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Bodyimageandselfesteeminolderadulthood
LUCIEBAKERandEYALGRINGART
AgeingandSociety/Volume29/SpecialIssue06/August2009,pp977995 DOI:10.1017/S0144686X09008721,Publishedonline:06July2009

Linktothisarticle:http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0144686X09008721 Howtocitethisarticle: LUCIEBAKERandEYALGRINGART(2009).Bodyimageandselfesteeminolder adulthood.AgeingandSociety,29,pp977995doi:10.1017/S0144686X09008721 RequestPermissions:Clickhere

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Ageing & Society 29, 2009, 977995. f Cambridge University Press 2009 doi:10.1017/S0144686X09008721 Printed in the United Kingdom

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Body image and self-esteem in older adulthood

LUCIE BAKER* and EYAL GRINGART*
ABSTRACT Given global population ageing and the fact that Australia is experiencing a signicant increase in the proportion of older adults in its population, research into ageing issues has become a national priority. Whilst body image and selfesteem have been empirically linked, the relationship among older adults has been neglected. This study investigated several body-image variables and their relationship to self-esteem in a sample of 148 men and women aged 6585 years who were living independently in the Perth Metropolitan Area of Western Australia. They completed the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire . The results indicated, contrary to a common misconception, that body-image concerns are signicant to selfesteem in older adulthood, but that these vary by age and gender. Whilst women appear to develop various strategies to counter the eects of ageing, men seem to be more negatively aected, particularly in relation to body functioning. The ndings shed light on the meaning of body image in older adulthood. A better understanding of the meaning of body image, of the factors that inuence the meaning, and of how these relate to older adults self-esteem may help older adults develop a positive body image that will contribute to psycho-social strengths and enhance their quality of life. KEY WORDS ageing, body image, self-esteem. Body image among older adults

Body image, dened as a multidimensional construct encompassing self perceptions and attitudes regarding ones physical appearance (Cash et al. 2004: 1081), is thought to [hold] important premises for understanding fundamental issues of ageing and identity (Krauss-Whitbourne and Skultety 2002: 83), but in the research literature body image has been viewed primarily as a young womens issue. As a result, while body concerns amongst women aged 1825 years are well documented (Grogan 1999), very little is known about mens attitudes to body image, and much less
* School of Psychology and Social Science, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia, Australia.

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about those of older adults of either gender. Given the many implications of the rise in the proportion of older people (in the Australian population from 12.4% in 2004 to 25% by 2052), the examination of factors related to older adults wellbeing is important. Whilst ageing inevitably takes a persons body away from western societies cultural ideals of thinness (Lamb et al. 1993), muscularity (Lien, Pope and Gray 2001) and youthfulness (Bordo 1993), Feingold and Mazzella (1998) suggested that women are likely to benet from ageing because they reach a stage where they are no longer exposed to social pressures that emphasise appearance. It has also been suggested that signs of ageing in men may be seen to make them look distinguished (Grogan 1999 : 128), but the few studies that have considered older adults body image only partially support these notions. The majority of the research evidence suggests that womens discontent with their bodies is relatively stable across the lifespan (Stevens and Tiggemann 1998 ; Tiggemann and Lynch 2002), although dierent ndings have emerged from the few studies berg and Tornstam (1999), that included women aged 65 or more years. O for example, surveyed more than 1,000 women aged 2085 years and found that women aged 6585 years rated the item, I am satised with my body , more positively than younger women. Similarly, Hetherington and Burnetts (1994) investigation of desired weight and body satisfaction in a sample of 50 women aged 6078 years (mean 67.3) found increased body satisfaction in this age group. It should be noted that the general statement, I am satised with my body, may be interpreted dierently by older women (who might relate it to functional abilities) and by younger women (who might relate it to physical appearance). This shift in the basis of the assessment from appearance to function has been recognised by several studies (Franzoi and Koehler 1998; Janelli 1993; Reboussin et al. 2000 ; Underwood 2005). Perhaps as a result of the common belief that cultural inuences and pressures of appearance and beauty standards apply only to women, research on mens body-image concerns has been neglected, with the consequence that they have generally been reported as insignicant. The implication is that men are exempt from the pressures of having the ideal body shape as experienced by women (Cash and Green 1986). Recent research has suggested, however, that men from a young age want to lose weight and become larger and more muscular, wishing to conform to the cultural ideal of a mesomorphic V-shaped body with broad shoulders and a slim waist (e.g. Kostanski, Fisher and Gullone 2004; McCabe and Ricciardelli 2004 ; Olivardia 2002). As Dutton (1995) suggested, in western societies muscles symbolise traditional masculine traits such as strength, power, dominance and sexual virility. For this reason, it could be argued

