8086 PINS and SIGNALS

The 8086 pins and signals are shown below. Unless otherwise indicated, all 8086 pins are TTL compatible. The 8086 can operate in two modes. These are minimum mode (uniprocessor system single 8086) and maximum mode (multiprocessor system system more than one 8086). Pin Diagram for the 8086 is given below: REFER DIAGRAM 3:1.1

Pin(s) Symbol Input/ Description Output 1 GND Ground 2-16 AD14- I/O-3 Output address during ADO the first part of the bus cycle and inputs or outputs data during the remaining part of the bus cycle. 17 NMI I Nonmaskable interrupt request level triggered 18 INTR I Maskable interrupt request level triggered 19 CLK I Generates clock signals that synchronize the operation of processor. 20 GND Ground 21 RESET I Terminates activity, clears PSW, IP, DS,SS,ES, and the instruction queue, and

sets CS to FFFF; IP to 0000H; SS to 0000H; DS to 0000H; PSW to 0000H. Processing begins at FFFFO when signal is dropped. Signal must be 1 for at least 4 clock cycles. 22 READY I Acknowledgment from memory or I/O interface that cpu can complete the current bus cucle. Used in conjuction with the WAIT instruction in multiprocessing environments. A WAIT instruction will cause the cpu to idle, except for processing interruptsm, until a 0 is applied to this pin see chp-11 Definition depends on mode Indicates a memory or I/O read is to be performed Cpu is in minimum mode when strapped to +5 v and in maximum mode when grounded If o during first of bus cycle this pin indicates that at least one byte of

23

TEST

24-31 32 RD 0-3

33

MN/MX I

34

BHE/s7 0-3

35-38 A19/s6- 0-3 A16/s3

39 40

AD15 Vcc

I/0-3

the current transfer is to be made on pins AD15AD8 if 1 the transfer is made on AD7-AD0. Status s7 is output during the latter part of bus assigned a meaning During the first part of the bus cycle the upper 4 bits of the address are output and during the remainder of the bus cycle status is output. S3 and S4 indicates the segment register being used as follows; S4 s3 Register 0 0 ES 0 1 SS 1 0 CS or more 1 1 DS s5 gives the current setting of IF. S6 is always 0. Same as AD14-AD0 Supply voltage - +5 v 10%

1. MN/MX is an input pin used to select one of these modes. When MN/MX is HIGH, the 8086 operates in the minimum mode. When MN/MX is LOW, 8086 is configured to support

multiprocessor systems. In this case, the Intel 8288 bus controller is added to the 8086 to provide bus controls. 2. Pins 2 through 16 and 39 (AD15 - AD0) are a 16-bit multiplexed address/data bus. During the first clock cycle AD0-AD15 are the low order 16 bits of address. The 8086 have a total of 20 address lines. The upper four lines (35 38)are multiplexed with the status signals for the 8086. These are the A16/S3, A17/S4, A18/S5, and A19/S6. During the first clock period of a bus cycle, the entire 20-bit address is available on these lines. During all other clock cycles for memory and I/O operations, AD15-AD0 contains the 16-bit data, and S3, S4, S5, and S6 become status lines. S3 and S4 lines are decoded as follows: A17/S4 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 A16/S3 Function Extra segment Stack segment Code or no segment Data Segment

Status bits S3 and S4 indicate the segment register that is being used to generate the address the address and bit S5 reflects the contents of the IF flag. S6 is always held at 0 and indicates that an 8086 is controlling the system bus. 3. Pins 1 and 20 are grounded. Pin 17 is NMI. This is the Non Maskable Interrupt input activated by a leading edge. Pin 18 is INTR. INTR is the maskable interrupt input. Pin 19 is CLK is for supplying the clock signal that synchronizes the activity within the CPU.

4. Pin 21 (RESET) is the system reset input signal. When the 8086 detects the positive going edge of a pulse on RESET, it stops all activities until the signal goes LOW. When the reset is low, the 8086 initializes as follows:

8086 Component Content Falgs IP CS DS SS ES Queue Clear 0000H FFFFH 0000H 0000H 0000H Empty

5. Pin 22 (READY) is for inputting an acknowledge from a memory or I/O interface that input data will be put on the data bus or output data will be accepted from the data bus within the next clock cycle. In either case, the CPU and its bus control logic can complete the current bus cycle after the next clock cycle. 6. Pin 23 TEST is an input pin and is only used by the WAIT instruction. The 8086 enter a wait state after execution of the WAIT instruction until a LOW is seen on the TEST pin. 7. Pins 24 to 31 are mode dependent and are considered later.

8. Pin 32 (RD) is LOW whenever the 8086 is reading data from memory or an I/O location. 9. Pin 34 (BHE/S7) is used as BHE (BUS High Enable) during the first clock cycle of an instruction execution. BHE can be used in conjunction with AD0 to select memory banks. During all other clock cycles BHE/S7 is used as S7. Operation BHE AD0 Data pins used Write/Read a word at an even Address 0 0 AD15 AD0 Write/Read a byte at an even Address 1 0 AD7 AD0 Write/Read a byte at an odd Address 0 1 AD15 AD8 Write/Read a word at an odd Address 0 1 AD15 AD8 1 0 AD7 - AD0 10. Pin 40 (VCC) receives the supply voltage, which must be +5 V.

TIME, SPEED and DISTANCE - Worksheet 1. A person crosses a 600 m long street in 5 minutes. What is his speed in km per hour? (a).3.6 (b).7.2 (c).8.4 (d).10

2. An aeroplane covers a certain distance at a speed of 240 kmph in 5 hours. To cover the same distance in 1 hours, it must travel at a speed of: (a).300 kmph (b).360 kmph (c).600 kmph (d).720 kmph 3. A train can travel 50% faster than a car. Both start from point A at the same time and reach point B 75 kms away from A at the same time. On the way, however, the train lost about 12.5 minutes while stopping at the stations. The speed of the car is: (a).100 kmph (b).110 kmph (c).120 kmph (d).130 kmph 4. A swimmer swims from a point A against a current for 5min and then in favour of the current for next 5 min and comes to the point B. if AB=100mts find the speed of the current? (a)0.5 km/hr (b)0.6km/hr (c)0.7km/hr (d)0.8 km/hr 5. If the current flows at 2 mph and it takes me 3 hrs. to row 9 miles upstream, how long will it take to return? (a) 1 2/7 hrs (b) 2 5/7 hrs (c)2 2/3 hrs (d)1 5/7 hrs 6. A train 110 metres long travels at 60 km/hr. In what time will it pass a man walking at 6 km/hr? (i). against it (ii). in the same direction (a) 6 secs and 7 secs (b) 6 secs and 7 1/3 secs

(c) 6 1/3 secs and 7 secs (d) 6 secs and 7.1 secs 7. The ratio between the speeds of two trains is 7: 8. If the second train runs 400 kms in 4 hours, then the speed of the first train is: (a).70 km/hr (b).75 km/hr (c).84 km/hr (d).87.5 km/hr 8. A farmer travelled a distance of 61 km in 9 hours. He travelled partly on foot @ 4 km/hr and partly on bicycle @ 9 km/hr. The distance travelled on foot is: (a).14 km (b).15 km (c).16 km (d).17 km 9. Excluding stoppages, the speed of a bus is 54 kmph and including stoppages, it is 45 kmph. For how many minutes does the bus stop per hour? (a).9mins (b).10mins (c).12mins (d).20mins 10. Robert is travelling on his cycle and has calculated to reach point A at 2 P.M. if he travels at 10 kmph, he will reach there at 12 noon if he travels at 15 kmph. At what speed must he travel to reach A at 1 P.M.? (a).8 kmph (b).11 kmph (c).12 kmph (d).14 kmph 11. It takes eight hours for a 600 km journey, if 120 km is done by train and the rest by car. It takes 20 minutes more, if 200 km is done by train and the rest by car. The ratio of the speed of the train to that of the cars is: (a).2 : 3 (b).3 : 2 (c).3 : 4 (d).4 : 3

12. There are two towns A and B. Anil goes from A to B at 40 kmph and comes back to the starting point at 60 kmph. What is his average speed during the whole journey? (a). 84 kmph (b). 4.8 kmph (c). 48 kmph (d). 8.4 kmph

13. A man is standing on a railway bridge which is 180 meter long; he finds that a train crosses a bridge in 20 secs, but himself in 8 secs. Find the length of the train and its speed? (a). 120m and 54 kmph (b). 120 kmph and 54m (c). 120m and 48 kmph (d). 1.20m and 5.4 kmph 14. Two trains 137 meters and 163 meters in length are running towards each other on parallel lines, one at the rate of 42 kmph and another at 48 kmph. In what time will they be clear of each other from the moment they meet? (a). 12 mins (b). 1.2 mins (c). 12 secs (d). 24 hrs 15. A train 100 meters long takes 6 secs to cross a man walking at 5 kmph in a direction opposite to that of the train. Find the speed of the train? (a). 5 kmph (b). 5.5 kmph (c). 60 kmph (d). 55 kmph 16. A train running at 54 kmph takes 20 secs to pass a platform, next it takes 12 secs to pass a man walking at 6 kmph in the same

direction in which the trains is going. Find the length of the train and the length of the platform? (a). 160m and 100m (b). 160m and 140m (c). 130m and 140m (d). 160m and 130m 17. If a boy walks from house to school at the rate of 4 kmph, he reaches the school 10 mins earlier than the scheduled time. However if he walks at the rate of 3 kmph, he reaches 10 mins late. The distance of the school from his house is (a). 6 km (b). 4.5 km (c). 4 km (d). 3 km 18. A man drives 150 km from A to B in 3 hrs 20 mins and return to A in 4 hrs 10 mins. Then the average speed from A to B exceeds the average speed for the entire trip by (a). 5 kmph (b). 4.5 kmph (c). 4 kmph (d). 2.5 kmph 19. The ratio between the speeds of A and B is 4:3 and therefore A takes 10 mins more than the time taken by B to reach a destination. If A had walked at double the speed he would have covered the distance in? (a). 30 mins (b). 25 mins (c). 20 mins (d). 15 mins 20. A car travelling with of its actual speed covers 42 km in 1 hr 40 min 48 sec. Find the actual speed of the car. (a). 17 6/7 km/hr (b). 25 km/hr (c). 30 km/hr (d). 35 km/hr

