Air Dispersion Modeling Conversions and Formulas
Air Dispersion Modeling Conversions and Formulas
Air Dispersion Modeling Conversions and Formulas
Click in table below on desired item: Converting Converting 3 mg/m to ppmv ppmv to mg/m3 Calculation Of Standard Conditions Gas Densities For Gas Volumes Definition Of The Pressure Pasquill Stability Classes Conversions Converting Mass Flow Windspeed Rates Conversion Factors To Volumetric Flow Rates Conversion Factors Exhaust Gas Generated and From Combustion of Fuels Dimensional Analysis Effect Of Altitude On Pollutant Concentration Gas Volume Conversions Effect Of Altitude On Windspeeds Correcting Concentrations To Reference Conditions Appendix A Concentration Units (ppm, mg/m3)
NOTES: (1) The pollution laws and regulations in the United States typically reference their pollutant limits to an ambient temperature of 20 to 25 C as noted above. However, in other nations, the reference ambient temperature for pollutant limits may be 0 C or other values. (2) 1 percent by volume = 10,000 ppmv (i.e., parts per million by volume). (3) For all practical purposes, degrees Centigrade and degrees Celsius are synonymous.
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Pa = 0.9877a
Given an atmospheric pollutant concentration at an atmospheric pressure of 1 atmosphere (i.e., at sea level altitude), the concentration at other altitudes can be obtained from this equation:
Ca = (C)(0.9877a)
where: a = altitude, in 100's of meters Pa = atmospheric pressure at altitude a, in atmospheres C = concentration at sea level altitude, in mass per unit volume Ca = concentration at altitude a, in mass per unit volume As an example, given a concentration of 260 mg/m3 at sea level, calculate the equivalent concentration at an altitude of 1,800 meters: Ca = (260)(0.987718) = 208 mg/m3 at 1,800 meters altitude
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meter are also derived from the ideal gas law and the applicable universal gas constants ... one of the equations uses the absolute pressure expressed in atmospheres and the other uses the absolute pressure expressed in kilopascals:
kilograms per cubic meter = ( 1 / Z )( MW / 0.082057 ) ( atm / K ) kilograms per cubic meter = ( 1 / Z )( MW / 8.3144 ) ( kPa / K )
where: = gas compressibility factor at the given temperature and pressure Z (dimensionless) MW = molecular weight of the gas psia = absolute pressure in pounds per square inch atm = absolute pressure in atmospheres kPa = absolute pressure in kilopascals 1 atm = 14.696 psia = 101.325 kPa R = absolute temperature of the gas in degrees Rankine = 459.67 + F K = absolute temperature of the gas in degrees Kelvin = 273.15 + C F = degrees Fahrenheit = ( 1.8 ) ( C ) + 32 C = degrees Centigrade = ( F - 32 ) / 1.8 The numbers 10.73, 0.082057, and 8.3144 are all the universal gas law constant expressed in the applicable units for each of the above equations. For all practical purposes, degrees Centigrade and degrees Celsius are synonymous. Also, in many cases, it may be assumed that the ideal gas law applies and thus Z may be taken to be 1.00. The technical literature can be very confusing because many authors fail to explain whether they are using the universal gas law constant R which applies to any ideal gas or whether they are using the gas law constant Rs which only applies to a specific individual gas. The relationship between the two constants is Rs = R / (MW).
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A standard cubic foot (scf) is the USA expression of gas volume at standard conditions and it is very often defined as being measured at 60 F and 1 atmosphere of pressure. There are other definitions of standard gas conditions used in the USA besides 60 F and 1 atmosphere, but that is the most common one ... and it is very widely used in the oil, gas and hydrocarbon processing industries. That being understood:
1 Nm3 of any gas (measured at 0 C and 1 atm. pressure) equals 37.326 scf of that gas (measured at 60 F and 1 atm. pressure) ... and thus 1 Nm3 per hour of any gas equals 0.622 scf per minute of that gas. 1 kg-mol of any ideal gas equals 22.414 Nm3 of that gas ... and 1 lb-mol of any ideal gas equals 379.482 scf of that gas.