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that the shift in womens position in society has resulted in a loss of traditional gender roles for men who, in order to maximise their potential for mate selection, seek to achieve a physical appearance that accords with masculinity (cf. Etco 2000). Whether older men respond in this way is unclear, but some evidence suggests that the ageing process negatively aects older mens body image. Paxton and Phythians (1999) study indicated that as men age, they are more likely than women to experience a sense of decreased attractiveness, and that the factors that inuence mens perceptions and attitudes regarding their physical appearance change (as for women) (cf. Franzoi and Koehler 1998; Underwood 2005). Thus, elderly men are more likely than younger men to express less positive attitudes about their body, but do so in terms of factors associated with body functioning (e.g. physical coordination, agility and health) rather than appearance. Janelli (1993) investigated gender dierences in body image among a sample of 89 older adults aged 6098 years (mean 76), and found that older women were most dissatised with not only their weight but also their eyes, hands, ngers and legs. All these body parts are usually exposed and very important for physical functioning. Men were also dissatised with their eyes and legs and mentioned teeth and health (Janelli 1993), which are all directly related to body function. Reboussin et al. (2000) examined correlates of body-image satisfaction among 580 middle-aged adults (3554 years) and 274 older people (aged 5575 years) and concluded that there is a clear distinction between body function and body appearance for older adults, and that they value the former more than the latter. By using various body-image scales, the aforementioned studies focused on appearance-related measures and neglected other aspects of body image such as health and tness. The importance of including such factors was demonstrated by Paxton and Phythian (1999) through their survey of 159 men and 122 women aged 4079 years (mean 56). They found that the way women viewed their bodies was signicantly inuenced by the way they evaluated their health, and that physical tness was a signicant determinant of how men viewed their bodies. Hence, while appearance is an integral part of body image and should not be ignored, it is important to conceive body image as a multi-dimensional construct.
The relationship between body image and self-esteem among older adults

Of all the personal attributes that inuence the development of body image, Cash (2002: 41) suggested that self-esteem may be the most pivotal . This

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relationship between body image and self-esteem has been veried by several studies (e.g. Paxton and Phythian 1999 ; Webster and Tiggemann 2003). It has also been demonstrated that particular aspects of body image positively correlate with self-esteem, e.g. perceived physical attractiveness (Davidson and McCabe 2005). Despite indications that self-esteem and body image contribute signicantly to ones general wellbeing (Cash and Fleming 2002), neither the development of self-esteem in old age nor the relationship between body image and self-esteem among older adults have received much attention. Viewed as an essential component of mental health (Kling et al. 1999), self-esteem can be dened as the overall aective evaluation of ones worth, value or importance (Blascovich and Tomaka 1991 : 125). Although few studies have provided a clear indication of changes in self-esteem across the lifespan, a large cross-section study of 326,641 individuals aged 990 years suggested that during adulthood, self-esteem rises gradually until the age of 65 years, and that it declines sharply after 70 years of age (Robins et al. 2002). While this pattern was similar for men and women, it was also shown that men reported higher self-esteem throughout adulthood until 70 years of age, after which the gender dierence reversed, with women aged in the eighties reporting slightly higher self-esteem than men of the same age. Several reasons for these age and gender variations have been proposed; for example, spousal loss, decreased social support and a fall in socioeconomic status are thought to contribute to the observed decline in selfesteem in later life (Baltes and Mayer 1999). Pearlman (1993 : 2) theorised that a developmental transition labelled late mid-life astonishment the reaction to the physical changes that occur between the ages of 50 and 60 years and that aect ones physical and sexual attractiveness disrupted womens self-esteem. A number of studies have reported that body dissatisfaction associates with low self-esteem (Stormer and Thompson 1996 ; Stowers and Durm 1996), but few have specically investigated the relationship between body image and self-esteem among older adults and even fewer included men in their samples. Assuming that appearance and weight become less important in older adulthood, it might be expected that the relationship between body image and self-esteem weakens with age (Tiggemann 2004). Studies that have included middle-aged and older women in their samples have indicated, however, that body-image dissatisfaction is still related to lower self-esteem at these ages. For instance, Paa and Larson (1998) predicted levels of restrained eating in a sample of 145 women aged 3060 years (mean 43), and found a negative correlation between body-image dissatisfaction and selfesteem. Whilst the research evidence suggests that self-esteem and body image remain highly correlated in older adulthood, only a few studies have

