The Origins of Rheology: A Short Historical Excursion I.

Prelude to rheology This article Provides a brief historical perspective on the evolution of rheology and the long gestation period before the birth of the subject. It Is Not Intended to be a comprehensive state-of-the-art review but Rather to capture key events in the historical progression of the discipline, Which was far from monotonic, and the significant Contributions from a variety of specialists. Considerable liberty has been taken in Identifying key players and Avoiding repetitive mention of different Efforts by the same workers in order to Emphasize the diversity of influences and molded the Individuals Who Have discipline, and to Satisfy severe space constraints. Some valuable resources for the historical aspects of rheology are Bingham (1922), Scott Blair (1949), Markowitz (1968), Bird et al. (1987a, b), White (1990), and Tanner and Walters (1998), and the reader is Referred to These works for further details. As per the strict definition, rheology is Concerned With The description of the flow behavior of all types of matter. By convention, However, rheologists' main Interests are restricted to industrially relevant materials with properties intermediate Between Those solids and liquids of perfect. A useful engineering definition of rheology is the description of materials using "Constitutive equations" Between the stress history and the strain history. Table 1 Provides a convenient reference for the Accompanying discussion Regarding the period prior to the Formal creation of the discipline of rheology in 1929. 1) Best materials a) Rigid Solids: The entire subject of general mechanics deals with ideal "Euclidean" bodies where only the mass (or density) of the bodies is relevant (Euclidean geometry is based on rigid bodies which do not undergo deformation). In fact, Newton's "Principia" was Primarily Concerned with rigid ody mechanics and his comment on viscosity was only a corollary of his rescient mind. Solid mechanics is the oldest branch of the physical sciences and it is ppropriate to recall the apocryphal, if time worn, story of Archimedes (250 BCE) That He Could CLAIMED who move the world if I Were provided the right leverage. b) Elastic solids: At the other end of the spectrum, where Pure elastic solid-like behavior is Concerned, Robert Hooke (Hooke (1678)) Proposed That "the power of any spring is in the same With The voltage proportion thereof "(ie, the stress is proportional to the strain). It is worth Noting That Robert Boyle had actually come up with a rule like related to a "spring of air "as far back as1660. The constant of proportionality was Identified later as an intrinsic property of the material the elastic (or Young's) modulus - by the great polymath Ingls Thomas Young in 1807 (see Markowitz (1968)). September Cauchy up the first basic equations of classical (small deformation) elasticity in 1827 based on the work of Largely investigators like CLMH Navier, CA Coulomb and S. D. Poisson.

Table 1: Significant rheological works prior to the Formal inception of Rheology in 1929
# 1 fLUIDS / MODELS CLASS Ideal materi als a)perfecto rigid bodies b)ideal elastic solids c)inviscid fluids d)newtonias liquids KEY TIME Antiquity 1600s 1700s Early 1800s REPRESENTATIVE WORKS Archinedes (-250 BCE), Newton (1687) Boyle (1660), Hooke (1678), Young (1807), Cauchy (1827) Pascal (1663), Bernoulli (1738), Pascal (1663), Bernoulli (1738), Euler (1755 Newton (1687), Navier (1823), Stokes (1845), Hagen (1839), Poiseuille (1841), Weidemann (1856) Weber (1835), Kohlrausch (1863), Wiechert (1893), Maxwell (1867), Boltzmann (1878), Poynting & Thomson (1902) Schwedoff (1890), Trouton & Andrews (1904), Hatchek (1913), Bingham (1922), Ostwald (1925) - de Waele (1923), Herschel & Bulkley (1926) Poynting (1913), Zaremba (1903), Jaumann (1905), Hencky (1929) Einstein (1906), Jeffrey (1922) Schonbein (1847), Baekeland (1909), Staudinger (1920), Carothers (1929) Barus (1893), Trouton (1906), Fano (1908), Tamman & Jenckel (1930) 1929 Bingham, Reiner and others

Linear viscoelasticity

Mid 1800s

Generalized Newtonian (Viscous) liquids Non-linear viscoelasticity Key material descriptio ns tions a) Suspen-Sions b) Poly-mers c) Exten-sional The genesis of rheology 6