SET THEORY and CUBES - WORKSHEET SET THEORY 1). Which of the following is/are true? 1. A set of all natural numbers is a well defined set. 2. A null set contains an element 0 3. S1 = ( a, b, c ) and S2 = ( a, b, c), S2 is a subset of S1. 4. S1 = (a, b, c, d, e) and S2 = (a, b, c, m). S2 is an improper subset of S1. A. 1 only only B. 1and 3 only C. 2 and 4 only D. 1, 2 and 4

2). Which of the following is not an empty set? 1) A = ( x/x I, x2 is not positive ) 2) B = ( x/x N, 2x + 1 is even ) 2 3) C = ( x/x N, x is odd and x is even ) 4) D = ( x/x R, x2 + 1 = 0 ) 3). If A = ( x: x = 2n 2, n 3, n N ); B = (4n-1: n 5, n N ), find A B. A. (0, 2, 4) B. C. (3, 7) D. (2, 3)

4). DIRECTIONS for questions 1 and 2: choose the correct alternative. 1. Set A, B and C are such that A = ( x2 5x + 6 = 0); B = ( y2 8y + 15 = 0 ) and C = ( z2 7x + 10 = 0 ). Find ( A B C ) ( A U B U C ). A. ( ) B. (2, 5) C. ( 2,3,5) D. (2,5)

2. If A = (6x2 + x 15 = 0 ), B = ( 2x2 5X +3 = 0), and C = (2x2 + x -3 = 0 ); find A B C. A. ( 1 ) these B. (3/2) C. ( 3/2, -5/3, 1) D. None of

5). In a class of 100, 64% of the students have taken politics and 56% of the students have taken history, how many students have taken both subjects if all the students take atleast one of these subjects? A. 18 B. 20 C. 0 D. 25 6). After recent examination every candidate took French or Latin. 75.8% took French and 49.4% took latin. If the total number of candidates was 2500, how many took both French and latin? A. 460 B. 560 C. 1999 D. 640

7). Describe the shaded region? 8). In a class of 120 students numbered 1 to 120, all even numbered students opt for Physics, whose numbers are divisible by 5 opt for Chemistry and those whose numbers are divisible by 7 opt for Math. How many opt for none of the three subjects? A. 19 B. 41 C. 21 D. 57 E. 26 9). Of the 200 candidates who were interviewed for a position at a call center, 100 had a two-wheeler, 70 had a credit card and 140 had a mobile phone. 40 of them had both, a two-wheeler and a credit card, 30 had both, a credit card and a mobile phone and 60 had both, a two wheeler and mobile phone and 10 had all three. How many candidates had none of the three? A. 0 B. 20 C. 10 D. 18 E. 25 10). In a class of 40 students, 12 enrolled for both English and German. 22 enrolled for German. If the students of the class enrolled for at least one of the two subjects, then how many students enrolled for only English and not German? A. 30 B. 10 C. 18 D. 28 E. 32 11). In a class 40% of the students enrolled for Math and 70% enrolled for Economics. If 15% of the students enrolled for both Math and Economics, what % of the students of the class did not enroll for either of the two subjects?

A. 5%

B. 15%

C. 0%

D. 25%

E. None of these

12).There are three different cable channels namely Ahead, Luck and Bang. In a survey it was found that 850 viewers respond to Bang, 200 to Luck, and 300 to Ahead. 200 viewers respond to exactly two channels and 50 to none. What percentage of the viewers responded to all three? A. 10 B. 12 C. 14 D. None of these 13). Assuming 20% respond to Ahead and Bang, and 16% respond to Bang and Luck, what is the percentage of viewers who watch only Luck? A. 20 B. 10 C. 16 D. None of these 14). In a survey about the popularity of magazines A, B and C among 200 pupils, 78 pupils like A, 72 like B, 90 like C, 28 like A and B only, 22 like B and C only, 10 like A and C only. Find the maximum number of pupils who do not like any of the magazines? A. 20 B. 24 C. 16 D. None of these

CUBES Directions to Solve The following questions are based on the information given below: 1. A cuboid shaped wooden block has 6 cm length, 4 cm breadth and 1 cm height. 2. Two faces measuring 4 cm x 1 cm are coloured in black. 3. Two faces measuring 6 cm x 1 cm are coloured in red. 4. Two faces measuring 6 cm x 4 cm are coloured in green.

5. The block is divided into 6 equal cubes of side 1 cm (from 6 cm side), 4 equal cubes of side 1 cm(from 4 cm side). 1. How many cubes having red, green and black colours on at least one side of the cube will be formed? A.16 B.12 C.10 D.4 2. How many small cubes will be formed? A.6 B.12 C.16 D.24 3. How many cubes will have 4 coloured sides and two noncoloured sides ? A.8 B.4 C.16 D.10 4. How many cubes will have green colour on two sides and rest of the four sides having no colour? A.12 B.10 C.8 D.4 5. How many cubes will remain if the cubes having black and green coloured are removed? A.4 B.8 C.12 D.16 Directions to Solve The following questions are based on the information given below: 1. All the faces of cubes are painted with red colour. 2. The cubes is cut into 64 equal small cubes. 1. How many small cubes have only one face coloured? A.4 B.8 C.16 D.24

2. How many small cubes have no faces coloured ? A.24 B.8 C.16 D.0 3. How many small cubes are there whose three faces are coloured ? A.4 B.8 C.16 D.24 4. How many small cubes are there whose two adjacent faces are coloured red ? A.0 B.8 C.16 D.24 Directions to Solve All the six faces of a cube of a cube are coloured with six different colours - black, brown, green, red, white and blue. 1. Red face is opposite to the black face. 2. Green face is between red and black faces. 3. Blue face is adjacent to white face. 4. Brown face is adjacent to blue face. 5. Red face is in the bottom. 1. The upper face is A. White B. Black C. Brown

D. None of these

2. The face opposite to brown is _________ A. Blue B. White C. Green D. Red 3. Which of the following is adjacent to green? A. Black, white, brown, red B. Blue, black, red, white

C. Red, black, blue, white D. None of these 4. Which face is opposite to green? A. Red B. White C. Blue D. Brown

Ratio Proportion and Mixtures Solutions Work Sheet Ratio Proportion 1. If a:b=3:7,find the value of (5a+b):(4a+5b) (a)15:44 (b)22:35 (c)15:49 (d)22:47 2. Which of the following ratios is greatest? (a) 7:15 (b)22:35 (c)15:49 (d)21:29 3. If 76 is divided in to four parts proportional to 7,5,3,4 the smallest part is (a) 12 (b) 15 (c)16 (d)19 4. Suppose x varies inversely as square of y and when y=3 and x=4. Find x, when y=6 (a) 1 (b)2 (c)3 (d)4 5. Divide Rs. 1162 among A, B, C in the ratio 35:28:20 (a) 120 (b)280 (c)170 (d)210

6. A bag contains one rupee, 50 paisa and 25 paisa coins in the ratio 1:2:4.If the total amount is Rs. 75,then find the number of 50 paisa coins in the bag (a)25 (b)50 (c)75 (d)100 7. If a is 75% of b,b is 150% of c and d is 25% of c,then find a:d (a)9:1 (b)9:2 (c)8:3 (d)8:1 8. The present ages of two persons are in the ratio 7:8.Twenty years ago the ratio of their ages was 9:11.Find the present age of the older son (a)64 years (b)72 years (c)56 years (d)40 years 9. A certain sum is divided among A,B and C in a manner that for every rupee that A gets, B gets 75 paisa and for every rupee that B gets,C gets 50 paisae.If B's share in the total sum is Rs 840.Find the share of A (a)Rs 2380 (b)Rs 2240 (c)Rs 1750 (d)Rs 1120 10.A certain amount of money is divided among A,B and C such that A gets half of what B and C gets together. B gets one third of what A and C together get.If A got Rs 500 more than B, then how much money was divided? (a)Rs4500 (b)Rs. 6000 (c)Rs. 8000 (d)none of these 11. Annual income of A and B are in the ratio 4:3 and their expenses, as 3:2. If each saves Rs 600 at the end of the year, find the annual income of each (a) 1200, 900 (b) 1500, 1125 (c) 2400, 1800 (d) 3600, 2700

12. The value of a silver coin varies directly as the square of its diameter when the thickness remains the same and directly as its thickness while the diameter is constant. Two silver coins have their diameter as 4:3. Find the ratio of their thickness if the value of the first is 4 times the value of the second. (a) 4:3 (b) 3:2 (c) 2:1 (d) 9:4

Mixture Solutions 1.15 litres of mixture contains 20% alcohol and the rest water. If 3 litres of water be mixed with it, the percentage of alcohol in the new mixture would be (a)15 b)16 2/3 (c)17 (d)none of these 2.85 kg of a mixture contains milk and water in the ratio 27:7.How much more water is to be added to get a new mixture containing milk and water in the ratio 3:1? (a)5kg (b)6.5kg (c)7.25kg (d)8kg 3. Two liquids are mixed in the ratio 3:2 and the solution is sold at Rs.11 per liter at 10% Profit. If the first liquid costs Rs.2 more than the second, what is the cost price of the first liquid? (a) Rs.8.80 (b) Rs.10.80 (c) Rs.9.80 (d) none

4. Tea worth Rs. 126 per kg and Rs. 135 per kg are mixed with a third variety in the ratio 1 : 1 : 2. If the mixture is worth Rs. 153 kg, the price of the third variety per kg will be: (a) Rs. 169.50 (b) Rs. 170 (c)Rs. 175.50 (d) Rs. 180 5. In what ratio must a person mix three kinds of tea costing Rs.60/kg, Rs.75/kg and Rs.100 /kg, so that the resultant mixture when sold at Rs.96/kg yields a profit of 20%? (a)1 : 2 : 4 (b)3 : 7 : 6 (c)1 : 4 : 2 (d)None of these 6. Two liquids A and B are in the ratio 5:1 in container 1 and in container 2, they are in the ratio 1:3. In what ratio should the contents of the two containers be mixed so as to obtain a mixture of A and B in the ratio 1:1? (a) 2 : 3 (b) 4 : 3 (c) 3 : 2 (d) 3 : 4 7. 85% kg of a mixture contains milk and water in the ratio 27:7. How much more water is to be added to get a new mixture containing milk and water in the ratio 3:1? (a) 5 kg (b) 6.5 kg (c) 7.25 kg (d) 8 kg 8. Find the proportion in which 2 kinds of tea costing Rs.3 and Rs.3.30 per pound are mixed up to produce a mixture of cost Rs. 3.20 per pound? (a) 2:1 (b) 1:2 (c) 3:2 (d) 2:3

