighs. If a more reactive metal reacts with oxygen, then it can result in an explosion and it is less weight.

Law of conservation of mass: matter can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction

2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s) (using the periodic table to find the elements masses) o o o 224.305 + 2x15.999 2(24.305 + 15.999) 80.608 80.608 LHS = RHS, therefore it obeys the law of conservation

The total mass of the system remains constant in a chemical reaction. When metals react with oxygen in the air, they generally form metal oxides. The oxygen combines with the metal and adds mass to the original metal. The metal is a limiting agent as oxygen is usually in abundance relative to the metal sample. 4.3 Describe the contribution of Gay-Lussac to the understanding of gaseous reactions and apply this to an understanding of the mole concept

Experiments measuring the combining volumes of gases led to an improvement in our understanding of the formulas of substances and the development of the mole concept. The French chemist Joseph Gay- Lussac found that there was a simple relationship between the volumes of gases involved in chemical reactions. For example, in the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen gas to produce water, the relationship is as follows:

Metals
Hydrogen gas 2H2 (g) + oxygen gas O2 (g) steam 2H2O (g)+

2L of hydrogen

1L of oxygen

2L of steam

Similar simple ratios are found to exist for other reactions involving gases. An example is the reaction of hydrogen gas and chlorine gas to produce hydrogen chloride.

Hydrogen gas H2 (g) +

chlorine gas Cl2 (g)

Hydrogen chloride gas 2HCl (g)

1 volume of hydrogen

1 volume of chlorine

2 volumes of hydrogen chloride

Gay- Lussacs law of combining volumes can be stated as follows: the ration of the volumes of gases involved in a reaction, if measured at the same temperature and pressure, are expressed by small, whole numbers.

After studying the volumes in which gases reacted, Gay-Lussac, in 1808, proposed the law of combining volumes: When measured at constant temperature and pressure, the volumes of gases taking part in a chemical reaction show simple whole number ratios to one another. For example: 1. 100 mL of hydrogen reacts with 100 mL of chlorine to form 200 mL of hydrogen chloride (one volume reacts with one volume to form two volumes) 2. 100 mL of hydrogen reacts with 50 mL of oxygen to form 100 mL of steam (gaseous water) at temperatures above 100C (two volumes react with one volume to form two volumes). Avogadro put forward the following hypothesis due to confusion over diatomic molecules such as hydrogen and oxygen:

Metals
Equal volumes of all gases, measured at the same temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules. e.g. 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O (g) This means that in 2L of hydrogen gas, there must be the same number of molecules as there are in 2L of oxygen gas. It also means that the greeter the volume of gas, the greater the number of molecules it will contain. Simple number ratios occur due to the molecules of gases combining in simple number ratios, as seen with the co-efficient in the equations. It is possible to extend Avogadros hypothesis to a consideration of the number of moles of gases. Since equal volumes of gases contain an equal number of particles, it can be deduced that these equal volumes of gases also contain the same number of moles of gas.
Gay Lussac released the Law of combining gases which states that: o When two gaseous elements combine, the volumes of the gases that react are in simple whole number ratio to each other and also to the volume of the product of it is a gas. (All volumes measure under same conditions) o It is a summary of experimental results Gay-Lussac found that the volume of gases (under the same conditions) was not conserved in a chemical reaction such as one between hydrogen and oxygen gas. However he found that the ratio of reactants and products appeared as simple whole number. Avogadro later explained this by proposing that elements could form molecules. This led to Avogadros law which stares Equal number of molecules occupies the same volume at the same temperature and pressure.

4.4 Recount Avogadros law and describe its importance in developing the mole concept

Avogadro summarized his ideas into what is now called Avogadros Law which states: o Under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of molecules ie. 100ml of H2 has same number of moles as 100ml of O2 o He proposed that the particles in gaseous elements were not single atoms as Dalton believed by were made of more than one atom He coined these particles molecules

4.5 Distinguish between empirical formulae and molecular formulae

An empirical formula shows the ratio in which atoms are present in a compound

A molecular formula shows how many of each type of atom are present

Metals
The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest whole number ratio of the numbers of atoms of each element in the compound. The molecular formula specifies the actual number of atom of each element in a molecule. E.g. the compound, hydrogen peroxide has the molecular formula of . The molecule contains two hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms bonded together. The empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide would be HO.