1800s-Early 1900s Early 1900s

Early 1900s

c) Inviscid fluids: A great class of materials is the so-called Pascalian (or inviscid) fluids exhibit no resistance to Which flow. Blaise Pascal in 1663 first made the equivalent statement That the pressure in a liquid is the same in all directions (Although the principle of the perfect fluid was conceived by Archimedes in classical times). The related field of hydrodynamics formally Which Deals with the motion of fluids where viscosity effects are absent was well Developed at th the turn of the 18 Largely thanks century to the classic studies of workers like Bernoulli (1738) and Euler (1755). d) Newtonian fluids: Tracing the genealogy of any discipline to the "Principia" of Sir Isaac Newton Serves to Enhance the "Gravity" of any subject, no pun intended. In his masterpiece, Newton Stated his famous definition of the resistance of an perfect fluid (what we today call viscosity) Which is the key property of relevance to rheology (Newton, 1687): "The Which Arises resistance from the LACK of slipperiness Originating in a fluid - other things being equal is proportional to the velocity by Which the parts of the fluid are being separated from each other. The earliest quantitative application of "real fluid" or viscosity effects (albeit empirical) was by the ancient Egyptian scientist Amenemhet (1600 BCE) (Scott Blair (1949)) who might Perhaps be called the first "rheologist." Amenemhet made to 7 degree correction to the drainage angle of a water clock to account for the change of water viscosity with temperature (Which can be significant Between day and night in the tropics). Hagen's work in 1839 was the first clear recorded study of the viscosity of a liquid, I Determined That the pressure drop for capillary flow is the sum of two Quantities: a viscosity term and a kinetic energy correction. The next key related research to the capillary was painstaking work of Poiseuille (1841). Both Were Entirely These empirical studies in narrow tubes and Showed That the flow rate was proportional to the pressure gradient and the fourth power of the radius. Pioneering work on the laws of motion for real fluids (with finite viscosities) was Carried out by Navier (1823) Which was Followed up on by Stokes (1845). The Navier-Stokes equations Celebrated enabled, for example, prediction of velocity distributions and Between flow rotating cylinders and cylindrical tubes. Stokes apparently was not Able to show experimental validity of his result for discharge through tubes (Markowitz (1968)); Wiedemann (1856) Between

the first Showed agreement Hagen-Poiseuille data and the Navier-Stokes prediction. It was finally left to MM Couette to show That the viscosity value Obtained concentric cylinder using a special set-up (to avoid end-effects) and in tube flow Were identical - Establishing first That was an intrinsic viscosity the property of the material (see, for eg, Piau et al. (1994)). 2) Linear viscoelasticity Initial work on viscoelasticity was Primarily targeted towards creep and relaxation behavior of metals Until the explosive growth of the polymers industry. The earliest systematic study of materials Hookean That Were neither Newtonian nor was Carried out by Weber (1835) using silk threads (Because of Their application in electromagnetic instruments). The removal of an extensional load led to an immediate contraction Followed by Further gradual contraction Until the initial (pre-loaded) length was attained - I had Identified the phenomenon of stress relaxation (Which I have called "The After effect "). THUS Weber had qualitatively captured the phenomenon of viscoelasticity even before Poiseuelle's results on tube flow and Stoke's work on viscous liquids. Kohlrausch (Who extended his father's work) then experimentally Established the linearity of the phenomenon in 1863 based on his work with glass. During this same period a major contribution to rheology came from Maxwell (1867) who postulated his famous first-order differential empirical Equation Relating the shear stress to the deformation and the Accompanying single exponential stress relaxation. The results of Weber and Kohlrausch enabled Ludwig Boltzmann (1878) to arrive at his "principle of superposition" "The value of a characteristic function of a system is equal to the sum of all changes in the system induced by the driving Functions Which Have Been Applied to IT THROUGHOUT its history. "He arrived at an integrated representation of linear viscoelasticity in its full 3-D generality. The next major modification was by Wiechert (1893) and Thomson (1888), Independently who Introduced the concept of a distribution of relaxation times. The well-known "spring-and-dashpot" analogy for the Maxwell model was not Introduced Until 1902 by Poynting and Thomson