9. A grocer sells one kind of tea at Rs.2.70 per kg and loss is 10% and another at Rs.4.50 per kg and gains 12 %. How should the two

quantities of tea be mixed so that the mixture may be sold at Rs.3.95 per kg at the profit of 25%? (a) 42:8 (b) 16:2 (c) 21:4 (d) 4:21 10. In a mixture 60 litres, the ratio of milk and water 2 : 1. If the this ratio is to be 1 : 2, then the quanity of water to be further added is: (a) 20 litres (b) 30 litres (c) 40 litres (d) 60 litres

PROFIT AND LOSS WORK SHEET

1. By selling a book for Rs.115.20, a man losses 10%. At what price should he sell it to gain? a). Rs.117.50 b). Rs.134.40 c). Rs.120 d). Rs.5

2. Ashok purchased a radio set and sold it to Shyam at a profit of 25% and Shyam sold it to Mohan at a loss of 10% and Mohan paid Rs.675 for it. For how much did Ashok purchase it? a). 599 b). 674 c). 600 d). 300

3. A man sold two houses for Rs.6,75,958 each. On one he gains 16% while on the other he loses 16%. How much does he gain or lose in the whole transaction?

a). 2.56%

b). 25.6%

c). 15.6%

d). 1.56%

4. A grain dealer cheats to the extent of 10% while buying as well as selling by using false weights. His total gain is a). 200% b). 8.34% c). 21% d). 12%

5. A dishonest dealer professes to sell his goods at cost price but uses a weight of 960 gms, for a kg weight. Find his gain percent. a). 6 % b). 8.5% c). 4 2/3% d). 4 1/6%

6. Find a single discount equivalent to series discount of 20%, 10% and 5%? a). 31.6% b). 3.16% c). 1.8% d). 0.31%

7. If C.P of 21 oranges is equal to S.P of 18 oranges, then profit percent is____? a). 15 2/3% b). 16 2/3% c). 21/18% d). 3%

8. A man sold two horses for Rs.3000 each gaining 25% on the one and losing 25% on the other. His loss percent is___? a). 6.15% b). 5.25% c). 6.25% d). 25%

9. A man buys lemon at the rate of 9 for 80 paisa and sells them at 11 for 120 paisa. His gain per lemon is

a). 200/99

b). 100/99

c). 99/200

d). 99/100

10. A man sells an article at 5% above its C.P. If he had bought it at 5% less than what he paid for it and sold it for Rs.2 less, he would have gained 10%. Find the C.P of the article? a). 401 b). 399 c). 400 d). 991

11. If a person makes a profit of 10% on one fourth of the quantity sold and a loss of 20% on the rest, then what is his average percent profit or loss? a). 12.5% loss b). 12.5 % profit c). 11.9% profit d). 12% loss

12. An article was sold at a profit of 10%. Had it been sold at a loss of 20%, the S.P would have been Rs.90 less. Find the C.P of the article. a). 299 b). 399 c). 328.5 d). 300

13. A person sold his watch for Rs.75 and got a % profit equal to C.P. Find the C.P of the watch? a). 50 b). 75 c). 25 d). 100

14. If goods be purchased for Rs.450 and one-third be sold at a loss of 10%, at what gain % should the remainder be sold as to gain 20% on the whole transaction? a). 28% b). 35% c). 14.8% d). 100%

15. A man loses Rs.20 by selling a toy at Rs.3 per piece and gains Rs. 30 by selling the same piece at Rs. 3.25 per piece. The number of pieces sold by the man is? a). 800 b). 5 c). 200 d). 199

16. A sold an article to B at a gain of 15%. B sold it to C at a gain of 20%. If C paid Rs.897, then A would have paid? a). 6,500 b). 1,500 c). 65 d). 650

17. A man bought a horse and sold it at a gain of 10%. If he had bought the horse at 20% less and sold it for Rs.100 more, he would have a profit of 40%. The C.P of the horse is? a). 5000 b). 50,000 c). 500 d). 499

18. A merchant blends two varieties of tea from two different tea gardens, one costing Rs.45 per kg and other Rs.60 per kg in the ratio of 7:3 respectively. He sells the blended variety at Rs.54.45 per kg. His profit % is? a). no profit b). 1% c). 10% d). 12%

19. A shopkeeper professes to sell his articles on C.P. But he uses false weight of 900 gm for 1 kg. His gain percentage is? a). 11% b). 1/9% c). 9% d). 11 1/9%

20. A publisher sells book to retail dealer at Rs.5 a copy but allows 25 copies to count as 24. If the retailer sells each of the 25 copies at Rs.6, the profit percent made by him is? a). 0.25% b). 25% c). 2.5% d). 250%

21. After getting two successive discounts, a shirt with a list price of Rs.150 is available at Rs.105. If the second discount is 12.5%, find the first discount? a). 18.7% b). 45% c). 20% d). 2%

22. A merchant sold two dresses for Rs 2400 each. He made a 25% profit on one and lost 20% on the other. What was his net gain or loss on the sale of two dresses? a). 120 b). 100 c). 130 d). 150

PROFIT AND LOSS WORK SHEET

1. By selling a book for Rs.115.20, a man losses 10%. At what price should he sell it to gain? a). Rs.117.50 b). Rs.134.40 c). Rs.120 d). Rs.5

2. Ashok purchased a radio set and sold it to Shyam at a profit of 25% and Shyam sold it to Mohan at a loss of 10% and Mohan paid Rs.675 for it. For how much did Ashok purchase it? a). 599 b). 674 c). 600 d). 300

3. A man sold two houses for Rs.6,75,958 each. On one he gains 16% while on the other he loses 16%. How much does he gain or lose in the whole transaction? a). 2.56% b). 25.6% c). 15.6% d). 1.56% 4. A grain dealer cheats to the extent of 10% while buying as well as selling by using false weights. His total gain is a). 200% b). 8.34% c). 21% d). 12%

5. A dishonest dealer professes to sell his goods at cost price but uses a weight of 960 gms, for a kg weight. Find his gain percent. a). 6 % b). 8.5% c). 4 2/3% d). 4 1/6%

6. Find a single discount equivalent to series discount of 20%, 10% and 5%? a). 31.6% b). 3.16% c). 1.8% d). 0.31%

7. If C.P of 21 oranges is equal to S.P of 18 oranges, then profit percent is____? a). 15 2/3% b). 16 2/3% c). 21/18% d). 3%

8. A man sold two horses for Rs.3000 each gaining 25% on the one and losing 25% on the other. His loss percent is___? a). 6.15% b). 5.25% c). 6.25% d). 25%

9. A man buys lemon at the rate of 9 for 80 paisa and sells them at 11 for 120 paisa. His gain per lemon is a). 200/99 b). 100/99 c). 99/200 d). 99/100

10. A man sells an article at 5% above its C.P. If he had bought it at 5% less than what he paid for it and sold it for Rs.2 less, he would have gained 10%. Find the C.P of the article? a). 401 b). 399 c). 400 d). 991

11. If a person makes a profit of 10% on one fourth of the quantity sold and a loss of 20% on the rest, then what is his average percent profit or loss? a). 12.5% loss b). 12.5 % profit c). 11.9% profit d). 12% loss

12. An article was sold at a profit of 10%. Had it been sold at a loss of 20%, the S.P would have been Rs.90 less. Find the C.P of the article. a). 299 b). 399 c). 328.5 d). 300

13. A person sold his watch for Rs.75 and got a % profit equal to C.P. Find the C.P of the watch? a). 50 b). 75 c). 25 d). 100

14. If goods be purchased for Rs.450 and one-third be sold at a loss of 10%, at what gain % should the remainder be sold as to gain 20% on the whole transaction? a). 28% b). 35% c). 14.8% d). 100%

15. A man loses Rs.20 by selling a toy at Rs.3 per piece and gains Rs. 30 by selling the same piece at Rs. 3.25 per piece. The number of pieces sold by the man is? a). 800 b). 5 c). 200 d). 199

16. A sold an article to B at a gain of 15%. B sold it to C at a gain of 20%. If C paid Rs.897, then A would have paid? a). 6,500 b). 1,500 c). 65 d). 650

17. A man bought a horse and sold it at a gain of 10%. If he had bought the horse at 20% less and sold it for Rs.100 more, he would have a profit of 40%. The C.P of the horse is? a). 5000 b). 50,000 c). 500 d). 499

18. A merchant blends two varieties of tea from two different tea gardens, one costing Rs.45 per kg and other Rs.60 per kg in the ratio of 7:3 respectively. He sells the blended variety at Rs.54.45 per kg. His profit % is? a). no profit b). 1% c). 10% d). 12%

19. A shopkeeper professes to sell his articles on C.P. But he uses false weight of 900 gm for 1 kg. His gain percentage is? a). 11% b). 1/9% c). 9% d). 11 1/9%

20. A publisher sells book to retail dealer at Rs.5 a copy but allows 25 copies to count as 24. If the retailer sells each of the 25 copies at Rs.6, the profit percent made by him is? a). 0.25% b). 25% c). 2.5% d). 250%

21. After getting two successive discounts, a shirt with a list price of Rs.150 is available at Rs.105. If the second discount is 12.5%, find the first discount? a). 18.7% b). 45% c). 20% d). 2%

22. A merchant sold two dresses for Rs 2400 each. He made a 25% profit on one and lost 20% on the other. What was his net gain or loss on the sale of two dresses? a). 120 b). 100 c). 130 d). 150

PERCENTAGE WORKSHEET I

The length and breadth of a rectangle are changed by +20% and by -10% spectively. What is the percentage change in the area of the rectangle? ) 4% decrease (b) 4 % increase(c) 8 % decrease (d) 8% crease

