Sobretensiones y Coordinacione de Aislamiento

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination in Power Systems
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Volker Hinrichsen Dipl.-Ing. Simona Feier-Iova

Technische Universitt Darmstadt High Voltage Laboratories
Siemens
Fachgebiet Hochspannungstechnik
Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1
-1-
What is Insulation Coordination?

Definition Definition in in IEC IEC 60071-1 60071-1
Definition Definition in in IEEE IEEE 1313.1 1313.1
-2-
Fundamentals of Insulation Coordination

5
Possible voltages without arresters Magnitude of (over-)voltage / p.u.

4
Withstand voltage of equipment

3
Voltages limited by arresters

0
Lightning overvoltages (Microseconds) Switching overvoltages (Milliseconds) Temporary overvoltages Highest voltage of equipment (Seconds) (Continuously)
Time duration of (over-)voltage
-3-
What is Insulation Coordination?

Procedure of insulation coordination [THI-01]
Three Three elements elements are are involved involved in in the the insulation insulation coordination coordination discipline, discipline, namely: namely: the the study study of of the the "stresses" "stresses",, both both electrical electrical and and environmental, environmental, acting acting on on the the equipment equipment insulation. insulation. This This is is usually usually performed performed by by calculations calculations or or field field measurements; measurements; the the study study of of the the "strength" "strength" (dielectric (dielectric withstand withstand characteristics) characteristics) of of the the insulation insulation (both (both new new and and aged) aged) when when submitted submitted to to such such stresses, stresses, taking taking into into account, account, when when applicable, applicable, the the effect effect of of the the environmental environmental stresses stresses (pollution, (pollution, rain, rain, snow, snow, ice, ice, atmospheric atmospheric conditions conditions at at large large altidudes), altidudes), including including the the study study of of the the "test "test and and measurement measurement techniques" techniques" which which are are employed employed to to assess assess such such strength. strength. The The strength strength is is determined determined by by calculations, calculations, based based on on suitable suitable discharge discharge models, models, and/or and/or by by laboratory/factory laboratory/factory tests, tests, on-site on-site tests tests and and in-service in-service measurements measurements (diagnostics); (diagnostics); the the assessment assessment of of the the insulation insulation performance performance (usually (usually expressed expressed in in terms terms of of risk risk of of failure) failure) in in the the considered considered situation situation of of stresses stresses and and strength, strength, including including the the selection selection and and application application of of "protective "protective devices devices and and techniques", techniques", to to establish establish the the final final insulation insulation design design fulfilling fulfilling the the specified specified requirements. requirements. This This may may be be based based on on "deterministic" "deterministic" or or "statistical" "statistical" approach. approach.
-4-
Literature (1)
[BAL-04-1] G. Balzer Power Systems, Part 2 Chapter 4: Insulation coordination Script TU Darmstadt, 2004 G. Balzer Elektrische Energieversorgung, Teil 2 Kapitel 4: Isolationskoordination Skript der TU Darmstadt, 2004 CIGRE W.G. 13-02 Switching overvoltages in EHV and UHV systems with special reference to closing and reclosing transmission lines ELECTRA 30 (1973) pp. 70-122 CIGRE WG 33.02 Phase-to-phase Insulation Co-ordination: Part 1: Switching overvoltages in three-phase systems ELECTRA 64 (1979) pp. 138-158 CIGRE WG 33.03 Phase-to-phase Insulation Co-ordination Part 2: Switching impulse strength of phase-to-phase external insulation ELECTRA 64 1979, pp. 158-181
[BAL-04-2]
[CIG-73]
[CIG-79-1]
[CIG-79-2]
-5-
Literature (2)
[CIG-79-3] CIGRE WG 33.06 Phase-to-phase Insulation Co-ordination Part 3: Design and testing of phase-to-phase insulation ELECTRA 64 1979, pp. 182-210 CIGRE TF 33-03.03 Phase-to-phase Insulation Co-ordination Part 4: The influence of non-standard conditions on the switching impulse strength of phase-to-phase insulation ELECTRA 64 1979, pp. 211-230 CIGRE WG 33.01 Guide to procedures for estimating the lightning performance of transmission lines, CIGRE technical brochure No. 63, 1991 buch_020.pdf CIGRE WG 33-07 Guidelines for the evaluation of the dielectric strength of external insulation, CIGRE technical brochure No. 72, 1992 buch_019.pdf H. Dorsch berspannungen und Isolationsbemessung bei Drehstrom-Hochspannungsanlagen Siemens AG, Erlangen, 1981 (ISBN 3-8009-1325-9)
[CIG-79-4]
[CIG-91]
[CIG-92]
[DOR-81]
-6-
Literature (3)
[ERI-88] A.J. Eriksson, K.-H. Weck Simplified procedures for determining representative substation impinging lightning overvoltages, CIGRE report 33-16, 1988 ETG-Fachbericht 49 ETG-Tage '93: Isolationskoordination in Hoch- und Mittelspannungsanlagen vde-Verlag GmbH Berlin, Offenbach (ISBN 0341-3934) FGH Technischer Bericht 1-240 Isolationskoordination auf der Grundlage der neuen DIN/VDE-Bestimmung 0111 FGH, Mannheim, Juli 1978 A. R. Hileman Insulation Coordination for Power Systems Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, Basel, 1999 V. Hinrichsen Metalloxidableiter: Grundlagen Siemens AG Berlin, 1. Auflage 2000 AbleiterBuch.pdf V. Hinrichsen Metalloxidableiter: Grundlagen Siemens AG Berlin, Edition 1, 2001 ArresterBook.pdf
[ETG-93]
[FGH-78]
[HIL-99]
[HIN-00]
[HIN-01]
-7-
Literature (4)
[HIN-03] V. Hinrichsen Latest Designs and Service Experience with Station-Class Polymer Housed Surge Arresters World Conference on Insulators, Arresters & Bushings Marbella (Mlaga), Spain, November 16-19, 2003, Proceedings pp. 85-96 pub_048.pdf V. Hinrichsen Latest Testing Requirements and Emerging Standards for Transmission Line Arresters World Conference on Insulators, Arresters & Bushings Hong Kong, November 27-30, 2005 inmr_2005_paper.pdf I. Kishizima, K. Matsumoto, Y. Watanabe, New facilities for phase switching impulse tests and some test results, IEEE PAS TO3 No. 6, June 1984 pp. 1211-1216. D. Knig, Y. N. Rao Teilentladungen in Betriebsmitteln der Energietechnik vde-Verlag, Berlin, Offenburg, 1993, ISBN 3-8007-1764-6 D. Knig, Y. N. Rao Partial discharges in Power Apparatus vde-Verlag, Berlin, Offenburg, 1993, ISBN 3-8007-1760-3
[KIN-05]
[KIS-84] [KOE-93-1]
[KOE-93-2]
-8-
Literature (5)
[PAR-68] L. Paris, R. Cortina Switching and lightning impulse discharge characteristics of large air gaps and long insulation strings, IEEE Trans on PAS, vol 87, No. 4, April 1968, p. 947-957 R. Rudolph, B. Richter Dimensioning, testing and application of metal oxide surge arresters in medium voltage networks 3rd Edition, 1999, ABB Switzerland, 26 pages (also available in German) application_guide_medium_voltage_networks.pdf R. Rudolph, B. Richter Bemessung, Prfung und Einsatz von Metalloxid-Ableitern in Mittelspannungsnetzen ABB Schweiz AG, Wettingen (CH), 3. Auflage 1999 Anwendungsrichtlinien_Mittelspannung.pdf L. Thione Insulation coordination in electrical power systems theory and application Tutorial, ALPI, Milan, 2001 (www.alpiass.com) buch_018.pdf
[RUD-99-1]
[RUD-99-2]
[THI-01]
-9-
Literature (6)
[WEC-07] K.-H. Weck Standardization of insulation withstand levels for UHV systems in IEC TC 28 Insulation co-ordination IEC/CIGRE UHV Symposium Beijing 18-21 July 2007, report 5-4 5-4_KHWeck.pdf
Overview on CIGRE publications (very interesting!): Cigr Catalogue of Publications 01/07/2005 CATALOGUE_PUBLICATIONS_2005.pdf
- 10 -
Standards (1)
IEC 60071-1, Edition 8.0 (2006-01) Insulation co-ordination Part 1: Definitions, principles and rules IEC 60071-2, Third Edition (1996-12) Insulation co-ordination Part 2: Application guide IEC/TR 60071-4, First Edition (2004-06)
Insulation co-ordination - Part 4: Computational guide to insulation co-ordination and modelling of electrical networks
IEC 60099-4, Ed. 2.1, 2006-07 Surge arresters Part 4: Metal-oxide surge arresters without gaps for a.c. systems IEC 60099-5, Ed. 1.1, 2000-03 Surge arresters Part 5: Selection and application recommendations DIN EN 60071-1, 1996-07 Isolationskoordination - Teil 1: Begriffe, Grundstze und Anforderungen (IEC 60071-1:1993); Deutsche Fassung EN 60071-1:1995 DIN EN 60071-2, 1997-09 Isolationskoordination - Teil 2: Anwendungsrichtlinie (IEC 60071-2:1996); Deutsche Fassung EN 60071-2:1997 IEEE 1313.1-1996 IEEE Standard for Insulation CoordinationDefinitions, Principles, and Rules
- 11 -
Standards (2)
IEEE 1313.2-1999 IEEE Guide for the Application of Insulation Coordination IEEE C62.11-2005 IEEE Standard for Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters for AC Power Circuits (> 1 kV) IEEE C62.22-1997 IEEE Guide for the Application of Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters for Alternating-Current Systems
- 12 -
Organization
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 18.10.2007 25.10.2007 01.11.2007 08.11.2007 15.11.2007 22.11.2007 29.11.2007 06.12.2007 13.12.2007 20.12.2007 27.12.2007 03.01.2008 10 11 12 13 10.01.2008 17.01.2008 24.01.2008 31.01.2008 Lecture 1 Lecture 2 Lecture 3 cancelled Lecture 4 Lecture 5 Lecture 6 Lecture 7 Lecture 8 Lecture 9 Christmas holidays Christmas holidays Lecture 10 Lecture 11 Lecture 12 Lecture 13 Insulation coordination Calculation Examples Test procedures; condition monitoring (life time aspects, partial discharges, non-conventional approaches) Traveling waves Overvoltage protection incl. protective distance Dielectric strength (incl. gap factors, pollution, rain, parallel insulation, aging) Insulation coordination Voltage stresses in power systems Introduction
- 13 -
Organization
Examination Examination
Exclusively oral
Exercises Exercises
None; but calculation examples in the lecture
Script Script
Slides will be available for download www.hst.tu-darmstadt.de User: studentiso PW: isows0708
- 14 -
Insulation Coordination - Principles
System
System voltages
Overvoltage protection devices Environment
Equipment
stress versus strength
Dielectric strength
Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1 - 15 -
Insulation Coordination - Principles Voltages of the system

Nominal voltage Un rounded value for characterizing the system 10 kV - 20 kV - 110 kV - 220 kV - 380 kV System voltage voltage at which the system is being operated around the nominal value, but not constant Highest system voltage Us highest operating voltage between phases under normal conditions 12 kV - 24 kV - 123 kV - 245 kV - 420 kV (IEC 60038)
Voltages of equipment
Highest voltage for equipment Um highest voltage between phases for which the insulation is designed 12 kV - 24 kV - 123 kV - 245 kV - 420 kV (IEC 60071-1)
- 16 -
Insulation Coordination - Principles Overvoltages

voltages exceeding the peak value of the highest system voltage various amplitudes and shapes depending on system configuration (grid size, degree of meshing, etc.) origin of overvoltage (failure, switching, lightning strike etc.)
Dielectric strength of insulation

verified by type test in the laboratory with the help of standardized test voltages (shape, amplitude) specified test setups specified environmental conditions
Insulation coordination
Determination of interdependence between voltages and overvoltages of the system and necessary test voltages for the equipment in the laboratory
- 17 -

Equipment in the system Equipment in the laboratory
Variety Variety of of amplitudes amplitudes and and shapes shapes of of overvoltages overvoltages
Standardized Standardized amplitudes amplitudes and and shapes shapes of of test test voltages voltages
Variety Variety of of operating operating conditions conditions and and age age
Standardized Standardized setups setups and and conditions conditions
Variety Variety of of environmental environmental conditions conditions
Standardized Standardized environmental environmental conditions conditions
- 18 -

bb 1
Insulation phase - ground

stressed by voltages between one phase and ground
bb 2
1 2 3 1
Insulation phase - phase

stressed by voltages between two phases
busbar disconnectors line
Longitudinal insulation
stressed by voltages between same phases of two different systems
3
- 19 -
Insulation Coordination according to IEC 60071-1 (and 60071-2)
- 20 -
- 21 -
...39 ...39 pages pages in in sum sum
Procedure Procedure for for insulation insulation coordination coordination = = 10 10 pages! pages!
- 22 -
- 23 -
- 24 -
- 25 -
- 26 -
- 27 -
...125 ...125 pages pages in in sum sum
- 28 -
Procedure for Insulation Coordination - General