3) Generalized Newtonian materials Schwedoff's (1890) experimental work on colloidal gelatin solutions using a Couette device was one of the first results on non-Newtonian systems. His data Indicated to non-linearity of torque-angular velocity data in a Couette instrument, I Also had to merge onto yield value to describe his results. Hess (1910) and Hatchek (1913) Were some of the other early That the pioneers who postulated viscosity was a function of the rate of shear based on results analogous to Those of Schwedoff for gelatin sols. Trouton and Andrews (1904), in Their studies on pitch, had to subtract a small "initial stress" in Order to Obtain a rate proportional to the flow stress. This type of fluid behavior is now Associated with Bingham (1922), who Proposed to "yield stress" to describe the flow of paints. Equations for shear rate-dependent viscosities Were Proposed by Ostwald (1925)-de Waele 1923), and Herschel and Bulkley (1926). 4) Non-linear viscoelasticity prior to 1929 Poynting (1913) performed some very elegant experiments in non-linear elasticity. I Determined That loaded wires Increased by a length proportional to That was the square of the twist against all expectations of linear elasticity theory. Zaremba (1903) extended the theory to linear viscoelasticity non-linear regime by introducing a corotational derivative to merge onto frame of reference That was translating and With The rotating material. Similar work was done by Jaumann (1905) and, DESPITE Zaremba's precedence, the derivatives are ferred to as "Jaumann derivatives." Hencky (1929) Whose name is Identified With The "logarithmic" (or instantaneous strain) Also Proposed analogous ideas. 5) Some key item descriptions prior to 1929 a) Suspensions: Dispersions and suspensions Have Always been of great interest as typified by The Importance of ink, blood, paints, and the silting of harbors. Thomas Graham (1805-1869) is the founder of Regarded As the term colloidal dispersions (particles with diameters Comprising less than 1 ). Einstein (1906) was the first worker to Develop an Effective equation for the viscosity of dilute suspensions (< 5%) and work has since expanded to cover a wide range of Particle Concentrations, sizes and shapes. Jeffrey's (1922) seminal work on the orbits of elongated particles and fibers in dilute suspensions has been the basis for many later studies in suspension rheology. b) Polymers: The Ability to define the structure of Relatively macromolecules was a recent occurrence in human In Spite history of our reliance on Such materials (like cotton, silk, gums and resins) since ancient times. Some significant events in the development of industrial materials of relevance to rheology are (see, eg, White (1990)): the development of to