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V2 / V1 = ( Z 2 / Z 1 ) ( P1 / P2 ) ( T2 / T1 )
where: = gas compressibility factors (which are non-dimensional) Z 1 and Z 2 = gas volumes in the same dimensional units V1 and V2 = absolute pressures in the same dimensional units P1 and P2 = absolute temperatures in the same units (either degrees R or degrees T1 and T2 K ) R = absolute temperature in degrees Rankine = 459.67 + F K = absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin = 273.15 + C F = degrees Fahrenheit = ( 1.8 ) ( C ) + 32 C = degrees Centigrade = ( F - 32 ) / 1.8 For all practical purposes, degrees Centigrade and degrees Celsius are synonymous. Also, in many cases, it may be assumed that the ideal gas law applies and thus Z may be taken to be 1.00.
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B-C
1113</CENTER< C C-D D D D TD> >6 >13 C D D D D Note: Class D applies to heavily overcast skies, at any windspeed day or night. NOTES: (1) m/s = meters per second (2) mi/hr = statute miles per hour
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Pressure Conversions:
Atmospheric pressures may be expressed in a number of different units. The following table provides the conversions between six of the most commonly used units of pressure. Here are some examples as read from the table: (1) 1 atmosphere = 14.696 psi or 101.325 kPa (2) 1 bar = 0.986923 atmospheres or 750.0616 mm Hg (3) 1 psi = 6.894733 kPa or 51.71475 mm Hg atm 1 atm = 1 psi = 1 0.068046 psi 14.696 1 bar mm Hg kg/cm2 1.01325</CENTER< 101.325 760 1.033228 TD> kPa 6.894733 0.068947 0.010000 1 0.001333 0.980665 51.71475 0.070307 7.500617 0.010197 750.0616 1.019716 1 735.559 0.001360 1
1 kPa 0.009869 0.145038 1 = 1 bar = 0.986923 14.50382 100.0000 1 mm 0.001316 0.019337 0.133322 Hg = 1 kg/cm2 0.967841 14.22339 98.0665 =
Although not included in the above table: 1 atmosphere of pressure = 33.90 feet of water = 10.33 meters of water 1 mm Hg = 1 torr Notes: atm = absolute pressure, in atmospheres psi = absolute pressure, in pounds per square inch kPa = absolute pressure, in kilopascals bar = absolute pressure, in bars mm Hg = absolute pressure, in millimeters of Mercury kg/cm2 = absolute pressure, in kilograms per square centimeter
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The winds aloft generally have a higher velocity than the winds at ground level. In other words, at any given time and place, windspeed usually increases with altitude. The effect of altitude on windspeed involves two factors:
the degree of turbulent mixing prevailing in the atmosphere at the given time and place, as characterized by the Pasquill stability class the terrain's surface area roughness, which induces surface friction at the given place
It has generally been agreed that the effect of altitude on windspeed is logarithmic and can be expressed as:
uz / ug = (hz / hg)n
where: uz = wind velocity at height z ug = wind velocity at ground station height hz = height z hg = ground station height (usually 10 meters) : n = a function of the Pasquill stability class and the terrain type (see tables below) Table 1 For Use In Rural Terrain Stability Exponent n A 0.10 B 0.15 C 0.20 D 0.25 E 0.25 F 0.30 Table 2 For Use In Urban Terrain Stability Exponent n A 0.15 B 0.15 C 0.20 D 0.25 E 0.40 F 0.60
As an example, given a windspeed of 5 m/s measured at 10 meters above the ground and a stability class of B in rural terrain, calculate the windspeed at 500 meters above ground: uz = (5)(500/10)0.15 = 9 m/s
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from furnaces or boilers, accidental gaseous releases, etc.) are often expressed in mass flow rates. To convert such mass flow rates to volumetric flow rates, first calculate the gas density (as explained in one of the sections above) using the actual temperature and pressure of the gaseous emission. Then use either of the following equations:
m3 / hr = ( kg / hr ) / ( kg / m3 )
where: m3 / hr = gas volumetric flow rate in cubic meters per hour kg / hr = gas mass flow rate in kilograms per hour kg / m3 = gas density in kilograms per cubic meter Note: When calculating the density of the gaseous emission, the actual pressure of the gaseous emission at the point where it exits from the source vent or flue gas stack is taken as 14.696 psia or 1 atmospere.