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T A B L E 1. Age and gender of the study sample

Men Age group (years) 6571 7278 7985 Note : SD : standard deviation. Number 20 18 12 Mean 68.8 74.4 82.4 SD 1.9 2.0 1.8 Number 34 31 33 Women Mean 68.0 74.6 80.8 SD 1.9 2.0 2.3

investigated the relationship among people aged 65 or more years, and these few have used ill-dened age groups that vary greatly (e.g. middle age, old age). It is therefore dicult to generalise about uctuations in body-image concerns as a function of age (Striegel-Moore and Franko 2002).
Design of the empirical study

Given the gap in the literature regarding older adults body image and self-esteem, the aims of the current study were to investigate the relationship between several body-image variables and self-esteem in a sample of older adults, and to examine age and gender variations. More specically, employing a sample of men and women aged 6585 years, it has addressed the following research questions: A: Are there signicant dierences in body-image satisfaction as people age? B: Are there gender dierences in body-image satisfaction as people age? C: Is self-esteem stable as people age and is that so for both males and females? D: Which body-image variables best predict self-esteem and are they the same for both males and females ? Method and sample Fifty males and 98 females aged 6585 years living independently in the Perth Metropolitan Area, Western Australia, were recruited to the study. Following the methodology of the Seattle Longitudinal Study (Schaie 1996, 2000, 2004), the participants were divided into three groups, to enable the ages at which particular body-image concerns apply, and to identify changes with age (Table 1). The participants were recruited through a weekly Variety Programme for Seniors, advertisements and

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by word-of-mouth. Participation was voluntary and completion of the questionnaire took approximately 15 minutes. The participants postal addresses indicated that several metropolitan areas and diverse socioeconomic backgrounds were represented (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2000). Fifty-seven per cent of the sample were Australian-born, 25 per cent were born in the United Kingdom, and most of the remaining 18 per cent were born in other European countries. Of the 205 questionnaires distributed, 157 were returned, a response rate of 76.6 per cent. Nine incomplete questionnaires were discarded, leaving 148 for analysis. Measures Self-esteem was measured with the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), a 10-item self-report scale (Rosenberg 1965). Respondents rated each item on a ve-point Likert scale, from 1 ( denitely disagree ) to 5 ( denitely agree ). This order was reversed from the original scale so that the RSES and Multidimensional Body Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ; Cash 2000) presented similar scales for clarity and to facilitate ease of responding. The RSES items were scored in accord with this modication, with the positive items reversed. Items from the scale included I feel that I have a number of good qualities and I take a positive attitude toward myself. The nal scores ranged from 1 to 5 , with high scores indicating higher levels of self-esteem. The measure demonstrated good internal consistency (Cronbachs alpha reliability coecients were 0.85 for men and 0.74 for women), consistent with published estimates (see Blascovich and Tomaka 1991). Nine sub-scales of the MBSRQ were used to measure two dispositional dimensions, evaluation and orientation, in each of the three somatic domains of appearance, tness and health/illness, as well as attitude towards being or becoming overweight and self-perceived weight. The Appearance Evaluation (AE) subscale has seven items and assesses feelings about ones physical attractiveness, with higher scores indicating greater satisfaction with appearance. The Appearance Orientation (AO) subscale has 12 items and assesses investment in ones appearance, with higher scores indicating that more importance is placed on appearance and grooming behaviour. The Fitness Evaluation (FE) subscale has three items and assesses feelings about ones tness level, with higher scores indicating that the respondent perceives being physically t. The Fitness Orientation (FO) subscale has 13 items and assesses level of investment in tness activities, with higher scores indicating more involvement. The Health Evaluation (HE) subscale has six items and assesses feelings about ones health, with higher scores indicating a perception of good physical health. The Health Orientation (HO) subscale