industry based on coagulated rubber latex rubber, Routines for vulcanizing (modifying) rubber with sulfur and heat, the development of cellulose nitrate and xanthate (Schonbein (1847)), and the development of gutta percha. One of the early founders of polymer chemistry was Staudinger (1920) who Proposed first the now familiar "chain formula" For These large molecules. Carothers (1929) at the DuPont Company Began polyesters and polyamides synthesizing in the 1930s Which provided an impetus for the polymer industry in the U.S. Parallel Efforts Were Initiated by Baekeland (1909) for phenol- formaldehyde resins and by Fritz Hofmann at Farbenfabriken Bayer (see, for example, Weil (1926)). During the Second World War the requirement to Develop materials for flame throwers, Which Were Known to be viscoelastic, triggered Further interest in rheology. c) Extensional viscosity effects: The origins of elongational flow measurements are Largely due to Trouton (1906) who Considered the uniaxial stretching of pitch and "shoemaker's wax. "The next major study was by Tamman and Jenckel (1930) on elongational flow of molten glass filaments. Extrudate swell or die was first Correctly Identified with "Stretching" by Merington (1943) although Barus (1893) had an analogous phenomenon Reported Earlier Which much I Attributed to shear recovery. Because of high extensional viscosities, polymer solutions can be drawn up through a even if it is nozzle raised above the free surface. This phenomenon is Referred to as Fano flow Because of his initial investigation on the subject (Fano (1908)). This effect Appears to Have Been Used as early as ca.55 CE to harvest bitumen from the Dead Sea (as Concluded by Bird et al. (1987a) based on the Complete Works of Tacitus). II. The genesis of rheology Rheology is one of the very few disciplines Whose coinage can Be Traced to an exact date: April 29, 1929 (Bingham (1944), Scott Blair (1949)), the first reference to a related term "Microrheometer" actually Appeared as far back as 1879 (Hannay, 1879). A Plasticity Symposium (to study viscosity) was held on October 17, 1924 as part of the 50th anniversary celebration of the career of a Prof. Edward Hart at Lafayette College, Penn. The high level of interest Expressed In This Eventually subject led to a Third Plasticity Symposium in 1929 Which at a decision was made to form a permanent organization for the development of the new discipline of rheology. The preliminary scope of The Society of Rheology was set up by a committee Which then met on April 29, 929 at Columbus, Ohio 1 and some of the luminaries who In This pioneering event participated included Eugene C. Bingham, Winslow H. Herschel, Marcel Brillouin, Herbert Freundlich, Wolfgang Ostwald, Ludwig Prandtl and Markus Reiner. The name "rheology" was Proposed to describe "the study of the flow and deformation of all forms of matter "by E. C. Bingham and M. Reiner, Heraclitus' quote " i" or "everything flows" was taken to be the motto of the subject (Reiner (1964)). III. Rheology since its inception Table 2 Provides a convenient reference for Key Developments in rheology related to the post-inception period. 1) Constitutive equations a) Differential models: Initial theoretical work on rheology after its inception was formally Largely Concerned with continuum mechanics to enable characterization Formulations and description of material flow behavior for commercial Applications. A major advancement was JG Oldroyd's work in 1950 on convected derivatives based on application of "the invariance of material properties with Respect to the frame of reference, "this Represented the culmination of a number of Earlier Efforts Relating to complex derivatives of the stress. Some remarkable differential models are the "retarded-motion expansions "(eg, Rivlin and Ericksen (1955) and Giesekus (1962)) in Which the stress is xpressed as a power series Increasing Involving powers of the rate-of-strain tensor and Increasing time orders of partial derivatives. b) Integral-type models: Another slightly later development was the complementary effort of Green and Rivlin (1957), and Coleman and Noll (1961) who used holistic Formulations whereby the stress at any location and time depended on the Entire past deformation history of the place. The entire subject of constitutive equations and Their Development Have Been Discussed in great detail by Bird et al (1987a, b), Larson (1988) and more recently by Tanner (2001). c) Network theories: The early work by Green and Tobolsky (1946) was one of the first Attempts to describe relaxation Processes in networked polymers. The network theory for rubber-like fluids Independently Developed by Lodge (1956) and Yamamoto (1956) was the next major advance in the field. The permanent chemical junctions in rubber are Assumed to be replaced by temporary junctions Whose physical kinetics Have to be described. An extension of the Lodge model is the K-BKZ model (Kaye (1962), Bernstein, Kearsley and Zapas (1963)) whereby to form was generally more Sought by Redefining the kernel function in the Lodge comprehensive formulation. d) reptation theories: A "tube model" was first Proposed by Edwards (1967) for rubbers. The Doi-Edwards model (1978, 1986) based on the reptation theory of de Gennes (1971) was another significant advancement in the field whereby the

