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Promising Results, Continuing
Challenges:
The Final Report of the
National Assessment of Title I
U.S. Department of Education

Office of the Under Secretary
Planning and Evaluation Service
1999
Richard W. Riley
Secretary
Marshall S. Smith
Under Secretary

Alan Ginsburg
Director
Elementary and Secondary Education Division

Valena Plisko
Director
Joanne Bogart
Project Director
The full text of this public domain publication is available at the Department’s home page at http://www.ed.gov.
For more information, please contact us at:

400 Maryland Ave., SW
Washington, DC 20202
http://www.ed.gov/offices/OUS/eval
Promising Results, Continuing
Challenges:
The Final Report of the

1999
Independent Review Panel
Christopher Cross Joseph Johnson

Chair of the Independent Review Panel Director, Collaboratives for School Improvement
President, Council for Basic Education University of Texas at Austin
Joyce Benjamin Diana Lam

Vice-Chair of the Independent Review Panel (Former) Superintendent
Associate Superintendent San Antonio Independent School District
Oregon Department of Education
Wayne Martin
Eva Baker Director, State Education Assessment Center
Co-Director, Center for Research on Council of Chief State School Officers
Evaluation, Standards and Student
Testing (CRESST) Phyllis McClure
University of California at Los Angeles Independent Consultant on Education & Equity
Rolf Blank Jessie Montano

Director, Education Indicators Assistant Commissioner
Council of Chief State School Officers Minnesota Department of Children,
Families & Learning
David Cohen
Professor Jennifer O’Day
University of Michigan Assistant Professor
University of Wisconsin at Madison
George Corwell
Director of Education Andrew Porter
New Jersey Catholic Conference Professor
University of Wisconsin at Madison
Sharon Darling
President Edward Reidy
National Center for Family Literacy Program Officer of Education Programs
The Pew Charitable Trusts
Bill Demmert
Associate Professor Linda Rodriguez
Western Washington University Supervisor of Title I
Pasco (FL) County School Board
Joyce Epstein
Director, Center on School, Family and Richard Ruiz
Community Partnerships Professor
Johns Hopkins University University of Arizona
Susan Fuhrman Ramsay Selden

Dean, Graduate School of Education Director,
University of Pennsylvania Education Statistical Services Institute
American Institutes for Research
Jack Jennings
Director Maris Vinovskis
Center on Education Policy Professor
University of Michigan
INDEPENDENT REVIEW PANEL
This report from the U.S. Department of Education provides a wealth of information
about the current status of the flagship federal program for the nation’s schools, Title I of
the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. Since its original enactment in 1965,
Title I has stood for a federal commitment to the education of children who live in
poverty. When it was reauthorized in 1994, Title I was redesigned to help the children it
serves meet high standards, within a framework of school and district accountability to be
developed by each state. Progress in implementing this law, which calls for changes in
program management at all levels of government, is of intense interest to all of us who
want to see improvement in the educational opportunities and performance of children at
risk of failure.
The Independent Review Panel, which it has been my privilege to chair, has fulfilled a
legislative charge in P.L. 103-382, Sec. 1501, that the National Assessment of Title I be
“…planned, reviewed, and conducted in consultation with an independent panel of
researchers, State practitioners, local practitioners, and other appropriate individuals.”
Our panel also fulfills the charge in Section 14701 of the law, which requires the
Secretary of Education to “appoint an independent panel to review the plan for [an
evaluation addressing numerous programs and provisions enacted by the 103rd
Congress], to advise the Secretary on such evaluation’s progress, and to comment, if the
panel so wishes, on the final report.”
As stated in our own report to the CongressMeasured Progress: The Report of the
Independent Review Panel on the Evaluation of Federal Education Legislationthe
panel considers it very unfortunate that financial support for evaluation at the federal
level has been inadequate. Moreover, the phased timetable for implementation of the
1994 Title I law has prevented the Department from collecting as much data about the
law’s results as we would all like to see. However, under the constraints of the 1994 act
and subsequent appropriations, the Department has conducted the evaluation that was
feasible within the available time and resources, and its findings are well reflected in this
report.
I commend the Department for its careful presentation of the available evidence, from its
own studies and other sources, on the operations and effectiveness of Title I. This
volume addresses critical questions about the targeting of funds, the instructional staff
and services supported, and the policies enacted by states and school districts. The panel
believes these data will do a great deal to inform the next reauthorization of this
significant federal program. The panel’s own report provides additional perspective and
recommendations for the reauthorization, which will occur in this Congress.
Sincerely yours,
Christopher T. Cross
President, Council for Basic Education, and
Chair of the Independent Review Panel
This work is dedicated to the memory of our late friend and colleague, Ed Reidy. A member of the
Independent Review Panel since its inception, Ed shared his knowledge and insights about high-
quality, equitable schooling throughout our deliberations. His memory continues to shape our
thinking and actions toward improving education for the nation’s children.
Contents
Executive Summary................................................................................................................... ...............i
Foreword................................................................................................................................................. ..1
1. Introduction...................................................................................................................... ..............7
2. Progress in the Performance of Students in High-Poverty Schools........................ ..................15
3. Development of Standards and Assessment Systems, and the Role of Title I..........................39
4. The Role of Title I in Holding Schools Accountable for Performance

and in Supporting Improvement Efforts................................................................ .................51
5. Targeting Resources to Districts and Schools Where the Needs Are Greatest ........................75
6. Title I Services at the School Level............................................................................................ ..95

6
7. Title I Support for Partnerships with Families, Schools, and
Communities to Support Learning................................................................ ........................127
8. Title I Services to Students Attending Private Schools...................................... .........................143
9. Title I, Part B, Even Start Family Literacy Program......................................... .....................151
10. Title I, Part C, Migrant Education Program..................................................................... .......163
11. Title I, Part D, Prevention and Intervention Programs for Children

and Youth Who Are Neglected, Delinquent, or At Risk of Dropping Out...........................173
12. Conclusions and Future Directions for Title I............................................................ ..............181
Appendix A: Title I Evaluation Strategy........................................................................ ...................189
Appendix B: Description of Key Studies...................................................................... .....................193
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................... ....199
List of Exhibits
Executive Summary
Exhibit 1 Percentage of Schools Participating in Title I, by School Poverty Level, 1997-98......................ii

Exhibit 2 Trends in NAEP Reading Performance.........................................................................................v
Exhibit 3 Trends in NAEP Mathematics Performance.................................................................................vi
Exhibit 4 NAEP 4th-Grade Reading and Mathematics................................................................................vii
Exhibit 5 State NAEP 4th-Grade Mathematics, 1996...................................................................................viii
Exhibit 6 States with Challenging Content Standards in Mathematics and Reading/Language Arts...........x
Exhibit 7 States with Challenging Performance Standards in Mathematics and
Reading/Language Arts.................................................................................................................x
Exhibit 8 Percentage of Highest-Poverty Schools That Receive Title I Funds, 1993-94 to 1997-98...........xiii
1. Foreword/Introduction
Exhibit 1.1 Percentage of Schools Participating in Title I, by School Poverty Level, 1997-98......................8
Exhibit 1.2 Title I Appropriations in FY 1999, by Program............................................................................9
Exhibit 1.3 Funding for Title I and Other Federal Elementary-Secondary Programs, 1994 to 1999..............10
Exhibit 1.4 All Title I Participants, by Grade Span, 1996-97..........................................................................12
2. Progress in the Performance of Students in High-Poverty Schools
Exhibit 2.1 How NAEP Tests Are Used to Report Progress............................................................................18

Exhibit 2.2 Trends in NAEP Reading Performance.........................................................................................19
Exhibit 2.3 NAEP Main Reading Assessment.................................................................................................20
Exhibit 2.4 NAEP 4th-Grade Reading.............................................................................................................21
Exhibit 2.5 State NAEP 4th-Grade Reading, 1998..........................................................................................22
Exhibit 2.6 Trends in NAEP Mathematics Performance.................................................................................23
Exhibit 2.7 NAEP Main Mathematics Assessment..........................................................................................24
Exhibit 2.8 NAEP 4th-Grade Mathematics......................................................................................................25
Exhibit 2.9 State NAEP 4th-Grade Mathematics, 1996...................................................................................27
Exhibit 2.10 Trends in State-Level Achievement for Elementary School Students in .....................................
High-Poverty Schools...................................................................................................................29
Exhibit 2.11 Connecticut Mastery Test: Grade 4..............................................................................................29
Exhibit 2.12 Kentucky Instructional Skills Information System: Grade 4........................................................30
Exhibit 2.13 Maine Educational Assessment: Grade 4......................................................................................30
Exhibit 2.14 Maryland School Performance Assessment Program: Grade 3....................................................31
Exhibit 2.15 North Carolina End of Grade: Grade 4.........................................................................................31
Exhibit 2.16 Texas Assessment of Academic Skills: Grade 4...........................................................................32
Exhibit 2.17 District Achievement Trends for Students in High-Poverty Schools............................................33
Exhibit 2.18 Baltimore Results on the Maryland School Performance Assessment Program: Grade 3............34
Exhibit 2.19 Chicago Results on the Illinois Goals Assessment Program: Grade 3..........................................34
Exhibit 2.20 Jefferson County (Louisville) Results on the Kentucky Instructional Results
Information System: Grade 4 (Reading), Grade 5 (Math)............................................................35
Exhibit 2.21 Philadelphia Results on the Stanford 9: Grade 4..........................................................................35
Exhibit 2.22 San Antonio Results on the Texas Assessment of Academic Skills: Grade 3...............................36
List of Exhibits (continued)
3. Development of Standards and Assessment Systems, and the Role of Title I
Exhibit 3.1 States with Challenging Content Standards in Mathematics and Reading/Language Arts...........42
Exhibit 3.2 States with Challenging Performance Standards in Mathematics and .........................................
Reading/Language Arts.................................................................................................................42
Exhibit 3.3 States with Achievement Data Disaggregated by Various Population Subgroups: 1996-97........44
Exhibit 3.4 Percentage of 8th Grade Students Meeting the NAEP Basic Level of Performance
in Mathematics in 1996, Compared to States’ Expected Levels on State Assessments ...............45
4. The Role of Title I in Holding Schools Accountable for Performance and in Supporting
Improvement Efforts
Exhibit 4.1 Timeline for Title I Accountability................................................................................................53

Exhibit 4.2 Schools and Districts Identified for Improvement: 1996-97.........................................................59
Exhibit 4.3 State and Title I Accountability: New York City..........................................................................61
Exhibit 4.4 School Report Cards.....................................................................................................................66
5. Targeting Resources to Districts and Schools Where the Needs Are Greatest
Exhibit 5.1 Distribution of Federal, State, and Local Revenues, by District Poverty Quartile: FY 1997.......79
Exhibit 5.2 Percentage of Schools Participating in Title I, by School Poverty Level, 1997-98......................80
Exhibit 5.3 Title I Funding for High- and Low-Poverty Schools....................................................................81
Exhibit 5.4 Change in Proportion of Schools Served by Title I, by School Poverty Level:
1993-94 to 1997-98.......................................................................................................................82
Exhibit 5.5 Change in Title I Allocations for High- and Low-Poverty Schools
in 17 Large Urban School Districts, 1994-95 to 1996-97.............................................................83
Exhibit 5.6 Change in Proportion of Highest-Poverty Secondary Schools that Receive
Title I Funds, 1993-94 to 1997-98................................................................................................84
Exhibit 5.7 Share of Waiver Decisions Pertaining to Title I Targeting:
School Years 1995-96, 1996-97, and 1997-98..............................................................................85
Exhibit 5.8 Distribution of Funds Under Individual Title I Formulas, by District Poverty Quartile:
FY 1999.........................................................................................................................................86
Exhibit 5.9 Geographic Shifts in Child Poverty: Percentage Change in State Shares
Of the Nation’s Poor School-Age Children, 1990 to 1994...........................................................88
List of Exhibits (continued)
6. Title I Services at the School Level
Exhibit 6.1 Teachers’ Familiarity with and Adherence to Standards and Assessments in Reading
and Mathematics, by District Policy Environment.......................................................................101
Exhibit 6.2 Percentage of Title I Principals Who Reported Using Content Standards to
Guide Curriculum and Instruction to a Great Extent....................................................................102
Exhibit 6.3 Percentage of Principals Implementing Key Reforms, by Level of Familiarity
with Title I Reforms: 1997-98.......................................................................................................103
Exhibit 6.4 Criteria for High-Quality Professional Development...................................................................106
Exhibit 6.5 Reading Instruction.......................................................................................................................108
Exhibit 6.6 Mathematics Instruction................................................................................................................108
Exhibit 6.7 Frequency that Title I Teachers’ Lessons Require Students to Use Computers and
the Internet....................................................................................................................................116
Exhibit 6.8 Schoolwide Reform Approaches at a Glance................................................................................121
7. Title I Support for Partnerships with Families, Schools, and Communities to Support
Learning
Exhibit 7.1 Principal’s Views on Barriers to Applying High Standards to All Students.................................131
Exhibit 7.2 Principals’ Views on the Helpfulness of Title I School-Parent Compacts,
by School Poverty Level...............................................................................................................132
Exhibit 7.3 Information on Report Cards........................................................................................................135
Exhibit 7.4 Principals’ Views on Major Reasons for Lack of Parent Involvement.........................................136
10. Title I, Part C, Migrant Education Program
Exhibit 10.1 Methods Used to Transfer Migrant Student Records Between States and
School Districts in 1996-97...........................................................................................................169
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Context for Title I
TITLE I—HELPING DISADVANTAGED CHILDREN MEET HIGH STANDARDS

“SEC. 1001. DECLARATION OF POLICY AND STATEMENT OF PURPOSE.
“(a)(1) The Congress declares it to be the policy of the United States that a high-quality education for all
individuals and a fair and equal opportunity to obtain that education are a societal good, are a moral
imperative, and improve the life of every individual, because the quality of our lives ultimately depends on
the quality of the lives of others.”
First enacted in 1965 as a “War on Poverty” program, Title I of the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA) [P.L. 103-382] now provides more than $8 billion1 annually to fund
system-wide supports and additional resources for schools to improve learning for students at risk
of educational failure. The program’s central objective is to support state and local efforts to
ensure that all children reach challenging standards by providing additional resources for schools
and students who have furthest to go in achieving the goal.
Title I is intended to help address the greater educational challenges facing high-poverty
communities by targeting extra resources to school districts and schools with the highest
concentrations of poverty, where academic performance tends to be low and the obstacles to
raising performance are the greatest. Ninety-five percent of the nation’s highest-poverty schools
(those with 75 percent or more students eligible for free- or reduced price lunch) participate in
Title I.2 While the highest-poverty schools make up almost 15 percent of schools nationwide,
they account for 46 percent of Title I spending. About three-fourths (73 percent) of Title I funds
go to schools with 50 percent or more students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch.3
Fully 99 percent of Title I dollars go to the local level. School districts use 90 to 93 percent of
their Title I funds for instruction and instructional support4most often in reading and math.
Although Title I accounts for a relatively small proportion of total funding for elementary and
secondary education (just under 3 percent), the program plays a significant role in supporting
local education improvement efforts. It provides flexible funding that may be used for
supplementary instruction, professional development, new computers, after-school or other
extended-time programs, and other strategies for raising student achievement.
Title I also provides supplemental assistance to children who face special educational
barriers. These include children who come from families with low literacy, the children of
migrant agricultural workers, and children who are neglected or delinquent. The children of
parents with poor literacy skills are less likely to receive early literacy training at home or to be
enrolled in a preschool programsituations that increase the risk of school failure. Migrant
children have families who move frequently to pursue agricultural work, and thus the children
must change schools frequentlya situation that has a detrimental effect on their achievement.
Neglected or delinquent students are extremely educationally disadvantaged; most are
incarcerated in state juvenile and adult correctional facilities and have experienced numerous
disruptions in their education.
Executive Summary xii

Exhibit 1
Percentage of Schools Participating in Title I,
by School Poverty Level, 1997-98
100% 95%
81%
80%
Percentage of Schools
64%
58%
60%
40% 36%
20%
0%
T otal 75% -100% 50% -74% 35% -49% 0-34%
School Pov erty Lev el (Free or Reduced-Price Lunch)
Exhibit reads: Almost all of the highest-poverty schools (95 percent) receive Title I
funds, compared with 36 percent of the lowest-poverty schools.
Source: Stullich, Donly, and Stolzberg, Targeting Schools: Study of Title I Allocations
Within School Districts, 1999.
Title I reaches more than 11 million students enrolled in both public and private schools
about two-thirds of whom are in grades 1-6. The percentage of students in middle and
secondary schools remains a small proportion of those served overall. Minority students
participate at rates higher than their proportion of the student population. African American
students represent 28 percent of Title I participants, 30 percent are Hispanic, and 36 percent are
non-Hispanic white. The remaining 5 percent are from other ethnic/racial groups. Among those
served by the Title I, Part A (local education agency) program are about 167,000 private school
children, close to 300,000 migrant children, and over 200,000 children identified as homeless.
Title I services are also available to about 2 million students with limited English proficiency
(almost one-fifth of all students served and growing in number), and to 1 million students with
disabilities.5 In 1996-97, Even Start (Part B) served some 48,000 children and almost 36,000
adults.6 Over 580,000 migrant children were served under the Migrant Education Program
(Part C)7, and 200,000 neglected or delinquent youth were served in the Title I Part D program for
such youth.8
Executive Summary xiii

The 1994 Reauthorization of Title I of the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act
The 1994 reauthorization of ESEA, along with the Goals 2000: Educate America Act, introduced
a new federal approach built around a framework of standards-driven reform. Challenging
standards for all students would promote excellence and equity, and better link Title I with other
federal programs to support state and local reform efforts. As the largest single federal
investment in elementary and secondary education, the reauthorized Title I adopted each of the
key principles outlined in the legislation:
 Support states in setting high standards for all childrenwith the elements of education
aligned, so that they are working in concert to help all students reach those standards;
 Focus on teaching and learning, through upgrading curriculum, accelerating instruction, and
providing teachers with professional development to teach to high standards;
 Provide flexibility to stimulate school-based and district initiatives, coupled with

responsibility for student performance;
 Create links among schools, parents, and communities; and
 Target resources to where the needs are greatest.
Six years ago, the U.S. Department of Education reported to Congress on the effectiveness of the
program as it operated as Chapter 1. That report, Reinventing Chapter 1: The Current Chapter 1
Program and New Directions, which drew from the longitudinal study, Prospects: Student
OutcomesFinal Report, concluded that in order for the program to effectively support all
students in meeting challenging standards, fundamental change was required. Indeed, as the
prior National Assessment of Chapter 1 found, Chapter 1 programs reinforced low expectations
of the students they served by providing students with remedial instruction and holding them to
lower academic standards than other students.9
 Different expectations were clearly evident for students in high- and low-poverty schools.
Indeed, when measured against a common test, an “A” student in a high-poverty school
would be about a “C” student in a low-poverty school.10
 Program-supported services pulled most Chapter 1 students out of their regular classrooms,
adding an average of only 10 minutes of instructional time per day, and often failing to relate
to the rest of the student’s educational experience.11
 Chapter 1 did not contribute to high-quality instruction, and often relied on teacher’s aides
who lacked educational credentials required to deliver high-quality instruction.12
 Chapter 1 had not kept pace with the growing movement, across the country, toward the
establishment of challenging standards and assessments. Therefore, weaknesses in
instruction were compounded by minimum competency assessments that tested primarily
low-level skills.13
Executive Summary xiv

The reauthorized Title I legislation coupled flexibility in the use of resources with attention to
accountability for results. Providing flexibility in tandem with performance accountability is the
centerpiece of Title I, and an overall focus of the National Assessment of Title I. The National
Assessment also examines the implementation of key Title I provisions at the state, district, and
school levels.
The Mandate for a National Assessment of Title I

The final report of the National Assessment of Title I responds to Congress’s mandate to examine
the progress of students served by the program and implementation of key provisions, and
suggests strategies for improved policies or changes in statutory requirements.
Key issues addressed include:
 The performance of students in high-poverty schools and low-performing students, the prime
beneficiaries of Title I services;
 The implementation of systems designed to support schools in helping students meet high
standards, including the establishment of systems of challenging standards and assessments,
the role of Title I in holding schools accountable for results, and targeting of Title I funds and
the allocation and use of resources in states, districts, and schools;
 The implementation of Title I services at the school level, including strategies for providing
challenging curriculum and instruction in high-poverty Title I schools, uses of schoolwide
and targeted assistance approaches for providing services in Title I schools, qualifications of
and support for staff (including aides) in Title I high-poverty schools, and Title I support for
partnerships with families; and
 The implementation of additional Title I services targeted at special populations, including

(Part A) Services to Students Enrolled in Private Schools, Even Start (Part B), Migrant
Education Program (Part C), and Services to Neglected or Delinquent Children (Part D).
The National Assessment of Title I also reports progress on key indicators identified for the
Title I program in response to the Government Performance and Results Act of 1993 (GPRA)
[P.L. 103-62], which requires that agencies establish performance goals and track indicators for
every program. These indicators address improved achievement for students enrolled in high-
poverty schools, increases in the number of Title I schools using standards-based reform and
effective strategies to enable all children to reach challenging standards, and accelerated state and
local reform efforts and assistance to Title I schools.
The National Assessment of Title I benefited from the involvement of an Independent Review
Panel composed of representatives of state and local education agencies and private schools,
school-level staff, parent representatives, education researchers, and policy experts. The Panel,
mandated under Sections 1501 and 14701 of the ESEA, has met three to four times a year since
May 1995. It has defined issues for the National Assessment of Title I and the companion Report
on the Impact of Federal Education Legislation Enacted in 1994. Panel members have also
participated in reviews of study plans, data analysis, and draft text for both reports.
Executive Summary xv
KEY FINDINGS
Progress in the Performance of Students in High-Poverty Schools

The impact of standards-based reform is beginning to be seen in improved achievement among
students in high-poverty schools and among low-performing studentswho are the primary
recipients of Title I services.
Performance on National Assessments of Reading
Since 1992, prior to the reauthorization of Title I, national reading performance has
improved for 9-year-olds in the highest-poverty public schools (those with 75 percent or
more low-income children), regaining ground lost in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Scores
on the long-term trend assessment of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) of
9-year-olds in the highest-poverty public schools increased 8 points (close to one grade level)
between 1992 and 1996 (Exhibit 2).
Exhibit 2
Trends in NAEP Reading Performance
Average Scale Scores of 9-Year-Old Public School Students,
by Poverty Level of School (1988 - 1996)
260
NAEP Mean Scale Score
240 Low-Poverty Schools

225
221 220 220
217
220
All Schools
211 209 209 209 210
200
Highest-Poverty Schools
190 189 188

180
184
180
160
1400
1988 1990 1992 1994 1996
Pre-Reauthorization
Highest-poverty schools = 76% to 100% of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch.
Low-poverty schools = 0 to 25% of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch.
Scale scores are 0-500.
Exhibit reads: In 1996, the average reading scale score for 9-year-old students in
the highest-poverty schools was 188.
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National
Assessment of Educational Progress, NAEP Reading Trends, unpublished tabulations, 1998.
Among the lowest-achieving public school 4th-gradersthose most likely to be served by

Title Ithere were fairly substantial improvements in reading between 1994 and 1998.
Results of the Main NAEP reading assessment showing substantial gains for low achievers
Executive Summary xvi

9 points among the bottom 10 percent and 5 points among the bottom 25 percentcompared with
the stable performance of other percentile groups suggest that it was the performance of the
lowest achievers that raised the national average of all 4th-graders.
Executive Summary xvii

Performance on National Assessments of Mathematics
Math achievement has improved nationally, especially among students in the highest-
poverty public schools. NAEP scores on the long-term trend assessment show an increase of
about 10 points for all 9-year-olds from 1986 through 1996 (Exhibit 3).
Exhibit 3
Trends in NAEP Mathematics Performance
260
Low-Poverty Schools
237 239 238
236
240
228
230 230 All Schools

228 229
220 219 Highest-Poverty Schools
215 217
213
200 208 208
180
160
1400
1986 1990 1992 1994 1996
Pre-Reauthorization
Exhibit reads: In 1996, the average mathematics scale scores of 9-year-old students in
the highest-poverty schools was 217.
Assessment of Educational Progress, NAEP Mathematics Trends, unpublished tabulations, 1998.
Math scores from the main NAEP assessment also improved substantially among public
4th-grade students in the lowest percentiles of performancethose most typically targeted
for Title I services. The main NAEP assessment shows that, from 1990 to 1996, the average
performance of the lowest-achieving students improved steadily. NAEP scores of the lowest
25 percent improved by 8 points.
Executive Summary xviii

However, a substantial achievement gap remains between students in the highest- and
lowest-poverty schools. In 1998, 32 percent of students in the highest-poverty schools met or
exceeded the NAEP Basic level in reading, about half the rate nationally of students in public
schools. In math, 42 percent of students in the highest-poverty schools scored at or above the
NAEP Basic level in 1996, compared with 62 percent in all public schools (Exhibit 4).
Exhibit 4
NAEP 4th-Grade Reading and Mathematics
Percentage of Public School 4th-Graders Scoring At or Above
Basic and Proficient Achievement Levels,
by Poverty Level of School, 1998
100%
At or Above Bas ic At or Above Pr oficie nt
77%
80% 77%
Percentage of Students
66%
62% 62%
61% 59%
60%
51%
44% 42%
40%
31% 32%
29% 28%
20% 19% 19% 19%

20%
10% 10%
0%
A ll Public 0-25% 26-50% 51-75% 76-100% A ll Public 0-25% 26-50% 51-75% 76-100%
Sc hools Poverty Poverty Poverty Poverty Schools Poverty Pov erty Poverty Pov erty
Reading Mathematics
Exhibit reads: In 1998, 61 percent of 4th-grade students attending public schools performed at or
above the Basic level in reading, and in 1996, 62 percent of all 4th-graders scored at or above the
Basic level in mathematics.
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of
Educational Progress, Main NAEP Reading and Mathematics, unpublished tabulations, 1999.
Despite the nationwide gap in performance, the percent of 4th-grade students enrolled in
highest-poverty public schools achieving at or above the Basic level in mathematics
exceeded the national average (62 percent) in 9 statesindicating that it is possible to bring
these students to high levels of achievement (Exhibit 5).
Executive Summary xix

Exhibit 5
State NAEP 4th-Grade Mathematics, 1996
Percentage of Students in the Highest-Poverty Schools Performing
At or Above Basic Level, by State
M a in e 80%
M in n e s o t a 76%
No r t h Da k o t a 69%
Ut a h 67%
Mo n t a n a 65%
Ne b r a sk a 65%
Wy o m in g 65%
Wis c o n s in 65%
In d ia n a 63%
We s t Vir g in ia 61%
Io wa 61%
Ve r m o n t 60%
M ic h ig a n 56%
Wa s h in g t o n 56%
Ne v a d a 53%
Ke n t u c k y 52%
Ma s s a c h u s e t t s 51%
Mis s o u r i 48%
H a w a ii 48%
F lo r id a 48%
Or e g o n 48%
C o lo r a d o 46%
N o r t h C a r o lin a 46%
Vir g in ia 46%
Ge o r g ia 44%
Te n n e s s e e 43%
Te x a s 43%
C o n n e c t ic u t 41%
Ark a n sa s 39%
Ar iz o n a 38% National Average

N e w Me x ic o 37% 62% for All Public
S o u t h C a r o lin a 37% School Students
A la s k a 37%
Lo u is ia n a 36%
M a r y la n d 34%
N e w Yo r k 30%
A la b a m a 30%
R h o d e Is la n d 30%
M iss is s ip p i 29%
P e n n s y lv a n ia 28%
C a lif o r n ia 25%
Ne w J e r se y 25%
Dis t r ic t o f C o lu m b ia 11%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Highest-Poverty Schools = 76% to 100% of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch.
Exhibit reads: In Maine, 80 percent of 4th-graders who attended the highest-poverty schools
scored at or above the Basic level in mathematics.
Assessment of Education Progress, State NAEP Mathematics, unpublished tabulations, 1998.
Executive Summary xx
Performance on State and District Assessments
Trends in student performance based on the assessments of individual states and districts provide
an additional perspective for measuring the progress of students in high-poverty areas.
Three-year trends reported by states and districts show progress in the percentage of
students in the highest-poverty schools meeting state and local standards for proficiency in
mathematics and reading. Among states and large urban districts that provided three-year trend
data for students in high-poverty schools, the results overall are positive. Because changes in
state assessment systems to comply with Title I legislation, few states can currently provide three-
year trend data on students in high-poverty schools. Results from 13 large urban districts are
presented to show trends in student performance in areas in which poverty and educational
challenges are most highly concentrated. Districts profiled are among the largest in the country,
have student populations that are at least 35 percent minority and 50 percent eligible for
free/reduced-price lunch, serve high concentrations of students with limited English proficiency,
are geographically diverse; and have at least three years of achievement data on the same
assessment in reading and math for elementary and middle school students. As with states, these
districts are among those that provided data (which were available in fall/early winter 1998).
 The achievement of elementary school students in the highest-poverty schools improved in

5 of 6 states reporting three-year trends in reading, and in 4 of 5 states reporting trends in
mathematics. Students in Connecticut, Maryland, North Carolina, and Texas made progress
in both subjects.14
 Ten of 13 large urban districts showed increases in the percentage of elementary students in
the highest-poverty schools who met district or state proficiency standards in reading or math.
Six districtsHouston, Miami-Dade County, New York, Philadelphia, San Antonio and San
Franciscomade progress in both subjects.15
Title I Support for Systems Designed to Support Schools in Helping

Students Meet High Standards
Development of Standards and Assessments and the Role of Title I
Challenging standards of learning and assessments that ensure shared expectations for all children
are key policy drivers in Title I. Indeed, support for the establishment of systems of standards
and assessments under Title I, as well as the Goals 2000: Educate America Act, is consistent with
a key purpose of the program, as outlined in the statute: “to enable schools to provide
opportunities for children served to acquire the knowledge and skills contained in the challenging
State content standards and to meet the challenging State performance standards developed for all
children.”
In addition to requiring states to establish and use systems of standards and aligned assessments
to guide expectations for what children should be expected to know and do, Title I has required
that states develop criteria for tracking the student performance of schools and districts
participating in the program. By the 1997-98 school year, each state was to have adopted
challenging content standards, in at least reading and math, that specify what all children are
expected to know and be able to do, and challenging performance standards that describe
Executive Summary xxi

students’ mastery of the content standards. By the year 2000-01, states are also to adopt or
develop student assessment systems that are aligned with standards in at least reading/language
arts and math.
States are making significant progress in developing content standards, but progress is
considerably slower with respect to developing performance standards according to the
timeline set forth in the statute.
 Forty-eight states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico have met the requirement for
developing content standards in the core subjects of reading and math. One remaining state is
approving its districts’ standards; the other state has a waiver to extend the deadline to
develop state standards. Federal assistance is credited with providing financial incentives and
support that helped states adopt standards (Exhibit 6).
 Less than half the states had approved performance standards by 1998. Variability in the
rigor of standards is a concern, given the lack of evidence that states have benchmarked
standards against common criteria, such as NAEP (Exhibit 7).
Exhibit 6 Exhibit 7
States with Challenging Content Standards States with Challenging Performance Standards
in Mathematics and Reading/Language Arts in Mathematics and Reading/Language Arts
60 60
Goal Goal
52 52 52
50
50 50
42
38
Number of States
Number of States
40 40
30 30
22
19 18
20 20
10 10
0
0 0
1994 1997 1998 1999 2000 1994 1997 1998 1999 2000
Exhibit reads: In 1998, 48 states, the District of Columbia and Puerto had submitted evidence to
the U.S. Department of Education that content standards were in place.
Source: U.S. Department of Education, unpublished analysis of state plans required under Sec. 1111;
baseline (1994) data obtained from Council of Chief State School Officers, Status Report: State Systemic
Education Improvements, 1995.
States are not required to have assessment systems (which reflect standards) and include all
students until 2000-01. However, progress in their development is worth noting.
 According to an independent review of state plans submitted to the U.S. Department of

Education in 1997, 14 states had in place transitional assessment systems linked to state
content standards.16
 In addition, a sizable number reported student achievement based on state assessment data
according to categories established in the statute. For the 1996-97 school year, of the
48 states, plus the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico, that reported student achievement
data through the Title I Performance Report, 21 disaggregated results by school poverty
Executive Summary xxii

levels, 12 reported results for low-income students, 19 provided data for limited-English-
proficient students, and 16 reported achievement of migrant students.17
Issues regarding assessment of special populations are among the greatest challenges
reported by states in developing their assessment systems. The review of state practices in
determining school and district progress found that most states (44) had at least partially
developed policies or procedures for assessing all students but only 28 provided some evidence
that these policies or procedures were being implemented.18
The Role of Title I in Holding Schools Accountable for Performance and Supporting
Improvement Efforts
Title I is intended to be linked to state accountability so that states will hold Title I schools to the
same high standards for performance expected for all schools. Under Title I each state is required
to develop criteria for determining a standard of adequate yearly progress for districts and schools
participating in Title I based on the state assessment and other measures. Title I schools and
districts that fail to make adequate yearly progress are to be identified for improvement. Schools
identified for improvement are to receive support and assistance from states and districts. Those
schools and districts that continue to fail to make progress are subject to corrective actions. The
performance of districts and schools under Title I is to be publicly reported and widely shared.
States are making progress in implementing the accountability provisions of Title I,

although full implementation of accountability under Title I is not required until final
assessments are in place in the 2000-01 school year. But states are also facing real challenges as
they transform their educational systems into higher-performing, results-based systems.
 States have developed transitional measures for defining school and district progress under
Title I, but there are concerns about the rigor of the measures. An independent review of state
plans documented that only half of all states have set standards for measuring progress based
on students reaching a proficient level of performance, rather than only a minimum level of
competency. Most states do not have a specified timeline for having all students meet
expectations.19
 There is considerable variation across states in the identification of Title I schools in need of
improvement. In Texas, only 1 percent of Title I schools were identified for improvement in
1996-97. In New Mexico and Washington, D.C., over 80 percent of Title I schools were
identified for improvement.20
 Although there is variation in the number and percentage of Title I schools identified for
improvement across the states, evidence suggests that states are identifying their neediest
schools. Schools identified for improvement tend to serve a greater proportion of poor
students and have a larger minority enrollment.21
 A recent study of accountability in large urban districts finds that Title I has been “a model
and an instigator” for standards-based reform and efforts to track student progress and
improve schools.22 Nationally, 14 percent of districts report that Title I is driving reform in
their districts as a whole to a great extent. Fifty percent of small poor districts and 47 percent
of large poor districts report that Title I is driving reform to a great extent.23
Executive Summary xxiii

A key concern is the extent to which identification of schools for improvement under Title I
is integrated with the accountability systems states are putting in place for all schools.
 Although there is considerable overlap between schools identified for improvement under
Title I and those identified through other state or local mechanisms, states report that they are
having difficulty integrating the Title I requirements with their own systems. Parallel systems
are operating in many states, with only 23 state Title I directors reporting that the same
accountability system is used for Title I as for schools in their state.
 Research shows that state accountability systems that are “closer to home” are of greater
value to educators and have more immediate consequences to schools and districts.
Recent findings suggest that state and Title I accountability requirements are helping states,
districts, and schools focus more on the use of data for school improvement.
 Research on accountability in 12 states and 14 districts found that a remarkably high level of
attention was being paid to using data to inform decisionmaking. The study found that
although outcome data was being required to be used for school improvement planning, many
districts were going beyond requirements of the law to use the performance data to identify
and develop strategies for staff development and curriculum improvement that address gaps
in performance.24
The lack of capacity of state school support teams to assist schools in need of improvement
under Title I is a major concern.
 The State Improvement Grants that would have provided additional resources for the
operation of school support teams were not funded in reauthorization. Although the main
task for state school support teams has been to assist schoolwide programs, their charge also
includes providing assistance to schools in need of improvement. In 1998, only 8 states
reported that school support teams have been able to serve the majority of schools identified
as in need of improvement. In 24 states, Title I directors reported more schools in need of
assistance from school support teams than Title I could assist.25
 Among schools that reported in 1997-98 that they had been identified as in need of
improvement, less than half (47 percent) reported that they had received additional
professional development or assistance as a result.26
Targeting Title I Resources to Districts and Schools Where the Needs Are Greatest
Historically, Title I funds were spread thinly to most districts and a large majority of
schools, undermining the program’s capacity to meet the high expectations set by
policymakers. The previous Chapter 1 formula and within-district allocation provisions spread
funds to virtually all counties, 93 percent of all school districts, and 66 percent of all public
schools, yet left many of the nation’s poorest schools unserved. The 1994 reauthorization
changed the allocation provisions in an effort to improve the targeting of Title I funds on the
neediest districts and schools. In addition, Congress has recently increased the proportion of
Title I funds appropriated for Concentration Grants in an effort to direct a greater share of the
funds to higher-poverty districts and schools.
Changes in the allocation formula and procedures, enacted in the 1994 amendments, have
had little effect on targeting at the state, county, and district levels, but substantial impact
Executive Summary xxiv

on within-in district targeting. At the district level, the share of Title I funds allocated to the
highest-poverty quartile of districts remained unchanged (at 49 percent) from FY 1994 to
FY 1997. At the school level, almost all (95 percent) of the highest-poverty schools (75 percent
or more low-income students) received Title I funds in 1997-98, up from 79 percent in 1993-94
(Exhibit 8). Funding for low-poverty schools (less than 35 percent low-income students)
declined from 49 percent to 36 percent over the same period. At the secondary level, nearly all
(93 percent) highest-poverty secondary schools received Title I funds in 1997-98, up from
61 percent in 1993-94.27
Exhibit 8
Percentage of Highest-Poverty Schools
That Receive Title I Funds, 1993-94 to 1997-98
100% 95%
93%
79 %
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
1993-94 1995-96 1997-98
Exhibit reads: The proportion of highest-poverty schools (those with 75 percent or

more low-income students) receiving Title I funding rose from 79 percent in 1993-94
to 95 percent in 1997-98.
Source: Stullich, Donly, and Stolzberg, Targeting Schools: Study of Title I Allocations Within
School Districts, 1999.
Nearly all Title I funds are allocated to local school districts. States distribute 99 percent of
their Title I funds to school districts and retain only 1 percent for administration, leadership, and
technical assistance to districts and schools.28 Title I funds allocated to school districts amounted
to $720 per poor child in FY 1999. Over 90 percent of Title I funds are used for instruction and
instructional support—much higher than the percentage of state and local funds (62 percent).29
Although Title I accounts for a relatively small percentage of total funding for elementary and
secondary education (about 3 percent), the program plays a significant role in supporting local
education improvement efforts. It provides flexible funding that may be used for supplementary
instruction, professional development, new computers, after-school or other extended-time
programs, and other strategies for raising student achievement. For example, Title I funds used
for technology amounted to roughly $237 million, nearly as much as the appropriations for the
Executive Summary xxv

Technology Literacy Challenge Fund and Technology Literacy Challenge Grants combined
($257 million). Similarly, Title I funds used for professional development amounted to
$191 million in 1997-98.30
Title I funds may help equalize resources for high- and low-poverty schools. Title I provides
additional support in districts and schools with greater needs, which often receive fewer resources
from state and local sources. For example, Title I funds purchased an average of 3.3 computers in
the highest-poverty schools in 1997-98 (26 percent of the new computers), compared with
0.6 computers in low-poverty schools. High-poverty schools’ use of Title I funds for technology
helped to compensate for the fact that they received fewer computers from state or local funds
(4.8 computers, versus 12.4 in low-poverty schools).31
Increases in targeting have increased the number of high-poverty schools served but have
not necessarily increased the intensity of services. In a sample of 17 large urban districts, the
average size of school allocations remained unchanged from 1994-95 to 1996-97, indicating that
the growth in total funding and redirection of some funds away from low-poverty schools were
used to increase the number of high-poverty schools served rather than to increase the intensity of
services in those schools.
Title I Services at the School Level

The Context for Standards-Based Reform
There is evidence of progress for students in high-poverty schools where staff members
focus on challenging standards and strategies that help students achieve them. Preliminary
findings from the Longitudinal Evaluation of School Change and Performance (LESCP), a study
of instructional practices in 71 high-poverty schools found that
 Students were likely to make better progress in reading if their teacher gave them more total
exposure to reading in the content areas and opportunities to talk in small groups about what
they had read.
 Students in the bottom quarter of their class who had better growth in vocabulary and
comprehension tended to have teachers who gave them more exposure to reading materials of
at least one paragraph, reading content areas materials, working at a computer, and
completing workbooks or skill sheets.
 Teachers who used a curriculum that reflected National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
(NCTM) standards had students with higher gains in mathematics.
 Students who started the year as low achievers could be helped to gain more skill in problem
solving in mathematics when their teachers deliberately emphasized understanding and
problem solving with them.
Principals are reporting an increased use of content standards to guide curriculum and
instruction in their schools. The proportion of Title I principals who reported using content
standards to guide curriculum and instruction to a great extent increased substantially from
approximately half in 1995-96 to approximately three-quarters in 1997-98. Recent findings from
a study of high-performing, high-poverty schools carry this relationship one step further, finding
Executive Summary xxvi

that implementing such reforms is associated with higher student performance. The study found
that in high-performing, high-poverty schools, 80 percent of principals reported using standards
extensively to design curriculum and instruction and 94 percent reported using standards to assess
student progress.32
However, most teachers do not feel very well prepared to use standards in the classroom. In
1998, only 37 percent of teachers in schools with 60 percent poverty or greater reported that they
felt very well prepared to implement state or district curriculum and performance standards. This
sense of preparedness is a key factor in predicting student outcomes, according to the LESCP
study of 71 high-poverty Title I schools. The LESCP found that teachers’ reported preparedness
in both subject matter and instructional strategies had a positive relationship with student
progress.33 The LESCP also found that district reform policy had an influence on teachers’
familiarity with standards-based reform and their implementation of such reform in their
classrooms. Teachers in higher-reform districts were more likely than their peers in lower-reform
districts to be familiar with content and performance standards and assessments, and their
curriculum was more likely to reflect the standards.
Another factor that may contribute to a teacher’s sense of preparedness is professional

development. In 1998, public school teachers, regardless of the poverty level of their school,
spent only a limited amount of time in professional development, although they did focus on
topics that supported standards-based reform. Most teachers are not participating in intensive
or sustained training—two essential characteristics of effective professional development. Given
the relationship between teacher preparedness and student achievement, this is a troubling
finding. Over half (55 percent) of all teachers in high-poverty schools reported spending less
than 9 hours per year on training in the content areas. Over two-thirds (70 percent) of teachers in
high-poverty schools reported receiving less than 9 hours per year of professional development
related to content and performance standards. 34
Title I Support for Standards-Based Reform
Schools are making better use of delivery models that integrate Title I with the regular
academic program. Reliance on the pull-out model (instruction outside the regular classroom)
has decreased, while in-class models (instruction in the regular classroom), schoolwide programs,
and extended-time instruction have all increased. Use of the in-class model has increased
dramatically since the years prior to reauthorization, from 58 percent of Title I schools in 1991-92
to 83 percent in 1997-98. Use of the pull-out model declined from 74 percent of Title I schools in
1991-92 to 68 percent in 1997-98. However, in 1997-98, over half (57 percent) reported using
both approaches.35
Title I paraprofessionals are widely used as part of schools’ instructional programs. In the
1997-98 school year, 84 percent of principals in high-poverty schools reported using aides, as
contrasted with 54 percent in low-poverty schools.36 Although very few paraprofessionals had the
educational background necessary to teach students, almost all (96 percent) were either teaching
or helping to teach students.37 Three-fourths of paraprofessionals (72 percent) spent at least some
of this time teaching without a teacher present.38
Schoolwide programs have the potential to help integrate Title I resources in standards-
based reform at the school level. Recent findings show that schoolwide programs are more
likely than targeted assistance schools to use a strategic plan and to use models of service delivery
that better integrate Title I into the larger educational program. Strategic plans allow Title I
services to be considered within the broader context of a school’s reform goals, and can provide a
framework for better integration of Title I within the regular academic program. In addition, as
Executive Summary xxvii

would be expected, principals in schoolwide programs reported less use of the pull-out model
than targeted-assistance programs. They were also more likely to report using extended-time
programs.
Less than half of Title I schools offer extended learning time programs during the school
year, although the proportion of schools offering extended time has increased from
9 percent to 41 percent since the last reauthorization. Moreover, few students participate in
these programs. Extended-time programs offered during the school year (through before-school,
after-school, or weekend programs) serve 16 percent of the students in the highest-poverty
schools with such programs and 11 percent of the students in Title I schools with such programs.39
Summer school programs serve 17 percent of the students in the highest-poverty schools and 19
percent of the students in Title I schools offering summer programs.40
Recent research on effective schools has found that such schools use extended learning time
in reading and mathematics to improve learning and achievement.41 In a recent study of
higher-success and lower-success elementary schools in Maryland, researchers found that the
more successful schools were seeing consistent academic gains as a result of extended day
programs.42 In another study of high-performing, high-poverty schools, 86 percent of the schools
extended time for reading and 66 percent extended instructional time in mathematics.43
Recent evidence indicates that secondary schools are making progress in implementing
service delivery models that are less stigmatizing and better integrated with the regular
academic program. Secondary students are still served in pull-out settings, but less commonly
than elementary students. Moreover, in the schools that do provide pull-out services, this model
of service delivery appears to be only one of several such models. In addition to improving
Title I delivery strategies, secondary schools are making progress in implementing standards-
based reform. Title I services in secondary schools provide supplementary services in support of
schools’ efforts to enable students to achieve high standards. Most secondary school principals
reported using content standards to a great extent in reading (75 percent at the middle school level
and 62 percent at the high school level) and mathematics (72 percent at the middle school level
and 65 percent at the high school level).44 Case studies of 18 secondary schools engaged in
school improvement suggest that state and local accountability systems are prompting reform,
and that Title I generally serves to support these reform efforts. In states and districts with high-
stakes accountability systems, both core academic instruction and supplementary assistance
provided through Title I are often geared toward preparing students to pass state or district
assessments. 45
Title I Support for Partnerships with Families, Schools, and

Communities to Support Learning
Title I supports for parental involvement and family literacy. The federal role in supporting
parental involvement can be catalytic, encouraging schools to get parents to help their children
learn and to participate in school activities and decisions. Principals and teachers identify the
lack of parental involvement as a significant barrier to improvement, and see the need to engage
parents to achieve reform, especially in high-poverty schools. The new Title I school-parent
compacts can bring schools and parents together around their shared responsibilities, but they
need sustained support. Although the proportion of Title I schools with school-parent compacts
rose from 20 percent in 1994 to about 75 percent in 1998, there remain 25 percent with no parent
agreements. A substantial majority of schoolsespecially those serving high concentrations of
low-income children do find compacts helpful in promoting parental involvement, particularly
Executive Summary xxviii

higher-poverty schools, but principals continue to identify lack of parental involvement as one of
the major barriers to reform.46 In addition, the Even Start family literacy program has shown
results in working with very needy families, but it needs to strengthen the intensity and quality of
services to improve performance.
Special Title I Services
Title I Services to Students Attending Private Schools
Reauthorization and recent court rulings have affected the participation of private school
students in Title I. Federal law requires that students in private schools be afforded an
opportunity to participate in Title I equal to students in public schools, and the services provided
to them also must be equitable. Reauthorization in 1994 changed the allocation of Title I
resources for these services, linking it to the number of low-income students residing in
attendance areas instead of the level of educational need. The overturning of the Aguilar v. Felton
decision in June 1997 (Felton had restricted service locations for students in religiously affiliated
schools) adds considerable flexibility to districts’ options for providing Title I services to eligible
students enrolled in private schools.
 Surveys have shown that the number of private school participants has declined by about
6 percent since the 1994 reauthorization, from 177,000 in 1993-94 to 167,000 in 1996-97.
Most Title I administrators and private school representatives agree that they have
established positive working relationships, but report differently about who is actually
involved in consultation and about the topics that are discussed. For example, Title I
administrators in at least 80 percent of districts say that they consulted with either a private
school principal or representative of a private school organization on most issues, but
substantially fewer private school representatives report such consultation.
Almost all districts that serve eligible private school students provide them with supplementary
academic instruction. A preliminary review of the experiences of nine large urban districts
indicates that they are taking advantage of the opportunity to provide instructional services on
religiously affiliated school premises. However, Title I administrators in these districts also
report that they continue to provide at least some of the instructional services in neutral sites on or
near the school grounds, with several of the districts relying more heavily on these facilities than
others.
Title I, Part B: Even Start Family Literacy Program
The Even Start program (Title I, Part B) provides support to states and local grantees for
family literacy programs intended to break the cycle of poverty and illiteracy in low-income
families. The program is designed to support high-quality, intensive instructional programs of
adult education, parenting education, and early childhood education.
The national evaluation has documented that Even Start projects successfully target
services toward families who are most in need, and that participating families consistently
make gains on measures of literacy.
 At least 90 percent of families participating in 1996-97 had incomes at or below the federal
poverty level, and 85 percent of the adults had not earned a high school diploma or GED.
Executive Summary xxix

 In 1995-96, the gap between scores of Even Start children and those for a national norms
group was reduced by two-thirds in one year.
 Adult participants also made gains on tests of adult literacy. Parents also showed moderate
gains on a measure of the home environment for literacy, gains not found in a control group
of parents in a study of the Comprehensive Child Development Program.
Working with such needy families poses challenges to providing intensive services and
engaging families over an extended period of time. Research has shown that service intensity
and duration can contribute to better outcomes. Although Even Start projects have increased the
amount of instruction they have offered in all core service areas over time, only about 25 percent
of all projects meet or exceed the Department’s performance indicator for the number of service
hours offered in the three core instructional components.
Title I, Part C: Migrant Education Program
The Migrant Education Program (MEP) provides formula grants to states for supplemental
education and support services for the children of migrant agricultural workers and fishers.
Reauthorization established a priority for services for migratory children whose education has
been interrupted during the school year and who are failing, or at risk of failing, to meet their
states’ content and performance standards. According to 80 percent of principals of schoolwide
programs, migrant students who fail to meet their state’s performance standards have the highest
priority for instructional services.
MEP summer-term and extended-time projects play an important role in the education of
migrant students. Summer projects provide continuity of instruct47ion for migrant students, who
experience a great deal of educational disruption. Over the past decade, summer projects have
grown faster than the regular program, and they now serve approximately 60 percent of the
number of students served during the regular term. The number of summer participants increased
from 220,800 in the 1995-96 school year to over 283,000 in 1996-97.
Effective coordination at the state level can increase the efficiency and effectiveness of
services to migrant children. Consortia arrangements designed to reduce administrative costs
and increase information sharing across states have grown since reauthorization.
 As of August 1998, the Department had approved consortia arrangements involving 32 states,
an increase from 15 states in fiscal year 1995.
 Two years after the elimination of the Migrant Student Records Transfer System, most states
and school districts rely on mail, telephone, and fax to transfer records for migrant students.
Title I, Part D: Prevention and Intervention Programs for Children and Youth Who
are Neglected, Delinquent, or At Risk of Dropping Out
The Title I, Part D program is intended to serve neglected and delinquent children and
youth, often in juvenile and adult correctional facilities. The 1994 reauthorization made
several major changes to the Title I, Part D program. One change was increasing the number of
hours each week for instruction to help students to meet challenging academic standards. The
reauthorized program also offered institutions the option of operating institutionwide programs,
Executive Summary xxx

modeled after Title I schoolwide programs, to help ensure that students’ needs are being met in a
coherent and coordinated manner.
Although states report that they are building facilities’ capacity to implement
institutionwide programs, few facilities have implemented them. More than half of the states
provided technical assistance on “whole school” improvement, yet only 9 percent of neglected or
delinquent (N or D) facilities are institutionwide programs. Moreover, states and institutions need
to work on collecting appropriate data and using it to inform program improvement. Institutions
are generally unable to collect comprehensive data on students’ educational experiences and
transition to further education or employment.
Options for Future Directions
Stay the Course: Maintain an Emphasis on Challenging Standards for All Students
Gains by students in the nation’s highest-poverty schools, coupled with evidence that aligning
instruction with challenging standards can substantially increase student achievement, point to the
need to stay the course of focusing instruction on challenging standards for all students. Though
there has clearly been progress in implementing standards at all levels, full implementation in
classrooms across the country has yet to be accomplished. States, districts, and schools need to
continue to implement standards that challenge all students to achieve at high levels, and to align
curriculum, teaching, and assessments with those standards. Reauthorization should address the
continuing challenges that limit Title I’s capacity to be a stimulus and support for better results
for our nation’s at-risk students.
Targeted High-Performance “Catch-Up” Grants to Strengthen the Highest-Poverty

Schools
The continuing weak performance of the highest-poverty schools, those with poverty in
excess of 75 percent, remains one of America’s most pressing educational problems.
Although all Title I schools need additional resources and assistance, the highest-poverty schools
are the neediest not only in terms of their populations served, but also in terms of the progress
they must make to improve their current performance. In these schools, 7 out of every 10
children are currently achieving below even the basic level of reading.
Reauthorization should focus on the extraordinary needs of the highest-poverty schools to

improve teaching and learning for our most at-risk students, while holding these schools
accountable for continuous improvement in student results. If these grants were to target an
additional $1.3 billion, or about 15 percent of current Title I funds, they would be sufficient, when
combined with current Title I funds and a 25 percent local match, to enable the highest-poverty
schools to
 Support a schoolwide model program of their choosing that is backed by evaluation evidence
of effectiveness. Schools could carry out intensive programs aimed at improving early
reading as in the Reading Excellence Act program, run a program to start their middle-school
students thinking about college and planning for their futures, as in GEAR UP, or a
combination of such approaches.
Executive Summary xxxi

 Within three years, achieve a ratio of modern multimedia computers to students of 5:1, a
long-term national target and a goal that is especially important in high-poverty communities
where children lack the home access to computers available in higher-income areas.
 Provide a high-quality after-school instructional program for 50 percent of all students, up

from the current 12 percent.
 Reduce class sizes in the early grades to 21 students per teacher, midway from current levels
to the long-term national goal of 18 students.
In turn,
 Recipient schools would make a commitment to continued progress in improving

student outcomes as defined through annual outcome and service improvement targets.
These would be described in a peer-reviewed schoolwide plan. Schools would annually
report progress against outcome and service performance objectives with the plan and reports.
 States and districts would need to make a commitment to assisting their highest-poverty
schools. States and districts would work with their schools to identify resources from all
sources that could be combined for meaningful, concerted school reform. Districts would
review their schools’ planning and implementation and offer peer reviewers to work with the
schools on a sustained basis. They would also share performance data, research on effective
approaches, and information across schools engaged in reform.
 The highest-poverty schools would also have the highest priority for assistance from all
federally supported technical assistance providers. Comprehensive regional assistance
centers and other technical assistance providers would place these schools at the head of the
line for support, concentrating their efforts where they could do the most good.
These monies would raise the average amount of Title I funds that the highest-poverty schools
receive annually by 50 percent, to an estimated $336,000 for each school. These new monies
could go out under the current formulas to states and districts for their schools with poverty rates
of 75 percent or higher. If states lack schools in the highest-poverty category, they would receive
a minimum grant to be spent on their most impoverished schools.
The resources to support the Targeted High-Performance School Grants could come from
increases in Title I funding and an off-the-top set-aside for these schools in related federal
programs such as 21st Century Learning Communities, Reading Excellence Act, Technology
Literacy Challenge Fund, GEAR UP, and Class-Size Reduction. A set-aside of one-third of the
FY 2000 monies from these five programs for these highest-poverty schools would provide about
$990 million under the administration’s FY 2000 budget request. The remainder to bring the total
to $1.3 billion could come from channeling the $320 million proposed increase in Title I funding
to these new grants.
Targeting additional funds to schools with high concentrations of low-income students has
advantages over targeting on low performance. First, high-performing, high-poverty schools
should not be penalized for their progress. Second, low-performing schools should not be
rewarded for a lack of effort. High-performing schools need support, recognition, and
encouragement to sustain their gains. In addition, targeting funds on the basis of poverty is
Executive Summary xxxii

consistent with the process for allocating funds currently and would not require a different
mechanism.
Executive Summary xxxiii