The procedure for insulation coordination consists of the selection of a set of standard withstand voltages which characterize the insulation of the equipment.
Range I
Range II
- 29 -
Procedure for Insulation Coordination - General

Basic difference between ranges I and II
Range Range II II
withstand voltage
gap spacing 3 m
Minimum Minimum of of withstand withstand voltage voltage for for switching switching overvoltage overvoltage
Range Range II
[FGH-78]
Withstand Withstand voltage voltage continuously gap spacing 0.5 m continuously decreasing decreasing with with time time duration duration of of stress stress
peak
time duration of stress

- 30 -
Procedure for Insulation Coordination in Four Steps

Determination of the representative overvoltages Urp The representative overvoltages are derived from real service conditions, but have just standardized shapes. They are determined in amplitude, shape and duration by system analysis, taking into account overvoltage limiting devices.
[IEC 60071-1]
- 31 -

Determination of the coordination withstand voltages Ucw The coordination withstand voltages are the lowest values of withstand voltages of each overvoltage class, for which the expected low failure rate of the equipment is not exceeded over its full lifetime. Derived from the representative overvoltages Urp by the coordination factor Kc.
Typical for Germany: 0.1% per year 1 failure in 1000 years
[IEC 60071-1]
- 32 -

Deterministic Deterministic approach approach Assumed Assumed maximum maximum of of representative representative overvoltage overvoltage Statistical Statistical approach approach
Statistical Statistical distribution distribution of of representative representative overvoltages overvoltages Determination Determination of of failure failure probability probability of of insulation insulation
Multiplication Multiplication by by coordination coordination factor factor based based on on operating operating experience experience
Calculation Calculation of of failure failure risk risk depending depending on on assumed assumed coordination coordination withstand withstand voltage voltage
Coordination Coordination withstand withstand voltage voltage (0% value) Statistical (10% value) Assumed Statistical U Ucw Assumed conventional conventional U Ucw cw (0% value) cw (10% value)
- 33 -

Determination of the required withstand voltages Urw The required withstand voltages are determined by converting the coordination withstand voltages to appropriate standard test conditions. Usually different from the coordination withstand voltages. Derived from the coordination withstand voltages Ucw by the safety factor Ks and the atmospheric correction factor Kt or the altitude correction factor Ka.
[IEC 60071-1]
- 34 -

Influences covered by the safety factor Ks Differences in equipment assembly Dispersion in product quality Quality of installation Aging of the installation during expected lifetime Other unknown influences
[IEC 60071-1]
- 35 -

Determination of the required withstand voltages Urw The required withstand voltages are determined by converting the coordination withstand voltages to appropriate standard test conditions. Usually different from the coordination withstand voltages. Derived from the coordination withstand voltages Ucw by the safety factor Ks and/or the altitude correction factor Ka.
[IEC 60071-1]
- 36 -

Selection of the rated and of the standard insulation level (set of standard rated withstand voltages Uw) Most economical set of standard withstand voltages Uw of the insulation to prove that all the required withstand voltages are met. For each range (I or II) a combination of only two withstand voltages defined: Range I: standard lightning impulse withstand voltage standard short-duration power-frequency withstand voltage Range II: standard switching impulse withstand voltage standard lightning impulse withstand voltage For range I, only phase-to-earth standard withstand voltages are defined, which have to cover phase-to-earth, phase-to-phase and longitudinal insulation.
- 37 -

Definitions
[IEC 60071-1]
- 38 -

Examples for
... non-self-restoring insulation (power transformers, instrument transformers*))
*) mixed insulation
... self-restoring insulation (disconnectors, insulators)
- 39 -

List of standard short-duration power-frequency withstand voltages (r.m.s. values in kV)
10 70 275 480
20 95 325 510
28 140 360 570
38 185 395 630
50 230 460
List of standard impulse withstand voltages (peak values in kV)
20 325
40 450
60 550
75 650
95 750
125 850
145 950
170
250
1050 1175
1300 1425 1550 1675 1800 1950 2100 2250 2400

[IEC 60071-1]
- 40 -

Range I: Um = 1 kV up to and including Um = 245 kV The standard voltage values are all the same for phase-to-earth-, phase-to-phase-, longitudinal insulation!
[IEC 60071-1]
- 41 -

Range II: Um above 245 kV Different standard voltage values for phase-to-earth-, phase-to-phase-, longitudinal insulation!
[IEC 60071-1]
- 42 -
Procedure for Insulation Coordination in Four Steps Outcome of insulation coordination

For three types of insulation phase to ground phase to phase longitudinal and for 4 values each of required withstand voltages Urw required continuous operating voltage required short-duration power-frequency withstand voltage required switching impulse withstand voltage required lightning impulse withstand voltage
twelve voltages
Standardization of tests for equipment

Reduction of these 12 values to a necessary minimum number of withstand voltages Uw of the insulation Determination of necessary withstand voltages from tables for two ranges of highest voltage for equipment
- 43 -
Procedure for Insulation Coordination in Four Steps - Summary

Flow chart acc. to IEC 60071-1 (Figure 1)
continued next slide

[IEC 60071-1] - 44 -
Procedure for Insulation Coordination in Four Steps - Summary

Flow chart acc. to IEC 60071-1 (Figure 1) (continued)
[IEC 60071-1]
- 45 -
Voltage Stress in Power Systems - Classification

IEC 60071-1
-1-

Classification Classification of real stress
"Continuous (power-frequency) voltage"
Power-frequency voltage, considered having constant r.m.s. value, continuously applied to any pair of terminals of an insulation configuration f = 50 Hz or 60 Hz T1 3 600 s Any power-frequency voltage lasting for 1 h or more is considered a continuous voltage! Conversion into
Standard Standard voltage voltage
"Standard power-frequency voltage"
A sinusoidal voltage with frequency of 50 Hz or 60 Hz T1 to be specified by the apparatus committees T1 up to 2 years!
-2-

"Temporary overvoltage"
Power-frequency overvoltage of relatively long duration. The overvoltage may be damped or undamped. In some cases its frequency may be several times smaller or higher than power frequency. 10 Hz < f < 500 Hz 3 600 s T1 0.02 s Highest values by following main reasons: phase-to-earth earth faults and load rejection phase-to-phase load rejection longitudinal phase opposition during synchronization of two grids Conversion into
Example [THI-01]
"Standard short-duration power-frequency voltage"
A sinusoidal voltage with frequency between 48 Hz and 62 Hz T1 = 60 s

-3-

"Transient overvoltage"
Short-duration overvoltage of few milliseconds or less, oscillatory or non-oscillatory, usually highly damped. May be followed by temporary overvoltages. In this case, both events are considered as separate events. "Slow-front overvoltage" Transient overvoltage, usually unidirectional 5000 s Tp > 20 s T2 20 ms Main reasons: line faults, switching Conversion into

An impulse voltage of Tp = 250 s T2 = 2 500 s
"Standard switching impulse"
Example [THI-01]
-4-

Short-duration overvoltage of few milliseconds or less, oscillatory or non-oscillatory, usually highly damped. May be followed by temporary overvoltages. In this case, both events are considered as separate events. "Fast-front overvoltage" Transient overvoltage, usually unidirectional 20 s T1 > 0.1 s T2 300 s Main reasons: lightning strokes, switching Conversion into

An impulse voltage of T1 = 1.2 s T2 = 50 s
"Standard lightning impulse"
Example [THI-01] Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 2 -5-

Short-duration overvoltage of few milliseconds or less, oscillatory or non-oscillatory, usually highly damped. May be followed by temporary overvoltages. In this case, both events are considered as separate events. "Very-fast-front overvoltage" Transient overvoltage, usually unidirectional Tf < 100 ns (Tt 3 ms) basic oscillation (1st harmonics) 30 kHz < f < 300 kHz superimposed oscillations 300 kHz < f < 100 MHz Main reasons: switching of disconnectors in GIS Conversion into

not standardized
Example [THI-01]
-6-

"Combined (temporary, slow-front, fast-front, very-fast-front) overvoltage"
Consisting of two voltage components simultaneously applied between each of the two phase terminals of a phase-to-phase (or longitudinal) insulation and earth. It is classified by the component of the higher peak value. Conversion into
"Standard combined switching impulse"
Combined impulse voltage having two components of equal peak value and opposite polarity. The positive component is a standard switching impulse and the negative one is a switching impulse whose times to peak and half value should not be less than those of the positive impulse. Both impulses should reach their peak values at the same instant. The peak value of the combined voltage is, therefore, the sum of the peak values of the components.
-7-
Temporary Overvoltages Earth Faults

Reasons for temporary overvoltages: earth faults load rejection resonance phenomena In case of earth faults the overvoltage amplitudes depend on neutral earthing fault location. Important Important parameter: parameter: Earth Earth fault fault factor factor k k
IEC 60071-1
... in other "words": k =

U LE Ub / 3
ULE ... phase-to-earth voltage of sound phase during fault Ub ... phase-to-phase voltage at same location before fault
-8-

The earth fault factor depends on the ratio of the complex impedances Z1 and Z0 of the positive and zero sequence systems (German: "Mitsystem", "Nullsystem"). In case of neglecting the resistances (possible in high-voltage systems) it depends on the ratio of the reactances X0 and X1:
1 + X 0 / X1 + ( X 0 / X1 ) k = 3 2 + X 0 / X1
2
solidly earthed neutral
resonant earthed not for neutral, practical use! isolated neutral
resonant earthed neutral, isolated neutral
a ratio of X0/X1 = -2 must be avoided!
according to [BAL-04]
-9-

Treatment of neutral in Germany (VDEW, 1998):
treatment of neutral isolated resonant earthed solidly earthed 10 kV 8.6% 77.8% 13.6% 20 kV < 0.1% 92.8% 2.2% 110 kV 0.0% 80.9% 19.1% 380 kV 0.0% 0.7% 99.3%
Pictures: VATech
Earthing reactor (Petersen coil): fixed or switchable type

Earthing reactor (Petersen coil): variable core type
Caused Caused by by several several recent recent blackouts blackouts it it has has been been considered considered internationally internationally to to increasingly increasingly operate operate sub-transmission sub-transmission systems 170 kV) in the resonant systems ( (U Us s 170 kV) in the resonant earthed earthed mode mode in in order order to to increase increase reliability reliability of of power power supply. supply. [Information [Information from from a a Cigr Cigr meeting meeting in in Frankfurt, Frankfurt, October October 2005] 2005]
- 10 -

Drive
Lead screw (the core is actually in 100% position) core movement
Fixed part of the core
Active part of a high-voltage reactor with variable core

- 11 -

Earth fault in case of isolated neutral system:
- 12 -

fault
according to [BAL-04] - 13 -

fault clearing
k = 2 due to capacitances of zero sequence system, charged to a direct voltage

- 14 -

Intermitting earth fault in case of isolated neutral system: new fault after initial fault clearing
voltage of faulty phase


Intermitting earth fault in case of isolated neutral system: new fault after initial fault clearing
voltage of sound phase


Intermitting earth fault in case of isolated neutral system:
voltage of the zero sequence system


k 3 ... 2
k 1.4
1.4 < k < 1.8
k 3 ...1.85
IEC 60071-1
- 18 -
Temporary Overvoltages Load Rejection (Example 1)

Increase Increase in in generator generator voltage voltage of of 120% 120% voltage voltage increase increase on on highhighvoltage voltage side side of of generator generator transformer: transformer: from from 380 380 kV kV 460 460 kV kV for for 1.4 1.4 s s duration! duration!
Example according to [ETG-93]

Increase Increase in in frequency frequency leads leads to to repeated repeated phase phase oppositions oppositions at at the the open open circuit circuit breaker breaker for for several several minutes, minutes, see see next next slide slide

Phase Phase opposition opposition between between open open circuit circuit breaker breaker terminals terminals stress stress of of longitudinal longitudinal insulation insulation
Example according to [ETG-93]

- 20 -
Voltage Voltage increase increase by by factor factor of of 1.35; 1.35; decrease decrease to to factor factor of of 1.2 1.2 after after 2 2 s. s.
2: Constant excitation (manual regulation) 1: Excitation by rotating rectifiers
Example according to [DOR-81]

- 21 -

TOV TOV at at the the end end of of a a long long transmission transmission line line caused by capacitive currents can be controlled by parallel compensation Ue ... voltage at end of line Ua ... voltage at line entrance 1 ... phase angle of the positive system 1 = a
Ua Ue = cos 1
v1
v1 ... phase velocity of the positive system v1 =
1 L1C1
Not an issue for "normal" length transmission lines
[DOR-81]
- 22 -
Temporary Overvoltages Load Rejection (Summary)

Temporary overvoltages caused by load rejection depend on the rejected load the system layout after disconnection the characteristics of the sources (short-circuit power, generator type and regulation) Extremes: Low values of temporary overvoltages in systems with relatively short lines and high values of the short-circuit power at the terminal stations. High values of temporary overvoltages in systems with long lines and low values of shortcircuit power at the generating side (typical situation of extra-high voltage systems in their initial stage). Voltage Voltage increase increase factors factors due due to to load load rejection: rejection: moderately moderately extended extended systems: systems: < < 1.2 1.2 p.u. p.u. for for up up to to several several minutes minutes widely widely extended extended systems: systems: 1.5 1.5 p.u. p.u. for for some some seconds seconds close close to to turbo turbo generator: generator: 1.3 1.3 p.u. p.u. close close to to salient salient pole pole (German: (German: "Schenkelpol") "Schenkelpol") generator: generator: 1.5 1.5 p.u. p.u.
- 23 -
Temporary Overvoltages Resonance Phenomena

Temporary overvoltages caused by resonance phenomena generally arise when circuits with large capacitive elements, such as lines cables series compensated lines and inductive elements having non-linear magnetizing characteristics, such as transformers shunt reactors are energized, or as result of load rejections.
Can Can easily be avoided avoided by by de-tuning de-tuning the the system system from from the the resonance resonance frequency! frequency!
- 24 -
Temporary Overvoltages Resonance Phenomena (Example 1)

rd harmonics Energizing Energizing a a transformer transformer in in a a grid grid tuned tuned to to resonance resonance at at 3 3rd harmonics (150 (150 Hz) Hz)
[DOR-81]
Grid tuned to 150 Hz TOV of 1.9 p.u.