tube model was extended to Melts and Concentrated Solutions. The polymer chain is constrained to move in a "tube" Because of The Presence of Neighbouring molecules and the tube itself evolves in time as the chain crawls or "reptates." e) Molecular models: Kuhn (1934) first Addressed the characterization of the configuration of polymer molecules using a random coil model. Starting With This work and progressing With The kinetic theory landmark papers of Kramers (1944), Rouse (1953), Zimm (1956) and Kirkwood (1967), it was becoming increasingly apparent That item equations Should Reflect the polymer structure to Facilitate processing and development of new materials. This approach culminated in the major effort by Bird et al. (1987b) Which Summarized the state-of the-art in the field (this work includes the socalled generalized phase-space kinetic theory Which Incorporates Both the velocities and positions of the "beads" in the bead-spring models). 2) Experimental advances and rheological characterizations The Early Decades of rheology Were marked by Investigations into a number of experimental phenomena a) Shear flows and the no-slip boundary condition: Stokes (1845) was the first to Establish the no-slip boundary condition at solid walls. The "problem" of slip was Addressed by Blair Schofield and Scott (1932) and Mooney (1931). Pearson and Petrie (1968) Showed That Occur for slip to the molecular size must be Greater Than the wall roughness scale. Ramamurthy (1986) Established That slip can conclusively Occur During extrusion of polymer melts. Mooney's 1936 study on natural rubber was Perhaps the first careful characterization of the viscosity-shear rate behavior of a bulk polymer. The culmination of Obtaining shear-stress-shear rate Assuming data without any functional form for the viscosity Reached by Eisenschitz was Rabinowitch-Weissenberg(1929), and Mooney (1931). Important work on the effect of polymer entanglement and architecture on viscosity was done by Graessley (1977). The Flexible five-parameter Carreau model was postulated in 1968 to describe a wide variety of flow behavior (see, for eg, Bird (1987a)).

Table 2: Rheology since its inception in 1929

e) Molecular models

Experimental advances and rheological descriptions tions

a) Shear flows and the non-slip boundary condition b) Average stresses and rod-climbing effects c) Dynamic studies d) thixotropy e) Flow Instabilities f) Turbulent Drag Reduction g) Optical studies / birefringence h) Time-temp. superposition i)Extensional behavior

Eisenschitz et al. (1929), Mooney (1931.1936), Schofield & Blair (1930), Pearson & Petrie (1968), Graessley (1977), Ramamurthy (1986) Lander (1945), Weissenberg (1947), Markowitz (1957), Philippoff (1957), Ginn & Metzner (1969), Binnington & Boger (1985) Eisenschitz & Philippoff (1933), Schofield & Scott Blair (1932), Leaderman (1943), Cox-Merz (1958), Doraiswamy et al. (1991) Freundlich & Bircumshaw (1926), Cheng & Evans (1965), Mewis (1979), Barnes (1997) Nason (1945), Tordella (1958), Petrie & Denn (1976), Bousfield et al. (1986) Toms (1949), Agoston et al. (1954), Hershey & Zakin (1967), Seyer & Metzner (1967) Adams et al. (1965), Carothers & Hill (1932), Hermans & Platzek (1939), Janeschitz-Kriegl (1983), Fuller (1985) Williams et al. (1955), Ferry (1970)

Merrington (1943), Treolar (1944), Ballman (1965), Cogswell (1969), Metzner (1968), Meissner (1969), Dealy et al. (1976), pearot & Metzner (1972), Munstedt Laun & (1978), Sridhar & Gupta (1985) Leslie (1968)-Ericksen (1961), Doi (1981), Wissbrun (1985), Doraiswamy & Metzner (1986), Marrucci & Greco (1992) Taylor (1934), Krieger-Dougherty (1959), Rumscheidt & Mason (1961), Leal (1975), Batchelor (1977), Folgar & Tucker (1984), Heller & Kuntamukkula (1987), Khan & Armstrong (1986), Acrivos & Shaqfeh (1988), Mewis et al. (1989), Dennis et al. (2001) Winslow (1949), Parthasarthy & Klingenberg (1996) Turner et al. (1956), Gottlieb & Orzag (1977), Cruse & Risso (1968), Yoo & Joseph (1985), Beris et al. (1987), Walters & Tanner (1992), Crochet & Walters (1993) Adler & Wainright (1957), Ashurst & Hoover, (1975), Evans & Morriss (1988), Davis & Todd (1998)