Strengthen Instruction
Progress in using Title I to support better instructional practices at the school level remains
limited by the continued use of paraprofessionals who provide instruction, particularly in
the highest-poverty Title I schools. Paraprofessionals in high-poverty schools tend to have less
formal education than those in low-poverty schools, and they are often assigned to teach—
sometimes without a teacher present. Although many paraprofessionals have invested large
amounts of time and effort working in Title I schools and are an important part of the school
community, it is imperative that priorities for their services be based solely on the needs of
students. Phasing out their use in instruction and promoting their use as parent liaisons or in
administrative functions should be a priority.
Reauthorization should also support the establishment of career ladder programs for
paraprofessionals, so that those desiring to become credentialed would be supported in
doing so. These programs could include what recent survey data show that some districts are
doing already.
Reauthorization should include resources for the development of ongoing consumer guides
on effective practices. Schools are moving toward adopting curriculum and whole-school
reform models to frame their improvement efforts. However little independent research has been
conducted to evaluate the efficacy of comprehensive school reform models and better understand
the conditions under which they can succeed. The federal government should make such research
and evaluation of comprehensive model programs a priority through systematic study and annual
reporting in a consumer guide. To ensure the integrity and independence of model appraisal, a
quasi-governmental agency might be established to oversee the integrity of the evaluation process
and reporting of results. This information would enable schools to become better-educated
consumers in selecting and implementing models most likely to fit their circumstances and
contribute to improved results.
Strengthen Parental Involvement
The general direction of Title I parent involvement policies and compacts on supporting learning
is consistent with research. Options that would strengthen implementation include these:
 Have schools report annually on measurable indicators of the effectiveness of parental

involvement, as reflected in their own policies and compacts.
 Consolidate or coordinate parental involvement provisions across all elementary and

secondary programs that have them to form one uniform parent provision. These programs
are Title I, Even Start Family Literacy, Education of Migratory Children, Parental
Information and Resource Centers, Impact Aid, Education for Homeless Children and Youth,
Magnet Schools, 21st Century Community Learning Centers, Indian Education, Technology
for Education, and Safe and Drug-Free Schools and Communities.
 Strengthen parental involvement activities in the early grades to support reading and family
literacy, and in the middle and high school grades to encourage students to take challenging
courses.
Executive Summary xxxiv

Focus on Accountability
The use of school profiles designed to report school results and progress has been shown to
be a powerful tool for accountability and school improvement. However, profiles often do
not effectively reach parents and community members. They tend to be difficult to read, even
for the well-educated parent. Their scope of information is also limited; few school report cards
present information on teacher quality or student rates of progress. Also, schools are limited by a
lack of comparable statewide or national information on what they are able to accomplish. The
federal government should facilitate state and local school district efforts to provide coherent,
comparative information on school progress to their communities.
The reauthorization should also ensure that accountability provisions identify schools in
need of improvement on the basis of the best measures available to states and districts—
regardless of whether their final assessment systems are in place. Schools already identified
for improvement, should remain so; time should not be lost as a result of reauthorization in
identifying and reaching schools with the greatest needs.
Reauthorization should address eliminating dual accountability systems. For Title I to be an

effective lever for improvement, it needs to be aligned with and supportive of the systems that
states are creating.
Finally, Congress and those responsible for implementing and supporting Title I programs
should recognize that state and local systems of standards, assessments and accountability
are in flux and are likely to keep changing over time. Even established systems such as those
in Kentucky and Kansas, which were forerunners in the development of aligned systems of
standards and assessments, have revised their efforts to reflect priorities of their state legislatures
and boards. The law should recognize this situation and offer states and districts the flexibility to
continue to implement measures of school accountability under these conditions.
Summary
This National Assessment of Title I has examined the program in the context of the burgeoning
standards-based reform movement in states and school districts. Although there has clearly been
progress in implementing standards at all levels, full implementation in classrooms across the
country has yet to be accomplished. The new directions proposed for reauthorization are
designed to help speed up implementation of standards, to help all children achieve at high levels.
Reauthorization should address the continuing challenges that undercut Title I’s capacity to be a
stimulus and support for better results for our nation’s at-risk students
Executive Summary xxxv

.
Executive Summary xxxvi

FOREWORD
Background and Context for the National Assessment of Title I

As the largest single federal investment in schooling for more than 30 years, Title I of the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act (ESEA) [P.L. 103-382] provides over $8 billion annually to school systems across the
country to improve education for children who attend schools with high concentrations of poverty. Title I
supports improvements in teaching and learning and provides services that help children who are most at risk of
school failure to succeed in school. The program’s central objective is to support state and local efforts to help all
children reach challenging standards by providing additional resources for schools and students who have farthest
to go in achieving the goal.
The 1994 reauthorization of Title I of ESEA—through the enactment of the Improving America’s Schools Act
(IASA) [P.L. 103-382]—brought about significant changes in key elements of this program. Six years ago, the
U.S. Department of Education reported to Congress on the effectiveness of the program as it operated as Chapter
1. That report, Reinventing Chapter 1: The Current Chapter 1 Program and New Directions,48 which drew from
the Prospects longitudinal study,49 found that Chapter 1 programs reinforced low expectations of the students they
served by providing students with remedial instruction and holding them to lower academic and performance
standards than other students.
 Different expectations were held for students in high- and low-poverty schools. Indeed, an “A” student in a
high-poverty school would be about a “C” student in a low-poverty school when measured against a common
test.50
 Chapter 1 students were often pulled out of their regular classrooms, adding an average of 10 minutes of
instructional time per day and often failing to relate to the rest of the students’ educational experience.51
 Chapter 1 did not fully contribute to high-quality instruction and often relied on teachers’ aides who lacked
educational credentials.52
 Chapter 1 had not kept pace with the growing movement, across the country, toward the establishment of
challenging standards and assessments. Therefore, weaknesses in instruction were coupled with minimum
competency assessments that tested primarily low-level skills.53
The 1994 reauthorization addressed the limitations identified under Chapter 1 by emphasizing the goal of holding
all students to the same high state standards. These changes include the requirement that Title I services be linked
to the same rigorous standards that are expected of all children and that aligned assessments measure students’
progress towards these standards. The statute also encourages high-poverty schools to develop schoolwide
approaches to improving student performance, promotes attention to challenging curriculum and accelerated
instruction through high-quality teacher training and extended learning time strategies, and encourages
partnerships between parents and staff in high-poverty schools.
Foreword 37
Title I, along with other federally supported programs, was also redesigned to better link its national purpose to
state and local reform efforts. The legislation coupled flexibility in the use of resources with attention to
accountability for results. Providing flexibility in tandem with performance accountability is the centerpiece of
Title I and an overall focus of the National Assessment of Title I. The National Assessment also examines the
implementation of key Title I provisions at the state, district, and school levels, analyzes which provisions make
the most difference, and suggests strategies for improved practices or changes in statutory requirements.
The Mandate for a National Assessment of Title I

The mandate for the National Assessment of Title I (P.L. 103-382, Sec. 1501) identifies key issues to be examined
by the U.S. Department of Education. First and foremost is the progress of schools, local districts and states
toward the goal of helping all children served by Title I reach challenging standards. The mandate also requires
that the Department report on progress toward achieving that goal by examining key priorities in the law such as:
 Ensuring challenging content and performance standards for all children;
 Targeting resources to areas where the needs are greatest;
 Providing an enriched and accelerated educational program to children enrolled in Title I schools, and
upgrading instruction by providing staff in participating schools with substantial opportunities for
professional development;
 Affording opportunities for parents of children (served by Title I) to participate in the education of their
children at home and at school, such as the provision of family literacy services; and
 Providing greater decision-making authority over the use of Title I funds to schools in exchange for greater
responsibility for student performance.
The focus on results in Title I is consistent with priorities established for all federal programs through the
Government Performance and Results Act of 1993 (GPRA) [P.L. 103-62], which requires that agencies establish
performance goals and track indicators for every program. The National Assessment of Title I reports progress on
key indicators identified for the Title I program under this Act. These indicators reflect progress in three priority
areas:
 Improved achievement for students enrolled in high-poverty schools;
 Increases in the number of Title I schools using standards-based reform and effective strategies to enable all
students to reach challenging standards; and
 Accelerated state and local standards-based reform efforts and assistance to Title I schools.
Foreword 38
The National Assessment’s interim reportMapping Out the National Assessment of Title I—outlined challenges
in planning and conducting the National Assessment of Title I.54 Because Title I is no longer conceived of as a
separate supplemental program, progress cannot be measured in isolation from changing state, district, and school
reform efforts and results. The National Assessment relied on national measures of academic progress overall, as
well as assessments that states were developing aligned to their academic standards. Also, the expansion of
schoolwide programs blurred the distinction between program participants and other children. Tracking the use of
Title I funds became problematic when schools were encouraged to pool their resources from all sources to
support schoolwide reform. Early reductions in congressional appropriations for Title I evaluation limited the
Department’s efforts to track progress of a nationally representative cohort of students and schools similar to the
Prospects study, which informed the National Assessment of Chapter 1.55
Nevertheless, these challenges created opportunities for bringing together multiple sources of information
supported both through the U.S. Department of Education and other sourcesto provide a comprehensive
assessment of the implementation and impact of the 1994 amendments to the program. Descriptions of key
program evaluations and other studiesboth ongoing and completedwhich informed the National Assessment
of Title I are listed in the Appendix.
Independent Review Panel for the National Assessment of Title I and Study of the
Federal Impact on Elementary/Secondary Reform
The National Assessment of Title I benefited from the involvement of an Independent Review Panel composed of
representatives of state and local education agencies and private schools, school-level staff, parent representatives,
education researchers, and policy experts. The Panel, mandated under Sections 1501 and 14701 of the ESEA, has
met three to four times a year since May 1995. It has defined issues, and reviewed plans, analysis and draft text
for the National Assessment of Title I and a companion report, Federal Education Legislation Enacted in 1994:
An Evaluation of Implementation and Impact. Panel members also prepared their own report, Measured
Progress: The Report of the Independent Review Panel on the Evaluation of Federal Education Legislation.
Key Issues Addressed in This Report

In responding to Congress’ mandate, the final report of the National Assessment of Title I responds to Congress’
mandate to examine the progress of students served by the program and implementation of key provisions. The
report is organized around the following topics:
 The performance of students in high-poverty schools and low-performing students, who are the prime
beneficiaries of Title I services;
 The implementation of systems designed to support schools in helping students meet high standards,
including the establishment of systems of challenging standards and assessments, the role of Title I in holding
schools accountable for results, targeting of Title I funds, and the allocation and use of resources in states,
districts and schools;
Foreword 39
 The implementation of Title I services at the school level, including uses of schoolwide and targeted-
assistance approaches for providing services in Title I schools, strategies for providing challenging curriculum
and instruction in high-poverty Title I schools, qualifications of and support for staff (including aides) in Title
I high-poverty schools, and Title I support for partnerships with families; and
 The implementation of additional Title I services targeted at special populations, including Services to
Students Enrolled in Private Schools (under Part A), Even Start (Part B), Migrant Education Program (Part
C), and Services to Neglected or Delinquent Children (Part D).
The Final Report of the National Assessment of Title I concludes with a summary of key findings and suggestions
for future directions for Title I legislation and program implementation.
48
U.S. Department of Education, Reinventing Chapter 1: The Current Program and New Directions (Washington, DC:
Author, 1993) xi-xii.
49
Michael Puma, Nancy Karweit, Cristofer Price, Anne Ricciuti, William Thompson, and Michael Vaden-Kiernan,
Prospects: Student Outcomes Final Report (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1997) 12.
50
U.S. Department of Education, Prospects, 18.
51
U.S. Department of Education, Reinventing Chapter 1, 78-82.
52
53
54
U.S. Department of Education, Mapping Out the National Assessment of Title I (Washington, DC: Author) 1-3.
55
Title I evaluation funding for evaluations associated with the National Assessment of Title I (from 1995-1998) totaled $21
million. In contrast, Chapter 1 evaluation funding (from 1989-1994) for evaluations associated with the National Assessment
of Chapter 1 (including the Prospects study) totaled $42 million.
Foreword 40
Foreword 41
Introduction 42
1. INTRODUCTION
The Significance of Title I Support for Students at Risk

Poverty is a significant problem for many of our nation’s children. In 1997, the U.S. Bureau of the Census
estimated that 20 percent of American children under the age of 18 lived in poverty. This poverty rate is about the
same level as in 1965 (the year in which Title I was first enacted), although it fluctuated during this period from a
low of 15 percent in 1970 to a high of 22 percent in 1993).56 African American and Hispanic childrenboth with
poverty rates of 37 percentare more than twice as likely as non-Hispanic white children to be poor.57
Particularly in the urban core, communities are faced with concentrations of poverty that pose formidable
challenges for schools. One-third of the children in America’s cities live in poverty.58
Because the effects of poverty on learning are profound, these statistics translate into severe educational
disadvantages for many children and pose serious challenges for public education. At the individual level,
poverty has numerous correlates that inhibit learning. Poor children are more likely than wealthier children to be
exposed to drug abuse, violence, and unhealthy living conditions.59 Low-income students are far more likely to
drop out of schoolin 1996, almost eight times more low-income students dropped out than high-income
students did.60 Parents in economically disadvantaged families tend to have limited education and involvement in
their children’s learning.61 Teachers in schools with high concentrations of low-income students are less likely to
have high expectations regarding their students’ attainment of challenging academic standards, holding the
students to lower standards than those for more advantaged students.62
But the effects of poverty on student achievement are not restricted to students who are poor. Research shows that
school-wide poverty affects student performance, independent of the students’ own family background. The
achievement levels of both poor and non-poor students decline as school poverty rates increase. Thus, high
concentrations of poverty put at-risk students at a double disadvantage.63
Title I helps meet the greater educational challenges facing high-poverty communities by targeting extra resources
to school districts and schools with the highest concentrations of poverty, where academic performance tends to
be low and the obstacles to raising performance are the greatest. Nearly all (95 percent) of the highest-poverty
schoolsthose where 75 percent or more of the students are eligible for free- or reduced-price lunchreceive
Title I funds (Exhibit 1.1), accounting for 46 percent of Title I funding for schools and enrolling 14 percent of the
nation’s students.64 Title I services are also provided to disadvantaged children enrolled in private schools.
Introduction 43
Exhibit 1.1
100% 95%
81%
80%
64%
58%
60%
40% 36%
20%
0%
T o tal 75% -100% 50% -74% 35% -49% 0-34%
Exhibit reads: Nearly all (95 percent) of the highest-poverty schools receive Title I funds,
compared with 58 percent of all schools.
Source: Stullich, Donly, and Stolzberg, Targeting Schools: Study of Title I Allocations Within
Schools, 1999.
Title I also provides supplemental assistance to children who face additional educational barriers—children
whose needs are generally not met by state and local funds. These include children who come from families
with low family literacy, the children of migrant agricultural workers, and children who are neglected or
delinquent.
The children of parents with poor literacy skills are less likely to receive early literacy training at home or to be
enrolled in a preschool program, and hence their risk of school failure increases.65 Migrant children’s families
move frequently to pursue agricultural work, and thus the children must change schools frequentlya situation
that has a detrimental effect on their achievement. Neglected or delinquent students are extremely educationally
disadvantaged; many are incarcerated in state juvenile and adult correctional facilities and have experienced
numerous disruptions in their education. These children are served under other programs authorized under Title I,
including:
 Even Start Family Literacy Programs (Title IPart B), which supports literacy services and early childhood
programs for disadvantaged families;
 Education of Migratory Children (Title IPart C), which provides supplemental services at the state and
local levels to assist children of migratory workers by providing continuity in their education and additional
support services to address the barriers posed by their migrant status; and
Introduction 44
 Prevention and Intervention Programs for Children and Youth Who are Neglected, Delinquent, or At Risk of
Dropping Out (Title IPart D), which support instructional and support services in state and local facilities
for neglected children and incarcerated youth.
Title I programs provided a total of $8.4 billion in FY 1999. About 93 percent of Title I funding ($7.676 billion)
supported Basic and Concentration Grants to school districts authorized under Part A (Exhibit 1.2). Title I
programs funded in FY 1999 also included Capital Expenses for Private School Children ($24 million), Even
Start ($135 million), Migrant Education ($355 million), Services to Students who are Neglected, Delinquent or At
Risk of Dropping Out ($40 million), and Evaluation ($7.5 million).66
Exhibit 1.2
Title I Appropriations in FY 1999, by Program
Capital
Expenses
0.3%
Migrant
4.3%
Basic &
Concentration Ev en Start
93.2% 1.6%
State N or D
0.5%
Ev aluation
0.1%
Exhibit reads: Title I funds primarily support Basic and Concentration Grants to
school districts (93 percent of all Title I funds).
Source: U.S. Department of Education, FY 2000 Budget Summary, 1999.
Title I funding for FY 1999 amounts to 2.5 percent of total current expenditures for public elementary and
secondary education for the 1999-2000 school year (projected). Title I Basic and Concentration Grants
amount to 2.3 percent of total spending.67
Introduction 45
Over the past 30 years, funding for the Title I programs has increased by over 40 percent in inflation-adjusted
dollars. Since the 1994 reauthorization, Title I funding grew from $6.9 billion in FY 1994 to $8.4 billion in FY
1999a 17 percent increase after adjusting for inflation. Over the same five-year period, funding for other
elementary-secondary programs administered by the Department of Education (including other ESEA programs,
Goals 2000, School-to-Work, and Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) programs) grew from $6.0
billion to $11.4 billionan 80 percent increase after adjusting for inflation. The increase for other elementary-
secondary programs was primarily due to a 72 percent increase for IDEA ($2.2 billion) and new programs for
Class Size Reduction ($1.2 billion), Technology ($550 million), Reading Excellence ($260 million), and 21st
Century Community Learning Centers ($200 million). In FY 1999, Title I funds accounted for 42 percent of total
Department of Education funds for elementary and secondary programs, down from 53 percent in FY 1994.
(Exhibit 1.3)
Exhibit 1.3
Funding for Title I and Other Federal
Elementary-Secondary Programs,
1994 to 1999
$20.0
$15.0
$11 .4
Dollars in Billions
$ 9.0
O ther Elem entary-
$ 7.6
S econdary Program s
$ 6.2 $ 6.1
$10.0 $6 .0
T itle I
$5.0
$ 8.0 $8 .4
$ 7.2 $ 7.2 $ 7.7
$6 .9
$0.0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Exhibit reads: From FY 1994 to FY 1999, Title I funding grew from $6.9 billion to
$8.4 billion, while funding for other elementary-secondary programs (including other
ESEA programs, Goals 2000, School-to-Work, and IDEA) grew from $6.0 billion to
$11.4 billion.
Source: U.S. Department of Education, Budget Service.
Introduction 46
Federal education programs in general, and Title I in particular, are much more targeted to high-poverty
schools and districts than are state and local funds.
While school finance systems in most states target additional state funds to districts with large numbers of poor
students, they do not fully compensate for funding disparities related to local property tax bases. The districts in
the highest poverty quartile, which have 49 percent of the nation’s poor children, receive
27 percent of state education revenues and 18 percent of local education revenues, but their share of state and
local funds combined (23 percent) is still less than their share of school-age children (25 percent). In contrast,
the districts in the highest poverty quartile receive 43 percent of federal education funds and nearly half (49
percent) of Title I funds.68
What Title I Supports

In 1997-98, Title I (Part A) supported services for more than 45,000 schools, or 58 percent of all public schools in
the country, a decline from 62 percent in 1993-94. Almost two-thirds of elementary schools receive funds, as do
29 percent of secondary schools. 69 In 1997-98, just over 16,000 Title I schools operated schoolwide programs, an
increase from 4,600 in 1994-95.70
School districts use 90 to 93 percent of their Title I funds for instruction and instructional supportmost often in
reading and mathmuch higher than the percentage of state and local funds used for this purpose (62 percent).
Nearly all Title I funds are allocated to school districts, with only one percent used at the state and federal levels
for administration and technical support.71
Although Title I accounts for a relatively small percentage of total funding for elementary and secondary
education (about 3 percent), the program can often play a significant role in supporting local education
improvement efforts. Title I funds may also be used to provide professional development, purchase computers,
offer after-school or other extended-time programs, and provide other strategies for raising student achievement.
Introduction 47
Whom Title I Serves
Title I services reach more than 11 million students enrolled in both public and private schoolsabout two-thirds
of whom are enrolled in elementary grades 1-6 (Exhibit 1.4). Students in middle and secondary schools remain a
small proportion of those served overall.72
Exhibit 1.4
All Title I Participants, by Grade Span, 1996-97
Grades 4-6
30%
G rades 7-9
15%
Secondar y
21%
Ungraded
1%
Grades 1-3 Grades 10-12

37% 5%
Pre-K an d K
12%
Exhibit reads: 37 percent of the children served in Title I are in grades 1- 3.

Source: U.S. Department of Education, unpublished tabulations from the 1996-97 Title I
Performance Report.
Minority students participate at rates higher than their proportion of the student population. Some 28 percent of
Title I participants are African American, 30 percent are Hispanic, and 36 percent are non-Hispanic white; the
remainder are from other ethnic/racial groups.73
Among the 11 million students served by the Title I (Part A) program are about 167,000 private school children,
300,000 migrant children, and 200,000 children identified as homeless. Title I services are also provided to about
2 million students with limited English proficiency, and 1 million students with disabilities.74 In 1996-97, Even
Start served some 48,000 children and almost 36,000 adults.75 Over 580,000 migrant children were served under
the Migrant Education Program (Part C) , and 200,000 neglected or delinquent youth were served in the Title I N
or D.76
Introduction 48
56
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, “Poverty Estimates by Selected Characteristics,” published in
Current Population Reports, Series P-60-10, Poverty in the United States and Income, Poverty, and Valuation of Noncash
Benefits (Washington, DC: Author, various years); available at www.census.gov/hhes/poverty/poverty97/pv97est1.html.
57
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, “Poverty Status of People, by Age, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 1959
to 1997” (Historical Poverty Tables - People, Table 3) (Washington, DC: Author, Feb. 1999); available at
www.census.gov/hhes/poverty/histpov/hstpov3.html.
58
Laura Lippman, Urban Schools: The Challenge of Location and Poverty (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,
National Center for Education Statistics, 1996) vi.
59
60
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Dropout Rates in the United States: 1996
(Washington, DC: Author, 1997) vi.
61
Puma et al., Prospects 69-71.
62
Puma et al., Prospects iii.
63
Puma et al, Prospects vi.
64
Stephanie Stullich, Brenda Donly, and Simeon Stolzberg, Targeting Schools: Study of Title I Allocations Within School
Districts (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1999); Jay Chambers, Joanne Lieberman, Tom Parrish, Daniel
Kaleba, James Van Campen, and Stephanie Stullich, Study of Education Resources and Federal Funding: Preliminary Report
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1999).
65
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Goal 1 Work Group, Achieving the
Nation’s Readiness Goal: Technical Report (Washington, DC: Author, 1993).
66
U.S. Department of Education, FY 2000 Budget Summary 15.
67
U.S. Department of Education, Planning and Evaluation Service.
68
Chambers et al.
69
Stullich et al.
70
Camilla Heid and Ann Webber, School-Level Implementation of Standards-Based Reform: Findings from the Follow-up
Public School Survey on Education Reform (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1999); U.S. Department of
Education, unpublished tabulations from the 1996-97 Title I State Performance Report.
71
U. S. Department of Education, The Use of Federal Funds for Administrative Costs (Washington, DC: Author, 1998) vii.
72
U.S. Department of Education, 1996-97 Title I Performance Report.
73
74
75
Fumiyo Tao, Beth Gamse, and Hope Tarr, National Evaluation of the Even Start Family Literacy Program: 1994-97
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1998) 30.
76
Introduction 49
2. PROGRESS IN THE PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS IN
HIGH-POVERTY SCHOOLS
KEY FINDINGS
An examination of trends in the performance of students in the nation’s highest-poverty public schools
(those with 75 percent or more poor children), as well as progress of the lowest-achieving students
shows positive gains in reading and math performance since the reauthorization of Title I.
 Since 1992, and the reauthorization of Title I, 9-year-olds in the highest-poverty schools gained
8 points in NAEP reading scores, regaining the losses between the late 1980s and early 1990s. The
lowest-achieving public school 4th-graders improved by about half to one grade level in reading
achievement between 1994 and 1998.
 Math achievement has improved for all students and for students in the highest-poverty schools.
NAEP scores show an increase of about 10 points for all 9-year-olds from 1986 through 1996.
Students in the highest-poverty schools made their greatest gains after 1992. Math scores also
improved substantially among public 4th-graders in the lowest percentiles of performance. Scores of
the lowest 10 percent and 25 percent of public school 4th-graders improved by 9 and 8 points,
respectively (almost one grade level) between 1990 and 1996.
Despite gains in reading and math performance, the students in the highest-poverty schools remain
substantially below their more advantaged peers in meeting basic standards of performance in both
reading and math.
 In 1998, 32 percent of 4th-graders in the highest-poverty schools scored at or above the NAEP Basic
level in reading, about half the national percentage.
 In 1996, 42 percent of 4th-graders in the highest-poverty schools scored at or above the NAEP Basic
level in mathematics, compared with 62 percent of all public 4th-graders. Despite this gap at the
national level, there were 9 states in which performance of students in the highest-poverty schools
exceeded the national average, indicating that it is possible to raise the performance of students in
high-poverty schools to national levels of achievement.
Three-year trends reported by states and districts show progress in the percentage of students in the
highest-poverty schools who meet state and local standards for proficiency in mathematics and reading.
Among states and large urban districts that could provide three-year trend data for students in high-
poverty schools, overall there is progress.
 The achievement of elementary school students in the highest-poverty schools improved in
4 of 5 states in mathematics and in 5 of 6 states in reading. Students in Connecticut, Maryland,
North Carolina, and Texas made progress in both subjects.
 Ten of 13 large urban districts showed increases in the percentage of elementary students in the
highest-poverty schools who met district or state proficiency standards in math or reading. Six
districts—Houston, Dade County (Miami), New York, Philadelphia, San Antonio, and San
Francisco—made progress in both subjects.
Student Performance 15
Background
Schools with the highest concentrations of poverty—those in which more than 75 percent or more
students receive free- or reduced-price lunches—face the greatest challenges in meeting the needs of all
their students. Ninety-five percent of these schools receive Title I funds.77 Because Title I is designed to
support the progress of schools with high concentrations of poverty, and because most Title I funds serve
elementary schools, data reported in this chapter focus on trends in performance of 9-year-olds in high-
poverty schools and of low-performing 4th-graders. For additional data on the achievement, course-taking
patterns, and dropout rates of older students, see the companion report Federal Education Legislation
Enacted in 1994: An Evaluation of Implementation and Impact.
The Title I statute requires that by the 2000-2001 school year each state will use assessments that are
aligned with challenging standards to measure the academic progress of all Title I schools and students.
Although this chapter presents available trends from state and local assessments, it relies primarily on
results from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), which, though not necessarily
aligned with standards in all states, provides the only uniform basis of comparing progress across states
and between individual states and the nation.78
The interpretation of national student achievement trends in evaluating Title I poses challenges. It is
difficult to attribute gains in student academic performance to the 3 percent of total funding contributed
by Title I, while disregarding the effect of the other 97 percent of the resources in education. Indeed, the
federal contribution should be examined as an investment in the much larger enterprise. Attributing the
effect of the federal program apart from the progress of the broader educational system poses challenges.
It requires that evaluation examine both national results for student performance and the extent to which
the federal program is being implemented in ways that may contribute to gains for students likely to
benefit from the program.
This chapter uses results from NAEP and from state and local assessments to answer two basic questions:
 Has student achievement, particularly the achievement of students in high-poverty schools and of the
lowest-achieving students, improved over time?
 To what extent are students, particularly those in the highest-poverty schools, meeting the standards
being set for all students across the nation?
Trends in Student Achievement Based on the National Assessment of
Educational Progress (NAEP)
Indicator: Student performance on national assessments. Between 1994 and 2002, performance of
the lowest-achieving students and students in the highest-poverty public schools will increase
substantially on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP).
Prior to 1986, when measures of school poverty were first collected on NAEP, achievement data were
reported by type of community in which the school was located and by minority status of students. The
results show that throughout the 1970s and most of the 1980s there was a narrowing of the gap in
achievement between students in disadvantaged urban communities and those in more advantaged
communities, as well as between minority and white students. The NAEP results document that the gap
narrowed by a third between 1971 and 1988.79 Although these are imperfect measures of the conditions
that put students at risk of school failure, they are useful proxies of school poverty as minority students
are disproportionately found in high-poverty schools, and these schools are disproportionately located in
urban inner cities. In this chapter, NAEP trend data from 1986 through 1996 are reported by school
poverty level, as one measure of the performance of students whom Title I is intended to benefit.
Although comparing students’ achievement by school poverty level is preferable, this comparison is
possible only on the Trend NAEP (see Exhibit 2.1). On the Main NAEP assessments (the tests that
measure more current curricular emphasis and standards) trend data by poverty level are unavailable
because changes in the item measuring school-level poverty make the comparisons unreliable. Trends on
the Main NAEP, therefore, are reported for the lowest percentile groups of students, focusing on those
students who score in the lowest 10 and 25 percent of 4th-graders in each assessment year. Like school
poverty level, these groups of low-achieving students are a good proxy for Title I participation because
over 80 percent of these low-achieving students attend Title I schools.80
EXHIBIT 2.1
HOW NAEP TESTS ARE USED TO REPORT PROGRESS
The National Assessment of Educational Progress consists of two separate tests, the Trend Assessment
and the Main Assessment. They differ in purpose, item content, sample, assessment years, and method
of scoring results, and are used in this chapter to answer different questions about student progress.
The NAEP Trend Assessment is designed to measure long-term trends in student performance on sets
of items that have not changed since NAEP was first conducted in 1969.81 The test measures the
performance of 9-, 13-, and 17-year-old students at the national level. Results are reported as average
scores on a scale from zero to 500 points. In this chapter, NAEP trend data for 9-year-olds are used to
answer the question, Has student achievement improved over time? The NAEP Trend Assessment is
also used to report the performance of students by poverty level of the schools they attend as defined by
percent of students participating in free or reduced-price lunch programs. Trend data reported by school
poverty level is used to answer the question, Has student achievement improved over time among
students attending the highest-poverty schools?
The Main NAEP Assessment, first conducted in 1990, is designed to measure short-term trends in
student performance on items reflecting more current curricular content and standards. The test
measures the performance of students in grades 4, 8, and 12 at the national level, and at the state level in
states that elect to participate in State NAEP. Test scores are reported in two ways, as average scale
scores and as the percentage of students achieving at established standards of performance. The
standards are determined by expert judges at three levels of achievement: Basic, Proficient, and
Advanced. Each of these measures is used as follows in this chapter:
• The average scale scores of the lowest-achieving students (the bottom 10 and 25 percent of scorers)
are used to answer the question, Has student achievement of the lowest-performing students
improved over time?
• The percentages of students achieving at and above the Basic and Proficient levels are used to
answer the question, Are students in the highest-poverty schools achieving to the academic
standards being set for all students across the nation?
National Trends in Reading Achievement 82
Has reading achievement of students in the highest-poverty schools improved over time?
The average reading performance of 9-year-olds was stable between 1988 and 1996. In contrast,
the performance of students in the highest-poverty schools, which was at its lowest in 1992, has
improved since the re-authorization of Title I, bringing scores back to their earlier levels. From
1992 to 1996, scores of 9-year-olds in the highest-poverty schools rose by 8 scale score points, or close to
one grade level of improvement (Exhibit 2.2).
Exhibit 2.2
Trends in NAEP Reading Performance
260
240
Low-Poverty Schools
225
221 220 220
217
220
All Schools
211 209 209 209 210
200 Highest-Poverty Schools

190 189 188
184
180
180
160
140
0
1988 1990 1992 1994 1996
Pre-Reauthorization
Exhibit reads: In 1996, the average reading scale score for 9-year-old students in the highest-
poverty schools was 188.
Assessment of Educational Progress, NAEP Reading Trends, unpublished tabulations, 1998.
Has reading achievement improved over time for the lowest-achieving students?
The lowest-achieving public school 4th-graders showed fairly substantial improvements in reading
between 1994 and 1998 on the Main NAEP. The substantial gains for these studentsamong those
targeted for Title I servicessuggest that it was the performance of the lowest achievers that raised
the national average of all 4th-graders, compared with the stable performance of higher-achieving
students.
Results of the Main NAEP reading assessment show that among 4th-graders scoring in the bottom 10 and
25 percent, the average scale scores declined between 1992 and 1994 and then increased between 1994
and 1998 almost to their 1992 levels (see Exhibit 2.3). The substantial gains since 1994—9 points among
the bottom 10 percent and 5 points among the bottom 25 percent—compared with the stable performance
of other higher achieving students, suggest that it was the performance of the lowest achievers that raised
the national average of all 4th-graders. Among 8th-graders in the lowest 25 percent, scores increased by 6
points between 1994 and 1998. These results are consistent with the results of the Trend NAEP, that is,
since the reauthorization of Title I there have been gains in reading achievement among students whom
Title I is intended to benefit.
Exhibit 2.3
NAEP Main Reading Assessment
Average Scale Scores of Public School 4th-Graders,
by Performance Percentile (1992, 1994, and 1998)
26 0
24 0
22 0 215 Average 215

212
20 0 192 192
187 25th Percentile
18 0
168
165
10th Percentile
156
16 0
14 00
1992 1994 1998
Pre-Reauthorization
Exhibit reads: In 1998, the average score of 4th-graders performing in the lowest 10
percent of students in the nation was 165 on the reading assessment.
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,
National Assessment of Educational Progress, Main NAEP Reading, unpublished
tabulations, 1999.
Are students in high-poverty schools achieving to the academic standards in reading
required of all students?
Despite the gains in reading among students targeted for Title I services, the achievement gap
between students in the highest-poverty schools and all students remains substantial.
In 1998, 32 percent of 4th-graders in the highest-poverty schools performed at or above the Basic level of
achievement in reading,i a rate about half that of all public 4th-graders in the nation (Exhibit 2.4).
Ten percent of students in the highest-poverty schools performed at or above Proficient,ii a rate one-third
that of all public 4th-graders. The decline in performance of students as their school poverty level
increases shows the consistency of the gap between students in poverty and their more advantaged peers.
Exhibit 2.4
NAEP 4th-Grade Reading
100%
At or Above Basic At or Above Proficient
80% 77%
66%
61%
60%
51%
44%
40%
31% 32%
29%
20%
20%
10%
0%
All P ublic 0-25% 26% -50% 51% -75% 76% -100%
S c hools
Poverty Level of School
Exhibit reads: In 1998, 77 percent of students attending low-poverty schools performed

at or above the Basic level in reading.
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,
National Assessment of Educational Progress, Main NAEP Reading, unpublished
tabulations, 1999.
i NAEP Basic Level: 4th-grade students are able to demonstrate an understanding of what they read. When reading
text appropriate for 4th-graders, they are able to make relatively obvious connections between the text and their own
experience and extend the ideas in the text by making simple references.
ii NAEP Proficient Level: 4th-grade students are able to demonstrate an overall understanding of the text, providing
inferential as well as literal information. When reading text appropriate to the 4th grade, they are able to extend the
ideas in the text by making inferences, drawing conclusions, and making connections to their own experiences. The
connection between the text and what the student infers should be clear.
State Trends in Student Achievement in Reading Based on Main State NAEP
At the state level in 1998 there was substantial variation in the reading performance of 4th-grade
students in the highest-poverty schools (Exhibit 2.5). The percentage of students in the highest-
poverty schools scoring at or above the Basic level on Main State NAEP ranged from a low of 19 percent
to a high of 61 percentthe national average for all public school 4th-grade students.
Exhibit 2.5
State NAEP 4th-Grade Reading, 1998
M a ine 61%
Ke nt uc ky 52%
W e s t V ir g inia 50%
M o nt a na 47%
O kla ho ma 46%
N o r t h C a r o lina 43%
M a s s a c hus e t t s 40%
C o lo r a d o 39%
S o ut h C a r o lina 38%
O re g o n 38%
Ka ns a s 38%
T e xa s 36%
A r ka ns a s 35%
V ir g inia 33%
G e o r g ia 33%
F lo r id a 33%
N e w M e xic o 32%
M is s is s ip p i 32%
C o nne c t ic ut 32%
A la b a ma 32%
W a s hing t o n 31%
N e w Y o rk 31%
Utah 30%
R ho d e Is la nd 30%
W is c o ns in 29%
National Average
T e nne s s e e 29% 61% for All Public
A r iz o na 29%
School Students
V ir g in Is la nd s 26%
M a r yla nd 26%
Lo uis ia na 26%
N e va d a 25%
M ic hig a n 24%
C a lif o r nia 23%
Ha w a ii 21%
D is t r ic t o f C o lumb ia 20%
M is s o ur i 19%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Exhibit Reads: In Maine, 61 percent of 4th-graders who attended the highest-poverty schools scored at or above the
Basic level in reading.
Assessment of Educational Progress, State NAEP Reading, unpublished tabulations, 1999.
National Trends in Mathematics Achievement 83
Has math achievement of students in the highest-poverty schools improved

over time?
Math achievement improved substantially for students in the highest-poverty schools between 1992
and 1996, rising by 9 points, or one grade level. Since 1986 math achievement has improved for all
students and for students in the highest-poverty schools. Trend NAEP scores show an increase of about
11 points for all 9-year-olds from 1986 to 1996. Following a decline in 1992, scores of students in the
highest-poverty schools increased, narrowing the gap with students in more affluent schools to its 1986
margin (Exhibit 2.6).
Exhibit 2.6
Trends in NAEP Mathematics Performance
260
Low-Poverty Schools
237 239 238
236
240
228
230 229 230 All Schools

228
220 219 Highest-Poverty Schools
215 217
213
200 208 208
180
160
1 4 00
1986 1990 1992 1994 1996
Pre-Reauthorization
Exhibit reads: In 1996 the average mathematics scale score of 9-year-old students in the highest-
poverty schools was 217.
Source: : U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National
Assessment of Educational Progress, NAEP Mathematics Trends, unpublished tabulations, 1998.
Has math achievement improved over time for the lowest-achieving students?
Between 1990 and 1996, math achievement improved among the lowest-achieving students, those
who are most targeted for Title I services. The Main NAEP assessment, which measures current
standards of content and performance, shows that from 1990 to 1996, the performance of students in the
lowest percentiles improved steadily. The lowest 10 percent of 4th-graders gained 9 points, and the lowest
25 percent gained 8 points, roughly equivalent to one grade level (Exhibit 2.7). Similar gains were made
by students on average as well as by those in the top 10 percent of 4th-graders. Among the bottom 25
percent of 8th-graders there were gains of 7 points over this same period. These results are consistent with
those of the long-term trend NAEP, that is, among all 4th-grade students and among those most targeted
for Title I, there were substantial improvements in math achievement since the Title I reauthorization.
Exhibit 2.7
NAEP Main Mathematics Assessment
Average Scale Scores of Public School 4th-Graders,
by Performance Percentile (1990, 1992, and 1996)
260
240
224
220 Average
220 213
201
197 25th Percentile
200 193
180
176 10th Percentile
180 171
160
1400
1990 1992 1996
Pre-Reauthorization
Exhibit reads: In 1996 the average mathematics score of 4th-grade students in the bottom
10 percent of the nation was 180.
Assessment of Educational Progress, Main NAEP Mathematics, Summary Data Tables,
http://nces.ed.gov/NAEP
Are students in the highest-poverty schools achieving to the academic standards in math
required of all students?
Despite the gains in math among students targeted for Title I services, the achievement gap between
students in the highest-poverty schools and all students remains substantial.
In 1996, 42 percent of 4th-grade students attending the highest-poverty schools scored at or above the
Basic level of achievementiii compared with 62 percent of all 4th-graders (Exhibit 2.8). Ten percent of
students in the highest-poverty schools scored at or above the Proficient achievement leveliv compared
with 19 percent of all 4th-graders.
Exhibit 2.8
NAEP 4th-Grade Mathematics
100%
At or Above Basic At or Above Proficient
80% 77%
62% 62%
59%
60%
42%
40%
28%
19% 19% 19%
20%
10%
0%
All P ublic 0-25% 26% -50% 51% -75% 76% -100%
S c hools
Poverty Level of School
Exhibit reads: In 1996, 62 percent of all 4th-graders scored at or above the Basic level in
mathematics and 19 percent scored at or above Proficient.
Assessment of Educational Progress, Main NAEP Mathematics, unpublished tabulations, 1998.
iiiNAEP Basic Level: 4th-grade students are able to estimate and use basic facts to perform simple computations
with whole numbers, show some understanding of fractions and decimals, and solve simple real world problems in
all NAEP content areas. Students at this level are able to use—though not always accurately—four function
calculators, rulers, and geometric shapes. Their written responses are often minimal and presented without
supporting information.
iv NAEP Proficient Level: 4th-grade students are able to use whole numbers to estimate, compute, and determine
whether results are reasonable. They have a conceptual understanding of fractions and decimals; be able to solve
real world problems in all NAEP content areas; and use four function calculators, rulers, and geometric shapes
appropriately. Students performing at the proficient level employ problem-solving strategies such as identifying and
using appropriate information. Their written responses are organized and presented both with supporting
information and explanations of how they were achieved.
State Trends in Student Achievement in Mathematics Based on Main State NAEP
At the state level in 1996 there was substantial variation in the mathematics performance of
4th-grade students in the highest-poverty schools (Exhibit 2.9). The percentage of students in the
highest-poverty schools scoring at or above the Basic level on Main State NAEP ranged from a low of
11 percent to a high of 80 percent. In 9 states, achievement of students in the highest-poverty schools met
or exceeded the national average for all public school students—62 percent at or above Basic84
indicating that it is possible to bring these students to high levels of achievement.
The percentage of school-age children (ages 5-17) living in poverty varies greatly by state, ranging from
13 percent to 31 percent.85 Although, in general, there is an inverse correlation between state poverty and
student performance, these data illustrate notable exceptions: In West Virginia, where 29 percent of
school-age children live in poverty, 61 percent of 4th-graders in the highest-poverty schools scored at or
above Basic. In Michigan and Kentucky, where 21 percent and 26 percent of children live in poverty,
respectively, more than half the students in the highest-poverty schools scored at or above Basic.
Exhibit 2.9
State NAEP 4th-Grade Mathematics, 1996
M a in e 80%
M in n e s o t a 76%
No r t h Da k o t a 69%
Ut a h 67%
Mo n t a n a 65%
Ne b r a sk a 65%
Wy o m in g 65%
Wis c o n s in 65%
In d ia n a 63%
We s t Vir g in ia 61%
Io w a 61%
Ve r m o n t 60%
M ic h ig a n 56%
Wa s h in g t o n 56%
Ne v a d a 53%
Ke n t u c k y 52%
Ma ssa c h u se t t s 51%
M is s o u r i 48%
H a w a ii 48%
F lo r id a 48%
Or e g o n 48%
C o lo r a d o 46%
N o r t h C a r o lin a 46%
Vir g in ia 46%
G e o r g ia 44%
Te n n e s s e e 43%
Te x a s 43%
C o n n e c t ic u t 41%
Ar k a n sa s 39%
A r iz o n a 38% National Average

N e w M e x ic o 37% 62% for All Public
S o u t h C a r o lin a 37% School Students
A la s k a 37%
Lo u is ia n a 36%
M a r y la n d 34%
N e w Yo r k 30%
A la b a m a 30%
R h o d e Is la n d 30%
M is s is s ip p i 29%
P e n n s y lv a n ia 28%
C a lif o r n ia 25%
Ne w J e r se y 25%
D is t r ic t o f C o lu m b ia 11%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Exhibit Reads: In Maine, 80 percent of 4th-graders who attended the highest-poverty schools scored at or
above the Basic level in mathematics.
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational
Progress, State NAEP Mathematics, unpublished tabulations, 1998.
Trends in Student Achievement Based on State Assessment Results
Indicator: Meeting or exceeding state performance standards. By 2002, 32 states with aligned
standards and assessments will report an increase in the percentage of students in high-poverty schools
who meet proficient and advanced performance levels in reading and math on their state assessment
systems.
Trends in student performance based on the assessments of individual states provide an additional
perspective for measuring progress of students in high-poverty schools. Because of changes in state
assessment systems to comply with Title I legislation, few states can currently provide three-year trend
data on students in high-poverty schools. The six reported here are those from which data were made
available through the U.S. Department of Education’s Title I Performance Report,86 and subsequent
requests made through late fall/early winter 1998-99. Data from these states, which represent the earliest
indicators of three-year trends, are used to examine achievement growth among students in high-poverty
schools and to illustrate the monitoring of progress for Title I services.87 The results reflect the percentage
of students meeting the states’ definition of proficiencyas required for final assessments under Title I.
The preponderance of evidence suggests progress in most of the states reviewed. However, comparisons
across the states are limited by several factors. Specifically, the differences from state to state include the
assessment instruments used, the topics tested in each subject matter, the definition and measurement of
proficiency, the year and time of year of assessment, and the grade levels tested. Because of these
limitations, progress for each state is summarized as yes/no (improvement/no improvement) for each
subject. Subject to these constraints, the following conclusions are drawn (Exhibit 2.9):88
 The achievement of elementary school students in high-poverty schools (meeting an expected level of
performance) improved in 4 of 5 states in mathematics and in 5 of 6 states in reading.
 The gap in the percentage of elementary school students in high- and low-poverty schools achieving
at a proficient standard is narrowing in 4 out of 6 states in mathematics and in 2 of 6 states in reading.
Exhibit 2.10
Trends in State-Level Achievement for Elementary School Students
in High-Poverty Schools
Reading Mathematics
State Test Growth Gap Narrows Growth Gap Narrows
Year 1 – Year 3 Year 1 – Year 3 Year 1 – Year 3 Year 1 – Year 3
Connecticut Connecticut Mastery Test Yes No Yes Yes

Kentucky Instructional Skills Information No No Not available Not available
System
Maine Maine Educational Assessment Yes Yes No Not applicable
Maryland School Performance Yes No Yes Yes
Assessment Program
North North Carolina End of Grade Yes No Yes Yes
Carolina
Texas Assessment of Academic Skills Yes Yes Yes Yes
TOTAL 5 YES/1 NO 2 YES/4 NO 4 YES/1 NO 4 YES/O NO
Exhibit reads: Of the five states reporting three-year trends in mathematics for elementary grades, four showed
progress of students in high-poverty schools meeting expected levels of performance.
Notes: Three-year trends are reported for either the 1994-95 through 1996-97 school years or the 1995-96 through
1997-98 school years. High-poverty schools reported for Maine have 50 percent or more low-income children.
Elementary-school student achievement in reading and mathematics in six states is described in the paragraphs and
exhibits that follow. For detailed information regarding student achievement in other states see Blank et al., 1999.
Exhibit 2.11
Connecticut Mastery Test: Grade 4
Connecticut, which has used its Mastery Test since 1994, shows gains in student achievement across the state.
Students in high-poverty schools, which represent 10 percent of all the state’s schools, have also shown
continued improvement—particularly in math. However, in 1997 only 21 percent of students in high-poverty
schools were at or above proficient in math and 13 percent in reading—compared with 61 percent and
55 percent, respectively, of all students. In 1997, 9 percent of 4th-graders were excluded from the state’s test
because of exemptions for disabilities, absences and invalid test scores.
Reading Mathematics
% At/Above Proficient % At/Above Proficient
1995 1997 Gain 1995 1997 Gain
All Students 48% 55% 7% 59% 61% 2%
0-34% Poverty 57 65 8 70 70 0
75-100% Poverty 8 13 4 14 21 7
Test—CRT; levels set in 1994.
Connecticut Proficient Definition: Levels are Reading Band 3/ Math Band 4Above the statewide goal for reading/math.
Students possess the knowledge and skills necessary to successfully perform the tasks and assignments expected of 4th-
graders with minimal teacher assistance.
Exhibit 2.12
Kentucky Instructional Skills Information System: Grade 4
In reading, 33 percent of all 4th-grade students in Kentucky schools were at or above the state’s expected level
of performance in 1998, compared with 24 percent of students in high-poverty schools. Reading performance
improved slightly for all students between 1996 and 1998 but declined slightly among students in high-
poverty schools. Kentucky changed its math test to grade 5 in 1998, thus grade 4 trends cannot be reported.
Reading Mathematics
1996 1998 Gain 1996 1998 Gain
All Students 31% 33% 2% 14% n/a n/a
0-34% Poverty 41 43 2 20 n/a n/a
75-100% Poverty 27 24 -2 12 n/a n/a
Kentucky Proficient Definition: Student demonstrates a knowledge of major concepts even though she/he overlooks or
misunderstands some less obvious ideas or details. Student can apply core concepts and skills to solve problems. Student
makes connections among major concepts.
Exhibit 2.13
Maine Educational Assessment: Grade 4
In reading, a large majority of Maine 4th-graders, including those in high-poverty schools, were at or above
the Basic level of proficiency in 1998. Compared with 1996, there were increased percentages of students,
especially those in high-poverty schools, reaching the Basic level in reading. In math, 72 percent of students
overall had attained the basic level in 1998, and among students in high-poverty schools, two-thirds were at or
above basic. From 1996, there were declines of 6 and 5 percentage points, respectively, in attainment of the
Basic level. In 1998, 10 percent of 4th-graders were excluded from the state’s assessment.
Reading Mathematics
% At/Above Basic % At/Above Basic
1996 1998 Gain 1996 1998 Gain
All Students 87% 89% 2% 78% 72% -6%
0-34% Poverty 92 93 1 86 80 -6
50-100% Poverty 83 87 4 72 67 -5
Maine Basic Definition (state level between Novice and Advanced): Students demonstrate a command of essential
knowledge and skills with partial success on tasks involving higher level concepts, including applications of skills, make
connections among ideas, and successfully address problems and tasks.
Exhibit 2.14
Maryland School Performance Assessment Program: Grade 3
In 1998, in both reading and mathematics, over 40 percent of Maryland 3rd-grade students met the
satisfactory level of performance. In contrast, in high-poverty schools, 16 percent of students performed at the
satisfactory level in reading and 13 percent in math. Gains in reading from 1996 to 1998 in the percentage of
students at the satisfactory level were as great in the high-poverty schools as overall; and in math the gains
were greater in high-poverty schools. In 1998, 8 percent of 3rd-grade students were excluded from the state
assessment because of exemptions for disabilities, absences, and invalid test scores.
Reading Mathematics
% At/Above Satisfactory % At/Above Satisfactory
1996 1998 Gain 1996 1998 Gain
All Students 35% 42% 6% 39% 42% 3%
0-34% Poverty 48 55 8 53 56 3
75-100% Poverty 9 16 7 8 13 5
Maryland Satisfactory Definition: A realistic and rigorous level of achievement indicating proficiency in meeting the needs
of students.
Exhibit 2.15
North Carolina End of Grade: Grade 4
In both reading and mathematics, North Carolina showed large differences in achievement between students
in high-poverty schools and those in more advantaged schools, based on an assessment system that has been in
place since 1993. Across North Carolina, more than two-thirds of 4th-graders were at or above proficient levels
of performance in both subjects—compared with about half of all students in high-poverty schools.
Nevertheless, students in the highest-poverty schools in the state have shown significant improvement in math,
and the gap in achievement between high- and low-poverty schools has narrowed. In 1997, 4 percent of
students were excluded from the state test in both reading and mathematics because of their limited English
proficiency or disabilities.
Reading Mathematics
1995 1997 Gain 1995 1997 Gain
All Students 64% 68% 4% 69% 75% 6%
0–34% Poverty 73 77 4 78 83 5
75–100% Poverty 46 49 3 49 57 8
Test–CRT; levels set in 1992.
North Carolina Proficient Definition: Level III Students consistently demonstrate mastery of grade-level subject matter and
skills and are well prepared for the next grade level.
Exhibit 2.16
Texas Assessment of Academic Skills: Grade 4
From 1996 to 1998, the percentage of 4th-graders in Texas achieving at the proficient level increased in both
reading and math, bringing very large majorities of students to the state’s standards for proficiency. Although
narrowing, gaps in achievement between students in the highest- and lowest-poverty schools remain in both
subjects. In 1998, 92 percent of 4th-graders were tested in both reading and math. Exclusions were due
primarily to students’ disabilities.
Reading Mathematics
1996 1998 Gain 1996 1998 Gain
All Students 78% 89% 11% 78% 86% 8%
0–34% Poverty 87 95 8 87 92 5
75–100% Poverty 67 82 15 67 78 11
Test–CRT; levels set in 1989.
Texas Proficient Definition: Reading/Writing/Math TLI score of 70 and above.
Trends in Achievement in Large Urban Districts
Attention to large urban districts serving high percentages of poor students is important in reporting
student achievement. These districts, which have significant percentages of high-poverty schools, receive
a large percentage of Title I funds. Results from 13 large urban districts are presented to show trends in
student performance in areas in which poverty and educational challenges are most highly concentrated.
The results are reported as the percentage of students meeting the definition of proficiency used in the
district, as required for final assessments under Title I.
Districts profiled are among the largest in the country, have student populations that are at least 35 percent
minority and 50 percent eligible for free or reduced-price lunch, serve high concentrations of limited
English proficient students, are geographically diverse, and have at least three years of data on the same
achievement test in reading and math for elementary and middle school students. As with the states, these
are among those that provided data (which were available in fall/early winter 1998). Almost all of the
highest-poverty schools in these districts receive Title I funds.89
Of the 13 districts studied:
 Ten showed increases in the percentage of elementary students in very high-poverty schools who
meet the district or state proficiency standard in either mathematics or reading. Of these, seven
showed evidence that the achievement gap between the highest-poverty and low-poverty schools is
closing.
 Six districts showed increases in the percentage of elementary students (in the highest-poverty
schools) meeting the district or state proficiency standard in both mathematics and reading. Of these,
four showed evidence that the gap was narrowing in both subjects (Exhibit 2.17).
As with states, it is not possible to make direct comparisons of achievement across districts because of the
differences in the tests employed, the grades assessed, and the definitions of proficiency. Despite these
limitations and the necessity of summarizing the results simply as indicating progress or no progress, the
preponderance of evidence suggests that the districts have made progress in raising student achievement,
especially for students attending high-poverty schools. Note that three-year trends are reported for either
the 1994-95 through 1996-97 school years or the 1995-96 through 1997-98 school years.
Exhibit 2.17
District Achievement Trends for Students in High-Poverty Schools
Reading Mathematics
District Test Growth Gap Narrowed Growth Gap Narrowed