Grid tuned to (150 Hz 7%) TOV of 1.2 p.u.

- 25 -
Temporary Overvoltages Resonance Phenomena (Example 2)

th harmonics Load Load rejection rejection with with transformer transformer in in a a grid grid tuned tuned to to resonance resonance at at 5 5th harmonics (250 (250 Hz) Hz)
[DOR-81]
length of line: a
Length of line: 174 km fr = 250 Hz 5th harmonics 33% TOV = 1.7 p.u.
Length of line: 116 km fr = 300 Hz 5th harmonics 10% TOV = 1. p.u.

- 26 -
Temporary Overvoltages and Surge Arresters

Surge Surge arresters arresters cannot cannot limit limit TOV! TOV! Exception: Exception: resonance resonance effects effects may may be be suppressed suppressed or or even even avoided avoided by by MO MO arresters. arresters. Care Care has has then then to to be be taken taken not not to to thermally thermally overload overload the the arresters! arresters!
5
Possible voltages without arresters Magnitude of (over-)voltage / p.u.

4
Withstand voltage of equipment

3
region region of of impressed impressed current current voltage voltage develops develops according according to to U-IU-I-characteristics characteristics region region of of impressed impressed voltage voltage current current develops develops according according to to U-IU-I-characteristics characteristics
1,3 1,25
Voltages limited by arresters

k t ov = U / U r
0
Lightning overvoltages (Microseconds) Switching overvoltages (Milliseconds) Temporary overvoltages Highest voltage of equipment (Seconds) (Continuously)
1,2 1,15 1,1 1,05 1 0,95 0,9 0,85 0,8 0,1 1 10 100 1000
Time duration of (over-)voltage
t /s
- 27 -
Slow-Front Overvoltages
Slow-front overvoltages have front front durations durations of of some some tens to some thousands of microseconds and tail durations durations in in the the same same order order of of magnitude magnitude and and are are oscillatory by nature. They generally arise from: line energization and re-energization; faults and fault fault clearing; clearing; load rejections; switching switching of of capacitive capacitive or or inductive inductive currents; currents; distant lightning strikes to the conductor of overhead lines. The representative voltage stress is characterized by: a representative voltage shape 250/2500 s; a representative amplitude which can be either an assumed maximum overvoltage or a probability distribution of the overvoltage amplitudes.
-1-
The representative voltage shape is the standard switching impulse: Tp = 250 s, T2 = 2500 s.
d
see HVT II, Chapter 9: 3: curve of minimum strength

Tcr = 250 s
MV
1
3
Tcr = 850 s Tcr = 750 s Tcr = 650 s
The representative amplitude is the amplitude of the overvoltage considered independently from its actual time to peak. However, in some systems in range II, overvoltages with very long fronts may occur and the representative amplitude may be derived by taking into account the influence of the front duration upon the dielectric strength of the insulation.
3
2 Ud
Tcr = 450 s Tcr = 250 s
+
s
0 0 10
s
20
30
-2-
The probability distribution of the overvoltages without surge arrester operation is characterized by *) its 2 % values ue2, up2 its deviations e, p its truncation values uet, upt. Although not perfectly valid, the probability distribution can be approximated by a Gaussian distribution between the 50 % value and the truncation value above which no values are assumed to exist. see next slides Alternatively, a modified Weibull distribution may be used. (see: IEC 60071-2, Annex C, Annex D)
*) Indices: e "phase-to-earth" p "phase-to-phase"
-3-
f(u) Normal Normal distribution distribution (Gaussian (Gaussian distribution) distribution)
Probability density function of voltage occurrence:
u P(u)
1 f (u ) = e 2
standard deviation
1 u 2
expectation average mean value of ui
Cumulative distribution function of voltage occurrence:
P (u ) =
u
f (u ) d u
-4-
f(u)
u u
truncation truncation value value
f(u)
P(u)
u P(u)
u u
2%-value 2%-value
u
-5-
Example: normal distribution of phase-to-earth overvoltages, definitions acc. to IEC 60071-2 (for phase-to-phase voltages accordingly)
P(ue)
Overvoltages are characterized by their 2% value ue2. All overvoltages are higher than 1 p.u. The difference between the minimum value and the 2% value is equivalent to 4 standard deviations:
ue 2 1 = 4 e
50%
e = 0.25 ( ue 2 1)
All . All relevant relevant information information can can be be derived derived from from u ue2 e2.
2% 0.1% 1 u = u e2 ue50 -2 2 e e50 = ue2 e 4 4 e e
ue / p.u. u ue2 e2 u = u e2 + uet + e et = ue2 e
-6-
Example: normal distributions of SFO on overhead lines phase-to-earth
Cumulative distribution / %
ue2 uet
ue
ue
-7-
The The assumed assumed maximum maximum value value of of the the representative representative overvoltage overvoltage stress stress is is equal equal to to the the truncation truncation value of the overvoltages or or of the surge arrester to the switching switching impulse impulse protective protective level level U Ups ps whichever is lower.
see next slide
-8-
1200 Peak value of voltage / kV 1100 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 10-4 10-2 1 10 4 10 2 Peak value of current / A Standard switching impulse current values acc. to IEC 60099-4; switching impulse protection level Ups = residual voltage at the highest current amplitude each
Example for Us = 420 kV

residual voltage at In = lightning impulse protection level = 823 kV residual voltage at switching impulse current 1 kA = switching impulse protection level = 680 kV = 2 Ur = 2 336 kV = 475 kV
Switching impulse current = 1 kA Nominal discharge current In = 10 kA
-9-
Note: In case of overvoltage limitation by surge arresters increase of probability density at ups!
Probability density
0
u e / p.u.
ups
- 10 -
Phase-peak Phase-peak method: from each switching operation the highest peak value of the the overvoltage on each phase-to-earth or between each each combination combination of of phases phases is included in the the overvoltage overvoltage probability probability distribution, distribution, i.e. each operation contributes contributes three peak values to to the the representative representative overvoltage probability probability distribution. distribution. This This distribution distribution then then has has to to be be assumed assumed to be equal for for each each of the three three insulations involved involved in in each each part part of of insulation, insulation, phase-to-earth, phase-tophase phase or longitudinal. IEC recommended practice Case-peak method: from each switching operation the highest peak value of the overvoltages of all three phases to earth or between all three phases is included in the overvoltage probability distribution, i.e. each operation contributes one value to the representative overvoltage distribution. This distribution is then applicable to one insulation within each type. Common practice in the US and Canada [HIL-99]
(Both methods give only slightly different results; see IEC 60071-2, Annex D and [HIL-99])
- 11 -
Slow-Front Overvoltages Line Energization and Re-Energization

A A three-phase three-phase line energization energization or or re-energization re-energization produces produces switching overvoltages overvoltages on on all all three three phases phases of of the line. Therefore, each switching operation produces produces three three phase-to-earth and, correspondingly, three phase-to-phase overvoltages overvoltages. TNA studies have to be performed with several switching operations at random distribution of the time instants.
- 12 -

Range of 2% slow-front phase-to-earth overvoltages at the receiving end due to line energization and re-energization (IEC 60071-2, Figure 1)
Values just for estimation estimation purposes; purposes; detailed detailed studies studies required!
- 13 -

Phase-to-phase overvoltages
In the evaluation of the phase-to-phase overvoltages, an additional parameter needs to be added. As the insulation is sensitive to the subdivision of a given phase-to-phase overvoltage value into two phase-to-earth components, the selection of a specific instant shall take into account the insulation characteristics. Two particular time instants are of importance (see also next two slides): Time Time instant instant of of phase-to-phase phase-to-phase overvoltage overvoltage peak: peak: this this instant instant gives gives the the highest highest phasephaseto to phase phase overvoltage overvoltage value. value. It It represents represents the the highest highest stress stress for for all all insulation insulation configurations, configurations, for for which which the the dielectric dielectric strength strength between between phases phases is is not not sensitive sensitive to to the the subdivision subdivision into into components components.. Typical Typical examples examples are are the the insulation insulation between between windings windings or or short short air air clearances. clearances. Phase-to-phase Phase-to-phase overvoltage overvoltage at at the the instant instant of of the the phase-to-earth phase-to-earth overvoltage overvoltage peak: peak: although although this this instant instant gives gives lower lower overvoltage overvoltage values values than than the the instant instant of of the the phase-tophase-tophase phase overvoltage overvoltage peak, peak, it it may may be be more more severe severe for for insulation insulation configurations configurations for for which which the the dielectric dielectric strength strength between between phases phases is is influenced influenced by by the the subdivision subdivision into into components. components. Typical Typical examples examples are are large large air air clearances clearances for for which which the the instant instant of of the the positive positive phasephaseto-earth to-earth peak peak is is most most severe, severe, or or gas-insulated gas-insulated substations substations (three-phase (three-phase enclosed) enclosed) for for which which the the negative negative peak peak is is most most severe severe..
- 14 -

Time Time instants of max. U Up p
- 15 -
Dielectric Breakdown of Gases

Recall from HVT II: Breakdown voltage of positive tip is always lower than that of a negative tip (derived for air):
U < U U d, positive < U d, d, positive d,negative negative

memory hook: "positive is negative" At At alternating alternating voltage voltage stress stress the the breakdown breakdown of of a a strongly strongly inhomogeneous inhomogeneous asymmetrical asymmetrical electrode electrode configuration configuration in in air air generally generally occurs occurs in in the the positive positive half half cycle cycle Extension of this rule: this is valid only for air insulation! In SF6 under high pressure (GIS): just the other way round At At alternating alternating voltage voltage stress stress the the breakdown breakdown of of a a strongly strongly inhomogeneous inhomogeneous asymmetrical under high pressure generally asymmetrical electrode electrode configuration configuration in in SF SF6 6 under high pressure generally occurs occurs in in the the negative negative half half cycle cycle
- 16 -

Time Time instants of max. U Ue e
- 17 -

The 2% phase-to-phase overvoltage can approximately be determined from the phase-to-earth overvoltage:
three-phase re-energization three-phase energization
- 18 -

Standard insulation levels for range II (IEC 60071-1, Table 3): The smaller the factor Ue/Um, the higher the factor Up/Ue Comparison with the slide before: U = 300 kV Um m = 300 kV 1 1 p.u. p.u. = = 245 245 kV kV 850 850 kV kV = = 3.47 3.47 p.u. p.u. /U e2 = U Up2 = 1.45 1.45 p2/Ue2 U = 420 kV Um m = 420 kV 1 1 p.u. p.u. = = 343 343 kV kV 1050 1050 kV kV = = 3.06 3.06 p.u. p.u. /U e2 = U Up2 = 1.5 1.5 p2/Ue2 U = 765 kV Um m = 765 kV 1 1 p.u. p.u. = = 625 625 kV kV 1550 1550 kV kV = = 2.48 2.48 p.u. p.u. /U e2 = U Up2 = 1.6 1.6 p2/Ue2
ffa ac ctto or r2 2..8 83 3
ffa ac ctto orr 2 2..5 5
ffa ac ctto orr 2 2..0 0


Possible causes of line switching overvoltages (continued next slide)
- 20 -

Possible causes of line switching overvoltages
- 21 -

ueT = 1.35 ueR = 1.35 Sending end
u = 1.35 ue e = 1.35 +26%
Synchronous switching
ueR = 1.60
ueR = 1.70 Energizing 2 ms after voltage peak in phase R
= 1.70 Receiving end u ue e = 1.70
Energizing at voltage peak in phase R (tR = 0)
+15%
Non-synchronous switching (by pre-striking of the contacts)
ueS = 1.40
ueT = 1.35
Sending end
u = 1.40 ue e = 1.40 +39%
ueT= 1.95
ueT = 1.85
Receiving end u = 1.95 ue e = 1.95 Example: 420-kV line, length 340 km, resonant frequency (100200) Hz [DOR-81] - 22 -
tR = 1 ms, ts = 5 ms, tt = 3 ms
tR = 0 ms, ts = 2 ms, tt = 2 ms