Advanced materials

a) LCPs b)Composites and twophase systems

c) ER / MR fluids 4 Computational tional rheology a) Continuum simulations b) Molecular dynamic simulations

b) Normal stresses and the rod climbing effect: Normal stresses play a major role in a number of Industrial Processes like extrusion, fiber spinning and impeller-mixing. The rod- climbing effect (Which Refers to the rising of the free surface up a rotating rod) Appears To Have arisen from work on saponified hydrocarbon gels for use as flame throwers in World War II. (Eg, Garner et al. (1950) and Lander (1945)). Weissenberg (1947) appears to Have Been the first to attribute this phenomenon to the First Normal stress and it is not That this effect is incongruous now named after him. Some pioneering work in This Area was done by Philippoff (eg, 1957)) and Markowitz (1957). The second regular stress difference is Typically Considered to be negative and to small fraction of the first Normal stress difference for typical Polymeric systems (the Ginn and Metzner (1969) paper is a representative result). Anomalous "hole-pressure" effects in devices related to normal stress measurements Have Been reviewed by Tanner and Walters (1998). An important test fluid was developed by Binnington and Boger (1985) Which had the advantage of being highly elastic but yet having to constant viscosity, THUS lending itself to a number of useful academic and industrial studies.

c) Dynamic studies: Small-strain dynamic studies of polymers Polymer Solutions and date to the 1930s (eg, Eisenschitz and Philippoff (1933), Philippof (1934)). Andrews et al. (1948) and Leaderman (1943) Were some of the pioneers in this field. Stress relaxation studies Were Also Carried out in the same period by Schofield and Scott Blair (1932) on flour dough. The Cox-Merz rule (1958) (an empiricism predicting an equivalence of the complex viscosity and the viscosity at the Corresponding values of frequency and shear rate) has been to very useful method for correlating linear viscoelastic Properties with the viscosity behavior. This work was extended in the form of the Delaware-Rutgers rule (Doraiswamy et al. (1991)) for suspensions using a Herschel-Bulkley-type with a recoverable strain formulation. d) thixotropy: thixotropy may be defined as the Decrease in WITH TIME apparent viscosity under stress And This behavior Appears To Have first been formally named by Freundlich based on Their Work on suspensions (see, eg, Freundlich and Bircumshaw (1926)). The earliest reference to thixotropy is by During 1863 von Kuhne in his observation of the wandering of a nematode through a muscle cell without any apparent effort: "The movement Seemed to liquify the striations, but They September anew after the nematode had passed. "The opposite but analogous time-dependent effect related to viscosity Increase WITH TIME was termed "rheopexy" by Freundlich and Juliusberger in 1935 based on studies with colloidal systems. Some illustrative works in this field are Cheng and Evans (1965), Mewis (1979) and Barnes (1997) e) Flow instabilities: Because of elasticity, normal-stress and shear-thinning effects, non-Newtonian materials show a wide variety of unstable behavior. In extensional flows, it is To Have effects like possible draw-resonance (where sinusoidal Fluctuations are amplified in fiber diameter along the length), shark-kin behavior (where filament Occurs roughness) and "Melt fracture" (where a helical, distorted, extrudate forms); Were Reported distorted extrudates as far back as 1945 by Nason. Some key studies in this field are Those of Tordella (1958) and Petrie and Denn (1976). Viscoelasticity was Shown to suppress jet break-up as Indicated by the recent relativamente work of Bousfield et al. (1986). f) Turbulent drag reduction: Turbulent drag reduction is a whereby use of a phenomenon (Polymeric) results in additive a lower pressure drop for flow through a pipe. Much of this work was done by various independent groups During the war and did not Appear in open literature Until much later. Key workers in the field initial Toms Were (1949) and Agoston et al. (1954). This matter was Followed up in earnest only in the Researchers like 60s by Hershey and Zakin (1967). One of the Mechanisms for this phenomenon likely was Proposed by Seyer and Metzner (1967) and was Attributed to the large extensional viscosity of the additives Which Could damp out secondary flows (or vortices) Associated with turbulence g) birefringence: Brewster (1813) was one of the first That scientists to show birefringence (variation of refractive INDEX WITH direction) Could be induced by application of stress in materials like glass and gels. Maxwell (1853) postulated That the birefringence varied linearly and isotropically With The Applied stress. Birefringence was related to molecular orientation as far back as 1932 (eg, Carothers and Hill) and this effect was first Quantified by Hermans and Platzek (1939). These historical aspects as well as of birefringence later Investigations on suspensions, solutions and melts Have Been reviewed by White (1990). The birefringence method has been used to determine stress fields in complex flows (eg, Adams et al. (1965)). The stress-optical law That Which states there is a linear relationship Between the stress tensor and the deviatoric components of the refractive index tensor was formally verified by Janeschitz-Kriegl (1983). A number of rheo-optical techniques Have Been Developed and Summarized by Fuller (1985). h) Time-temperature superposition: Time-Temperature Superposition and the Method of Reduced Variables are two That empirical techniques make use of normalized variables to plot data in the form of universal curves; These Were