If As income is 33% more than that of B, then how much % is Bs come is less than that of A? ) 17.8% (b) 24.8% (c) 23.8% (d) 21%

If the price of tea is increased by 20%, find by how much percent must a ouse holder reduce her consumption of tea, so as not to increase the xpenditure? ) 4% (b) 13 3/2% (c) 16 2/3 % (d) 16%

The population of a town is 1, 76,400. If it increases at the rate of 5% per nnum, what will be its population 2 years hence? What was it 2 years ago? ) 1,94,481 and 1,60,000 (b) 2,00,000 and 1,28,500 )1,55,800 and 2,78,000 (d) 1,10,100 and 1,76,400

. A man spent 20% of his monthly income on house rent. Out of the maining, he spent 70% on food. If he had balance of Rs.250 at month nd, the monthly income of the man is approximately: ) 1042 rupees (b) 2000 rupees (c) 1800 rupees (d) 900 rupees

A woman has a certain number of apples, of which 13% are bad. She ves 75% of the remainder to charity, and then has 261 left. How many did e have initially? ) 1300 (b) 1200 (c) 1250 (d) 610

In an election between 2 candidates, Bhiku gets 65% of the total valid otes. If the total number of votes is 12000, what is the number of votes at the other candidate Sourabh gets if 25% of the total votes polled were eclared invalid? ) 3000 (b) 4150 (c) 5150 (d) 3150

80 litres of milk and water contains 5% water in it. How much more ater must be added to the mixture to make it 25% in the resulting mixture? ) 10 litres (b) 21.33 litres (c) 20 litres (d) 25 litres

his is the required quantity of water.

As salary is 20% lower than Bs salary which is 25% lower than Cs lary. By what percent is Cs salary more than As salary? ) 60% (b)65% (c)66.67% (d)70%

0. As salary is first decreased by 30% and then increased by 40%. The sult the same as Bs salary being first increased by 30% and then decreased y 40%. Find the ratio of Bs salary to As salary. ) 49:39 (b) 47:37 (c) 19:17 (d) 7:5

1. A water melon weighs 5000gms. 99% of its weight is water. It is kept in drying room and after some time it turns out that only 98% of its weight is ater. What is its weight now? ) 4500 (b) 2500 (c) 4950 (d) none

2. In an examination 65% of the students passed in Science, 68% passed in athematics and 25% failed in both. Find the pass percentage? ) 55% (b) 58% (c) 60% (d) 75%

3. In a class of 52 students, 25% are rich and the others are poor. There e 20 female members in the class, of whom 55% are poor. How many ch male members are there in the class? )4 (b) 8 (c) 5 (d) 6

4. At Kings college, 60% of the students are boys and the rest are girls. urther, 15% of the boys and 7.5% of the girls are getting a fee waiver. If e number of those getting a fee waiver is 90, find the total number of udents getting 50% fee-concession, if it is given that 10% of those not etting a fee-waiver are eligible for half-fee concession? (b) 66 (c) 68 (d) 63

) 64

5. A person fails in an exam for want of 12 marks. Had he got 27 marks ore he would have passed by scoring a clear 50% in the exam. Find the aximum marks given that the pass percentage is 40? ) 100 (b) 175 (c) 300 (d) 150

6. A pile of coins is to be divided amongst 6 people A,B,C,D,E,F in that der such that each gets twice the other . If A gets the least and F the ghest, what is the % increase in number of coins received by (a)F over C nd (b)E over B? (b) 600%, 500% (c) 400%, 300%(d) 500%, 400%

) 700%, 700%

7. Anindos project report consists of 25 pages each of 60 lines with 75 haracters on each line. In case, the number of lines is reduced to 50, but e number of characters is increased to 100 per line, what is the percentage hange in the number of pages? ) 10% decrease (b) 12% decrease (c) 20% increase (d) 5% decrease

ASSIGNMENT SHEET I

At an election where there are only two candidates. The candidate who ets 32% of the votes is elected by a majority of 144 votes. Find the total umber of votes recorded assuming that no vote is void. ) 500 (b) 300 (c) 450 (d) 600

A pie-chart giving the marks distribution in a certain exam shows that 0% got 80%, 25%got 70%, 25%got 60% and the rest got 50%. Find the verage percentage of marks scored by the students. ) 65 (b) 60 (c) 61 (d) 63.5

A man buys a truck for Rs.2,50,000. The annual repair cost comes to 0% of the price of purchase. Besides, he has to pay an annual tax of s.2000. At what monthly rent must he rent out the truck to get a return of 4% on his net annual investment? ) 4000 rupees (b) 3140 rupees (c) 5140 rupees (d) 4140 rupees

The value of a machine depreciates at 20 % per annum. If the present alue of the machine is Rs.10, 000, find its value after three years. ) 5000 rupees (b) 5120 rupees (c) 5400 rupees (d) 6000 rupees

In an exam, 20% failed in English and 15% failed in Maths. If 12% iled in both the exams, find the pass percentage. ) 70% (b) 72% (c) 77% (d) 75%

The side of a square is increased by 10%. Find the percentage change in s area. ) 21% (b) 30% (c) 10% (d) 100%

Vickys salary is 50% more than Rahuls. Vicky got a raise of 40% on s salary while Rahul got a 25% raise on his salary. By what percent is ickys new salary more than Rahuls? ) 56% (b) 68% (c) 72% (d) 84%

An ore contains 25% of an alloy that has 80% iron. Other than this, in e remaining 75% of the ore, there is no iron. How many kg of the ore are eeded to obtain 60 kgs of pure iron? ) 250 kg. (b) 275 kg. (c) 350 kg. (d) 300 kg.

Sandeep spends 20% of his salary on house rent, and 20% of the rest he ends on his childrens education and 14% of his total salary he spends on othes. After his expenditure, he is left with Rs.7000. What is his total lary? ) 15000 rupees (b) 14000 rupees (c) 9000 rupees (d) 12000 pees

0. Fresh fruit contains 68% water and dry fruit contains 20% water. How uch y fruit can be obtained from 100 kgs of fresh fruits? ) 25 kg (b) 40 kg (c) 30 kg (d) 20 kg

1. If As height is 24% less than that of B, then how much percent is Bs eight more than that of A? ) 91.0% (b) 31.57% (c) 29.1% (d) 13.8%

2. If the price of sugar decreases by 20%, find by how much percent must house holder increases her consumption of sugar so as not to decrease the xpenditure? ) 27% (b) 26.5% (c) 25% (d) 25.5%

3. The value of the machine depreciates at the rate of 10% per annum, if s present value is Rs. 16,200 what would be its worth after 2 years? What as the value of the machine 2 years ago? ) 1,94,481 and 1,60,000 (b) 2,00,000 and 1,28,500 ) 1,55,800 and 2,78,000 (d) 1,31,220 and 2,00,000

LOGICAL REASONING - Worksheet CODING - DECODING 1. If a meaningful word can be formed by rearranging the letters USCALA, the first letter so formed is the answer. If no such letter can be formed, the answer is X. (a) C (b) A (c) S (d) L 2. If Cushion is called Pillow, Pillow is called mat, mat is called bed sheet, and bed sheet is called cover, which will be spread on the floor? (a) Pillow (b) Mat (c) Bed sheet (d) Cover 3. If ROTARY is coded as 36 and ROTARIAN is coded as 64, how will you code ROTARACT? (a) 64 (b) 26 (c) 72 (d) 36 4. In a certain code language tom na rod means give me sweet jo ta rod means you and me pot ta noc means you are good jo mit noc means good and bad Which of the following represents bad in the language? (a)mit (b)noc (c)jo (d)rod

5. In a certain code language LANDMINE is written as PYRBQGRC. How will HOMEMADE be written in that code language? (a)LMPCPZID (b)LMPCOYHC (c)LMQCQYHC (d)LMOCOZID 6. If in the word DISTURBANCE the first letter is interchanged with the last letter, the second letter is interchanged with the tenth letter and so on, which letter would come after the letter T in the newly formed word? (a) I (b) N (c) S (d) U

7. In a certain code language743 means Mangoes are good. 657 means Eat good food 934 means Mangoes are ripe. Which digit means ripe in that language ? (a) 5 (b) 4 (c) 9 (d) 7 BLOOD RELATIONSHIP 8. James goes to the local church and sees a man sitting to his left. He finds that the man is his relative. The man is the husband of the sister of his mother. How is the man related to James? (a) Brother (b) Uncle (c) Nephew (d) Father 9. Pointing to a photograph a man said He is my brothers mothers brothers only siblings son. Whose photograph was it? (a) His own (b) Brother (c) Cousin (d) Cannot say

10. C is As fathers nephew. D is As cousin but not the brother of C. How is D related to C? (a) Cousin (b) Sister (c) Father (d) Cannot say 11. When Anil saw Mani, he recalled He is the son of the father of the mother of my daughter. How is Mani related to Anil? (a) Brother-in-law (b) Brother (c) Cousin (d) Uncle 12. Pointing out to a lady, a girl said, She is the daughter-in-law of the grandmother of my fathers only son. How is the lady related to the girl? (a) Sister-in-law(b)Aunt (c) Mother (d) mother-in-law

SYLLOGISM Directions Q 11 to Q 13 Each question consists of two statements followed by four options consisting of two options put together in a specific order. Choose the option which indicates a valid argument, that is, the third statement is a conclusion drawn from the preceding two statements. 13. All shares are debentures. No debentures are deposits. (a) No shares are deposits (b) Some shares are deposits (c) All shares are deposits (d) None of the above 14. Some students are smart. All students are hardworking

(a) some hardworking students are smart (b) some smart students are hardworking (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of the above 15.Some actors are singers. All the singers are dancers. 1. Some actors are dancers. 2. No singer is actor. A. Only (1) conclusion follows B. Only (2) conclusion follows C. Either (1) or (2) follows D. Neither (1) nor (2) follows E. Both (1) and (2) follow 16. All scientists are fools. All fools are literates. (a) All scientists are literates (b) All literates are scientists (c) No scientists are literates (d) Both (a) and (b) are correct 17. Statements: some roses are red some red are black. Conclusions: (I) No black is a rose. (II) No rose is a black (a) I (b) II (c) Both (d) None of these

ODD ONE OUT: 19 (a) Paradeep 20 (a) Silk 21 (a) Gold (b) Kalpakkam (c) Kota (d) Tarapur

(b) Cotton (c) Nylon (b) Silver

(d) wool

(c) Bronze (d) Iron (d) Tram

22 (a) Motorcar

(b) Tractor (c) Bus

23 (a) triangle (b) Pentagon

(c) square (d) tangent

24. Find the odd one out (a) Cubic metre (b) cubic centimetre (c) Gallons (d) Square metre

VENN-DIAGRAM: 25. Read the following Venn-diagram carefully and answer the question given below:

Which letters represent girls who are athletes but not singers? (a) C (b) A (c) D (d) E

26. Study the following figure and answer the questions given below.

i). How many educated people are employed ? A. 9 B. 18 C. 20 D. 15 ii). How many backward people are educated ? A. 9 B. 28 C. 14 D. 6 iii). How many backward uneducated people are employed ? A. 14 B. 5 C. 7 D. 11 iv). How many backward people are not educated ? A. 3 B. 14 C. 22 D. 25 NUMBER SERIES 27. Find the next of the series. 83, 82, 81, 77, 69, 60, ? (a) 54 (b) 33 (c) 35 (d) 52 28. Find the missing term of the series. 0, 2, 6, ?, 20, 30, 42. (a) 8 (b) 10 12 (d) 14 29. Look at this series: 36, 34, 30, 28, 24, ... What number should come next?