Measures against line switching overvoltages (continued next slide)
- 23 -

Measures against line switching overvoltages (continued next slide)
- 24 -

Measures against line switching overvoltages
- 25 -

Measures against line switching overvoltages IEC IEC 60071-2: 60071-2: "It "It should should be be noted noted that that when when arresters arresters are are installed installed at at the the ends ends of of long long transmission transmission lines lines for for the the purpose purpose of of limiting limiting slowslowfront front overvoltages, overvoltages, the the overvoltages overvoltages in in the the middle middle of of the the line line may may be be substantially substantially higher higher than than at at the the line line ends ends." ." For this reason AEP (American Electric Power) installed one set of 800-kV transmission line arresters in the middle of the line.
ABB
- 26 -
Slow-Front Overvoltages Earth Faults

Highest slow-front overvoltages due to earth faults in isolated neutral systems! Example:
ue = 2.7 p.u. e
[DOR-81]
- 27 -
Slow-Front Overvoltages Switching Cap. or Ind. Currents
Begin Begin of of opening opening of of the the circuit circuit breaker breaker Restrike Restrike of of the the circuit circuit breaker breaker
u = 2.1 p.u. ue e = 2.1 p.u.
Measure Measure against: against: use use of of restrike-free restrike-free breakers breakers
- 28 -
Slow-Front Overvoltages Limitation by Arresters

MO arresters limit switching overvoltages (current peak values 500 A 2 kA) to about: Ups (peak value) 2Ur (r.m.s. value) (see slide 9: Ur = 336 kV; Ups = 680 kV) Ur (r.m.s. value) 1 p.u. Ups 2 p.u.
Conclusions: MO arresters do limit slow-front overvoltages due to line energization and reenergization and switching of inductive and capacitive currents. MO arresters usually cannot limit slow-front overvoltages caused by earth faults and fault clearing (exception: isolated neutral systems, series compensated lines), as their amplitudes are too low. Separation Separation effects effects (protective (protective distance) distance) have have not not to to be be taken taken into into account account (overvoltages (overvoltages too too slow) slow) But: But: exception exception for for long long transmission transmission lines lines voltages voltages in in middle middle and/or and/or end end of of line line can can take take considerably considerably higher higher values values than than arrester's arrester's protection protection level! level!
- 29 -
Slow-Front Overvoltages Limitation by Arresters

If arresters limit phase-to-earth voltages to less than 70% of their unaffected -values, the resulting phase-to-phase voltages will be U p of the Ue2 2 2 U Ups e2-values, the resulting phase-to-phase voltages will be p ps arrester. Representative voltages in case of MO surge arresters: Phase-to-earth: = Ups Phase-to-earth: U Ure re ps Phase-to-phase: the lower value of Urp = 2 U ps rp = 2 ps Urp = U pt (truncation (truncation value determined acc. to IEC IEC 60071-2, 60071-2, Annex Annex D) D) rp = pt
- 30 -
Fast-Front Overvoltages
Fast-front overvoltages overvoltages may may be: be: lightning overvoltages affecting overhead overhead lines lines; lightning overvoltages affecting substations substations;; overvoltages due to switching operations operations and and faults. faults.
-1-
Lightning Overvoltages affecting Overhead Lines (OHL)

Reasons Reasons for for lightning lightning overvoltages overvoltages affecting affecting OHL: OHL: direct lightning strikes strikes to to the the phase phase conductor conductor see later; lightning lightning strikes strikes to to tower/ground tower/ground wire wire and and subsequent subsequent back flashover; induced by lightning strikes strikes to to ground ground nearby nearby the the OHL. OHL.
Amplitudes of induced overvoltages usually below 400 kV problem for distribution systems, but not an issue for high-voltage (LIW(Um = 72.5 kV) = 325 kV, LIW(Um = 123 kV) 450 kV) Back flashovers less probable in range II than in range I rare in systems of Us = 550 kV and above
The The representative representative voltage voltage stress stress is is characterized characterized by: a representative voltage shape 1.2/50 s; s; a representative amplitude which can be either an assumed assumed maximum maximum overvoltage or a probability probability distribution distribution of the overvoltage amplitudes.
-2-
Lightning Overvoltages affecting Substations

Amplitudes Amplitudes and and rates rates of of occurrence occurrence depend depend on: on: lightning performance performance of of the the OHLs OHLs connected connected to to it; it; substation layout, size size and and in in particular particular number number of of OHLs OHLs connected connected to to it; it; instantaneous value value of of the the operating operating voltage voltage (at (at the moment of strike).
Reduction of overvoltages phase-to-ground by cables (due to their low surge impedance) many lines connected in parallel ( reduction of effective surge impedance)
see lecture on traveling waves
LI by direct strike to L1
Phase-to-phase: Effects of power-frequency voltage and coupling between conductors roughly cancel each other. The neighbored phase may be considered as earthed.
L2 L1
induced LI voltage by coupling L1 L2
-3-
Lightning Overvoltages affecting Substations

Longitudinal: Power-frequency voltage of opposite terminal to be taken into account! For direct strikes: Representative overvoltage composed of the representative LI voltage phase-to-earth at one terminal and 0.7 p.u. power-frequency voltage of opposite polarity at the other (empirical finding)
Terminal 1
Terminal 2
For back flashovers: Back flashovers most likely occur on the phase that has the highest instantaneous power-frequency voltage at opposite polarity. Representative overvoltage composed of the representative LI voltage phase-to-earth at one terminal and 1 p.u. power-frequency voltage of opposite polarity at the other
Terminal 1
Terminal 2
-4-
Fast Front Overvoltages due to Switching Operations

Occur Occur when equipment is (dis-)connected from the system via short connections, mainly in in substations; substations; external external insulation insulation flashes over. Representative Representative voltage voltage = = Standard Standard Lightning Lightning Impulse Impulse Voltage Voltage 1.2/50 1.2/50 s s (though (though the the real real voltages voltages are are usually usually oscillatory oscillatory) ) Amplitudes usually lower than those caused by lightning strikes. Maximum values: circuit breaker switching without restrike 2 p.u. circuit breaker switching with restrike 3 p.u. (exception: with vacuum breakers up to 6 p.u. voltage limiters required!) disconnector switching 3 p.u. It may be assumed that phase-to ground overvoltages constitute the decisive stress for insulation coordination purposes.
-5-
Direct Lightning Strikes to OHL

Statistical distribution of parameters of the flash to be approximated by a lognormal distribution (Berger, Anderson, Eriksson, CIGR) Probability density function:
1 ln( x M ) 1 2 e f ( x ) = 2 x 0
2
for x > 0 for x 0
M ... Median = 0.5 probability not to be mixed up with the mean or average value! .... log standard deviation
Calculation of the mean or average value: = M e Calculation of the standard deviation:

2
2
= M e e 1
2
-6-
Direct Lightning Strikes to OHL Berger's Data

Lightning research station of Prof. Berger in a radio transmission station on top of Monte San Salvatore (912 m; Lake of Lugano, Switzerland) Installed 1942 on behalf of SEV Lightning studies up to 1970 Bergers Data
-7-

t10/30 t30/90 I10
I tm = F Sm = tm II Sm
I30
The The strike strike current's current's front front typically typically has has a a concave concave shape. shape.
I90 I100
Difference Median Mean value: Mean value of first strike's final crest current
I F = M I F e
IF 2
2
= 31.1 e
0.484 2 2
= 35 kA
-8-

Extract of the table values of primary importance , mean value
1.54 s 4.46 s 29 kA/s 91.5 s
tm = IF Sm
=Me2
, mean value
35 kA 14.2 kA
Sm S30/90 Sm S30/90
29 kA/s 8.7 kA/s 57.4 kA/s 32.1 kA/s

-9-
Direct Lightning Strikes to OHL CIGR Model

CIGR and IEEE strike current probability curves, first strike, negative downward flash [CIG-91]
P(I < IF)
CIGR curve:
The The CIGR CIGR distribution distribution is is based based on on the the latest latest data data available available and and better better represents represents the the actual actual data. data. CIGR CIGR curve curve should should preferably preferably be be used! used!
Note: M = 61.1 kA for IF < 20 kA does not mean that this current really occurs. It is just a parameter that characterizes the curve, which is actually valid only in the range < 20 kA, however!
IF, median = 33.3 kA IF, median = 61.1 kA
- 10 -

Derived parameters of conditional lognormal distributions, derived from Berger's data
- 11 -

Average wave shape of the first and subsequent negative strike currents as developed by CIGR [CIG-91]
- 12 -

Models of lightning strike acc. to IEC 60071-4
Double Double ramp ramp shape shape easy easy to to use use
CIGR CIGR concave concave shape, shape, parameters parameters from from [CIG-91] [CIG-91] higher higher accuracy accuracy
- 13 -
Direct Lightning Strikes to OHL strike Multiplicity

no subsequent strikes, highest reported current peak values and charges cloud-to-cloud flash
> >90% 90%
downward flash
Seldom!
negative cloud-to-ground from exposed points such as aerials, tv towers
positive cloud-to-ground
upward flash
negative ground-to-cloud
positive ground-to-cloud Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 4 - 14 -

Only 45% of negative downward flashes consist of one strike per flash. In all other cases: multiple strikes in time intervals of 10 ms to 100 ms (see HVT II, Chapter 11). Subsequent strikes have higher front steepness lower amplitude up to 54 follow strikes reported often: dc component (in ca. 50% of all cases)
scale of dc component
11 current impulses of 7 kA up to 63 kA peak value
dc component
- 15 -

Number of strikes per flash, negative downward flash 1)
Probability of 4 strikes or more
= =
Probability of 8 strikes or more
based on 6000 flash records from different regions of the world median of the distribution: 2 1) R. B. Anderson, A. J. Eriksson mean or average value: 3
Lightning Parameters for Engineering Application ELECTRA 69, Mar. 1980, pp. 65-102
- 16 -
Direct Lightning Strikes to OHL Lightning Activity

Keraunic levels worldwide TD = 20 ... 80 TD = 80 ... 180 TD = number of thunderstorm days per year
Middle = 10 ... 25 D MiddleEurope: Europe:T T D = 10 ... 25 in D = inequator equatorregions: regions:T T =100 100... ...180 180
D
Lightning ground flash density Ng = number of lightning ground flashes per km2 and year
1.25 Empirical relation: Ng = 0.04 Td
Ng in (km2a)-1
1)
reported by Eriksson1) from observations in South Africa generally accepted both by CIGR and IEEE
A. J. Eriksson The Incidence of Lightning Strikes to Transmission Lines IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Jul. 1987, pp. 859-870
- 17 -
Direct Lightning Strikes to OHL Geometric Model

Basic idea (see also HVT II, Chapter 11)
For a specific current I, calculate the striking distance rg and rc. Draw a line parallel to the ground at a distance rg from the ground. With compasses centered at the tower top, draw an arc of radius rc until it intersects the parallel lines drawn in 2, above.
Any Any strike strike that that arrives arrives between between A A and and B B will will terminate terminate on on the the ground ground wire, wire, and and any any strike strike that that arrives arrives to to the the left left of of A A or or to to the the right right of of B B will will terminate terminate to to ground. ground.
- 18 -

Basic idea (see also HVT II, Chapter 11)
N (G ) I = 2 N g LDg
N(G)|I ... number of strikes to ground wire for current I L ... length of line
N (G ) = 2 N g L
3 kA
f (I )d I Dg
f(I) ... probability that current I occurs 3 kA = lowest observed lightning flash current amplitude D'g may be expressed in terms of striking distances and tower height:
= r ( rg h ) = rc cos Dg
2 c 2
- 19 -

Practical approach (by empirical observations) (Eriksson)
N (G ) =
N'(G) ... Ng ... b h
N g ( b + 28 h 0.6 ) 10
(assuming an approximate median current of 35 kA)
number of strikes to the line in (100 km a)-1 ground flash density in (km2 a)-1 distance of outer conductors in m average ground wire height (htower 2/3sag) in m
N'(G)
TD = 35 d
b TD = 20 d
[BAL-04]
h
Note: Note: in in case case of of good good shielding shielding most most of of these these strikes strikes will will hit hit the the shield shield wire wire!!
- 20 -

Striking distance b Basic dependence: r = A I many different factors A, b published:
Adopted by CIGR Working Group
rc = 7.1 I
for references, see [HIL-99]
0.75
[I] = kA, [rc] = m = striking distance to an OHL conductor or ground wire

Direct Lightning Strikes to OHL Shielding Failure

Shielding effect of ground wire Shielding failure rate:
SFR I = 2 N g LDc = 2Ng L

Im
3 kA
Dc f ( I ) d I
L ... length of line
= shielding angle
Im is the maximum current at and above which no strikes will terminate on the phase conductor see next slide
strikes strikes between between A A and and B B phase phase conductor conductor strikes strikes between between B B and and C C ground ground wire wire strikes strikes beyond beyond A A ground ground
- 22 -

Shielding effect of ground wire Point where all three striking distances rc,GW , r c,PhC, rg meet c,GW c,PhC g each other. =0 Dc c = 0 will hit Currents Currents I I I Im m will hit ground ground wire wire or or ground ground
- 23 -