Year 1 – Year 3 Year 1 – Year 3 Year 1 – Year 3 Year 1 – Year 3
Baltimore City MSPAP No change Not applicable No Not applicable
Boston Stanford 9 No change Not applicable Yes Yes
Chicago IGAP No change Not applicable Yes Yes
Detroit MEAP No change Not applicable Yes No
Houston TAAS Yes Yes Yes Yes
Jefferson County KIRIS Yes No No Not applicable

(Louisville)
Kansas City, KS MAT No Not applicable No Not applicable
Memphis TCAP No Not applicable No Not applicable
Dade County Stanford 8 Yes Yes Yes Yes

(Miami)
New York City CAT-5 (Math) Yes Yes Yes Yes

CTBS (Reading)
Philadelphia Stanford 9 Yes No Yes No
San Antonio TAAS Yes Yes Yes Yes
San Francisco CTBS Yes No Yes Yes
7 Yes/2 No 4 Yes/3 No 9 Yes/4 No 7 Yes/2 No

Total 12 Different Tests
4 No Change 6 Not Applicable 4 Not Applicable
Exhibit reads: In the 13 districts for which three-year trends in achievement are reported, seven showed growth in
the percentage of elementary grade students in the highest-poverty schools who met the district standards for
proficiency in reading. Five showed a reduction in the achievement gap between students in the highest- and
lowest-poverty schools in the district.
Following are descriptions of the assessment systems and results in reading and math and how they vary
in selected large urban districts. More detailed descriptions of the remaining districts will be reported in a
forthcoming report.90
Exhibit 2.18
Baltimore Results on the Maryland School Performance Assessment Program: Grade 3
Students in high-poverty schools in Baltimore City have not performed well on the Maryland School
Performance Assessment Program (MSPAP) compared with the rest of the state. MSPAP is a performance
assessment requiring constructed responses, and is considered challenging. In high-poverty schools, only 8 to
9 percent of 3rd-grade students met or exceeded performance standards in reading and 7 to 13 percent met
standards in mathematics in any year. Over 65 percent of students in the district are eligible for free or
reduced-price lunch, and 86 percent are minority. All Title I schools in the district have 75 percent or more
students eligible for the free and reduced-price lunch program.
Reading Mathematics
1995 1997 Gain 1995 1997 Gain
All Students 12% 13% 1% 16% 12% -4%
0–34% Poverty 31 25 -6 34 25 -9
75–100% Poverty 9 9 0 13 8 -5
Test—CRT
Maryland Proficient Definition: Satisfactorya realistic and rigorous level of achievement indicating proficiency in
meeting the needs of students.
Exhibit 2.19
Chicago Results on the Illinois Goals Assessment Program: Grade 3
Chicago students, in general, are posting strong math gains on the Illinois Goals Assessment Program (IGAP),
a multiple choice criterion-referenced test. An overwhelming majority of students (96 percent of 3rd-graders)
in low-poverty schools have reached the state’s standard. Students in high-poverty schools lag behind, but
they have made impressive gains. The percentage of 3rd-graders attending high-poverty schools who met or
exceeded state goals in mathematics rose from 60 percent in 1994-95 to 72 percent in 1996-97.
Reading performance is less positive. While students in low-poverty schools have made gains, students in the
highest-poverty schools have remained at lower levels of performance. In 1994-95, 39 percent of 3rd-graders
in high-poverty schools met or exceeded state goals in reading, and this performance was unchanged by 1996-
97. During this same period, the percentage of students in low-poverty schools who met or exceeded state
goals in reading rose from 75 percent to 85 percent. Eighty-two percent of students in the district are eligible
for free or reduced-price lunch and 89 percent are minority.
Reading Mathematics
1995 1997 Gain 1995 1997 Gain
All Students 45% 44% -1% 64% 75% 11%
0–34% Poverty 75 85 10 86 96 10
75–100% Poverty 39 39 0 60 72 12
TestCRT; Illinois Proficient Definition: Meets state goals
Exhibit 2.20
Jefferson County (Louisville) Results on the Kentucky Instructional Results
Information System: Grade 4 (Reading), Grade 5 (Math)
In Jefferson County (Louisville, KY) Public Schools, 4th-grade students’ reading performance, after falling
slightly in 1995-96, recovered in 1996-97 on the Kentucky Instructional Results Information System (KIRIS).
KIRIS has been primarily a performance-based assessment since its inception in 1991-92. In 1996-97, 24
percent of 4th-graders attending high-poverty schools scored at or above the proficient level, up from 21
percent in 1994-95. Over the same period, children in low-poverty schools posted stronger gains, rising from
43 to 52 percent of 4th-graders scoring at or above the proficient level.
Unlike reading scores, math scores for children in the highest-poverty schools declined. In the highest-
poverty schools, the percentage of 5th-graders scoring at or above the proficient level in math declined from 13
percent in 1994-95 to 10 percent in 1996-97. Fifty percent of students in the district are eligible for free or
reduced-price lunch and 90 percent of the highest-poverty schools receive Title I funds.
Reading Mathematics
1995 1997 Gain 1995 1997 Gain
All Students 31% 38% 7% 21% 20% -1%
0–34% Poverty 43 52 9 29 32 3
75–100% Poverty 21 24 3 13 10 -3
Test—CRT
Kentucky Proficient Definition: Student demonstrates knowledge of major concepts even though she/he overlooks or
misunderstands some less obvious ideas or details. Student can apply core concepts and skills to solve problems. Student
makes connections among major concepts. Student communicates ideas effectively.
Exhibit 2.21
Philadelphia Results on the Stanford 9: Grade 4
Philadelphia exhibits improvement in 4th-grade reading and math, for all categories of poverty, over the three
analysis years on the Stanford 9, which includes multiple choice and short constructed response questions.
From 1995-96 to 1997-98, the percentage of students attending high-poverty schools and meeting or
exceeding proficiency standards increased from 11 percent to 17 percent in reading, and from 7 percent to 12
percent in math. Eighty percent of the districts’ students are eligible for free or reduced-price lunch, and all
Title I schools are included in the highest-poverty category (75 percent or more eligible for free or reduced-
price lunch).91
Reading Mathematics
1996 1998 Gain 1996 1998 Gain
All Students 16% 23% 7% 11% 16% 5%
35-49% Poverty 40 54 14 30 36 6
75–100% Poverty 11 17 6 7 12 5
Test—NRT; levels set in 1996
Proficient Definition: Scoring above the 7th stanine (Determined by Test Publisher—Harcourt Brace)
Exhibit 2.22
San Antonio Results on the Texas Assessment of Academic Skills: Grade 3
Reading scores for 3rd-grade students in the San Antonio Independent School District show improvement
from 1995-96 to 1997-98 for students overall as well as for those in high- and moderate-poverty schools.92
Overall, the percentage of 3rd-graders passing the reading component of the TAAS rose from 59 percent to
67 percent. In high-poverty schools, the percentage rose from 58 percent to 66 percent, while the pass rate in
moderate-poverty schools rose from 69 percent to 74 percent.
The trends in 3rd-grade mathematics are mixed. Overall, the percentage of 3rd-graders passing the mathematics
component of the TAAS rose from 56 percent to 61 percent. In high-poverty schools, the percentage rose
from 55 percent to 60 percent, but moderate-poverty schools saw a decline from 65 percent to 62 percent.
San Antonio serves a very high concentration of poor children (91 percent eligible for free or reduced-price
lunch) and a large minority population (95 percent). The TAAS reading and mathematics tests are multiple-
choice criterion referenced.
Reading Mathematics
1996 1998 Gain 1996 1998 Gain
All Students 59% 67% 8% 56% 61% 5%
50-74% Poverty 69 74 5 65 62 -3
75–100% Poverty 58 66 8 55 60 5
TestCRT; levels set in 1989
Texas Proficient Definition: Reading/Writing/Math TLI score of 70 and above.
Conclusion
Trends in the performance of students in the nation’s highest-poverty public schools, as well as progress
of the lowest-achieving students show positive gains in reading and math performance since the
reauthorization of Title I. These trends are further substantiated by the progress reported by some states
and districts with three-year trends in achievement. Despite these gains in the performance of students in
high-poverty schools, however, these students remain much further behind their peers in meeting basic
standards of performance in both reading and math. Yet the results from some states show that students in
the highest-poverty schools can perform at national levelsindicating that it is possible to bring students
in the highest-poverty schools to high levels of achievement.
KEY PROVISIONS REGARDING THE ROLE OF TITLE I IN THE DEVELOPMENT
OF CHALLENGING STANDARDS AND ASSESSMENTS
Content and Performance Standards
By the 1997-98 school year, each state was to have adopted challenging content standards, in at least
reading and math, that specify what all children are expected to know and be able to do, and
challenging performance standards that describe students’ mastery of the content standards.
 Performance standards must reflect at least three levels of achievement in order to measure
progress.
 If a state has content and performance standards, they must apply equally to all students, including
Title I students. If a state does not intend to develop standards for all students, it still is required to
do so for all children participating in Title I.
 States are to submit, to the U.S. Department of Education, evidence that standards have been
developed.
State Assessment Systems
States are to adopt or develop student assessment systems that are aligned with standards in at least
reading/language arts and math.
 These final assessments, which are required to be implemented by the 2000-2001 school year, are
to be administered at least once during grades 3-5; 6-9; and 10-12, and are to allow for reporting
based on standards.
 The assessments are to include reasonable adaptations and accommodations for students with
diverse learning needs, and students with limited English proficiency, who are to be assessed to the
extent practicable, in the language most likely to yield accurate information on what they know
and can do to determine their mastery of skills in subjects other than English.
 The assessments are also to be used in measuring the progress of Title I schools. They must allow
for the disaggregation and reporting at the state, district, and school levels of students’ results by
gender, major racial/ethnic group, English proficiency status, migrant status, disabilities and
economic status.
To provide states with sufficient time to develop assessment systems aligned with standards, the statute
includes a transitional period—until the year 2000-2001—during which a state may use a transitional
assessment procedure for measuring progress on complex skills, and holding schools accountable. In
the meantime, however, states are to develop timetables and a reporting schedule for completing and
field testing assessments.
States may allow districts local discretion to develop their own standards and assessments as long as
steps are taken to ensure that they are rigorous and of high quality.
Standards 41
3. DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARDS AND ASSESSMENT
SYSTEMS, AND THE ROLE OF TITLE I
Key Findings
States are making significant progress in developing content standards, but the development of
performance standards is so closely related to the development of final assessments that many states
have not met the timeline set forth in the statute.
 Most recently, 48 states, plus Puerto Rico and the District of Columbia, have met the requirements
for developing challenging statewide content standards. Prior to reauthorization, only 19 states
reported having challenging content standards.
 Twenty-one states, plus Puerto Rico, have met the requirement for the development of student
performance standards.
 States are not required to submit content and performance standards to the U.S. Department of
Education for reviewonly evidence of their quality and rigor, which is hard to gauge based on
their state plans. Expert reviews of standards, which could serve as a proxy guide, focus on
varying criteria. One review that has examined standards over a three-year period suggests
improvement in the quality of standards.
States are making progress in developing assessment systems that meet the requirements established in
Title I.
 While final assessment systems are not required to be in place until 2000-01, state plans are
required to include a description of how states will develop final assessment systems and report on
their progress to date. According to a review of state plans commissioned by the U.S. Department
of Education, as of 1997, 14 states had provided evidence that they had in place transitional
assessments aligned to state content standards.
 A sizeable number of states report student achievement based on state assessment data according
to categories established in the statute. For the 1996-97 school year, of the 48 states, plus D.C. and
Puerto Rico, that reported student achievement data through the Title I Performance Report,
21 disaggregated results by school poverty levels, 12 reported results for low-income students,
19 provided data for students with limited English proficiency, and 16 reported achievement of
migrant students.
 Challenges remain in ensuring that all students are included in assessment systems and that results
are reported for various groups of students, as required by law.
Standards 42
What Did Reauthorization Seek to Accomplish?
Challenging standards of learning for all children and aligned assessments that ensure high expectations
for all students are key policy drivers in Title I. Indeed, the purpose of the program as outlined in the
statute “is to enable schools to provide opportunities for children served to acquire the knowledge and
skills contained in the challenging state content standards and to meet the challenging state performance
standards developed for all children.”* In addition to requiring states to establish and use systems of
standards and aligned assessments to guide expectations for what children should be expected to know
and do, Title I has required that states develop criteria for tracking how well students are doing in schools
served by the program meet the standards.
A key indicator for the program is this: “By 2000-01, all states will have assessments aligned with content
and performance standards for core subjects.” These aligned systems are to support Title I schools in
using challenging standards to guide curriculum and instruction, and assessments linked to the standards
to measure their progress and inform improvement efforts. This priority is reflected in a second key
indicator: “By the year 2000, all schools receiving Title I funds will report the use of content standards to
guide curriculum and instruction.” This chapter addresses the role of Title I in the development of state
standards and assessment systems designed to promote high expectations for all students. Progress in
implementing accountability requirements is addressed in a subsequent chapter.
The establishment of challenging state standards and assessment systems for all students rests on
evidence showing that students work harder and achieve more when they are challenged to meet higher
expectations and provided with the opportunity to do so. High standards for academic achievement—
when coupled with instruction and support that help students reach those standards, valid and reliable
assessments, and accountability systems that hold schools responsible for improved student achievement
—can unite students, parents, teachers and administrators, community residents, and school district staff
around the shared goal of improving learning. Committing to high academic standards makes the
unequivocal statement that all students are expected to achieve academically.
Evidence provided by research and the best judgment of experts, professional organizations, and local
stakeholders contribute to academic standards that codify expectations regarding instructional content
that all students should learn. By defining what students should know and be able to do, standards keep
schools focused on desired results for students—and can stimulate local development of content-rich
curricula and the effective teaching strategies that make results possible.93 Standards also indicate what
assessments must measure in order to show achievement. In return, good assessments can make
standards count by giving communities a mechanism by which to hold schools accountable for
achievement.94 Good assessments meet acceptable standards of test quality and measure what students
are expected to learn; they are aligned with the standards and reinforce what teachers are expected to
cover in the classroom.95
The requirement that Title I use the same standards and assessments that states establish for all students
was intended to integrate the program with state reform efforts and ensure that students in Title I schools
are held to the same high standards as all students. Indeed, the provisions in Title I requiring states to
develop challenging content and performance standards, aligned assessments, and systems of
accountability grew out of initiatives already under way in a number of states in 1994. The Goals 2000:
Educate America Act was to work with Title I to support states and local districts in developing and
implementing standards and assessment systems.
*Content standards broadly define what a student should know and be able to do in a given subject area.
Performance standards go on to define how well a student should perform in those subject areas to be considered
proficient, advanced, or partially proficient.
Standards 43
Key statutory provisions go beyond a general requirement for standards, assessments, and accountability,
and provide a timeline and key components to be addressed in their development. It is important to note
that the development of final assessments is not required until the 2000-01 school year.
How Are Key Provisions Being Implemented?

States have made varying levels of progress in developing and implementing systems of standards and
aligned assessments that meet the timelines set forth in the statute. States initially submitted plans to the
U.S. Department of Education in 1995 that included information on their standards and assessments, and
were to report major updates as they developed standards and assessment systems.
Progress in Developing Content and Performance Standards
The requirement for content and performance standards under Title I was designed to be consistent with
the development of standards supported under Goals 2000 and the policy direction in which many states
were moving. Soon after the 1994 enactment of both Goals 2000 and Title I, about half of all states
reported having content standards in math and reading/language arts, while fewer than one-fifth reported
having performance standards in place.
Although states are not required to submit their standards to the U.S. Department of Education for review,
they must demonstrate that they have developed content and performance standards by the 1997-98
school year. Upon completing the development of standards, each state is required to submit to the
Department evidence (in updates to their state plans) that standards are in place and that a rigorous
process was used to adopt standards. This evidence is examined by teams of peer reviewers, including
researchers and state and local practitioners.
Peer reviewers were charged with determining whether the plans addressed key provisions in the statute,
including the requirements that: (1) each state adopt content and performance standards in
reading/language arts and math with input from a broad base of educational stakeholders for three grade
spans; (2) that the performance standards represent three levels of proficiency; (3) the performance
standards were aligned with content standards; and (4) the standards were intended for all students,
including students with limited English proficiency and disabilities.
The peer reviewers also used the Department’s guidance for approval, which offered several ways for
states to demonstrate that the content and performance standards were challenging:
 Conclusions from an independent peer review panel convened by the state to review its standards;
 A detailed description of the process the state used to develop its standards and review their rigor (for
example, a process to benchmark state standards to nationally recognized standards, which includes
input from experts and other stakeholders); and
Standards 44
 Evidence that student performance on an aligned state assessment is comparable to student
performance on the NAEP.
Standards Development in Maine
Maine developed standards for four levels of student performance in seven content areas. The
performance standards include descriptions of student work at each level within each content area.
The descriptive performance standards for reading, writing, and mathematics have been further defined
in terms of scores on the state assessment.
The process for developing performance standards in Maine included (1) convening teachers, school
administrators, and community members to define four performance levelsboth generically and for
each subject area; (2) forming panels of teachers, administrators, and parents to identify the quality of
student work at each level and to determine cut scores for each standard; and (3) using a modified
Angoff technique to check the process. Comparisons with NAEP levels indicate similar distributions
of students across levels.
States have made substantial progress in developing content standards and more moderate progress
with regard to performance standards. Most recently, 48 states plus Puerto Rico and the District of
Columbia have met the requirement for developing challenging state content standards, and 21 states plus
Puerto Rico have met the requirement for developing student performance standards (Exhibits 3.1 and
3.2).96
Exhibit 3.2
Exhibit 3.1
States with Challenging Performance
States with Challenging Content Standards
Standards in Mathematics and
in Mathematics and Reading/Language Arts
Reading/Language Arts
60 60
Goal Goal
52 52 52
50
50 50
42
Num b er of States
N u m b er o f S tates
40 40 38
30 30
22
19 18
20 20
10 10
0
0 0
1994 19 97 199 8 1999 2000 1994 1997 1998 1999 2000
Exhibit reads: In 1998, 48 states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico submitted evidence to the
U.S. Department of Education that content standards were in place.
Source: U.S. Department of Education, unpublished analysis of state plans required under Sec. 1111; baseline
(1994) data obtained from Council of Chief State School Officers, Status Report: State Systemic Education
Improvements, 1995.
Note: Numbers include Puerto Rico and the District of Columbia.
Standards 45
Twenty-six states and the District of Columbia are operating under temporary waivers granting extensions
for the development of performance standards.97 The remaining four have submitted evidence, which has
not yet been approved. States have been granted extensions as late as December 1999 to complete the
development of standardsmost often because they plan to establish performance standards once their
final assessments are developed.
A state requesting a waiver must describe where it is in the process of developing performance standards
and how long it expects it will take to decide on final standards. It must include a timeline for the
development of standards during the waiver period and a description of how the state plans to ensure that
standards are challenging and have been developed through broad-based consultation with relevant
stakeholders and other experts. States requesting waivers also must provide evidence of their progress
and a detailed timeline for completing their work, based on the timeline submitted with their waiver
request.
Progress in Developing Assessment Systems
Indicator: Aligned assessments. By 2000-01, all states will have assessments aligned with content
and performance standards for core subjects.
States are making progress in developing assessment systems that meet the requirements
established in Title I. State assessments aligned with content and student performance standards
which include reasonable adaptations for students with diverse learning needs and allow for
disaggregation and reporting by gender, major racial/ethnic group, English proficiency status, migrant
status, students with disabilities, and economically disadvantaged studentsare not required to be in
place until the 2000-01 school year.
Although final assessment systems are not required to be in place until 2000-01, states are required to
describe how they will develop final assessments and what their progress is to date. Key elements of
these descriptions include plans for administering assessments in the three required grade spans and in the
required content areas, evidence of alignment with content standards, inclusion of students with special
needs, and plans for disaggregation of data by student groups. According to a review of state plans98 for
developing procedures for determining school and district progress in helping all students attain state
standards, as of 1997, 14 states had provided evidence in their state plans that they had in place
transitional assessments aligned to state content standards.99 The primary criteria used in determining
alignment are that the assessment addresses all of the content standards and that it does not address any
other content within the subject areas assessed.100
Despite slower progress in developing final assessment systems, a sizeable number report student
achievement based on state assessment data according to categories established in the statute. For the
1996-97 school year, of the 48 states plus the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico that reported student
achievement data through the Title I Performance Report, 21 disaggregated results by school poverty
levels, 12 reported results for low-income students, 19 provided data for students with limited English
proficiency, and 16 reported achievement of migrant students (Exhibit 3.3).101
Standards 46
Exhibit 3.3
States with Achievement Data Disaggregated by
Various Population Subgroups, 1996-97
60
50
Number of States
40
30
21
19
20 16
12
10
0
Scho ol p overty Lo w-inco m e L im ited Eng lish M igran t stud en ts
level stud en ts p ro ficien t
stud ents
Exhibit reads: Twenty-one states disaggregate their assessment information by level of

school poverty.
Source: Blank, Manise, Braithwaite, and Langesen, State Education Indicators with a
Focus on Title I, 1999.
What Issues Remain to Be Addressed through Changes in Practice or

Statutory Requirements?
Because standards-based reform and accountability represent a major shift in educational practice, there
are reasons to pay close attention to the implementation of these Title I provisions. Few of these issues
can be addressed; most require changes in priorities and strategies for implementation at the federal, state,
and local levels.
Many states are undertaking a process for developing standards and assessment systems that
differs from the linear approach indicated in the statute. Rather than establishing performance
standards to inform the development of assessments, many states are defining performance standards
concurrently with the development of their statewide assessments. This approach is considered valid by
experts, and indeed for this reason many states have approved waivers allowing performance standards to
be developed later than anticipated in the statutory timelines.102
While the process for reviewing state plans for the development of standards and assessments
appears to be rigorous and participatory, no external assurance that the standards and assessments
are rigorous is required. The statute does not require states to submit standards and assessments to the
U.S. Department of Education. A review of the evidence provided by states shows that plans appear to be
weak in benchmarking standards against external criteria; only four states provided evidence of rigor by
Standards 47
comparing results with external assessments (for example, NAEP).103 State NAEP scores may provide a
common benchmark for comparing results based on states’ own standards to a common measure
(Exhibit 3.4a).
Exhibit 3.4
Percentage of 8th-Grade Students Meeting the NAEP
Basic Level of Performance in Mathematics in 1996
Compared to States’ Expected Levels on State
Assessments
70%
Connecticut 47%
67%
Michigan
55%
67%
Oregon
48%
57%
Maryland
43%
56%
North Carolina 68%
56%
Kentucky 28%
NAEP B a sic
55%
Ex pe cted Le v el
Delaware
13%
51%
Georgia 81%
48%
South Carolina 68%
38%
Louisiana 79%
0% 20 % 40% 60% 80% 1 00 %

Pe rce nta ge o f Stud en ts
Exhibit reads: In Connecticut, a greater percentage of 8th-graders met the Basic level NAEP in
mathematics than met the state’s expected level on the state assessment.v
Source: U.S. Department of Education, Planning and Evaluation Service, based on published
reports of the National Assessment of Educational Progress and State Assessment data compiled
by Westat, Inc.
National attention to the development of high standards for all children has resulted in independent
reviews and comparisons of the rigor and quality of content and standards; however, discrepancies
among independent reviews point to difficulties. For four years the American Federation of Teachers
(AFT) has judged the “quality” of academic standards by whether content standards were clear and
specific enough to provide the basis for a common core curriculum, and has reported improvement over
that time.104 The Council for Basic Education (CBE) defined “rigor” of state standards based on the
requirement that all students learn the essential concepts and skills in math specified by NAEP and the
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). A review of standards in English language arts
included the requirement that all students learn the essential concepts and skills laid out in the Council’s
Standards of Excellence in Education.105 In 1998, state content standards were also reviewed by the
Fordham Foundation for clarity; adequacy of content; mathematical reasoning; and purposes, audience,
expectations, assumptions, organization, disciplinary coverage, quality, and absence of “anti-literary”
qualities in English/language arts.106
v This exhibit is provided to illustrate the variations in expectations established by states in 1996 for
achievement in 8th-grade mathematics. Some states, including South Carolina and Louisiana, have
since developed new assessments and performance levels.
Standards 48
 Overall, the grades assigned by these three groups to state content standards were average. Some
states, such as California, Virginia, and Wisconsin, received grades of “A” or “B” in both subjects by
both the AFT and CBE. Most states had a mix of grades across subject areas and reviewers.
 There were discrepancies among the grades assigned to standards by the independent reviewers,
which highlights the difficulty in assessing the quality of standards. These discrepancies result in part
from different criteria used for each review and some subjectivity across the reviews and reviewers.
In addition, grades were given to state content standards at different times in their development, and
at a different level of detail.107
 Some reviews focused on the specificity of standards for their potential to guide curriculum.
Grades given by outside groups should be carefully considered because states have often intentionally
developed broadly worded standards to provide for significant local discretion in how they would be
applied.108
The definitions and levels of alignment expected for standards and assessments vary according to
how they are worded. A 1997 effort to review the quality and alignment of standards and assessments
in two states, conducted by Achieve Inc., illustrates the challenge in developing rigorous standards and
high-quality assessments. The assessment program in one state was found to be substantially more
comprehensive and demanding than what would be expected from the state’s standards. The reverse
concern arose from a review of another state’s standards, which were judged to be “strong and well
balanced” but were not reflected in a challenging assessment system.109
Many states are establishing policies related to the assessment of students with limited English
proficiency (LEP) and students with disabilities, but the policies vary across states and seldom
include strategies for making accommodations. Indeed, the assessment of special populations is
among the greatest challenges reported by states in developing assessment systems. A review of
state practices in determining school/district progress found that, as of 1997, most states (43) had at least
partially developed policies and/or procedures for assessing all students but only 28 provided some
evidence that these policies or procedures were being implemented.110
Policies for testing students with special needs vary. They may include years spent in the district or
country, years spent in a bilingual program, scores on a language proficiency measure for LEP students,
Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) or recommendations from teachers or parents, and mandatory
inclusion of virtually all students with appropriate modifications or accommodations in test content and
administration.
The degree to which these policies are enforced also varies. The most problematic issues center around
the development and implementation of accommodations and modifications—specifically, the cost and
validity of changes in assessment systems required for students with special needs and the
appropriateness of their use. The cost of developing and administering modifications, such as translations
and alternative assessments, can be addressed directly through financial assistance. Questions regarding
comparability of results from modified or alternative assessments can be addressed through disaggregated
reporting. States and districts must still identify trade-offs in order to determine appropriate policies for
including all students in an assessment program.
Standards 49
More than half of the state administrators responsible for Title I report that their states are having
difficulty carrying out assessments that provide for reasonable adaptations and accommodations for
students with limited English proficiency.111 In addition, about one-third of states report having difficulty
in the development or adoption of assessments that provide for reasonable adaptations and
accommodations for students with special education needs and those who are migratory. One-third also
reported difficulty in establishing assessment systems that allow comparisons between economically
disadvantaged students and their more advantaged peers.112
The emphasis in Title I and Goals 2000 on standards and aligned assessments for all has
contributed to rapid progress in the developing of content and performance standards in
mathematics and reading/language arts, and that emphasis should remain a priority. However, the
pace of progress in the development of performance standards lags because states are developing their
assessments at the same time, and because the rigor and quality of standards are difficult to gauge.
Finally, strategies must be developed to ensure that the progress of all childrenparticularly those with
limited English proficiency is considered as systems for setting goals and measuring progress are
established, and that reporting for various groups of students is conducted.
Standards 50
Standards 51
KEY PROVISIONS REGARDING ACCOUNTABILITY IN TITLE I
Measuring progress and identifying schools and districts in need of improvement
 States must establish criteria for measuring school progress, defined by continuous and substantial
yearly improvement of each school and district toward the goal of having all children who are served
by Title I meet state standards.
 The measurement of progress developed by states must be rigorous, able to be applied within a
reasonable time frame, and linked to performance on a state’s final assessment, and other measures.
 Because final assessments are not required to be in place until the 2000-01 school year, a state may
use, during the transitional assessment period, other criteria for measuring progress that rely on
accurate information about the continuous and substantial yearly progress of each school and district.
 Each Title I school is required to demonstrate, based on measures established by states, adequate
yearly progress toward attaining the state’s performance standards. Schools and districts that fail to
make adequate progress for two consecutive years are to be identified for improvement. School
districts are also held accountable through mechanisms similar to those established for schools.
Assistance and support for schools in need of improvement
 Schools and districts identified for improvement are required to develop or revise their plans to
address identified needs. States and districts are to provide technical assistance through school support
teams and other mechanisms to schools and districts identified as in need of improvement.
Corrective actions and consequences for school performance
 If schools identified for improvement do not show progress, states and districts can intervene with
corrective actions. Corrective actions must be taken in schools and districts that fail to make progress
for three or more years. However, some of these sanctions (including reconstitution) cannot be
applied until final state assessment systems are in place.
 To promote increased accountability to families and communities, Title I includes provisions for local
education agencies to publicly report on the progress of Title I schools.
Accountability 52
4. THE ROLE OF TITLE I IN HOLDING SCHOOLS
ACCOUNTABLE FOR PERFORMANCE AND IN
SUPPORTING IMPROVEMENT EFFORTS
Key Findings
Overall
 Attention to accountability across the states is high, and states are making progress in linking
accountability to improvements in student performance. Two states, North Carolina and Texas,
recently judged by Education Week to have the most comprehensive statewide accountability
systems in the nation, were recently recognized by the National Education Goals Panel for
significant improvement in student performance on the National Assessment of Educational
Progress (NAEP). Significantly, in both states, statewide standards and assessments have remained
virtually unchanged since the early 1990s.
 Although states are making progress, designing accountability systems for schools is an iterative
process requiring continuous revisions and improvements. States face technical, political, and
capacity challenges in holding schools accountable for performance.
Measuring Progress and Identifying Low-Performing Schools and Districts
 Given the timeline set out in Title I, definitions of adequate yearly progress are not required until
final assessments are in place in the 2000-01 school year. In the meantime, states have developed
transitional measures for defining the progress of schools and districts under Title I. But there are
concerns about the rigor of the measures, the consistency of the measures across states, and the
integration of Title I accountability with state and local accountability systems.
 According to one assessment of transitional measures for adequate yearly progress, most states
identified a target level for student performance, but only half of the states were judged to have set
standards for measuring school progress based on students’ reaching a proficient level of
performance, rather than meeting only a minimum level of competency. The majority of state
transitional definitions determined adequate school progress on the basis of average school
performance, requiring about half of students to meet the target performance level. Most states do
not set a date by which all students are to meet expectations. States that are further along in
developing student performance standards tend to have more rigorous and clearly defined
accountability systems.
 There is considerable variation in the identification of Title I schools in need of improvement across
states. In Texas, only 1 percent of Title I schools were identified for improvement in 1996-97. In
New Mexico and Washington, D.C., more than 80 percent of Title I schools were identified for
improvement.
 Schools identified for improvement tend to serve higher-poverty students and have a larger minority
enrollment. Schools identified as in need of improvement were more likely to be in the highest
poverty category (75 percent or more students receiving free or reduced-price lunch) and to have
high minority student enrollment (80 percent or more minority students).
Accountability 53
 Title I is intended to be linked to state accountability so that states will operate a single system,
holding all schools, including Title I schools, to the same high standards for performance. Although
there is considerable overlap between schools identified for improvement under Title I and other
state or local mechanisms, and the majority of low-performing schools identified by state or local
accountability systems are Title I schools, states still report that they are having difficulty
integrating the Title I requirements with their own systems and there is evidence that parallel
systems are operating in many states.
 In some respects Title I may be driving states toward stricter accountability systems. In some states
and districts, Title I identifies schools more broadly than the state systems, and in high-poverty
districts, Title I is driving reform to a greater extent. According to one recent study of state
accountability systems, only 15 states are identifying low-performing schools as part of their state
accountability while all but one state are identifying low-performing schools under Title I.
 A recent study of accountability in large urban districts finds that Title I has been a “model and an
instigator” for standards-based reform and efforts to track student progress and improve schools.
Nationally, 14 percent of districts report that Title I is driving reform in their districts as a whole to a
great extent. Fifty percent of small poor districts and 47 percent of large poor districts report that
Title I is driving reform to a great extent.
Assistance and Data-Driven Improvement Efforts in Low-Performing Schools
 Recent findings suggest that state and Title I accountability requirements are helping states,
districts, and schools become more data driven. A study of accountability in 12 states and
14 districts found a remarkably high level of attention paid to using data to inform decision making.
The study found that whereas outcome data was required to be used for school improvement
planning, many districts were going beyond requirements of the law to use this performance data to
identify and develop strategies for staff development and curriculum improvements that address
gaps in student performance.
 The capacity of state school support teams to assist schools in need of improvement under Title I is
a major concern. State Improvement Grants intended to help states in operating school support
teams were not funded in the last reauthorization. Although the main task for state school support
teams has been to assist high-poverty schoolwide programs, their charge also includes providing
assistance to schools in need of improvement. In 1998, only eight states reported that school
support teams have been able to serve the majority of schools identified as in need of improvement.
In 24 states, Title I directors reported more schools in need of school support teams than Title I
could assist.
Corrective Actions and Consequences for Performance
 Under Title I, the most severe corrective actions (such as reconstitution) are not permitted until final
assessments are in place in 2000-01.
 As part of their own state accountability systems for all schools, states are taking actions to tie
consequences to school performance through public reporting of school performance, incentives,
rewards, and sanctions. Thirty-six states publicly report on school performance, 14 states give
monetary awards to schools that meet performance standards, and 16 states have laws that give
Accountability 54
them the power to close, take over, or overhaul low-performing schools.
This chapter examines the school accountability provisions in Title I—what the law required, how
consistently and rigorously the provisions for measuring school progress and identifying schools in need
of improvement are being implemented, the extent to which Title I is drawing attention and assistance to
schools with the greatest needs in states, and how the accountability provisions in Title I might be
strengthened in the next reauthorization.
Evaluating the implementation of the accountability requirements under Title I is a formidable challenge.
The accountability system outlined in Title I is ambitious, and tying school performance to consequences
is a high-stakes endeavor. The states are developing accountability systems as this report is being written,
and the process is a continuing one, with ongoing revisions and improvement. States face numerous
political, technical, and resource issues in devising reliable ways to measure student and school
performance, identify schools in need of improvement, and assist and intervene to improve low-
performing schools.
The implementation of accountability measures discussed in this chapter needs to be understood in the
context of the time period specified for states to complete the process. Full implementation of
accountability under Title I is not required until final assessments are in place by the 2000-01 school year
(Exhibit 4.1). In the interim, schools are to be identified for improvement based on transitional measures
of progress adopted by the state and approved by the U.S. Department of Education
Exhibit 4.1
Timeline for Title I Accountability
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Transitional Period
Identify schools and districts in need of improvement, using

accurate information about academic progress
Final Period
Adequate Yearly Progress

definition to result in continuous
and substantial yearly
improvement of each district
and school sufficient to achieve
the goal of all children meeting
the proficient and advanced
levels of performance
Nonetheless, there is evidence that accountability tied to consequences is a motivating force, and some
states are showing that holding schools accountable for performance is leading to results. Texas and
North Carolina, two states recently recognized by the National Education Goals Panel for significant
gains on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) as well as for progress on
33 indicators related to improving education, are also considered to have the two most comprehensive
Accountability 55
state accountability systems in the nation.113 A recent study by Rand researchers concludes that the most
plausible explanation for the test score gains in both states is the policy environment, including the
creation of an aligned system of standards, curriculum, and assessments, and efforts to hold schools
accountable for improvement of all students.114 It is noteworthy that in both Texas and North Carolina,
statewide standards and assessments have remained virtually unchanged since the early 1990s.
The concept of accountability for performance is not new to the reauthorized Title I program. A decade
ago, with the enactment of the 1988 Hawkins-Stafford Elementary and Secondary School Improvement
Amendments (P.L. 100-297), Congress intended to send “a new and bold message” that Chapter 1
programs were to be held accountable for improving the academic performance of students served by
Chapter 1.115 But there were flaws in the legislation. The emphasis on accountability under Chapter 1
was not linked to states’ own assessments and was based on evidence of any gain (regardless of how
minimal) without regard to clear or challenging standards. In addition, there were few consequences for
failing schools. Improvement plans developed for schools in need of improvement were generally less
than ambitious. As long as programs spent funds for intended purposes and followed proper procedures,
they were considered in compliance, regardless of the achievement of Chapter 1 students. Moreover, in
most states, the accountability systems developed under Chapter 1 operated independent of broader
educational reform and school improvement efforts.116
Findings regarding the minimal impact of Chapter 1 on school improvement contributed to a significant
rethinking of program accountability and a new direction for the program that tied Title I accountability to
the broader accountability efforts of states.
The ultimate goal of the school accountability measures in the reauthorized Title I has been to help all
students reach challenging standards by serving as an impetus for change in schools with the greatest
concentrations of disadvantaged children. In addition, it is important to note that the accountability
provisions in Title I apply to school and district accountability for student performance, and do not
address student accountability. The provisions were largely modeled on the systemic reform efforts
already underway in 1994 in a number of states.
Although it was Congress’s intent that accountability under Title I be consistent with existing state efforts,
the statute, regulations, and guidance do prescribe specific requirements and timelines for measuring,
reporting, and implementing accountability provisions. Under Title I, each state is required to develop a
definition of adequate yearly progress for districts and schools based on the state assessment and other
measures. Schools and districts that fail to make adequate yearly progress are to be identified for
improvement and receive support and assistance from states and districts. Those schools and districts that
continue to fail to make progress are subject to corrective actions. The performance of districts and
schools under Title I is to be publicly reported and widely shared.
How Are Key Provisions in the Law Being Implemented?

This section examines the implementation of the accountability provisions in Title I. It focuses on
progress in the following three key areas:
Measurement and Identification
 Rigor of measures of adequate yearly progress

 Consistency in identifying schools in need of improvement
 Integration of Title I with state and local accountability systems
Accountability 56
Accountability 57
Assistance and Support for Low-Performing Schools
 Using performance data to guide improvement efforts

 Assisting schools that are failing to meet standards
Corrective Actions and Consequences
 Reporting publicly on school performance

 Providing incentives and rewards for performance
 Implementing corrective actions
Even though early reform states have had the advantage of pursuing standards-based reform and creating
systems of accountability for a longer period of time, all states are making progress in implementing the
accountability provisions of Title I. Accountability is being tied to student performance and learning.
Attention is being drawn to low-performing schools. But all states are also facing real challenges as they
transform their educational systems into higher-performing, outcomes-based systems.
Measurement and Identification

The concept behind the Title I requirement for developing measures of adequate yearly progress was to
have states establish explicit and rigorous school targets for continuous improvement. In the interim,
while final assessments are being developed, states are required to develop a procedure for identifying
schools and LEAs in need of improvement that relies on accurate information about continuous and
substantial yearly progress. States must develop measures of school progress under Title I that are
rigorous yet feasible for schools to obtain, include all students, and can be integrated into state
accountability systems. States and districts also must devise meaningful and valid measures that do the
best job of identifying schools while being clear and understandable.
Indicator: Establishing annual progress measures. By 2000, all states will develop measures of
adequate progress linked to state performance standards that are substantially more rigorous than
those developed under the antecedent Chapter 1 program.
States have met the Title I requirement for developing transitional definitions of adequate yearly
progress. Because state standards are evolving and state assessments changing, it has been difficult.
In their state plans for Title I and ESEA, states outlined transitional procedures for measuring adequate
yearly progress and identifying schools in need of improvement in spring of 1996. By 1997, all states had
satisfied the condition of determining continuous and substantial progress for schools and districts as
measured by interim criteria. Yet, during that time period, states reported difficulty with creating
adequate yearly progress measures because of changes in state assessments:
 In 1996, after the first two years of the program’s implementation, two-thirds of states reported that
establishing criteria for adequate yearly progress was moderate to very difficult. Over half reported
the need for more assistance in establishing criteria.117
 Two years later, in 1998, 19 of 45 state Title I directors reported being concerned about changing
local assessments for their ability to identify schools in need of improvement. States (20 of 45) were
Accountability 58
even more concerned about the effect of changing state assessments in their efforts to identify
districts in need of improvement.118
Without final assessments in place, there are major challenges to putting in place clear and consistent
measures of school progress that will be the basis for holding schools accountable for performance.
Because many states are developing or revising new assessment systems, few are able to examine trends
in the achievement of students.
 In 1998, the Council of Chief State School Officers identified only 13 states that had at least two
years of consistent student achievement data from state assessments.119
Even established systems such as those in Kentucky and Kansas, which were forerunners in the
development of aligned systems of standards and assessments, have revised their efforts to reflect the
priorities of their state legislatures and boards. As a result, it has been very difficult for states to have
reliable and consistent measures of school performance over time.
Although there is little debate about whether all schools should be expected to reach high standards, there
are many complex issues related to how to measure school progress. Is it reasonable to see the same rate
of growth over time, or should schools be expected to progress at the same pace when some have further
to go than others? What are reasonable targets for growth? There are a number of ways of examining
performance that may set different expectations for schools and students.
According to a review of state transitional measures of school progress in 1997, roughly equal
numbers of states were requiring three different approaches to measuring school progress.
 In 15 states, schools or districts were required to have a certain percentage of students attain a target
performance level, an average performance level, or a composite index target every year.
 In 20 states, the same rate of increase in performance was required for all schools and districts every
year.
 In 17 states, the required performance increase for schools and districts depended on their current
performance.120
The variety of approaches that states are developing to define adequate yearly progress have different
advantages and potential challenges. For example, a comparison of school progress against absolute
standards communicates that standards apply to all students, but factors that affect educational
achievement are not necessarily taken into account. Measures that compare rates of progress or measure
school progress against predicted performance focus attention on each school in its context. But the
approach also may hold students to lower standards and is more complex and difficult to explain and
understand.121
A recent report of the Citizens’ Commission on Civil Rights expressed concern about how the definitions
of adequate yearly progress may set different expectations for students. Their report concluded that many
of the transitional definitions of adequate yearly progress contain few or no specific provisions for
ensuring that all groups of students (including students with limited English proficiency and economically
disadvantaged students) make progress. Some state definitions set a single cut-off point for adequate
yearly progress instead of requiring continuous improvement. In addition, the commission was concerned
that many definitions require only very low rates of progress.122
Accountability 59
Rigor of Measures of Adequate Yearly Progress
A 1997 review of the state plans for determining school and district progress under Title I examined
various characteristics of the measures and processes being used by states during the transitional period.123
The review examined a number of attributes, some desired and others required by Title I, and evaluated
the rigor of transitional state definitions of adequate yearly progress against those criteria.
The review of how states measured up against various criteria for judging school progress found
that, as of 1997, states were employing many different approaches, and that the approaches differed
considerably in rigor and comprehensiveness.
 Most states (47) had explicitly identified a target level for student performance. Half of the states had
set standards for measuring school and district progress based on having students meet “proficient”
levels of performance. Most other states measured progress based on a less-than-proficient target for
performance, such as having students meet a minimum level of competency. A small number of
states had no target level for student performance in their transitional definition of adequate yearly
progress.
 Less than one-third of the states’ transitional definitions of adequate yearly progress included a
requirement that virtually all students in a school need to eventually attain a specified level of
performance. The majority of states defined adequate yearly progress on the basis of average school
performance, with about half of a school’s students expected to meet the target performance level.
 Most states did not explicitly set a deadline for when schools should attain the target level of
performance, nor did most states set a specific deadline by which all students would attain a
proficient level performance. Of those that did, most states, 13 in 1997, required a period of 10 years
or less. Four required a period that extended beyond 10 years.
 Twenty-two states determine school or district progress based on performance separately in at least
reading/language arts and math; 19 states determine progress after combining performance results
from different subjects into a single index.
 Half of states include local assessment results in determining the progress of schools. Very few
employ additional indicators of school performance.124
Texas: Holding Schools Accountable for the Performance of All Students
Texas is the one state in the nation that takes into account the achievement of students in all subgroups
when measuring school progress. Schools and districts are rated on multiple measures in the state’s
Academic Excellence Indicator System (AEIS): pass rates on reading, math, and writing sections of the
TAAS for grades 3, 8, and 10; annual dropout rates for grades 7-12; and attendance rates for grades 1-12.
Standards for performance and dropout rates are disaggregated by student groups: African American,
Hispanic, white and economically disadvantaged. Schools must show that they meet the performance
targets overall and for student subgroups.
The state has four rating levels for schools: Exemplary, Recognized, Acceptable, and Low-Performing. In
1996-97, an Acceptable school rating required that at least 40 percent of all students and student groups
pass each section of the TAAS, the dropout rate not exceed 6 percent, and the attendance rate be at least 94
percent. Texas deals with the issue of continuous improvement by raising the percentage of students
showing improvement on the TAAS in schools by 5 percent annually. The state’s accountability system is
used for adequate yearly progress under Title I as well as for all other schools in the state.
Accountability 60
The review of state plans also found that states further along in the process of developing standards
and assessment systems in 1997 had more robust means of measuring school progress and
identifying schools in need of improvement, and seemed to have clearer, more rigorous
accountability systems.
 Almost all states with performance standards (12 out of 15) specified a target that required a
proficient level of student achievement for schools to make progress. Most states without
performance standards did not specify targets that required students to meet a proficient level of
student performance in order for schools to make progress.
 Half of the states with performance standards in 1997 had established deadlines by which all students
should reach state standards, compared to only 10 out of 37 states without performance standards.125
Consistency in Identifying Schools and Districts in Need of Improvement
 Despite ongoing changes in many states’ assessment systems, most states have been able to identify
schools in need of improvement under Title I using an interim measure developed specifically for
Title I, or linked to their own accountability system. But there are wide variations in the percentages
of districts and schools identified for improvement across the states. This variation may be explained
in part by differences in the rigor of transitional definitions of adequate yearly progress, but is also
likely due to the difficulties in low-performing schools with changing assessments, as well as realistic
constraints on the capacity of states and districts to help identified schools.
Indicator: Adequate yearly progress. By the year 2000, an increased percentage of Title I
schools will report that they have met or exceeded state and district standards for progress for two
consecutive years.
For the 1996-97 school year, the percentages of districts and schools identified for improvement
varied widely across states.
 For the 1996-97 school year approximately 7,000 schools, or 16 percent of Title I schools overall,
were identified for school improvement under Title I. Yet there was a good deal of variation in the
range of schools identified for improvement across states. Nevada, New Mexico, and the District of
Columbia identified more than half of their Title I schools as in need of improvement. In 18 other
states, such as Florida, Illinois, California, and Texas, less than 10 percent of Title I schools were
identified for improvement (Exhibit 4.2).
 In 1996-97, approximately 1,000 districts, or 8 percent of Title I districts were identified as in need of
improvement. Ten states provided no information about districts in need of improvement and
10 other states reported that they identified no districts in their states as in need of improvement
(in two states there is only a single district). The largest percentages of districts identified for
improvement were in Nevada and New Mexico (Exhibit 4.2).126
Accountability 61
Exhibit 4.2
Schools and Districts Identified for Improvement (1996-97)
Title I Schools Title I Districts
Total # Number Percent Total # Number Percent Identified
Title I Schools Identified Identified Title I Districts Identified
State
ALABAMA 789 248 31% 126 23 18%
Alaska 205 24 12% 48 0 0
Arizona 778 42 5% 321 28 9%
Arkansas 799 101 13% 312 44 14%
Bureau of Indian Affairs 173 160 92% 173 -- --
California 4,166 330 8% 876 -- --
Colorado 549 15 3% 167 1 1%
Connecticut 398 95 24% 117 10 9%
Delaware 112 29 26% 21 0 0
District of Columbia 97 82 85% 1 1 100%
Florida 916 29 3% 67 0 0
Georgia 987 236 24% 180 0 0
Hawaii 117 37 32% 1 -- --
Idaho 372 45 12% 110 20 18%
Illinois 2,305 93 4% 806 14 2%
Indiana 844 242 29% 285 -- --
Iowa 799 28 4% 379 28 7%
Kansas 672 147 22% 302 65 22%
Kentucky 886 356 40% 175 77 44%
Louisiana 841 30 4% 66 1 2%
Maine 416 127 31% 188 58 31%
Maryland 269 59 22% 24 0 0
Massachusetts 841 97 12% 247 23 9%
Michigan 1,964 641 33% 603 10 2%
Minnesota 887 98 11% 350 36 10%
Mississippi 670 129 19% 153 37 24%
Missouri -- -- -- -- -- --
Montana 618 53 9% 309 35 11%
Nebraska 480 102 21% 320 60 19%
Nevada 91 64 70% 17 14 82%
New Hampshire 233 1 0% 130 0 0
New Jersey 1,173 185 16% 460 40 9%
New Mexico 487 394 81% 88 71 81%
New York 2,593 410 16% 645 61 9%
North Carolina 974 74 8% 117 0 0
North Dakota 281 16 6% 207 -- --
Ohio 1,789 680 38% 595 -- --
Oklahoma 1,079 37 3% 542 38 7%
Oregon 647 29 4% 179 2 1%
Pennsylvania 1,735 215 12% 479 31 6%
Puerto Rico 1,358 435 32% 1 -- --
Rhode Island 138 23 17% 37 -- --
South Carolina 477 88 18% 91 -- --
South Dakota 380 10 3% 389 10 3%
Tennessee 738 118 16% 139 7 5%
Texas 3,923 40 1% 1,010 4 0
Utah 255 7 3% 40 0 0
Vermont 230 14 6% 60 -- --
Virginia 699 152 22% 133 46 35%
Washington 905 176 19% 286 93 33%
West Virginia 471 60 13% 55 0 0
Wisconsin 1,666 139 8% 388 0 0
Wyoming 127 23 18% 42 5 12%
TOTAL 45,399 7,065 16% 12,857 993 8%
Source: U.S. Department of Education, 1996-97 Title I Performance Reports. Information for Missouri is not
included because the state did not report the number of schools and districts in need of improvement.
Accountability 62
Schools identified for improvement tend to serve higher-poverty students and have a larger
minority enrollment.
 Schools identified as in need of improvement were more likely to be in the highest-poverty category
(75 percent or more students receiving free or reduced price lunch) and to have high minority student
enrollment (80 percent or more minority students).127
 Schools identified for improvement for two or more years were more likely to be schoolwide
programs and to have relatively high minority enrollment (50 percent or more minority students).128
 Large, high-poverty districts were more likely than other districts to have identified schools in need of
improvement. Two-thirds of large poor school districts, compared with about 20 percent of districts
nationally and one-third of small poor districts, formally identified schools in need of improvement.129
During the transition, states and districts have found it difficult to effectively communicate the
criteria and consequences of being identified for improvement. In 1997-98:
 More than a third of states reported that they are finding it difficult to convey to schools the criteria
that are used in identifying schools in need of improvement.130
 Twelve percent of Title I school principals in a 1997-98 survey reported that their schools had been
identified for improvement, and 75 percent reported their schools had not been identified. However,
an additional 13 percent of principals were uncertain as to whether their schools had been identified
for improvement.131
 Twelve percent of large poor districts and 9 percent of districts nationwide do not know whether their
district as a whole is making adequate yearly progress according to the state’s Title I criteria.132
 Across 12 school districts with schools in need of improvement in 1998, most local educators other
than district Title I directors knew little about the specific procedures that trigger school identification
under Title I.133
Integration of Title I with State and Local Accountability Systems
A key issue facing Title I is the extent to which identification of schools for improvement under Title I is
compatible with the accountability measures that states are putting into place for all schools. Ideally, Title
I should help create a seamless, coherent system where accountability for Title I schools fits in within the
accountability measures used for all schools.
Research shows that there is significant overlap of schools identified for improvement under Title I
and schools identified for improvement under some other state or local designation, but that two
parallel systems are operating in many states.
 In fall 1998, only 23 state Title I directors reported that the same accountability system is used for
Title I as the system defined by the state for all schools.134
Preliminary findings from a study examining the congruence of state, district, and Title I procedures for
identifying schools in need of improvement in five prominent jurisdictions (Kentucky, Maryland,
New York City, Chicago, and San Francisco) show that there is considerable overlap between schools
identified for improvement under Title I and those identified in their state or local systems. The majority
Accountability 63
of low-performing schools identified by state or local accountability systems are Title I schools. But the
study also raises some concerns about the extent to which an integrated system exists.
 Of the five sites in the study, only in Kentucky were the “lists” of schools that were identified for
improvement by state or local accountability or by Title I held in a common record system. Even
collecting the information on what schools had been identified was difficult for the researchers.
 Where identification of schools by the state/local and Title I systems is not congruent, the discrepancy
stems primarily from differences in the criteria used for identification. These differences in criteria
derive from differences in the purposes of the systems, differences in who identifies the schools, and
problems of administrative coordination.
 Even systems that were taking accountability seriously were having difficulty fully integrating the
Title I requirements.
 The study noted that the inconsistencies between Title I and state and local accountability systems
may cause significant difficulties when states implement corrective actions. Some research shows
that regardless of how schools are identified, they are undergoing improvement efforts. But the
inconsistency between Title I and state and local systems may become particularly problematic when
corrective actions begin.135
The lack of consistency between Title I and state and local accountability is one concern. Another is
the rigor of accountability systems and whether the requirements in Title I are driving states
toward more challenging accountability systems for all schools.
 A recent study of accountability in large urban districts finds that Title I has been a “model and an
instigator” for standards-based reform and efforts to track student progress and improve schools.136
 Nationally, 14 percent of districts report that Title I is driving reform in their districts as a whole to
a great extent. Fifty percent of small poor districts and 47 percent of large poor districts report that
Title I is driving reform to a great extent.137
 According to one recent report, 15 states Exhibit 4.3

identify low-performing schools as part of State and Title I Accountability
their state accountability systems. At the New York City
same time, all but one state identifies low-
performing schools under Title I.138 State
Identification
(SURR)
 In some jurisdictions schools have been able
to meet expectations for state accountability
but not for progress under Title I. For
example, New York identifies schools for Title I School
Improvement
school improvement that are farthest from
reaching the state standard. Under Title I,
however, New York City identifies any
schools that are not making adequate yearly
progress toward the state standard. As a result, 89 percent of the schools identified under the state’s
Schools Under Registration Review (SURR) system in New York City are also identified for school
improvement under Title I. However, only 9 percent of the schools identified for school improvement
under Title I are also identified under SURR.139
Accountability 64
Although the goal of Title I is to have single, integrated state accountability systems, there are limits
to the capacity of Title I to drive statewide change.
 Accountability systems “closer to home” are of greater consequence to educators. State and local
systems tend to be more clearly specified and understood by educators and have more immediate
consequences to schools and districts. The lack of clarity and specified consequences for Title I
schools that fail to improve during the transitional period may contribute to low saliency for Title I
accountability.140
Assistance and Support for Low-Performing Schools