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1 knot = 1.152 statute mi/hr = 0.515 m/sec 1 statute mi/hr = 0.868 knots = 0.447 m/sec 1 m/sec = 2.237 statute mi/hr = 1.942 knots
Note: 1 statute mile = 5,280 feet = 1,609 meters
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(2)
Cr = Cm ( 20.9 - r ) / ( 20.9 - m )
where: corrected concentration in dry emitted gas having the reference volume % O2 Cr = = r Cm = measured concentration in dry emitted gas having the measured volume % O2 =m Thus, a measured nitrogen oxides (i.e., NOx) concentration of 45 ppmv (dry basis) in an emitted gas having 5 volume % O2 = ( 45 ) ( 20.9 - 3 ) / ( 20.9 - 5 ) = 50.7 ppmv (dry basis) when corrected to an emitted gas having a specified reference O2 content of 3 volume %.
(3)
Cr = Cm ( r / m )
where: corrected concentration in dry emitted gas having the reference volume % Cr = CO2 = r Cm = measured concentration in dry emitted gas having the measured volume % CO2 = m And thus, a measured particulate matter concentration of 0.1 grain per dscf in an emitted gas that has 8 volume % CO2 = ( 0.1 ) ( 12 / 8 ) = 0.15 grain per dscf when corrected to an emitted gas having a specified reference CO2 content of 12 volume %. Notes: -- Although ppmv and grains per dscf have been used in the above examples, you may use other concentrations such as ppbv (i.e., parts per billion by volume), volume percent, grams per dscm, etc. -- 1 percent by volume = 10,000 ppmv (i.e., parts per million by volume). -- Equation (1) above is from "40 CFR, Chapter I, Part 60, Appendix A-3, Test Method 4". -- Equation (2) above is from "40 CFR, Chapter I, Part 60, Appendix B, Performance Spec. 2". -- Equation (3) above is from "40 CFR, Chapter I, Part 60".
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or in MW-hr ... and the amount of combustion exhaust gas may be expressed as standard cubic feet (scf) or as Normal cubic meters (Ncm or Nm3). These are the definitions and equivalents involved in converting the exhaust gas amounts from scf / MMBtu to other units: (a) 1 MMBtu = 106 Btu (b) 1 MMkcal = 106 kilogram-calories (c) 1 MW-hr = 1 megawatt-hour = 106 watt-hours (d) 1 MMBtu = 0.252 MMkcal = 0.293 MW-hr (e) 1 MMkcal = 3.968 MMBtu = 1.163 MW-hr (f) 1 MW-hr = 3.413 MMBtu = 0.860 MMkcal (g) scf = standard cubic feet measured at 60 F and atmospheric pressure (h) Nm3 = Normal cubic meters measured at 0 C and atmospheric pressure (i) 1 Nm3 = 37.326 scf These are the resulting conversions from scf / MMBtu to other units:
Every physical measurement consists of a numerical quantity and a corresponding dimensional unit (for example: 1000 kg / m3, 50 miles / hour, 1000 Btu / lb, etc). Whenever it is necessary to convert a physical measurement from one dimensional unit to another, dimensional analysis (also known as the unit-factor method or the factor-label method) is quite useful. But what is dimensional analysis in the context of converting dimensional units? It is the sequential usage of various conversion factors expressed as fractions and arranged so that any dimensional unit appearing in both the numerator and denominator of any of the fractions can be cancelled out until only the desired set of dimensional units is obtained. For example, let us convert 10 miles per hour to meters per second: 10 mile 1609 meter 1 hour 4.47 meter = 1 hour 1 mile 3600 second second As can be seen, when the mile dimensions and the hour dimensions are cancelled out and the arithmetic is done, we have converted 10 miles per hour to 4.47 meters per second. As another example, convert the ppmv of NOx in an exhaust gas (denoted as C) to grams per hour of NOx, given the molecular weight of NOx as 46.01, and the rate of exhaust in scf per minute (denoted as E): C, scf E, scf exhaust 60 minute 46.01 lb 453.6 grams lb-mole grams = 106 scf exhaust 1 minute 1 hour 1 lb-mole 1 lb 379.48 scf hour 1