A.20

B.22

C.23

D.26

30. Look at this series: 22, 21, 23, 22, 24, 23, ... What number should come next? A.22 B.24 C.25 D.26 31. Look at this series: 53, 53, 40, 40, 27, 27, ... What number should come next? A.12 B.14 C.27 D.53

33. Rajis house is to the right of Vels house at a distance of 20 metres in the same row facing north. Shakthis house is in the north-east direction of Vels house at a distance of 25 metres. Determine Rajis house is in which direction with respect to Shakthis house. (a) South (b) South-east (c) South-west (d) None of these 34. In a row of boys, Rajan is tenth from the right and Suraj is tenth from the left. When Rajan and Suraj interchange their positions, Suraj will be twenty-seven from the left. Which of the following will be Rajans position from the right? (a) Twenty fifth (b) Twenty sixth (c) Twenty seven (d) Twenty eight

1. CUBOID Let length = l, breadth = b and height = h units. Then

i. Volume = (l x b x h) cubic units. ii. Surface area = 2(lb + bh + lh) sq. units. iii. Diagonal = l2 + b2 + h2 units. 2. CUBE Let each edge of a cube be of length a. Then, i. Volume = a3 cubic units. ii. Surface area = 6a2 sq. units. iii. Diagonal = 3a units. 3. CYLINDER Let radius of base = r and Height (or length) = h. Then, i. Volume = ( r2h) cubic units. ii. Curved surface area = (2 rh) sq. units. iii. Total surface area = 2 r(h + r) sq. units. 4. CONE Let radius of base = r and Height = h. Then, i. Slant height, l = h2 + r2 units. ii. Volume = r2h cubic units.

iii. Curved surface area = ( rl) sq. units. iv. Total surface area = ( rl + r2) sq. units. 5. SPHERE Let the radius of the sphere be r. Then, i. Volume = r3 cubic units.

ii. Surface area = (4 r2) sq. units. 6. HEMISPHERE

Let the radius of a hemisphere be r. Then, i. Volume = r3 cubic units.

ii. Curved surface area = (2 r2) sq. units. iii. Total surface area = (3 r2) sq. units. Note: 1 litre = 1000 cm3. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 1. Results on Triangles: i. Sum of the angles of a triangle is 180. ii. The sum of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the third side. iii. Pythagoras Theorem: In a right-angled triangle, (Hypotenuse)2 = (Base)2 + (Height)2. iv. The line joining the mid-point of a side of a triangle to the positive vertex is called the median. v. The point where the three medians of a triangle meet, is called centroid.The centroid divided each of the medians in the ratio 2 : 1. vi. In an isosceles triangle, the altitude from the vertex bisects the base. vii. The median of a triangle divides it into two triangles of the same area. viii. The area of the triangle formed by joining the midpoints of the sides of a given triangle is one-fourth of the area of the given triangle.

2. Results on Quadrilaterals: i. The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other. ii. Each diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into triangles of the same area. iii. The diagonals of a rectangle are equal and bisect each other. iv. The diagonals of a square are equal and bisect each other at right angles. v. The diagonals of a rhombus are unequal and bisect each other at right angles. vi. A parallelogram and a rectangle on the same base and between the same parallels are equal in area. vii. Of all the parallelogram of given sides, the parallelogram which is a rectangle has the greatest area. IMPORTANT FORMULAE I. 1. Area of a rectangle = (Length x Breadth). Area Area Length = and Breadth = . Breadth Length

II. 2. Perimeter of a rectangle = 2(Length + Breadth) II. Area of a square = (side)2 = (diagonal)2. V. Area of 4 walls of a room = 2 (Length + Breadth) x Height. V. 1. Area of a triangle = x Base x Height. (Or) x any side x length of perpendicular dropped on that side

2.

Area of a triangle = s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c) where a, b, c are the sides of the triangle and s = (a + b + c).

3 3. Area of an equilateral triangle = x (side)2. 4 4. Radius of incircle of an equilateral triangle of a . side a = 23 5. Radius of circumcircle of an equilateral triangle a . of side a = 3 6. Radius of incircle of a triangle of area and semiperimeter s = s In a right angled triangle, the radius of the incircle is given by the following relation . Area of parallelogram = (Base x Height). Area of a rhombus = x (Product of diagonals). x (sum of parallel sides) x

VI. 1. 2.

3. Area of a trapezium = distance between them.

II. 1. 2. 3.

Area of a circle = R2, where R is the radius. Circumference of a circle = 2 R. Length of an arc = 2R , where is the central angle.

4.

360 1 R2 Area of a sector = (arc x R) = . 2 360 Circumference of a semi-circle = R.

II. 1.

2.

R2 Area of semi-circle = . 2 MENSURATION Worksheet

1). A sizes of a triangle are 25m, 39m and 66m respectively. Find the perpendicular from the opposite angles and the greatest side? A. 13m B. 15m C. 9.5m D. 6m 2). The perimeter of an equilateral triangle is 15m. Find the length of the perpendicular and the area of the triangle? 3). The parallel sides of a trapezoid are 8m and 6m and its altitude is 3m. Find the area of the trapezoid? A. 21m2 B. 31m2 C. 12m2 D. 13m2 4). Find the area and the circumference of a circle whose radius is 3.5m? 5). A piece of wire is bent in the shape of an equilateral triangle of each side 6.6m, it is re-bent to form a circular ring. Find the diameter of the ring? A. 3.6m B. 6.6m C. 6.3m D. 6m

6). A right triangle with sides 3 cm, 4 cm and 5 cm is rotated the side of 3 cm to form a cone. The volume of the cone so formed is: A. 12cm3 B. 15cm3 C. 16cm3 D. 20cm3 7). In a shower, 5 cm of rain falls. The volume of water that falls on 1.5 hectares of ground is: A. 75 cu. m B. 750 cu. m C. 7500 cu. m D.75000 cu. m 8). The slant height of a right circular cone is 10 m and its height is 8 m. Find the area of its curved surface. A. 30m2 B. 40m2 C. 60m2D. 80m2 9). The curved surface area of a cylindrical pillar is 264 m2 and its volume is 924 m3. Find the ratio of its diameter to its height. A. 3 : 7 B. 7 : 3 C. 6 : 7 D. 7 : 6 10). What is the total surface area of a right circular cone of height 14 cm and base radius 7 cm? A. 344.35 cm2 B. 462 cm2 C. 498.35 cm2 D. None of these 11). A boat having a length 3 m and breadth 2 m is floating on a lake. The boat sinks by 1 cm when a man gets on it. The mass of the man is: A. 12 kg B. 60 kg C. 72 kg D. 96 kg

12). 50 men took a dip in a water tank 40 m long and 20 m broad on a religious day. If the average displacement of water by a man is 4 m3, then the rise in the water level in the tank will be: A. 20 cm B. 25 cm C. 35 cm D. 50 cm 13). How many bricks, each measuring 25 cm x 11.25 cm x 6 cm, will be needed to build a wall of 8 m x 6 m x 22.5 cm? A. 5600 B. 6000 C. 6400 D. 7200 14). A hall is 15 m long and 12 m broad. If the sum of the areas of the floor and the ceiling is equal to the sum of the areas of four walls, the volume of the hall is: A. 720m3 B. 900m3 C. 1200m3 D. 1800m3

15). The ratio between the length and the breadth of a rectangular park is 3 : 2. If a man cycling along the boundary of the park at the speed of 12 km/hr completes one round in 8 minutes, then the area of the park (in sq. m) is: A. 15360m2 B. 153600m2 C. 30720m2 D. 307200m2 16). The percentage increase in the area of a rectangle, if each of its sides is increased by 20% is: A. 40% B. 42% C. 44% D. 46%

17). A towel, when bleached, was found to have lost 20% of its length and 10% of its breadth. The percentage of decrease in area is: A. 10% B. 10.08% C. 20% D. 28% 18). The diagonal of a rectangle is 41 cm and its area is 20 sq. cm. The perimeter of the rectangle must be: A. 9 cm B. 18 cm C. 20 cm D. 41 cm 19). The difference between the length and bradth of a rectangle is 23 m. If its perimeter is 206 m, then its area is: A. 1520 m2 B. 2420 m2 C. 2480 m2 D. 2520 m2 20). The length of a rectangle is halved, while its breadth is tripled. What is the percentage change in area? A. 25% increase B. 50% increase C. 50% decrease D. 75% decrease

GEOMETRY Worksheet

1. Vertices of a quadrilateral ABCD are A(0, 0), B(4, 5), C(9, 9) and D(5, 4). What is the shape of the quadrilateral? A. Square B.Rectangle but not a square C.Rhombus D.Parallelogram but not a rhombus

2. What is the radius of the incircle of the triangle whose sides measure 5, 12 and 13 units? A. 2 units B. 12 units C. 6.5 units D. 6 units

3. How many diagonals does a 63-sided convex polygon have? A. 3780 B. 1890 C. 3843 D. 3906 4. What is the area of the following square, if the length of BD is ? A. 1 B.2 C.3 D.4

5. In the figure below, what is the value of y ? A. 40 B.60 C.100 D.120

6. The square ABCD touches the circle at 4 points. The length of the side of the square is 2 cm. Find the area of the shaded region.