Accountability provisions under Title 1 are intended to help schools use performance data to guide
improvement efforts and to support states and districts in assisting schools that are failing to meet
standards.
Using Performance Data to Guide Improvement Efforts
Collecting data on student and school performance and progress in Title I is not envisioned solely as a
means of holding schools accountable. One of the hopes in shifting toward a more outcome-based
education system is to move away from collecting data for compliance and monitoring purposes, in favor
of using measures of performance for effective decision making as well as to guide instruction and
improvement efforts. Recent findings suggest that Title I requirements may be contributing to an
increased use of data for planning and improvement purposes.
Recent findings suggest that state and Title I accountability requirements are helping states,
districts, and schools become more data driven. Because Title I gave states, districts, and schools
significant flexibility in using funds to support programs that best meet the needs of particular students,
the program stresses the need to analyze outcome data, assess needs, and focus on continuous
improvement.
 Research on accountability in 14 districts by the Consortium for Policy Research in Education found
a remarkably high level of attention being paid to using data to inform decision making. The study
found that although outcome data were required to be used for school improvement planning, many
districts were going beyond requirements of the law to use the data to identify professional
development activities that would address gaps in performance, plan curriculum and instruction,
assign personnel, and develop remedial programs for students.141
 A report on accountability in 12 districts with stable systems, innovative practices, and a large number
of low-performing schools—in Kansas, New York, North Carolina, and Oregon—found that
educators were paying attention to performance data. Several of the districts used technology to
make the data accessible and all gave schools assistance in interpreting and using data. Larger
districts had greater skills in using data to give principals and teachers “good, quick feedback, sliced
and diced in a variety of ways.” 142
 A recent study of accountability in large urban districts affirms that many districts “have gone from
virtually ignoring student achievement data and other indicators of school success to embracing it.”
School improvement plans are becoming more focused on data, and plans are being used more to
guide practice, goal setting, and monitoring.143
Accountability 65
Assisting Schools That Are Failing to Meet Standards
Assistance and intervention for schools identified as in need of improvement are a priority for the Title I
program. Although Congress did not fund the State Improvement Grants intended to help states operate
school support teams authorized in the legislation, states are using their administrative set-aside funds to
operate school support teams. But the demand for assistance is high, and the capacity of states and
districts to provide it is limited.
Indicator: School support teams. States and districts will provide more effective assistance to
schools not making progress through school support teams and other sources.
Ideally, assistance to schools identified as in need of improvement is timely, focused on the lowest-
performing schools, and based on what is known about effective practices for helping to turn around low-
performing schools. Efforts must focus on providing students with challenging curriculum and
instruction, creating a high-quality professional development program, helping schools use data to drive
improvement, and using resources more strategically to support comprehensive change.
States have tended to develop school support systems composed of a group of distinguished
educators, staff from existing intermediary organizations (such as education service centers), or
state staff.
 Kentucky’s STAR (School Transformation Assistance and Renewal) program, for example, assigns
distinguished educators to schools “in crisis” to help school staff develop and implement data-driven
improvement plans. States such as Massachusetts, Illinois, and Louisiana designate state staff to
work with schools in need of improvement. Maryland has developed a mentor school model that
pairs schools identified as in need of improvement with schools designated as distinguished.144
 A recent study of school support teams identified a number of strengths. State coordinators believe
that school support teams, despite limited capacity, are providing support for school reform and
schoolwide programs. States find peer consultation to be particularly effective, and schools seem to
benefit from assistance, as evidenced by more creative plans and more integrated approaches to
funding.145
New York: Assistance for Low-Performing Schools
New York’s state accountability system requires that 90 percent of students in schools score at or above
state benchmarks (State Reference Point) on the state assessment and no school’s dropout rate is to
exceed 5 percent. Adequate yearly progress is determined school by school as the difference between
student performance in a school and the State Reference Point on the state assessment. Schools have
two years to close the gap between state standards and school performance by 20 percent.
Low-performing schools in New York are identified to the public as Schools Under Registration
Review (SURR). A team visits the schools and makes recommendations, and the district is required to
develop a corrective action plan for the school. The review includes examination of the school’s
instruction, curriculum, assessments, management, leadership, professional development, parental and
family involvement, discipline and safety, and the adequacy of district support for the school. SURR
schools are given three academic years to demonstrate improved student results. If insufficient
progress is made, the commissioner may recommend that the school’s registration be revoked.
Accountability 66
Assistance to schools in need of improvement by states and districts tends to be ongoing and
focused on professional development, planning and needs assessment, and identification of
promising practices.
 States report that schools and districts most frequently request assistance for identifying successful
strategies for improving instruction, conducting needs assessments, and using assessment information
from multiple sources.146
 “More professional development” is the most common strategy identified by districts for helping
schools in need of improvement. More than 70 percent of districts with such schools reported using
this strategy.147
The biggest challenge facing state school support teams and other assistance providers is lack of
capacity. Demand for assistance is high, but states and districts have limited resources to provide
assistance to all of the schools that need it.
 In early feedback from states and districts after the reauthorization of Title I, administrators reported
the need for a great deal more technical assistance to districts and schools not making adequate
progress. Baseline findings at the district level in 1996 indicated that almost 20 percent of districts
reported needing information and support in providing technical assistance to schools not making
adequate progress, and districts with the highest poverty levels reported the greatest need.148
 According to one study, three years after the reauthorization of Title I, 10 states still had no
identifiable school support team systems.149
State Support Teams Lack the Capacity to Serve All Schools in Need of Improvement
 Only nine states report that school support teams are able to serve at least half of schools in need of
improvement in their states.
 Twelve states report that school support teams serve less than half of schools in need of improvement in
their states.
 Twenty-four states report that they have more schools in need of support team services than they have the
resources to provide.
Source: U.S. Department of Education, Follow-Up State Survey, 1998.
States have limited capacity to provide assistance because school support teams have limited
resources and competing priorities. State Improvement Grants intended to help states operate
school support teams were not funded during reauthorization. Moreover, the first priority of state
school support teams has been to assist schoolwide programs—schools in need of improvement
come second.
 A study of accountability systems in five jurisdictions found that support provided to low-performing
schools varied substantially from jurisdiction to jurisdiction and even from school to school. Much of
the assistance was focused on helping schools develop improvement plans, as required by the law.
Accountability 67
The primary source of support was the state or district, with Title I appearing “peripheral and
sporadic.” 150
Accountability 68
 Among schools that reported in a 1998 survey that they had been identified as in need of
improvement, less than half (47 percent) reported that they had received additional professional
development or technical assistance as a result of being identified for improvement. However, high-
poverty schools (65 percent) identified for improvement were more likely to receive assistance.151
Corrective Actions and Consequences

Accountability for performance is meaningless without consequences for results. Although consequences
and corrective actions are an important part of the accountability provisions in Title I, most of the
provisions do not have to be put in place until after final assessments (2000-01 school year). As part of
their state accountability systems some states are implementing measures, including sanctions, under their
own accountability systems.
Reporting Publicly on School Performance
Public reports of school performance, “school profiles” or “report cards,” are increasingly being
used as an important tool for accountability and school improvement. Although Title I does not
require uniform reporting on school performance, all states are required to provide results on statewide
assessments to districts and schools. Title I requires districts to do an annual review of school progress
and publish the results in school profiles that include information on student achievement disaggregated
by demographic subgroups in order to draw the attention of states, districts, and schools to the gaps
between disadvantaged students and other students. This provision is not required under Title I until final
assessments are in place. Still:
 As part of their own state accountability systems, 36 states have developed annual school report
cards.152
According to some analyses of school report cards across states, the reports are being used to a
limited extent to rate low-performing schools, compare school performance to other schools in the
state, or inform parents and the public about school performance.
 An analysis of early report cards indicates that they were heavy on “input measures” that described
the characteristics of schools, rather than on measures of quality or performance.153
 Only 19 states currently rate the schools or identify low-performing schools statewide, and only
13 require school report cards to be sent home to parents under state accountability systems.154
 In focus groups held around the country, most parents and taxpayers said they had never seen a report
card on individual public schools in their communities. Many school report cards do not include
information that parents and the public want to know, and say they need, to evaluate schools.155
Accountability 69
Exhibit 4.4
School Report Cards
Report Cards Report Cards
Compare School Compare Scores in
Annual School Report Cards Performance to Similar Schools or
State Report Cards Sent Home State Average Districts
ALABAMA Yes Yes
Alaska Yes
Arizona Yes Yes Yes
Arkansas
California Yes Yes
Colorado
Connecticut Yes Yes Yes (high schools only)
Delaware Yes Yes
Florida Yes Yes Yes Yes
Georgia Yes Yes
Hawaii Yes
Idaho
Illinois Yes Yes Yes
Indiana Yes Yes
Iowa
Kansas Yes Yes
Kentucky Yes Yes Yes
Louisiana Yes Yes
Maine
Maryland Yes Yes
Massachusetts Yes Yes
Michigan Yes Yes
Minnesota Yes Yes
Mississippi
Missouri Yes
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada Yes Yes
New Hampshire
New Jersey Yes Yes Yes
New Mexico Yes Yes Yes
New York Yes Yes Yes
North Carolina Yes
North Dakota
Ohio Yes Yes Yes
Oklahoma Yes Yes Yes
Oregon
Pennsylvania Yes Yes Yes
Rhode Island Yes
South Carolina
South Dakota Yes
Tennessee
Texas Yes Yes Yes Yes
Utah
Vermont Yes Yes Yes
Virginia Yes Yes Yes
Washington Yes Yes
West Virginia Yes Yes Yes
Wisconsin Yes Yes Yes
Wyoming Yes Yes
TOTAL 36 13 25 9
Source: Education Week, Quality Counts, 1999.
Accountability 70
Providing Incentives and Rewards for Performance
In addition to identifying schools in need of improvement, Title I requires states to designate

distinguished schools—schools where adequate yearly progress has been achieved for three years, where
virtually all students in schools meet state performance requirements, or where significant progress has
been made in raising the achievement of low-performing students. Title I also provides states with the
opportunity to reserve funds to reward performance or provide incentives to schools. Some states are
already identifying distinguished schools under Title I, and many of the states’ own accountability
systems include incentives and rewards.
 According to a recent survey of state Title I directors, 28 states designate schools that have a record of
improving student performance as distinguished.156
 Fourteen states give monetary awards for schools that meet performance standards. In nine states the
money can be used for salary bonuses.157
 A study of accountability systems in Kentucky and Charlotte-Mecklenburg found that although

bonuses seem to be less of an incentive to teachers than thanks and praise, teachers tended to agree
that bonuses were an important symbol of accountability. Negative outcomes, such as being labeled
as a low-performing school, seemed to have an equal motivating force.158
NORTH CAROLINA: INCENTIVES AND REWARDS FOR PERFORMANCE
The ABCs of Public Education is North Carolina’s school accountability system. It relies on an expected
growth composite based on three factors: statewide average growth, the previous performance of students
in the school, and a statistical adjustment for comparing students from one year to the next. The student
performance standard is 50 percent of students at or above grade level in reading, math, and writing.
Schools in which less than 50 percent of students meet the standard are classified as low-performing.
Adequate yearly progress for Title I schools is the same definition as the state accountability requirements,
except that Title I schools must make progress for two years to move out of the low-performing (schools in
need of improvement) category, while other schools need to demonstrate only one year of progress.
Schools achieving gains that are exemplary (10 percent above statewide average) or expected are eligible
for incentive awards, which can be distributed as direct bonuses to teachers or used by the school. For
exemplary gain, schools receive up to $1,500 for each certified staff member and $500 for each teacher’s
assistant. For expected gain schools, incentive awards are up to $750 per certified staff member and $375
for each teacher assistant. To be eligible for incentives, schools must not have excessive exemptions and
must test at least 95 percent of students. Low-performing schools are assigned assistance teams of three to
five educators who work with staff to align the instructional program with the state curriculum. In 1997-
98, 83 percent of elementary and middle schools in the state met either expected or exemplary growth
standards.
Implementing Corrective Actions
According to Title I, schools that fail to make adequate yearly progress for three years after being
identified for school improvement are subject to corrective actions, such as withholding funds, changing
decision-making authority in schools or districts, reconstituting schools, or authorizing student transfers
to other schools. Although Title I requirements for these corrective actions are not to be put in place until
after final assessments (2000-01 school year), some states are implementing accountability measures
including sanctions, under their own accountability systems.
Accountability 71
 Sixteen states have laws to give them the power to close, take over, or overhaul chronically failing
schools. According to one source, only three states have closed or reconstituted schools (New York,
Oklahoma, Texas), for a total of 55 schools nationwide.159 Another source indicates that 8 states have
reconstituted a school or a district.160
 A number of school districts such as Chicago, San Francisco, and Philadelphia have their own
reconstitution or “takeover” policies—but most have reconstituted only a handful of schools, and no
schools have been reconstituted under the authority of Title I.
Although Title I includes a requirement for corrective actions for low achievement, most such
actions cannot go into effect under Title I until after final assessments are in place. Corrective
actions under Title I—including withholding funds to districts or schools, revoking authority for schools
to be schoolwide programs, changing governance arrangements in schools or districts, reconstitution and
authorizing transfers to other public schools—have not been required to date under Title I.
As many states begin to implement sanctions and corrective actions as part of their own state
accountability systems, they face some resistance.
 As one recent study explained, “Despite threats to impose severe penalties, few states are ready or
willing to impose them. Most educators also remain opposed to accountability as it is being pursued
in many states.”161
 In contrast to the support found among the public, parents, and employers, most teachers think it is a
bad idea to overhaul persistently low-performing schools, have principals work under contracts that
could be terminated if schools fail to reach goals, or tie student performance to financial incentives
for teachers and principals.162
Accountability for performance under Title I starts with the school. But states and districts are
beginning to set their sights on holding students accountable for performance, and are creating
policies to end social promotion.
 The problem of social promotion—promoting students from grade to grade when they are unprepared
and have not met standards—is an often hidden but potentially large problem. Research indicates that
from 10 to 15 percent of young adults who graduate from high school but have no further formal
education—up to 340,000 high school graduates each year—cannot balance a checkbook or write a
letter to a credit card company to complain about a bill.163
 A recent survey shows that 32 percent of parents, 26 percent of teachers, and 63 percent of employers
do not believe a high school diploma is a guarantee that students have mastered the basics.164
 According to the American Federation of Teachers, 10 states have established statewide policies for
ending social promotion.165 Districts such as Chicago, Cincinnati, and Boston have stepped up efforts
to end social promotion.
 Where states and districts have established policies for ending social promotion, clear standards have
been set for performance, coupled with extra assistance and intervention to help students meet those
standards through preschools and early childhood programs, after-school and summer school
programs, and attention to students with special needs.
Accountability 72
Policies to allow students in low-performing schools the choice to transfer to another school,
although not yet permitted to be implemented under Title I, are being implemented in some
districts and states across the nation, and may help provide incentives to improve failing schools.
 Boston Public Schools, for example, has a controlled public school choice system where parents can
register their children in one of at least 23 elementary schools and at least 5 middle schools within
their assignment area, plus several citywide schools. High school students may choose from among
12 citywide high schools. In addition, students may apply for several special high schools and
programs. In 1991, when the district began the policy, Samuel Mason Elementary School was the
least chosen in the system, with only 130 students attending the school. By 1996, the school had
turned itself around to become one of the most chosen in the district.166

The data presented in this chapter raise some key questions that should guide future directions of
accountability provisions under Title I.
 How can state accountability systems and Title I be aligned while meeting the requirements of Title I,
under which states must set accountability standards that are rigorous, include all students, and help
all students reach proficiency?
 Because states and districts have limited resources to provide the level of assistance needed to turn
around low-performing schools, how can strong accountability be better tied to improving
performance?
This section suggests ways that accountability can be strengthened in the next reauthorization.
Help states move toward a single, integrated, and rigorous accountability system
The message the Department is getting from the field is to stay the course on standards-based reform and
accountability for performance. But Title I cannot be expected to drive systemwide accountability,
particularly in districts where most of the schools do not receive Title I funds. States need to adopt
statewide accountability systems that are based on student achievement data that are aligned to
challenging state standards, include all students, and use multiple measures and indicators. Such
statewide systems would identify schools in need of improvement and offer quick interventions; support
strong corrective actions in schools that continue to need improvement; and provide recognition and
rewards for schools that demonstrate improvements in student achievement. Such state accountability
systems would ensure that all students, particularly economically disadvantaged students, have
opportunities to be successful learners and would take appropriate steps to intervene when students are
not making progress.
Build capacity for targeting technical assistance toward the neediest schools
One of the biggest problems facing states is their lack of capacity to help schools meet expectations and
intervene when schools need assistance. This chapter has presented evidence that states and districts are
struggling to improve their capacity to help low-performing schools.
To address the issue of inadequate capacity, a percentage of Title I funds should be reserved to support
interventions in low-performing schools and rewards for school improvement. These funds would be
Accountability 73
targeted to ensure that interventions are significant and meaningful enough to turn around low-performing
schools. Funds would be used to pay for external experts to work with the schools to turn around
performance, to implement professional development and curriculum improvements outlined in school
improvement plans, to extend learning time for students in low-performing schools, to pay for
reconstitution costs, and to provide rewards for improved performance.
Implement strong corrective actions for lowest-performing schools
States must identify and take clear, strong, and swift corrective actions in the schools with the greatest
needs in the state. Rather than waiting until several years after final assessments are in place, schools
with the lowest levels of student performance that have been identified as in need of school improvement
for three or more consecutive years should be subject to corrective actions under Title I, even if such
designation was under the transitional assessment and accountability system.
In the case of persistently low-performing schools, corrective actions should include giving parents and
students alternatives, including the choice to attend another public school. Title I funds can be used to
help fund alternatives, including paying for the cost of transferring students to another public school.
Publicly report state, district, and school profiles of student achievement in clear, and more
meaningful ways
Research suggests that states, districts, and schools are making better use of data for decisions about
school operation, classroom practice and bringing about school improvement, but they have a long way to
go. Effective report cards should be useful for school improvement as well as for informing parents and
the public about school performance. Therefore, all districts should produce annual school profiles, made
available to parents and the public, that report on student achievement disaggregated by demographic
subgroups of students, and by other nonacademic indicators that the public and parents care about, such
as attendance and dropout rates, class size, teacher professional qualifications, parental involvement, and
school safety and discipline. These profiles should provide timely information and be focused on
performance rather than process indicators.
Help schools end social promotion and provide extra assistance and interventions to help
students meet standards
As states set standards for performance and hold schools accountable for student achievement, educators
must face the issue of how to deal with students who fail to meet performance expectations. Research
shows that neither passing students along from grade to grade when they are unprepared nor retaining
students to repeat a grade is an effective strategy for meeting the needs of students who fail to reach
standards. As part of their accountability systems, states should make a commitment to address high rates
of social promotion and retention of failing students by intervening with strategies to help all students
achieve to high standards.
Promote state accountability for performance
Accountability for school performance must be shared throughout the system. Although states, districts,
and schools are taking advantage of the flexibility in Title I to design educational programs that best meet
the needs of their students, one of the challenges at the federal level has been a limited ability to hold
states accountable for implementing provisions of Title I. To address this issue, under the Government
Performance and Results Act, states are asked to submit progress reports to the federal government in a
Accountability 74
timely fashion, and include information on progress against program performance indicators such as those
featured in this chapter, from the U.S. Department of Education’s annual Strategic Plan.
Conclusion
States are making progress in implementing accountability systems. Yet as one recent report notes, “states
have completed only the first few miles of a marathon when it comes to holding schools accountable for
results. Many have a long way to go in making their accountability systems clear, fair and complete.” 167
Recognizing that we are examining accountability in the context of a transitional period, our findings
suggest some concern about the implementation of Title I accountability measures. Most important is the
issue of the compatibility of state and local accountability systems with Title I accountability provisions.
Accountability under Title I is not meant to operate as a separate system, but there is some evidence to
suggest that these systems are less well integrated than the Title I legislation envisioned. In addition,
many states have found it difficult to define adequate yearly progress and have been uneven both in their
identification of schools in need of improvement and in the assistance they provide to low-performing
schools. Our findings about corrective actions and consequences implemented by states under their own
accountability systems suggest that although these measures can be effective, educators have shown some
resistance to the measures, and putting them into place under Title I when final assessments are in place
will be an upcoming challenge for the program.
Accountability 75
Accountability 76
KEY PROVISIONS FOR THE ALLOCATION OF TITLE I FUNDS
Allocations to School Districts
Since the Title I program began in 1965, the Department of Education has made allocations to the
county level, and states have suballocated these funds to school districts within each county. However,
beginning in FY 1999, the law requires the Department of Education to make allocations directly to
school districts without regard to county boundaries.
Allocations are based primarily on Census Bureau estimates of the number of poor school-age children
(ages 5-17) in each county or district. The law requires use of updated census poverty data for
counties in FY 1997 and for school districts in FY 1999 (unless the Secretaries of Education and
Commerce jointly determined that use of this data would be inappropriate or unreliable).
Funds may be allocated using up to four statutory formulasBasic Grants, Concentration Grants,
Targeted Grants, and the Education Finance Incentive Program. Basic Grants currently distribute
86 percent of the funds (FY 1999), and the remaining funds are allocated through Concentration
Grants; the other two formulas have never been funded.
 Basic Grants. Funds are allocated based on each county or district’s number of formula-eligible
children. The county or district allocations are adjusted using state average per-pupil expenditures,
a factor intended to compensate for differences in the cost of education. The formula also
incorporates minimum eligibility, hold-harmless, and state minimum grant provisions.
 Concentration Grants. Similar to Basic Grants, except that funds go only to counties and school
districts with high numbers (over 6,500) or percentages (over 15 percent) of poor children.
 Targeted Grants. Similar to Basic Grants, but uses weighted child counts that result in higher
allocations per poor child for districts with higher numbers or percentages of poor children.
 Education Finance Incentive Program. Funds would be allocated to states through a formula
that is based on a count of all school-age children (not just poor children), multiplied by fiscal
effort and equity factors. This formula would provide higher levels of funding to states that have
higher levels of fiscal effort and within-state equalization (as defined in the law). States would
suballocate these funds to school districts in proportion to other Title I funds.
Within-District Allocations
School districts allocate funds to eligible schools based on each school’s number of low-income
children, typically using data from the free and reduced-price lunch program. A school is eligible if its
school attendance area has a poverty rate that is at least equal to the district average poverty rate or
35 percent (whichever is less). However, districts may choose to concentrate their Title I funds on
their highest-poverty schools and limit school eligibility to a poverty level that is higher than the
district-wide average.
Districts may give schools different amounts per poor child as long as schools with higher poverty
rates receive higher allocations per poor child than schools with lower poverty rates. Districts must
ensure that each school’s Title I allocation is at least 125 percent of the district-wide allocation per
Targeting Resources 77
poor child (this provision applies only if the district serves schools with poverty rates below 35
percent).
5. TARGETING RESOURCES TO DISTRICTS AND SCHOOLS
WHERE THE NEEDS ARE GREATEST
Key Findings
 More than 90 percent of Title I funds are used for instruction and instructional support—much higher
than the percentage of state and local funds used for these purposes (62 percent). Funds spent at the
federal and state levels amount to 1.5 percent of total funding.
 Title I funds that districts and schools used for technology ($237 million) amounted to 37 percent
of total support for technology from Department of Education programs. Title I funds paid for
12 percent of all new computers that schools received in 1997-98.
 Title I spending on professional development ($191 million) amounted to 27 percent of federal
funding for professional development at the district and school levels.
 Title I resources in high-poverty schools can be sufficient to pay most if not all of the additional costs
of many model programs for raising the achievement of disadvantaged students.
 Districts in the highest-poverty quartile receive 49 percent of all Title I funds, about the same as their
share of the nation’s poor school-age children, compared with only 23 percent of state and local
funds.
 Formula changes have had little effect on targeting at the school district level. The share of Title I
funds received by the highest-poverty districts has remained unchanged (at 49 percent) from FY 1994
through FY 1997. District-level targeting will not change substantially in FY 1998 and FY 1999
because of special 100 percent hold-harmless provisions enacted for those years.
 School-level targeting within districts increased substantially after the 1994 reauthorization. Almost
all (95 percent) of the highest-poverty schools (75 percent or more poverty) received Title I funds in
1997-98, up from 79 percent in 1993-94. The proportion of low-poverty schools (less than
35 percent poverty) receiving Title I funds declined from 49 percent to 36 percent over this period.
 Low-poverty schools account for 30 percent of Title I schools but receive only 18 percent of Title I
funds. However, those low-poverty schools that receive Title I funds tend to receive substantially
larger funding levels per low-income student ($1,001) compared with the highest-poverty schools
($617) and Title I schools overall ($613).
 Nearly all (93 percent) high-poverty secondary schools received Title I funds in 1997-98, up from
61 percent in 1993-94. The overall percentage of secondary schools that receive Title I funds
declined from 36 percent to 29 percent over the same period. Secondary schools that do receive Title
I funds tend to receive smaller allocations per low-income student ($483) than elementary schools
($643).
 Recent census updates of poverty data reflect a shift toward large urban areas, particularly in the
Northeast, and away from small rural areas, partly reversing previous shifts that occurred in the
1990 census.
Historically, Title I funds have been spread thinly among a large majority of districts and schools,
undermining the program’s capacity to meet the high expectations set by policymakers. The previous
Chapter 1 formula and within-district allocation provisions spread funds to virtually all counties,
93 percent of all school districts, and 66 percent of all public schools, yet left many of the nation’s poorest
schools unserved. In an effort to improve the targeting of Title I funds on the neediest districts and
schools, the 1994 reauthorization created the new Targeted Grants formula and changed the within-district
allocation provisions. In addition, Congress increased the proportion of Title I funds appropriated for
Concentration Grants, in an effort to direct a greater share of the funds to higher-poverty districts and
schools.
This chapter first describes changes in the Title I formulas that allocate funds to states and school districts
and in the provisions governing how districts allocate funds to schools. The chapter then discusses the
amount of Title I funds used at the district and school levels for instruction and other purposes and the
targeting of Title I funds at the school district and school levels. The chapter also discusses the effects of
different formulas for allocating funds to school districts, the effect of the 1994 poverty updates, and the
change to allocating funds directly to school districts.
Changes in Title I Formulas That Allocate Funds to States, Counties, and School Districts
Under the antecedent Chapter 1, 90 percent of the funds were distributed through Basic Grants, which go
to almost all school districts, and 10 percent were distributed through Concentration Grants to districts
with more than 15 percent poverty or 6,500 poor children. To improve the targeting and fairness of
allocations, several changes were authorized:
 New Targeted Grants formula. The reauthorized Title I provided that “new money” (funds above
the FY 1995 level) was to flow through Targeted Grants, a weighted formula that provides higher per-
pupil amounts to counties and districts with higher percentages or numbers of poor children.
However, this formula has never been funded.
 Increased appropriations for Concentration Grants. Allocations for school districts continue to
flow primarily through the Basic Grant formula that has been used since the beginning of the Title I
program in 1965. However, Concentration Grants have recently been used to allocate an increasing
percentage of Title I funds, rising from 4 percent in 1989 to 10 percent in 1996 and 14 percent in
1999. Concentration Grants provide funding only to districts with relatively high concentrations of
poor children (more than 15 percent poverty or 6,500 poor children).
 Use of updated census poverty data. To address concerns about the use of out-of-date poverty data
from the decennial census for Title I allocations, Congress mandated that these allocations use
biennial poverty estimates prepared by the Census Bureau. The first intercensal estimates, which
provided county-level poverty and population estimates for 1994 (for income year 1993), were first
used for Title I allocations in FY 1997. The Census Bureau has also prepared updated 1996 estimates
for school districts, intended for use in the FY 1999 allocations, as discussed below.
 Allocating funds directly to school districts. Historically, Title I funds have been allocated to
school districts through a two-stage process, with the Department allocating funds to the county level
and states then suballocating those funds to school districts within each county. Beginning in
FY 1999, the Department will allocate Title I funds to school districts using updated census poverty
data. However, the law permits states to redistribute Title I funds for districts with less than 20,000
persons (which account for 80 percent of districts and 27 percent of school-age children), as well as to
adjust for boundary changes, allocations to charter schools, and other issues.
Changes in How Districts Allocate Funds to Schools
Title I procedures require districts to rank-order their schools on the basis of the percentage of children
from low-income families. Schools with poverty rates above the districtwide average are eligible for
Title I, but previously there were several exceptions to this rule that permitted districts to spread their
funds among a larger number of schools. Changes enacted in the 1994 reauthorization that affect within-
district allocations include the following:
 Stronger within-district targeting provisions. School eligibility requirements were tightened in the
reauthorization to exclude schools below the average poverty rate for the district (unless the school
has a poverty rate of 35 percent or more). Districts were no longer allowed to serve all schools if the
variation in school poverty rates was less than 10 percentage points, or to grandfather in a school that
had become ineligible. In addition, districts are now required to serve all schools at or above
75 percent poverty before serving any schools below that poverty levela change intended to
increase the number of high-poverty schools, particularly high schools and middle schools, that
receive Title I funds. Finally, districts must ensure that each school’s Title I allocation is at least
125 percent of the districtwide allocation per poor child, a provision intended to ensure that funds are
not spread too thinly across schools; however, this provision does not apply if the district serves only
schools with poverty rates of 35 percent or more.
 Waiver authority. New waiver provisions were added to ESEA during the 1994 reauthorization to
allow greater flexibility for states and districts to adapt federal education programs to the educational
needs of their students and communities. This waiver authority could affect the school-level targeting
of Title I funds, because it may be used to waive certain within-district allocation rules.
How Are Key Provisions Being Implemented?
Uses of Title I Funds
Nearly all Title I funds are allocated to local school districts. States distribute 98.8 percent of their
Title I funds to school districts and retain only 1.2 percent for administration, school improvement
programs, and technical assistance to districts and schools. At the federal level, funds for Departmental
administration are not retained from Title I appropriations but instead are provided through a separate
appropriation; however, across all elementary and secondary programs, funds spent on program
administration account for 0.5 percent of total funding for these programs.168
More than 90 percent of Title I funds are used for instruction and instructional support—much higher than
the percentage of state and local funds used for these purposes (62 percent). About four-fifths of Title I
funds are used for instruction; these funds are primarily used to hire teachers and aides, but also support
purchases of computers and instructional materials. About 10 percent of the funds are used for program
administration. The remaining funds are used mainly for instructional support, including professional
development, curriculum and program development, and support services for students such as health
services and guidance counseling.169
Although Title I accounts for a relatively small percentage of total funding for elementary and secondary
education (about 2.5 percent),170 the program plays a significant role in supporting local education
improvement efforts because it provides flexible funding that may be used for supplementary instruction,
professional development, technology, after-school and other extended-time programs, and other
strategies for raising student achievement.
For example, Title I funds used for professional development amounted to $191 million in 1997-98
(27 percent of federal funds that school districts use for professional development). Title I funds
used for technology amounted to $237 million (37 percent of federal support for technology in
schools). Title I funds used for technology primarily support purchases of new computers; Title I funds
paid for 12 percent of all new computers that schools received in 1997-98.171
Title I funds may help equalize resources for high- and low-poverty schools. Title I provides
additional support in districts and schools with greater needs, which often receive fewer resources
from state and local sources. For example, Title I funds purchased an average of 3.3 computers in the
highest-poverty schools in 1997-98 (26 percent of the new computers), compared with 0.6 computers in
low-poverty schools. High-poverty schools’ use of Title I funds for technology helped to compensate for
the fact that they received fewer computers from state and local funds (4.8 computers, versus 12.4 in low-
poverty schools).172
Title I resources in high-poverty schools can be sufficient to pay most if not all of the additional
costs of many model programs for raising the achievement of disadvantaged students. The first-year
cost of operating 23 different model programs for schoolwide reform has been estimated as ranging from
a low of $12,000 up to a high of $588,000, with a median cost of $130,000.173 A typical elementary
school with enrollment of 500 students and a poverty rate of 75 percent would receive a total Title I
allocation of about $231,000 (that is, about $617 per child eligible for free or reduced-price lunches).174
Based on these estimates, Title I funds could cover the full cost of 19 of the model programs, or between
86 and 95 percent of three of the higher-cost models. In addition, the total cost of implementing many of
the model programs could be reduced by reassigning current staff.
Relative Targeting of Title I Funds in Comparison with State and Local Funds
Federal education programs in general, and Title I in particular, are much more targeted to
high-poverty districts than are state and local funds. The districts in the highest-poverty quartile,
which have 25 percent of the nation’s school-age children and 49 percent of the nation’s poor children,
receive 43 percent of federal funds and 49 percent of Title I funds, compared with only 23 percent of state
and local funds. In contrast, districts in the lowest-poverty quartile, which have 25 percent of all children
and 7 percent of the poor children, receive 11 percent of federal funds and 7 percent of Title I funds but
30 percent of state and local funds.175 Similarly, the U.S. General Accounting Office found that federal
funds provided an average of $4.73 per poor student nationwide for every $1 provided to each student,
while state funds provided an additional $0.62 per poor student in state funding.176
State funds, on average, compensate partially but not fully for funding disparities related to local property
tax bases. Districts in the highest-poverty quartile receive 18 percent of local education revenues and 27
percent of state education revenues, but their share of state and local funds combined (23 percent) is still
less than their share of school-age children (25 percent).
Exhibit 5.1
Distribution of Federal, State, and Local Revenues,
by District Poverty Quartile, FY 1997
10 0%
8 0% Federal State Loc al State & Loc al Combined

Percentage of Revenues
6 0%
43%
39%
4 0%
30%
27%
23% 22%
18%
2 0%
11%
0%
Hig hes t-Po ve rty Q uartile L owe st-P overty Q uartile
Highest-poverty quartile contains 25% of the nation’s students and 49% of the poor students.
High
Lowest-poverty quartile contains 25% of the nation’s students and 7% of the poor students.
Exhibit reads: The poorest school districts receive 43 percent of all federal revenues, compared
with 23 percent of state and local revenues.
Source: Chambers, Lieberman, Parrish, Kaleba, Van Campen, and Stullich, Study of Education
Resources and Federal Funding: Preliminary Report, 1999.
Because Title I funds are allocated to school districts and schools based on their numbers of poor school-
age children, they help to alleviate disparities in school funding and to support district and school efforts
to close the achievement gap.
Impact of Formula Changes on District-Level Targeting
The formula changes enacted in the 1994 reauthorization have had little effect on targeting at the
school district level. Title I funds continue to go to 93 percent of all school districts, the same percentage
as in 1987-88.177 Districts in the highest-poverty quartile continue to receive the same share of funds (49
percent) in FY 1997 as they did in FY 1994, although there is a slight shift away from the lowest-poverty
quartile (from 8 percent to 7 percent of total funds).178
The primary vehicle for increasing targeting, the new Targeted Grants formula, has not been funded.
Although the 1994 Amendments stated that any funds over the FY 1995 appropriations level would be
allocated through this formula, Congress has since overridden that requirement through special language
in appropriations bills. Instead, increases in Title I appropriations have been directed through the old
Basic Grant and Concentration Grant formulas.
Although Congress did substantially increase funding for Concentration Grants (including a 49 percent
increase for Concentration Grants in FY 1997), this has not had a substantial impact on district-level
targeting. Despite the large percentage increase for Concentration Grants, this formula still allocates only
14 percent of total funding, so the overall distribution of funds closely resembles the distribution of Basic
Grants (under which 49 percent of the funds goes to the poorest quartile of districts). In addition, hold-
harmless provisions (including a 100 percent hold-harmless in FY 1996) have limited any increases in
targeting. The FY 1998 and FY 1999 appropriations bills also included 100 percent hold-harmless
provisions, so little change in district-level targeting can be expected to occur in those years as well.
Targeting of Title I Funds to Schools
At the school level, Title I funds go to nearly all (95 percent) of the highest-poverty schools—those
where 75 percent or more of the students are eligible for free or reduced-price lunches. Schools with
lower poverty rates are less likely to receive Title I funds, with only 36 percent of the lowest-poverty
schools (less than 35 percent poor) receiving these funds (Exhibit 5.2).179
Exhibit 5.2
School-Level Targeting of Title I Funds
100% 95%
81%
80%
64%
58%
60%
40% 36%
20%
0%
A ll Schools 75% -100% 50% -74% 35% -49% 0-34%
Exhibit reads: Almost all of the highest-poverty schools (95 percent) receive
Title I funds, compared with 36 percent of the lowest-poverty schools.
Nearly three-fourths (73 percent) of Title I school funds go to schools with poverty levels of
50 percent or more. This partly reflects the relatively high proportion of poor students in high-poverty
schools (61 percent), as well as the fact that high-poverty schools are more likely to receive Title I funds
than are low-poverty schools (Exhibit 5.3).180
Although low-poverty schools account for 30 percent of all Title I schools, they receive only
18 percent of Title I funds. However, low-poverty schools tend to receive substantially larger
allocations per low-income student. Schools with poverty rates below 35 percent receive an estimated
$1,001 per low-income student, on average, for the 1999-2000 school year, compared with $617 for
schools with 75 percent or more poverty. Overall, funding for Title I schools amounted to an average of
$613 per low-income student.181
Exhibit 5.3
Title I Funding for High- and Low-Poverty Schools, 1999-2000
Proportion of Proportion of Average Amount of Title I Funds

School Poverty Level Low-Income Students Title I Funds Per Low-Income Student
0-34% 25% 18% $1,001

35%-49% 14% 9% $530
50%-74% 28% 27% $519
75%-100% 33% 46% $617
All Schools 100% 100% $613
Exhibit reads: The lowest-poverty schools receive only 18 percent of Title I funds, but they receive more Title I
funds per low-income student ($1,001) than do the highest-poverty schools ($617).
Note: Figures are based on data collected in the 1997-98 school year. Average school allocations have been
adjusted to reflect increased appropriations from FY 1997 to FY 1999 and the addition of funds that are used for
districtwide programs and services related to instruction and instructional support.
Source: Chambers, Lieberman, Parrish, Kaleba, Van Campen, and Stullich, Study of Education Resources
and Federal Funding: Preliminary Report, 1999.
Although some districts allocate equal per-pupil amounts to each of their Title I schools, others choose to
target most of their funds to their highest-poverty schools while also providing support for less intensive
services in lower-poverty schools. A study of Title I within-district targeting found that, in a sample of 14
large urban districts, half of the districts provided higher allocations to higher-poverty schools. For
example, one district provided $1,075 per pupil to schools with 85 percent poverty or above,
$806 to schools with poverty of 75 to 85 percent, $538 to schools with poverty of 50 to 75 percent, and
$269 to schools with poverty of 35 to 50 percent.182
The percentage of the highest-poverty schools (those with poverty rates of 75 percent or higher)
receiving Title I funds increased significantly after reauthorization, from 79 percent in 1993-94 to
95 percent in 1997-98. Over the same period, the proportion of low-poverty schools (less than
35 percent poor) receiving Title I funds declined from 49 percent to 36 percent. Overall, the percentage
of schools receiving Title I funds declined slightly, from 62 percent in 1993-94 to 58 percent in 1997-98
(Exhibit 5.4).
Exhibit 5.4
Change in Proportion of Schools Served by Title I, by School Poverty Level
1993-94 to 1997-98
Number of
Proportion of Schools Receiving Title I Funds Title I Schools
School poverty rate 1993-94 1995-96 1997-98 1997-98
Low-poverty
(0-34%) 49% 45% 36% 13,499
Moderate-poverty
(35%-49%) 72% 75% 64% 8,529
High-poverty
(50%-74%) 77% 86% 81% 11,985
Highest-poverty
(75%-100%) 79% 93% 95% 10,814
All schools 62% 66% 58% 45,227
Exhibit reads: The percentage of the highest-poverty schools receiving Title I funds rose from 79 percent in 1993-94 to
95 percent in 1997-98, while the proportion of low-poverty schools receiving such funds declined.
Source: Stullich, Donly, and Stolzberg, Targeting Schools: Study of Title I Allocations Within School Districts, 1999.
In 1997-98, for the first time, half (50 percent) of all Title I schools had poverty rates of 50 percent
or more, up from 41 percent of Title I schools prior to reauthorization (1993-94). Over the same
period, the proportion of Title I schools that had low poverty levels declined from 42 percent to
30 percent.183
To examine the change in the distribution of Title I funds among schools since reauthorization, the study
of Title I within-district targeting examined changes in school allocations from 1994-95 to 1996-97 in a
sample of 17 large school districts. Although this is a small number of districts, the sample includes many
of the nation’s largest school districts and accounts for 17 percent of all Title I funds.
In these districts, the total amount of Title I funds allocated to low- and moderate-poverty schools fell
substantially over this two-year period—by 87 percent for schools that were under 35 percent poor, and
by 51 percent for schools that were 35 to 49 percent poor (Exhibit 5.5). At the same time, funding for
high-poverty schools rose—by 16 percent for schools over 75 percent poor and by 20 percent for schools
that were 50 to 74 percent poor. However, most of the funding increase for high-poverty schools came
from increased funding rather than increased targeting, because low-poverty schools in these districts
received only 2 percent of the funds prior to reauthorization.184
Exhibit 5.5
Impact of Reauthorization on Title I School Allocations
Change in Title I Allocations for High- and Low-Poverty Schools
in 17 Large Urban School Districts, 1994-95 to 1996-97
100%
80%
60%
40%
P ercentage Change
16% 20%
20%
0%
-20%
-40%
-60% -51%
-80%
-100% -87%
75% -100% 50-74% 35% -49% 0-34%

Exhibit reads: In a sample of 17 large urban districts, low-poverty schools experienced a

substantial decline in Title I funding from 1994-95 to 1996-97, while funding for high-
poverty schools rose 16 to 20 percent.
Increases in targeting have increased the number of high-poverty schools served but have not
necessarily increased the intensity of services. In the 17 largest school districts, the size of school
allocations was essentially unchanged from 1994-95 to 1996-97 (at about $470 per low-income pupil).185
This finding suggests that the growth in total funding and the redirection of some funds away from low-
poverty schools were used to support Title I programs in newly-funded schools rather than to increase the
intensity of services in existing Title I programs.
Title I Funding for Secondary Schools
The percentage of the highest-poverty secondary schools receiving Title I funds rose markedly after
reauthorization, from 61 percent in 1993-94 to 74 percent in 1995-96 and 93 percent in
1997-98 (Exhibit 5.6). Historically, school districts have tended to focus their Title I funds on the
elementary grades, and many high-poverty middle schools and high schools received no Title I funds,
even though elementary schools with much lower poverty levels were funded. By 1997-98, however,
nearly all of the highest-poverty secondary schools (those with poverty rates of 75 percent or more) were
receiving Title I funds (as is the case with the highest-poverty elementary schools).
Exhibit 5.6
Change in Proportion of Highest-Poverty Secondary Schools
That Receive Title I Funds, 1993-94 to 1997-98
100% 93%
80% 74%
61%
60%
40%
20%
0%
1993-94 1995-96 1997-98
Exhibit reads: The percentage of the highest-poverty secondary schools (those with
poverty rates of 75 percent or higher) that received Title I funding rose from 61 percent in
1993-94 to 93 percent in 1997-98.
Overall, however, the percentage of all secondary schools receiving Title I funds declined from
36 percent in 1993-94 to 29 percent in 1997-98. Increases in services to high-poverty secondary
schools were offset by decreases in services to low-poverty secondary schools.186
Secondary schools that do receive Title I funds tend to receive smaller amounts of funds per low-
income student ($483, on average) than do elementary schools ($643). However, the highest-poverty
secondary schools receive funding levels similar to those in the highest-poverty elementary schools ($579
and $622, respectively).187 In a sample of 17 large school districts, the highest-poverty secondary schools
experienced a 19 percent increase in the size of their per-pupil allocations from 1994-95 to 1996-97
(while overall per-pupil allocations remained unchanged).188 Overall, secondary schools received
15 percent of all Title I funds allocated to schools in 1997-98, while 85 percent went to elementary
schools.189
Effect of Waivers on School-Level Targeting
New waiver provisions were authorized under IASA and Goals 2000 in order to give states and school
districts more flexibility to adapt Title I and other federal education programs to the educational needs of
their students and communities. Of the 242 federal waivers granted for the first three school years
after the waiver provisions were enacted, 55 percent concerned within-district targeting provisions.
In addition, 10 states granted 504 waivers of statutory provisions for the 1996-97 school year under the
“Ed-Flex” waiver authority, and 86 of these waivers (17 percent) related to Title I targeting provisions
(Exhibit 5.7). Most requests for targeting waivers were approved.
Exhibit 5.7
Share of Waivers Pertaining to Title I Targeting,
School Years 1995-96, 1996-97, and 1997-98
Total Ed-Flex Federal Waiver Requests

Waiver Waiver
Requests All Federal 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98
Requests
Total waivers 746 504 242 103 43 89

Title I targeting waivers 220 86 134 87 21 26
Percent of all waivers 29% 17% 55% 84% 49% 29%
Percent of Title I targeting waiver 89% 100% 85% 88% 70% 90%
requests that were approved
Exhibit reads: Targeting waivers are more prevalent among federal waiver requests (55 percent) than among Ed-Flex
waivers (17 percent). Targeting waivers declined from 84 percent of federal waiver decisions in 1995-96 to 29
percent in 1997-98.
Note: Analysis of Ed-Flex waivers is based on state reports of waivers granted in 1996 and 1997.
Source: Stullich, Donly, and Stolzberg, Targeting Schools: Study of Title I Allocations Within School Districts, 1999.
In many cases, waivers were requested and approved to ease the transition to new targeting provisions.
Waivers of within-district targeting provisions were much more common in the first year after
reauthorization. However, many of the waivers granted for 1995-96 were for three years, so there may be
an increase in targeting waivers in 1998-99 if these districts reapply for waivers.
Requests to serve ineligible schools were by far the most common type (71 percent) of targeting waiver
requests. Such waiver requests were often accompanied by requests to provide schools with allocations
that were less than 125 percent of the district per-pupil allocation (30 percent of waiver requests).190
However, in many cases districts were able to serve ineligible schools without going below the
125 percent minimum (often by choosing not to serve high schools and middle schools).
Targeting waivers approved by the Department of Education have had a small effect on the overall
targeting of Title I funds, although the impact was often significant in individual districts receiving these
waivers. Schools affected by approved targeting waivers amount to only 1 percent of all Title I schools
nationally. However, waivers to serve ineligible schools caused a 34 percent increase in the number of
schools receiving Title I funds in the waiver districts. Overall, targeting waivers resulted in a reduction in
the median school allocation per pupil in waiver districts of 18 percent in 1995-96 and 12 percent in
1997-98.191
Impact of Individual Title I Formulas on Targeting
The Targeted Grants formula would target substantially more funds to the highest-poverty school
districts than the other three formulas. The Targeted Grants formula would direct 63 percent of the
funds to the districts in the highest-poverty quartile (which have 25 percent of the nation’s children and 50
percent of the poor children). In contrast, the Concentration and Basic formulas direct 59 percent and 49
percent of the funds, respectively, to the highest-poverty quartile.192
Exhibit 5.8
Distribution of Funds Under Individual Title I Formulas,
by District Poverty Quartile, FY 1999
100%
T arge te d G rants
80% C o nce ntration G rants
B asic G rants
63%
59%
60% E ducatio n F inance
Percentage of Funds
49% Ince ntive P ro gram

46%
40%
20%
8% 8%
3% 1%
0%
Hig hest P overty Q uartile Lo we st P o ve rty Q uartile
Highest-poverty quartile contains 25% of the nation’s students and 49% of the poor students.
Lowest-poverty quartile contains 25% of the nation’s students and 7% of the poor students.
Exhibit reads: The poorest school districts would receive 63 percent of the funds under the
Targeted Grants formula, compared with 59 percent under Concentration Grants, 49 percent
under Basic Grants, and 46 percent under Incentive Grants.
Source: Chambers, Lieberman, Parrish, Kaleba, Van Campen, and Stullich, Study of Education
Resources and Federal Funding: Preliminary Report, 1999.
Use of the Education Finance Incentive Program formula would reduce the overall targeting of
Title I funds, because this formula would direct only 46 percent of the funds to the districts in the
highest-poverty quartile. This situation occurs partly because the Incentive formula allocates funds to
states based on the total number of school-age children, whereas the other three formulas use the number
of poor school-age children.
The Concentration formula is an “all or nothing” formula that gives the same proportional benefit
to districts that barely qualify as to those with very high poverty rates, while the weighted formula
used for Targeted Grants provides funding levels that gradually increase with the poverty level of
school district. The “cliff effect” inherent in the Concentration formula causes counties and districts with
14.9 percent poverty to receive no Concentration money, while those with 15.1 percent poverty receive
the same proportional benefit as counties with 70 percent poverty.
Some concern has been expressed that the Targeted Grants formula favors urban districts over
rural ones, but the evidence is mixed. Both the Targeted and the Concentration formulas recognize that
educational needs are greater in districts with large numbers of poor children as well as districts with high
percentages of poor children. It is true that small rural districts with moderately high poverty rates tend
to do less well under the Targeted formula than large urban districts with large numbers of disadvantaged
children but somewhat lower poverty percentages. However, it is also true that the districts that do best
under the Targeted Grants formula are poor rural districts, because the highest-poverty rates are found in
rural school districts.
In order for either the Concentration or Targeted formulas to have a substantial effect on the
overall targeting of Title I funds, it would be necessary to allocate a high proportion of total funds
through one of these more targeted formulas. Because 86 percent of the funds are currently allocated
through the Basic Grant formula, the overall distribution of funds closely resembles the distribution of
Basic Grant funds. If half of all Title I funds were allocated through the Concentration formula, the share
of total funds going to the poorest school districts could be expected to rise to about 54 percent (from
49 percent currently). If half of all Title I funds were allocated through the Targeted formula, the share of
total funds going to the poorest school districts could be expected to rise to about 56 percent.
Using Updated Poverty Data for Title I Allocations
Under the 1994 amendments, Congress mandated that, beginning in FY 1997, Title I allocations use
updated poverty estimates prepared by the Census Bureau. The purpose of this new requirement was to
address long-standing concerns about the fairness and accuracy of allocations based on the decennial
census, which becomes increasingly out-of-date as the decade progresses. Congress also mandated that
the Department contract with the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) to evaluate the reliability and
usefulness of the census updates.
The first set of updated county-level data extended the census population and poverty estimates from
1990 to 1994 (income year 1993). The Census Bureau’s model-based estimates incorporated data from
the decennial census and the annual Current Population Survey, as well as administrative data from
federal income tax returns and the food stamp program. An NAS panel of experts concluded in 1998 that
the Census Bureau’s estimates were “demonstrably superior to estimates from the 1990 census,” and
FY 1998 allocations were based on these estimates (which had been partially used for the FY 1997
allocations).193 The impact of the new poverty updates on Title I allocations is being phased in gradually
because of hold-harmless provisions and other factors.194
From 1990 to 1994, the number of poor school-age children rose in almost every state and in more
than 70 percent of the nation’s counties. Poverty rates rose in 64 percent of the nation’s counties.
However, large poverty increases tended to be concentrated in a relatively small number of counties; only
23 percent of counties experienced increases greater than the national average.
Changes in state shares of the nation’s poor children show a bicoastal shift toward the Atlantic and
Pacific coasts, which were hardest hit by the recession of the early 1990s.195 In general, an increasing
share of the nation’s poor children will tend to result in an increasing share of Title I funds. States in the
Northeast experienced large increases in numbers of poor children, largely reversing previous declines in
poverty recorded in the 1990 census. However, although most of these states now have more poor
children than in 1980, they still have a smaller share of the nation’s poor children. Other states with
noteworthy increases in poverty include California, where the number of poor children rose 55 percent
from 1990 to 1994, and Florida (up 45 percent). Southern states tended to see substantial reductions in
their shares of the nation’s poor children, although they continue to be among the poorest states in the
United States.
Exhibit 5.9
Geographic Shifts in Child Poverty
Percentage Change in State Shares of the Nation’s
Poor School-Age Children, 1990 to 1994
WA
ME
MT ND
MN VT
OR NH
MA
ID WI NY RI
SD
WY MI CT
IA PA NJ
NE OH DE
CA NV
UT IL IN MD
WV DC
CO VA
KS MO KY
NC
TN
OK
AZ NM SC
AR
AL GA
MS
LA
TX
FL
HI
Percentage Change
+13% to +28%
AK +1% to +12%
0% to -12%
-13% to -36%
Exhibit reads: The percentage change in state shares of the nation’s poor school-age children between 1990
and 1994 shows a shift toward the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. States like Mississippi now have a decreased
share of the nation’s poor children, while the share of poor children in states such as Massachusetts and
California has grown.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, estimates of school-age and poor children for
1990 and 1994.
Because poverty rates rose markedly throughout the nation from 1990 to 1994, most states and
counties that lose Title I funds because of the new data do so because of below-average increases in
poverty rather than actual decreases. About one-fourth (29 percent) of the nation’s counties will
experience relative reductions in Title I funding as a result of reductions in their number of poor children,
and another 47 percent will lose funding because their increases in poverty were smaller than the national
average.
High-poverty counties tended to experience reductions in their share of the nation’s poor children,
while large urban counties (which contain a majority of the nation’s poor children) tended to
experience increases. Only 8 percent of the counties that had above-average poverty rates in 1990 will
benefit from use of the updates. However, two-thirds of the counties with more than 50,000 school-age
children (which contain 60 percent of the nation’s poor children) experienced an increase in their share of
the nation’s poor children (55 percent, on average). In contrast, small counties with less than 5,000
school-age children (which contain 8 percent of all poor children) tend to experience reductions;
90 percent of these counties experienced reductions that averaged 22 percent.
Allocating Title I Funds Directly to School Districts
Since Title I’s inception, the law has directed the Secretary of Education to make allocations directly to
school districts using census poverty data, but allowed the Secretary to allocate funds to the county level
(with state suballocations to school districts) if the census poverty data for school districts were not
satisfactory. Historically, the Secretary elected not to make allocations directly to school districts because
of concerns about the reliability of the census estimates for school districts, particularly small districts,
which are subject to high sampling error. States suballocated Title I funds to school districts within each
county using the “best available data on the number of children from low-income families.”196 Most
states used data from the census, the free and reduced-price lunch program, or state welfare programs.197
In the 1994 reauthorization, Congress revised the law to require that allocations be made directly to
school districts beginning in FY 1999 using census poverty estimates, unless the Secretaries of Education
and Commerce jointly determine that use of the data would be inappropriate or unreliable. This change
resulted from several concerns about the existing two-stage allocations process. First, the requirement
that county allocations be suballocated to districts within each county resulted in inequities for some high-
poverty school districts that were eligible for Concentration Grants but did not receive these funds
because they were located in counties that were not eligible (although the law allowed states to reserve up
to 2 percent of the funds for allocations to such school districts). Second, district eligibility and
allocations were based on inconsistent data across states that use different low-income data with different
income thresholds. Finally, the two-stage process made it difficult to examine the impact of proposed
formula changes on school district allocations.
The Census Bureau released 1996 poverty estimates for school districts in fall 1998, and in January 1999
the National Academy of Sciences panel recommended that these estimates be used to make direct Title I
allocations to school districts for the 1999-2000 school year. The NAS panel noted that although these
estimates “have potentially large errors for many school districts, the panel nonetheless concludes
that they are not inappropriate or unreliable to use for direct Title I allocations to districts as
intended by the 1994 legislation” and that they “are generally as good as—and, in some instances,
better than—estimates that are currently being used.”198 The Secretaries of Education and Commerce
subsequently decided to follow the NAS panel’s recommendation.
The impact of the new allocations process on the distribution of funds is unclear at this time.
First, none of the school district allocations computed by the U.S. Department of Education will be final,
because states will need to make adjustments for eligible school districts that are not covered in the
census data. These include charter schools that are treated as school districts for Title I allocation
purposes (about 500 in 1999), certain regional districts and other agencies that receive Title I funds, and
districts that were newly created or had boundary changes since the 1995-96 school year. In addition, the
law permits states to redistribute Title I funds for districts with populations of less than 20,000 persons,
which account for 80 percent of all districts (and 27 percent of school-age children). Finally, because the
FY 1999 appropriations law included a 100 percent hold-harmless provision (for both Basic and
Concentration Grants), most districts will receive about the same amount of Title I funds as in the prior
year despite the use of the new poverty data.
What Issues Remain to Be Addressed Through Changes in Practice or

Reauthorization should address the issue of providing substantial additional resources to schools in
the highest-poverty category. A significant proportion of any new funding for Title I should be devoted
to targeting extra resources on the poorest schools. To make a substantial difference in the resources that
the highest-poverty schools receive, an estimated $1.3 billion in additional funds would be necessary
annually. Such monies would raise the average annual amount of Title I funds that high-poverty schools
receive by 50 percent, to an estimated $336,000 for each school. These new monies could go out under
the current formulas to states and districts for their schools with poverty rates of 75 percent or higher. If
states do not have schools in this poverty category, they would receive a minimum grant to be spent on
their schools closest in poverty.
Targeting additional funds based on high poverty has advantages over targeting on low performance.
High-performing, high-poverty schools should not be penalized for their progress. Nor should low-
performing schools be rewarded for a lack of effort. High-performing schools need support, recognition,
and encouragement to sustain their gains. In addition, targeting funds on the basis of poverty is consistent
with the current process for allocating funds and would not require a different mechanism.
These funds need to be in sufficient amounts to enable schools to improve teaching and learning
through a variety of strategies tailored to the needs of their students. With these funds, high-poverty
schools could implement comprehensive school reform along the lines of the Comprehensive School
Reform Demonstration Program, reduce class size in the early grades as provided by the Class Size
Reduction Program, operate a high-quality extended-time program as in the 21st Century Learning
Communities Program, carry out intensive programs aimed at improving early reading as in the Reading
Excellence Act program, run a program to help middle-school students think about college and plan for
their futures as in GEAR UP, or a combination of such approaches. Rather than be required to apply for
these federal funds separately, schools would be automatically eligible to participate in such programs
using these additional Title I funds and would receive assistance tailored to making these strategies
successful in their schools.
KEY PROVISIONS FOR TITLE I SERVICES
AT THE SCHOOL LEVEL
Title I emphasizes giving children an enriched and accelerated educational program by supporting
schoolwide reform and targeted services; upgrading instruction through substantial professional
development; and offering greater decision-making authority and flexibility to schools and teachers in
exchange for greater responsibility for student performance. Title I is to work within the broader
reform context to support high standards for all children and high-quality teaching to those standards.
Schoolwide Programs
 Expands eligibility and flexibility for schoolwide programs by lowering the minimum poverty
level at which a school can become a schoolwide program from 75 percent to 50 percent, and
permitting the combining of Title I funds with other federal, state, and local funding to bring all
resources together to improve achievement for all students, particularly low-achieving students;
 Requires a comprehensive needs assessment of the school, based on students’ performance relative
to state content and performance standards;
 Requires use of schoolwide reform strategies that provide opportunities for all children to meet the
state’s proficient and advanced levels of student performance and are based on effective means of
improving achievement, and increasing the amount and quality of learning time; and
 Requires schools to provide activities to ensure that students having difficulty mastering any
standards will receive effective, timely additional assistance.
Targeted Assistance Programs

 Targets children who are failing or most at risk of failing to meet the state’s performance
standards;
 Requires use of effective instructional strategies to provide accelerated, high-quality curriculum;

recommends extended-time approaches and minimizing the use of pull-out approaches;
 Focuses on improving integration and coordination with the regular education program;
 Requires instruction by highly qualified staff;
 Requires professional development opportunities for administrators and staff; and
 Requires strategies to increase parental involvement, such as family literacy services.
Professional Development and Staff Capacity

 Emphasizes high-quality teaching and professional development for all staff (and parents, when
appropriate) to help all children meet state student performance standards; and
 Encourages district support for career ladders and improved educational attainment for
paraprofessionals.
School Level Services 95

6. TITLE I SERVICES AT THE SCHOOL LEVEL
Key Findings
Title I in the Broader Context of Standards-Based Reform
Effects of District Reform Policies
District reform policies appear to influence the level of implementation of standards in the
classroom.
 In a study of 71 high-poverty Title I schools, teachers in higher-reform districts (those districts that
have more fully implemented a standards-based system of instruction) were more familiar with the
elements of standards-based reform and used curricula in mathematics and reading that reflected
content standards to a greater extent in the classroom than did teachers in lower-reform districts.
School Awareness of, and Teacher Preparedness to, Teach to Standards
About half of Title I principals nationally report moderate levels of implementation of various
reform strategies. Teachers are becoming more aware of the components of standards-based
reform but report being not well equipped to use them.
 In 1995-96, about two-thirds of the teachers in schools enrolling more than 75 percent low-income
students reported using curricula aligned with high standards and slightly over half (56 percent)
reported using instructional strategies aligned with high standards to a great extent.
 In 1998, only 37 percent of teachers in schools enrolling 60 percent or more low-income students
reported that they felt very well prepared to implement state or district curriculum and
performance standards.
In 1998, teachers in high-poverty schools spent limited time in professional development,

although they did focus on topics that supported standards-based reform.
 Over half (55 percent) of all teachers in high-poverty schools report spending less than 9 hours per
year on training in the content areas. Moreover, over two-thirds (70 percent) of teachers in high-
poverty schools report receiving less than 9 hours per year of professional development related to
state or district curriculum and performance standards, yet this topic was the most common one on
which teachers received training (80 percent received professional development in this area).
 Other common topics included new methods of teaching (78 percent), integration of educational
technology (76 percent), and in-depth study in the subject area (75 percent).