As shown in the above equation, after cancelling out any dimensional units that appear both above and below the division lines, the only remaining units are grams / hour. Thus: grams / hour of NOx = (C, ppmv of NOx) (E, scf of exhaust / minute) / 303.05 Note: A standard cubic foot (scf) is the USA expression of gas volume at 60 F and 1 atmosphere of pressure and, using that definition, there are 379.48 scf per pound-mole of any gas. There are other definitions of standard gas conditions used in the USA besides 60 F and 1 atmosphere, but this is the most common one. The same example, using metric units:
C, Nm3 E, Nm3 exhaust 60 minute 46.01 grams 1 g-mole grams = 106 Nm3 exhaust 1 minute 1 hour 1 g-mole 0.02214 Nm3 hour As shown in the above equation, after cancelling out any dimensional units that appear both above and below the division lines, the only remaining units are grams / hour. Thus: grams / hour of NOx = (C, ppmv of NOx) (E, Nm3 of exhaust / minute) / 8.12 Note: A normal cubic meter (Nm3) is the usual metric system expression of gas volume at 0 C and 1 atmosphere of pressure and, using that definition, there are 0.02214 Nm3 per gram-mole of any gas. Dimensional analysis can also be used to check the correctness of any mathematical equation involving dimensional units by checking to see that the dimensional units on the left hand side of the equation are the same as the dimensional units on the right hand side of the equation.
ACGIH. (4) Airborne pollutant concentration limits are usually expressed as parts per million by volume (i.e., ppmv) for gases and vapors, and mg/m3 for dusts, aerosols and mists. (5) Quite often you will find the hazardous concentration limit of an airborne gaseous pollutant expressed as either ppmv or mg/m3 or both. There is a simple mathematical method of converting one to the other for gaseous substances (as given earlier in this article). However, for nongaseous pollutants such as dusts, mists or aerosols, it would be very difficult, if not impossible, to convert mg/m3 to ppmv. (6) When dealing with hazardous substances dissolved in water or any other liquid, most chemists would use the term parts per million by weight (i.e., ppmw) as meaning weight of dissolved substance X per million weights of liquid ... where the weight units might be in milligrams (mg) or grams (g) or pounds (lb) or kilograms (kg). In a few cases, chemists might use ppmv as meaning volumes of gas or liquid dissolved in water or other liquid per million volumes of water or other liquid. For example, gaseous carbon dioxide dissolved in water ... or liquid acetone dissolved in water ... or liquid additive dissolved in gasoline. (7) The numerical difference between a concentration expressed as ppmv or ppmw can be very large, especially for gaseous substances. Thus, it is most important to be as specific as possible and to use the terms ppmv or ppmw rather than simply ppm. Confusion as to whether ppm means ppmv or ppmw can have serious consequences. It is also important to state whether you are dealing with substances in the air or substances within water or other liquid. (8) Finally, keep in mind that if something can be mis-construed, it will happen. Be as specific as possible in defining concentration limits. If you find an exception to what is said above, it is either valid because of some special or unusual reason, or the exception is simply incorrect.