A Verdant Paradise in the Concrete Jungle: The Significance of Olmsteds Central Park in the Development of American Civic Culture

Raney Christine Russell

American Culture 592: Research/Creative Project First Reader: Robert L. Houbeck, Jr. Second Reader: Dr. Frederic Svoboda December 7, 2012

Russell 2 Contents

1. 2.

An Overview A Brief History 2.1. Frederick Law Olmsted: A Genius of Space 2.2. Calvert Vaux: Architect & Urban Planner 2.3. Olmsted and Vaux Unite: The Greensward Design

3-4 4-9 9-11 11-12 12-14 14 14-15 15 16-17 17 17-19 19-21 21-22 22-23 24-26 27-29

3.

Controversy 3.1. Pro-Olmsted 3.2. Pro-Vaux 3.3. The Winner

4.

The Parks Importance 4.1. Impact on American Culture 4.2. Impact on Urban Planning

5. 6. 7. 8.

Involvement In Closing Works Cited Figures

Russell 3 1. An Overview [Central Park] is of great importance as the first real park made in the countrya democratic development of the highest significance and on the success of which, in my opinion, much of the progress of art and esthetic culture in this country is dependent. Frederick Law Olmsted, August 1, 1858 Central Park is by far the most famous park in America; possibly the most well-known park in the world. It was named a historical landmark by United States Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall in May, 1963 (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 505). Each year Central Park is flooded with over thirty-five million visitors (Fisher 27). Established in the center of busy Manhattan, its grounds serve as a sanctuary to wildlife and most notably throngs of birds. Within the park athletes, artists, dreamers, musicians, and families seek refuge from the busy city streets. Central Park is a staggering eight hundred and forty-three acres; it runs north to south from 110th Street to 59th Street and east to west from 5th Avenue to Central Park West [8th Avenue] (Reiss 5). Set off through the park at 59th Street and Columbus Circle; within minutes the cacophonous sounds of the city fade and one is transported into a lush haven of blissful peace. At two and one-half miles long and a half mile wide, Central Park contains fiftyeight miles of pathways, twenty-six ball-fields, twenty-one playgrounds, nine-thousand park benches, fifty-five monuments and sculptures, thirty-six bridges and seven bodies of water (Miller 12-13). Central Park seems so natural people may not realize it is entirely man-made, handcrafted by landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted. How did this historical landmark come to be, and why was it so important for the early inhabitants of this fast-paced city? Not only has Central Park has played a very important role in American Culture, its conception has impacted urban development and brought into the American consciousness that parks can have a

Russell 4 vital impact on our cities. Among these, topics examined within this dissertation include: a chronicle of Central Parks origins, the parks landscape and architectural design plan Greensward, the controversy surrounding its design team, an analysis and discussion of the parks importance, and keys to involvement with Central Park. 2. A Brief History In September 1609, Henry Hudson and his diminutive crew were not looking to establish a port citythey were trying to find a new route to China. Hudson, native to England, and his group, comprised of both Dutch and English men, were sailing on behalf of the Dutch East India Company; which had given them the task of finding a new route to China via the Arctic Circle (Sanderson 10). Mannahatta (see figure 1), or Island of Many Hills, was home to the Lenape Algonquin Indians, countless animals, birds, and fish; and it would be considered [if left intact] today to have more environmental communities than any national park, including Yellowstone or Yosemite (Sanderson 10). The awe-inspiring landscape that Hudson stumbled upon would remain intact nearly two hundred years. Lincoln Diamants Chaining the Hudson: The Fight for the River in the American Revolution relates Ambrose Serles vivid description of the British assault on Manhattan during the American Revolution on September 15, 1776: Awful & grand; I might say, beautiful, but for the melancholy seriousness which must attend every circumstance, where the lives of men, even the basest malefactors, are at stake. The hills, the woods, the river, the town, the ships, pillars of smokeso terrible and incessant a roar of guns, few even in the Army & Navy had ever heard beforeall heightened by a most clear & delightful morning, furnished the finest landscape that either art and nature combined could draw, or the imagination conceive (55).