Promising Instructional Practices in Title I Schools
Research on high-performing, high-poverty schools shows that these schools use standards
extensively to design curriculum and instruction and to assess both student and teacher
performance.
The recent National Academy of Sciences’ synthesis of reading research suggests the need for a
balanced approach that exposes children to the sound structure of words and builds conceptual
knowledge and comprehension. Expert opinion in mathematics instruction calls for orienting
curriculum and instruction toward students’ conceptual understanding and mathematical reasoning.
There are many ways to teach to high standards, particularly given different levels of student and
teacher proficiency. Case studies on effective schoolwide programs found more differences than
similarities in the instructional approaches used across the schools. This finding confirms recent
reporting that information on the effectiveness of model programs to implement comprehensive reform
is quite limited.
Preliminary findings from a longitudinal evaluation of school change and performance in 71 high-
poverty schools show that the following strategies were associated with larger student gains in reading
and mathematics subtests of the Stanford-9 assessment:
 Fourth-graders were likely to make better progress in the Reading Open-Ended subtest (which
measures initial understanding, interpretation, and critical analysis skills) if their teacher gave them
more exposure to reading in the content areas.
 Students in the bottom quarter of their class who had better growth in the Reading Closed-Ended
subtest (a combination of vocabulary and comprehension) tended to have teachers who gave them
more exposure to reading materials of at least one paragraph, talking in small groups, and
completing workbooks or skill sheets. These students also had better growth on the
Comprehension subtest when their teachers provided them more exposure to working at a
computer.
 Teachers who used a curriculum that reflected National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
(NCTM) standards had students with higher gains in mathematics.
 The students who started the year as low achievers could be helped to gain more skill in problem
solving in mathematics when their teachers deliberately emphasized understanding and problem
solving with them.
Since the last reauthorization, Title I services in schools have changed significantly in some ways
but not in others.
Title I Staffing
 Despite the fact that Title I teachers have good credentials, half of the instructional staff employed
in Title I are paraprofessionals, a staffing pattern unchanged from prior to reauthorization.

 Paraprofessionals are used in many Title I schools for teaching and assisting in teaching even
though their educational backgrounds do not qualify them for such responsibilities.
Paraprofessionals tend to be used more heavily in the highest-poverty schools, where only 10
percent of paraprofessionals have bachelor’s degrees. Eighty-four percent of principals in high-
poverty schools report using paraprofessionals, as contrasted with 54 percent in low-poverty
schools.
Schoolwide Programs
Schoolwide programs have increased substantially with the lowering of the poverty threshold for
eligibility. Most promising is their potential to help integrate Title I resources in standards-
based reform at the school level.
 Since 1995, the number of schools implementing schoolwide programs has more than tripled, from
about 5,000 to approximately 16,000.
 Schoolwide program schools are making greater use of strategic plans than are targeted-assistance
schools, and are more likely to use alternative service delivery strategies that integrate Title I
instruction with the school’s overall academic program.
Extended Learning Time Programs
 Less than half (41 percent) of Title I schools are using Title I funds to implement extended learning
time programs, up from 9 percent before reauthorization. However, schools that offer extended-
time programs typically serve a small percentage of their students (11 percent, on average) in these
programs.
Use of Technology
 About one-quarter (26 percent) of Title I teachers use computers in daily instruction, but 31
percent report never or hardly ever using them. Use of the Internet is limited.
Secondary Schools
 Case studies of Title I programs in secondary schools demonstrate that they are using service
delivery models that are less stigmatizing and better integrated with the regular academic program
than they were prior to 1994. Title I is often geared toward preparing high school students to pass
state or district assessments.

As discussed in the preceding chapters, the reauthorization of Title I established systems of support to
help schools improve teaching and learning for all students. The development of standards and aligned
assessments is intended to provide a framework for the implementation of standards-based reform in the
classroom. The effective use of Title I resources also plays an important role in determining the types of
services provided and their potential effect. With more than 90 percent of funds going to instruction and
instructional support, the next task is to examine Title I services at the school level. How are these
instructional services provided and how does Title I operate at the school level, in this broader context of
standards-based reform?
The 1994 reauthorization made a number of changes to support more effective services and to improve
the quality of teaching in Title I schools, in accordance with findings from earlier evaluations of Title I.
These evaluations documented the federal program’s support for instruction guided by the conventional
wisdom about how best to help students at risk of educational failure: identify their deficiencies, teach
discrete skills, and require that they master basics before being introduced to more advanced concepts and
skills. Yet the studies showed that remediation was not helping students catch up to their appropriate
grade levels and attain higher-level thinking and reasoning skills. Not all students were being held to the
same standards. Schools that opted for pull-out strategies, sometimes involving complicated logistics,
offered most Chapter 1 students a schedule of supplementary activities that averaged only 10 minutes of
additional instruction per day.199
Moreover, the previous National Assessment of Chapter 1 reported that Chapter 1 did not add high-
quality instruction to students’ days, but often relied on skill drills without providing the context the
students needed to understand how to use the skills.200 In addition, few Chapter 1 teachers received high-
quality professional development explicitly linked to the curricular goals that their students were expected
to achieve or to the specific obstacles that blocked students’ success. About half of the Chapter 1
instructional staff were teacher’s paraprofessionals who lacked the qualifications of teachers.
The 1994 reauthorization of ESEA made a number of changes to improve services and the quality of
teaching in Title I schools. The legislation placed a strong emphasis on schoolwide reform to help all
students in high-poverty schools meet challenging standards. It required that enriched and accelerated
instruction be provided through Title I to enable students to meet the challenging state standards set for all
students. It called for minimizing pull-out strategies to encourage the full integration of Title I into the
school’s education program. The legislation also encouraged high-quality professional development.

Research on high-performing, high-poverty schools shows that these schools use standards
extensively to design curriculum and instruction, and to assess both student and teacher
performance. The 1994 statute encouraged schools to adopt strategies that have been proven effective in
raising student performance in high-poverty schools.
Approaches to Excellence:
Key Attributes of Effective, High-Poverty, Title I Schools
High-performing, high-poverty Title I schools:

 Use standards extensively to design curriculum and instruction, assess student
work, and evaluate teachers;
 Lengthen instructional time in reading and mathematics as a strategy for
increasing the number of students meeting the standards;
 Use the available flexibility in the law to spend more on professional
development that can improve instructional practice;
 Have comprehensive systems to monitor students’ mastery of standards and
provide extra support to students’ who need it;
 Tightly focus parental involvement efforts on helping students meet standards by
helping parents understand the standards; and
 Tend to be located in districts and/or states that have accountability systems with
built-in consequences for school staff.
Source: The Education Trust, in collaboration with the Council of Chief State School
Officers, Dispelling the Myth: High-Poverty Schools Exceeding Expectations, 1999.
This chapter discusses how the key provisions in Title I support standards-based reform in school; it
examines the district policy context, teacher preparedness to teach to standards, promising instructional
practices, and Title I service delivery models.
Title I in the Broader Context of Standards-based Reform

Title I can only be as effective as the systems that support it. The federal role in implementing Title I is to
provide funding to improve the education of at-risk children in high-poverty schools and to provide goals
and guidelines that encourage high-quality programs. State and district policies must also support
education reform through developing a system in which standards and assessments are aligned and
through assisting schools as they implement standards-based reform in classrooms. Title I, as was pointed
out in earlier chapters of this report, can serve to drive reform, especially in high-poverty districts.

Effects of District Reform Policies
In a study of 71 high-poverty Title I schools, teachers in higher-reform districts (those districts that have
more fully implemented a standards-based system of instruction) were more familiar with the elements of
standards-based reform and used them to a greater extent in the classroom than teachers in lower-reform
districts.201 These findings indicate that school districts can bring about education reform at the classroom
level.
In the higher-reform districts, more teachers reported that their mathematics and reading curricula
reflected content standards and curriculum frameworks to a great extent.202 The Longitudinal
Evaluation of School Change and Performance (LESCP) used documents provided by school district
offices to create ratings on several indicators of standards-based reform policies in 1998. The following
indicators were used to distinguish between those districts with policies that highly reflect standards-
based reform and those at the other end of the continuum:
 District uses standards and aligned curriculum materials in at least reading and mathematics, with
standards clearly linked to state or national professional standards.
 District and school improvement plans are based on standards and linked to performance standards’
proficiency levels.
 Some assessments are based on performance at each development level.
 District reports assessment data in terms of its own or the state’s proficiency levels (for example,
novice, proficient, satisfactory).
 District has defined adequate yearly progress according to the state’s standards or it has built on the
state’s definition to derive its own.
 District has policies to reward or sanction schools on the basis of their achievement of the district
and/or state standards.
 District periodically reports on the status of the schools’ and district’s achievement to the public in
readable and understandable formats using disaggregated data.
The results show differences in teachers’ reports, in the expected direction, across these different policy
environments. Teachers tended to be more familiar with content and performance standards and
assessments in higher-reform districts, and they were more likely to use curricula that were aligned with
those standards and assessments. The differences were less pronounced in the extent to which
mathematics curriculum reflected the policy instruments (Exhibit 6.1).

Exhibit 6.1
Teachers’ Familiarity with and Adherence to Standards and Assessments
in Reading and Mathematics, by District Policy Environment, 1998
Higher-Reform Lower-Reform
Districts Districts
(n = 4 districts) (n = 4 districts)
Teachers Report That They Are Very Familiar with:
Reading
Content standards 51% 31%
Curriculum frameworks 55% 31%
Student assessments 56% 40%
Performance standards 51% 29%
Mathematics
Teachers Report That Their Curriculum Reflects to a Great Extent:
Reading
Mathematics
Exhibit reads: In districts with higher-reform policy environments, 51 percent of

teachers reported that they were very familiar with content standards in reading,
compared with 31 percent in lower-reform districts.
Source: Turnbull, Welsh, Heid, Davis, and Ratnofsky, Longitudinal Evaluation of
School Change and Performance: Interim Report, 1999.

School Awareness of, and Teacher Preparedness to Teach to, Standards
Indicator: Using content standards to guide curriculum and instruction. By the year 2000 all
schools receiving Title I funds will report using content standards to guide curriculum and instruction.
It appears that school staff are aware of the need to implement standards in classrooms, and this
familiarity with standards is a necessary first step to change teaching and learning in Title I schools. The
second step is implementation, and more work appears to be needed on this. Principals are reporting an
increased use of content standards to guide curriculum and instruction in their schools and are building
their schools’ capacities to implement standards through the use of a variety of reform strategies, but
teachers do not feel very well prepared to use standards in the classroom.
The proportion of Title I principals who reported using content standards to guide curriculum and
instruction to a great extent increased from about half in 1995-96 to three-quarters in 1997-98
(Exhibit 6.2).203
Exhibit 6.2
Percentage of Title I Principals who Reported
Using Content Standards to Guide Curriculum and Instruction
to a Great Extent
100% Reading
Mathem atics
Percentage of Title I Principals
80% 7 4% 7 3%
60% 54 %
4 8%
40%
20%
0%
1995-96 1997-98
Exhibit reads: The proportion of Title I principals who reported using content standards to
guide reading curriculum and instruction to a great extent increased from 48 percent in
1995-96 to 74 percent in 1997-98.
Source: U.S. Department of Education, Status of Education Reform in Public Elementary
and Secondary Schools: Principals’ Perspectives, 1998; Heid and Webber, School-Level
Implementation of Standards-Based Reform: Findings from the Follow-up Public School
Survey on Education Reform, 1999.

Almost half (49 percent) of Title I principals reported they were familiar to a great extent with the
expectation to apply high state-approved standards to all students. Principals who reported a high
familiarity with Title I reforms were more likely than principals with low familiarity to report
implementing key reforms in their schools (Exhibit 6.3), including implementing professional
development related to content standards (91 percent versus 76 percent), restructuring the school day
(58 percent versus 41 percent), and extending the school day (35 percent versus 17 percent). In addition,
one-third (33 percent) of Title I principals reported that standards for teacher quality were linked to a
great extent to student content and performance standards.204
Exhibit 6.3
Percentage of Principals Implementing Key Reforms,
by Level of Familiarity with Title I Reforms, 1997-98
100%
91%
High Level o f
80% 76%
Fam iliarity
Percentage of Principals
Low Level o f
58% Fam iliarity
60%
41%
40% 35%
20% 17%
0%
Profe ssio nal Restructuring Extendin g
developm ent related to the s chool d ay the school day
content sta ndards
Exhibit reads: Principals who reported a high familiarity with Title I reforms were more
likely than principals with low familiarity to report implementing professional development
related to content standards (91 percent versus 76 percent).
Source: Heid and Webber, School-Level Implementation of Standards-Based Reform:
Findings from the Follow-up Public School Survey on Education Reform, 1999.
Recent findings from a study of high-performing, high-poverty schools carry this relationship one step
further, finding that implementing such reforms indeed improves performance. The study found that in
high-performing, high-poverty schools, 80 percent of principals reported using standards extensively to
design curriculum and instruction and 94 percent reported using standards to assess student progress.205

Principals in Title I schools report moderate levels of implementation of various reform strategies.
Among the strategies most commonly employed to a great extent were using a strategic plan to help
students achieve at high levels (52 percent), providing professional development to enable staff to teach
the content students are expected to learn (45 percent), and using assessments for school accountability
and continuous improvement (44 percent). Other strategies the principals reported using to a great extent
were assessments that measure performance against the content that students are expected to learn
(37 percent). In schools with more than one-fifth limited English proficient (LEP) student enrollment,
53 percent of principals reported their school made adaptations to a great extent for LEP students to
achieve to high levels of performance; 21 percent in schools with 0-9 percent LEP enrollment reported
doing so. 206
Principals reported that their schools would not need to make changes to a great extent in order to
implement many key reform strategies. Only 17 percent said that a “great extent” of change would be
required to use student performance results for school accountability and continuous improvement.
Similarly, few principals believed that a great extent of change would be needed to assess student
performance against high standards (16 percent), apply high state-approved standards to all students
(14 percent), minimize pull-out programs (16 percent), or provide extended learning time programs
(18 percent).207
These findings may indicate that principals believe they are well on the way to implementing reforms and
may be overestimating their capacity to implement these strategies. Alternatively, it may indicate that
Title I reforms are compatible with the reforms that schools have already implemented.
Teachers are becoming more aware of the components of standards-based reform but report not
being very well equipped to use them.
 In 1995-96, 40 percent of the teachers in schools enrolling more than 75 percent low-income students
reported using curricula aligned with high standards to a great extent. Slightly over half (56 percent)
reported using instructional strategies aligned with high standards to a great extent. That same year,
only about half thought they understood the concept of standards very well and even fewer
(38 percent) felt very well equipped to implement them. 208
 In 1998, only 35 percent of teachers in schools with 60 percent poverty or greater reported that they
felt very well prepared to implement state or district curriculum and performance standards.209

East St. Louis: Centerville Elementary School
Alignment Works
Centerville Elementary in East St. Louis has made a dramatic turnaround over the past decade,
transforming itself from a low-achieving to high-performing school. Despite poverty (86 percent) and
related needs of its students, attendance has soared to 95 percent and student achievement exceeds both
the state averages and the district averages on the Illinois Goal Assessment Program in reading and
mathematics. A key to the school’s success was Centerville staff’s participation in a learning and data
analysis process that enabled the school to better align curriculum, instruction, and assessments. The
learning process involved the principal, teachers, staff, and parents at this Title I schoolwide program
school.
The school used “test coaches” to arm teachers with innovative teaching strategies. The training
provided by the test coaches revamped the way that teachers thought about teaching and resulted in
greatly improved test scores. The school staff analyzed all available data and spent several months
reviewing test scores. They identified weaknesses and strengths and made determinations about where
they needed improvement. They discussed the skills of the staff and made note of where additional
professional development was needed. They studied the curriculum and assessment instruments, and
they reported their findings to the group. They comprehensively analyzed the programs currently in
place.
A teacher recalls, “The major change at Centerville has been our taking a look at our curriculum and
what we were teaching to determine if we were aligned with the state goals. We also asked ourselves if
what we were teaching and requiring our students to learn was what was assessed by the state. The
whole process made us more aware of the changes that we needed to implement in our program. It has
made me more conscientious.”
The Longitudinal Evaluation of School Change and Performance (LESCP) study of 71 high-poverty
Title I schools substantiates the findings of national studies. Almost all teachers reported that they were
familiar with content standards (89 percent were familiar with reading standards and 90 percent were
familiar with mathematics standards).210 About one-half (51 percent) of the teachers have aligned their
reading and mathematics curriculum with the content standards to a great extent.211 At the same time,
case studies of exemplary high-poverty schools show that standards can help to galvanize school staff
around improving the curriculum and aligning their instruction.
Support for Teachers in Successful Texas Schoolwide Programs
Teachers in exemplary schoolwide programs in Texas were assisted in planning their lessons through
“extensive school and/or district efforts to align curriculum, staff development, and technology purchases
with the objectives of the TAAS. Teachers knew what objective they were teaching and why the particular
instructional approach was most likely to work with their students.”
Teachers reported being supported by their principals, by adequate instructional materials, and by relevant
staff development. Principals reported similar support from their superintendents and central office
colleagues. The community and business-school partnerships also often supported these schools. Everyone
had a role in “actualizing the school’s mission” to improve achievement for all students.
Source: Charles Dana Center, University of Texas at Austin, Successful Texas Schoolwide Programs, 1996.

According to the LESCP, teachers’ reported preparedness in both subject matter and instructional
strategies was positively related to academic progress for 4th-grade students:212
 For both low- and higher-achieving students, 4th-graders with better growth in reading skills tended
to have teachers who rated themselves better prepared to use a variety of assessment strategies and to
teach heterogeneous groups.
 For low-achieving students, growth in reading skills was also higher for those whose teachers rated
themselves well prepared to take students’ existing skills into account, use small-group instruction,
and integrate reading/language arts with content areas.
 In mathematics, low-achieving students achieved more growth in their ability to communicate and
reason mathematically and to apply problem-solving strategies if their teachers rated themselves well
prepared to take students’ existing skills into account, teach heterogeneous groups, use cooperative
learning groups, and use the textbook as a resource.
However, participation in professional development was not strongly associated with changes in
teachers’ sense of preparedness or their instructional practices over the two years of the LESCP
study. Only 22 to 23 percent of teachers of reading and math reported that professional development
experiences during the past year helped them “to a great extent” to adapt their teaching to meet state
standards or curriculum framework requirements. Teachers were somewhat more likely to say that
professional development had greatly increased their motivation to draw from a wide variety of
pedagogical methods (28 to 29 percent), but less likely to report that it greatly increased their confidence
in their ability to use new pedagogical approaches (17 to 18 percent).213
In order to have a real effect on teachers’ skills and sense of preparedness, districts must provide teachers
with professional development that is sustained and intensive. Exhibit 6.4 summarizes factors that
characterize high-quality professional development.
Exhibit 6.4
Criteria for High-Quality Professional Development
 Focus on academic success for all students and let it drive the organization of instruction;
 Cultivation of teachers’ knowledge of content and human development;
 Use of methods that are intensive, sustained, and embedded into the daily life of school and that build on
participants’ existing knowledge, immerse them in stimulating processes, allow for teamwork, and spread out
over time to permit participants to digest new ideas, try them out, and solicit thoughtful feedback;
 Expanded roles for teachers as mentors, peer coaches, leaders, designers, planners, and facilitators; and
changes in school organization—shifting authority, responsibility, and time—to nurture collegial
relationships and critical analysis of practice;
 Linkages across initiatives and ties to relevant curricula, assessments, and standards; and
 Data-based continuous improvement to maintain the quality of professional development at high levels.
Sources: U.S. Department of Education, Professional Development Principles; American Federation of Teachers;
National Education Goal #4; and Improving America’s Schools Act, Section 2001 (4).

In 1998, public school teachers, regardless of the poverty level of their school, spent a limited
amount of time in professional development, although they did focus on topics that supported
standards-based reform. Therefore, most teachers are not participating in intensive or sustained training
—two essential characteristics of effective professional development. Over half (55 percent) of all
teachers in high-poverty schools reported spending less than 9 hours per year on training in the content
areas. Over two-thirds (70 percent) of teachers in high-poverty schools reported receiving less than
9 hours per year of professional development related to content and performance standards. Public school
teachers were more likely to have participated in professional development that focused on education
reform. The most common topics included state or district curriculum standards (81 percent), integration
of educational technology (78 percent), new methods of teaching (76 percent), and in-depth study in the
subject area.214
Teachers in high-poverty schools face greater challenges in teaching their students and therefore have
greater needs for training and assistance. Recent data have found that teachers in high-poverty schools
are receiving more professional development in particular areas where they have special needs. The
percentage of teachers from high-poverty schools participating in professional development that deals
with “classroom management” (61 percent) is much higher than the percentage of teachers from low-
poverty schools participating in such professional development (40 percent). In addition, the percentage
of teachers from high-poverty schools participating in professional development that deals with
addressing the needs of students with limited English proficiency or from diverse cultural
backgrounds”(44 percent) is much higher than the percentage of teachers from low-poverty schools
participating in such professional development (25 percent). 215
Promising Instructional Practices in Title I Schools
The recent National Academy of Sciences’ synthesis of reading research suggests the need for a balanced
approach that exposes children to the sound structure of words and builds conceptual knowledge and
comprehension. In mathematics instruction, expert opinion calls for orienting curriculum and instruction
toward students’ conceptual understanding and mathematical reasoning. Exhibits 6.5 and 6.6 present
some more specific tenets of effective instruction in reading and mathematics instruction.
Within these frameworks for instruction, there are many ways to teach content, particularly given
the different levels of student and teacher proficiency. Recent research on effective schoolwide
programs and schools found more differences than similarities in the instructional approaches used across
the schools, or found that instructional strategies were not the essential factors in schools’ effectiveness.216
However, there are probably some qualities that are characteristic of most high-quality instruction.
According to recent data, all children benefit from exposure to challenging content that develops their
thinking and problem-solving skills. Comprehensive, research-based approaches to improve curriculum
and instruction are likely to employ strategies that develop these skills.
Indicator: Comprehensive, research-based approaches to improve curriculum and instruction.

An increasing percent of Title I schools will use comprehensive, research-based approaches to
improve curriculum and instruction.

Exhibit 6.5
Reading Instruction
The newly released study by the National Academy of Sciences, Preventing Reading Difficulties in
Young Children, reports on an emerging consensus about how children best learn to read. The study
emphasizes that excellent instruction from qualified and effective teachers who effectively and
deliberately plan their instruction to meet the diverse needs of children is the main way to prevent
reading difficulties. These teachers:
• Give children access to a variety of reading and writing materials;
• Present explicit instruction for reading and writing, both in the context of authentic and isolated
practice;
• Create multiple opportunities for sustained reading practice in a variety of formats;
• Carefully choose instructional-level text from a variety of materials; and
• Adjust the grouping and explicitness of instruction to meet the needs of individual students.
Adequate initial reading instruction requires that children use reading to obtain meaning from print,
have frequent and intensive opportunities to read, are frequently exposed to spelling-sound
relationships, learn about the nature of the alphabetic writing system, and understand the structure of
spoken words.
Source: National Academy of Sciences, Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children, 1998.
Exhibit 6.6
Mathematics Instruction
As summarized in a recent document from the Mid-Continent Regional Education Laboratory,

measurable learning in mathematics is influenced by the following practices:
• Focusing on problem solving;
• Defining basic skills to involve more than computation;
• Emphasizing reasoning and thinking skills, concept development, communicating mathematically,
and applying mathematics;
• Integrating topics of numeration, patterns and relations, geometry, measurement, probability and
statistics, algebra, and algorithmic thinking; and
• Taking advantage of calculators and computers to extend students’ mathematical reach.
While integrating these principles, instructional strategies should encourage multiple solutions to
problems and draw heavily on children’s prior mathematical knowledge.217 Two instructional
strategies that increase mathematical understanding and problem-solving proficiency are “(1) orienting
curriculum and instruction toward conceptual understanding of the material, and (2) broadening the
range of the mathematical content studied”—aspects of teaching in which low-income children are
often short-changed.218
Content should be presented in a logical progression with an increasing emphasis on higher-order
thinking skills, such as problem solving and mathematical reasoning, and mathematical
communication.

Source: Mid-Continent Regional Educational Laboratory, “Project Application for the Comprehensive School
Mathematics Programs,” submitted to the U.S. Department of Education, National Diffusion Network, 1992.
Reading Instruction
Positive associations between growth in 4th-graders’ reading skills and exposure to certain instructional
activities was found by the Longitudinal Evaluation of School Change and Performance (LESCP)
conducted in 71 high-poverty Title I schools. For example:219
 Both low- and higher-achieving students who had better growth in reading comprehension skills
tended to have teachers who had them spend more time talking in small groups about what they read.
Low-achieving students also had better growth in reading comprehension when their teachers
provided them more exposure to reading content area materials.
 Low-achieving students had better growth in vocabulary skills when their teachers provided them
more exposure to reading materials of at least one paragraph, reading aloud, and working at a
computer.
The LESCP has also noted some positive changes in classroom reading activities over the two years of the
study. More 3rd, 4th, and 5th grade teachers reported using a larger number of reading activities every day,
especially with their lowest-achieving students, and the classroom experiences of typical and lowest-
achieving students became more similar. In 1998, 58 percent of the teachers (up from 47 percent in 1997)
reported that their lowest-achieving students read books that they choose themselves almost every day,
and read aloud almost every day (76 percent in 1998, up from 62 percent in 1997). In 1998, more
teachers reported that the lowest-achieving students talked in small groups about what they had read
(38 percent, up from 28 percent in 1997), although this number is still small, given its positive association
with student growth for all students.220
Principles of Literacy at Work
A recent study by the Northeast and Islands Regional Educational Laboratory at Brown University
found that the principles articulated in the National Academy of Sciences’ reading report were being
put to work in 12 high-poverty urban elementary schools in Massachusetts where students were
outperforming others in their districts. For example, in these schools, “Literacy is taught through a
range of techniques that combine literature-based and phonics approaches,” and “Reading instruction
occurs in small groups so that teachers can focus on students’ individual needs.” There is also an
emphasis on reading and literacy that allows students and teachers to spend a considerable amount of
time on literacy instruction, extended reading, and writing. Teachers use student work and assessments
as well as other data to improve their instruction.
Source: Dwyer, Piontek, Seager, DiMartino, & Graham, Indicators of Capacity for School Reform: Project
Massachusetts Literacy Study, Report of Phase I Findings, 1998.

Mathematics Instruction
An important component of effective practice in mathematics instruction is students’ exposure to high-

level content. The LESCP found that a teacher’s emphasis in the curriculum showed some relationship to
4th-graders’ gains in mathematics skills. Moreover, the curriculum’s reflection of NCTM standards was
associated with gains for all students.221 Patterns in learning gains in mathematics depended on students’
prior achievement relative to that of their classmates. Students with initially higher achievement were
especially likely to gain more with teachers who covered a wider array of topics.222 The students who
started the year as low-achievers could be helped to gain more skill in problem-solving when their
teachers deliberately emphasized understanding and problem-solving with them. Specifically, the LESCP
found:
 Higher achievement gains in a variety of mathematics skills for both low- and higher-achieving
4th-grade students were associated with greater exposure to assignments taking more than one week,
reviewing completed homework in class, and drilling in computational skills. These achievement
gains appeared to be related to the frequency of these activities rather than their duration.223
 Instruction focused on critical thinking skills, rather than memorization, seemed to be especially
beneficial for low-achieving students. These students achieved more growth in their problem-solving
skills when their teachers emphasized understanding concepts, solving equations, solving word
problems, and solving novel problems; in contrast, an emphasis on memorizing facts or collecting and
interpreting data was not associated with greater achievement gains.224

Legislation cannot mandate all that happens in classrooms, but it can provide support for effective
practices that can lead to better instruction, the provision of better services, and higher student
achievement.
Since the last reauthorization, the delivery of Title I services in schools has changed significantly in
some ways but not in others. Schools are making better use of delivery models that integrate Title I
with the regular academic program. The sole use of the pull-out (instruction outside the regular
classroom) model has decreased, while in-class models (instruction in the regular classroom), schoolwide
programs, and extended-time instruction have all increased. Use of the in-class model has increased
dramatically since the years prior to reauthorization, from 58 percent of Title I schools in 1991-92 to
83 percent in 1997-98. Use of the pull-out model declined from 74 percent of Title I schools in 1991-92
to 68 percent in 1997-98. However, in 1997-98, over half (57 percent) reported using both approaches.225
Title I funds may be used for a variety of services and activities, most commonly for instruction and
instructional support in reading and mathematics. Title I funds are also used to support professional
development, to purchase instructional materials including computers, and to support extended-time
programs for students. One-third of districts (30 percent) use Title I funds to expand the use of
technology in their district.226
Reading and mathematics remain the principal areas of instruction in Title I targeted assistance programs
(schoolwide programs are designed to support the entire instructional program and not just certain subject
areas). In 1997-98, 98 percent of Title I targeted assistance schools provided instruction in reading and 65
percent provided mathematics instruction; 10 percent also reported providing instruction in English as a
Second Language (ESL).227

Title I Staffing
Since the last reauthorization, the numbers of Title I teachers and paraprofessionals and their levels of
education have increased, but staffing patterns have not changed much. Title I paraprofessionals are as
prevalent as they were in the last reauthorization, and they still spend a majority of their time teaching
despite their lack of the educational background to do so. Moreover, paraprofessionals are more common
in high-poverty schools. These findings are of concern, given teachers’ potential to influence the lives,
experiences, and achievement of all students, particularly those in high-poverty schools.
In 1996, the National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future issued a report that reached the
following conclusions:228
 What teachers know and can do is one of the most important influences on what students learn.
 Recruiting, preparing, and retaining good teachers is the central strategy for improving our schools.
 School reform cannot succeed unless it creates the conditions in which teachers can teach and teach
well.
These conclusions were the result of an analysis of several hundred studies of teaching, schooling, and
reform initiatives. Recent studies, which examine the effect of school resources on achievement, have
confirmed these conclusions and have found that teacher quality is the most significant determinant of
student achievement. Several of these studies have concluded that teacher quality or instructional quality
is as important as poverty status in predicting student achievement.229
Moreover, some studies have found that teacher quality has a greater effect on students who are at risk
than other students. Sanders and Rivers determined that having one of the most effective teachers
increased low-achieving students’ test scores 39 points more than having one of the least effective
teachers.230 These findings highlight the importance of high-quality teachers for all students, and at-risk
students in particular.
To gain a better sense of how services are delivered at the classroom level, it is useful to examine the mix
of teachers and paraprofessionals supported by Title I funds, the poverty levels of the schools they work
in, and their respective roles in working with students. Numbers of teachers and paraprofessionals
supported through Title I have increased since the last assessment of Chapter 1. The last assessment,
based on 1993 data, reported 72,000 full-time-equivalent (FTE) Chapter 1 teachers and 65,000 FTE
paraprofessionals.231 Recent data from a 1997-98 school-year survey found the following:
 Nationwide, approximately 74,700 teachers were supported through Title I. About 48,000 teachers
were in schools with 50 percent poverty or greater, but a significant 15,900 were in schools with
poverty levels below 35 percent.232
 Virtually all Title I teachers had a permanent/regular teaching credential and a bachelor’s degree.
Half had a master’s degree.233
 Approximately 76,900 paraprofessionals were supported through Title I and about two-thirds
(69 percent) of all Title I schools used paraprofessionals in 1997-98. About 52,000 paraprofessionals
were in schools with 50 percent poverty or greater, and 10,600 were in schools with less than
35 percent poverty. 234

Use of Title I Paraprofessionals
Half of the instructional staff supported through Title I are paraprofessionals, a staffing pattern
that did not change with reauthorization. Paraprofessionals are most commonly used in high-poverty
schools, where 84 percent of principals reported using Title I funds for paraprofessionals, contrasted with
53 percent in low-poverty schools.235
If paraprofessionals are to work effectively, it is important to clearly define their roles and
responsibilities. Part of the necessary organizational support for paraprofessionals is direct supervision by
a certified teacher.236 Yet recent studies are finding that this support is not necessarily provided to Title I
teacher paraprofessionals. In addition, continuing a tendency identified in the last assessment of
Chapter 1, paraprofessionals are used in many Title I schools for teaching and assisting in teaching,
although their educational backgrounds do not qualify them for such responsibilities.
In the 1997-98 school year, although very few paraprofessionals had the educational background
necessary to teach students, almost all (98 percent) of the paraprofessionals were either teaching or
helping to teach students. Three-fourths (76 percent) of paraprofessionals spent at least some of this
time teaching without a teacher present, and 41 percent reported that half or more of the time they spent
teaching or helping to teach was on their own, without a teacher present. 237
 Teacher aides in high-poverty schools are more likely to lack the educational background that would
qualify them to teach or help teach children. Only 10 percent of Title I aides in the highest-poverty
elementary schools have a bachelor’s degree, compared with 19 percent nationwide. Virtually all
(99 percent) paraprofessionals had a high school diploma or a GED.238
 Most (88 percent) paraprofessionals taught or helped to teach reading, language arts or English, and
three-fourths (73 percent) taught or helped to teach mathematics. About one-fifth (21 percent) taught
or helped to teach English as a Second Language (ESL) or bilingual education.239
 Other responsibilities reported by a majority of paraprofessionals included preparing teaching

materials (84 percent), correcting student work, taking roll or doing other administrative duties
(81 percent), testing students (77 percent), and doing yard or cafeteria duty (56 percent). Just over
half (54 percent) of paraprofessionals reported working or meeting with parents.240
A slightly different picture emerges when examining the percentage of time that paraprofessionals
actually spend on such responsibilities. In 1997-98, principals reported that paraprofessionals spent most
of their time working one-on-one or in small groups with students (85 percent); the rest of their time was
spent doing clerical tasks and working with parents.241
Indicator: Educational improvement of paraprofessionals and teacher paraprofessionals. By the

year 2000, 35 percent of Title I school principals will report increased district support for the
educational improvement of paraprofessionals and teacher paraprofessionals.
Although paraprofessionals are spending a majority of their time teaching, they have limited opportunities
to advance their skills. Principals report that less than half of school districts are supporting
paraprofessionals by providing career ladders (38 percent), funding for higher education classes
(33 percent), and release time for classwork or studying for higher education courses (22 percent).242
Paraprofessionals also receive limited in-service training. Although over three-quarters (78 percent)
reported receiving such training in the 1997-98 school year, most received less than 2 days of training.243

Schoolwide Programs
Schoolwide programs have the potential to help integrate Title I resources to support standards-based
reform at the school level. Recent findings show that schoolwide programs are more likely to use a
strategic plan and to use models of service delivery that better integrate Title I into the larger educational
program.
Schoolwide programs have increased substantially with the lowering of the poverty threshold for
eligibility. Although schoolwide programs were previously allowed only in schools with 75 percent or
greater poverty, the reauthorizing legislation permitted schools at the 60 percent poverty level to become
schoolwide programs in the 1995-96 school year, and those at the 50 percent level beginning in the
1996-97 school year. This change in the eligibility threshold opened the door for many previously
ineligible schools to operate schoolwide programs and resulted in a substantial increase in the number of
schoolwide programs. The percentage of Title I schools operating schoolwide programs increased from
10 percent in 1994-95 to 33 percent in 1996-97 and 37 percent in 1997-98. Indeed, by 1997-98,
73 percent of eligible schools were using the schoolwide option. 244 Of those eligible schools that are not
operating schoolwide programs, most reported that they were considering implementing schoolwide
programs. 245 In contrast to findings from a 1993 study that nearly half of principals of Title I schools
eligible for schoolwide programs were not aware of this option, this no longer appears to be a problem.246
Findings from a study of schoolwide programs serving migrant students sheds some light on why schools
choose to implement schoolwide programs. Gaining more flexibility in service delivery or
instructional grouping was the most commonly noted reason for deciding to implement a
schoolwide program. More than half of schools reported that the schoolwide program fit in better with
their overall school program, and about one-half reported that it gave them more discretion in their use of
federal funds.247
Schoolwide programs are more likely to use a strategic plan than are targeted assistance schools.
Three-fifths (61 percent) of principals in schoolwide programs reported using a strategic plan to a great
extent for enabling students to achieve to high levels of performance, as contrasted with less than half of
targeted-assistance programs (45 percent).248 Because schoolwide programs are required to have a
comprehensive reform plan, this is not a surprising finding.
Strategic plans allow Title I services to be considered within the broader context of a school’s
reform goals, and provide a framework for better integration of Title I within the regular academic
program. They may also lead to a stronger vision and sense of mission in schools. A recent study of
successful schoolwide programs in Texas found that such programs had a common vision of high
academic expectations for all students. The Texas schools had a sense of mission that was evident in
every aspect of planning, organization, and use of resources in the schools.249
Schoolwide programs are also more likely to use alternative service delivery strategies that have the
potential to better integrate Title I instruction with a school’s overall academic program. Principals
in schoolwide programs reported less use of the pullout model than targeted assistance programs, as
would be expected. It is important to note, however, that most schools using a pull-out model, regardless
of whether schoolwide or targeted assistance, also used the in-class model to provide services. Overall,
68 percent of Title I schools used a pullout model, with 53 percent of schoolwide programs and
80 percent of targeted assistance programs reporting use of this model. Eighty-three percent of all Title I
schools reported using an in-class model, with no significant differences between schoolwides and
targeted assistance programs.250

Schoolwide programs frequently combine Title I funds with other resources to support schoolwide
program activities. Close to three-fourths (73 percent) of all schoolwide programs reported that they
combine their Title I funds with other federal or state and local resources.251 However, in most cases
schools do not receive individual dollar allocations from federal programs other than Title I or from the
district’s general fund; rather, they receive allocations of personnel and other resources and have access to
professional development opportunities and other services.252 Thus, while these schools appear to be
integrating non-Title I resources into their schoolwide programs, they are probably not commingling
funds in a fiscal sense. The federal resources most commonly used by schoolwide programs were Title
IV (43 percent) and Title II (35 percent), followed by Goals 2000 (21 percent) and Title VI (17 percent).
Schoolwides also reported combining resources from private sources (41percent) and state compensatory
education programs (33 percent).253
Extended Learning Time Programs
Less than half of Title I schools offer extended learning time programs, although their number has
increased significantly since the last reauthorization. However, few students participate in these
programs, despite recent evidence of their effectiveness.
Extended learning time programs can improve student achievement when coordinated with challenging
curricula and thoughtful instruction.254 Successful programs connect the added time to regular school
experiences so that teachers can build on the skills that students are gaining in their regular classes and
supplement what they are learning during the school day. Recent research on effective schools has found
that such schools use extended learning time in reading and mathematics to improve achievement. In a
recent study of higher-success and lower-success elementary schools in Maryland, researchers found that
the more successful schools were seeing consistent academic gains as a result of extended-day
programs.255 In a study of high-performing, high-poverty schools, 86 percent of the schools extended
time for reading and 66 percent extended instructional time in mathematics.256
In addition to the ESEA focus on extending learning time, Congress has recently appropriated
$200 million for 21st Century Community Learning Centers after-school programs in FY1999, an increase
from the FY 1998 level of $40 million. The expansion is part of the administration’s effort to encourage
children’s continued learning after school. The program targets rural and inner-city schools.
Indicator: Extended learning time programs. By the year 2000, 60 percent of Title I schools will
operate extended learning time programs to extend and reinforce student learning.
One-third (35 percent) of Title I school principals reported in 1997-98 that they were familiar to a
great extent with the legislation’s new emphasis on extending learning time, and 41 percent of all
Title I schools implemented such opportunities in the 1997-98 school year. Principals from high-
poverty schools were more likely to report using Title I funds to implement extended learning time
programs (54 percent, compared with 28 percent in low-poverty schools). Principals from high-poverty
Title I schools were also more likely to implement summer instructional programs (41 percent, compared
with 29 percent in low-poverty schools).257
Use of extended-time and summer programs has increased dramatically since the reauthorization. The
percentage of Title I elementary schools offering summer school programs rose from 15 percent in 1991-
92 to 41 percent in 1997-98. Similarly, the percentage of Title I elementary schools with before- or after-
school programs grew from 9 percent in 1991-92 to 39 percent in 1997-98.258

However, schools that offer extended-time programs typically serve a small percentage of their
students in these programs. Extended-time instructional programs during the school year (before- and
after-school and weekend programs) serve only 16 percent of the students in the highest-poverty schools
that offer such programs and 11 percent of the students in Title I schools with these programs. Summer
instructional programs serve 17 percent of the students in the highest-poverty schools with summer
programs and 19 percent of the students in Title I schools with such programs.259 According to Title I
school principals in the 1997-98 school year, before-school programs averaged 4 hours a week and after-
school programs averaged 5 hours a week. Summer programs averaged 5 weeks per year and 16 hours
per week.260
Milwaukee: Hawley Environmental School

Extending Learning Time
At Hawley Environmental School, a high-poverty, high-performing school in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, an

extended-time education program was one successful component of the school’s reform strategy.
The Hawley After-School Math Club for 4th- and 5th-graders was organized because of low achievement of
some groups of students in mathematics. The group meets weekly, with the busing schedule adjusted to allow
this extra time at school. The school social worker is an integral part of the club. He said:
I can get into the academics, like after-school math and tutoring. As social workers, we pride
ourselves in ensuring that families get the most out of what our schools have to offer, and it is
nice to know that I can have some impact upon academics. Not only do I do the after school
math block, [but] when kids are in need of homework help, I am the liaison between the
school, the home and the community, finding programs where they can [get help] in their
immediate neighborhood.
At Hawley, student achievement exceeds the state average on both state tests and nationally normed
assessments. In addition, all students in 3rd grade passed the state assessment in reading in 1998, and 5th-
graders’ scores on the science assessment increased by 50 percentage points for the same year. Fifth-graders’
assessment mathematics scores have shown steady upward movement for the past 10 years, with 89 percent
now scoring at or above the national average.
Use of Technology
The use of technology also supports teaching and learning in Title I schools. Title I plays an important
role in supplying high-poverty schools with computers, paying for 27 percent of the new computers
that the highest-poverty schools received in 1997-98 (and 12 percent of new computers in schools
overall). Title I funds were used to purchase an average of 3.3 computers in the highest-poverty schools
and 0.6 computer (4 percent of the new computers) in low-poverty schools. Use of Title I funds for
technology helped high-poverty schools’ to compensate for the fact that they received fewer computers
from state/local funds (4.8 computers, versus 12.4 in low-poverty schools).261
Most teachers report that their lessons require students to use computers, but relatively few
incorporate the use of computers on a daily basis (Exhibit 6.7). More than two-thirds of Title I
teachers (69 percent) and classroom teachers (70 percent) say that their lessons require students to use
computers at least once or twice a month, but only 26 percent of Title I teachers (and 17 percent of
classroom teachers) rely on computer usage on a daily basis. 262

Teachers typically do not integrate use of the Internet into their instruction or expectations for their
students. Two-thirds say their lessons “never” or “hardly ever” require students to use the Internet (69
percent of Title I teachers and 67 percent of classroom teachers). 263
However, with the recent establishment of the E-rate for schools, which provides discounted access to the
Internet, there may be a rapid increase in the use of the Internet as a part of classroom instruction. It will
be important to provide the necessary professional development to teachers to appropriately integrate its
use in classroom instruction.
Exhibit 6.7
Frequency that Title I Teachers’ Lessons Require
Students to Use Computers and the Internet
100%
Percentage of Title I Teachers
80% 73%
60%
40% 33%
29%
26%
20%
11% 12% 14%
1%
0%
Daily or Almost Once or T wice a Once or T wic e a Never or Hardly
Daily Week M onth Ever
Com puters Internet
Exhibit reads: 73 percent of Title I teachers report that their lessons never or hardly ever
require use of the Internet, while 33 percent report that their lessons never or hardly ever
require use of computers.
Source: Chambers, Lieberman, Parrish, Kaleba, Van Campen, and Stullich, Study of
Education Resources and Federal Funding: Preliminary Report, 1999.
School principals reported that insufficient understanding by teachers of ways to integrate technology into
the curriculum was the most common barrier to effective use of technology (70 percent of all schools).
Teachers themselves also reported that their insufficient understanding was a barrier (45 percent of
classroom teachers and 49 percent of Title I teachers). However, teachers were more likely to express
concern about an insufficient number of computers (71 percent of classroom teachers and 58 percent of
Title I teachers), lack of software that is integrated with the school’s curriculum (60 percent and
51 percent, respectively), and insufficient technical support (49 percent and 45 percent, respectively).264

Title I Services in Secondary Schools
Recent evidence indicates that schools are making progress in implementing service delivery models that
are less stigmatizing and better integrated with the regular academic program. Secondary students are
still served in pull-out settings, but less commonly than elementary students are. Moreover, in the schools
that do provide pull-out services, they appear to be one of several models of service delivery.
Although Title I remains primarily an elementary school program, more high-poverty secondary schools
are receiving funds than was the case before reauthorization in 1994. The proportion of the highest-
poverty secondary schools (where at least 75 percent of the students are eligible for free or reduced-price
lunches) that receive Title I funds rose from 61 percent in 1993-94 to 93 percent in 1997-98. This
increase is probably due to the new requirement that districts provide Title I funds to all schools at or
above the 75 percent poverty level (regardless of grade level) before serving any schools below that
poverty level.
However, it is still true that relatively few secondary schools receive Title I funds. Only 29 percent of all
secondary schools received Title I funds in 1997-98, compared with 67 percent of all elementary schools.
Moreover, secondary schools that do receive Title I funds tend to receive smaller allocations than
elementary schools ($372 and $495, respectively), although allocations in the highest-poverty secondary
schools were comparable to those in the highest-poverty elementary schools. Overall, secondary schools
received 15 percent of Title I funds, although they accounted for 33 percent of low-income students (and
44 percent of all students).265
Prior to the 1994 reauthorization, a 1991 study of Title I services in 20 secondary schools had shown
that Title I played only a small role in the daily lives of most participating students, often providing
no more than one period a day of instruction. Schools relied frequently on the “replacement” model,
which enabled them to substitute Title I classes that were tailored to the particular needs of low-
performing students for the students’ core academic classes. The 1991 study concluded that in order to
minimize the stigma that students feel when they are singled out for remediation, secondary schools
should do more to integrate Title I services with regular instruction, and that Title I instruction should
help students improve their skills by using challenging content and age-appropriate materials.266
In the 1997-98 school year, according to secondary school principals nationally, services were provided in
the following manner:
 The most common use of Title I funds was to serve targeted children in an in-class setting (78 percent
reported by middle schools, 85 percent reported by high schools). Approximately 47 percent of
students in high schools and 58 percent in middle schools are served in pull-out settings, compared
with 72 percent in elementary schools. Approximately 42 percent of secondary schools and
45 percent of middle schools serve students using both pull-out and in-class approaches.267
 Professional development was also a common use of Title I funds in secondary schools (71
percent).268
 About 43 percent of secondary schools reported providing extended learning time opportunities for
targeted students, while 44 percent reported providing summer learning opportunities.269
 Well over half (59 percent) of Title I high schools reported implementing schoolwide programs in
1997-98, up from 11 percent in 1995-96.270

In addition to improving Title I delivery strategies, secondary schools are making progress in
implementing standards-based reform. Title I services in secondary schools provide supplementary
services to enable students to achieve high standards. Most secondary school principals reported using
content standards to a great extent in reading (75 percent at the middle-school level and 62 percent at the
high school level) and mathematics (72 percent at the middle-school level and 65 percent at the high
school level).271
Case studies of 18 secondary schools engaged in school improvement efforts illustrate that although
Title I has not served as the impetus for standards-based reform in those schools, there have been
significant improvements in the quality and delivery of services that are provided through the program
since the last reauthorization.272 This study demonstrates that secondary schools are engaging in
standards-based reform primarily as a result of state and local accountability systems, and Title I
generally serves to support these reform efforts. In states and districts with high-stakes accountability
systems, both core academic instruction and supplementary assistance provided through Title I are often
geared toward preparing students to pass state or district assessments.
Virtually none of the case study schools used Title I funds to hire certified teachers who teach core classes
designed for Title I students. In these schools, Title I is well integrated into schools’ general academic
program, and poses no significant barriers to school reform efforts. It provides resources that enable
secondary schools to offer extra academic assistance to low-performing students. Schools use their Title I
resources to fund computer resource labs and to pay teachers and paraprofessionals who provide in-class
and extended-time academic assistance.
The picture of Title I and educational improvement that is painted by recent evidence is encouraging.
Title I secondary schools are integrating Title I into their operations with far fewer problems than were
found in the earlier study of Title I in secondary schools. In addition, Title I secondary schools
demonstrate a greater commitment to high standards and high achievement than was true earlier, even
though a significant part of the current commitment appears to result from high-stakes tests. Title I can
play an important role by adding to and supporting ongoing state and local reforms.