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has eight items and assesses investment in healthy behaviours, with higher scores indicating a perception of a healthy lifestyle. The Illness Orientation (IO) subscale has ve items and assesses awareness and reactivity to being or becoming ill, with higher scores indicating a greater awareness of illness symptoms and a greater likelihood of seeking medical attention. The Overweight Preoccupation (OP) subscale has four items that indicate level of anxiety about being or becoming overweight, with higher scores indicating greater weight preoccupation; and the Self-Classied Weight (SCW) subscale of two items assesses how a person perceives and labels their own weight, from very underweight to very overweight. Responses to the 60 items of the MBSRQ are on a ve-point Likert scale that ranges from 1 ( denitely disagree ) to 5 ( denitely agree ). For the SCW subscale only, the scale is from 1 ( very underweight) to 5 (very overweight). Items from the MBSRQ scale included Before going out in public I always notice how I look and I often feel vulnerable to sickness . The nal MBSRQ subscale scores are the means of the constituent items after reversing contra-indicative items (Cash 2000). The MBSRQ has good psychometric properties with alpha internal consistency scores ranging between 0.70 and 0.89 (Cash 2000). For this study, the overall internal validity for the MBSRQ subscales was 0.91 for men and 0.89 for women. Data analysis To answer research questions A, B and C, and to examine sex and age dierences in body-image variables and self-esteem, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted with gender (male or female) and age group (6571, 7278 and 7985 years) as the independent variables. The dependent variables were the respondents scores on the RSES and MBSRQ subscales. To answer research question D and to examine the relationship between self-esteem and the body-image variables, two multiple regressions were estimated with self-esteem as the criterion variable and the nine body-image variables as predictors. The rst regression was for men and the second for women. In accord with Tabachnick and Fidell (2001), no adjustments for alpha were required.

The results

Prior to analysis, all entries were examined for accuracy and missing values. Instances of missing data were replaced by the mean value of the appropriate age/gender group, as recommended by Tabachnick and

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Fidell (2001). No univariate outliers were identied. Detection of multivariate outliers was assessed using the Mahalanobis distance. Two multivariate outliers (with p<0.001) were detected and deleted, leaving 146 cases for nal analysis. A two-by-three MANOVA was estimated with gender (male or female) and age group (6571, 7278 or 7985 years) as the independent variables and respondents scores on the RSES and nine MBSRQ subscales as the dependent variables. As the cells had unequal numbers of cases and because it was assumed that dierences in cell sizes reected real processes in the population sampled, the regression method was used (Tabachnick and Fidell 2001). Hence, each cell mean was given an equal weight regardless of its sample size and each main eect and interaction was assessed after adjustments were made for all other main eects and interactions. With the use of Pillais trace criterion, which is considered both conservative and robust against unequal cells for MANOVA (Tabachnick and Fidell 2001), the combined dependent variables were signicantly aected by both gender (F (10, 131 degrees of freedom)=5.44, p<0.05) and age (F (20, 264)=2.21, p<0.05), and a signicant age by gender interaction was detected (F (20, 264)=2.13, p<0.05). These results reected a high association between gender and the combined dependent variables (DVs) (g2=0.71), as well as a high association between age and the combined DVs (g2=0.71). The association between the interaction of gender and age and the combined DVs was also high (g2=0.72). The age by gender interaction was statistically signicant at the univariate level for the following variables: self-esteem, appearance evaluation, tness evaluation, tness orientation, health orientation, and illness orientation. While these interactions were statistically signicant, it should be noted that the cell frequencies ranged from 12 to 34 with a mean of 24.7. The largest signicant dierence, in relation to the range of scores on the Likert scale employed was 0.72, which means that although statistically signicant, the dierence could have been masked by the Likert scale. Future research will test this further. As the assumption of homogeneity of variance for a post hoc test was violated (Levenes test <0.05), the GamesHowell procedure was used (Tabachnick and Fidell 2001). It revealed that the 6571 years group reported signicantly lower levels of illness orientation than those aged 7985 years (mean=3.25, standard deviation (SD)=0.82 and mean=3.73, SD=0.65, respectively). The 7278 years age groups score for self-classied weight was signicantly higher than that for the 7985 years group (mean=3.42, SD=0.47 and mean=3.14, SD=0.48, respectively). In answer to research question A, it can thus be said that there were signicant dierences on measures of body image between each