Russell 5 In 1776, with more than thirty thousand inhabitants, New York City was the second largest city in the American colonies; larger than Boston, and a few thousand inhabitants short of the size of Philadelphia (Sanderson 43). Apparently, in 1776, the city still had an attractive, lush landscape. It became clear to New York City officials by 1800 that the expanding citys industrial future was imminent. The location of Manhattan on the mouth of the Hudson River, coupled with its central location on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, gave the city a strategic advantage over other coastal cities (Heckscher 7). Additionally, between 1800 and 1850, New Yorks population increased significantly, with more than half a million migrants arriving between 1830 and 1850 alone. Immigrants from Germany and Ireland brought the citys space issues to the forefront. In some cases, more than one hundred thousand people were occupying no more than one square mile (Martin 126). As immigrants continued to arrive by the boatload, the city grew and, as a result, its green space disappeared. The introduction of the steam-powered ship alerted city officials to the need for further expansion. Thus began the development of the renowned simple grid plan (Heckscher 9) for the city streets of Manhattan; twelve north-south avenues, all one-hundred feet wide, and onehundred east-west streets, fifteen to be the width of avenues and one-hundred forty to be sixty feet wide (Heckscher 8), visitors to New York City will recognize the grid plan, which is still utilized today. This inevitable expansion continued during the 1810s and 1820s, and in 1825 the Erie Canal opened, driving even more commerce into the city. By 1833, the traffic complications were so vast that the legislature had no choice but to authorize two new avenues (Madison and Lexington) to be inserted into the grid plan (Heckscher 9). By this time, the citys industrialized position was clear, and it was obvious to many that nature had no part in that

Russell 6 future. In 1850, the Island of Manhattan had a total of seventeen parks, none of which were large and together totaled a mere one hundred and sixty-five acres (Martin 127). The first call for a central park in New York City dates back to 1785; which appeared in an anonymous letter that was sent to the mayor, signed only Veritas (Martin 126). Beyond that, the idea of a great park has been linked initially to Robert Bowne Minturn who, after traveling abroad, conversed with his peers about the differences between New York and the great cities in Europe (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 17). During these conversations Minturn often discussed the need for a large park for walking and driving (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 16) citing this as a major divergence between America and Europe. The community and business leaders of New York agreed, citing a park as a defining characteristic of sophistication and culture (Miller 19). In spite of this, the flood of immigrants, new cultures, and diseases made residents of New York feel alienated and out of place (Miller 18): This made the proposal of a public park, which would integrate all of New Yorks inhabitants, unwelcome to most. Rosenzweig and Blackmar extensively explore the importance and motivation behind the emergence of Central Park: Central Park thus emerged out of a complex mix of motivationsto make money, to display the citys cultivation, to lift up the poor, to refine the rich, to advance commercial interest, to retard commercial development, to improve public health, to curry political favor, to provide jobs. No single individual either conceived or carried through the massive public project that, in the end, cost more than ten-million dollars (three times the citys budget in 1850) and took more than eight hundred acres out of

Russell 7 [what is now] the most expensive and intensely competitive real estate market in the United States (18). The true champions behind the advance of the great new park were William Cullen Bryant [for which Bryant Park, also in New York, was named] and Andrew Jackson Downing (Heckscher 11). William Cullen Bryant was the editor of the New York Evening Post. In 1844 he would compose an editorial titled A New Park, in which he called for a park to use for pleasure, recreation, and shade (Heckscher 11). Bryant would go on about the central park idea, lamenting the existence of the small parks, claiming they were such a dreadfully small space of open ground for an immense city (Martin 127). Bryant and his editors attempted to convince the community that a large park would be conducive to good health, and vowed there would be fewer inducements to open drinking houses (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 24-26). Similarly, as Minturn and Bryant before him, Andrew Jackson Downing (see figure 2) was embarrassed by Americas lack of outdoor culture. Downing argued that What are called parks in New York, are not even apologies for the thing; they are only squares or paddocks (Heckscher 12). Downing believed that a large landscaped park would give New Yorkers a public display of their city and nations cultural achievements (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 30). After all, Downing was considered an expert in this field, as he was the popular and persuasive editor of the Horticulturist (Heckscher 11) and a huge proponent of the art of landscape gardening, modernly known as landscape architecture. Furthermore, Downing would go on to introduce the very men who would transform the idea of a central park into a reality; Calvert Vaux and Frederick Law Olmsted. The pleas for a great park did not fall on deaf ears. In 1850, both candidates for mayor of New York called for the creation of a large park (Martin 127). Downing was thrilled; in the