Situation for I = Im
c a
= 180 - 90 x = 180 - - 90 = 180 - 180 + + 90 - 90 =
- 24 -

sin = rgm h+ y 2 c2 2 rcm 4
c2 r 4
2 cm
As
2 rcm
c 4
2
sin =
rgm
h+ y 2
rcm
Simplification:
rgm rcm = rm
sin
rm
h+ y 2 rm
h+ y 2 rm 1 sin
- 25 -
Direct Lightning Strikes to OHL Shielding Angle

h+ y 2 rm 1 sin
With
0.75 rm = 7.1 I m
(see slide 20)
h+ y 0.75 2 rm 7.1 I m 1 sin
h+ y 2 Im 7.1 (1 sin )
1 0.75
Examples: h = 60 m, y = 45 m, = 30 Im 36.3 kA h = 30 m, y = 25 m, = 15 Im 9.1 kA
The The higher the structure structure and the larger larger the the shielding shielding angle angle, the higher is is the the maximum maximum current current of of a a direct direct lightning lightning strike strike to to the the OHL OHL conductor. conductor.
- 26 -

h = 60 m, y = 45 m
h = 45 m, y = 35 m h = 30 m, y = 25 m
[BAL-04]
deg
- 27 -

Choice of Im
iiBlitz stroke
u i
u i
i = istroke /2 Blitz/2 u= i u =Z Zi
Strom-and und voltage Spannungswellen nach Blitzeinschlag in ein Leiterseil Current surges after lightning stroke into a line conductor
If flashovers of the insulators shall be avoided, following requirement has to be fulfilled:
Im <
2 U 50 neg Z
Example: Um = 420 kV U50 neg = 2 100 kV, Z = 350 Im < 12 kA
- 28 -
Direct Lightning Strikes to OHL Corona Damping

When the corona inception voltage is exceeded corona Corona inception voltage of a single conductor:
r Z 0 E0 Ui = 60
Z0 ... natural (non-corona) surge impedance in E0 ... critical voltage gradient in kV/cm r ... conductor radius in cm
Critical voltage gradient (CIGR):
1.22 E0 = 23 1 + 0.37 kV/cm d

d ... conductor diameter in cm
critical voltage gradient (kV/cm)
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 conductor diameter (cm)
- 29 -

When the corona inception voltage is exceeded corona Corona inception voltage of a single conductor:
r Z 0 E0 Ui = 60
Z0 ... natural (non-corona) surge impedance in E0 ... critical voltage gradient in kV/cm r ... conductor radius in cm
Critical voltage gradient (CIGR):
1.22 E0 = 23 1 + 0.37 kV/cm d

Example: 123-kV OHL
d ... conductor diameter in cm
(d = 1.9 cm, r = 0.95 cm, Z0 = 450 )
1.22 E0 = 23 1 + 0.37 = 42 kV/cm 1.9

Ui =
0.95 450 42 = 299 kV 60

- 30 -

Effect of corona
Decrease Decrease of of steepness! steepness!
t > t0
t = t0
Apparent increase of radius from non-corona conductor radius r to corona conductor radius Rc Increase of conductor capacitance (whereas inductance remains unchanged)
L L Zc = Decrease of surge impedance for surge front: Z 0 = C C + C

Decrease of velocity for parts of surge voltage u > Ui: v0 =
1 vc = LC
- 31 -
1 L(C + C )

Effect of corona Steepness of the surge depending on traveling distance:
SA =
1 1 K C0 A + S0
S ... KC0 ... ... S0 ...
steepness of surge after traveling distance in kV/s corona damping constant in s/(kVm) traveling distance in m initial steepness of surge in kV/s
Distribution
5 x 10-6
[IEC 60071-2], [BAL-04]
- 32 -
[BAL-04]
(for S0 )
- 33 -

Measured overvoltage surges on a single-line conductor
ca. 2200 kV/s Voltage
ca. 370 kV/s
Time
- 34 -
Back Flashover
See HVT II, Chapter 11 and [BAL-04]
iB = 2iE + iM
uM = iMRM
Shield wire
R tower surge impedance M ... R M ... tower surge impedance uinsul. = uM - uL At unfavorable phase relation:
Line conductor
uinsul. = uM + |uL| If uinsul. > ud, LI Problem: Problem: extreme extreme d du u/d /dtt-values! -values! For tower footing resistances < 10 : Flashovers at IB > 190 kA
- 35 -
Protection by Surge Arresters and Representative Overvoltage

Due to separation effects, surge arresters have a limited protection distance. The larger the distance between arrester and the equipment to be protected and the higher the steepness, the higher the fast front overvoltage at its terminals. Representative overvoltage when surge arresters are applied (simplified equation):
U rp = U pl + 2 ST U rp = 2U pl (!)
for U pl 2 ST for U pl < 2 ST
S ... T ...
steepness of surge in kV/s travel time along distance L in s
T=
L c0
L ... distances a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 in m next slide c0 ... velocity of light: 300 m/s

Note: depends exclusively on steepness and distance arrester equipment, Note: U Urp rp depends exclusively on steepness and distance arrester equipment, but but not not on on the the overvoltage overvoltage amplitude amplitude!!
Example: Um = 420 kV Upl = 825 kV; S = 1000 kV/s; L = 30 m
U rp = U pl + 2 ST = 825 kV + 2 1000 kV/s

30 m = 1025 kV 300 m/s

- 36 -
- 37 -

Considerations on steepness S Impact of number of connected lines
S ... KC0 ... ... S0 ... steepness of surge after traveling distance in kV/s corona damping constant in s/(kVm) traveling distance in m initial steepness of surge in kV/s
SA =
1 1 K C0 A + S0
1 K C0 A
(for S0 )
Steepness is reduced inversely proportional to number n of connected lines:
1 SA = n K C0 A
(Explanation see next slide)
- 38 -

Z Z n 1
n n= = 1: 1:
2U0
Z=
UTr
UTr = 2U0
Z Z =Z Z= n 1
n n= = 2: 2:
2U0
UTr
UTr Z 1 U = Tr = 2U0 2U0 2Z 2
Z Z Z = Z= n 1 2
n n= = 3: 3:
2U0
UTr
UTr Z 1 = UTr = 2U0 2U0 3Z 3
and when the voltage amplitude is reduced, the steepness is reduced proportionally.
- 39 -

S ... KC0 ... ... n ... steepness of surge after traveling distance in kV/s corona damping constant in s/(kVm) traveling distance in m number of connected lines
1 SA = n K C0 A
Practical observations on the relevant traveling distance : 1) Shielding failures do not occur in the first span adjacent to the substation.
Reason: shielding is intentionally improved by lower shielding angles or double ground wires.
2) Back flashovers do not occur at the first tower(s) adjacent to the substation.
Reason: low footing impedance due to connection to substation earthing.
The . The minimum minimum value value of of is is one one span span length length L Lsp sp.
1 Srp = n K C0 ( Lsp + Lt )
Srp ... representative steepness of surge in kV/s Lsp ... span length in m overhead line length with the adopted return rate; in m Lt ...
Lt =
adopted return rate 1/a shielding failure rate + back flashover rate 1/a m
- 40 -

U rp = U pl + 2 ST
S ... T ...
steepness of surge in kV/s travel time along distance L in s
(from slide 35)
1 U rp = U pl + 2 T n K C0 ( Lsp + Lt )
Introduction of a factor A describing the lightning performance of the OHL:
A=
2 K C0 c0
compare with slide 31, e.g.:

K C0 = 0.6 106 s kV m
[IEC 60071-2]
- 41 -

A c0 A L U rp = U pl + T = U pl + n ( Lsp + Lt ) n ( Lsp + Lt )
L ... distances a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 in m
Assumed maximum value (worst case) by assuming the return rate equal to zero, i.e. Lt = 0:
A L U rp = U pl + n Lsp
(To be used for convenience if the result gives satisfyingly low Urp) Note: Note: n n should should reasonably reasonably be be set set to to n n= =1 1 (if (if only only one one line line is is connected) connected) or or n n= =2 2 (if (if two two or or more more lines lines are are connected). connected). Assuming Assuming n n> >2 2 could could yield yield too too optimistic optimistic results results that that are are not not valid valid in in a a real real failure failure scenario scenario (e.g. (e.g. possible possible loss loss of of lines). lines).
- 42 -

Example: Um = 420 kV Upl = 825 kV; A = 11000 kV (quadruple bundle); L = 30 m; Lsp = 400 m; 2 lines connected; shielding failure rate (typ. for Germany; one OHGW): 2.5 per 100 km and year = 2.510-5 (am)-1 adopted failure rate: 110-3 a-1 LIWV = 1425 kV; 15% safety factor allowed umax = 1211 kV
a) using the "worst case" equation:
U rp = U pl +
A L 11000 kV 30 m = 825 kV + = 1238 kV n Lsp 2 400 m
4
Note Note again: again: No No effect effect of of the the lightning lightning overvoltage overvoltage amplitude amplitude!! !!
b) using the "realistic" equation:
1 103 Lt = = 40 m 5 2.5 10 A L 11000 kV 30 m U rp = U pl + = 825 kV + = 1200 kV n Lsp + Lt 2 (400+40) m

5
- 43 -

Example: Um = 420 kV Upl = 825 kV; A = 11000 kV (quadruple bundle); L = 30 m; Lsp = 400 m; lines connected shielding failure rate (typ. for Germany; one OHGW): 2.5 per 100 km and year = 2.510-5 (am)-1 adopted failure rate: 110-3 a-1 LIWV = 1425 kV; 15% safety factor allowed umax = 1211 kV
Effect of double OHGW in span field adjacent to substation: shielding failure rate reduced by factor of 10, i.e. to 2.510-6 (am)-1
1 103 Lt = = 400 m 6 2.5 10 A L 11000 kV 30 m U rp = U pl + = 825 kV + = 1031 kV n Lsp + Lt 2 (400+400) m

Note: Note: these these equations equations yield yield the the representative representative overvoltages, overvoltages, which which are are not not implicitly implicitly the the real real overvoltages overvoltages (see (see next next two two slides)! slides)!
- 44 -

Making use of breakdown voltage-time-characteristic of the insulation
2000
3.0 MV/s 1.5 MV/s

1800 1600 1400
1.0 MV/s 0.7 MV/s 0.5 MV/s 0.3 MV/s
V-t-curves of 245 kV AIS and GIS equipment (LIWV = 1050 kV) The V-t-curve of GIS is flatter due to more homogeneous field distribution.
1200 U [kV] 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 t [s] 3 3,5 4
V-t SF6
Ste epn ess o
f ov erv o
V-t air
ltag e
4,5
- 45 -

Making use of breakdown voltage-time-characteristic of the insulation
1000
1
800 Amplitude in kV
Example: Um = 300 kV LIWV = 950 kV Upl = 550 kV

The real overvoltage at the equipment's terminals, limited by the surge arrester, has oscillations due to traveling wave effects. Case 1: the representative overvoltage Urp is the real overvoltage as there is no time dependance of the V-t-curve. Case 2: the representative overvoltage Urp is lower than the real overvoltage, e.g. 650 kV. (The first voltage peak will not cause a dielectric breakdown.)
2
600
400
200
0 0 5 Time in s 10 15
- 46 -
Very-Fast-Front Overvoltages
VFFO originate from disconnector operations or faults within GIS due to the fast breakdown of the gas gap and the nearly undamped surge propagation within the GIS. Amplitudes are rapidly damped and front times increased when leaving the GIS through the bushing. VFFO are usually not a concern or a dimensioning parameter for the hv insulation. Therefore no standardized test has yet been defined (and is not under consideration, either). Mainly an EMI problem, as external electric fields may appear between the metal enclosure and ground problem for secondary control circuits. Countermeasures: usual means of EMC.
VFFO measured in a GIS [ETG-93] (LScircuit breaker; TRdisconnector, operated; Dbushing; OHLoverhead line
OHL
- 47 -
Occurrence of VFFO depends on type of disconnector:
SF6 disconnecor, type A SF6 disconnector, type B
- 48 -
7 p.u. 6
5
fast-front overvoltage
4
3 2 1
0
slow-front overvoltage
VFTO very-fast-front-overvoltage
temporary overvoltage
cont. service voltage