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of the age groups, particularly in terms of illness orientation and selfclassied weight. Further univariate analyses revealed signicant eects for self-esteem, appearance evaluation, appearance orientation, tness orientation, illness orientation, and overweight preoccupation. GamesHowells post hoc testing pertaining to the RSES indicated that males aged 6571 years reported signicantly higher levels of self-esteem compared to all other groups. The means and SD are presented in Table 2. Post hoc tests of the MBSRQ subscales indicated that on measures of appearance orientation, males aged 6571 years scored signicantly lower than females aged 7985 years. Males aged 7278 years also reported being signicantly less concerned with making an eort to improve their physical appearance than did all other female groups. Males aged 7985 years also scored signicantly lower on the appearance evaluation scale than their female counterparts. Post hoc pairwise comparisons also showed that men aged 6571 years scored signicantly higher than women of the same age on measures of tness evaluation and tness orientation. Males aged 6571 years reported signicantly higher levels of investment in being physically t than those aged 7985 years. With regards to health orientation, post hoc tests revealed that males aged 7985 years reported signicantly less interest in leading a healthy lifestyle than their female counterparts. The post hoc pairwise comparisons of illness orientation showed that females aged 6571 were signicantly less alert to symptoms of physical illness than females aged 7985 years. With regards to overweight preoccupation, males aged 6571 reported signicantly higher levels of anxiety towards being or becoming overweight than males aged 7985 years. On this same scale, males aged 7278 scored signicantly lower than their female counterparts and males aged 7985 reported signicantly lower levels of preoccupation with their weight than females in all age groups. In answer to research question B pertaining to gender dierences in body-image satisfaction as people age, the results therefore showed that there were signicant dierences between men and women. Specically, in some age groups males and females were signicantly dierent on: levels of satisfaction with their physical appearance; the evaluation of their physical tness and investment in activities to maintain or increase their tness level ; their orientation towards the importance of leading a healthy lifestyle; their responsiveness to signs of physical illness; and their preoccupation with being or becoming overweight. In answer to research question C concerning the stability of self-esteem as people age, the results showed that females self-esteem remained stable from the age of 6585 years. Males self-esteem, however, decreased signicantly through this age span.

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986 Lucie Baker and Eyal Gringart

T A B L E 2. Means and standard deviations of scores on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and Multidimensional Body Self Relations Questionnaire subscales by gender and age group
Males 6571 years Subscale Self-esteem Appearance evaluation Appearance orientation Fitness evaluation Fitness orientation Health evaluation Health orientation Illness orientation Overweight preoccupation Self-classied weight Sample size M 4.71 3.83 3.32 3.78 3.72 3.96 3.97 3.56 2.30 3.25 20 SD 0.32 0.70 0.59 0.50 0.45 0.45 0.58 0.84 0.66 0.57 7278 years M 4.30 3.44 2.96 3.48 3.15 3.64 3.66 3.27 1.92 3.39 18 SD 0.41 0.71 0.73 0.49 0.75 0.61 0.50 0.49 0.61 0.53 7985 years M 3.99 3.12 3.07 3.47 3.07 3.74 3.58 3.70 1.67 3.08 12 SD 0.64 0.67 0.65 0.61 0.24 0.64 0.32 0.51 0.43 0.51 6571 years M 4.16 3.29 3.63 3.16 3.02 3.55 3.71 3.06 2.55 3.48 34 SD 0.59 0.76 0.55 0.85 0.96 0.92 0.61 0.78 0.98 0.70 Females 7278 years M 4.18 3.31 3.66 3.49 3.31 3.66 3.84 3.53 2.77 3.43 31 SD 0.47 0.68 0.69 0.78 0.60 0.79 0.58 0.73 0.76 0.44 7985 years M 4.14 3.55 3.93 3.56 3.41 3.63 3.99 3.74 2.36 3.17 33 SD 0.61 0.68 0.50 0.78 0.64 0.68 0.09 0.70 0.90 0.48

Notes : M: mean. SD: standard deviation.

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To answer research question D and to examine the relationships between self-esteem and body-image variables, two standard multiple regressions were conducted with self-esteem as the criterion variable and the nine body-image variables as predictors. Table 3 displays the correlations between the variables and the associated test statistics. The upper panel has the statistics for men, and shows that the explained variance (R2) was signicant (F (9, 40)=4.78, p<0.001). Health orientation and tness evaluation were the only two variables that contributed signicantly to the prediction of self-esteem in males, and they accounted for 14 per cent of the variance. The lower panel of Table 3 has the statistics for the female regression, which was also signicant (F (9, 86)=4.80, p<0.001), but only health evaluation and overweight preoccupation were signicant predictors, accounting for 13 per cent of the variance. In answer to research question D, the results showed that whilst body-image variables do inuence selfesteem, these dier as a function of gender.