Russell 8 August issue of the Horticulturist he addressed the mayors support of the idea, pleased that finally the city had awakened and realized the park was necessary (Heckscher 14). Unfortunately, Downing would not live to see the parks inception, nor even the chosen design. In July of 1852, the thirty-seven-year-old Downing drowned off the coast of New York in a gallant attempt to save a friends life (Kowsky 51). The first spot to receive serious consideration for the placement of the park was Jones Wood, a hundred-fifty acre stretch along the east river (Martin 128). The grass was lush and green and had rolling hills; it was the perfect spot for a park but unfortunately the owners refused to sell (Martin 128). The special committee for the park began looking into other areas of Manhattan. In 1853, after three years of deliberation over the park site and cost, the state legislature authorized the City of New York to use the power of eminent domain to acquire more than seven-hundred acres of land in the center of Manhattan (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 7879). However, this land would prove to be far more unsuitable for a park than that of Jones Wood. An uneven terrain of swamps and outcroppings of large rocks, punctuated by large reservoirs, made the land between 5th and 8th Avenues and 59th and 106th Streets [Central Park would later be expanded to 110th Street, in1863] undesirable for private development; but at least it was centralized (Martin 128). A central park would allow visitors easy access from different parts of the city. Finally, on July 21, 1853, the city passed The Central Park Act, which declared the centralized land to be a public place in like manner as if the same had been laid out by the commissioners of 1807 (Heckscher 15). However, by the fall of 1853, New York City still did not have a majestic landscaped park only a law authorizing one. But before the rocks and reservoirs covering the two and a half miles between 59th and 106th Streets could be transformed

Russell 9 into an attractive, natural looking park, New York City would need to purchase the land, finance that procurement, and remove the people who resided there. The inhabitants were mostly impoverished immigrants, crowded into one-room cabins and rickety shanties (Martin 129). The local government would not confiscate the land of its residents, but would take on the property through a judicial procedure and only after payment of suitable compensation (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 59). Records show that the city paid $5,169,369.90 for a total of 7,250 lots (Martin 129). The West Egg internet inflation calculator indicates that the value of what the city paid in 1853 would be equivalent to $137,665,173.11 in 2011. 2.1. Frederick Law Olmsted: A Genius of Space I have all my life been considering distant effects and always sacrificing immediate success and applause to that future. Frederick Law Olmsted Frederick Law Olmsted (see figure 3), known variously as Fred, or Fred-Law, was born in Hartford, Connecticut, on April 26, 1822 (Martin 6). Olmsted wandered aimlessly through early adulthood trying to find his niche in life. His father, a well-off business owner, was up in arms about Olmsteds lack of enthusiasm in establishing himself. After working in Brooklyn at a silk shop and taking a position as a sailor, he finally found himself. Olmsted wanted to be a farmer making a difference (Martin, 47). Although scientific farming was Olmsteds passion, he was very excited to be introduced to the famous agricultural gardener, Andrew Jackson Downing. The two men enjoyed conversing about Downings newly published encyclopedic Fruits and Fruit Trees of America (Rybczynski 66). Olmsteds knowledge of farming and agriculture apparently made a good impression, because Downing asked him to keep in touch (Rybczynski 66); Downings publication, The Horticulturist, would be the first to publish Olmsteds writing. As Olmsted continued his

Russell 10 farming and writing he would eventually stumble upon a new career. He would find backbreaking work as a surveyor for the City of New York. Ideally, Andrew Jackson Downing, the leading American landscape gardener of the midnineteenth century (Martin 130), would have been the prime choice for the parks commencement and design. However, his death made that impossible; enter Colonel Egbert Ludovicus Viele, elected as chief engineer of Central Park (Martin 131). Viele was an engineer and a veteran of the Mexican War; he was commissioned to do typographical surveys and get a lay of the land (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 100). In contrast, Viele presented his own design for the completion of Central Park in his first annual report to the city commissioners (Heckscher 20). Vieles plan was said to be pragmatic and naturalistic with few architectural embellishments (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 101). While Vieles ideas were mediocre at best, they were met with little criticism. The governing committee which would oversee the design building of the Central Park was ultimately established in April, 1857 (Heckscher 20). As a surveyor for this committee Olmsteds position was under the chief engineer, Viele; but soon, Olmsted would be earning the same amount as Colonel Viele. Olmsted would win the trust of the committee by showcasing his superior skills in landscaping and taking control of his responsibilities (Rybczynski 160). Just two months after the plans were presented unchallenged, Colonel Vieles proposal was rejected by the board, but he was allowed to maintain his position as chief engineer (Heckscher 20). However, the committee decided to reorganize its senior management; the position of Superintendent of the Central Park, second only to Viele, was given to Olmsted. Frederick Law Olmsteds big break was yet to come in the form of an acquaintance, Calvert Vaux, to whom he had been introduced years prior by Andrew Jackson Downing. Moreover, 1857 would turn out