Title I should continue its strong emphasis on increasing the alignment of curriculum and instruction with
challenging academic standards, but teachers, schools, and districts need more technical assistance to
improve the implementation of standards-based systems in the classroom. Principals and teachers are
increasingly familiar with this approach to improving education and are working to implement changes in
curriculum and instruction to support standards set or adopted by their states. However, principals need
more technical assistance in particular areas, and teachers need more professional development.
Standards-based reform has motivated both elementary and secondary schools to eliminate the dual
system in which Title I students were not receiving challenging instruction. Moreover, schools and
districts that are adopting this system are seeing results. Therefore, the federal government must
provide greater assistance to schools and districts in implementing a high-quality standards-based
system.
 Title I teachers are well credentialed and experienced, but are receiving inadequate professional
development to implement all components of a standards-based system in the classroom. Not only do
teachers spend very few hours in professional development, but they also feel that they are not very
well prepared to implement the components of a standards-based system.
 Half of Title I instructional staff are paraprofessionals who have teaching or assisting in teaching as
their primary responsibilities, yet paraprofessionals are not teachers and do not have the educational
background to perform teaching duties. This mismatching of responsibilities to staff qualifications
must change in the future. Schools need to think differently about the use of paraprofessionals and
consider other roles for them, restructuring their time to accommodate the most useful roles. The use
of paraprofessionals in instruction should be phased out.
 It is encouraging that pull-out approaches to service delivery are almost always used in combination
with other service delivery models, such as in-class. Federal guidance and technical assistance should
continue to support alternative models of service delivery and should support research to determine
the most effective modes of delivery. Additional resources should be provided to high-poverty
schools to implement comprehensive, research-based school reform. Districts need to provide better
technical assistance to schools in choosing comprehensive reform.
 Title I schools can draw on a range of research-based model programs and approaches developed by
independent organizations to improve their effectiveness in helping all children reach challenging
standards. Some of these models have strong or at least promising research evidence of positive
effects on student achievement. In many high-poverty schools, Title I funds are sufficient to cover
most if not all of the additional cost of these models (see page 76).
 More research is needed on the effectiveness of individual school reform models. A recent report by
the American Institutes of Research found that “even though many of the approaches have been
in schools for years, only three out of 24 provide strong evidence of positive effects on student
achievement,” with six additional programs having research evidence characterized as “promising”
(Exhibit 6.8).273 This finding does not necessarily mean that the other approaches are ineffective, but,
rather, that there is little rigorous evaluation of these programs. Moreover, there are varying
perspectives about the appropriate methodology for evaluating these programs. As a result, schools
often make decisions and spend thousands of dollars without having much concrete information on
how particular strategies will address the improvements needed in their schools.

 Targeted assistance schools, like schoolwide programs, should be required to submit comprehensive
reform plans for their schools which describe how Title I services will support standards-based
reform. The plans should also describe how the school will design its services, monitor progress on
an ongoing basis, and make changes based on the self-monitoring. Schoolwide program plans should
also be strengthened and should require measurable goals and objectives more tightly linked to
teaching and learning.
 Despite relatively high familiarity with the Title I provisions encouraging the establishment of
extended learning time programs, less than half of Title I schools have implemented these programs
and few students in these schools participate in them. Because staffing patterns and school operations
need to be changed to accommodate learning time outside the regular school day, additional technical
assistance and dissemination of information on extended-time strategies is necessary.
 Classrooms appear to be making progress in using best practices in instructional methods, but they
still have a good deal of work to do in using methods that encourage high-level thinking and
understanding. Districts need to provide technical assistance to schools to help them improve their
instructional strategies and align them with high standards.

Exhibit 6.8
Schoolwide Reform Approaches at a Glance
Evidence of Year Number Support First-Year First-Year

Positive Effects Introduced of Schools Developer Costs Costs with
on Student in Schools Provides Current Staff
Achievementa Schools Reassigned
Accelerated Schools (K-8) P 1986 1,000 P $27,000 $14,000
America’s Choice (K-12) ? 1998 300 S $190,000 $90,000
ATLAS Communities (PreK-12) ? 1992 63 P $98,000 $90,000
Audrey Cohen College (K-12) ? 1970 16 P $161,000 $86,000
Basic Schools Network (K-12) ? 1992 150 P $12,000 NC
Coalition of Essential Schools (K-12) M/W 1984 1,000 M NA NA
Community for Learning (K-12) P 1990 92 S $157,000 $82,000
Co-NECT (K-12) ? 1992 75 S $588,000 NC
Core Knowledge (K-8) P 1990 750 P $56,000 NC
Different Ways of Knowing (K-7) P 1989 412 S $84,000 NC
Direct Instruction (K-6) S Late ‘60s 150 P $244,000 $194,000
Expeditionary Learning Outward Bound P 1992 65 S $81,000 NC
(K-12)
The Foxfire Fund (K-12) ? 1966 NA M $65,000 NC
High Schools that Work (9-12) S 1987 860 S $48,000 NC
b
High/Scope (K-3) M 1967 27 S $130,000 NC
League of Professional Schools (K-12) M 1989 158 P $13,000 NC
Modern Red Schoolhouse (K-12) ? 1993 50 S $215,000 NC
Onward to Excellence (K-12) M 1981 1,000 S $72,000 $60,000
Paideia (K-12) M/W 1982 80 P $146,000 $96,000
Roots and Wings (PreK-6) M 1993 200 S $270,000 $70,000
School Development Program (K-12) P 1968 700 P $45,000 $32,000
Success for All (PreK-6) S 1987 1,130 S $270,000 $70,000
Talent Development High School (9-12) M 1994 10 S $57,000 $27,000
Urban Learning Centers (PreK-12) ? 1993 13 P $169,000 $159,000
S=Strong P=Promising M=Marginal M/W=Mixed/Weak ?=No Research NA=Not Available NC=No Change
a
Although many types of student outcomes are important, evidence of positive effects on student achievement is a key consideration
in selecting schoolwide reforms. However, some schools may wish to consider a new approach that has not yet developed strong
evidence of effectiveness, but provides the strongest match with school goals.
b
The estimate for High/Scope assumes a school of 25 K-3 teachers.
Source: Herman et al., An Educator’s Guide to Schoolwide Reform, 1999

KEY PROVISIONS REGARDING TITLE I SUPPORT FOR PARENT INVOLVEMENT
Each local education agency (LEA) shall have a written policy that (1) gets parents involved in joint
development of the LEA Title I plan; (2) provides coordination, technical assistance, and support to help
schools implement and build capacity for parental involvement; (3) coordinates and integrates parental
involvement strategies, including those under Head Start and Even Start; (4) annually evaluates the
effectiveness of the parental involvement policy plan; and (5) if the district receives more than $500,000 from
Title I, reserves at least 1 percent of Title I funds to carry out parental involvement provisions.
In addition, LEAs are required to report on the progress of schools toward improving student performance
through “school report cards” or school profiles made available to parents, school staff, and the community.
Written School Policy:
The written policy shall cover:
 Timely information about Title I supported programs;
 School performance profiles;
 A description of the curriculum and forms of assessment used;
 Opportunities for regular meetings to formulate suggestions and share opinions;
 School-parent compacts; and
 Efforts to build capacity for parental involvement, including helping parents understand the National
Education Goals and standards and assessments, assistance (including literacy assistance) in improving
children’s performance, and training teachers and other school staff in how to reach out to and
communicate with parents.
School-Parent Compact:
Each school shall develop with parents a school-parent compact (that is, a written agreement) that:
 Outlines how the school staff, parents, and students will share responsibility for improved achievement
(for example, school staff are to be accessible and open to parents and responsive to parents’ educational
concerns, and parents are to regularly attend parent-teacher conferences and ensure that homework is
completed and that children come to school prepared to learn); and
 Addresses the importance of ongoing communication between teachers and parents and provides frequent
reports to parents on their children’s progress.
Family Involvement 124

7. TITLE I SUPPORT FOR PARTNERSHIPS WITH FAMILIES,
SCHOOLS AND COMMUNITIES TO SUPPORT LEARNING
Key Findings
Parents have a central role in helping their children achieve to high standards, and schools need to
work with parents to ensure adequate learning opportunities for all children. The 1994 Title I
amendments increased parents’ roles as partners with the schools to support children’s learning. This
new approach, centering on school-parent compacts, promises to help parents understand what standards
are and how schools and parents can work together to enable their children to meet them.
Three decades of research support the effectiveness of the parents and home environment in helping
children learn through ensuring high attendance, encouraging reading, and monitoring television.
New research also finds positive effects on children’s behaviors when schools make a commitment to
promoting parent involvement using written agreements known as compacts.
However, many schools have not yet made the commitment to supporting a meaningful partnership
with parents for learning.
 Schools find compacts helpful in promoting many desirable behaviors, but compacts are used in only
three-quarters of Title I schools and parents remain less involved with their children’s schools than is
desirable.
 Many schools do not offer the outreach and assistance that parents need to help their children
succeed in school.
Principals find that the two main challenges to strengthening parental involvement are the lack of time,
on the parts of both staff and parents, to work on family issues, and the lack of education on the part of
parents. The latter is particularly true in high-poverty schools. There are also challenges created by
legislative overlaps among the provisions for parental involvement in so many federal programs.
The general direction of Title I parental involvement policies and compacts on supporting learning
is consistent with research, but options that would strengthen implementation include the
following:
 Having schools report annually on measurable indicators of the effectiveness of parental

involvement, as reflected in their own policies and compacts. Annual school reports could include
measures of parental satisfaction with school quality and communication, and measures of parental
involvement, such as regular attendance at parent-teacher conferences and the extent to which
children come to school with homework complete. Schools could also report annually on the
resources and activities they devote to support parental involvement.

 Consolidating or coordinating parental involvement provisions across all elementary and secondary
programs that have them to form one parent provision. These programs are Title I, Even Start
Family Literacy, Education of Migratory Children, Parental Information and Resource Centers,
Impact Aid, Education for Homeless Children and Youth, Magnet Schools, 21st Century Community
Learning Centers, Indian Education, Technology for Education, and Safe and Drug-Free Schools and
Communities.
 Strengthening parental involvement activities in the early elementary grades in the areas of
supporting reading and family literacy and in middle school and high school grades to encourage
students to take challenging courses.

While parents have always had a role in Title I, the 1994 amendments strengthened the role of
parents in the education of their children. Earlier authorizations of Title I emphasized a governance
role for Title I parents through parent advisory councils (PACs). These district and school-level quasi-
governing bodies were a response to evidence that Title I funds were not reaching the intended students.
Although the role of the PACs was reduced with the 1981 amendments, governance councils served as the
primary vehicle for involving parents until the enactment of the 1994 amendments. Although the PACs
have helped ensure financial accountability, which was one of their original purposes, studies have not
found that the parental governance role did much to raise student achievement.274
The 1994 legislation introduced a new provision that emphasizes the role of family involvement in
children’s learning. This provision, known as a school-parent compact, clarifies the responsibilities that
parents should have to help their children learn and the ways in which schools should support parents at
home and ensure a supportive learning environment for children at school.
Compacts can be constructed in a number of ways and the elements to be included can depend on the
wishes of the schools and parents involved. In addition, schools may get parents involved outside the
mechanism of the compact itself, for example in a governance or other role. One well-known
framework275 specifies six types of parental involvement:
 Parenting;
 Communicating;
 Volunteering;
 Learning at home;
 Decision-making; and
 Collaborating with the community.

Most of these parental involvement activities are included in one way or another in the 1994 Title I
legislation and many of these activities, including communicating, and volunteering, could be
incorporated within a school-parent compact. The bottom line is that what goes into the parental policy
and compact should support learning, but how that is done is a matter of local choice.
Research supports the direction taken by the 1994 legislation. This emphasis on parents as partners in
their children’s learning is consistent with three decades of research supporting the critical role that
families play in their children’s academic success.276 All types of families can help their children learn at
challenging academic levels. Studies of individual families show that what the family does in developing
language, motivating children, monitoring homework, and limiting television watching is more important
to student success than family income or education.277
 A recent study of over 2,000 households determined that the number of hours spent reading at home
significantly influences children’s comprehension of reading passages. 278
Family literacy has also been shown to play an important role in children’s learning and achievement.
A number of studies,279 while not comparing programs for literacy with control groups, have nonetheless
shown effects related to increasing family literacy:
 A follow-up study of one model of a family literacy program found that when parents and children
from at-risk families are provided the opportunity to “learn how to learn together” that parents gain
confidence in their own abilities, in the abilities of their children, and in the operations of the schools;
and most children in the family literacy program achieve as well as or better than their peers, at least
through third grade.280
 A study of 542 families enrolled at 32 urban family literacy sites found that participants in the family
literacy program gained more than did participants in programs focusing primarily on either adults or
children; and children gained more on both measures of development and emergent literacy.281
The Title I legislation requires districts to coordinate necessary literacy training from other sources to help
parents work with their children to improve their children’s achievement. Where such resources are not
available, districts may use their Title I funds to provide literacy training.
Both parents and teachers have voiced the need for further parental involvement:
 In one survey, 79 percent of parents reported that they want to learn more about how to be involved in
their children’s learning.282
 Most teachers, especially those in inner-city schools, would like to see an increase in the level of
parental involvement in education. The majority of teachers feel that many parents take too little
interest in their children’s education.283
Other studies have pointed out that parents need help from the schools if they are to be effective in their
roles as educators. School efforts in assisting parents had a greater impact on parents’ continued
involvement in children’s education than whether parents finished high school or not, whether they had
one child or five children, whether the parents were married or not, or whether the family was in poverty
or not.284 Many parents said they would be willing to spend more time on homework or other learning
activities with their children if teachers gave them more guidance.285

The keystone of school reform is the emphasis on high standards to which all children should
achieve. However, in the discussions of standards and their value for increasing achievement, the central
role of parents is sometimes ignored. There is evidence that parents are not adequately aware of the
standards used in their children’s schools.
 In a 1997 survey conducted with 700 representative parents of children in grades K-12, parents were
asked how much they knew about the curriculum and academic goals for their child’s grade. Only
55 percent said they knew “a lot,” while 34 percent said they knew only “a little.”286
 A second 1997 survey of 376 parents asked how well the school explained the school’s achievement
goals. Only 52 percent said “very well.” Of the remaining parents, 93 percent wanted to know more.
Among nonwhite parents, a full 100 percent wanted to know more.287
Although parents may not always be fully informed about the details of standards, most parents favor
them.
 The same study asked parents whether they thought that having guidelines for what students are
expected to learn and know helps improve students’ academic performance; 82 percent agreed that
such guidelines were helpful.288
 When asked which was worse for a child struggling in school—to have to repeat a grade, or to be
passed to the next grade and expected to keep up with the work—only 19 percent said it was worse to
repeat a grade. Thus parents themselves are not in favor of “social promotions.”289

The focus on parental involvement is consistent with principals’ views that stronger parent involvement is
essential to their efforts to achieve high standards. Schools see family involvement as connected with
achieving high standards. When principals were asked about barriers to applying high standards to all
students, inadequate parent involvement was one of their most frequent responses—particularly in the
highest-poverty schools (Exhibit 7.1).
Exhibit 7.1
Principals’ Views on Barriers to Applying
High Standards to All Students
1 00%
All Schools
75% -100% Poverty
80% 75%
72%
P e rcentage o f P rincip als
66%
64%
60% 56%
53%
49% 48%
44%
41% 41%
40% 37%
35%
30% 29%
20%
13%
0%
S tu d e n ts w h o In a d e q u a te L a ck o f O u td a te d In a d e q u a te Hig h stu d e n t S tu d e n t La ngua ge
a re a t p a re n t a lig n e d te ch n o lo g y g u id a n ce m o b ility d ive rsity b a rrie rs
d iffe re n t in vo lve m e n t a sse ssm e n ts
le ve ls
Exhibit reads: In the highest-poverty schools, 72 percent of principals identify

inadequate parent involvement as a major barrier to implementing high standards.
Source: U.S. Department of Education, Status of Education Reform in Public Elementary
and Secondary Schools: Principals’ Perspectives, 1998.
How Are the Key Title I Provisions Being Implemented?
Indicator: By the year 2000, 60 percent of Title I participating schools will report that their school
staffs find school-parent compacts and other tools very helpful to better communication between
parents and schools and to better student learning.
Compacts are a growing presence in Title I schools, but 25 percent of Title I principals do not yet
have them in place four years after they were required. Prior to the 1994 legislation, only about
20 percent of parents nationwide indicated that their children attended schools with parent compacts.
In 1997, 37 percent of a sample of parents in Title I schools had signed in-class agreements and
32 percent had signed at-home agreements to assist their children.290 In the 1997-98 school year, a
nationally representative study of public schools found that 74 percent of Title I principals indicated they
had written compacts. In schools with 50 to 75 percent and 75 to 100 percent low-income students, 8 out
of 10 schools had compacts. Among the schools with the fewest poor students, the proportion declined to

6 out of 10. The fact that a higher proportion of high-poverty schools had agreements is evidence that
these principals are responding to their greater perceived needs.291

A majority of Title I schools indicate that compacts help promote family involvement, but fewer
indicate that they are “very” helpful. Title I principals were asked to rate the helpfulness of compacts
in achieving different types of school and family outcomes. Responses tended to differ by school poverty,
with the highest-poverty schools finding compacts most helpful (Exhibit 7.2).
Exhibit 7.2
Principals' Views on the Helpfulness of Title I School-Parent Compacts,
by School Poverty Level
Highest-Poverty (75-100% ) Low-Poverty (0-34% )
Helpful (includes Helpful (includes
very helpful) Very helpful very helpful) Very helpful
Homework completion 85 33 64 25
Parents helping with learning at home 84 21 67 24
School climate 89 42 63 31
Student discipline 82 38 61 26
Reading at home 81 35 68 32
Student attendance 80 38 61 28
Teacher-parent relations 78 37 70 32
Student preparedness for school 77 30 53 20
Parent volunteers 76 30 42 17
Exhibit reads: In the highest-poverty schools, 85 percent of principals found Title I compacts helpful in
supporting homework completion.
Source: Heid and Webber, School-Level Implementation of Standards-Based Reform: Findings from the
Follow-up Public School Survey on Education Reform, 1999.
About 8 out of 10 principals in high-poverty Title I schools rated compacts as helpful, as did a
majority of principals in low-poverty schools.
 Across all schools, about 30 percent of the principals considered compacts “very helpful”—about half
of the number needed to meet the indicator in 2000.
 Principals perceived compacts as having the greatest impact on homework completion, school
climate, student discipline, and reading at home—factors that are amenable to intervention by school-
family partnership activities.
Case studies provide further insights into the compact process. In case studies of five schools that
developed strong written compacts, researchers found that in four of the five schools, the compact
functioned as a supportive component of a much larger and well-established parent involvement
program. In the fifth school, the compact served as the primary catalyst for more intensive
involvement by families.292

Data from the Prospects study of student outcomes (1998) provide evidence that when compacts are
effectively implemented, positive student outcomes, including higher achievement, result. Schools
with compacts were compared with non-compact schools on parental involvement and student
achievement.293 Schools with compacts had higher levels of family involvement in those activities in
which parents worked directly with their own children. These activities included parents’ monitoring of
homework and reading with their children. The study concluded that, after controlling for other factors,
positive student outcomes found in compact schools were associated with the greater involvement of
parents in supporting their own children’s learning. Other activities, such as volunteering and decision
making, may be valuable in their own right but were not shown to significantly affect learning.
In a second study from the same time period294 an examination of ten schools found that four aspects of
parent involvement in their own children’s education correlated highly with achievement and other
outcomes. These were: the parent caring about what occurred in the Chapter 1 (Title I) classroom; the
parent encouraging the student to read; the parent keeping track of the child’s progress in school work;
and the parent making sure that there was a place for the child to study at home.
Because the data in the first study covered the early 1990s, before the Title I compact requirement,
compact schools were ones that initiated the compact on their own and presumably were committed to its
success. Now that compacts are required in all Title I schools, achieving this level of commitment in all
schools will take more effort.
How Involved Are Parents?

Studies have identified three factors associated with greater family engagement in schools:
 Parents’ understanding of their importance for their children’s success in school;
 Parents’ having a sense of efficacy about what to do to help their children; and
 Parents’ belief that schools want them to help their children.295
Because the implementation of compacts is still incomplete, there is little evidence about the effectiveness
of implementation. However, there are some baseline data against which we can begin to measure effects
in the future. In 1996 (too early for compact provisions to show an effect), principals’ reports indicated
that whereas 73 percent of parents in low-poverty Title I schools attended most or all schoolwide parent-
teacher conferences, only 33 percent of parents in high-poverty schools did the same.296 Parents in high-
poverty schools also have lower attendance in other school-sponsored events such as open houses, plays,
sports events, and science fairs. The same survey shows that 62 percent of Title I schools have parental
involvement activities; a 1998 follow-up survey shows essentially no change.
Other studies show that parental involvement with schools and with their children’s education inside and
outside the classroom is not yet so high as might be desired.
 In a longitudinal study of 71 high-poverty Title I schools, over half (55 percent) of 4th-grade teachers
said that “few or none” of their low-achieving students had parents who were at least moderately
involved.297

 More recent data from another study show that only 35 percent of elementary school teachers asked
parents to sign off on students’ homework “almost daily,” and only 37 percent sent home reading
activities parents can use with students “almost daily.”298
 In the national survey of 376 parents, parents responded to a number of questions about their
involvement; 37 percent said they had signed agreements supporting in-class learning, and 32 percent
had signed at-home learning support agreements. Thirty-nine percent said they signed homework
each night. When parents were asked whether the school had asked them how they could support
parents, 62 percent said yes, but only 46 percent said the school had formally asked.299
How Do Districts and Schools Support Parent Involvement?

Title I schools use a variety of strategies for getting parents involved in their children’s education.
Common strategies are parent advisory councils (81 percent of Title I schools), home-based education
activities designed to reinforce classroom instruction (70 percent), parental resource centers (67 percent),
liaison staff designated to work with parents (67 percent), and family literacy programs (44 percent).
Elementary schools are more likely than secondary schools to use home-based activities and family
literacy programs.300
At the district level, 23 percent of Title I coordinators report using Title I funds “a great deal” to support
the building of partnerships with parents and communities, and 30 percent report using Title I funds
“a great deal” to support professional development focused on building partnerships with parents and
community. Classroom teachers reported that they spent 7.2 hours in the 1997-98 school year in
professional development focused on parental or community involvement, and Title I teachers reported
spending 5.7 hours on this topic of professional development.301
Districts are required to issue school profiles or “school report cards” and make them available to parents,
school staff, and the broader community. As noted in a recent study released in Education Week, school
profiles do not always provide parents with the information that they want.302 For example, parents want
to know about student progress, but not just from test scores (Exhibit 7.3). As for the credibility of such
report cards, parents rated reports from nonprofit watchdog organizations higher (8 on a scale of 1-10)
than those from principals. Finally, school report cards are not reaching the parental audience; only 39
percent of parents in the tested groups had ever seen one, compared with 51 percent of educators.

Exhibit 7.3
Information on School Report Cards
What Parents, Taxpayers, and Educators
School Report Cards
Want to Know about Education303
Student Performance
Statewide test scores ◆◆◆◆
Attendance rates ◆◆◆◆
Dropout rate ◆◆◆◆
Graduation rate ◆◆◆
SAT/ACT scores ◆◆
% of students promoted to next grade ◆
% of students who go on to a 4-year college ◆
% of students with an “A” or “B” average ◆
School Resources and Quality Indicators
Teacher qualifications ◆◆◆
Class size ◆◆◆
Per-pupil spending ◆◆◆
Teacher salaries ◆◆
Course offerings ◆◆
School safety ◆◆
% of parents who attend parent-teacher conferences ◆
Parental satisfaction surveys ◆
Student satisfaction surveys ◆
Hours of homework per week ◆
Number of students per computer ◆
Demographics
Number of students ◆◆◆◆
Poverty (free/reduced-price lunch) ◆◆◆◆
Race/ethnicity ◆◆◆◆
Limited English proficiency ◆◆
Students with disabilities ◆◆
Title I ◆◆
Migrant ◆
Gender ◆
◆◆◆◆ = Commonly reported; ◆ = Rarely reported
Exhibit reads: School report cards commonly report student performance on statewide tests but
rarely report the percentage of students with an “A” or “B” average.
Source: List of items from A-Plus Communications, Reporting Results, 1999. Frequency of
reported items from U.S. Department of Education, Planning and Evaluation Service reviews of
state school report cards.

Challenges to Family-School Partnerships
Challenges to Principals, Parents, and Teachers
If family-school partnerships were easily achieved, strengthening family involvement would not be such a
major concern. Principals identify the primary barriers to strengthening parental involvement as the lack
of staff and parent time to work on family issues.304 Principals in the highest-poverty schools also identify
parents’ lack of education as a major reason for lack of parent involvement (Exhibit 7.4).
Time limitations are a serious problem for all schools, regardless of their poverty level. Teachers must
learn how to teach to the new academic standards. Although greater family involvement would ultimately
help them achieve their learning goals, finding the time to work with families is increasingly difficult.
For high-poverty schools, parents’ lack of education is the next most frequently cited barrier to family
engagement in their children’s education. Teaching parents how to help their children learn, as well as
improving family literacy, are activities that can be undertaken by Title I districts, schools, and parental
resource centers.
Exhibit 7.4
Principals’ Views on Major Reasons for
Lack of Parent Involvement
100 %
88% Highest-Poverty Schools
Low -Poverty Schools
81%
80%
70%
Percentage of Principals
57%
60%
52%
48%
44% 44%
41%
40%
20% 14% 15%

9%
0%
Parents' lack Staff's lack Lack of staff Parents' lack Cultural Parent
of time of time training of education differences attitudes
Exhibit reads: 81 percent of the principals in the highest-poverty schools and 88 percent of
the principals in low-poverty schools report parents’ lack of time as a major reason for lack
of parent involvement.
Source: U.S. Department of Education, Parent Involvement in Children’s Education:
Efforts by Public Elementary Schools, 1998.

Depending on the poverty level of the school, principals say parental involvement is the topic on which
they most need more information—32 percent in low-poverty schools and 49 percent in the highest-
poverty schools. (Only 20 and 16 percent of principals in highest and low-poverty schools, respectively,
say that they are implementing parent involvement activities “to a great extent.”)305
Low-income parents also need the schools’ help to achieve a true sense of efficacy about their ability to
support their children’s learning at home. Out-of-school reading is especially critical to how well
students read in school. However, when less-educated parents read with their children, they do not use
optimal educational techniques. Often, they fail to question their children about what they have read.
Also, children are allowed to select reading material that does not appropriately challenge and advance
their reading skills. Schools can help by providing parents with training in family literacy and with
appropriate reading materials aligned with school instruction.
Teachers are also more likely to assume that low-income and less-educated parents cannot help their
children. Yet studies of school outreach consistently find that parents are much more likely to become
involved when teachers encourage and assist parents to help their children. Many parents want to do
more to help their children, and research suggests that they will if encouraged.
Other barriers to family involvement include the following:306
 School organization and practices. As children get older, their parents are less likely to attend a
school event or volunteer at their children’s schools. High schools, with their departmental structures
and larger, more impersonal settings, may be particularly daunting to parents. Schools that rely solely
on traditional approaches to getting parents involved, such as open houses, are less likely to be
successful than schools that use a more varied set of approaches.
 Lack of external support for family-school partnerships. There may be a lack of support from the
district or the state for partnerships. Neighborhoods may lack necessary resources such as libraries or
social services. Work schedules that do not include flex time or other accommodations will hamper
parents’ involvement with schools.
Title I provisions supporting parental involvement are designed to address and help overcome these
challenges.
Challenges Created by Legislative Overlaps
There are at least 10 other ESEA programs that authorize some sort of parent involvement. Some
programs emphasize parents’ roles in school governance and instructional decisionmaking, while others
focus more on parents’ helping their children learn at home. A few important ESEA authorities have no,
or only vestigial, parental involvement provisions. In these cases, principals may not think to include
parents in their children’s education. The current set of legislative provisions therefore is not optimal for
a unified approach to parental involvement.
The proliferation and fragmentation of legislation relating to services for parents and parental
involvement represent an overlap and eventual dilution of time and other resources. A principal of a
single school that has a number of these programs is likely not to be able to run a single, comprehensive
program to enhance parental involvement, outreach, literacy, and other services.

What Issues Remain to Be Addressed Through Changes in Practice or
Include Performance Indicators for Parental Involvement in School Profile Reports
Each school should be accountable to parents for teaching children well, and parents should be
responsible for reinforcing their children’s instruction. Reporting on how well schools and parents are
fulfilling their obligations would become a visible commitment to the importance they attach to
strengthening parental involvement.
Under Title I parental involvement legislation, schools are required to issue school profiles or report
cards. These profiles could include how well the responsibilities of schools and parents, as they
themselves define them in their compacts, are being fulfilled. The parental involvement section of a
school profile could annually report on the following:
 Parents’ satisfaction with the school. Some possible indicators of how well the schools are doing
include the percentage of parents who believe the school communicates effectively and regularly to
them about their child’s performance, the percentage of parents who believe the school is providing
academically challenging work, and the percentage of parents who feel their needs for help for their
children or for themselves are being taken into account.
 Parents’ fulfillment of their responsibilities. In terms of parents upholding their end of the
compact, one could ascertain the percentage of parents who regularly attend parent-teacher
conferences, the percentage of parents who sign homework (or students who come to school with
homework completed), and the percentage of parents who are responsive to their children’s teacher
when the teacher asks for their help.
 Schools could also report annually on the resources and activities they devote to support parent
involvement.
The profile reports could give each school the flexibility to adjust results to take into account the special
needs of certain parents, such as those who speak a language other than English. In such cases, however,
the school should also indicate the services it may offer to help these parents become involved in their
children’s education.
Provide a Unified Statement
As the Title I legislation on school-level parental requirements now stands, many sections are partially
overlapping and confusing. There are separate provisions for a compact, for a parental involvement
policy, and for capacity building. These provisions could be melded together, with the school-family
compact at the heart of it and policy development and capacity building supporting the compact.
In addition, parental involvement provisions should be made consistent across all ESEA program
authorities. Some 10 other programs have parental involvement provisions. For example, the program on
Education of Migratory Children requires Migrant Education programs to provide for advocacy and
outreach activities for migratory children and their families, including informing and helping such
children and families gain access to other education, health, nutrition, and social services. The Goals
2000 program authorizes funding of nonprofit organizations to provide training, information, and support
to parents of children from birth through secondary school, specifically those in low-income urban and
rural areas. Funds could be commingled so that there is one coherent approach to parental involvement.

The underlying purpose of parental involvement, especially of the compact, is to ensure that schools and
parents work together. It should make no difference to parents whether their child is eligible for migrant
funds, Title I funds, bilingual funds, or none of the above. It is a waste of the limited amount of resources
schools have available to support parental involvement to have requirements across programs so
dispersed and disconnected.
Provide Technical Assistance and Resources for Parental Involvement with an Emphasis on
Helping Parents through Family Literacy
Principals, teachers, parent coordinators, and others who work with parents all need training and
assistance on making the parent-as-educator role most effective. Good approaches to compacts and other
types of parent-school liaisons have been identified by research. The federal parent centers, as a network,
could set up an electronic library of these useful approaches that would be available to all school
professionals and aides who work with parents. The Comprehensive Centers and other organizations
could also help parents in their efforts to support their children’s learning. This assistance can be a vital
part of the legislation, and can work to ensure that high-quality parental training is provided.
There are some new programs that support learning and involve parents in particularly critical areas of
early reading and taking challenging middle-school courses. These programs, which should also be
linked with efforts under Title I, include the following:
 The Reading Excellence Act, which is designed to enhance reading in the early grades. This Act
stresses the importance of family literacy and represents a potentially major source of federal
resources to support literacy in the homes of Title I children.
 The GEAR UP program, which encourages middle-school students to look toward college early, and
especially to take the math and science courses that will enable them to enter postsecondary
education. GEAR UP recognizes the important influence that all families could exert to ensure that
schools offer and their children take advantage of challenging coursework, especially in math and
science.

KEY PROVISIONS REGARDING TITLE I SERVICES TO
PRIVATE SCHOOL STUDENTS
Targeting and Allocation of Title I Services to Private School Students
Title I, Section 1120, mandates that school districts provide Title I services to eligible private school
students who reside in participating public school attendance areas.
 The allocation of Title I resources for these services is linked to the number of low-income students
residing in the attendance areas of participating public schools.
 These services must be equitable with services provided to public school students.
Consultation Between Public and Private School Representatives Regarding Services
To ensure that Title I services meet the educational needs of participating private school students, the
law requires districts to consult with private school representatives in a “timely and meaningful” fashion
before making “any decisions that affect the opportunities of eligible private school children” to
participate in Title I activities and services.
Locations and Strategies for Serving Private School Students
Between 1965 and 1985, Title I instructional and support staff served eligible private school students in
private school facilities, including those operated by religious organizations. In 1985, in Aguilar v.
Felton, the Supreme Court ruled that federally funded staff working in religiously affiliated schools
constituted excessive entanglement between church and state.
 Following the Aguilar decision, and with extensive guidance from the U.S. Department of
Education, districts adopted a range of approaches to serve eligible students who were enrolled in
religious schools. These included purchasing or leasing mobile units equipped as classrooms,
transporting religious school students to nearby public schools for instructional support, and
establishing computer laboratories in religious schools, overseen by noninstructional technicians
who were barred from providing any direct instruction.
 Districts could cover the expenses related to compliance with Aguilar with funds taken off the top
of their Title I allocation for administrative expenses. Federal appropriations made a capital
expense fund available to states to use to reimburse districts for these capital expenditures.
 In June 1997, in Agostini v. Felton, the Supreme Court overturned the Aguilar decision and ruled
that Title I instructional staff can provide instructional services to eligible students in religiously
affiliated schools. The ruling adds considerable flexibility to districts’ options for providing Title I
services to eligible students enrolled in private schools.
Services to Private School Students 140

TITLE I SERVICES TO STUDENTS ATTENDING
PRIVATE SCHOOLS
Key Findings
 The total number of private school Title I participants has declined by about 6 percent since the
1994 reauthorization, from 177,000 in 1993-94 to 167,000 in 1996-97. Decreases in the number
of private school students served were reported by one-third of all districts and two-thirds of the
districts that serve the largest numbers of private school students.
 In some cases, the decline in allocations for Title I services to private school students has been
quite large. An analysis of Title I allocations in 15 large urban districts found that in 8 of these
districts, allocations declined by 39 to 56 percent from 1994-95 to 1996-97. However, other
districts experienced increases or smaller decreases in these funds, and across all 15 districts,
funding for private school students declined by 10 percent.
 Most Title I administrators and private school representatives agree they have established positive
working relationships in communicating about Title I services to private school students. Despite
these generally positive assessments, national survey results show significant variation in who is
actually involved in consultation and about the topics that are discussed. For example, Title I
administrators in at least 80 percent of districts say that they consulted with either a private school
principal or representative of a private school organization on most issues, but substantially fewer
private school representatives report such consultation.
 Almost all districts that serve eligible private school students provide them with supplementary
academic instruction. A very small number provide other allowable services (for example,
counseling, health services, homework assistance, and professional development).
 A preliminary review of the experiences of nine large urban districts indicates that they are taking
advantage of the opportunity to provide instructional services on religiously affiliated school
premises. However, Title I administrators in these districts also report that they continue to
provide at least some of the instructional services in neutral sites on or near the school grounds,
with several of the districts relying more heavily on these facilities than others.

School districts have provided Title I services to private school students since 1965, when ESEA was first
enacted. Since that time, a series of Supreme Court decisions associated with the separation of church
and state and changes in the law have greatly influenced how districts provide these services. Between
1965 and 1985, Title I instructional and support staff served eligible private school students on private
school campuses, including those operated by religious organizations.307 In 1985, in Aguilar v. Felton, the
U.S. Supreme Court ruled that federally funded staff working in religious schools represented an
excessive entanglement between church and state and therefore was not permissible. As a result, services
were provided in neutral sites, including mobile units, public schools, and computer laboratories in
private schools. A separate appropriation for capital expenses was provided to help districts comply with
the Aguilar ruling.

The 1994 amendments made significant changes to the identification and targeting of private school
students and to specified consultation requirements between districts and private schools:
 The allocation of funds for serving students is linked to the number of students from low-income
families residing in the attendance areas of participating public schools. As with students in public
schools, the number of children from low-income familiesrather than the level of educational
disadvantagegenerates Title I funds to be used for instructional support.
 The language requiring consultation between Title I administrators and private school representatives
was strengthened. The new provision states that district Title I staff must consult in a “timely and
meaningful” fashion with private school representatives. Section 1120 also specifies the topics that
should be discussed in the consultation process, including how children’s needs will be identified,
what services will be offered, how and where services will be provided, how the services will be
assessed, how extensive the equitable services will be, and what proportion of the district’s Title I
funds will be available for these services.
In June 1997, in Agostini v. Felton, the Supreme Court reversed the earlier ruling in the Aguilar case and
determined that Title I instructional staff could provide instructional services to eligible students in
religiously affiliated schools. This ruling affords districts considerable flexibility in providing services.
Title I services may be provided inside religious school buildings or through any service delivery
locations that were previously used. This means that issues related to the use of capital expense funds and
choices about some service delivery options created in response to Aguilar should become less important.
Other factors, such as determining the number of eligible private school students, consultation, and
assessment of student learning, will continue to be important.
How Is the Program Being Implemented?

Participation of Private School Students in Title I
The total number of private school students served by Title I has declined by 6 percent since the
1994 reauthorization. Just over 167,000 private school students (1 percent of all Title I participants)
received Title I services in 1996-97, compared to 177,000 in 1993-94. About 2,000 school districts
(or about 13 percent of all districts) provide Title I services to eligible private school students.308
Some districts showed substantial fluctuations in private school student participation in Title I in
the two years immediately after the enactment of the new law. About one-third of all districts, and
57 percent of the districts that serve the largest numbers of private school students, reported decreases in
their participation in 1995-96, the first year after the implementation of the Title I amendments.
Subsequently, 48 percent of the districts that experienced the initial declines reported that the declines
continued for a second year. At the same time, 24 percent of all districts reported an increase in the
number of private school participants.309
Local allocations for services for private school students also fluctuated immediately following
enactment of the 1994 amendments. National survey data indicate that while only 30 percent of all
districts allocated less funding for private school students in 1995-96, such reductions occurred in almost
two-thirds of the districts serving the largest numbers of private school students. Overall, 43 percent of
the districts that experienced a decline in these allocations witnessed additional declines in 1996-97. In
contrast, a quarter of those districts that reported a decline in 1995-96 reported an increase in 1997-98.310

In some cases, the decline in allocations for Title I services to private school students has been quite
large. For example, an analysis of Title I allocations in 15 large urban districts found that in 8 of these
districts, allocations declined by 39 to 56 percent over the two-year period from 1994-95 to 1996-97.
Allocations increased in only 3 districts, with four districts showing small decreases in funding
(21 percent or less). The 8 districts with the largest reductions tended to have relatively small allocations
for private school students prior to reauthorization, accounting for 10 percent of total allocations for
private school students in these 15 districts in 1994-95. Overall, across all 15 districts, funding for private
school students declined by 10 percent, while total Title I funding in these districts increased by
5 percent.311
Consultation between Public and Private School Representatives Regarding Services
Consultation between district Title I administrators and representatives of private school organizations is
necessary to ensure that the services are appropriate to meet student learning needs and to accurately
count the number of private school students who come from low-income families. Most Title I
administrators and private school representatives agree that they have established positive working
relationships in communicating about Title I services to private school students.312
However, despite these generally positive assessments, national survey results point to significant
differences in reports about who is actually involved in consultation and about the topics that are
discussed. Title I administrators report more consultation on a wider variety of topics than representatives
of private school organizations. Private school representatives were most likely to report less consultation
on issues related to program funding and student achievement results. For example, Title I administrators
in 72 percent of districts surveyed reported consultation on the determination of administrative costs,
capital expenses, and per-pupil allocation of resources. About a third of private school representatives
reported consultation in these areas.313
Instructional and Support Services for Private School Students
Almost all districts that serve eligible private school students provide them with supplementary
academic instruction. A very small number of these districts provide other allowable services (e.g.,
counseling, health services, homework assistance, professional development). Districts report that the
overall configuration of services changed little between 1994-95 and 1996-97.314
Since the 1985 Aguilar decision, districts have adopted a variety of approaches to providing
supplementary instruction to private school students. Some districts have relied on Title I instructional
staff to provide services in facilities outside religiously affiliated schools. Other districts, particularly
those serving the largest numbers of private school students, have worked with private schools to
establish computer laboratories in private school buildings. In these cases, instructional services are
provided through computer-assisted instruction (CAI). Students working in computer laboratories are
supervised by noninstructional technicians, and the district relies on the computer systems to monitor and
report on their progress. These students receive little or no direct instruction from Title I instructional
staff. Some districts rely on a combination of strategies to provide supplementary instruction.
Overall, representatives of private school organizations prefer face-to-face instruction by Title I

instructional staff to computer-assisted instruction and generally report that these staff services are
of higher quality than CAI instruction.315 However, in a finding that speaks directly to the importance
of the consultation process, 73 percent of private school representatives who reported they were heavily
involved in decisions about the use of CAI said that these services were of high quality and met students’
needs. In contrast, only 11 percent of those who reported little or no involvement rated CAI services in
the same way.316

Some districts provide Title I services to private school students after school or during the summer.
Overall, about 60 percent of Title I administrators in districts providing these services report that private
school students participate in them. At the same time, about 40 percent of private school representatives
say they did not know whether the districts that serve their students offered extended-time services. 317
Use of Assessments to Measure the Achievement of Private School Students Receiving

Title I Services
Districts are required to assess the progress of participating private school students in meeting challenging
standards. They use various instruments to make these assessments. About a quarter (23 percent)
reported using state assessment instruments that are linked to standards; 49 percent reported using
transitional assessment instruments, and 38 percent reported using some other kind of instrument.318
Many Title I administrators reported that they shared the results of these assessments with private school
principals, private school teachers, and parents of private school students. As was the case with other
findings about consultation and communication, private school representatives reported considerably less
sharing, and many said that they did not know whether or not the results were shared. 319
Early Impact of Agostini
Under the Supreme Court’s ruling in the Agostini decision, Title I instructional staff can again provide
supplementary instructional services in facilities operated by religiously affiliated schools. Beginning in
1997-98, school districts and private school organizations started to work together to reconfigure Title I
services to take advantage of the new options available to them.
A preliminary review of the experiences of nine large urban districts indicates that they are taking
advantage of the opportunity to provide instructional services in religiously affiliated schools.320
However, Title I administrators in these districts also report that they continue to provide at least some of
the instructional services in neutral sites on or near religious school grounds, with several of the districts
relying more heavily on these facilities than others. The most common reason for continuing this
arrangement is the lack of space in private school buildings. Seven of the nine districts reported receiving
reimbursement for capital expenses to cover the costs of providing these services.

The organization and administration of Title I services to private school students are in transition. The
Supreme Court’s decision in Agostini v. Felton gives districts considerable flexibility in providing these
services, particularly in terms of opportunities to provide additional face-to-face instruction by Title I
instructional staff. As these new service delivery models become available, it is possible that there will be
increased demand for services and increased participation. The transition to new service delivery models,
along with the possible increases in participation, will continue to require careful planning and
coordination between district officials and private school representatives. For this reason, the lessons
learned about the gaps in communication and information about this area of Title I are important.
Policymakers, program administrators, and leaders of private school organizations will need to work
together to explore these issues and discuss strategies for enhancing communication.

With extensive input from key stakeholders, the Department issued new guidance in July 1997 to help
districts take advantage of the opportunities to improve services to private school students that are
available to them under the Agostini decision. The 1997 guidance has been widely distributed to Title I
programs, private schools, and private school organizations.
Most important, however, is the need to disseminate information and offer technical assistance on
effective strategies for consultation, counting the number of low-income private school students, using
extended time for Title I services as public schools are increasingly doing, providing effective
professional development and parental involvement opportunities, and assessing student performance.

KEY PROVISIONS OF THE TITLE I, PART B, EVEN START PROGRAM
The Even Start program (Title I, Part B) provides support to states and local grantees for family literacy
programs that integrate early childhood education, adult literacy or basic education, and parenting
education for the purpose of breaking the cycle of poverty and illiteracy in low-income families.
As of the 1995-96 program year, all Even Start grantees were to have implemented the changes made to
the legislation in the 1994 reauthorization. The key requirements of the Even Start legislation are as
follows:
 Identify, recruit, and serve families most in need of services, as determined by income level, parents’
literacy or English proficiency skills, and other need-related indicators;
 Screen and prepare parents to participate fully in Even Start services and activities;
 Design services to accommodate participants’ work schedules and other responsibilities, and
schedule and locate services to allow joint participation by parents and children;
 Offer high-quality, intensive instructional programs that promote adult literacy and empower parents
to support the educational growth of their children, and developmentally appropriate early childhood
educational services that prepare children for success in school;
 Provide and monitor integrated instructional services to parents and children through home-based
programs;
 Provide services for at least a three-year age range, which may begin at birth;
 Provide services on a year-round basis, including the provision of some program services,
instructional or enrichment, during the summer months;
 Provide special staff training, including training for child care staff, to develop the skills necessary to
work with parents and young children in the full range of Even Start instructional services;
 Coordinate with other programs, such as those administered by ESEA, the Adult Education and
Family Literacy Act, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, the Job Training Partnership
Act, the Head Start program, and volunteer literacy programs; and
 Provide for an independent evaluation of the program.
Local projects are also required to build on existing services and to cooperate with the national
evaluation. Key new provisions in the 1994 legislation include allowing younger teen parents to
participate, requiring projects to serve at least a three-year age range of children, requiring year-round
services, and requiring a partnership rather than a collaboration between the applicant entities.
Even Start 148

9. TITLE I, PART B, EVEN START
FAMILY LITERACY PROGRAM
Key Findings
 Even Start projects have successfully targeted services toward families who are most in need. The
second national evaluation found that at least 90 percent of families participating in 1996-97 had
incomes at or below the federal poverty level. Eighty-five percent of adults who enrolled in 1996-97
had not earned a high school diploma or GED.
 On average, Even Start projects have increased the amount of instruction they have offered in all
core service areas over time, and participation rates have improved. However, only about 25 percent
of all projects meet or exceed the Department’s performance indicator for the number of service
hours offered in the three core instructional components.
 Children and adults receiving Even Start services have consistently made gains on measures of
literacy. In 1995-96, the gap between the standard gains of Even Start children and children in the
national norms group on the Preschool Language Scale (PLS) was reduced by two-thirds. Adult
participants at the median in pretest scores gained more than one grade level in reading and nearly
one grade level in math by the posttest, as measured by the Tests of Adult Basic Education (TABE).
 Parents also showed moderate gains on a measure of the home environment for literacy, gains not
found in a control group of parents in a study of the Comprehensive Child Development Program.

The link between the education of a child’s parents, especially that of the mother, and the child’s own
school success has long been recognized. There is also strong evidence that families provide essential
support for literacy development by providing opportunities for children to develop the language skills
that are prerequisites to greater literacy. Families can build this foundation by directly transferring
knowledge about print, by engaging in literacy practices, by ensuring that literacy activities are both fun
and meaningful, and by modeling the use of literacy in the home. Yet families differ enormously in the
extent to which they provide a supportive environment for a child’s literacy development.321 The link
between poverty and low literacy is also strong. Parents with little education or poor English skills often
cannot get jobs that will allow them to escape poverty. The children of these parents are less likely to
receive early literacy training at home or to be enrolled in a preschool program; as a result, the risk of
school failure increases.322
The underlying assumption of Even Start is that adults with low educational attainment who participate in
adult education and parenting education will develop the necessary skills to enhance their young
children’s educational outcomes as well as their own.323 Even Start was first authorized in 1988 by the
Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA), as amended by the Elementary and Secondary
School Improvement Act.324 Subsequent amendments, including the program’s reauthorization under
Title I, have resulted in considerable improvement in the basic program design. Changes made in the
1994 reauthorization placed greater emphasis on the following:
Even Start 149

 Targeting services to those families most in need, with special attention to teenage parents;
 Promoting continuity and retention of grantees by requiring projects to provide services to at least a
three-year age range of children and to provide services over the summer months;
 Focusing on family services by allowing projects to involve ineligible family members in appropriate
family literacy activities; and
 Requiring stronger collaboration between schools and communities in the application and
implementation process.
Amendments subsequent to the 1994 reauthorization include a requirement, enacted in 1996, that
instructional services be intensive.325 Recent amendments included in the FY 1999 Appropriations Bill for
Health and Human Services, Labor, and Education address the need for local evaluations to collect data
on program effectiveness and require the Department to provide technical assistance to states and Even
Start projects to ensure that local evaluations provide accurate information on the effectiveness of local
projects. The legislation also requires states to develop results-based indicators of program quality and to
use these indicators to monitor, evaluate, and improve Even Start programs.
How Does the Program Operate?