A. 4 B. 2 4

C.3 4

D. 4 4

7. Find the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle if the lengths of the other two sides are 6 inches and 8 inches. 8. Find the length of one side of a right triangle if the length of the hypotenuse is 15 inches and the length of the other side is 12 inches. 9. Find the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle if the lengths of the other two sides are both 3 inches. 10. How many triangles of perimeter 14 can be formed if the sides measure integral values only? A. 1 B.2 C.3 D.4
BAC

11. In the given figure, AD is the bisector of cm and BD = 3 cm. Find DC

, AB = 6 cm, AC = 5

A. 11.3 cm

B. 2.5 cm C. 3.5 cmD. None of these

12. A toy has a hemisphere base and a conical top as shown in the figure. The perpendicular height of the cone

is 10 cm and radius of the hemisphere is 4 cm. Find the volume of the toy.

A. 302 cm3 B. 408 cm3 C. 364 cm3 D. None of these 13. A rectangular tank is 50 m long and 29 m deep. If 2000 m3 of water is drawn off the tank, the level of the water in the tank goes down by 4m, how many cubic metre of the water can the tank hold? A. 18,000 m3 D. 14,500 m3 B. 12,500 m3 C. 13,000 m3

14. The base of a prism is a triangle of which the sides are 17, 28 and 25 m respectively. Volume of the prism is 2,100 m3. Find its height. A. 14 m B. 10 m C. 12 m D. 15 m

15. Two sides of a triangle are 22 and 18. Which of the following cannot be the area of the triangle? A. 196 B. 197 C. 198 D. 199

DATA SUFFICIENCY WORKSHEET Each of the questions given below consists of a statement and / or a question and two statements numbered I and II given below it. You have to decide whether the data provided in the statement(s) is / are sufficient to answer the given question. Read the both statements and Give answer (A) if the data in Statement I alone are sufficient to answer the question, while the data in Statement II alone are not sufficient to answer the question. Give answer (B) if the data in Statement II alone are sufficient to answer the question, while the data in Statement I alone are not sufficient to answer the question. Give answer (C) if the data either in Statement I or in Statement II alone are sufficient to answer the question. Give answer (D) if the data even in both Statements I and II together are not sufficient to answer the question. Give answer(E) if the data in both Statements I and II together are necessary to answer the question. 1. What is the volume of 32 metre high cylindrical tank? I. The area of its base is 154 m2. II. The diameter of the base is 14 m. A. I alone sufficient while II alone not sufficient to answer B. II alone sufficient while I alone not sufficient to answer C. Either I or II alone sufficient to answer

D. Both I and II are not sufficient to answer E. Both I and II are necessary to answer 2. What is the capacity of a cylindrical tank? I. Radius of the base is half of its height which is 28 metres. II. Area of the base is 616 sq. metres and its height is 28 metres. ( Same options from first problem) 3. What is the capacity of the cylindrical tank? I. The area of the base is 61,600 sq. cm. II. The height of the tank is 1.5 times the radius III. The circumference of base is 880 cm. A. B. C. D. E. Only I and II Only II and III Only I and III Any two of the three Only II and either I or III

4. Two cars pass each other in opposite direction. How long would they take to be 500 km apart? I. The sum of their speeds is 135 km/hr. II. The difference of their speed is 25 km/hr. ( Same options from first problem) 5.How much time did X take to reach the destination?

I. The ratio between the speed of X and Y is 3 : 4. II. Y takes 36 minutes to reach the same destination. ( Same options from first problem) 6.The towns A, B and C are on a straight line. Town C is between A and B. The distance from A to B is 100 km. How far is A from C? I. The distance from A to B is 25% more than the distance from C to B. II. The distance from A to C is 1/4 of the distance C to B. ( Same options from first problem) Directions for 7 and 8 The problems consist of a question and two statements, labelled (I) and (II), in which certain data are given. You have to decide whether the data given in the statements are sufficient for answering the question. Mark (a) if statement (I) alone is sufficient, but statement (II) alone is not sufficient to answer the question; Mark (b) if statement (II) alone is sufficient, but statement (I) alone is not sufficient to answer the question; Mark (c) if both statements (I) and (II) together are sufficient to answer the question but neither statement alone is sufficient; Mark (d) if each statement alone is sufficient to answer the question; Mark if both statements (I) and (II) together are not sufficient to answer the question and additional data specific to the problem are needed.

7.The distance from Madhavis office to her house is 45 miles. On Monday Madhavi went to the office for a while but returned home early. what was the total time spent in the travelling? I. She travelled at an uniform rate of 40 mph both in the onward as well as the return journey. II. If she travelled 50 mph faster then she actually did it would have taken her half the time.

8. What is the speed of the train? I. A motorcycle takes an hour more then the train to cover the same distance of 120 kms. II. The train moves 6 km faster than the motorcycle. 9.By selling an article what is the profit percent gained? I. 5% discount is given on list price. II. If discount is not given, 20% profit is gained. III. The cost price of the articles is Rs. 5000. A. Only I and II B. Only II and II C. Only I and III D. All I, II and III E. None of these 10. A man mixes two types of rice (X and Y) and sells the mixture at the rate of Rs. 17 per kg. Find his profit percentage. I. The rate of X is Rs. 20 per kg.

II. The rate of Y is Rs. 13 per kg. ( Same options from first problem) 11. A shopkeeper sells some toys at Rs. 250 each. What percent profit does he make? To find the answer, which of the following information given in Statements I and II is/are necessary? I. Number of toys sold. II. Cost price of each toy. A. B. C. D. E. Only I is necessary Only II is necessary Both I and II are necessary Either I or II is necessary None of these

12. A and B together can complete a task in 7 days. B alone can do it in 20 days. What part of the work was carried out by A? I. A completed the job alone after A and B worked together for 5 days. II. Part of the work done by A could have been done by B and C together in 6 days. ( Same options from first problem)

13. How long will Machine Y, working alone, take to produce x candles?

I. Machine X produces x candles in 5 minutes. II. Machine X and Machine Y working at the same time produce x candles in 2 minutes. ( Same options from first problem) 14. How many workers are required for completing the construction work in 10 days? I. 20% of the work can be completed by 8 workers in 8 days. II. 20 workers can complete the work in 16 days. III. One-eighth of the work can be completed by 8 workers in 5 days. A. B. C. D. E. I only II and III only III only I and III only Any one of the three

15. The area of playground is 1600 m2. What is the perimeter? I. It is a perfect square playground. II. It costs Rs. 3200 to put a fence around the playground at the rate of Rs. 20 per metre. ( Same options from first problem) 16. What is the area of a right-angled triangle? I. The perimeter of the triangle is 30 cm.

II. The ratio between the base and the height of the triangle is 5 : 12. III. The area of the triangle is equal to the area of a rectangle of length 10 cm. A. B. C. D. E. I and II only II and III only I and III only III, and either I or II only None of these

17. The area of a rectangle is equal to the area of right-angles triangle. What is the length of the rectangle? I. The base of the triangle is 40 cm. II. The height of the triangle is 50 cm. ( Same options from first problem)

DATA INTERPRETATION - WORKSHEET Problem 1: Study the following table and answer the questions based on it Expenditures of a Company (in Lakh Rupees) per Annum Over the given Years. Item of Expenditure Year Salary Fuel and Transport Bonus Interest on Loans Taxes

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

288 342 324 336 420

98 112 101 133 142

3.00 2.52 3.84 3.68 3.96

23.4 32.5 41.6 36.4 49.4

83 108 74 88 98

1. What is the average amount of interest per year which the company had to pay during this period? A. Rs. 32.43 lakhs B. Rs. 33.72 lakhs C. Rs. 34.18 lakhs D. Rs. 36.66 lakhs 2. The total amount of bonus paid by the company during the given period is approximately what percent of the total amount of salary paid during this period? A. 0.1% B. 0.5%C. 1% D. 1.25% 3. Total expenditure on all these items in 1998 was approximately what percent of the total expenditure in 2002? A. 62% B. 66% C. 69% D. 71% 4. The total expenditure of the company over these items during the year 2000 is? A. Rs. 544.44 lakhs B. Rs. 501.11 lakhs C. Rs. 446.46 lakhs D. Rs. 478.87 lakhs 5. The ratio between the total expenditure on Taxes for all the years and the total expenditure on Fuel and Transport for all the years respectively is approximately? A. 4:7 B. 10:13 C. 15:18 D. 5:8

Problem 2: The bar graph given below shows the sales of books (in thousand number) from six branches of a publishing company during two consecutive years 2000 and 2001. Sales of Books (in thousand numbers) from Six Branches - B1, B2, B3, B4, B5 and B6 of a publishing Company in 2000 and 2001.

1. What is the ratio of the total sales of branch B2 for both years to the total sales of branch B4 for both years? A. 2:3 B. 3:5 C. 4:5 D. 7:9 2. Total sales of branch B6 for both the years is what percent of the total sales of branches B3 for both the years?