Russell 11 to be a pivotal year for both Olmsted and Vaux; it would also spark a debate that still rages today. 2.2. Calvert Vaux: Architect & Urban Planner [But as] what is well designed to nourish the body and enliven the spirits through the stomach, makes a dinner a dinner, so what is well designed to recreate the mind from urban oppressions through the eye, make the Park the Park. Calvert Vaux, 1872 Calvert Vaux (see figure 4), was born in London, England on December 20, 1824 (Alex and Tatum, 1). The day he met Andrew Jackson Downing, the man whom many in the Colonies considered the highest authority on all matters of gardening and cultivation, Vaux made the decision to leave England (Kowsky 11). The man who is credited with coining the term landscape architecture (Alex and Tatum, 10), Calvert Vaux studied traditional architecture and worked in the stables for the Queen before relocating to America (Kowsky 15). Upon arriving in the Colonies, Downing and Vaux began working on architecture projects together and would go on to publish Villas and Cottages which would showcase the teams designs (Alex and Tatum 46) and was a huge success. Tragedy struck, and Downings premature death put an end to the first part of Vauxs American career. If Calvert Vaux had not felt that Colonel Vieles plan for the Central Park was undistinguished and unworthy, of his idol Andrew Jackson Downing, there is a good possibility that Vieles plan for the park would have been implemented (Heckscher 20). In criticizing Colonel Viele's plan, Vaux stressed its lack of an artistic conception that would give shape and coherence to the observer's experience (Kowsky 92-93) Vieles plans did not consist of any type of landscape architecture. The goal of Vaux's entire professional career had been to arrange useful and necessary forms and to suggest the pleasant ideas of harmonious

Russell 12 proportion, fitness, and agreeable variety to the eye (Alex and Tatum 107) therefore, Central Park would be no different. Vaux, who had pointed out the artistic limitations of Viele's plan to Republican acquaintances on the board, carried the further distinction of having been the partner of Downing (Heckscher 20) so Vieles plan, which had been fairly unimpeded, was now beginning to be questioned. 2.3. Olmsted and Vaux Unite: The Greensward Design Calvert Vaux was heard by the board that decided to announce a competition for the design of Central Park, which would be open to the public (Martin 138). The entrants would be competing against Colonel Vieles plan. The challenge held a first prize of $2,000. The West Egg internet inflation calculator indicates that $2,000 in 1857 would be the equivalent to roughly $50,000, in 2011. The chance meeting with Frederick Law Olmsted years earlier, through their mutual friend Andrew Jackson Downing would spur, Vaux into seeking Olmsted out and requesting his partnership in submitting a joint entry in the competition (Alex and Tatum 107). Olmsted was hesitant; the thought of a contest in which he would be competing against his boss was not a very welcome thought (Martin 138). Although apparently the worrying was unnecessary, because when Olmsted consulted with Viele he simply shrugged at the idea (Rybczynski 163)the dream team was meant to be. Before the competition, both men had encouraged government support of culture and the arts, and they viewed a central park as one community institution that could enhance the lives of its citizens. Central Park would also be a democratic institution by virtue of the mixing of classes within its borders; it was a park for the people. Therefore, the premise of their Greensward (see figure 5) plan was that Central Park should express an all-encompassing artistic motive (Martin 142). The partners envisaged the future Central Park as a collaboration of

Russell 13 landscape art. Plus, the name seemed very fitting; greensward is defined as being archaic or literary, fresh green turf, or an area of such turf (Greensward). The Greensward plan itself suggested what individuals from all social walks of life would do there: admire the artistically landscaped scenery, enjoy the scene of the crowds on the promenade, and engage in leisurely activities and competitive sports. There were a total of thirty-three submissions; of those, seventeen entrants were from New York City, and four more from outlying areas; twelve, including Olmsted and Viele, were employed in the park in some capacity (Heckscher 21). A few of the entries were unprofessional, unfitting, or halfhearted, and were barley given a second look. Out of the submissions, the top five were chosen, none of which were Colonel Vieles (Martin 143). Nevertheless, Olmsted and Vaux won. Their Greensward design was simply the best plan and presentation. In fact, the board did not even mind that the entry was technically a day late (Martin 143). Their tardiness was due to the teams unrelenting attention to detail and the commission appreciated that! So they began to build Central Park, but it was a harrowing process. At the height of construction, between 1859 and 1860, the team had as many as thirty-six hundred labors working each day (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 160-161). Roughly two hundred and fifty tons of gunpowder was used to flatten the outcropping rocks, more than would be used at the battle of Gettysburg (Martin 148-149). Thousands of trees were planted, tons of grass seed scattered, and a shocking number of trenches were dug in forty foot intervals around the park (Martin 149). Finally, in 1866, after more than seven years of back-breaking work and decades of outcry, Central Park was completed. The board declared publicly since the industrious population of New York has been wise enough to require it, and rich enough to pay for it, [we personally] extend to each