-7
DC-voltage 10 0 10 2 10 4 10 6
10
10
-6
10 -4
10 -2
second
- 49 -
Traveling Waves
Each electromagnetic wave (in the free space/on a line) has a certain velocity of propagation. Changes of voltage and current result in traveling waves on the line. Dependence on time and location Example: lightning overvoltage on an OHL
Dependence on time at a certain location Dependence on location at a certain time instant
u
0 1 s 2 s 3 s
u
0 300 m 600 m 900 m 1200 m
t
x
-1-
Traveling Waves
Traveling waves to be taken into account whenever the change in voltage or current takes place in a time duration of the same order of magnitude as the propagation time electrically long line Velocity of propagation in air: v = c0 = 300 m/s Time for traveling along one span of a HV-OHL (300 m): 1 s Time for traveling along an OHL of 300 km length: 1 ms Spatial length of a lightning overvoltage surge (100 s): 30 km Spatial length of the front of a lightning overvoltage surge (1s): 300 m Spatial length of a switching overvoltage surge (5 ms): 1500 km Spatial length of the front of switching overvolage surge (250 s): 75 km Spatial length of one half-period of 50-Hz voltage (10 ms): 3000 km
-2-
Traveling Waves
Impact on measurement of changes in sub-microsecond range Example: fast voltage change voltage breakdown/flashover
Velocity of propagation in air: v = c0 = 300 m/s Velocity of propagation in a measuring cable: v = 150 m/s Spatial length of voltage ramp (-du/dt) t = 100 ns in the test circuit (air) along the cable 30 m 15 m t = 10 ns 3m 1,5 m
-3-
Traveling Waves
Occurrence of traveling waves / Making use of traveling wave effects energization of a unloaded line propagation of lightning overvoltages on lines propagation of very fast transients in GIS separation effects / protective zone of surge arresters generating and measuring of LI voltages generating rectangular current impulses (energy tests on surge arresters) fault location on cables fault location on light wave guides / optical fibers location of partial discharges in GIS
-4-
Traveling Waves - Laws of Propagation

General electrical equivalent circuit of a line element
R ... Resistance L ... Inductance G ... Parallel conductance C ... Capacitance
-5-

Electrical equivalent circuit of a loss-less line element
u i u (u + d x ) = L ' d x x t i u i (i + d x ) = C ' dx x t
u i = L ' x t
i u = C ' x t
-6-

u i Partial derivative with respect to x: = L ' x t
2u 2i = L ' 2 x t x
i u Partial derivative with respect to t: = C ' x t
2i 2u = C ' 2 t x t
2u 2u = L ' C ' 2 2 x t
-7-

u i = L ' Partial derivative with respect to t: x t
2u 2i = L ' 2 xt t
i u Partial derivative with respect to x: = C ' x t
2i 2u = C ' 2 x xt
2i 2i = L ' C ' 2 2 x t
-8-

2u 2u = L ' C ' 2 2 x t
2i 2i = L ' C ' 2 2 x t
General wave equations of the loss-less line General solution acc. to dAlembert (1717-1783):
u ( x, t ) = f1 ( x vt ) + f 2 ( x + vt ) = uv + ur
uv ur
v=
1 L 'C '
Velocity of propagation
1 1 i ( x, t ) = f1 ( x vt ) f 2 ( x + vt ) = iv + ir Z Z
iv
L' C' Surge impedance Z=
ir
Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 5 -9-

u ( x, t ) = f1 ( x vt ) + f 2 ( x + vt ) = uv + ur
uv ur
i ( x, t ) =
1 1 f1 ( x vt ) f 2 ( x + vt ) = iv + ir Z Z
iv ir
Both voltage and current are composed of a forward and a backward wave. A positive forward voltage wave is linked to a positive forward current wave:
uv iv
A positive backward voltage wave is linked to negative backward current wave:
ur ir
- 10 -
Wanderwellenausbreitung beimrelease pltzlichen Abflieen einer freigewordenen Influenzladung auf einer Traveling waves after sudden of influenced charges on an OHL - left: development with time of fields Freileitung; linke Bildhlfte: zeitliche Entwicklung der Felder; rechte Bildhlfte: auf deris Leitung right: traveling waves on the line (Note: ur and ir have the same traveling direction, but Wanderwellen the measured current negative.)
- 11 -

Velocity of propagation r d r
d L ' = 0 r ln r
C'=
0 r
ln d r
1 = L 'C '
Velocity of propagation
with 0 = 1.25610-6 Vs/Am 0 = 8.85410-12 As/Vm c0 300 m/s
v=
0 0
r r
= c0
r r
Permeability of vacuum Permittivity of vacuum Velocity of light

- 12 -

Velocity of propagation Velocity of propagation
with 0 = 1.25610-6 Vs/Am 0 = 8.85410-12 As/Vm c0 300 m/s
v=
1 = L 'C '
0 0
r r
= c0
r r
Permeability of vacuum Permittivity of vacuum Velocity of light
As r = 1:
v = c0
exclusively dependent on dielectrics!
Air: r = 1.0006 1 Cable: r = 2.5 ... 4
vair = c0 = 300 m/s vcable = 190 m/s ... 150 m/s
- 13 -

Surge impedance r d r
d L ' = 0 r ln r
C'=
0 r
ln d r
Surge impedance
1 L' Z= = C'
0 r d ln r 0 r
depends on dielectrics! depends on geometry! does not depend on location!

Permeability of vacuum Permittivity of vacuum
- 14 -
with 0 = 1.25610-6 Vs/Am 0 = 8.85410-12 As/Vm


Surge impedance
Z = 1
0 r d ln r 0 r
Permeability of vacuum Permittivity of vacuum
with 0 = 1.25610-6 Vs/Am 0 = 8.85410-12 As/Vm
Figures: OHL 420 kV, quadruple bundle: OHL 123 kV, single conductor: GIS, GIL: polymeric (XLPE) hv-cable: polymeric (XLPE) mv-cable: measuring (coaxial) cable (RG-58): transformer winding:
Z 250 Z 400 Z 60 Z 40 Z < 40 Z 50 Z 102 ... 104

- 15 -
Traveling Waves - Reflection and Refraction

uv iv Leitung line 1 1 Z1
line 2 2 Leitung Z2
uv = Z1iv uv and iv suffer changes at the location of discontinuity Refraction Reflection

(forward waves proceed at increased or reduced amplitudes) (waves travel back from the location of discontinuity)
- 16 -

u1v , i 1v i1
line 1 1 Leitung
i2
u1 = u2 i1 = i2
Leitung line 2 2 Z2
u1
Z1
u2
u1 = u1v + u1r i1 = i1v + i1r
= =
u2 = u2v + u2r = u2v i2 = i2v + i2r = i2v
u1v + u1r = u2v i1v + i1r = i2v
- 17 -

u1v , i 1v i1
line 1 1 Leitung
i2
u1 = u2 i1 = i2
Leitung line 2 2 Z2
u1
Z1
u2
u1 = u1v + u1r i1 = i1v + i1r

2.
= =
u2 = u2v + u2r = u2v i2 = i2v + i2r = i2v
u1v + u1r = u2v i1v + i1r = i2v
1.
u1v u1r u 2 v = Z1 Z1 Z2
u1v u1r =
Z1 u2v Z2
u2v 2 Z2 = = bu u1v Z1 + Z 2
- 18 -

u2v 2 Z2 = = bu u1v Z1 + Z 2
voltage voltage refraction refraction factor factor
- 19 -

i2 v = u2v b Z = u1v u = i1v bu 1 Z2 Z2 Z2 u2v 2 Z2 = = bu u1v Z1 + Z 2
i2 v Z 2 Z1 = bu 1 = = bi i1v Z 2 Z1 + Z 2
- 20 -

u2v 2 Z2 = = bu u1v Z1 + Z 2
i2 v 2 Z1 = = bi i1v Z 1 + Z 2
current current refraction refraction factor factor
- 21 -

u1v , i 1v i1
line 1 1 Leitung
i2
u1 = u2 i1 = i2
Leitung line 2 2 Z2
u1
Z1
u2
u1 = u1v + u1r i1 = i1v + i1r
u2 = u2v + u2r = u2v i2 = i2v + i2r = i2v
u1v + u1r = u2v i1v + i1r = i2v
- 22 -

u1r = u 2 v u1v = bu u1v u1v = u1v (bu 1) = u1v ru
ru = u1r Z Z1 = bu 1 = 2 u1v Z 2 + Z1
u1v + u1r = u2v
u2v = bu u1v
- 23 -

u2v 2 Z2 = = bu u1v Z1 + Z 2
i2 v 2 Z1 = = bi i1v Z 1 + Z 2
u1r Z 2 Z1 ru = = bu 1 = u1v Z 2 + Z1
voltage voltage reflection reflection factor factor
- 24 -

u1v , i 1v i1
line 1 1 Leitung
i2
u1 = u2 i1 = i2
Leitung line 2 2 Z2
u1
Z1
u2
u1 = u1v + u1r i1 = i1v + i1r
u2 = u2v + u2r = u2v i2 = i2v + i2r = i2v
u1v + u1r = u2v i1v + i1r = i2v
- 25 -

i1r = i2v i1v = bi i1v i1v = i1v (bi 1) = i1v ri
i1r Z Z2 = bi 1 = 1 i1v Z1 + Z 2
i1v + i1r = i2v
ri =
i2 v = bi i1v
- 26 -

u2v 2 Z2 = = bu u1v Z1 + Z 2
i2 v 2 Z1 = = bi i1v Z 1 + Z 2
u1r Z 2 Z1 ru = = bu 1 = u1v Z 2 + Z1
voltage voltage reflection reflection factor factor
ri =
i1r Z Z2 = bi 1 = 1 i1v Z1 + Z 2
current current reflection reflection factor factor
- 27 -
Traveling Waves - Reflection and Refraction at End of Line

u 1v, i1v
line 1 1 Leitung
Z1
- 28 -

u 1v, i1v
line 1 1 Leitung
Z1
a) end = open circuit ru = 1 ri = 1 u1r = u1v
R u = 2u1v i=0
i1r = i1v
doubling of voltage at lines end, current = zero
- 29 -

u 1v, i1v
line 1 1 Leitung
Z1
b) end = short-circuit ru = 1 ri = 1
u1r = u1v i1r = i1v
R=0 u=0 i = 2i1v
doubling of current at lines end, voltage = zero
- 30 -

u 1v, i1v
line 1 1 Leitung
Z1
c) matched end ru = 0 ri = 0 u1r = 0 i1r = 0
R=Z u = u1v i = i1v
Neither refraction nor reflection
- 31 -

open circuit
short-circuit
- 32 -
matched: R = Z
open circuit
short-circuit
- 33 -

Traveling wave equivalent electrical circuit
Z1
2uv
u
ik = 2uv/Z1 = 2iv
2u v
Z1
i
2iv
- 34 -
Protective Distance of Surge Arresters Model Calculation

Overvoltage surge of s = 800 kV/ s
Arrester u pl = 800 kV = const. ?= = 300 m x=0

Transformer LIW = 1425 kV
x=
- 35 -

2000 1600 1200 800 400 0 0 -400 -800 -1200 1600 kV 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 s 2,5 800
t t= =0 0 s s
1600 kV 1200
uArr (x = 0)
400
uTr (x = )
x=0
x=
1200
x = 0 kV x= = 0: 0: u uArr Arr = 0 kV
800
400
x = 0 kV x= = : : u uTr Tr = 0 kV
0 0
0,5
1,5 - 36 -
2 s
2,5

2000 1600 1200 800 400 0 0 -400 -800 -1200 1600 kV 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 s 2,5 800
t t= = 0,5 0,5 s s
1600 kV 1200
uArr (x = 0)
u1v
400
uTr (x = )
x=0
x=
1200
x = u 1v = x= = 0: 0: u uArr = 400 400 kV kV Arr = u1v
800
400
x = u 1v = x= = : : u uTr =0 0 kV kV Tr = u1v
0 0
0,5
1,5 - 37 -
2 s
2,5

2000 1600 1200 800 400 0 0 -400 -800 -1200 1600 kV 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 s 2,5 800
t t= =1 1 s s
1600 kV 1200
uArr (x = 0)
u1v
400
uTr (x = )
x=0
x=
1200
x = u 1v = x= = 0: 0: u uArr = 800 800 kV kV Arr = u1v
800
400
x = u 1v = x= = : : u uTr =0 0 kV kV Tr = u1v
0 0
0,5
1,5 - 38 -
2 s
2,5

2000 1600 1200 800 400 0 -400 -800 -1200 1600 kV
t t= = 1,5 1,5 s s
1600 kV 1200
uArr (x = 0)
u1v u1r u2v
800
400
0 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 s 2,5
uTr (x = )
Increase at double steepness!
x=0
x=
1200
(1200 (1200 400) 400) kV kV = = 800 800 kV kV

400
x = u 1v + = x= = 0: 0: u uArr +u u2v Arr = u1v 2v =
800
(400 (400 + + 400) 400) kV kV = = 800 800 kV kV

x = u 1v + = x= = : : u uTr +u u1r Tr = u1v 1r =
0 0 0,5 1 1,5 - 39 2 s 2,5

2000 1600 1200 800 400 0 0 -400 -800 -1200
t t= =2 2 s s u1v
1600 kV 1200
uArr (x = 0)
800
u1r
400
u2v
0 1600 kV
0,5
1,5
2 s
2,5
uTr (x = )
x=0
x=
1200
(1600 (1600 800) 800) kV kV = = 800 800 kV kV