Developed Primarily by Williams et al. (1955) and Ferry (1970) in the form of the WLF procedure, and Facilitate data collection and Extending Their range of application. i) Extensional behavior: Merrington (1943) Attributed his observations on extrudate swell in rubber solutions to elastic recovery. Modern investigation of the extensional viscosity of Polymer Systems Ballman in dates to 1965. An early experiment by Metzner (1968) Demonstrated That if the Sufficiently high extensional stresses are They Can cause the induced by a striking splash pool of liquid to retract so That the initial fluid position is almost attained. This was Followed by a number of elongational flow studies on molten polymer systems like, for example, Meissner (1969), Vonogradov et al. (1970), and Laun and Munstedt (1978). The extensional Frequently behavior is termed "extensional viscosity" in the literature, an appellation Which, unfortunately, obscures the Importance of strain, as well as strain rate (see Spearot and Metzner (1972)). Cogswell (1969) was one of the first to propose the use of pressure through orifice dies Losses to determine the elongational behavior. This semi-quantitative approach was used to measure one of the highest Reported ratios of extensional viscosity to shear viscosity (30,000) (Metzner and Metzner (1970)). The earliest experiment for biaxial and planar extension is due to Treloar (1944) and Involved rubber. Instruments for Such studies Were Also developed by Denson and Gallo (1971) and Dealy et al. (1976). Winter et al. (1979) first Developed an orthogonal stagnation flow. An extensional rheometer was developed by Sridhar and Gupta (1985) for measurements on very low viscosity polymer solutions (5 cP). 3) Advanced Materials The Technological need to describe the behavior of advanced materials like liquid crystals, electro-rheological fluids and composites spawned a range of related research problems and Efforts are some of the Summarized below: a) Liquid crystalline polymers: Some of the earliest work on anisotropic fluids was by Oseen (1925) Which was Eventually Followed by the Leslie (1968), Ericksen (1961) formulation based on a continuum theory where the unit vector termed Director was used to Incorporate the anisotropy of the system; These are better suited Formulations to describe the flow behavior of low molecular weight liquid crystals. The molecular theory of Doi and Edwards for rigid back-bone Macromolecules (1978) was the next major advancement in the description of These systems. Domain structures are Often These systems and formed in one of the early Attempts to These systems described is typified by the work of Wissbrun (1985). Kiss and Porter (1978) first Reported The Unusual phenomenon of negative Normal For These materials stresses. b) Composites and other two-phase systems: The Importance of fiber reinforced plastics and ceramics has triggered enormous interest in the processing of composite materials and suspensions in recent years. Batchelor (1977) extended the Einstein (1905) equation to higher Concentrations by Incorporating interaction between "hard spheres." A number of equations Have Been postulated to describe the rheology of A variety of colloidal and non-colloidal additives like the Krieger-Dougherty (1959) Expression of anisotropic particles and the equation of Russel et al. (1989) for "hairy" particles. Batchelor (1971) stresses the Calculated During The flow of suspensions of parallel fibers. Leal (1975), and Acrivos and Shaqfeh (1988) Developed theories to describe fiber suspension behavior Employing a second-order fluid model Effective medium and an approach, respectively. Folgar and Tucker (1984) Developed a constitutive equation for the flow of fiber / polymer systems. The recent interest in Optimizing the dispersion of nano-size particles (like clay or charcoal nanotubes) in polymers (like nylon-6) Because of Their unusual Decreased properties like diffusivity, and Increased tensile modulus and flame resistance has triggered new rheological Investigations On These new systems (see, eg, Dennis et al. (2001)). Taylor (1934), and Mason (eg, Rumscheidt and Mason (1961)) Were responsible for some of the key results on deformation and break-up of liquid drops in various flow fields. Heller and Kuntumukkula (1987) Concluded that much of the data on foam rheology Earlier had been influenced by Stability or wall slip effects; expressions Have Been Developed to predict the rheological properties of foams but experimental determination of the Material Remains functions to daunting task (eg, Khan and Armstrong (1986)). c) Electrorheological / magnetorheological (ER / MR) fluids: Electro / magneto rheological fluids offer the potential of large viscosity changes on application of an electric or magnetic field. This behavior has potential in new applications like power transmission fluids and robotics. These effects Appear To Have first been NOTED by Winslow (1949). Recent work in This Area has been reviewed by Parthasarthy and Klingenberg (1996). 4) Computational rheology