Russell 14 citizen a rightful welcome (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 199). And so from the beginning Central Park was tremendously popular (Heckscher 71). 3. Controversy Most historians of Central Park have stressed the distinctive brilliance of one man, Frederick Law Olmsted, allowing his co-designer, Calvert Vaux, to fade from view. This could be due to the fact that the actual construction of the park was divided functionally. Vaux handled all the structures, including pavilions, boathouses, and bridges; Olmsted handled all the rest. Vaux himself gave complete artistic control over to Olmsted and deferred to him in all areas of landscape and agricultural decisions. In May of 1858, when the Central Park commissioners bestowed the singular title of architect-in-chief on Olmsted, who at the time was working as superintendent, and began paying Vaux daily as his assistant, Vaux was irked, to say the least (Martin 332-333). Olmsted was made the face of Central Park by the board. It was nearly twenty years after he and Vaux submitted the Greensward design, when his work on Central Park was officially done (Martin 333); he would remain forever protective of his creation. 3.1. Pro-Olmsted Frederick Law Olmsted felt like a father to Central Park, and in a way he was. Robert Smithson, spokesman for the movement of earthwork, said that Olmsted throws a whole new light on the nature of American art as Americas first earthwork artist (Miller 9). Olmsted told Vaux in a letter that he felt had he not been superintendent and architect-in-chief, their design would not have been implemented correctly (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 141). Olmsted was a fierce protector of his landscape architecture, it was his art.

Russell 15 Olmsted told Vaux that if he did not show his own instinctive devotion and enthusiasm there would be no respect in the project for him (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 142). In his last letter to Vaux, Olmsted would claim that while he appreciated Vauxs artistic work, the managing of the construction as well as the design and plant life in the grounds, was a far harder burden to bear than lack of awareness surrounding Vauxs collaboration (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 148149). 3.2. Pro-Vaux Vaux is championed as being the genius behind the park by Andrew Green who acknowledged that Vaux especially had the idea and the concept for the innovation (Miller 95). Apparently Vaux felt the same; in a very angry letter to Olmsted in 1865 he wrote that Olmsted was like Napoleon in disguise a selfish fellow who would like to get power and reputation on other mens brains (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 148). If Olmsted worked alone, the Greensward plan would not have included some of its most distinguishing features (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 122). The structures, boathouses, and bridges were all thanks to Calvert Vaux. Bethesda Terrace is arguably one of the most important works within Central Park; it contributes to the parks status as a work of art (Miller 36). This was Vauxs architectural masterpiece (see figure 6). In the recent years there has been some backlash against Olmsted; gardening writer and parks advocate M. M. Graff thinks that Vaux should be credited as the principal designer of his joint projects with Olmsted (Morrone 72). Graff claims that Olmsted could not draw and was a dismal writer (Morrone 73). Some historians say that without Vaux at his side Olmsted would only be remembered as a journalist and an author (Morrone 73) who wrote about farming and landscape architecture.

Russell 16 3.3. The Winner Most people refer to Central Park as Olmsteds. However, among historians of American landscape architecture, a war rages between those who feel Calvert Vaux is the true genius behind the parks design, and those who believe that if not for Olmsted, the park would not have the perfect balance of plants and trees that make it so important (Morrone 72). However, the Olmsted industry emerged. Olmsted ran the most successful landscape architecture firm in the world; he had a hand in creating or created parks across the nation, parks like Central Park, which if never existed would be inconceivable (Morrone 72). These parks include: Belle Isle Park in Detroit, Civic Center Park in Denver, and Prospect Park in Brooklyn. Olmsted also designed over thirty academic campuses including: Auburn University in Alabama, Cornell University in New York, Stanford University in California, and Yale University in Connecticut. Olmsteds sons were also landscape architects and they continued his dynasty. A major testament to the foresight of Olmsted was the environments he created in Central Park. Frederick Law Olmsted was an expert in constructing an ecosystem of various trees, shrubs, and bushes when building the park. He knew that Central Park would be utilized for many different things; and he was right as there are a myriad of daily events that take place in Central Park. One of the more odd events is hosted by Wildman Steve Brill. Brill is the selfproclaimed Americas Best Known Forager. Foraging is to essentially wander in search of food or provisions. Steve Brill gives edible tours of Central Park. Brill is a very interesting character and very joyful about his foraging. Steve Brills favorite park to take his tours on is Central Park, which he does every two weeks. When asked why Central Park, the Wildman stated, What makes Central Park so unique is its an Olmsted Park. Olmsted was a talented