Discussion

Body image This study has examined variations in self-esteem by a number of bodyimage variables among people aged 6585 years. The results indicate that body-image concerns are signicant to self-esteem in older adulthood, but that these vary by age and gender. In accordance with previous research, the ndings suggest that women are likely to benet from the ageing process as they reach a stage when they are no longer exposed to the social pressures that emphasise the importance of appearance (Feingold and Mazzella 1998). Women aged 7985 years evaluated their physical appearance more positively than those aged 6571 years, but those in the oldest age group also reported investing more time in their appearance as they aged, suggesting that physical appearance remained important. As previously suggested (e.g. Jackson and ONeal 1994), it is likely that to counter the eects of ageing, older women engage in the more controllable aspects of personal grooming such as hair care, clothing and make-up. Also in accordance with previous research ndings, men in this study reported becoming increasingly dissatised with their physical appearance as they aged, but in contrast to previous reports, and despite their increasing dissatisfaction with their appearance, they were less likely than women to engage in appearance-enhancing activities. It is likely that this inconsistency stems in part from the dierent age range examined by the current study compared with previous research and from the use of dierent measuring scales that may have dierent sensitivity. Fitness is often viewed

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T A B L E 3. Correlation matrix of body-image variables and standard multiple regression coecients of self-esteem across gender
Correlation matrix Variables and model statistics Men: SE Self-esteem AE Appearance evaluation AO Appearance orientation FE Fitness evaluation FO Fitness orientation HE Health evaluation HO Health orientation IO Illness orientation OWP Overweight preoccupation SCW Self-classied weight Mean Standard deviation Women: SE Self-esteem AE Appearance evaluation AO Appearance orientation FE Fitness evaluation FO Fitness orientation HE Health evaluation HO Health orientation IO Illness orientation OWP Overweight preoccupation SCW Self-classied weight Mean Standard deviation SE 1.00 0.35 0.30 0.47 0.47 0.51 0.53 x0.02 0.20 x0.10 4.39 0.52 1.00 0.36 0.06 0.20 0.17 0.48 0.17 0.10 x0.39 x0.27 4.39 0.52 AE 1.00 0.64 0.12 0.54 0.24 0.67 0.42 0.44 x0.25 3.52 0.74 1.00 0.40 0.50 0.49 0.48 0.55 0.48 x0.22 x0.55 3.52 0.74 AO 1.00 0.20 0.51 0.32 0.64 0.38 0.50 x0.15 3.13 0.66 1.00 0.26 0.20 0.19 0.44 0.40 0.16 x0.32 3.13 0.66 FE 1.00 0.39 0.39 0.21 x0.06 x0.08 x0.00 3.60 0.53 1.00 0.56 0.40 0.57 0.20 x0.16 x0.32 3.60 0.53 FO 1.00 0.45 0.48 0.16 0.39 x0.15 3.36 0.61 1.00 0.44 0.59 0.36 x0.26 x0.36 3.36 0.61 HE 1.00 0.45 x0.21 0.24 0.09 3.79 0.57 1.00 0.38 0.21 x0.34 x0.23 3.79 0.57 HO 1.00 0.47 0.46 x0.21 3.76 0.52 1.00 0.42 x0.11 x0.43 3.76 0.52 IO 1.00 0.05 x0.31 3.49 0.67 1.00 x0.07 x0.46 3.49 0.67 OWP 1.00 0.29 2.01 0.63 1.00 0.39 2.01 0.63 SCW 1.00 B Model statistics b SPC1

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0.01 x0.08 0.25* 0.18 0.06 0.55** x0.22 x0.08 x0.09