400
x = u 1v + = x= = 0: 0: u uArr +u u2v Arr = u1v 2v =
800
(800 (800 + + 800) 800) kV kV = = 1600 1600 kV kV

x = u 1v + = x= = : : u uTr +u u1r Tr = u1v 1r =
0 0 0,5 1 1,5 - 40 2 s 2,5

2000 1600 1200 800 400 0 -400 -800 -1200
t t= = 2,5 2,5 s s u1v u1r
1600 kV 1200
uArr (x = 0)
800
400
u3v
u2r u2v
0 0 1600 kV 0,5 1 1,5 2 s 2,5
uTr (x = )
x=0
x=
1200
(2000 (2000 + + 400 400 1200 1200 400) 400) kV kV = = 800 800 kV kV
400
x = u 1v + + u 2v + = x= = 0: 0: u uArr +u u1r +u u3v Arr = u1v 1r + u2v 3v =
800
(1200 (1200 + + 1200 1200 400 400 400) 400) kV kV = = 1600 1600 kV kV
x = u 1v + + u 2v + = x= = : : u uTr +u u1r +u u2r Tr = u1v 1r + u2v 2r =
0 0 0,5 1 1,5 - 41 2 s 2,5

Due to traveling wave effects on the line the protection of the equipment by an arrester can be guaranteed only for short distances between arrester and equipment. Simplified estimation of the protective zone *): (LIWV / 1.15) - Upl 2s
xs LIWV Upl s vtw
*) For more detailed information see IEC 60099-5, IEC 60071-1 and IEC 60071-2
xs =
vtw
protective zone [m] standard rated lightning impulse withstand voltage [kV] LI protection level of the arrester [kV] front steepness of the overvoltage [kV/s] (in the range of 1000 kV/s) propagation speed of travelling wave: - 300 m/s (overhead line) (equals c0) - 200 m/s (cable)
Example 1: Distribution network, Um = 24 kV, insulated neutral, arrester of Ur = 30 kV: xs = (125 / 1.15) - 80 21000 300 = 4.3 m
Example 2: Transmission network, Um = 420 kV, effectively earthed, arrester of Ur = 336 kV: xs = (1425 / 1.15) - 823 21000 300 = 62.4 m
- 42 -
Traveling Waves Bewley Diagram
2 3 4
- 43 -
- 44 -
- 45 -
- 46 -
- 47 -
- 48 -
Traveling Waves Application Example: Oscillations

1 2 line with surge impedance Z2 and propagation time 3
Ri<<Z
u1
u2
- 49 -

1 2 line with surge impedance Z2 and propagation time 3
Ri<<Z
u1
u2
r21 =
Z1 Z 2 Ri Z 2 = 1 Z1 + Z 2 Ri + Z 2
r23 =
Z3 Z 2 Z 2 = +1 Z3 + Z 2 + Z 2
- 50 -

1 Ri<<Z u1
r21 = 1
r23 = 1
3 u2
line with surge impedance Z2 and propagation time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10
- 51 -
Ri<<Z
u1
line with surge impedance Z and propagation time
u2
2 1,5
u2
u/u0
1 0,5 0 0 2 4 6 8 10
u1
t/
- 52 -
Traveling Waves Exercise
overhead line
cable ZL1 = 50
OHL L2 = 600 m ZL2 = 500 vL2 = 300 m/s
cable ZL3 = 50
Problem: an overvoltage surge (simplified by a triangular shape as shown above) (upeak = 100 kV, front ramp duration 1 s, total duration 6 s) is arriving from left Task: calculate the voltages at points A and B
- 53 -
Traveling Waves Exercise
overhead line
- 54 -
Traveling Waves
Occurrence of traveling waves / Making use of traveling wave effects energization of a unloaded line propagation of lightning overvoltages on lines propagation of very fast transients in GIS separation effects / protective zone of surge arresters generating and measuring of LI voltages generating rectangular current impulses (energy tests on surge arresters) fault location on cables fault location on light wave guides / optical fibers location of partial discharges in GIS
- 55 -
Making Use of Traveling Waves Effects

Long duration current impulse generator with LC distributed network
=
Long duration current impulse (2,4 ms, 1200 A)
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 1,8 1,6 1,4 1,2 1 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 -0,2
U [kV]
t [ms]
- 56 -
I [kA]

Long duration current impulse generator with LC distributed network U
Ucharge Z, Rdut = Z
I
Ucharge Z, Rdut = Z
t=0
- 57 -

Ucharge Z, Uv = U0/2 Rdut = Z
I
Ucharge Z,
Iv = I0/2Z
Rdut = Z
t>0
- 58 -

I
Ucharge Z,
Iv = I0/2Z
Rdut = Z
t=
- 59 -

I
Ucharge Z,
Iv = I0/2Z
Rdut = Z
t>
- 60 -

I
Ucharge Z,
Iv = I0/2Z
Rdut = Z
t = 2
- 61 -

Long duration current impulse generator with LC distributed network
Long duration current impulse (2.4 ms, 1200 A)
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4
1,8 1,6 1,4 1,2 1 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 -0,2
U [kV]
t [ms]
I [kA]
- 62 -
Traveling Waves Line Discharge
- 63 -

Flow chart acc. to IEC 60071-1 (Figure 1)
[IEC 60071-1]
-1-

Determination of the coordination withstand voltages Ucw The coordination withstand voltages are the lowest values of withstand voltages of each overvoltage class, for which the expected low failure rate of the equipment is not exceeded over its full lifetime. Derived from the representative overvoltages Urp by the coordination factor Kc.
Typical for Germany: 0.1% per year 1 failure in 1000 years
[IEC 60071-1]
-2-
Insulation Strength Characteristics

Factors Factors influencing influencing the the dielectric dielectric strength strength of of the the insulation: insulation:
magnitude, magnitude, shape, shape, duration duration and and polarity polarity of of the the applied applied voltage voltage electric electric field field distribution distribution in in the the insulation insulation homogeneous homogeneous or or non-homogeneous non-homogeneous electric electric field field electrodes electrodes adjacent adjacent to to the the considered considered gap gap and and their their potential potential type type of of insulation insulation gaseous gaseous liquid liquid solid solid combination combination of of two two or or all all of of them them impurity impurity content content and and the the presence presence of of local local inhomogeneities inhomogeneities physical physical state state of of the the insulation insulation temperature temperature pressure pressure other other ambient ambient conditions conditions mechanical mechanical stress stress history history of of the the insulation insulation (aging, (aging, damage) damage) chemical chemical effects effects conductor conductor surface surface effects effects
-3-

Standard atmospheric conditions acc. to IEC 60060-1
Temperature: Pressure: Absolute humidity:
20 C 1013 hPa 3 11 g/m3
-4-

Topics to be covered in the following: Insulators under polluted conditions Probability of flashover (Normal and Weibull distributions) Behavior of parallel insulation Coordination procedure: deterministic and statistical approach Correction with altitude of installation Clearances in air; "gap factors"
-5-
Performance of Insulators under Pollution

Pre-conditions Pre-conditions
Surface layers dust dust carbon carbonblack black salt salt(coastal (coastalareas) areas) chemicals chemicals(industry, (industry,rural ruralareas: areas:fertilizers) fertilizers) no problem in dry condition after long rain periods: only moderate effect on flashover performance most critical: Humidification Humidificationafter aftera along longdry dryperiod period typical time of the day for insulator flashovers: morning hours (due!)
-6-

Development Developmentof ofpollution pollutionflashover flashover
dry zone by inhomogeneity of the layer enlargement of the dry zone by heating of the zone edges (increased current density)
dry band
flashover of the dry band
enlargement of the dry band by arc heating (max. temperature at foot points)
-7-

Development Developmentof ofpollution pollutionflashover flashover
a) with dry bands b) dry bands bridged by partial arcs
voltage drop increased voltage bridged
Voltage distribution
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Formation Formationof ofdry dryzones zones
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Formation Formationof ofdry dryzones zones
Arcing horns or rings
additionally serve for field control
- 10 -

Influence Influenceof oflayer layerconductivity conductivity
Layer resistance = f(t) Partial arc resistance = f(u,t)
u
decreasing layer resistance increasing voltage demand of the partial arc OP4 OP3 OP2 OP1 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t5 t4 t3 t2 t1
partial partialarc arcself selfextinguishes extinguishes
- 11 -

Layer resistance = f(t) Partial arc resistance = f(u,t)
u
decreasing layerresistance OP3 OP4 OP5 increasing voltage demand of the partial arc t5 t4 t3 t2 t1 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
OP2 OP1
Partial Partialarc arcstabilizes stabilizes
- 12 -

Layer Layer conductivity conductivity K K is is the the most most important important parameter! parameter! K = ds
... specific layer conductivity

ds ... thickness of layer
K = 5 S K = 10 S K = 40 S
"light to medium pollution" "medium to heavy pollution" "very heavy pollution"
- 13 -

Determination Determinationof oflayer layerconductivity conductivityfrom from measured measuredconductance conductanceand andinsulator insulatorgeometry geometry
shed core creepage distance lk
Measurement of conductance G of the full insulator

insulator length l
general:
G=
V
l
2 r d s K dG = = dl d l / 2 r
- 14 -

Determination Determinationof oflayer layerconductivity conductivityfrom from measured measuredconductance conductanceand andinsulator insulatorgeometry geometry
G=
K
lk
dl 2 r 0
G ... conductance of total insulator surface
F =
lk
dl 2 r
form formfactor" factor"
(IEC 60507*)) form factor to be determined by graphical procedure, described in IEC 60507
*) IEC 60507, 2nd Ed. 1991-04: "Artificial pollution tests on high-voltage insulators to be used on a.c. systems"
K G K= =F F G
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Decrease Decreasein inflashover flashovervoltage voltageby byconductive conductivelayers layers
fo, rain 0.7 ... 0.9 fo, dry Ufo, polluted 0.2 ... 0.3 Ufo,dry An Anoverhead overheadline lineinsulator insulatormust mustbe bedesigend desigendabout aboutfive fivetimes timesas aslong longas as required requiredto towithstand withstandoperating operatingstresses stressesunder underdry dryconditions! conditions!
Um = 123 kV L-E = 100 kV d = 5 kV/cm l = 20 cm would be sufficient (dry!) Actual length: ca. 1100 mm
- 17 -

Countermeasures Countermeasures
p
Sheds Sheds Terms ... s ... flashover or arcing distance lk ... creepage distance li ... insulator length p ... shed overhang t ... shed spacing
- 18 -

p
Reference m, ,i.e. Referencevalue valueis isU U m i.e. the !! thephase phaseto-phase-voltage to-phase-voltage li derived from required standard lightning impulse voltage strength (ud, LI ca. 5.5 kV/cm) lk from requirement on specific creepage distance (IEC 60815*))
Note: IEC 60815 applicable to porcelain insulators; so far no standard on polymeric insulators available
= 20%
31 31mm/kV mm/kV 25 25mm/kV mm/kV 20 20mm/kV mm/kV 16 16mm/kV mm/kV
for forvery veryheavy" heavy"pollution pollutionseverity severity(IV) (IV) for forheavy" heavy"pollution pollutionseverity severity(III) (III) for for"medium" "medium"pollution pollutionseverity severity(II) (II) for for"light" "light"pollution pollutionseverity severity(I) (I)
*) IEC 60815, 1st Ed. 1986: "Guide for the selection of insulators in respect of polluted conditions"
- 19 -

31 31mm/kV mm/kV 25 25mm/kV mm/kV 20 20mm/kV mm/kV 16 16mm/kV mm/kV for forvery veryheavy" heavy"pollution pollutionseverity severity(IV) (IV) for forheavy" heavy"pollution pollutionseverity severity(III) (III) for for"medium" "medium"pollution pollutionseverity severity(II) (II) for for"light" "light"pollution pollutionseverity severity(I) (I)
Correction of these values necessary depending on insulator's average diameter Dm *) Correction factor kD (derived from service experience):
Dm (mm) < 300 300 - 500 > 500
kD 1 1.1 1.2
*) for definition of Dm see IEC 60815

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- 21 -

IEC IEC60815, 60815,Table Table1 1
Pollution level Examples of typical environments - Areas without industries and with low density of houses equipped with heating plants - Areas with low density of industries or houses but subjected to frequent winds and/or rainfall 1) - Agricultural areas - Mountainous areas All these areas shall be situated at least 10 km to 20 km from the sea and shall not be exposed to winds directly from the sea 2) - Areas with industries not producing particularly polluting smoke and/or with average density of houses equipped with heating plants - Areas with high density of houses and/or industries but subjected to frequent winds and/or rainfall - Areas exposed to wind from the sea but not too close to the coast (at least several 2) kilometres distant) - Areas with high density of industries and suburbs of large cities with high density of heating plants producing pollution - Areas close to the sea or in any case exposed to relatively strong winds from the sea 2) - Areas generally of moderate extent, subjected to conductive dusts and to industrial smoke producing particularly thick conductive deposits - Areas generally of moderate extent, very close to the coast and exposed to sea-spray or to very strong and polluting winds from the sea - Desert areas, characterized by no rain for long periods, exposed to strong winds carrying sand and salt, and subjected to regular condensation
I - Light
II - Medium
III - Heavy
IV - Very heavy
1) Use of fertilizers by spraying, or the burning of crop residues, can lead to a higher pollution level due to dispersal by wind. 2) Distances from sea coast depend on the topography of the coastal area and on the extreme wind conditions.
- 22 -