Russell 17 planner; he created many different areas with many different types of plant life, inside Central Park (Interview, 2009). Frederick Law Olmsted responded to the fast-moving industrial development and urbanization not by setting aside wilderness, but by preserving for city people a vestige (Fisher 28), of an agricultural tribute to the pastoral gardens of England. Olmsted believed parks would educate and civilize citizens, that they would provide physical and spiritual blessings to people from tenements and sweatshops as well as those from expensive mansions (Frederick Law Olmsted). He felt that all people could meet and socialize in his parks, thus disabling the barriers of social class and wealth. In his heart, Olmsted believed parks had the power to uplift humankind. 4. The Parks Importance Central Park has had very significant effects on both American culture and urban development. It has come to be known as a democratic emblem of America, which was Olmsteds vision. Numerous historical events have taken place inside the large park and those memories have hold on American consciousness. Central Park is considered a work of art, a park so large and beautiful its hard to believe it is entirely man-made. Famous people have lived near Central Park and numerous movies and television shows have filmed there. Given that Central Park was the first urban park in America, it has had a huge impact on how the local government looks at parks as revenue boosters. Parks have a positive effect on property values, which improves local economies. 4.1. Impact on American Culture Central Park is a democratic emblem, but its existence was hardly inevitable.

Russell 18 From the very beginning Olmsted and Vaux idealized landscape had to accommodate not just city dwellers need for quiet and the contemplation of scenic vistas but also New Yorkers demands for a wide variety of other uses (Heckscher 73). Central Park is a celebration of both democracy and popular culture; both the park and its visitors are products of a collective American culture (Miller 14). Through the help of the Central Park Conservancy, the park remains a vibrant public space; with events held year round, people forget lines of race, class, ethnicity and generation, and create new subgroups within the park (Fisher 30). Colin Fisher asserts that [Central Park] is the most democratic space in New York, if not America (30). Sara Cedar Miller declares that Central Park is the most important work of American Art of the nineteenth century (8). Central Park has become a gathering place for major events and has been a focal point for political and cultural change (Reiss 5). Victory rallies for World War II, mass protests against the Vietnam war, marches against racism and equal rights, Earth Day celebrations, concerts by famous musicians; you name it Central Park has housed it. Francine Prose recalls a 1997 James Brown concert in Central Park that was astonishing and the most moving outdoor event she ever attended (Blauner 76). When unforgettable cultural events happen the places that these memories occur become built in to our human psyche. The impact of Central Park on American culture is considerable because of the parks part in history. Although they were native Englanders, there is no doubt The Beatles had an impact on American Culture. Front-man turned solo artist, John Lennon lived in New York City when he was shot and killed by Mark David Chapman. As a tribute to Lennon, Strawberry Fields was created in Central Park, in 1981 (Miller 228). Plants, benches, and mosaics were sent in from around the world in memory of the singer/songwriter. Strawberry Fields became a living memorial created with plants from around the globe; the mosaics were formed on the ground in a

Russell 19 circle with the sole word Imagine in the center (Miller 228-229). One of the most important contributors to popular music has now been intertwined with the most important park in American culture. Hundreds of thousands of visitors flock to Central Park solely to visit these memorials each year. In 1908, the very first film shot in Central Park was done by Vitagraph Studios; the film was Romeo and Juliet, the American version (Films Shot in Central Park). As of 2011, three hundred and five films have been shot in Central Park, more than one hundred of those being filmed between 2006 and 2011 alone; this fact makes Central Park one of the most filmed locations in the world (Films Shot in Central Park). Movies filmed there include: Kramer vs. Kramer, where Dustin Hoffman taught his son to ride a bicycle; Shall We Dance, where Ginger Rogers and Fred Astaire danced on roller skates; and The Manchurian Candidate, where Frank Sinatra walked into the lake (Central Park Art). Television shows like How I Met Your Mother, Sex and the City, and Seinfeld have also shot scenes in Central Park. Many more films and television shows have shown aerial shots or filmed on the bordering walls of the park. 4.2. Impact on Urban Planning Central Park is considered the first urban landscape park in the United States because it altered the face of urban America (Heckscher 73). Increased property values and increased government revenues go hand in hand. As we have seen in the last five years, the housing market crash caused a substantial economic downturn. Property tax is one of the most important revenue streams for cities. By creating a positive climate for increased property values, the tax revenue growths will benefit municipalities in turn. More than one hundred and forty years ago, Frederick Law Olmsted conducted a study of how parks help improve property values. From 1856 to 1873 he tracked the value of property