0.02 x0.10 0.26 0.21 0.06 0.55 x0.28 x0.09 x0.09

0.02 x0.09 0.31 0.20 0.06 0.40 x0.27 x0.09 x0.10

1.00

0.16 x0.01 x0.01 x0.10 0.27** x0.03 x0.04 x0.15* x0.08

0.10 0.10 0.08 0.09 0.08 0.13 0.08 0.07 0.13

0.17 x0.01 x0.01 x0.12 0.35 x0.03 x0.05 x0.22 x0.06

Notes : Other model statistics are : (a) for men, intercept 1.98, r=0.72, R2=0.52 (unique variability=0.14, shared variability=0.38), adjusted R2=0.41 ; and (b) for women, intercept 3.95, r=0.58, R2=0.33 (unique variability=0.13, shared variability=0.20), adjusted R2=0.26. 1. SPC: semi-partial correlation coecients: squaring an SPC value yields the amount by which R2 would be reduced if its related independent variable was removed (Tabachnick and Fidell 2001). Signicance levels: * p<0.05, ** p<0.01.

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as a high priority for men, and indeed men aged 6571 years reported feeling signicantly more in shape than women, and being more involved in tness-related activities. One plausible explanation is that the motivation for men of this age to engage in physical activity is to maintain a certain body-shape ideal. Interestingly, women aged 7985 years evaluated their level of tness more positively than women aged 6571 years, whereas mens evaluation of their physical tness declined as they aged (but the dierences were not statistically signicant). Signicant dierences in tness orientation that directly reected those of tness evaluation conrmed the consistency of the respondents overall feelings about physical tness. Indeed, with greater age men reported becoming signicantly less involved in physical activities. Given that physical tness and muscularity are said to symbolise traditional masculine traits such as strength, power, dominance and sexual virility (Dutton 1995), the progressive decline in mens evaluation of, and investment in, their physical tness may reect their increased frustration as ageing takes their body further away from western societies cultural ideal. Alternatively, and in accord with previous research (Franzoi and Koehler 1998 ; Underwood 2005), these results may reect older mens tendency to express negative attitudes toward their body, but to do so in terms of factors associated with body functioning. That tness and health are closely related concepts was conrmed by their similar patterns of variation. While overall men evaluated their physical health more positively than women, the latter reported becoming increasingly health conscious as they aged, whereas among men this pattern was reversed. As a result, women aged 7985 years were signicantly more alert to personal symptoms of physical illness than women aged 6571 years. These ndings support the notion that older adults body-image satisfaction is largely mediated by health and physical abilities (Franzoi and Koehler 1998 ; Underwood 2005). These ndings are consistent with the increase with age in vulnerability to a range of health challenges ( Janelli 1993). Although no signicant dierences by gender were found for perceived weight, women reported higher levels than men of anxiety about being or becoming overweight. This gender dierence was statistically signicant among those aged 7278 and 7985 years, and is consistent with previous ndings (e.g. Hurd Clarke 2002; Paxton and Phythian 1999). It suggests that older women are more aected by cultural pressures to conform to a slim ideal (Hetherington and Burnett 1994). It may be that, despite their vulnerability to nutritional deciencies (Hetherington and Burnett 1994; Tiggemann 2004), older women are likely to practise dieting and to restrain eating in the belief that losing weight will make them look younger

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(Hubley and Quinlan 2005). Congruent with the majority of prior research on gender dierences (e.g. Franzoi and Koehler 1998; Hurd Clarke 2002 ; Paxton and Phythian 1999), the current study found that women put more emphasis on appearance than men, but the fact that men reported becoming progressively dissatised with their physical appearance indicates that the cultural pressures to conform to youthful ideals are experienced by both genders. Self-esteem The results of the presented analysis indicate that whilst older womens self-esteem remained stable between the ages of 65 and 85 years, older mens self-esteem declined signicantly. In accord with previous research on age and self-esteem (Kling et al. 1999; Robins et al. 2002 ; Trzesniewski, Donnellan and Robins 2003), men aged 6571 years reported signicantly higher self-esteem than those aged 7985 years, and signicantly higher self-esteem than all studied age groups of women. Several explanations can be proposed, for example, changes that are generally associated with old age, including shifting roles (e.g. retirement), decreased social support and a decline in socio-economic status, may contribute to reduced selfesteem (Baltes and Mayer 1999) and may aect men more substantially than women. Alternatively, as suggested by Pearlman (1993), it may be that the physical changes between the ages of 50 and 60 years aect ones physical and sexual attractiveness and disrupt self-esteem. Whilst the present ndings do not support this explanation for women, it is possible that women experience a decline in self-esteem prior to the age of 65, but at older ages it stabilises as they adopt various strategies to counter the eects of ageing. The relationship between body image and self-esteem In accord with previous ndings about the importance of health and functional abilities for older adults body image (Franzoi and Koehler 1998 ; Underwood 2005), this study found that signicant predictors of mens self-esteem were health orientation and tness evaluation. This nding supports the notion that men have a tendency to become less interested in their health and, perhaps as a consequence, to reduce their physical activity. Whilst consistent with previous research, it may also be that older mens self-esteem is aected by culturally-dened aspects of general physical appearance that they can no longer achieve (Dutton 1995). In addition to health evaluation, the strongest predictor of selfesteem among women was a preoccupation with being overweight. This is consistent with previous evidence that although older womens