Title I, Part B, is distinct from the support for preschool services allowed under Title I, Part A, although
each Even Start project funded must be coordinated with Title I, Part A. Title I, Part A, focuses on
enabling schools to provide opportunities for children served to acquire the knowledge and skills
contained in challenging state content and student performance results.326 However, preschool services
for children who are most at risk of failing to meet the state’s challenging performance standards are one
of many allowable district expenditures under Part A of this program. Of some 11 million students served
under Title I, Part A, about 260,000 are preschool-age children.327
Preschool programs under Title I, Part A, must comply with the Head Start Performance Standards328 or
use the family literacy model in Title I, Part B. Few recent data on program quality or performance are
available for preschool programs funded under Title I, Part A. Title I, Part B, has been studied over the
past 10 years, with results available from two completed four-year national evaluations. Thus this section
focuses on the Even Start program, including its early childhood education component.
Title I, Part B, provides for formula grants to states, which then award discretionary subgrants to eligible
entities to carry out Even Start programs. Eligible entities are partnerships composed of one or more
local educational agencies and one or more nonprofit community-based organizations, public agencies
other than a local educational agency, institutions of higher education, or other public or private, nonprofit
organizations other than a local educational agency.
The Even Start program has grown significantly since its inception and over the period of the second
national evaluation. In the 1989-90 program year, the Even Start program provided $14.8 million in
funding to 76 grantees serving more than 2,700 children and 2,900 adults.329 In the 1992-93 program year,
with $70 million in funding, the program converted to state administration of 340 Even Start projects
serving more than 28,000 children and 23,000 adults.330 In 1996-97, Even Start’s funding reached
$102 million, supporting 637 local projects and serving approximately 48,000 children and 36,000
adults.331
Even Start 150

Evaluation findings provide data on the effectiveness of selected programmatic practices, specifically that
intensity of services, service location, parent-child joint activity time, and literacy-based parenting
education are important to family outcomes.332
A substantial body of research on the effectiveness of early childhood education programs shows that
gains are enhanced by a high level of exposure to a high-quality, center-based program. Much of the
evaluation evidence regarding Even Start supports this finding: Adults and children with high
participation in Even Start's core services had larger learning gains than those with low participation. In
addition:
 Children in projects that emphasized center-based programs had larger learning gains than children in
projects that emphasized home-based services.333
 Families in projects that allowed large amounts of time for parent-child joint activities had better
home environments (e.g., more materials in the home, parent-child learning activities, approaches to
discipline) than families in projects that had smaller amounts of parent-child joint time.334
 In Even Start’s early years, projects received strong messages from the federal level to focus on
literacy-based parenting education. Findings from the first national evaluation showed that there was
a positive relationship between parents’ participation in parenting education and their children’s
vocabulary test scores. The second national evaluation produced anecdotal evidence that parenting
education has become less focused on literacy. If this is the case, it may help explain the
disappearance of the relationship between amount of parenting education and child test gains in the
second national evaluation.335
In each of the three core areas that were examined in the second Even Start national evaluation (1993-94
through 1996-97), participating children and parents have made gains. However, in a small-scale
experimental study of five projects during the first national evaluation (1989-90 through 1992-93),
families in a control group achieved similar gains on most measures, suggesting that gains for Even Start
families may not be due solely to participation in the program.336 It is important to note that although
control group families were restricted from participating in Even Start, they were not restricted from
participating in any other early childhood, parenting, or adult education programs they could find on their
own. Thus control group families may have received educational services similar to those provided
through Even Start. In addition, this study was conducted during the early years of the program, and
important changes to the program have been made since the time of the study.
The second national evaluation assessed program outcomes through a sample study of Even Start projects
and did not include a control group to gauge whether or not gains were due solely to participation in Even
Start. The outcomes described below come from this sample study and are based on data from
participants who remained in Even Start long enough for at least two rounds of data collection. As a
result, the findings below cannot be generalized to the universe of Even Start participants.
The following findings are organized around key indicators identified for the program under the
Government Performance and Results Act.
Even Start 151

Outcomes for Children and Their Parents
Indicator: Children’s language development and reading readiness. By fall 2001, 60 percent of
Even Start children will achieve significant gains on measures of language development and reading
readiness.
In the area of child cognitive development, children in the national evaluation achieved gains on the
PreSchool Inventory (PSI), a test of school readiness skills, and the Preschool Language Scale (PLS), a
test of language development, that were larger than might be expected on the basis of development alone.
 In 1994-95, 66 percent of Even Start children achieved moderate-to-large gains on the PSI.337 In
1995-96, this figure was 81 percent. In 1994-95, 44 percent of children achieved moderate-to-large
gains on the PLS. In 1995-96, this figure was 50 percent.338
 In 1995-96, the gap between the gains in the standard scores of Even Start children and the children
in the national norms group on the PLS was reduced by two-thirds.339
Indicator: Adult literacy achievement. By fall 2001, 40 percent of Even Start adults will achieve
significant learning gains on measures of math skills, and 30 percent will achieve such gains on
measures of reading skills.
Participating parents achieved significant, moderate gains in the domain of adult literacy, as measured by
the Tests of Adult Basic Education (TABE), an assessment of achievement, and the Comprehensive Adult
Student Assessment System (CASAS), an assessment of adults’ capacity to apply basic skills to functional
situations.
 In 1994-95, 26 percent of the adults who took the TABE math achievement test achieved a moderate-
to-large gain between pretest and posttest. In 1995-96, this figure was 24 percent. In TABE reading
achievement, 31 percent of adults achieved a moderate-to-large gain in 1994-95; 20 percent did so in
1995-96.340
 Adults made gains on the CASAS comparable to those seen in the first Even Start national evaluation
and in other adult education programs.341 In 1994-95, 44 percent of adults made a moderate-to-large
gain on the CASAS math test; in 1995-96, 55 percent did so. For the CASAS reading test, the figures
are 27 percent in 1994-95 and 24 percent in 1995-96.342
 Participants at the median in pretest scores gained more than one grade level in reading and nearly
one grade level in math by the posttest, as measured by the TABE.343
Indicator: Adult educational attainment. By fall 2001, 25 percent of adult secondary education
Even Start participants will earn their high school diploma or equivalent.
 In 1995-96, 18 percent of all Even Start participants who received adult secondary education or GED
training earned a GED.344
Even Start 152

Indicator: Parenting skills. Increasing percentages of parents will show significant improvement on
measures of parenting skills, home environment, and expectations for their children.
Parents made significant, moderate gains on the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment
Screening Questionnaire (HSQ), which is intended to measure the quality of cognitive stimulation and
emotional support that parents provide to their children.
 During the second national evaluation, depending on the age of the child and the year in question,
between 36 and 54 percent of parents scored 75 percent or higher correct on the HSQ posttest.345
 On average, parents’ posttest scores on the HSQ showed moderate gains both for parents of children
less than three years old and for parents of children between three and six years old. By comparison,
parents from a control group in a study of the Comprehensive Child Development Program did not
achieve gains on the HSQ.346
Targeting of Services
Indicator: Recruitment of most in need. The projects will continue to recruit low-income,
disadvantaged families with low literacy levels.
As is consistent with the purpose of the program to target families who are most in need, Even Start
projects have served a highly disadvantaged population:
 More than 80 percent of families in the last two program years of the second national evaluation had
annual incomes below $15,000. Family income has been consistently low. According to a
conservative estimate, at least 90 percent of families participating in Even Start in 1996-97 had
incomes at or significantly below the federal poverty level.347
 Forty-three percent of 1996-97 new enrollees relied on government assistance as their major source of
income. Only 26 percent of participating parents in 1996-97 were employed at the time they enrolled
in Even Start (although the data suggest that nonparticipating spouses in many two-parent families
were employed).348
 Most participating parents lacked a high school diploma or its equivalent. Forty-five percent of 1996-
97 new enrollees had reached, at a maximum, grade 9 before enrolling in Even Start. Another
42 percent had reached grades 10-12 but had not graduated.349
 The percentage of adult participants who have limited proficiency in English has increased over time.
Some 39 percent of parents who enrolled in 1996-97 reported speaking languages other than English
at home, up from 34 percent in 1992-93. The percentage of primarily Spanish-speaking parents rose
from 26 percent in 1992-93 to 32 percent in 1996-97. About 30 percent of all 1996-97 new enrollees
(three-fourths of those who spoke languages other than English at home) were unable to read or speak
English well or at all.350
 Even Start is serving more teen parents, reflecting priorities in the statute. The percentage of teen
parents increased from 9 percent of Even Start parents in 1994-95 to 17 percent of new parent
enrollees in 1996-97.351
Even Start 153

The ethnic composition of Even Start participants has also shifted substantially since the program's
inception. Hispanics, 22 percent of all Even Start parents in 1992-93, now represent the largest group of
Even Start parents (39 percent). Whites are the second-largest group of Even Start parents (32 percent),
followed by African Americans (21 percent). Asians/Pacific Islanders and American Indians have
consistently represented less than 10 percent of the parent population.352
Service Intensity and Participation
Indicator: Service hours. By fall 2001, half of projects will offer at least 60 hours of adult education
per month, 20 hours of parenting education per month, and 65 hours of early childhood education per
month.
Over the years, Even Start projects have significantly increased the amount of instruction offered in all
three core components. During the second national evaluation, the amount of adult education services
offered increased by 25 to 30 percent. The amount of early childhood education offered increased by
10 percent in the same period. The amount of parenting education, while generally increasing over time,
seems to have stabilized at the level it reached in 1994-95 (around 200 hours per year).353 However, only
about 25 percent of all projects meet or exceed the Department’s performance indicator for the number of
service hours offered in the three core instructional components.
 In 1995-96, about half of projects offered 32 hours or more of adult education per month, 13 hours or
more of parenting education per month, and 34 hours or more of early childhood education per
month.354
 During the second national evaluation, projects offered the three core instructional services an
average of 10 months during the year. In 1996-97, the average number of hours offered was between
335 and 430 hours of adult education, depending on the educational level; 196 hours of parenting
education; and between 406 hours and 588 hours of early childhood education, depending on the age
group.355
Indicator: Participation, retention, and continuity. By fall 2001, at least 60 percent of new families
will stay in the program for more than one year.
Families’ actual participation in the services offered has varied over the years. However, there is a clear,
continuing relationship between the amount of services that projects offer and the amount of which
participants avail themselves. The average number of hours spent in adult education has been holding
steady at about 95 hours per year for several years. Participation in parenting education declined from an
average of 58 hours per year in 1992-93 to about 30 hours per year for 1994-95 through 1996-97.356
 Of new families who entered the program in 1995-96, 41 percent stayed for more than one year.357
Almost 5 percent met family-defined goals and 6 percent moved out of the area.358
 In 1996-97, 93 percent of families participated in all three core components of the program.359
 Participation in early childhood education remained stable and substantial (at least 90 percent)
throughout the first eight years of Even Start. In 1996-97, 95 percent of the children enrolled in Even
Start participated in some form of early childhood education and 22 percent participated for 10 to 12
months.360
Even Start 154

Although Even Start participants continue to show gains, there is no clear evidence to date that these
gains can be attributed to the program. Even Start is a complicated program that builds on existing
services, and the quality of implementation varies widely. Several issues remain to be addressed through
improved program implementation and increased attention to program results.
Even Start projects’ goals and objectives should be clear, measurable, and focused on literacy. The
profound needs of families served make it difficult to keep the focus on literacy at times, but this focus is
crucial to the success of the program’s meeting its goal of breaking the cycle of poverty and illiteracy. On
the evaluation side, information about Even Start participants’ progress toward literacy skills is key at all
levels. The national evaluation could help focus projects on literacy by designating a common set of
rigorous and objective outcome measures, and giving local projects flexibility by allowing them to choose
from a set of approved measures. The Department will also be able to work with states in developing
their indicators of quality through the Statewide Family Literacy Initiative grants authorized by the
Reading Excellence Act. The Department will also provide technical assistance to states and local
projects to ensure that local evaluations accurately measure program effectiveness.
Accountability and local evaluation efforts should be strengthened. A recent review of a sample of
local Even Start evaluation reports calls into question the usefulness of these efforts to local projects. One
way to strengthen local evaluation is to reframe it as a continuous improvement effort, with projects
setting clear, concrete program outcome goals that can be used as a framework for them to identify
promising strategies for service provision and to critically examine what they do. Projects would
rigorously and objectively assess participants’ outcomes and use this information for program
improvement. States could use reliable information on project results to hold projects accountable. The
Reading Excellence Act requires states that receive Even Start funding to develop indicators of program
quality and to use them to monitor, evaluate, and improve local projects. These indicators might begin to
build an infrastructure for a continuous improvement framework.
The quality of Even Start services should be improved. The legislative framework that drives Even
Start makes ensuring quality difficult, because the requirement to build on existing services means that
Even Start is only as good as the services it brings together. In order for Even Start to be successful, local
projects must be very careful not only to collaborate as the legislation requires, but also to work to ensure
that collaborations are ones that can produce the literacy outcomes expected of Even Start. The
Department may need to provide guidance for states and local projects in determining which services
should be used to create an Even Start program. Evaluations and studies can also inform quality issues
through comparisons of program outcomes with some set of performance standards and a study of the
collaborations that Even Start projects arrange.
The intensity of Even Start services and retention must be improved. Even Start, with its ability to
serve families with children from birth through age 7, has the potential to be a multiyear program. Thus
the most important effects of Even Start may come in the long term. Furthermore, the level of services
has a direct, positive relationship on the extent to which families participate, which is in turn related to
better outcomes. Unfortunately, the intensity of Even Start services varies widely, and few projects meet
a level of intensity that might be expected to produce large literacy gains for the families who are most in
need. Projects need more clarity about what levels of service count as intensive. The Reading Excellence
Act specifies several results-based indicators of quality that states must develop and use for evaluating
local projects. The legislation could add another specific indicator for states to develop on the levels of
intensity and duration of participation that are necessary to achieve state-defined outcomes. For further
Even Start 155

guidance, the Department of Education’s program performance plan for Even Start sets target levels of
service intensity using evidence from Even Start national evaluations and the Guide to Quality for Even
Start.
Even Start families, who have such profound educational and economic needs, must have intensive,
sustained services to achieve substantial outcomes. The Department has encouraged states to provide
multiple-year services through policy and technical assistance. However, fewer than half of new families
remain in the program for more than a year (although projects report that for about 10 percent of new
families the reason for leaving the program is that they meet their goals or move within the first year).
Only when families participate over time can Even Start be expected to produce the kind of outcomes
intended. Increasing the number of services offered, and making them more flexible, are critical to
increasing the retention of families. Because many of Even Start’s potential outcomes will not occur until
long after a family’s participation in the program ends, only a study of families over an extended period of
time would provide concrete information on the long-term value of the short-term gains measured in the
national evaluation.
Even Start 156

Even Start 157
KEY PROVISIONS OF THE TITLE I, PART C, MIGRANT EDUCATION PROGRAM
The Migrant Education Program (MEP) provides formula grants to states to be used for supplemental
education and support services for the children of migrant agricultural workers and fishers. Key
provisions of the 1994 reauthorization are as follows:
 Establish a priority for services for migratory children whose education has been interrupted
during the school year and who are failing, or at risk of failing, to meet their state’s content and
performance standards;
 Ensure that migrant children are provided with appropriate educational services (including support
services such as health and social services) that address their special needs in a coordinated and
efficient manner;
 Require that states transfer student records and other data to other states and schools as students
migrate;
 Target the most recently mobile children, who experience the most disruption in schooling, by
limiting the population counted to those who have moved within the previous three years; and
 Encourage the formation of consortia of states and other appropriate entities to reduce
administrative and other costs for state MEPs and to make more funds available for direct services
for children.
Migrant Education Program 158

10. TITLE I, PART C, MIGRANT EDUCATION PROGRAM
Key Findings
 If all students are to meet high standards, adequate support is needed for students who are failing
to meet those standards. There is some evidence that migratory children who are failing to meet
state standards have the highest priority for instructional services. According to 80 percent of
principals of schoolwide programs, migrant students who fail to meet their state’s content and
performance standards have the highest priority for instructional services.
 MEP summer-term and extended-time projects play an important role in the education of migrant
students. Summer projects provide continuity of instruction for migrant students, who experience
a great deal of educational disruption. Over the past decade, summer projects have grown faster
than the regular program. The number of summer participants increased 181 percent from 1984-
85 to 1996-97 (from 100,895 to 283,026), compared to a 52 percent increase (from 311,615 to
473,261) for the regular program.
 Effective coordination at the state level will increase the efficiency and effectiveness of services to
migrant children. A primary component of effective coordination at the state level is the
consortium arrangement, which reduces administrative costs and increases information sharing
among many states. For FY1998, the Department had approved consortia arrangements involving
a total of 32 states, an increase from arrangements involving 15 states in FY 1995.
 Inter- and intrastate coordination includes the task of transferring student information when
migrant students must change schools. The 1994 reauthorization eliminated the previous Migrant
Student Records Transfer System (MSRTS) in response to the many reports detailing a system that
was expensive but did not transfer data efficiently. Two years after the elimination of the MSRTS,
most states and school districts relied on mail, telephone, and fax to transfer records for migrant
students.

Migrant children are among the most educationally and economically disadvantaged groups in the nation.
Their movement across local and state boundaries creates a need for federal support, because no single
school districtand, in many cases, no single stateis responsible for the education of a migrant child.
Several studies have documented the detrimental effect that changing schools has on student achievement.
According to a 1994 General Accounting Office study, 41 percent of 3rd-graders who had changed schools
three or more times since first grade were low achievers in reading, compared with 26 percent of 3rd-
graders who had not moved once.361 A similar relationship held for math (33 percent vs. 17 percent).362
The study also reported that migrant children are much more likely than other children to have changed
schools frequently: about 40 percent of migrant children have changed schools frequently, compared with
about 17 percent of all children.363
Migrant students also have a greater need for limited-English-proficient and English as a Second
Language services than other students. Approximately 83 percent of migrant students participating in the
MEP program in the 1996-97 school year were Hispanic.364 A study of Title I schoolwide schools that
serve migrant students showed that more than half of the migrant students had limited English
proficiency, compared with about one-quarter of non-migrant students.365

The 1994 reauthorization focused on helping migrant children meet the same high standards expected of
all children by supporting services that address their special needs and sustain and accelerate their
progress in school. It sought to improve instructional continuity through better coordination among states
and districts serving migrant children. The Migrant Student Records Transfer System was eliminated, and
states were required to develop their own methods of transferring student records. The reauthorized law
also sought to target the neediest students for support services by defining currently migratory students as
those who have moved within the past three years, as opposed to six years in the previous statute.

Migrant Education Program funds are allocated through a statutory formula based on each state’s
per-pupil expenditure for education and counts of migratory children, ages 3 through 21, residing within
the state. In 1996-97, states reported 473,261 MEP participants in the regular term and 283,026 in the
summer term.366 California identified the largest number of migratory students (208,739) in the 1996-97
school year.367 Texas identified the second largest number of students (115,043), and five other states
Florida, Washington, Oregon, Kansas, and Kentuckyeach reported more than 20,000 students eligible
for funding.368

Evaluation findings show that the MEP is making progress in implementing the provisions of the 1994
statute. Information from program evaluations, the State Performance Report, and grant applications
show that the MEP is working to help migrant students meet challenging standards by targeting students
with the greatest need, meeting the special needs of migrant students in a coordinated manner and
coordinating information within and among states. However, the Department does not yet have the
achievement data needed to determine whether migrant students are improving their academic
performance.
The following findings are organized around performance indicators identified for the program under the
Government Performance and Results Act.
Priority for Students at Risk of Failing to Meet Standards
Indicator: Migrant Students Participation in State Assessments. The number of states that include
migrant students in state assessments linked to high standards will increase, reaching 52 in 2001.
The heart of the 1994 statutethat all students should be expected to meet high standardsdepends on
adequate support for students who are failing to meet those standards. There is some evidence from
schoolwide program schools that migratory children who are failing to meet state standards do have the
highest priority for instructional services. It is possible, however, that because all students who are
failing to meet state standards have the highest priority to receive support services, schools are assuming
that migrant students are included in this group. In addition, most schools do not yet disaggregate their
assessments by migrant status and therefore do not report on the performance of migrant students. In
1996-97, only 15 states included migrant students in their state assessment reports.369 It is also unclear
whether most migrant students are participating in state assessments, and if they are, whether their test

scores are being reported within the aggregate scores. In a recent survey of state coordinators, only
15 states responded that many or almost all of migrant students are assessed.370
With these caveats in mind, there is some indication that schools are paying particular attention to migrant
students who fail to meet state standards. When asked what types of migrant children or youth have the
highest priority for instructional services, the majority of principals of schoolwide program schools
(80 percent) reported that migrant children or youth failing to meet their state’s content and performance
standards had the highest priority for instructional services.371 Migrant children or youth who enrolled
after the start of the year (reported by 42 percent) had the second highest priority to receive instructional
services.372 These same two groups of students also had the highest priority for support services.373
Appropriate and Coordinated Services
The appropriate use of MEP funds and the coordination of services are necessary preconditions for
effective programs. The study of migrant students in schoolwide programs indicated that funds are used
to serve migrant students appropriately. First, those schools that specifically targeted instructional
services to meet their migrant students’ special learning needs were the schools with the greatest
proportion of migrant students.374 Second, schools that reported having MEP funds available were more
likely to offer extended-day or year-round programs, and schools that were more likely to provide these
programs just for migrant students included those with MEP funds available, larger numbers of migrant
students, or high proportions of migrants among their LEP students.375 Third, support services intended
specifically for migrants were more likely to be found in schools with more migrants, transient migrants,
more MEP dollars, and the involvement of migrant parents or staff in schoolwide planning.376
There is some evidence that schools that serve migrant students are addressing the issue of
coordination. A central function of the Migrant Education Program is to reduce the negative effects of
educational disruptions on the instructional opportunities and academic achievement of migrant students.
Through inter- and intrastate coordination, school districts with the help of state education agencies are
using MEP funds to help design, implement, or support innovative mechanisms to improve the continuity
of instruction for migrant students.
Indicator: Schoolwide programs. Migrant programs will demonstrate increasing levels of

collaboration as demonstrated by the number of schoolwide programs operated.
The increased prevalence of schoolwide programs that serve migrant students is one indicator of greater
program coordination. Schoolwide migrant programs increased from 1,541 in the 1995-96377 school year
to 2,626 in 1996-97.378 The boxes that follow provide further examples of effective coordination of
services.

Texas Migrant Interstate Program379
Texas shares the responsibility of educating migrant students with 44 other states in the nation. The need
to efficiently share information with schools and school districts in those receiving states has led to several
innovations. The Texas Migrant Interstate Program (TMIP) located in Pharr, Texas, provides services to
improve the coordination of educational services for secondary-level migrant children. Since its inception
in 1980, the goal of TMIP’s efforts has been to increase the graduation rate of the migrant student
population.
TMIP staff provides information to educators and counselors in receiving states on what students attending
Texas schools need for coursework, grade promotion, and graduation. Staff members also provide advice
to educators and school guidance counselors to help individual students accumulate and transfer course
credits for grade promotion or graduation.
Technology is an invaluable tool for coordination among schools and states and for connecting students to
continuous educational resources. Several projects across the country have received federal grants to use
technology to improve educational access and continuity for migrant students and to transfer student
records and information—Project Estrella is one of them.
Project Estrella380
Project Estrella uses technology to help high school students accrue credits toward graduation, obtain guidance
and instructional support, and develop academic skills. Participants in Project Estrella receive laptop computers to
enable them to keep up with their studies. Students use the computers to complete coursework and prepare for the
Texas Assessment of Academic Skills (TAAS). Family members can use the computers for their own studies.
Estrella students agree to work on on-line courses and spend time with their mentors for 10 hours a week. All
students are connected to the Interstate Student Coordinator through e-mail, and each student has his or her own
cyber-mentor.
Coordinating educational services also means ensuring that they form a seamless web. This has led to the
development of extended-time, alternative, and summer-term programs for migrant students.

Indicator: Summer-term projects. An increasing number of migrant children will be served by summer
and intersession programs.
Portable Assisted Study Sequence Program Summer Migrants Access Resources through
(PASS)381 Technology (Project SMART)382
The PASS program is a correspondence program that has Project SMART takes the classroom to migrant students
been operating in several states for over a decade. It via distance learning for eight weeks during the summer.
enables high school students to take courses from remote In the summer of 1998, 19 states participated in Project
locations that meet high school graduation requirements. SMART, in programs involving more than 22,000
Students work with mentors who issue portable learning migrant students. Project SMART is also experimenting
packets, provide tutoring and instruction, and administer with supplying students with laptop computers equipped
tests. Students who participate in PASS programs work with modems so that students can transfer lessons to
independently and tailor their studies to their own teachers in Texas for instruction and feedback.
schedules.
Texas also offers an algebra distance learning project in
which classes are broadcast twice a week and each
student is provided with a laptop computer, modem,
graphing calculator, and Internet access. During the
broadcasts, students receive direct instruction, guided
practice, and homework assignments. In the 1996 school
year, Project SMART students successfully completed
222,266 lessons, about 88 percent of those attempted.
 MEP summer-term and extended-time projects play an important role in the education of migrant
students. Summer projects provide continuity of instruction for migrant students, who experience a
great deal of educational disruption. Over the last decade, summer projects have grown faster than
the regular program, and they now serve 60 percent of the number of students served during the
regular term.383 The number of summer participants increased 181 percent from 1984-85 to 1996-97
(from 100,895 to 283,026), compared to a 52 percent increase (from 311,615 to 473,261) for the
regular program. 384
Like summer-term projects, extended-time programs provide additional learning time that migrant
students may need to make up for prior educational disruption. They also build upon and reinforce the
curricula that migrant students are learning during the school day. Extended-time programs grew from
1,783 projects during the 1995-96385 school year to 2,082 projects in 1996-97.386
Targeting the Neediest Children
The change in the targeting provisionto focus services on students who have moved within the past
three yearsis intended to ensure that MEP programs serve the neediest students. The number of
migrant students served by the program has declined since reauthorization, yet funding has remained flat.
Therefore, it appears that the change in eligibility has encouraged programs to concentrate services on the
children who need them the most. Between 1994-95 and 1996-97, participants in the program declined
by 15 percent.387

State Coordination
Indicator: State Consortia. An increasing number of students will be served by consortia states.
Effective coordination at the state level will increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the services
provided to migrant children. A primary component of effective coordination at the state level is the
consortium arrangement, which reduces administrative costs and increases information sharing among
many states. For FY 1998, the Department approved consortia arrangements involving a total of
32 states, an increase from arrangements involving 15 states in FY 1995.388 The incentive grant awards
range in size from $28,099 to $84,298. Each consortium has its own mission and goals. Several of the
consortia were formed to facilitate the transfer of records. Other consortia share resource materials,
model practices in educating migrant students, and provide greater access to technology to improve the
education of migrant students.
The Consortium Arrangement to Facilitate Migrant Student Achievement (CAFMSA)389 is one example.
The Consortium Arrangement to Facilitate Migrant Student Achievement (CAFMSA)
CAFMSA will develop and share a procedure among its partner states that will quickly assess the
specific academic needs of migrating children in core curriculum areas for grades 9-12. This procedure
will enable educators in the partner states to provide migrant students with appropriate classroom
intervention and improve student achievement. The seven states participating in this consortium are
Colorado (the lead state), Maine, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Dakota, and Utah.
These states estimate that the consortium will permit approximately $280,000 of MEP basic grant funds
to be redirected from program administration into direct services for migrant children.
Transfer of Student Information
Inter- and intrastate coordination includes the task of transferring student information when migrant
students must change schools. Since the program’s inception in 1966, the law has required states to
implement procedures for the timely transfer of migrant students’ education records as the students move
from one school to another.390 For 20 years, states fulfilled their obligation by participating in the Migrant
Student Records Transfer System (MSRTS). Congress eliminated the MSRTS in the 1994 reauthorization
in response to the many reports detailing a system that was expensive but did not transfer data efficiently.
Two years after the elimination of the MSRTS, most states and school districts relied on mail, telephone,
and fax to transfer records for migrant students. However, it is encouraging that about 27 states have
some type of electronic system in place, although many of these systems are used for maintaining, rather
than transferring, student records.

Exhibit 10.1
Methods used to Transfer Migrant Student Records
Between States and School Districts in 1996-97
Method of Transfer Between States Between Districts

Mail 18 states 17 states
Phone or fax 16 states 14 states
Electronic transmission 7 states 7 states
NCS 6 states 5 states
Red Bag 5 states 5 states
State systems n/a 5 states
MIS 2000 4 states 3 states
Migrant Student Network 3 states 3 states
Service
Hard copy 8 states n/a
New generation 7 states n/a
Exhibit reads: Most states transfer records for migrant students to other states by mail
(18 states) and telephone or fax (16 states). These are also the most prevalent methods
for transferring student records to other districts within the same state.
Source: Anderson and Turnbull, unpublished tabulations from Living in Interesting Times:
Early State Implementation of New Federal Education Laws.
It is not clear whether these methods are effective, although when asked an open-ended question about
problems in implementing the MEP since reauthorization, seven state directors of MEP programs cited
the lack of a national records transfer system as a major hindrance to implementation.391 The Office of
Migrant Education has helped state MEP directors develop effective methods of transferring records by
(1) pilot-testing electronic records exchange, (2) providing one-time grants in FY 1995 to all states for
records transfer, and (3) developing information on how different electronic systems can connect.

Expansion of Summer Projects
Despite the expansion of summer projects and their perceived value to migrant students, the bulk of MEP
funds continue to be spent during the regular term. Summer projects are concentrated, intensive learning
experiences for students. Because these projects are academic programs tailored to students’ needs and
coordinated with the students’ instructional program during the year, they may have a greater effect than
other services that are provided in isolation. To increase the overall effect of the MEP program, it may
make sense to increase the statutory emphasis on summer programs or provide separate funding for these
programs.

Records Transfer
It is likely that more efficient methods of transferring information could be developed than mail, phone,
and fax, on which many states now rely. Moreover, in a recent meeting of state coordinators, there
appeared to be a consensus that greater federal leadership is needed in this area because states lack
adequate systems for transferring records. Federal guidance, oversight, and technical assistance to states
in developing systems for records transfer could be expanded.
Additionally, there could be more specific federal requirements for states to follow in developing records
transfer systems, and model systems could be developed. This guidance could ensure uniformity in state
systems and in the information stored in those systems. At present no consensus exists on what
information should be included on a record, and therefore the states do not necessarily collect the
information that other states need.
A third possibility is the creation of a new federally funded migrant records transfer system, to be
developed in consultation with the states. This system should have the capacity to be updated and
adapted as technology advances. The old system was unsuccessful because it was outmoded and no
longer useful to states.
Effective Targeting
Because not all migrant students are as transitory as others, it is clear that targeting provisions could be
strengthened to encourage states to recruit and serve the neediest migrant studentsthose who are the
most mobile and those who have moved most recently. The current targeting provisions address those
who have moved the most recently but not those who are the most mobile. A priority for services could
be established for students who move more than once during a school year.
Standards and Participation in State Assessments
Because states are not required to disaggregate their state assessment data by migrant status until 2001,
most states have not yet done so. Without disaggregated data, states are not able to report performance
levels for migrant students as a group, and do not know whether migrant students are participating in state
assessments or meeting state standards. In addition to disaggregating assessment data by migrant status,
states could be required to report on the participation of migrant students in state assessments and on
barriers to their participation. This reporting requirement would give states and the federal government
more accurate information on the participation of migrant students in state assessments and allow
baselines and targets for migrant student participation to be set. It would also help the federal government
identify barriers that hinder migrant students’ participation in assessments, including language and
mobility, or other factors.

KEY PROVISIONS OF TITLE I, PART D, PROGRAMS FOR CHILDREN
AND YOUTH WHO ARE NEGLECTED, DELINQUENT,
OR AT RISK OF DROPPING OUT
The 1994 ESEA reauthorization made several major changes to the Title I, Part D program to
strengthen the quality of academic instruction supported by this program and to improve coordination
among programs serving neglected or delinquent students. Key provisions in the 1994 reauthorization
are as follows:
 Increase the minimum number of instructional hours that institutions must provide to be eligible
for the program. Adult correctional facilities now must provide 15 hours of instruction per week,
and an institution or community day program for neglected or delinquent (N or D) children must
provide 20 hours per week. Previously, Chapter 1 required institutions to provide only 10 hours of
instruction per week.
 Emphasize challenging standards for all students. Part D services are designed with the
expectation that children and youth who are neglected, delinquent, or at risk of dropping out of
school will meet the same challenging academic and content standards expected of all children.
 Allow State N or D institutions for juveniles to operate institutionwide programs, modeled after
Title I schoolwide programs. Institutions may use Title I funds in combination with other federal
and state education funds, and are encouraged to increase coordination and collaboration among
programs serving N or D students.
 Require state education agencies (SEAs) to reserve funds for transition services for N or D youth
after their release from an institution or program.
 Create the Subpart 2 program to serve children and youth who are in locally operated correctional
facilities (including institutions for delinquent children) and noninstitutionalized at-risk children
and youth.
 Require SEAs (and school districts, in the case of Subpart 2 programs) to assess the effect of their
programs on participants using multiple and appropriate evaluation measures.
Conclusions and Future Directions 168

11. TITLE I, PART D, PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION
PROGRAMS FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH WHO ARE
NEGLECTED, DELINQUENT, OR AT RISK
OF DROPPING OUT
Key Findings
 States are experiencing an increase in flexibility and coordination. The percentage of state
education administrators who reported that the reauthorized legislation gave them considerably or
somewhat more administrative flexibility in implementing the N or D program rose from 40 percent
in 1996-97 to 57 percent in 1998.
 States are building the capacity of N or D programs to implement high standards by supporting
technical assistance and professional development. Over half (58 percent) of state administrators
reported that Part D funds supported technical assistance on content or performance standards in
1996-97.
 Establishing institutionwide programs is an important strategy to ensure that students’ needs are
being met in a coherent and coordinated manner. Although states are expanding the capacity of
their facilities to implement institutionwide programs, few facilities have implemented them.
More than half of the states provided technical assistance on whole school improvement, yet only
9 percent of N or D facilities are institutionwide programs.
 States and institutions need to work on collecting appropriate data and using it to inform program
improvement. Institutions are generally unable to collect comprehensive data on students’
educational experiences and their transition to further education or employment.

The educationally disadvantaged population eligible to be served by Part D has been growing over the
past decade. In particular, the number of juvenile arrests for violent crimes is increasing; despite declines
in 1995 and 1996, arrests in 1996 were 60 percent above the 1987 level.392 In addition, the average length
of stay in a correctional facility for Title I N or D participants increased from 8 months to over 13 months
during the 1980s,393 further increasing the number eligible to be served by this program. According to the
most recent evaluation of the Subpart 1, State Agency N or D program, conducted in 1991, these youth
are on average three years behind their peers in grade level, and 42 percent have dropped out of school
(compared with a national dropout rate of 9 percent among 14- to 21-year-olds for that year).394 For many
of these youth, education in a correctional facility will be their last experience with formal education.395
The most recent evaluation, conducted before reauthorization, revealed that the program had some short-
term successes but was less successful in bringing about long-term change.396 That evaluation showed
that few (15 percent) of Chapter 1 N or D participants complete high school or receive their GED while
institutionalized.397 While all youth under the age of 16 returned to school after release, only two-thirds
of 16- and 17-year-olds enrolled in school and one-third of the enrolled 16- and 17-year-olds dropped out

within 10 months. Furthermore, only one-quarter of 18- or 19-year-old Chapter 1 participants enrolled in
school after release.398 Most participants found jobs after being released, but the jobs were typically low-
paying, and about two-thirds of employed youth had gone through more than one job.399 In addition to
having inadequate education and employment after release, within 5 months after their release, 16 percent
of program participants had had some trouble with the law, and five months later another 27 percent of
those remaining in the community had problems with the law.400
Poor-quality educational programs may have contributed to participants’ difficulties after leaving
institutions. Education programs often conflicted with other institutional objectives that received greater
priority,401 and the instruction that was provided tended to rely on out-of-date materials and outmoded
instructional strategies that taught isolated, lower-order skills.402 To improve the quality of instruction
received by incarcerated youth, the reauthorized statute increased instructional time for students in state
agency and locally operated programs and emphasized holding students to high academic standards.
Greater coordination among agencies serving neglected or delinquent students was encouraged to
improve the quality and coherence of services provided; coordination could be facilitated through the
implementation of institutionwide programs. In addition, the 1994 statute required that programs provide
transition services to facilitate students’ postrelease education or employment and to reduce recidivism.

Title I, Part D, as amended, provides support to states, local agencies, and schools for supplemental
programs that meet the special education needs of children and youth in institutions for neglected,
delinquent, or at-risk children. It comprises two programs:
 The State Agency Neglected or Delinquent program (Subpart 1) provides federal financial assistance
to states that operate educational programs for children and youth in institutions or community day
programs for N or D children and for youth in adult correctional facilities. The Department allocates
funds to state education agencies (SEAs) through a formula based on the number of children and
youth enrolled in a regular program of instruction at state-operated facilities and community day
programs. SEAs in turn suballocate Subpart 1 funds to state agencies that operate education
programs. Congress appropriated $39 million for this program in FY 1998.
 The Subpart 2 program provides assistance to school districts to serve (1) children and youth in
locally operated correctional facilities, including institutions for delinquent children, and (2) non-
institutionalized at-risk children and youth. The Department of Education determines how much
Part D, Subpart 2 funding is apportioned for each state when it calculates annual Title I, Part A
allocations. The formula is based on October caseload data on the number of children and youth
living in local institutions for delinquent children and local adult correctional institutions. SEAs
award Subpart 2 funds to school districts with high numbers or percentages of youth residing in
correctional facilities. This program was funded at $49 million in FY 1998.
Overall, a total of 4,059 institutions participated in the Title I State Agency N or D Program in school year
1996-97.403 Of this total, 376 (9 percent) operated institutionwide programs, in which state and federal
funds are combined to reform the entire educational program in an institution. The State Agency N or D
program served 88,512 children in institutions for neglected children, 98,767 in institutions for delinquent
children, and 24,159 in adult correctional facilities. The Local Agency N or D program served 70,428
students.404

Although there has been no evaluation of the effectiveness of the Part D, Subpart 2 program, the program
has proven to be difficult to administer and confusing to the states. In addition, there are indications that
the funding mechanism for the program is not operating effectively. Title I, Part A counts of children and
youth living in locally operated correction facilities and institutions for delinquent children generate
money for school districts to fund dropout prevention programs, which serve youth at educational risk.
At-risk youth include school-age youth who are at risk of academic failure, have drug or alcohol abuse
problems, are pregnant or are parents, have previously come into contact with the juvenile justice system,
are at least one year behind the expected grade level for their age, are migrant or immigrant, have limited
English proficiency, are gang members, have previously dropped out of school, or have high absentee
rates at school.
School districts receiving Subpart 2 funds generally must use them to operate (1) programs for
noninstitutionalized, at-risk children and youth and (2) programs for children and youth in locally
operated correctional facilities and institutions for delinquent children that have established formal
agreements with the school district regarding the services to be provided. This situation acts as a
disincentive for local institutions to submit October case load counts to SEAs as part of the Department of
Education’s annual N or D survey because there is no guarantee that these institutions will receive any
services from the funds their children generate. In addition, requiring that districts split their Subpart 2
funds between serving delinquent children in institutionalized settings and at-risk children in district-
based programs tends to spread limited funding thinly and makes it difficult for districts to operate viable
programs of sufficient size, scope, and quality for either group of students.
At the state level, a study of state implementation of ESEA programs surveyed state education
administrators, and found that there has been movement toward meeting the key provisions that relate to
state-level administration in the 1994 statute.405 This progress may be the result of the compatibility of the
Improving America’s Schools Act (IASA) with state reform efforts. When asked how federal legislation
fits with state reform goals, 21 state education administrators said that there was no mismatch between the
new legislation and their states’ policies.406 Several administrators said that IASA goals ran parallel to
their state’s reform movement.407 Although there has been progress in implementing state-level
provisions, there are no recent evaluations that assess the efficacy of services at the facility level. It is
difficult to conduct evaluations of programs serving students in correctional institutions because of the
inadequacy of data collection on these students; few institutions collect data on the educational histories,
needs, experiences, and postrelease outcomes of incarcerated youth.408
The following findings pertain to the Subpart 1 program.
Administrative Flexibility and Coordination
States are experiencing an increase in flexibility and coordination. In the 1996-97 school year, only about
40 percent of state education administrators reported that the reauthorized legislation gave them
considerably or somewhat more administrative flexibility in implementing the N or D program.409 This
proportion increased to 57 percent in 1998.410 More administrators also reported that consolidating
administrative funds affects the way they do their job, although less than half of administrators reported
that their N or D program is part of the state’s consolidation of administrative funds. 411

In addition, the vast majority of state N or D administrators reported conducting administrative or
operational activities in coordination with other federally funded education programs. These activities
included monitoring local projects, holding local application/planning workshops, providing technical
assistance to districts and schools, and deciding how to allocate program resources to districts and
schools.412 In response to an open-ended question on overall successes since the 1994 reauthorization,
10 administrators cited increased coordination and collaboration across programs and among schools
districts serving N or D students. Program administrators reported working with other programs that now
serve their students, and including sections on communication with local juvenile centers in school
plans.413
Support for Challenging Standards
States are building the capacity of N or D programs to implement high standards for all students, but these
programs need further assistance in implementing them. States are providing professional development
and technical assistance to help facilities implement challenging standards. Approximately 58 percent of
state education administrators reported that Part D funds supported technical assistance on content or
performance standards in 1996-97.414 In addition, more than half of state administrators reported that they
encouraged subgrantees to focus their professional development on content or performance standards,
student assessment, and meeting the needs of special populations in 1996-97.415
States support the provisions of the legislation that emphasize high standards. When asked which
provisions of the legislation were the most helpful in meeting their program’s goals or improving student
achievement, administrators from eight states stated that the provisions relating to high standards had
helped to raise expectations for N or D students.416 However, when asked in what areas they thought their
state had the furthest to go in meeting its own reform goals, seven state N or D administrators cited
developing and implementing assessments and helping all students to meet high standards.417
Institutionwide Programs
Indicator: Institutionwide programs. An increased number of institutions will operate institutionwide

programs that improve curriculum and instruction throughout the institution.
Establishing institutionwide programs is an important strategy to ensure that students’ needs are being met
in a coherent and coordinated manner. Although states are building facilities’ capacity to implement
institutionwide programs, few facilities have yet implemented them. More than half of the states
provided technical assistance on whole school improvement,418 yet only 9 percent of N or D facilities are
institutionwide programs.419
Evaluation and Use of Data
State education administrators appear to be using data to meet various reporting requirements but not to
improve the quality of N or D programs or to identify programs that need extra resources. Administrators
reported that the most common types of data they required local districts, schools, and subgrantees to
collect were performance results from the state assessment, followed by performance results from other
tests, dropout rates, and absentee rates.420 Few state administrators reported that they required local
districts, schools, or subgrantees to collect information on grades, extracurricular activities, or classroom
work and performance.421 Therefore, it appears that states do not have comprehensive information on
students’ academic and vocational progress—key indicators of program success.

The most common use of student performance data was to report to the federal government, followed by
reporting to local school districts, schools, and subgrantees and reporting to managers within state
agencies.422 Approximately half of state education administrators who responded (a third of all
administrators) use student performance data to identify schools and districts that need help.423
Approximately a third of administrators who responded (less than a quarter of all administrators),
reported that they used student data to identify program services that need to be extended or reduced or to
assess the progress of underserved ethnic or demographic groups.424
In addition, a recent study assessed the quality and availability of data on the education of incarcerated
youth.425 The study found that although most of the pilot states involved in the study were able to provide
reliable information on students’ educational experiences while in custody, only one state was able to
collect adequate data on students’ postrelease education and employment. These findings were confirmed
by a recent preliminary analysis of 14 state Title I, Part D evaluations.426 States did not collect sufficient
or consistent data on outcomes to support an analysis of program effectiveness. Most states collected data
on academic outcomes, but only 3 out of 14 provided data on transition services, and only 4 out of 14
collected data on postrelease outcomes such as school reenrollment and postrelease employment.427 Many
states indicated that there are significant barriers to the collection of postrelease data, including
confidentiality issues and poor relationships with parole agencies.428
Program Outcomes
Indicator: Progress and Achievement. An increased number of states will show that N or D students
are improving their academic or vocational skills, and educational attainment.
The critical question to be asked in evaluating how the law is being implemented is whether the program
has been effective. Are the new provisions improving the quality of the program, and is there evidence
that this improvement is having a positive effect on students? Although little data are available on overall
program outcomes for N or D students, some states have demonstrated success in particular outcome
areas.

Iowa429 California430
In one institution, 97 percent of 97 Title I Students enrolled in the California Youth

students improved at least one grade level Authority’s 14 targeted-assistance
after three months of targeted-assistance programs showed overall improvements of
programming. In another institution, 61 between 1.4 months and 4.5 months in
percent of the 23 students obtained a GED, grade equivalency scores for every month
with standardized test scores also showing of Title I instruction provided. These data
improvement. The remaining facilities’ are based on pre- and posttest scores for
data had methodological flaws that 488 reading students, 520 math students,
prevented accurate interpretation. and 406 language students in 1996-1997.

Subpart 2 Program
The current allocation mechanism for the Subpart 2 program is confusing because students in institutions
generate funds that are not necessarily used for their benefit. This situation could be improved by
requiring school districts receiving Title I, Part A funds for children and youth in locally operated
correctional facilities and delinquent institutions to reserve these funds to provide services for these
children that are comparable to those received by other Title I students in the district. In addition, Title I,
Part A funds could be increased and states could be required to use Title I, Part A to support dropout
prevention programs and programs for at-risk youth.
This requirement would be identical to the current requirement that districts reserve Title I, Part A funds
for children in institutions for neglected children; it also is similar to the way that districts reserved funds
for delinquent children and youth under Chapter 1. This change would (1) guarantee that Title I funds
generated by children and youth in local correctional facilities and institutions for delinquent children
would support services for children in those facilities and (2) eliminate the confusing aspects of the
current law.
Guidance and Technical Assistance
Findings pertaining to the state agency program suggest that administrators are making progress in
implementing the key, state-level provisions in the 1994 statute, but that there is a need for greater
technical assistance and dissemination of information about these provisions and the ways in which they
are beneficial to N or D facilities. Guidance could illustrate how consolidating administrative funds could
be useful to program administrators, how administrators can replicate the experience of programs that
have increased collaboration and coordination across programs serving N or D students, and how
institutionwide programs benefit N or D students.

Evaluation and Use of Data
Another major area for guidance and technical assistance pertains to the use of data for evaluating
students and program performance. The Department needs to develop appropriate guidelines and
guidance for evaluating this population. Only 7 states have performance indicators for the N or D
program, and only 12 more are in the process of developing them.431 Few states collect performance data
other than test results. Program administrators need to be taught how performance indicators can guide
program improvement and how to collect the appropriate data to inform their indicators. The Department
may want to pilot a program that provides incentive grants to states to improve their data collection
systems. Revamping data collection systems is expensive yet crucial to improving states’ ability to
evaluate programs that serve incarcerated students. The states and federal government both have an
interest in improving data collection on these students.
The Department’s guidance for Part D has provided that the state or local educational agency should use
the same state assessment system used for all children, unless the SEA determines that the state
assessments are not available or would not provide accurate information about the progress of children in
institutions for neglected or delinquent children. Under those circumstances, more appropriate or more
accurate assessments may be used, along with any additional indicators to measure the progress of
students participating in these programs.
This guidance does not require states to assess N or D students in any way other than using their state
assessments. As a result, few states collect any other type of performance data on these students. Yet
state assessments may not provide an appropriate indication of progress for programs that serve children
and youth in institutions for delinquent children. Because of high turnover and limited length of stay in
many of these institutions, state and local agencies may not be able to use the same measures that are
applied to youth attending a school in a more traditional setting. It is very difficult to measure progress
over short periods of time.
In addition, incarcerated, delinquent youth in particular are likely to have dropped out or not to have
attended school regularly for many years. For these students, the assessments given to other students
their age may not be appropriate. However, there is a tension between assessing students appropriately
and ensuring that they are exposed to challenging academic content. It is important to expose these
students to challenging content, but it is not realistic to assess them at their grade level when they are
three or more years behind. Students may also demonstrate success in areas other than academic
achievement—for instance, by acquiring a job or making a successful transition to a community-based
program. Programs serving this population need assistance in developing more appropriate and varied
criteria by which the effect of these programs on participants will be evaluated.

12. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR TITLE I
TITLE I—HELPING DISADVANTAGED CHILDREN MEET HIGH STANDARDS

“SEC. 1001. DECLARATION OF POLICY AND STATEMENT OF PURPOSE.
“(a)(1) The Congress declares it to be the policy of the United States that a high-quality
education for all individuals and a fair and equal opportunity to obtain that education are a
societal good, are a moral imperative, and improve the life of every individual, because the
quality of our lives ultimately depends on the quality of the lives of others.”
Since reauthorization, the National Assessment of Title I has evaluated the implementation
and impact of Title I and finds promising results as well as continuing challenges in carrying
out reform. The recent achievement gains of students whom Title I is intended to benefit
provide a clear indication that Title I, and the larger educational system it supports, is moving
in the right direction.
An examination of trends in the performance of students in the nation’s highest-poverty public

schools, as well as progress of the lowest achieving students shows positive gains in reading and
math performance since the reauthorization of Title I. These trends are further substantiated by
the progress reported by some states and districts with three-year trends in achievement.
 Since 1992, the national reading trend results have improved for 9-year-olds in the highest-poverty
public schools (those with 75 percent or more low-income children), increasing by 8 points (close to
one grade level). This improvement regained ground lost in the late 1980s. The lowest achieving
public school 4th-graders showed fairly substantial improvements in reading between 1994 and 1998
on the main NAEP. The substantial gains, 9 points among the bottom 10 percent and 5 points among
the bottom 25 percent, suggest that it was the performance of the lowest achievers that raised the
national average of 4th-graders.
 Since 1992 and continuing through reauthorization, trend results on national math assessments have
improved for 9-year olds, especially among students in the highest poverty public schools whose
scores rose by 9 points (close to one grade level). Public school 4th-grade students in the lowest
percentiles of performancethose most typically targeted for Title I services—also showed
substantial improvements in math scores on the main NAEP test. Scores of students in the lowest
25 percent improved by 8 points between 1990 and 1996.
Three-year trends reported by states and districts also show progress in the percentage of students
in the highest-poverty schools meeting state and local standards for proficiency in math and
reading.
 The achievement of elementary school students in the highest-poverty schools improved in 5 of 6

states reporting three-year trends in reading and in 4 of 5 states reporting trends in mathematics.
Students in Connecticut, Maryland, North Carolina, and Texas made progress in both subjects.

 The National Assessment selected 13 of the largest urban school systems, districts that represent a
geographic cross-section of the nation’s regions and that had at least three years of consistent data on
student outcomes. The most severe educational deficits are found in the highest-poverty schools in
urban communities. Ten of 13 large urban districts that report three-year trends showed increases in
the percentage of elementary students in the highest poverty schools who met district or state
proficiency standards in either reading or math. Six districts, including Houston, Miami-Dade
County, New York, Philadelphia, San Antonio and San Francisco made progress in both subjects. No
district showed significant achievement losses.
Title I schools are benefiting from improved resource targeting, improved alignment of
curriculum with standards, and a more cohesive school program through greater use of the
schoolwide option and clarification of parent roles through Title I compacts.
Changes in the allocation formula and procedures, enacted in the 1994 amendments, have improved
targeting of funds to the highest-poverty schools. Almost all (95 percent) of the highest-poverty
schools in the nation received Title I funds in 1997-98, up from 79 percent in 1993-94. These additional
funds have gone primarily to add the highest-poverty schools to the program, rather than to increase Title
I per pupil expenditures. Also, school districts use 90 to 93 percent of their Title I funds for instruction
and instructional supportmost often in reading and math.
The emphasis on linking federally supported Title I services to state and local reform efforts is
influencing practice in high-poverty schools. Principals in high-performing, high-poverty schools
report using standards to guide curriculum and instruction, and using standards to assess student progress.
Additionally, teachers in districts implementing standards-based reforms are more likely than their
colleagues in other districts to be familiar with content and performance standards and assessments, and
their curriculum is more likely to reflect the standards.
There is also evidence of progress for students in high-poverty schools where staff members focus
on challenging standards and strategies that help students achieve them. Preliminary findings from
a study of instructional practices in 71 high-poverty elementary schools show:
 Students were likely to make better progress in reading if their teacher gave them more total exposure
to reading in the content areas and opportunities to talk in small groups about what they had read,
 Teachers who used a curriculum that reflected National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM)
standards had students with higher gains in mathematics; and
 Students who started the year as low achievers could be helped to gain more skill in problem solving
in mathematics when their teachers deliberately emphasized understanding and problem solving with
them.
Schoolwide approaches help support educational programs focused on learning.
 Flexibility available to high-poverty schools (those with 50 percent or more low-income children)
offers the potential to help integrate Title I resources with school-level reforms. Recent findings
show that schools implementing schoolwide programs are more likely than those using targeted
approaches for providing Title I servicesto use a strategic plan and models of service delivery that
can integrate Title I into the larger educational program.

Despite progress since the 1994 reauthorization, continuing challenges remain to be
addressed.
Large performance gaps for students in the highest-poverty schools. While the performance of
students in high-poverty schools is improving, they remain much further behind their peers in meeting
basic standards of performance in both reading and math. In 1998, the percentage of 4th-grade students in
the highest-poverty public schools who met or exceeded the NAEP Basic level in reading was about half
the national rate, and progress in reading overall is only back to 1988 and 1990 levels. For math, the
percentage of students in the highest-poverty schools scoring at or above the Basic level was two-thirds
that of the national average.
Yet some states are showing that students in their highest-poverty schools can perform at national levels
indicating that it is possible to bring these students to high levels of achievement. In nine states, the
percentage of fourth-grade students in the highest-poverty public schools achieving at or above the Basic
level exceeded the national average—showing that higher performance is attainable.
The neediest schools receive limited assistance. Schools enrolling the highest concentrations of poor
children are most likely to be identified as in need of improvement, and the capacity of states and districts
to provide them with assistance is often limited. In 1998, only 8 states reported that school support teams
have been able to serve the majority of schools identified as in need of improvement. In 24 states, Title I
directors reported more schools in need of school support teams than Title I could assist. Approximately
one-third of high-poverty schools identified for improvement had not received any additional professional
development or assistance as a result of being identified.
Inadequate teacher preparation. A significant number of Title I schoolsparticularly those with high
concentrations of low-income childrencontinue to employ non-certified paraprofessionals as
instructional aides. Aides comprise half of the instructional staff funded by Title I. Only 10 percent
of instructional aides in the highest-poverty schools possess college degrees, but aides are often
found providing instruction.
Along with the evidence that high-achieving high-poverty schools focus attention on challenging
standards for all students, comes the reality that many teachers are not prepared to teach to challenging
standards. In a 1998 survey, only about one-third of teachers in schools with 60 percent or more poor
children believe they are well equipped to use standards in the classroom. This is particularly noteworthy
given evidence that teachers’ reported preparedness in both subject matter and instructional strategies had
a positive relationship with student gains.
Inadequate implementation of parent involvement provisions. Although the percentage of schools

with parent compacts rose from 20 percent in 1994 to about 75 percent in 1998, there remain 25 percent
of schools with no parent agreements. A substantial majority of schools find compacts helpful in
promoting parent involvement, especially higher-poverty schools, but principals continue to identify lack
of parent involvement as one of their major reform barriers.
Weak Title I accountability and parallel accountability in some states. Full implementation of the
accountability requirements under Title I is not required until final assessments are in place in the
2000-01 school year. During the transitional period, states are making progress in developing definitions
of adequate yearly progress and identifying schools and districts in need of improvement. States further
along in developing performance standards tend to have more rigorous and clearly defined accountability
systems.

Options for Future Directions
Stay the Course: Maintain an Emphasis on Challenging Standards for All Students
Gains by students in the nation’s highest-poverty schools, coupled with evidence that aligning instruction
with challenging standards can substantially increase student achievement, point to the need to stay the
course of focusing instruction on challenging standards for all students. Though there has clearly been
progress in implementing standards at all levels, full implementation in classrooms across the country has
yet to be accomplished. States, districts, and schools need to continue to implement standards that
challenge all students to achieve at high levels, and to align curriculum, teaching, and assessments with
those standards. Reauthorization should address the continuing challenges that limit Title I’s capacity to
be a stimulus and support for better results for our nation’s at-risk students.
Targeted High-Performance “Catch-Up Grants” to Strengthen the Highest-Poverty Schools
The continuing weak performance of the highest-poverty schools, those with poverty in excess of
75 percent, remains as one of America’s most pressing educational problems. Although all Title I
schools need additional resources and assistance, the highest-poverty schools are the neediest not only in
terms of their populations served, but also in terms of the progress they must make to improve their
current performance. In these schools, seven out of every ten children are currently achieving below even
the basic level of reading.
Reauthorization should focus on the extraordinary needs of the highest-poverty schools to improve
teaching and learning for our most at-risk students, while holding these schools accountable for
continuous improvement in student results. If these grants were to target an additional $1.3 billion, or
about 15 percent of current Title I funds, they would be sufficient when combined with current Title I
funds and a 25 percent local match to enable the highest-poverty schools to:
 Support a schoolwide model program of their choosing that is backed by evaluation evidence of
effectiveness. Schools could carry out intensive programs aimed at improving early reading as in the
Reading Excellence Act program, run a program to start their middle school students thinking about
college and planning for their futures as in GEAR UP, or a combination of such approaches.
 Within three years, achieve a ratio of modern multimedia computers to students of 5:1, a long-term
national target and a goal that is especially important in high-poverty communities where children
lack the home access to computers available in higher income areas.
 Provide a high-quality after-school instructional program for 50 percent of all students, up from the
current 12 percent.
 Reduce class size in the early grades to 21 students per teacher, midway from current levels to the
long-term national goal of 18 students.
In turn,
 Recipient schools would commit to continued progress in improving student outcomes as

defined through annual outcome and service improvement targets. These would be described in
a peer-reviewed schoolwide plan. Schools would annually report progress against outcome and
service performance objectives with the plan and reports.

 States and districts would need to commit to assisting their highest poverty schools. States and
districts would work with their schools to identify resources from all sources that could be combined
for meaningful, concerted school reform. Districts would review their schools’ planning and
implementation and offer peer reviewers to work with the schools on a sustained basis. They would
also share performance data, research on effective approaches, and information across schools
engaged in reform.
 The highest-poverty schools would also be the highest priority for assistance from all federally
supported technical assistance providers. Comprehensive regional assistance centers and other
technical assistance providers would place these schools at the head of the line for support,
concentrating their efforts where they could do the most good.
These monies would raise the average amount of Title I funds that the highest-poverty schools receive
annually by 50 percent to an estimated $336,000 for each school. These new monies could go out under
the current formulas to states and districts for their schools with poverty rates of 75 percent or higher. If
states lack schools in the highest poverty category, they would receive a minimum grant to be spent on
their most impoverished schools.
The resources to support the Targeted High-Performance School Grants could come from increases in
Title I funding and an off-the-top set-aside for these schools in related federal programs such as 21st
Century Learning Communities, Reading Excellence Act, Technology Literacy Challenge Fund, GEAR
UP and Class Size Reduction. A set-aside of one-third of the FY 2000 monies from these five programs
for the highest-poverty schools would provide about $990 million under the administrations’ FY 2000
budget request. The remainder to bring the total to $1.3 billion could come from channeling the
$320 million proposed increase in Title I funding to these new grants.
Targeting additional funds to schools with high concentrations of low-income students has advantages
over targeting them on low-performance. First, high-performing, high-poverty schools should not be
penalized for their progress. Nor should low-performing schools be rewarded for a lack of effort. High-
performing schools need support, recognition, and encouragement to sustain their gains. In addition,
targeting funds on the basis of poverty is consistent with the process for allocating funds currently and
would not require a different mechanism.
Strengthen Instruction
Progress in using Title I to support improved instructional practices at the school-level remains
limited by the continued use of paraprofessionals who provide instruction—particularly in the
highest-poverty Title I schools. Paraprofessionals in high-poverty schools tend to have less formal
education than those in low-poverty schools, and they are often assigned to teach—sometimes without a
teacher present. While many paraprofessionals have invested large amounts of time and effort working in
Title I schools, and are an important part of the school community, it is imperative that priorities for their
services be based solely on the needs of students. Phasing out their use in instruction and promoting
their use as parent liaisons or in administrative functions should be a priority.
Reauthorization should also support the establishment of career ladder programs for
paraprofessionals, so that those desiring to become credentialed would be supported in doing so.
These programs could include what some districts are doing already, based on recent survey data.