Russell 20 immediately adjacent to Central Park, in order to justify the $13 million spent on its creation (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 272-273). Thirteen million dollars in 1850 is the equivalent of nearly three hundred and sixty million dollars in 2012 (Consumer Price Index). It is unbelievable, when put into perspective, the risk that the government of New York City took on this massive project. The amount of money spent on Central Park could be compared to the cost of building the Erie or Panama canals, and on par with the intercontinental railroad. However, Olmsted found that over the seventeen year study, property values increased considerably. Property values were reassessed and raised accordingly, therefore, as a result of building Central Park, New York City made a profit (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 429-430). The city had recouped its costs; and the properties that align the streets adjacent to the park still generate New York City a tremendous amount of revenue in property taxes each year. So why would a city begin this huge public investment? Recall that New York City was rapidly growing. Immigration greatly increased: in 1800 the city was home to more than sixty thousand people, in 1880 that number would reach upwards of 1.2 million. In some cases, more than one hundred thousand people were occupying no more than one square mile (Martin 126). As immigrants continued to arrive by the boatload, the city grew and, as a result, its green space disappeared. Imagine for an instant what that city would look like: no proper sewer system, no drainage, crowded one family homes with at least five families inhabiting them, poor housing structures, rotting food and trash, and nowhere to go for fresh air, trees, or green grass. It was essential to provide the citizens with accessible outdoor space. As shown with Central Park, parks can both pay for themselves and generate extra revenue. In addition, tax revenues from increased marketing activity and tourism related spending further increase metropolitan income related to parks. The government of New York,

Russell 21 like major cities after them, would realize that large urban parks were not a luxury, but a necessity. And they needed to be accessible to ordinary people, for their physical and mental well-being. The spirit of Central Park would continue to drive cities across the country to realize the significance of urban development. 5. Involvement It took our forefathers and hundreds of laborers to build the park, but Central Park, at its massive size, needs the help of residents to sustain it. In fact, Central Park is run by a board of directors rather than run by the city itself. The park, therefore, relies on citizens and volunteers to help keep it looking lush, green and litter free. Another important characteristic of the American consciousness is the tradition of volunteerism (i.e. Central Park Conservancy) and voluntary collective organizations for the civic good (i.e. Central Park Community Council). Americans tend to rely on their own initiative and self-organization, rather than on direction by local government. With Central Park being so important to citizens, they feel its their duty to help maintain it. The Central Park Conservancy was established in 1980 (Heckscher 5), to do just that. The Conservancy would not exist without the aid of benefactors and volunteers; it is run by a board, not by the city or local government. People that wish to help the majestic park may contribute money or time, whether volunteering alone or as part of a group, there is an opportunity to give back. For example, you can adopt a bench. The majority of benches can be adopted with a donation of $7,500, while a limited amount of rustic benches can be adopted for $25,000 (Volunteering). Or you can endow a tree. When you endow a Central Park tree, your money funds the planting of new trees in the Park (Volunteering). You can also become a member of the Central Park Conservancy; details can be found at centralparknyc.org.

Russell 22 With eight hundred and forty-three acres there is a lot of ground to cover, and several ways to help out. Several programs are available through the Conservancy. Although most volunteers need to be at least eighteen, the Youth Program provides groups and individual youth with hands-on opportunities to learn about the Park while helping preserve its landscapes (Volunteering). The Conservancy also has a Greeter/Guide Program in which volunteers provide information, give tours, and assist to enhance the overall experience for Central Park's over thirty-five million annual visitors (Volunteer). Lastly, twice a year the Conservancy hosts a Family Volunteer Day, which the website claims will combine your familys love of the outdoors with a spirit of volunteerism. Another excellent way to get involved in the Central Park Community is to join the Central Park Community Council. The Council is a non-profit volunteer group of individuals whose primary objective is to make Central Park a safer more enjoyable park (Central Park). The Council is a cooperative effort of citizens and the police force; leadership is provided by an Executive Board of concerned residents (Central Park), more information can be found at nycgo.com. This council is a great ally for the Central Park Conservancy. There are times when Central Park was a place you would not venture into alone after dark. The Central Park Community Council has made it a much safer place in recent years. 6. In Closing It was apparent to our ancestors that the great city of New York would need a park; not just any park, but one grand enough to withstand time and accommodate the growing population. Within its eight hundred and forty-three acres, the park seems so natural; you will not realize it was entirely man-made, handcrafted by landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted. It would

Russell 23 become a democratic emblem for the country, and be considered one of the best works of art in the 19th century. Olmsted had the foresight to realize one day the citizens of the ever increasing city of would seek refuge in this park. Perhaps he even hoped that people from around the globe would venture to see it. With over thirty-five million visitors a year, Central Park has become not only a staple for the city, but a tourist destination. For these reasons, its evident that Central Park has played a very important part in American Culture and urban development in other cities around the country. Step off the sidewalk into Central Park and within minutes the fast-paced city dims and you are suddenly inside a verdant oasis of idyllic peace. Central Park is a haven to the residents in the busy city of New York. On a June afternoon you can see families having picnics, children playing soccer or baseball, people walking their dogs or just catching some sunrays in the grass. If you have not enjoyed a summer stroll in Central Park, make it a point to get there one day; only then will you realize why it has had such an impact on the masses.