5. The relative abundance and ease of extraction of metals influences their value and breadth of use in the community
5.1 Define the terms mineral and ore with reference to economic and non-economic deposits of natural resources

Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic substances, usually compounds with a particular chemical composition and a definite crystal structure. Examples of minerals include hematite, magnetite, gibbsite, boehmite, malachite and chalcopyrite. Ores are naturally occurring deposits that are mixtures of minerals from which a substance, usually a metal can be economically extracted. Examples of ores include bauxite and iron ore.
Minerals are any useful naturally occurring elements (eg gold) or compounds (eg bauxite) from the earth Ores are metal bearing substances (mixtures) from the earth with commercial value Metal Iron Copper Aluminium Zinc Ore Name Haematite Cuprite Bauxite Sphalerite Ore composition Fe2O3 Cu2O Al2O3 ZnS

5.2 Describe the relationship between the commercial prices of common metals, their actual abundances and relative costs of production

The commercial price of metals depends on a few factors including their relative abundances and the cost of production.

Metals
The greater the abundance of a metal the lower the commercial price of the metal would be. The cost of production of the metals depends on where it is located and the amount of energy input. If the location of the ore is located in a high population zone, the mining procedure would be difficult because there would be damages done to the environment and increase the cost of production. If an ore is located in remote places, then the cost of production would increase because it would cost money to transport the raw materials to refinery plants. The more reactive the metal is, then the higher the energy input is needed for extraction and it would increase the cost of extraction.

5.3 Explain why ores are non-renewable resources

Ores are non-renewable resources as they were formed when the earth was formed and there is no way of forming more ores.

Also, the rates at which humans are using these ores are much faster than the rate that these ores are formed in the earth. Therefore our consumption of these ores is much greater than their production, resulting in the classification of ores as non-renewable resources.

Ores are deposits of naturally occurring minerals which were formed during the evolution of the universe and the planets; therefore they are non renewable resources.

Abundance: o A mineral must be sufficiently concentrated in the ore body to make it economically viable to extract. If the concentration is low, it is usually not economical, as the costs of extraction and production are greater than the value of the mineral obtained.

Cost of production: o Companies need to determine the cost of mining, milling and extracting a metal from its ore. This would impact upon the final

Metals
price; transportation costs may also vary due to the remoteness of some ore bodies. The location can also affect the price as there may be a lot of energy/water or the site may be environmentally protected. Common metals: o Some metals are more expensive to extract than others due to higher energy costs involved. For example, aluminium is more expensive to extract than copper due to the high cost of the electrolytic process used to make aluminium.

5.4 Describe the separation processes, chemical reactions and energy considerations involved in the extraction of copper from one of its ores

There are 4 types of copper ores o Malachite (CuCO3) o Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) o Copper Sulfide (Cu2S) o Cuprite (Cu2O) Stages of copper extraction o First, the ore is crushed into small particles o The crushed ore is then subjected to a physical process such as froth flotation (See 8.2 Chemical Earth - 1.9) This produces a copper concentrate which is about 25-30% pure copper o Next the copper concentrate is heated with sand (SiO2). The sand combines with iron oxide to form iron silicate, a liquid slag which is discarded FeO + SiO2 FeSiO3 o The resulting copper sulfide is then heated on its own while air bubbles through it, reducing the copper sulfide to copper metal, and producing sulfur dioxide Cu2S(l) + O2(g) 2Cu(l) + SO2(g) This remaining copper is blister copper, which is about 98% pure. This process is known as smelting. Smelting is the extraction of metals by heating substances to high temperatures to produce a molten material from which metal can be obtained o The blister copper is then subjected to electrolysis to purify it. The impure copper is used as an anode (positive since it is an electrolytic cell) while the cathode is a thin sheet of pure copper in a sulfate solution The anode copper gives up electrons to the circuit and goes into the solution Cu Cu2+ + 2e The cathode copper ions take electrons from the circuit, which deposit as copper metal Cu2+ + 2e- + Cu The cathode is then removed containing 99.95% pure copper Throughout the process, there is a considerable input of energy, mainly in the form of heat.

Metals
5.5 Recount the steps taken to recycle aluminium

o o o o

Aluminium is collected from recycling bins The aluminium is transported to a recycling plant/facility Differ the aluminium from its alloys and aluminium metal Aluminium products are deposited in a furnace where they are subjected to very high temperatures. This process purifies the metal, as it removes the impurities based on melting points.

Analyse the purity of the aluminium and adjust it composition before casting it into ingots.

The solution, pure aluminium, is remoulded into the desired product and sold to companies that need it.