Shed Shedprofiles profiles
IEC 60815
Some Sometypical typicalshed shedprofiles profiles(from (fromIEC IEC60815; 60815;explanation explanationof ofthe theparameters parameterssee seethere). there). From Fromleft leftto toright: right:normal normalshed shedprofile, profile,alternating alternatingshed shedprofile, profile,underrib underribsheds sheds(fog (fogprofile), profile), cap-and-pin cap-and-pininsulators insulators
- 23 -

c 30 mm p1 p2 15 mm s/p1 0.65 (in case of plain, non-underripped sheds) lx/dx < 5 C.F. 3.5 (pollution classes I + II) 4 (pollution classes III + IV)
C.F.= creepage factor = lt/st lt = total creepage distance st = arcing distance (arcing horns not considered)
Recommendations of IEC 60815 - Example
IEC 60815
- 24 -

Recommendations of IEC 60815 - Example
5 specified No specification for bottom side angle; however, 2 "advisable" in case of sheds without underribs
IEC 60815
- 25 -

Example of user's experience
From: Raouf Znaidi: "Service Experience and Maintenance Requirements for Different Types of Insulators in Tunisia", World Congress on Insulators, Arresters and Bushings, Hong Kong, Nov. 27-30, 2005
- 26 -

Manufacturing Manufacturingprocess processof ofporcelain porcelaininsulators insulators
Production of the green bodies with a vacuum extruder
Electric drying
Machining (forming the sheds)
Drying
Glazing
Firing
Cementing of flanges
- 27 -

Cleaning, Cleaning,greasing, greasing,coating coatingof ofinsulators insulators
Some particular sites require regular cleaning of the insulators. Extreme Extremesituation: situation: Maritime Maritimedesert desertclimate climatewith withindustrial industrialpollution pollution (e.g.: (e.g.:petrochemical petrochemicalfacilities facilitiesin inSaudi-Arabia) Saudi-Arabia) But also in Middle Europe in the vicinity of industrial facilities (steel works, petrochemistry)
- 28 -

Live Livewashing washingof ofinsulators insulators
Live Livewashing washingof ofaa123-kV123-kVtransformer incl. arresters transformer incl. arresters
Important: de-ionized water high pressure instantaneous wetting short duration (e.g. 10 min)
- 29 -

- 30 -

- 31 -

also by helicopters
- 32 -

Regular cleaning increases cost of operation
Greasing Greasing(silicone (siliconegrease) grease) Coating Coating(RTV (RTVsilicone) silicone)
Limited endurance and effectiveness!

- 33 -

Insulator with old, crusted grease layer

- 34 -

Composite Compositeinsulators insulators
FRP core extruded SIR sheath
Shed material: EPDM (Ethylene-PropyleneDiene-Monomer) only in distribution Silicone rubber (SIR)

crimped-on metal end fitting push-over SIR sheds
introduced in the beginning of the 1970s today virtually" state of the art problems": long time performance not yet clear, "brittle fracture", animal attacks
- 35 -

Manufacturing Manufacturingprocess processof ofcomposite compositeinsulators insulators(here: (here:injection injectionmolding) molding)
1. 2. 3.
Verpressung Crimping theArmaturen metallic end und Glasfaserkunstoffstab fittings onto the FRP core
Routine-Zugprfung Routine tensile test
Aufsprhen Haftvermittler Application of conditioner
4.
5.
6.
Injection molding with SIR Direktumgu mit Silikon (RTV, LSR)

Mounting arcing rings Montage the Abschirmringe
Seetchtige Verpackung
- 36 -
Packing for overseas transportation
From an EPRI Questionnaire in North America (publ. in 2003)
- 37 -
- 38 -
compare this with the "bathtub curve"of failure no evidence for aging
- 39 -
- 40 -
- 41 -

Hydrophobicity Hydrophobicity
One of the most important properties of composite insulators with regard to pollution performance is Hydrophobicity Hydrophobicity
- 42 -

Receding Receding angle angle = = most most important important for for characterization characterization of of hydrophobicity hydrophobicity
Advancing angle
Properties change under the influence of electrical field actual research!
- 43 -

Draft IEC 62073 Hydrophobicity classes*)
*) Based on the "STRI Guide" (of STRI, Ludvika/Sweden)

- 44 -

Silicone Siliconerubber rubberas asinsulator insulatormaterial material
Hydrophobicity Hydrophobicityonly onlywith withsilicone siliconerubber rubber Hydrophobicity Hydrophobicitytransfer transferto topollution pollutionlayers layers Dynamics Dynamicsof ofhydrophobicity hydrophobicity Excellent Excellenttracking trackingresistance resistance Excellent Excellentservice servicerecord recordso sofar far(only (onlyfew fewexceptions exceptionswhere wheresilicone siliconerubber rubberis isnot notoptimal, optimal, e.g. e.g.under underextreme extremecoastal coastalconditions, conditions,i.e. i.e.heavy heavysalt saltlayers) layers)
- 45 -
Weather Aging Tests for Polymeric Insulators

Natural NaturalTest TestSites Sites
Realistic test conditions, but no acceleration factors long test times necessary (several years) "(In)famous" test sites: Koeburg, RSA (Atlantic Ocean) Dungeness, UK (The Channel) Martiguez, F (Mediterranean Sea)
*)
*) NOTE: often the term NCI = non ceramic insulators is being used
Example: Koeburg, RSA

- 46 -

Natural NaturalTest TestSites Sites
Example: Dungeness, UK (Excursion 2002)

- 47 -

The The"Tracking "Trackingand andErosion ErosionTest" Test"acc. acc.to toIEC IEC61109 61109
Similar test procedures specified e.g. for surge arresters (IEC 60099-4) and for polymeric insulators (IEC document 36/213/CDV: Project IEC 62217)
- 48 -

Examples of test chambers

- 49 -

Tracking Erosion
- 50 -

Cyclic CyclicTests Tests
Cyclic tests usually consist in applying, in addition to voltage stress, various stresses in a cyclic manner: - solar radiation simulation; - artificial rain; - dry heat; - damp heat (near saturation); - high dampness at room temperature (saturation has to be obtained); - salt fog at low concentration. Furthermore, temperature variations may cause some degree of mechanical stress, especially at the level of insulator interfaces and also give rise to condensation phenomena, which are repeated several times in the course of a cycle. For power frequency test voltage, a test transformer shall be used. The test circuit when loaded with a resistive current of 250 mA (r.m.s.) on the high voltage side shall experience a maximum voltage drop of 5 %. The protection level shall be set at 1 A (r.m.s.). Problem: Problem: no no general general agreement agreement on on one one particular particular test! test!
Examples next slides:

- 51 -

Practical test problem: rain and solar radiation at the same time!
- 52 -

- 53 -

"EPRI" cycle: a year in service is considered to be represented by 10 days of summer cycle and 11 days of winter cycle. A duration of 5040 h is required for the whole test, 10 summer/winter cycles of 21 days each.
- 54 -

"Silicone "SiliconeBonus" Bonus"
For NCIs with permanent (recovering) hydrophobic characteristics a "silicone bonus" may be applied as a reduction factor of creepage distance (C.D.) compared with ceramic insulators:
Class Class1 1: : 70 70% % 75 75% %of ofC.D. C.D.of ofceramic ceramicinsulators insulators Class Class2 2: : 80 80% %of ofC.D. C.D.of ofceramic ceramicinsulators insulators(not (notapplicable applicablein incoastal coastalareas!) areas!) Class Class3 3: : same sameC.D. C.D.as asfor forceramic ceramicinsulators insulators Class Class4 4: : in ingeneral, general,application applicationof ofNCI NCIshould shouldbe becarefully carefullychecked checkedfor foreach each individual individualapplication application
- 55 -
Performance of Polymeric Insulators

Other problems ....
Moss, algea
- 56 -

Other problems .... Animal attack (parrots, cockattoos, termites) Example: Example: Australia Australia
- 57 -

Other problems .... Animal attack (parrots, cockattoos, termites) Example: Example: Australia Australia
- 58 -

Brittle Brittlefracture fracture
Countermeasures: ECR glass (electro-chemical resistant) quality of sealing at triple point field stress reduction by grading rings
From: M. Kuhl: "FRP Rods for Brittle Fracture Resistant Composite Insulators", http://www.lappinsulator.com/downloadcenter/technical.asp Fachgebiet Hochspannungstechnik
- 59 -

Artificial Artificialpollution pollutiontests tests
IEC IECstandard standard60507 60507 2 different methods: Salt Saltfog fogmethod method Solid Solidlayer layermethod method
- 60 -

Salt Saltfog fogmethod method
Test Testspecimen specimenenergized energizedat atoperating operatingvoltage voltageunder underconductive conductivesalt saltfog fogexposure exposure
3 3 Salt und224 224kg/m kg/m3 Saltmass massconcentration concentrationbetween between2.5 2.5kg/m kg/m3und
(1 kg/m3 corresponds to 1 g/l) Test Testspecimen specimenmust mustnot notflash flashover overwithin withina aspecified specifiedtime timeof ofexposure exposure Classification Classificationby bywithstand withstandsalt saltmass massconcentration concentration
- 61 -

Solid Solidlayer layermethod method
Solid Solidlayer layerof ofspecified specifiedconductivity conductivityis isapplied appliedin inwet wetcondition conditionand anddried dried Layer Layerconductivity conductivitybetween between3 3S Sand and80 80S S
2 2 Salt and0.60 0.60mg/cm mg/cm2 SaltDeposit DepositDensity Density(SDD) (SDD)between between0.03 0.03mg/cm mg/cm2and
Test Testspecimen specimenis isenergized energizedin ina acold cold fog fogchamber chamberand andthen thenexposed exposedto to humidity humidity
Test Testspecimen specimenis isexposed exposedto to humidity humidityin ina acold coldfog fogchamber chamber and andthen thenenergized energized
Test Testspecimen specimenmust mustnot notflash flashover overwithin withina aspecified specifiedtime timeof ofexposure exposure Classification Classificationby bywithstand withstandlayer layerconductivity conductivityor orwithstand withstandsalt saltdeposit depositdensity density
- 62 -

Artificial Artificialpollution pollutiontests tests
Correlation between pollution level, recommended creepage distance and artificial pollution test parameters:
- 63 -

Radial RadialField FieldStress Stressunder underPollution Pollution
Arises if there is an internal active part with a given, constant axial voltage distribution; risk of internal PD in case of internal gas volume puncture in case of pure solid insulation
MO-Scheiben MO discs
MO column Gas or solid Solid Conductive layer
Uaxial, int Uradial

Photo: PD in a porcelain housed surge arrester
- 64 -
Porzellangehuse-Innenwand porcelain housing, inner wall


Dielectric Dielectricand andThermal ThermalEffects Effects
Example: 800-kV surge arrester
Outer Outersurface surfacedischarges discharges Internal Internalpartial partial discharges discharges changesin ininternal internal changes atmosphere atmosphere risk riskof ofdeterioration deterioration of all internal of all internalparts parts Risk Riskof ofpartial partialheating heatingof of internal active elements internal active elements
Risk Riskof ofexternal externalflashovers flashovers
Risk Riskof ofpartial partial heating ofinternal internal heatingof active elements active elements
- 65 -
Emerging Insulator Standards
From: Claude de Tourreil: "New IEC standards: their Impact on future Selection of Composite Insulators", World Congress on Insulators, Arresters and Bushings, Hong Kong, Nov. 2730, 2005 Fachgebiet Hochspannungstechnik
- 66 -

Sobretensiones y Coordinacione de Aislamiento

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Sobretensiones y Coordinacione de Aislamiento

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What is insulation coordination?

What is insulation coordination?

What are the fundamentals of insulation coordination?

What are the fundamentals of insulation coordination?

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination in Power Systems

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Volker Hinrichsen Dipl.-Ing. Simona Feier-Iova

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

What is Insulation Coordination?

Definition Definition in in IEEE IEEE 1313.1 1313.1

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Fundamentals of Insulation Coordination

Possible voltages without arresters Magnitude of (over-)voltage / p.u.

Withstand voltage of equipment

Voltages limited by arresters

Time duration of (over-)voltage

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

What is Insulation Coordination?

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Insulation Coordination - Principles

Overvoltage protection devices Environment

stress versus strength

Insulation Coordination - Principles Voltages of the system

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Insulation Coordination - Principles Overvoltages

Dielectric strength of insulation

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Insulation Coordination - Principles

Standardized Standardized setups setups and and conditions conditions

Variety Variety of of environmental environmental conditions conditions

Standardized Standardized environmental environmental conditions conditions

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Insulation Coordination - Principles

Insulation phase - ground

Insulation phase - phase

busbar disconnectors line

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Insulation Coordination according to IEC 60071-1 (and 60071-2)

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Insulation Coordination according to IEC 60071-1 (and 60071-2)

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Insulation Coordination according to IEC 60071-1 (and 60071-2)

...39 ...39 pages pages in in sum sum

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Insulation Coordination according to IEC 60071-1 (and 60071-2)

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Insulation Coordination according to IEC 60071-1 (and 60071-2)

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Insulation Coordination according to IEC 60071-1 (and 60071-2)

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 1

Insulation Coordination according to IEC 60071-1 (and 60071-2)