A. 68.54% B. 71.11% C. 73.17% D. 75.55% 3. What percent of the average sales of branches B1, B2 and B3 in 2001 is the average sales of branches B1, B3 and B6 in 2000? A. 75% B. 77.5% C. 82.5% D. 87.5% 4. What is the average sales of all the branches (in thousand numbers) for the year 2000? A. 73 B. 80 C. 83 D. 88 5. Total sales of branches B1, B3 and B5 together for both the years (in thousand numbers) is? A. 250 B. 310 C. 435 D. 560

Problem 3: The following pie-chart shows the percentage distribution of the expenditure incurred in publishing a book. Study the pie-chart and the answer the questions based on it. Various Expenditures (in percentage) Incurred in Publishing a Book

1. If for a certain quantity of books, the publisher has to pay Rs. 30,600 as printing cost, then what will be amount of royalty to be paid for these books? A. Rs. 19,450 B. Rs. 21,200 C. Rs. 22,950 D. Rs. 26,150 2. What is the central angle of the sector corresponding to the expenditure incurred on Royalty? A. 15 B. 24 C. 54 D. 48 3. The price of the book is marked 20% above the C.P. If the marked price of the book is Rs. 180, then what is the cost of the paper used in a single copy of the book? A. Rs. 36 B. Rs. 37.50 C.Rs. 42 D.Rs. 44.25 4. If 5500 copies are published and the transportation cost on them amounts to Rs. 82500, then what should be the selling price of the book so that the publisher can earn a profit of 25%? A. Rs. 187.50 B. Rs. 191.50 C.Rs. 175 D.Rs. 180 5. Royalty on the book is less than the printing cost by: A. 5% B.33 1/5% C.20% D.25%

Problem 4:

The following line graph gives the ratio of the amounts of imports by a company to the amount of exports from that company over the period from 1995 to 2001. Ratio of Value of Imports to Exports by a Company Over the Years.

1. If the imports in 1998 was Rs. 250 crores and the total exports in the years 1998 and 1999 together was Rs. 500 crores, then the imports in 1999 was ? A. Rs. 250 crores B. Rs. 300 crores C. Rs. 357 crores D. Rs. 420 crores 2. The imports were minimum proportionate to the exports of the company in the year ? A. 1995 B. 1996 C. 1997 D.2000 3. What was the percentage increase in imports from 1997 to 1998 ? A. 72 B. 56 C. 28 D. Data inadequate 4. If the imports of the company in 1996 was Rs. 272 crores, the exports from the company in 1996 was?

A. Rs. 370 crores crores

B. Rs. 320 crores

C. Rs. 280 crores

D. Rs. 275

5. In how many of the given years were the exports more than the imports ? A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

CONTENTS

SL.NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

TOPIC

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT BASICS OF COMPUTER CPU NETWORKING INTERNET COMPUTER DATA STORAGE 18-26 BASIC HARDWARE 27-29 COMPONENTS COMPUTER NETWORKS 30

PAGE NO. 3 4-9 10-14 AND 15-17

8 9

OSI LAYERS INTERFACES

30-36 37

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We owe a great many thanks to a great many people who helped and supported us during the writing of this report. Our deep sense of gratitude to the trainees of HCL Technologies for their support and guidance. We would also thank our Institution and our faculty members without whom this industrial training in HCL would have been a distant reality. We also extend my heartfelt thanks to my family and well wishers.

BASICS OF COMPUTERS.

A computer is a programmable machine designed to sequentially and automatically carry out a sequence of arithmetic or logical operations. The particular sequence of operations can be changed readily, allowing the computer to solve more than one kind of problem. An important class of computer operations on some computing platforms is the accepting of input from human operators and the output of results formatted for human consumption. The interface between the computer and the human operator is known as the user interface.

Conventionally a computer consists of some form of memory for data storage, at least one element that carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control element that can change the order of operations based on the information that is stored. Peripheral devices allow information to be entered from an external source, and allow the results of operations to be sent out.

A computer's processing unit executes series of instructions that make it read, manipulate and then store data. Conditional instructions change the sequence of instructions as a function of the current state of the machine or its environment.

The first electronic digital computers were developed in the mid20th century (19401945). Originally, they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs). In this era mechanical analog computers were used for military applications.

Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space. Simple computers are small

enough to fit into mobile devices, and mobile computers can be powered by small batteries. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as "computers". However, the embedded computers found in many devices from mp3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most numerous. First general-purpose computers

In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard made an improvement to the textile loom by introducing a series of punched paper cards as a template which allowed his loom to weave intricate patterns automatically. The resulting Jacquard loom was an important step in the development of computers because the use of punched cards to define woven patterns can be viewed as an early, albeit limited, form of programmability.

It was the fusion of automatic calculation with programmability that produced the first recognizable computers. In 1837, Charles Babbage was the first to conceptualize and design a fully programmable mechanical computer, his analytical engine. Limited finances and Babbage's inability to resist tinkering with the design meant that the device was never completed ; nevertheless his son, Henry Babbage, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine's computing unit (the mill) in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906. This machine was given to the Science museum in South Kensington in 1910.

In the late 1880s, Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a machine readable medium. Prior uses of machine readable media, above, had been for control, not data. "After some initial trials with paper tape, he settled on punched cards. To process

these punched cards he invented the tabulator, and the keypunch machines. These three inventions were the foundation of the modern information processing industry. Largescale automated data processing of punched cards was performed for the 1890 United States Census by Hollerith's company, which later became the core of IBM. By the end of the 19th century a number of ideas and technologies, that would later prove useful in the realization of practical computers, had begun to appear: Boolean algebra, the vacuum tube (thermionic valve), punched cards and tape, and the teleprinter.

During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers.

AtanasoffBerry Computer (ABC) is the world's first electronic digital computer Atanasoff is considered the father of the computer . Conceived in 1937 by Iowa State College physics professor John Atanasoff, and built with the assistance of graduate student Clifford Berry the machine was not programmable, being designed only to solve systems of linear equations. The computer did employ parallel computation. A 1973 court ruling in a patent dispute found that the patent for the 1946 ENIAC computer derived from the AtanasoffBerry Computer.

The inventor of the program-controlled computer was Konrad Zuse, who built the first working computer in 1941 and later in 1955 the first computer based on magnetic storage

George Stibitz is internationally recognized as a father of the modern digital computer. While working at Bell Labs in November 1937, Stibitz invented and built a relay-based calculator he dubbed the "Model K" (for "kitchen table", on which he had assembled it), which was the first to use binary circuits to perform an arithmetic operation. Later models added greater sophistication including complex arithmetic and programmability.

A succession of steadily more powerful and flexible computing devices were constructed in the 1930s and 1940s, gradually adding the key features that are seen in modern computers. The use of digital electronics (largely invented by Claude Shannon in 1937) and more flexible programmability were vitally important steps, but defining one point along this road as "the first digital electronic computer" is difficult. Shannon 194 Notable achievements include. Stored-program architecture

Several developers of ENIAC, recognizing its flaws, came up with a far more flexible and elegant design, which came to be known as the "stored program architecture" or von Neumann architecture. This design was first formally described by John von Neumann in the paper First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, distributed in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture commenced around this time, the first of these being completed in Great Britain. The first working prototype to be demonstrated was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM or "Baby") in 1948. The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC), completed a year after the SSEM at Cambridge University, was the first practical,

non-experimental implementation of the stored program design and was put to use immediately for research work at the university. Shortly thereafter, the machine originally described by von Neumann's paperEDVACwas completed but did not see fulltime use for an additional two years.

Nearly all modern computers implement some form of the storedprogram architecture, making it the single trait by which the word "computer" is now defined. While the technologies used in computers have changed dramatically since the first electronic, general-purpose computers of the 1940s, most still use the von Neumann architecture.

Beginning in the 1950s, Soviet scientists Sergei Sobolev and Nikolay Brusentsov conducted research on ternary computers, devices that operated on a base three numbering system of 1, 0, and 1 rather than the conventional binary numbering system upon which most computers are based. They designed theSetun, a functional ternary computer, at Moscow State University. The device was put into limited production in the Soviet Union, but supplanted by the more common binary architecture. Semiconductors and microprocessors

Computers using vacuum tubes as their electronic elements were in use throughout the 1950s, but by the 1960s had been largely replaced by transistor-based machines, which were smaller, faster, cheaper to produce, required less power, and were more reliable. The first transistorised computer was demonstrated at the University of Manchester in 1953. In the 1970s, integrated circuit technology and the subsequent creation

of microprocessors, such as the Intel 4004, further decreased size and cost and further increased speed and reliability of computers. By the late 1970s, many products such as video recorders contained dedicated computers called microcontrollers, and they started to appear as a replacement to mechanical controls in domestic appliances such as washing machines. The 1980s witnessed home computers and the now ubiquitous personal computer. With the evolution of the Internet, personal computers are becoming as common as the television and the telephone in the house. Modern smartphones are fully programmable computers in their own right, and as of 2009 may well be the most common form of such computers in existence. Programs

The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be programmed. That is to say that some type of instructions (the program) can be given to the computer, and it will carry process them. While some computers may have strange concepts "instructions" and "output" (see quantum computing), modern computers based on the von Neumann architecture often have machine code in the form of an imperative programming language.

In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as do the programs for word processors and web browsers for example. A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second (gigaflops) and rarely makes a mistake over many years of operation. Large computer programs consisting of several million

instructions may take teams of programmers years to write, and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors. Stored program architecture

A 1970s punched card containing one line from a FORTRAN program. The card reads: "Z(1) = Y + W(1)" and is labelled "PROJ039" for identification purposes.

This section applies to most common RAM machine-based computers.

In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc. These instructions are read from the computer's memory and are generally carried out (executed) in the order they were given. However, there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there. These are called "jump" instructions (or branches). Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event. Many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that "remembers" the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction.

Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest. Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met. This is called the flow of control within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention. Comparatively, a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses. But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1,000 would take thousands of button presses and a lot of timewith a near certainty of making a mistake. On the other hand, a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions. For example:

mov #0, sum mov #1, num loop: add num, sum add #1, num cmp num, #1000 ble loop to 'loop' halt running

; ; ; ; ;

set sum to 0 set num to 1 add num to sum add 1 to num compare num to 1000 ; if num <= 1000, go back ; end of program. stop

Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention. It will

almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in about a millionth of a second. Machine code

In most computers, individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a unique number (its operation code or opcode for short). The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode, the command to multiply them would have a different opcode and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose fromeach with a unique numerical code. Since the computer's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of these instructions) can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data. The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program, architecture. In some cases, a computer might store some or all of its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on. This is called the Harvard architecture after theHarvard Mark I computer. Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in CPU caches.