a) Continuum modeling: The finite-difference method (FDM) Widely was prevalent by the 1960s When transistor technology first came into bloom. More powerful techniques like the finite-element method (FEM) Which was Initiated in 1956 (Turner et al. (1956)), the boundary element method (BEM) (Cruse and Rizzo (1968)) and the spectral methods (SM) (eg, Gottlieb and Orszag (1977)) Were Developed as computer improved technology. Essentially All These methods reduce the PDEs of the rheological field problems to a set of simultaneous, non-linear equations for the nodal variables. A major problem in numerical simulations was the so-called High Weissenberg Number Problem (the existence of a critical Which the Weissenberg number above algorithms failed). Some significant early works are in This Area Beris et al. (1987), Yoo and Joseph (1985), Walters and Tanner (1992), and Crochet and Walters (1993). An analogous finite volume method was Applied to three dimensions flows by Xue et al. (1995). b) Molecular dynamics (MD) modeling: MD simulations on Were Developed super-computers as a promising path to Relating microstructure to macroscopic rheological polymer properties (see, for eg, Ashurst and Hoover (1975), Evans and Morriss (1988), Daivis and Todd (1988)). This method, Since its inception in the late 1950's (eg, Adler and Wainwright (1957)) for studying the interactions of hard spheres, Enables calculation of the time dependent behavior of a molecular system. Molecular dynamics simulations Involve solution of Newton's equations of motion for a large number of particles interacting via nonlinear With Each Other (usually empirical) force laws. The Connection Between microscopic simulations and macroscopic properties is made via statistical Which Provides the mechanics Rigorous mathematical That expressions relate macroscopic properties to the distribution and motion of the atoms and molecules. The scope Studied by MD of systems is enormous and envelopes solids, liquids and gases, solvent molecules and solvated protein- DNA complexes, and simple and complex hydrodynamic flows. IV. Concluding remarks It Should Be From this overview apparent That the progression of the discipline has not been monotonic and it took over a Contributions century before by scientists from Widely varied Necessarily fields formally condensed into the field of rheology. It Also Indicates That many of the major contributors to Their rheology acquired lasting fame in other fields while some other rheologists may Have Been short-changed by history. Starting with Amenemhet's need for a viscosity correction to Improve the accuracy of his water clock in 1600 BCE, Primarily rheology has been concern concerned with solving practical problems. At the same time, the complexity of the Journal of Rheology. The pioneers of our discipline Which Came into being four score years ago Could hardly have envisioned the range of potential applications we see around us today - ranging from magneto-rheological fluids for power transmission in automobiles to the processing of nano- composites. It would be unwise to make Perhaps issues Involved (both of a physical and mathematical nature) has Attracted some of the finest scientific minds. The cumulative result has been the thriving discipline we know Today with Contributions ranging from the empirical and phenomenological to the abstract and esoteric. Rheology as we know it now overlaps with a number of fields like reaction engineering, computational science, thermodynamics and advanced materials design to name a few. This is attested by The Fact That Work pertaining to rheology is Reported in a wide range of journals like the Journal of Macromolecules and Chemical Physics, and is no longer limited to highly Specialized Rheologica journals like Acta and the any Speculations on the depth and breadth of new material advances score another four years down the road except That rheology will almost certainly be a cornerstone in Their Design and processing.