Reauthorization should include resources for the development of ongoing consumer guides on
effective practices. Schools are moving toward adopting curriculum and whole school reform models to
frame their improvement efforts. However, little independent research has been conducted to evaluate the
efficacy of comprehensive school reform models and better understand the conditions under which they
can succeed. The federal government should make such research and evaluation of comprehensive model
programs a priority through systematic study and annual reporting in a consumer guide. To ensure the
integrity and independence of model program appraisals, a quasi-governmental agency might be
established to oversee the integrity of the evaluation process and reporting of results. This information
would enable schools to become better educated consumers in selecting and implementing models most
likely to fit their circumstances and contribute to improved results.
Strengthen Parent Involvement
The general direction of Title I parent involvement policies and compacts on supporting learning is
consistent with research. Options that would strengthen implementation include:
 Having schools report annually on measurable indicators of the effectiveness of parent involvement,
as reflected in their own policies and compacts.
 Consolidating or coordinating parent involvement provisions across all elementary and secondary
programs that have them to form one uniform parent provision. Such programs include Title I; Even
Start Family Literacy; Education of Migratory Children; Parental Information and Resource Centers;
Impact Aid; Education for Homeless Children and Youth; Magnet Schools; 21st Century Community
Learning Centers; Indian Education; Technology for Education; and Safe and Drug-Free Schools and
Communities.
 Strengthening parent involvement activities in the early elementary grades in the areas of supporting
reading and family literacy and in the middle and high school grades to encourage students to take
challenging courses.
Focus on Accountability
The use of school profiles designed to report school results and progress has been shown to be a
powerful tool for accountability and school improvement. However, profiles often do not effectively
reach parents and community members. They tend to be difficult to read, even for the well-educated
parent. They are also limited in their scope of information, with few school report cards presenting
information on teacher quality or student rates of progress. Also schools are limited by a lack of
comparable statewide or national information on what they are able to accomplish. The federal
government should facilitate state and local school district efforts to provide coherent, comparative
information on school progress to their communities.
The reauthorization should also ensure that accountability provisions identify schools in need of
improvement based on the best measures available to states and districts—regardless of whether
their final assessment systems are in place. Schools already identified for improvement, should remain
so; time should not be lost as a result of reauthorization in identifying and reaching schools with the
greatest needs.

Reauthorization should address eliminating dual accountability systems. For Title I to be an
effective lever for improvement, it needs to be aligned and supportive of the systems states are creating.
Finally, Congress and those responsible for implementing and supporting Title I programs should
recognize that state and local systems of standards, assessments and accountability are in flux and
are likely to keep changing over time. Even established systems such as those in Kentucky and Kansas,
which were forerunners in the development of aligned systems of standards and assessments, have revised
their efforts to reflect the priorities of their state legislatures and boards. The law should recognize this
and offer states and districts the flexibility to continue to implement measures of school accountability
under these conditions.
Summary
This National Assessment of Title I has examined the program in the context of the burgeoning standards-
based reform movement in states and school districts. Though there has clearly been progress in
implementing standards at all levels, full implementation in classrooms across the country has yet to be
accomplished. The new directions proposed for reauthorization are designed to help speed up standards
implementation, to help all children achieve at high levels. Reauthorization should address the continuing
challenges that undercut Title I’s capacity to be a stimulus and support for better results for our nation’s
at-risk students.

APPENDIX A
TITLE I EVALUATION STRATEGY
The Changing Character of Title I
Title I now provides more than $8 billion per year to fund systemwide supports and additional
resources for schools to improve learning for students at risk of academic failure, particularly in
schools with large concentrations of low-income children.
The 1994 reauthorization of Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act brought about
significant changes in key elements of this program, which focuses on providing at-risk students
in low-income communities with the opportunity to achieve to challenging state standards.
Implications for Evaluation
The 1994 reauthorization mandated the National Assessment of Title I and an Independent
Review Panel of experts and state, local, and parent representatives to advise on the conduct of
the assessment. The National Assessment benefited from the open discussion and exchange of
ideas generated by the independent review panel.
Because the legislation intended that the Title I program not operate in isolation from the system
it is meant to support, progress cannot be evaluated in isolation from state and local reform efforts
and results. The National Assessment relied on national measures of academic progress overall,
as well as state and local assessments. Also, the expansion of schoolwide programs blurred the
distinction between program participants and other children.
Control group evaluations are not feasible, nor would they be legal in Title I because they would
deny services to certain students. There are no schools similar to Title I schools that are operating
outside the state system of standards. Also, with improved targeting there are virtually no schools
in the highest-poverty categories that are not receiving Title I funds.
Title I is succeeding only to the extent that the system in which Title I is investing $8 billion is
succeeding. Specifically, Title I is succeeding only if its target population of the most
educationally disadvantaged students in Title I schools have better outcomes.
The Evaluation Approach
In the absence of a single, large-scale control-group study, the National Assessment looked at
multiple information sources to provide different perspectives on Title I outcomes for low-
achieving students. The National Assessment used the various sources to determine if they all
appeared to be showing consistent trends in recent student performance. In addition, the
National Assessment looked at implementation to assess the extent to which implementation was
changing in the intended directions required by the legislation.
Appendix A 189
A criterion of progress of low-achieving students also overcomes bias should Title I schools not
target their lowest-performing students, but “cream” their better students to raise test scores.
The indicators used by the National Assessment for Title I are also consistent with the indicators
submitted under the Government Performance and Results Act legislation. These indicators have
been previously submitted to the Congress.
The methods of the assessment were extensively discussed with the Independent Review Panel
that Congress mandated to advise the Department.
Student Outcomes
The National Assessment of Title I drew from multiple sources to track the performance of
students whom Title I is intended to benefit. The National Assessment of Educational Progress
(NAEP) was used because it is the only national source of information that allows for break-outs
by school poverty and by low achievement. State assessment trends were used because Title I
legislation uses school progress on state assessments as its indicator of success. Large urban
district trends were used because of their high concentrations of poverty.
 Student outcomes on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) in the

highest-poverty schools (76 percent or more poverty) long-term trends, and for the
most recent main NAEP assessment. All low achievers in these schools should be eligible
for assistance and Title I should be accountable for their improvement. Title I succeeds in
these schools only to the extent that scores of low achievers improving.
Results: Using the scale scores on the long-term trend assessment in reading and math,
the NAEP results indicated positive improvements in student performance since
reauthorization. However, while the performance of students in the highest-poverty
schools is improving, they remain much further behind their peers in meeting basic
standards of performance in reading and math on the main NAEP assessments.
 Trends in student achievement of the very lowest performing students in the nation.
Approximately 86 percent of the lowest achievers (that is, those below the 10th percentile) are
in Title I schools. Because Title I is intended to serve the lowest achievers and most are in
Title I schools, progress in the outcomes of lowest achievers is a valid proxy measure for
Title I outcomes.
Results. NAEP scores for the lowest achievers in both reading and math improved during
the 1990s.
 Trends in student outcomes in highest-poverty schools on a state’s own assessment. The

Title I legislation holds schools accountable for improving student performance against state
performance criteria. Because most state assessments are changing, only six states could
report three-year trends for the percentage of students meeting expected levels of
performance in the highest-poverty schools. Again, in these schools, Title I is working only if
all low achievers on average are improving.
Results. Scores improved in 5 of 6 states for reading and 4 of 5 states with data for math.
Appendix A 190
 Trends in student outcomes in the highest-poverty schools (75 percent or more poverty)
in major urban centers. Large cities are places of high concentration of poverty and a
major priority group for Title I. Virtually all of the highest poverty schools participate in Title
I, and raising the scores of the lowest achievers in these schools is one measure of Title I
success.
Results. Among the highest-poverty schools in the largest cities, 10 of 13 districts had
improvements in either math or reading, and 6 districts had improvements in both.
 One-year longitudinal gains. The Longitudinal Evaluation of School Change and

Performance, a study of 71 high-poverty schools, links trends in student performance to
classroom practices.
Results. Although not nationally representative, because of funding limitations, the

study shows that students progress in high-poverty schools that focus their
instruction on challenging standards.
Title I Implementation
Although the implementation of key provisions focused on standards-based reform under

Title I is uneven across the states, districts, and schools, it is moving overall in the directions
the legislation intended. The fact that fairly dramatic programmatic changes have occurred is
further evidence of a causal relationship between the types of system changes intended by Title I
and student outcomes. There are no procedures to evaluate how many of these changes would
have occurred in the absence of Title I, but we do know that impediments to reform, such as
parallel assessment systems, are being eliminated. Highlights of implementation changes include:
 Almost all (95 percent) of the highest-poverty schools (75 percent or more poverty) received
Title I funds in 1997-98, up from 79 percent in 1993-94.
 States are making progress in implementing state content and student performance standards,
and principals in Title I schools are reporting more use of content standards to guide
curriculum and instruction in their schools.
 Instruction focused on challenging standards was associated with student gains in

achievement in high-poverty schools.
 Schools are making progress in integrating Title I services with their regular academic
program, and the percentage of Title I schools offering extended learning time has increased
from 9 percent to 41 percent since 1994.
Continuing Challenges to Improve Student Outcomes and Implementation
The National Assessment of Title I also identified major challenges that continue to confront
Title I.
 The National Assessment highlights that large gaps in student achievement remain
between high-poverty and low-poverty schools. The National Assessment explicitly
Appendix A 191
identifies continuing academic challenges. For example, in 1998, the percentages of
4th-graders in the highest-poverty public schools who met or exceeded the NAEP Basic level
in reading was only about half the national rate, and progress in reading is only back to 1988
and 1990 levels.
 The National Assessment also highlights important continuing weaknesses in

implementation. Many Title I teachers feel ill-equipped to implement standards and are
receiving inadequate professional development. Teacher’s aides with inadequate credentials
continue to provide instruction, often without a teacher present. Technical assistance cannot
reach all the schools that have been identified for improvement. Accountability in Title I
remains extremely weak.
Appendix A 192
APPENDIX B
Descriptions of Key Program Evaluations and Other Studies (Ongoing and Completed)
That Informed the National Assessment of Title I
Sponsor/Data Reporting
Study or Survey Data Providers Data Collected and Collection Dates
Collector Date(s)
Baseline State Implementation Study Planning and All states, federal program Initial information on implementation of new provisions of state- 1998
(Living in Interesting Times, 1998) Evaluation Service directors, and state research administered ESEA and Goals 2000 programs. Key issues include
(PES) or evaluation specialists in standards development, assessment systems, technical assistance,
state education agencies and state supports for school improvement. Focus is on how
Contractor: Policy legislative framework and federal resources are incorporated into
Studies Associates, the context of state school improvement efforts.
Inc. Collection Date: 1996
Follow-Up State Implementation Study PES All states, federal program Follow-up information on implementation of new provisions of Fall 1999
Ongoing directors, and state research ESEA programs and Goals 2000. Focus is on how legislative
Contractor: or evaluation specialists in framework and federal resources are incorporated into the context
Policy Studies state education agencies of state school improvement efforts. Key issues include standards
Associates, Inc. development, assessment and accountability systems, technical
assistance, and state support for school improvement.
Collection Date: 1998
Baseline Local Implementation Study PES District administrators of Baseline information on districts’ efforts to support the 1997
(Reports on Reform from the Field, 1997) Federal ESEA and Goals implementation of ESEA programs, particularly Title I, and Goals
Contractor: Urban 2000 programs 2000 within the context of state and local reforms.
Institute, Inc. (nationally representative Collection Date: 1996
sample)
Follow-up information on districts’ efforts to support the
Local Implementation Study PES Nationally representative implementation of ESEA programs, particularly Title I, and Goals Summer 1999
Ongoing Contractors: Policy sample of district 2000 within the context of state and local reforms. Focuses on
Studies Associates, administrators program governance, supports for effective instruction, and
Inc. and Urban family/community partnerships.
Institute, Inc. Collection Date: 1998
Appendix B 193
Collector Date(s)
Public School Surveys on Education PES, Office of Public school principals and Baseline information on principals’ and teachers’ perceptions of 1998 and
Reform Educational teachers standards-based reform, and the extent to which reform activities January 1999
(Status of Education Reform in Public Research and (nationally representative were being implemented in their schools during the 1995-96
Elementary and Secondary Schools, 1998) Improvement sample) school year. Focused on awareness and implementation of
(Status of Education Reform in Public (OERI) and standards and assessment systems. Also collected information
Elementary and Secondary Schools: National Center for regarding parent involvement, sources of technical assistance, and
Teachers’ Perspectives, 1999) Education uses of technology in the classroom. Teacher surveys also
Statistics (NCES) collected information on professional development.
Collection Date: 1995-1996
Contractor: Westat,
Inc.
Follow-Up Public School Survey on PES Public school principals Follow-up to 1995-96 survey, addressing principals’ familiarity June 1999
Education Reform (nationally representative and implementation of standards-based reform and Title I
(School-Level Implementation of Standards- Contractor: Westat, sample) provisions supporting reform, changes in Title I service delivery
Based Reform: Findings from the Follow- Inc. since reauthorization, parent involvement, technology use, and
up Public School Survey on Education sources of technical assistance. Data also collected regarding
Reform, 1999) accountability and school improvement status.
Collection Date: 1997-98
Longitudinal Evaluation of School Change PES 71 elementary schools in Information on the impact of implementation of Title I’s Summer 1999;
and Performance 18 moderate- to high-poverty reauthorization on teaching and learning, focusing on the Spring 2000
(Longitudinal Evaluation of School Change Contractor: Westat, school districts in 7 states curriculum and instruction enacted in classrooms, on student
and Performance in Title I Schools: Interim Inc. performance as measured by a nationally uniform instrument, and
Report, 1999) on changes over time.
Collection Dates: Spring 1997, 1998, 1999
Appendix B 194
Collector Date(s)
National Longitudinal Survey of Schools PES School principals and Information on how schools are implementing standards-driven 1999, 2000 and
Ongoing teachers in representative improvements, with a particular focus on implementation of the 2001
Contractor: sample of Title I schools and new Title I provisions supporting such improvements. Also
Westat, Inc. sub-samples of Title I examines how schools use their outcome data to change classroom
schools serving migrant, practice and how they measure progress continuously.
LEP, and Native American Collection Dates: 1998, 1999, 2000
students
(nationally representative
sample)
Reanalysis of National Assessment of NCES, PES NAEP national and state- Comparison of performance on NAEP for students enrolled in Spring 1999
Educational Progress (NAEP) National and level results (for high- and low-poverty schools.
State-Level Results Contractor: participating states) in Collection Dates: Analysis conducted in 1998 for data collected
Ongoing Educational reading and math from 1986 to the present. Ongoing analyses of subsequent NAEP
Testing Service assessments.
State Education Indicators with a Focus on PES All state educational Student performance data and other key state indicators February 1999
Title I agencies, NCES Collection Dates: 1997-98
1999
Student Achievement and Accountability PES 13 large urban districts Student performance data Summer 1999
Systems in Urban Districts Collection Dates: 1998
Ongoing
Appendix B 195
Collector Date(s)
Analysis of State Plans for Developing Office of All state education State plans and other documentation Summer 1999
Standards and Assessments Elementary and agencies Collection Dates: 1997-98, ongoing
Ongoing Secondary
Education, PES
Contractors:
Allen Schenck
(RMC Research)
and Dale Carlson
Study of Education Resources and Federal PES All state education Uses of federal resources from six major federal programs: Titles June 1999;
Funding agencies (50); national I, II, III, IV, and VI of ESEA and Goals 2000. Targeting of these Fall 1999
(Study of Education Resources and Federal Contractor: sample of school districts funds among school districts and, for Title I, among schools.
Funding: Preliminary Report, 1999) American (180), schools (720), Federal role in providing support for professional development,
Institutes for teachers, and aides technology, and standards and assessments.
Research Collection Dates: 1997-98
Evaluation of Title I Services to Private PES Nationally representative Trends in private school students’ participation in Title I; 1998
School Students sample of Title I district consultation between Title I administrators, private school
(Title I Services for Private School Students Contractor: administrators, private representatives and parents; procedures used by districts to count
Under the Reauthorization of ESEA: A Policy Studies school representatives the number of low-income students in private schools; services
Snapshot of Federal Assistance in Transition, Associates, Inc. available; resource allocations; student assessment and program
1998) evaluation.
Collection Dates: 1997
Third National Evaluation of the Even PES Universe of Even Start local Program characteristics: service delivery and intensity. 2000, 2002
Start Family Literacy Program projects (project directors Participant characteristics: demographic information on families,
Ongoing Contractor: and staff) parents, and children.
Abt Associates Inc. Participation outcomes: participation rates, literacy outcomes for
parents and children.
Collection Dates: Program years 1997-98 through 2000-01
Appendix B 196
Collector Date(s)
Even Start Information System (Second PES Universe of Even Start local Program characteristics: service delivery, and intensity. 1994, 1997, 1998
National Evaluation of the Even Start projects (project directors Participant characteristics: demographic information on families,
Family Literacy Program) Contractor: and staff) parents, and children.
Fu Associates Ltd. Participation outcomes: participation rates, literacy outcomes for
parents and children.
Collection dates: Program years 1993-94 through 1996-97
Congressionally-Mandated Study of PES Nationally representative Characteristics of migrant students and schools, planning and January 1999
Migrant Student Participation in Title I school principals, school needs assessment, instructional and support services provided,
Schoolwide Programs Contractor: staff, from a sample of migrant parent involvement, and funding.
1999 Westat, Inc. schoolwide projects that Collection date: 1997
have migrant students
Support for Data Gathering and Analysis PES All state coordinators Characteristics of migrant students and schools, participation March 1998,
for the Migrant Education Program information, services provided, number of schoolwide, summer, November 1998
Ongoing Contractor: and extended time projects.
Westat, Inc. Collection date: 1996-97 and 1997-98
Appendix B 197
Appendix B 198
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Promising Results, Continuing Challenges: The Final Report of the National Assessment of Title I was
prepared with the ongoing support of the Independent Review Panel for the National Assessment of Title I
and Federal Programs, led by its chair, Christopher T. Cross, President of the Council for Basic Education,
and vice-chair, Joyce Benjamin, Associate Commissioner of the Oregon Department of Education.
The report was developed under the direction of Marshall S. Smith, Under Secretary, Alan L. Ginsburg,
Director of the Planning and Evaluation Service (PES); and Valena W. Plisko, Director of the PES
Elementary and Secondary Education Division, Joanne Bogart, of the PES Elementary and Secondary
Division, served as Project Director for the National Assessment of Title I.
Staff from PES and others who were instrumental in preparing the Final Report of the National Assessment
of Title I are as follows:
Rolf Blank, Council of Chief State School Officers

Robin Bouckris
Barbara Coates
Kathryn Doherty
Bruce Haslam, Policy Studies Associates
Daphne Hardcastle
Scott Joftus, The McKenzie Group
Jennifer Manise, Council of Chief State School Officers
Ann Milne, American Institutes for Research
Tracy Rimdzius
Mary Rollefson
Beth Sinclair, Westat
Stephanie Stullich
Joanne Wiggins
We would also like to acknowledge the following individuals who contributed information to the report.
Leslie Anderson, Policy Studies Associates

Denise Borders, The McKenzie Group
Peggy Carr, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)
Janet Carroll, U.S. Department of Education, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education (OESE)
Jay Chambers, American Institutes for Research
Kelly Dedel, National Council on Crime and Delinquency
Arnold Goldstein, U.S. Department of Education, NCES
Babette Gutmann, Westat
Jane Hannaway, The Urban Institute
Camilla Heid, Westat
Gwyneth Hogley, U.S. Department of Education, PES
Hilda Jackson, The Education Trust
Laura Jerry, Educational Testing Service
Joseph Johnson, University of Texas at Austin, Charles A. Dana Center
Catherine Jovicich, U.S. Department of Education, OESE
Linda LeBlanc, Westat
Joanne Lieberman, American Institutes for Research
John Mazzeo, Educational Testing Service
Shannon McKay, The Urban Institute
Kia McLean, The McKenzie Group
Lois Peak, U.S. Department of Education, PES
Judy C. Pfannenstiel-Research & Training Associates, Inc.
Acknowledgments
199
Elizabeth Reisner, Policy Studies Associates
Collette Roney, U.S. Department of Education, PES
Michael Rubenstein, Policy Studies Associates
Mary Ragland, University of Texas at Austin, Charles A. Dana Center
Alex Ratnofsky, Westat
Grace Ross, U.S. Department of Education, OESE
Allen Schenck, RMC Research
Elois Scott, U.S. Department of Education, OESE
Fumiyo Tao, Abt Associates
Mike Tashjian, Research Triangle Institute
Susan Thompson-Hoffman, U.S. Department of Education, PES
Brenda Turnbull, Policy Studies Associates
James Van Campen, American Institutes for Research
Ann Webber, Westat
In addition, we extend our special thanks to representatives from the state education agencies and local
districts, who provided three-year achievement data. States include Connecticut, Kentucky, Maine,
Maryland, North Carolina, and Texas. Local districts include Baltimore City, Boston, Chicago, Detroit,
Houston, Jefferson County (Louisville), Kansas City, KS, Memphis, Miami-Dade, New York City,
Philadelphia, San Antonio, and San Francisco.
We also thank Azalea Saunders (PES), Leila Fiester, Janie Funkhouser, Joel Hardi, Ben Lagueruela, and
Kim Thomas of Policy Studies Associates and Priscilla Taylor and Rose Wilde for their assistance with the
production of the volume.
Finally, we appreciate the comments provided by the following individuals:
Virginia Berg, U.S. Department of Education, OESE

Thomas Corwin, U.S. Department of Education, Budget Service
Michelle Doyle, U.S. Department of Education, Office of Non-Public Education
Bruce Gaarder, U.S. Department of Education, OESE
Margaret Goertz, University of Pennsylvania, Consortium for Policy Research in Education
Judith Johnson, U.S. Department of Education, OESE
Lonna Jones, U.S. Department of Education, Budget Service
William Kincaid, U.S. Department of Education, OESE
Mary Jean LeTendre, U.S. Department of Education, OESE
William Lobosco, Consultant to the U.S. Department of Education
Steve Mancini, U.S. Department of Education, OESE
Greg March, U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services
Patricia McKee, U.S. Department of Education, OESE
Margaret McNeely, U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement
(OERI)
Wendy Jo New, Consultant to the U.S. Department of Education
Ann O’Leary, U.S Department of Education, Office of the Deputy Secretary
Oliver Moles, U.S. Department of Education, OERI
Kay Rigling, U.S. Department of Education, Office of the General Counsel
Bayla White, Consultant to the U.S. Department of Education
Miriam Whitney, U.S. Department of Education, Office of the General Counsel
Jeff Wilde, U.S. Department of Education, OESE
Susan Wilhelm, U.S. Department of Education, OESE
Acknowledgments
200
1
The FY 1999 appropriation for Title I (Parts A-E) totaled $8.357 billion. U.S. Department of Education, FY2000 Budget
Summary (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education) 15.
2
Districts (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1999).
3
Jay Chambers, Joanne Lieberman, Tom Parrish, Daniel Kaleba, James Van Campen, and Stephanie Stullich, Study of
Education Resources and Federal Funding: Preliminary Report (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1999).
4
U.S. Department of Education, The Use of Federal Funds for Administrative Costs (Washington, DC: Author, 1998).
5
U.S. Department of Education, unpublished tabulations from the 1996-97 Title I Performance Report.
6
Final Report (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1998) 30.
7
U.S. Department of Education, State Title I Migrant Participation Information: 1996-97 (Washington, DC: Author, 1998)
1-48.
8
9
10
Puma et al., Prospects, 18.
11
U.S. Department of Education, Reinventing Chapter 1: The Current Program and New Directions (Washington, DC:
Author, 1993) 78-82.
12
13
14
States reported are among those from which data were made available through the U.S. Department of Education’s Title I
Performance Report and subsequent reports made through late fall/early winter 1998-99. information will be available in
the spring of 1999.
15
The McKenzie Group, Student Achievement and Accountability Systems in Urban Districts, draft (Dec. 23, 1998).
16
Allen Schenck and Dale Carlson, Standards-Based Assessment and Accountability in American Education: A Report on
the States’ Progress, as of 1997, in Implementing the Requirements of IASA,
Title I, draft (Jan. 28, 1999).
17
Rolf Blank, Jennifer Manise, Barbara Braithwaite, and Doreen Langesen, State Education Indicators with a Focus on
Title I: 1998 (Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers, February 1999).
18
Schenck and Carlson.
19
20
21
U.S. Department of Education, Local Implementation Study, District Results 1: Flexibility and Accountability, draft (Nov.
23, 1998).
22
The McKenzie Group.
23
U.S. Department of Education, Local Implementation Study.
24
Margaret Goertz, Diane Massell, and Tammi Chun, District Response to State Accountability Systems, paper presented at
the annual meeting of the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management (October 29, 1998).
25
Public School Survey on Education Reform (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1999).
26
Heid and Webber.
27
Stullich et al, Targeting Schools.
28
U.S. Department of Education, Use of Federal Funds iii.
29
U.S. Department of Education, Use of Federal Funds iii.
30
Chambers et al, Study of Education Resources.
31
Chambers et al.
32
The Education Trust, in collaboration with the Council of Chief State School Officers, Dispelling the Myth: High Poverty
Schools Exceeding Expectations (Washington, DC: The Education Trust, 1999).
33
U.S. Department of Education, Longitudinal Evaluation of School Change and Performance: Some Preliminary Findings
from First Two Years, draft (Dec. 1998).
34
U.S. Department of Education, Teacher Quality: A Report on the Preparation and Qualifications of Public School
Teachers (Washington, DC: Author, 1999) B-23.
35
U.S. Department of Education, Chapter 1 Implementation Study (Washington, DC: Author) 2-3; Heid and Webber,
School-Level Implementation.
36
Heid and Webber.
37
Chambers et al, Study of Education Resources.
38
Chambers et al.
39
Chambers et al.
40
Chambers et al.
41
See The Education Trust, Dispelling the Myth, and Willis Hawley, William Schager, Francine Hultgren, Andrew Abrams,
Ernestine Lewis, and Steve Ferrara, An Outlier Study of School Effectiveness: Implications for Public Policy and School
Improvement, paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association (March 25, 1997).
42
Hawley et al.
43
The Education Trust, 6.
44
Heid and Webber.
45
U.S. Department of Education, Case Studies of Title I and Educational Improvement in Secondary Schools: Preliminary
Findings (Washington, DC: Author, 1997).
46
Janie Funkhouser, Elizabeth Stief, and Stacy Allen, Title I School-Parent Compacts: Supporting Partnerships to Improve
Learning (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1998).
47
77
Stephanie Stullich, Brenda Donly, and Simeon Stolzberg, Within-District Targeting of Title I Funds (Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Education, 1999).
78
Sec. 1501(a)(3) authorizes the Secretary to use data gathered through a variety of sources, including the National
Assessment of Educational Progress and state evaluations, to report on students’ progress for the National Assessment of
Title I.
79
U.S. Department of Education, Reinventing Chapter 1: The Current Chapter 1 Program and New Directions
(Washington, DC: Author, 1993).
80
Unpublished tables from the 1998 NAEP Reading Assessment, Educational Testing Service.
81
NAEP measures for low-income status using percent of students receiving free and reduced price lunch go back to 1986
in math and 1988 in reading. For earlier trend data back to 1970, see I.V.S. Mullis et. al., Trends in Academic Progress
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1991). Earlier measures of the gap in performance by poverty were made
by comparisons of children living in advantaged and disadvantaged urban communities. Mullis found some closing of the
gap in performance between students in advantaged and disadvantaged urban communities through the late 1980s.
82
For overall NAEP results in reading, see NAEP 1994 Reading Report Card from the National Assessment of Educational
Progress (Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, March 1996) and NAEP 1998 Reading Report Card
(Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, 1998).
83
For overall NAEP results in math, see Clyde Reese, Karen Miller, John Mazzeo, and John Dossey, NAEP 1996
Mathematics Report Card for the Nation and the States (Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics,
February 1997).
84
See Appendix. Not all states participated in the 1996 NAEP state math main assessment. In addition, in the case of
Delaware, the sample size was insufficient to make a reliable estimate for student achievement in high-poverty schools in
the state.
85
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, estimates of school-age children and poor children in 1996.
86
Data on school- and student-level participation in Title I and achievement results were collected through the 1996-97 and
1997-98 Title I Performance Reports. If available states were requested to report the percentage of students in high- and
low-poverty schools meeting the states’ established levels of proficiency. Results were also requested for disaggregated
student groups required once final assessments are in place. These findings are reported in more detail in Rolf Blank,
Jennifer Manise, Barbara Braithwaite, and Doreen Langesen, State Education Indicators with a Focus on Title I, 1998
(Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers, Feb. 1999).
87
Data were collected through the 1996-97 Title I Performance Report, and the Council of Chief State School Officers.
One- and two-year trends, in addition to results reported here, are reported in Blank et al.
88
Blank et al.
89
The McKenzie Group, Student Achievement and Accountability Systems in Urban Districts (draft report, Feb. 1999).
90
The McKenzie Group. Exhibits 2.16 through 2.21 are all based on data from this study.
91
The School District of Philadelphia reported having no schools in the low-poverty category (less than 35 percent eligible
for free/ reduced-price lunch).
92
San Antonio reported having no schools with fewer than 50 percent of students eligible for free/reduced-price lunch.
93
Jennifer O’Day and Marshall Smith, “Systemic Reform and Educational Opportunity,” in Susan Fuhrman (ed.) Designing
Coherent Education Policy (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1993) 250-312.
94
O’Day and Smith, 289-90.
95
Norman Webb, Determining Alignment of Expectations and Assessments in Mathematics and Science Education, brief
(Madison, WI: National Institute for Science Education, University of Wisconsin, Jan. 1997)
96
U.S. Department of Education, unpublished analysis of state plans required under Sec. 1111; baseline (1994) data
obtained from Council of Chief State School Officers, Status Report: State Systemic Education Improvements (Washington,
DC: Author, Aug. 1995).
97
U.S. Department of Education, review of standards and assessment development process (ongoing).
98
State plans submitted to the U.S. Department of Education were reviewed; this review encompassed the process for
developing assessments, documentation submitted by states for removal of conditions identified in the plan reviews, and
evidence submitted by states regarding the development of content and performance standards.
99
the States’ Progress, as of 1997, in Implementing the Requirements of IASA, Title I, draft (Jan. 28, 1999).
100
101
Rolf Blank, Jennifer Manise, Barbara Braithwaite and Doreen Langesen, State Education Indicators with a Focus on
Title I: 1998 (Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers, Feb. 1999).
102
Review of state plans and waiver requests.
103
104
American Federation of Teachers, Making Standards Matter (Washington, DC: American Federation of Teachers, 1998).
105
Scott Joftus and Ilene Berman, Great Expectations: Defining and Assessing Rigor in State Standards for Mathematics
and English Language Arts (Council for Basic Education, January 1998).
106
Chester E. Finn, Jr., Michael J. Petrilli, and Gregg Vanourek, “The State of State Standards,” Fordham Report, Vol. 2,
No. 5 (Washington DC: Fordham Foundation, July 1998) 23-26.
107
Douglas Archbald, The Reviews of State Content Standards in English-Language Arts and Mathematics: A Summary
and Review of Their Methods and Findings and Implications for Future Standards Development (Washington, DC: National
Education Goals Panel, 1998).
108
Massell, Kirst, and Hoppe, Persistence and Change: Standards Based Reform in 9 States (Council for Policy Research in
Education, March 1997).
109
“Aiming Higher,” Achieve, annual report (Oct. 1998).
110
111
112
Heid and Webber.
113
“Quality Counts 1999: Rewarding Results, Punishing Failure”, Education Week, Vol. 18, No. 17 (Jan. 11, 1999).
114
David Grissmer and Ann Flanagan, Exploring Rapid Achievement Gains in North Carolina and Texas (Washington, DC:
National Education Goals Panel, 1998).
115
U.S. Department of Education, Reinventing Chapter 1 (Washington, DC: Author, 1993).
116
U.S. Department of Education, Reinventing Chapter 1.
117
Jane Hannaway and Kristi Kimball, Reports on Reform from the Field: District and State Survey Results: Final Report
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1997) III-64-65.
118
U.S. Department of Education, unpublished tabulations from the Follow-Up Survey of State Implementation.
119
Rolf K. Blank, Jennifer Manise, Barbara C. Braithwaite, and Doreen Langesen, State Education Indicators with a Focus
on Title I (Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers, 1998).
120
the States’ Progress, as of 1997, in Implementing the Requirements of IASA, Title I, draft (Jan. 28, 1999).
121
National Association of State Boards of Education, Public Accountability for Student Success: Standards for Education
Accountability Systems (Alexandria, VA: Author, 1998) 29-31.
122
The Citizens’ Commission on Civil Rights, Title I in Midstream: the Fight to Improve Schools for Poor Kids
(Washington, DC: Author, 1998) 17.
123
124
Schenck and Carlson, part IV.
125
Schenck and Carlson, part IV.
126
U.S. Department of Education, unpublished tabulations from the 1996-97 Title I State Performance Report.
127
128
Heid and Webber.
129
U.S. Department of Education, unpublished tabulations from the Local Implementation Study, District Results 1:
Flexibility and Accountability.
130
U.S. Department of Education, Follow-Up State Survey.
131
Heid and Webber, School-Level Implementation.
132
133
See U.S. Department of Education, Local Implementation Study; Policy Studies Associates, Accountability and
Flexibility at the School District Level: Findings from 12 Sites, draft (November 1998) 5-6.
134
135
Jennifer O’Day and Bethany Gross, One System or Two?: Title I Accountability in the Context of High Stakes for Schools
in Local Districts and States, draft (1999).
136
McKenzie Group, Student Achievement and Accountability Systems in Urban Districts, draft (Feb. 1999).
137
138
“Quality Counts 1999”.
139
O’Day and Gross.
140
O’Day and Gross.
141
Margaret Goertz, Diane Massell, and Tammi Chun, District Response to State Accountability Systems, paper presented at
the Annual Meeting of the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management (Oct. 29, 1998) 11.
142
Policy Studies Associates.
143
McKenzie Group.
144
Shelly H. Billig, Suzanne Perry, and Nancy Pokorny, School Support Teams: Building State Capacity for Improving
Schools (Denver, CO: RMC Research Corporation, 1998) 2-3.
145
Billig, Perry, and Pokorny, 4-5.
146
147
148
U.S. Department of Education, Reports on Reform from the Field, Table 3-6.
149
Billig, Perry, and Pokorny.
150
O’Day and Gross.
151
152
“Quality Counts 1999,” 87.
153
Southern Regional Education Board, Getting Results: A Fresh Look at School Accountability (Atlanta, GA: Author, 1998)
16.
154
155
“Quality Counts 1999” 27-36.
156
U.S. Department of Education, Follow Up State Survey.
157
158
Susan Fuhrman, CPRE Policy Brief: The New Accountability (Philadelphia, PA: Council for Policy Research in
Education, Jan. 1999).
159
160
American Federation of Teachers, Raising Student Achievement: A Resource Guide for Redesigning Low-Performing
Schools (Washington DC: Author, 1997).
161
“Quality Counts 1999.”
162
“Quality Counts 1999—What To Do When all Else Fails” 37-40.
163
National Center for Education Statistics, National Adult Literacy Survey (Washington DC: U.S. Department of
Education, 1992).
164
“Reality Check,” Public Agenda (1998).
165
American Federation of Teachers, Making Standards Matter 1998 (Washington DC: Author, 1998).
166
Jonna Sullivan-Casey, A Review of the Samuel W. Mason Elementary School Project (ERRN Action Research Institute,
May 1997).
167
“Quality Counts 1999.”
168
U.S. Department of Education, The Use of Federal Funds for Administrative Costs (Washington, DC: Author, 1998) iii.
169
U.S. Department of Education, Use of Federal Funds, iii.
170
171
Chambers et al.
172
Chambers et al.
173
Rebecca Herman, Daniel Aladjem, Patricia McMahon, Erick Masem, Ivor Ulligan, Amy Smith O’Malley, Sherri
Quinones, Alison Reeve, and Darren Woodruff, An Educators’ Guide to Schoolwide Reform (Arlington, VA: Educational
Research Service, 1999).
174
Average Title I funding in high-poverty schools is based on Chambers et al., Study of Education Resources; also see
Exhibit 5.3 in this chapter.
175
Allan Odden, “How to Rethink School Budgets to Support School Transformation,” Getting Better by Design,
Vol. 3 (Arlington, VA: New American Schools, 1997).
176
U.S. General Accounting Office, State and Federal Efforts to Target Poor Students (Washington, DC: Author,
1998) 4.
177
See Chambers et al.; Judith Anderson, The Distribution of Chapter 1 Services: Which School Districts and Schools Serve
Students in Chapter 1? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San
Francisco (1992).
178
Chambers et al.
179
180
Chambers et al.
181
Chambers et al.
182
Stullich et al.
183
Stullich et al.
184
Stullich et al.
185
Stullich et al.
186
Stullich et al.
187
Chambers et al. Figures are based on data collected in the 1997-98 school year. Average school allocations have been
adjusted to reflect increased appropriations from FY 1997 to FY 1999 and the addition of funds that are used for
districtwide programs and services related to instruction and instructional support.
188
Stullich et al.
189
Chambers et al.
190
Stullich et al.
191
Stullich et al.
192
Chambers et al. These data are based on simulations of each formula without any hold-harmless provisions, in order to
examine the full impact of each formula. Targeted and Incentive Grants were simulated at a funding level equal to that of
Concentration Grants in FY 1999.
193
National Research Council, Small Area Estimates of Children in Poverty: Evaluation of Revised 1993 County Estimates
for Title I Allocations (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1998) 3.
194
Factors that have caused the effects of the census updates to phase in gradually include: (1) the FY 1997 allocations
continued to rely partly on the decennial data; (2) Congress appropriated additional funds in FY 1997 for supplemental
allocations to states that lost funding due to the new poverty data; (3) a statutory hold-harmless provision limits any
reductions in Basic Grant funds to no more than 5 to 15 percent of the prior year allocation (depending on the poverty rate
of the county or district); and (4) appropriations bills included special 100 percent hold-harmless provisions for both Basic
and Concentration Grants in FY 1998 and FY 1999.
195
See, for example, M. Dzialo, S. Shank, and D. Smith, “Atlantic and Pacific Coasts’ Labor Markets Hit Hard in Early
1990's,” Monthly Labor Review (Feb. 1993).
196
U.S. Department of Education, Title I Part A Policy Guidance (Washington, DC: Author, 1996) 19.
197
The Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) program, successor to the Aid to Families with Dependent
Children (AFDC) program.
198
National Research Council, Small Area Estimates of Children in Poverty, 3.
199
Mary Ann Millsap, Marc Moss, and Beth Gamse, The Chapter 1 Implementation Study Final Report: Chapter 1 in
Public Schools (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1993) 3-6.
200
U.S. Department of Education, Reinventing Chapter 1: The Current Chapter 1 Program and New Directions, Final
Report of the National Assessment of the Chapter 1 Program (Washington, DC: Author, 1993) 85.
201
Brenda Turnbull, Megan Welsh, Camilla Heid, William Davis, and Alex Ratnofsky, Longitudinal Evaluation of School
Change and Performance in Title I Schools: Interim Report to Congress (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,
1999).
202
Turnbull et al., Longitudinal Evaluation, Tables 48 and 49. This analysis is based on a sample of 185 to 197 responding
teachers in higher-reform districts and 97 to 98 teachers in lower-reform districts.
203
See U.S. Department of Education, Status of Education Reform in Public Elementary and Secondary Schools:
Principals’ Perspectives (Washington, DC: Author, 1998) 58; Camilla Heid and Ann Webber, School-Level Implementation
of Standards-Based Reform: Findings from the Follow-up Public School Survey on Education Reform (Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Education, 1999).
204
Heid and Webber, Follow-Up School Survey.
205
The Education Trust, in collaboration with the Council of Chief State School Officers, Dispelling the Myth: High
Poverty Schools Exceeding Expectations (Washington, DC: The Education Trust, 1999).
206
207
208
National Center for Education Statistics, Status of Education Reform in Public Elementary and Secondary Schools:
Teachers’ Perspectives (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1998) Table B-2.
209
U.S. Department of Education, Teacher Quality: A Report on the Preparation and Qualifications of Public School
Teachers (Washington, DC: Author, 1999) B-59.
210
U. S. Department of Education, unpublished tabulations from the Longitudinal Evaluation of School Change and
Performance.
211
Turnbull et al., Longitudinal Evaluation, Tables 46 and 47.
212
213
214
U.S. Department of Education, Teacher Quality, B-24, B-27.
215
U.S. Department of Education, Teacher Quality, B-26.
216
See Willis Hawley, William Schager, Francine Hultgren, Andrew Abrams, Ernestine Lewis, and Steve Ferrara, An Outlier
Study of School Effectiveness: Implications for Public Policy and School Improvement, paper presented at the annual
meeting of the American Educational Research Asssociation (March 25, 1997); Education Trust, Dispelling the Myth; and
the Charles A. Dana Center, University of Texas at Austin, Successful Texas Schoolwide Programs: Research Study Results
(Austin, TX: University of Texas at Austin, Oct. 1996).
217
Michael Knapp, Nancy Adelman, Camille Marder, Heather McCollum, Margaret Needels, Patrick Shields, Brenda
Turnbull, and Andrew Zucker, Academic Challenge for the Children of Poverty: Findings and Conclusions (Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1993) 32.
218
Knapp et al, Academic Challenge, 81.
219
Turnbull et al., Longitudinal Evaluation, Table 12. Reading comprehension and vocabulary skills were measured by the
Reading closed-ended subtest of the Stanford-9.
220
Turnbull et al., Longitudinal Evaluation, Table 11.
221
222
223
Turnbull et al., Longitudinal Evaluation, Tables 34, 35, and 36.
224
225
Millsap et al., Chapter 1 Implementation Study, 2-3; Heid and Webber, School-Level Implementation.
226
227
228
National Commission on Teaching & America’s Future, What Matters Most: Teaching for America’s Future (New York:
Author, 1996).
229
Ronald F. Ferguson, “Paying for Public Education: New Evidence on How and Why Money Matters,” Harvard Journal
on Legislation, 28.2 (Summer 1991) 465-498; Ronald F. Ferguson and Helen Ladd, “How and Why Money Matters: An
Analysis of Alabama Schools,” Helen F. Ladd (ed.) Holding Schools Accountable: Performance Based Reform in Education
(Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1996).
230
William L. Sanders and J.C. Rivers, Cumulative and Residual Effects of Teachers on Future Student Academic
Achievement, research report (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Value-Added Research and Assessment Center,
1996).
231
U.S. Department of Education, Reinventing Chapter 1, 94.
232
233
Chambers et al., Study of Education Resources.
234
Heid and Webber.
235
Heid and Webber.
236
U.S. Department of Education, Roles for Education Paraprofessionals 20.
237
Chambers et al.
238
Chambers et al.
239
Chambers et al.
240
Chambers et al.
241
Heid and Webber.
242
Heid and Webber.
243
Chambers et al.
244
245
Chambers et al.
246
Millsap et al., Chapter 1 Implementation Study 2-14.
247
Amy Siler, Simeon Stolzberg, Adrienne von Glatz, and William Strang, Meeting the Needs of Migrant Students in
Schoolwide Programs, Summary Report (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1999) 38.
248
Heid and Webber.
249
Charles A. Dana Center, Successful Texas Schoolwide Programs.
250
Heid and Webber.
251
Chambers et al.
252
In a study of 24 school districts with reputations for pursuing innovative reforms to improve teaching and learning,
Goertz and Duffy found that most of these districts “retain control over the allocation of most personnel and non-personnel
resources to schools. Schools have limited control over the size and composition of their staff. In most of the study sites,
schools’ budgetary authority is generally limited to the expenditure of Title I, state compensatory education, instructional
and professional development funds and occasional grant monies.” Margaret Goertz and Mark Duffy, “Resource Allocation
in Reforming Schools and School Districts,” Margaret Goertz and Allan Odden (eds.), School-Based Financing (Corwin
Press, 1999).
253
Chambers et al.
254
U. S. Department of Education, Extending Learning Time for Disadvantaged Students: An Idea book, Volume I, Summary
of Promising Practices (Washington, DC: Author, 1995) i.
255
Hawley et al.
256
The Education Trust, 6.
257
Heid and Webber.
258
Millsap et al., Chapter 1 Implementation Study; Heid and Webber.
259
Chambers et al.
260
Heid and Webber.
261
Chambers et al.
262
Chambers et al.
263
Chambers et al.
264
Chambers et al.
265
Stullich et al., Targeting Schools.
266
U.S. Department of Education, preliminary findings from Case Studies of Title I and Educational Improvement in
Secondary Schools.
267
Heid and Webber.
268
Heid and Webber.
269
Heid and Webber.
270
U.S. Department of Education, Status of Education Reform: Principals’ Perspectives, 58; Heid and Webber.
271
Heid and Webber.
272
U.S. Department of Education, Case Studies of Title I.
273
Rebecca Herman, Daniel Aladjem, Patricia McMahon, Erick Masem, Ivor Ulligan, Amy Smith O’Malley, Sherri
Quinones, Alison Reeve, and Darren Woodruff, An Educators’ Guide to Schoolwide Reform (Arlington, VA: Education
Research Services, 1999) 3.
274
Jerome V. D’Agostino, Kenneth K.Wong, Larry V. Hedges, and Geoffrey D. Borman, The Effectiveness of Title I Parent
Programs: A Multilevel Analysis of Prospects Data. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational
Research Association, San Diego, April 1998.
275
Joyce L. Epstein, “School/Family/Community Partnerships: Caring for the Children We Share,” Phi Delta Kappan, May,
1995.
276
U.S. Department of Education, Strong Families, Strong Schools: Building Community Partnerships for Learning.
277
Adriana de Kanter, Alan Ginsburg, and Ann Milne, Parent Involvement Strategies: A New Emphasis on Traditional
Parent Roles (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,1987); A. Henderson and N. Berla (eds.), A New
Generation of Evidence: The Family is Critical to Student Achievement (Washington, DC: National Committee for Citizens
in Education,1994); David Stevenson and David Baker, “The Family-School Relation and the Child’s School Performance,”
Child Development (1987).
278
Sandra L. Hofferth, Healthy Environments, Healthy Children: Children in Families, A Report on the 1997 Panel Study of
Income Dynamics, Child Development Supplement (1998).
279
National Center for Family Literacy, private communication (1999).
280
D. Seaman, B. Popp, and S. Darling, Follow-up Study of the Impact of the Kenan Trust Model for Family Literacy
(Louisville, KY: National Center for Family Literacy, 1991).
281
William Philliber, Robert Spillman, and Rebecca King, “Consequences of Family Literacy for Adults and Children: Some
Preliminary Findings,” Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 39 (1996) 558-565.
282
U.S. Department of Education, Partnership for Family Involvement in Education, and GTE Foundation, The Study of
Opportunities for and Barriers to Family Involvement in Education (Washington, DC: Author, 1998).
283
Louis Harris & Associates, Inc., The Metropolitan Life Survey of the American Teacher 1998.
284
S. Dauber and J. Epstein, “Parent Attitudes and Practices of Involvement in Inner-City Elementary and Middle Schools,”
in A. T. Henderson and N. Berla (eds.), A New Generation of Evidence: The Family is Critical to Student Achievement
(Washington, DC: Center for Law and Education, 1993).
285
Oliver Moles, “Collaboration Between Schools and Disadvantaged Parents: Obstacles and Openings,” in N. Chavkin
(ed.), Families and Schools in a Pluralistic Society (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1993).
286
Reality Check, Fully Annotated Survey Results, Public Agenda (1998).
287
D’Agostino et al.
288
Partnership for Family Involvement in Education.
289
290
291
292
Janie Funkhouser, Elizabeth Stief, and Stacy Allen, Title I School-Parent Compacts: Supporting Partnerships to Improve
Learning (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1998).
293
D’Agostino et al.
294
K. Yap and D. Enoki, “In Search of the Elusive Magic Bullet: Parental Involvement and Student Outcomes.” The School
Community Journal, Fall/Winter 1995.
295
Kathleen Hoover-Dempsey and Howard Sandler, “Why Do Parents Become Involved in Their Children’s Education?”
Review of Educational Research, Spring 1997.
296
U.S. Department of Education, Overcoming Barriers to Family Involvement in Title I Schools (Washington, DC: Author,
1997).
297
Brenda Turnbull, Megan Welsh, Camilla Heid, William Davis, and Alex Ratnofsky, Longitudinal Evaluation of School
Change and Performance in Title I Schools: Interim Report to Congress (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,
1999), Tables 26 and 46.
298
U.S. Department of Education, unpublished tabulations from the National Longitudinal Survey of Schools.
299
Partnership for Family Involvement in Education, GTE Foundation, and U.S. Department of Education. Family
Involvement in Education: A National Portrait (1998).
300
301
Chambers et al., Study of Education Resources.
302
“Quality Counts 1999: Rewarding Results, Punishing Failure”, Education Week, Vol. 18, No. 17 (Jan. 11, 1999)
303
A-Plus Communications, Reporting Results (Arlington, VA: Author, 1999).
304
U.S. Department of Education. Parent Involvement in Children’s Education: Efforts by Public Elementary Schools
(Washington, DC: Author, 1998).
305
306
U.S. Department of Education, Overcoming Barriers to Family Involvement.
307
The Department estimates that at least 95 percent of eligible private school students who receive Title I services are
enrolled in religious schools. Of this number, the vast majority are enrolled in Catholic schools.
308
U.S. Department of Education, unpublished tabulations from the 1996-97 Title I Performance Report; Beth Sinclair and
Babette Gutmann, State Chapter 1 Participation and Achievement Information, 1993-94: Summary Report (Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1996).
309
Michael C. Rubenstein, Keith S. Gayler, and M. Bruce Haslam, Title I Services for Private School Students under the
Reauthorization of ESEA: A Snapshot of Federal Assistance in Transition. (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Education, 1998), 7-8.
310
Rubenstein et al., 18-20.
311
312
313
Rubenstein et al., 12.
314
315
316
Rubenstein et al., Exhibit 22.
317
318
319
320
U.S. Department of Education, unpublished tabulations from a survey of 9 large urban districts regarding the impact of
the Agostini decision on the location of Title I services to private school children.
321
Catherine Snow, Intergenerational Transfer of Literacy (Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and
Improvement, 1996).
322
U.S. Department of Education, Achieving the Nation’s Readiness Goal: Technical Report (Washington, DC: OERI Goal 1
Work Group, 1993).
323
Judith Alamprese, Understanding Adult Literacy in the Context of Family Literacy (Chapel Hill: National Center for
Early Development and Learning, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1998).
324
P.L. 100-297.
325
P.L. 104-134.
326
Section 1001(d).
327
U.S. Department of Education, unpublished tabulations from the 1996-97 Title I State Performance Report.
328
For more information on the Head Start Performance Standards, see U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
“Program Performance Standards for the Operation of Head Start Programs by Grantee and Delegate Agencies”
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, October 1997), 231-232.
329
Robert St. Pierre, Beth Gamse, Judith Alamprese, Tracy Rimdzius, and Fumiyo Tao, Even Start: Evidence from the Past
and a Look to the Future (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1998) 4.
330
St. Pierre et al., 49.
331
Final Report (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1998) 30.
332
St. Pierre et al., 26-28.
333
St.Pierre et al., 27.
334
Fumiyo Tao, Janet Swartz, Robert St.Pierre, and Hope Tarr, National Evaluation of the Even Start Family Literacy
Program: 1995 Interim Report (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, January 1997), 184-185.
335
336
337
A small standardized gain is generally in the range of 0.20 standard deviation units; a medium or moderate gain is about
0.50, and a large standardized gain is in the range of 0.80 (from J. Cohen, Statistical Power Analysis for the Social Science,
2nd ed. (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1988)).
338
U.S. Department of Education, unpublished tabulations from the National Evaluation of the Even Start Family Literacy
Program.
339
Fumiyo Tao, Sherry Khan, Beth Gamse, Robert St.Pierre, and Hope Tarr, National Evaluation of the Even Start Family
Literacy Program: 1996 Interim Report (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1998) 126.
340
U.S. Department of Education, National Evaluation of the Even Start Family Literacy Program.
341
Tao, Gamse, and Tarr, 154.
342
343
Tao, Gamse, and Tarr, 157-158.
344
345
346
347
Tao, Gamse, and Tarr, 37. Because of ambiguity in the national evaluation (ESIS) data collection form’s use of the terms
“family” and “household,” the family income reported may underestimate the household income for some Even Start
families.
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
Tao, Gamse, and Tarr, 106-107, 110.
357
358
359
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Education (Washington, DC: Author, 1994) 6.
362
U.S. General Accounting Office 6.
363
U.S. General Accounting Office 5.
364
Allison Henderson, Julie Daft, and Pauline Fong, State Title I Migrant Participation Information: 1996-97 (Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1998) 1-4.
365
William Strang and Adrienne von Glatz, Meeting the Needs of Migrant Students in Schoolwide Programs: Summary
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1999) 7.
366
Henderson et al., State Title I Migrant Participation Information: 1996-97 1-3.
367
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Rolf Blank, Jennifer Manise, Barbara Braithwaite, and Doreen Langesen, State Education Indicators with a Focus on
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U.S. Department of Education, unpublished tabulations from the Follow-up Survey of State Implementation.
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Promising Results, Continuing

U.S. Department of Education

Planning and Evaluation Service

Elementary and Secondary Education Division

U.S. Department of Education

Office of the Under Secretary

Christopher Cross Joseph Johnson

Joyce Benjamin Diana Lam

Rolf Blank Jessie Montano

Susan Fuhrman Ramsay Selden

Executive Summary................................................................................................................... ...............i

2. Progress in the Performance of Students in High-Poverty Schools........................ ..................15

4. The Role of Title I in Holding Schools Accountable for Performance

6. Title I Services at the School Level............................................................................................ ..95

8. Title I Services to Students Attending Private Schools...................................... .........................143

9. Title I, Part B, Even Start Family Literacy Program......................................... .....................151

10. Title I, Part C, Migrant Education Program..................................................................... .......163

11. Title I, Part D, Prevention and Intervention Programs for Children

12. Conclusions and Future Directions for Title I............................................................ ..............181

Appendix A: Title I Evaluation Strategy........................................................................ ...................189

Appendix B: Description of Key Studies...................................................................... .....................193

Exhibit 1 Percentage of Schools Participating in Title I, by School Poverty Level, 1997-98......................ii

2. Progress in the Performance of Students in High-Poverty Schools

Exhibit 2.1 How NAEP Tests Are Used to Report Progress............................................................................18

3. Development of Standards and Assessment Systems, and the Role of Title I

Exhibit 4.1 Timeline for Title I Accountability................................................................................................53

6. Title I Services at the School Level

10. Title I, Part C, Migrant Education Program

Context for Title I

TITLE I—HELPING DISADVANTAGED CHILDREN MEET HIGH STANDARDS

Executive Summary xii

School Pov erty Lev el (Free or Reduced-Price Lunch)

Executive Summary xiii

 Provide flexibility to stimulate school-based and district initiatives, coupled with

 Create links among schools, parents, and communities; and

 Target resources to where the needs are greatest.

Executive Summary xiv

The Mandate for a National Assessment of Title I

Key issues addressed include:

 The implementation of additional Title I services targeted at special populations, including

Progress in the Performance of Students in High-Poverty Schools

Performance on National Assessments of Reading

240 Low-Poverty Schools

190 189 188

Among the lowest-achieving public school 4th-gradersthose most likely to be served by

Executive Summary xvi

Executive Summary xvii

230 230 All Schools

Executive Summary xviii

20% 19% 19% 19%

Executive Summary xix

Ar iz o n a 38% National Average

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

 The achievement of elementary school students in the highest-poverty schools improved in

Title I Support for Systems Designed to Support Schools in Helping

Development of Standards and Assessments and the Role of Title I

Executive Summary xxi

 According to an independent review of state plans submitted to the U.S. Department of

Executive Summary xxii