Russell 24 7. Works Cited

Alex, W. & Tatum, G. B. Calvert Vaux: Architect & Planner. New York: Ink, Inc., 1994. Print. "Andrew Downing." Philadelphia Architects and Buildings. Web. 1 Dec. 2012. <http://www.philadelphiabuildings.org>. Blauner, Andrew. Central Park: An Anthology. New York: Bloomsbury, 2012. Print. Brill, Wildman Steve. Phone interview. 19 Nov. 2009. "Central Park." The Official New York City Guide to NYC Attractions, Dining, Hotels and Things to Do / nycgo.com. Web. 20 Nov. 2012. <http://www.gonyc.com>. "Central Park Art: Central Park in the Movies." the INDEPENDENT issue. Web. 15 Dec. 2012. <http://www.nyc24.org/2005/centralpark/art/films.html>. "Consumer Price Index." The Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Web. 16 Dec. 2012. <http://www.minneapolisfed.org>. Diamant, Lincoln. Chaining the Hudson: The Fight for the River in the American Revolution. New York: Carol Publishing Group, 1989. Print. "Films Shot in Central Park | Central Park Sunset Tours." Central Park Sunset Tours | New York's Best Central Park Walking Tour. Web. 15 Dec. 2012. <http://www.centralparksunsettours.com/central-park-factbook/films-shot-in-centralpark/>. Fisher, Colin. "Nature in the City: Urban Environmental History and Central Park." Magazine of History Oct. 2011: 27-31. ProQuest. Web. 20 Oct. 2012. "Frederick Law Olmsted." National Association for Olmsted Parks. Web. 10 Sept. 2012. <http://www.olmsted.org>. "Greensward - Definition of." Dictionary, Encyclopedia and Thesaurus - The Free Dictionary.

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Web. 6 Nov. 2012. <http://www.thefreedictionary.com/greensward>. "Greensward Foundation." Welcome to Echo! Web. 2 Nov. 2012. <http://www.echonyc.com>. Martin, Justin. Genius of place: The Life of Frederick Law Olmsted. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2011. Print. Heckscher, Morrison H. Creating Central Park. 2008. Reprint. New Haven and London: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Yale University Press, 2011. Print. Kowsky, Francis R. Country, Park & City: The Architecture and Life of Calvert Vaux. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Print. "Mannahatta." The Welikia Project. Web. 31 Oct. 2012. <http://welikia.org/>. Martin, Justin. Genius of place: The Life of Frederick Law Olmsted. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2011. Print. Miller, Sara Cedar. Central Park: An American Masterpiece. New York: Harry N. Abrams Publishers in association with the Central Park Conservancy, 2003. Print. Morrone, Francis. "More than Natural Grace." New Criterion Feb. 2004: 72-75. www.newcriterion.com. Web. 16 Apr. 2012. Reiss, Marcia. Central Park Then and Now. San Diego, CA: Thunder Bay Press, 2009. Print. Rosenzweig, R. & Blackmar, E. The Park and the People: A History of Central Park. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992. Print. Rybczynski, Witold. A Clearing in the Distance: Frederick Law Olmsted and America in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Scribner, 1999. Print. Sanderson, Eric W. Mannahatta: A Natural History of New York City. New York: Abrams, 2009. Print. "Volunteering." The Official Website of Central Park - Homepage. Web. 20 Nov. 2012.

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<http://www.centralparknyc.org>. Wheeler, Jesse M. "Get Involved." Your Complete Guide to New York City's Central Park | CentralPark.com. Web. 20 Nov. 2012. <http://www.centralpark.com>.

Russell 27

7. Figures Figure 1.

(A comparison of Manhattan, 2008 and Mannahatta, circa 1609: http://welikia.org/) Figure 2.

(Andrew Jackson Downing: http://www.philadelphiabuildings.org)

Russell 28 Figure 3.

(Frederick Law Olmsted: http://www.olmsted.org) Figure 4.

(Calvert Vaux: http://www.olmsted.org)

Russell 29

Figure 5.

(The Greensward Design: http://www.echonyc.com) Figure 6.

(Bethesda Terrace: http://www.centralparknyc.org)