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perceived ideal gure is larger than that of young women (Stevens and Tiggemann 1998), changes in body shape, weight awareness, and anxiety about being overweight are important throughout the lifespan ( Janelli 1993; Tiggemann and Lynch 2002). Despite claims that physical appearance is strongly associated with self-esteem (Paxton and Phythian 1999; Pliner, Chaiken and Flett 1990), this variable was not found to be a signicant predictor of self-esteem in the current study. This does not imply that appearance becomes unimportant but suggests that as people age they shift the focus of their concern from physical appearance to physical condition (health and tness).
Limitations of the research and future directions

In light of new research by Rusticus and Hubley (2006), the ndings presented here need to be interpreted with caution. Arguing that measures used to make age and gender comparisons must have cross-group equivalence, Rusticus and Hubley examined the congural, metric and scalar invariance of the MBSRQ to determine if this measure was appropriate for age and gender comparisons. Using data for 1,262 adults aged 1898 years, they concluded that although evidence of congural and metric invariance was found for most MBSRQ subscales, evidence of scalar invariance among older adults (which is necessary to make comparisons of group means) was found only for the tness orientation and overweight preoccupation subscales. It should nonetheless be noted that the 315 older adults in their study were aged 5598 years, dierent from the present study. Further research is needed to conrm Rusticus and Hubleys ndings. Given that older adults may perceive certain questionnaire items differently to younger adults, the current form of the MBSRQ may not be the most suitable measure for body image among older people. Given the global trend of population ageing, the need to optimise the examination of factors related to older adults wellbeing is paramount. It is recognised that variables such as education, socio-economic status, marital status and sexual orientation may inuence ones body image and self-esteem. While this information was not collected from participants in this study, future research should consider its inclusion. Although the narrow age range used in the current study is likely to have minimised cohort eects (Schaie 1996), the use of a cross-sectional design leaves it possible that cohort eects inuenced the results. Future longitudinal research will be able to explore further the underlying mechanisms that explain the role of body image in older adults wellbeing.

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Practice and research recommendations This study has extended previous studies by considering a wider range of inuences on body image among older people. Given the dierent pattern of change in body-image development identied, it has also demonstrated the relevance of investigating the inuence of body-image variables and self-esteem separately for men and women and for narrower age groups. Doing so has enabled changes during older adulthood in the development of body image and shown that the associations of certain body-image variables with self-esteem are a function of age and gender. The salience of health issues as predictors of self-esteem indicates the close association between physical and psychological wellbeing. While the causal direction of this relationship has not been established, promoting physical activity in older adulthood, in particular among older men, may be an eective preventive measure, which could enhance their self-esteem and overall sense of wellbeing. Likewise, promoting personal-grooming strategies that women use to counter the eects of ageing may be protective. Shedding light on the relationship between body image and self-esteem in older adulthood, the ndings of the current study are immediately relevant to older adults, and their wide dissemination would enable older adults to realise that body-image concerns are shared by many of their peers. This is particularly important because, given the widely held perception that the importance of body image relaxes with ageing, older adults who are concerned about their body image may feel isolated and abnormal. The relationship between body image and self-esteem does not appear to weaken as people age. Whilst the variables that inuence body image may vary with age and gender, the presented ndings indicate that body image remains a central issue for older adults who continue to experience cultural pressures to conform to youthful ideals. Further understanding of body image, self-esteem and their relationship is necessary to help older people develop a positive body image that will promote psychosocial strengths and enhance their quality of life.

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Accepted 1 March 2009 Address for correspondence: Eyal Gringart, School of Psychology, Edith Cowan University, 100 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup, Western Australia 6027, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]

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