While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers (machine language) and while this technique was used with many early computers, it is extremely tedious and potentially error-prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated

programs. Instead, each basic instruction can be given a short name that is indicative of its function and easy to remember a mnemonic such as ADD, SUB, MULT or JUMP. These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer's assembly language. Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand (machine language) is usually done by a computer program called an assembler. Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them (collectively termed low-level programming languages) tend to be unique to a particular type of computer. For instance, an ARM architecture computer (such as may be found in a PDA or a hand-held videogame) cannot understand the machine language of an Intel Pentium or the AMD Athlon 64 computer that might be in a PC Higher-level languages and program design

Though considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract high-level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently (and thereby help reduce programmer error). High level languages are usually "compiled" into machine language (or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language) using another computer program called a compiler. High level languages are less related to the workings of the target computer than assembly language, and more related to the language and structure of the problem(s) to be solved by the final program. It is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of

many different types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles.

The task of developing large software systems presents a significant intellectual challenge. Producing software with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically been difficult; the academic and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge. Function

A general purpose computer has four main components: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the control unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O). These parts are interconnected by busses, often made of groups of wires.

Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or on by means of an electronic switch. Each circuit represents a bit (binary digit) of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a "1", and when off it represents a "0" (in positive logic representation). The circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.

The control unit, ALU, registers, and basic I/O (and often other hardware closely linked with these) are collectively known as a central processing unit (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate components but since the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.

Control unit

Diagram showing how a particular MIPS architecture instruction would be decoded by the control system.

The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) manages the computer's various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming them into a series of control signals which activate other parts of the computer. Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of some instructions so as to improve performance. A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell (a register) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from. Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps" and allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both examples of control flow). It is noticeable that the sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer programand indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called

a microsequencer that runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen. Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic.

The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to adding and subtracting or might include multiplying or dividing, trigonometry functions (sine, cosine, etc.) and square roots. Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating point to represent real numbersalbeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operationalthough it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return boolean truth values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64 greater than 65?").

Logic operations involve Boolean logic: AND, OR, XOR and NOT. These can be useful both for creating complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic.

Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs so that they can process several instructions at the same time. Graphics processors and computers with SIMD and MIMD features often provide ALUs that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices. Memory

Magnetic core memory was the computer memory of choice throughout the 1960s, until it was replaced by semiconductor memory.

A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595". The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software's responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.

In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits (called a byte). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers (2^8 = 256); either from 0 to 255 or 128 to +127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two's complement notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in

memory if it can be represented numerically. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.

The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. As data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer's speed.

Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties: randomaccess memory or RAM and read-only memory or ROM. RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is pre-loaded with data and software that never changes, so the CPU can only read from it. ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS that orchestrates loading the computer'soperating system from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset. In embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in ROM is often called firmware, because it is notionally more like hardware than software. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable. It is typically much slower than conventional

ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary.

In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories which are slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer's part. Input/output (I/O)

Hard disk drives are common storage devices used with computers.

I/O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world. Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals. On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the display and printer. Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices. Computer networking is another form of I/O.

Often, I/O devices are complex computers in their own right with their own CPU and memory. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3Dgraphics. Modern desktop

computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I/O. Multitasking While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously. This is achieved by multitasking i.e. having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn.

One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an interrupt which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running "at the same time", then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each time. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant. This method of multitasking is sometimes termed "timesharing" since each program is allocated a "slice" of time in turn. Before the era of cheap computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer.

Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running. However, most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input/output

devices to complete their tasks. If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice" until the event it is waiting for has occurred. This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run at the same time without unacceptable speed loss. Multiprocessing

Cray designed many supercomputers that used multiprocessing heavily.

Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed only in large and powerful machines such as supercomputers, mainframe computers and servers. Multiprocessor and multi-core (multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower-end markets as a result.

Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and from general purpose computers. They often feature thousands of CPUs, customized high-speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware. Such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available

resources at once. Supercomputers usually see usage in largescale simulation, graphics rendering, and cryptography applications, as well as with other so-called "embarrassingly parallel" tasks. Networking and the Internet

Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s. The U.S. military's SAGE system was the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems like Sabre.

In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. This effort was funded by ARPA (now DARPA), and the computer network that it produced was called the ARPANET. The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved.

In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking

become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. "Wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments. Required technology

Computational systems as flexible as a personal computer can be built out of almost anything. For example, a computer can be made out of billiard balls (billiard ball computer); this is an unintuitive and pedagogical example that a computer can be made out of almost anything. More realistically, modern computers are made out of transistors made of photolithographed semiconductors.

Historically, computers evolved from mechanical computers and eventually from vacuum tubes to transistors.

There is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as optical computing, DNA computers, neural computers, and quantum computers. Some of these can easily tackle problems that modern computers cannot (such as how quantum computers can break some modern encryption algorithms by quantum factoring). Logic gates are a common abstraction which can apply to most of the above digital or analog paradigms. The ability to store called programs makes and execute lists of computers extremely instructions versatile,

distinguishing them from calculators. The ChurchTuring thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a minimum capability (being Turing-complete) is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore any type of computer (netbook, supercomputer, cellular automaton, etc.) is able to perform the same computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity. Limited-function computers

Conversely, a computer which is limited in function (one that is not "Turing-complete") cannot simulate arbitrary things. For example, simple four-function calculators cannot simulate a real computer without human intervention. As a more complicated example, without the ability to program a gaming console, it can never accomplish what a programmable calculator from the 1990s could (given enough time); the system as a whole is not Turingcomplete, even though it contains a Turing-complete component (the microprocessor). Living organisms (the body, not the brain) are also limited-function computers designed to make copies of themselves; they cannot be reprogrammed without genetic engineering. Virtual computers

A "computer" is commonly considered to be a physical device. However, one can create a computer program which describes how to run a different computer, i.e. "simulating a computer in a computer". Not only is this a constructive proof of the ChurchTuring thesis, but is also extremely common in all modern computers. For example, some programming languages use

something called an interpreter, which is a simulated computer built using software that runs on a real, physical computer; this allows programmers to write code (computer input) in a different language than the one understood by the base computer (the alternative is to use a compiler). Additionally, virtual machines are simulated computers which virtually replicate a physical computer in software, and are very commonly used by IT. Virtual machines are also a common technique used to create emulators, such game console emulators. Artificial intelligence A computer will solve problems in exactly the way they are programmed to, without regard to efficiency nor alternative solutions nor possible shortcuts nor possible errors in the code. Computer programs which learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of artificial intelligence and machine learning.

Hardware The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible objects. Circuits, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and mice are all hardware. Software Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. When software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified (such as BIOSROM in an IBM PC compatible), it is sometimes called "firmware" to indicate that it falls into an uncertain area somewhere between hardware and software.

Programming languages

Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike natural languages, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques. There are thousands of different programming languagessome intended to be general purpose, others useful only for highly specialized applications.

Computer data storage

1 GB of SDRAM mounted in a personal computer. An example of primary storage.

40 GB PATA hard disk drive (HDD); when connected to a computer it serves assecondary storage.

160 GB SDLT tape cartridge, an example of off-line storage. When used within a robotic tape library, it is classified as tertiarystorage instead.

Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, refers to computer components and recording media that retain digital data. Data storage is one of the core functions and fundamental components of computers.

In contemporary usage, memory usually refers to semiconductor storage random-access memory, typically DRAM (Dynamic-RAM). Memory can refer to other forms of fast but temporary storage. Storage refers to storage devices and their media not directly accessible by the CPU, (secondary or tertiary storage) typically hard disk drives, optical disc drives, and other devices slower than RAM but more permanent. Historically, memory has been calledmain memory, real storage or internal memory while storage devices have been referred to as secondary storage, external memory or auxiliary/peripheral storage.

The distinctions are fundamental to the architecture of computers. The distinctions also reflect an important and significant technical difference between memory and mass storage devices, which has been blurred by the historical usage of the term storage. Nevertheless, this article uses the traditional nomenclature. Many different forms of storage, based on various natural phenomena, have been invented. So far, no practical universal

storage medium exists, and all forms of storage have some drawbacks. Therefore a computer system usually contains several kinds of storage, each with an individual purpose.

A digital computer represents data using the binary numeral system. Text, numbers, pictures, audio, and nearly any other form of information can be converted into a string of bits, or binary digits, each of which has a value of 1 or 0. The most common unit of storage is the byte, equal to 8 bits. A piece of information can be handled by any computer whose storage space is large enough to accommodate the binary representation of the piece of information, or simply data. For example, using eight million bits, or about one megabyte, a typical computer could store a short novel.

Traditionally the most important part of every computer is the central processing unit (CPU, or simply a processor), because it actually operates on data, performs any calculations, and controls all the other components. The CPU consists of two (2) main parts: Control Unit and Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). The former controls the flow of data between the CPU and memory whilst the latter is used for performing arithmetic and logical operations on data.

Without a significant amount of memory, a computer would merely be able to perform fixed operations and immediately output the result. It would have to be reconfigured to change its behavior. This is acceptable for devices such as desk calculators or simple digital signal processors. Von Neumann machines differ in having a memory in which they store their operating instructions and data. Such computers are more

versatile in that they do not need to have their hardware reconfigured for each new program, but can simply be reprogrammed with new in-memory instructions; they also tend to be simpler to design, in that a relatively simple processor may keep state between successive computations to build up complex procedural results. Most modern computers are von Neumann machines.

In practice, almost all computers use a variety of memory types, organized in a storage hierarchy around the CPU, as a trade-off between performance and cost. Generally, the lower a storage is in the hierarchy, the lesser its bandwidth and the greater its access latency is from the CPU. This traditional division of storage to primary, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage is also guided by cost per bit. Hierarchy of storage

Various forms of storage, divided according to their distance from the central processing unit. The fundamental components of a general-purpose computer are arithmetic and logic unit, control

circuitry, storage space, and input/output devices. Technology and capacity as in common home computers around 2005 Primary storage

Primary storage (or main memory or internal memory), often referred to simply as memory, is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required. Any data actively operated on is also stored there in uniform manner.

Historically, early computers used delay lines, Williams tubes, or rotating magnetic drums as primary storage. By 1954, those unreliable methods were mostly replaced by magnetic core memory. Core memory remained dominant until the 1970s, when advances in integrated circuit technology allowed semiconductor memory to become economically competitive.

This led to modern random-access memory (RAM). It is smallsized, light, but quite expensive at the same time. (The particular types of RAM used for primary storage are also volatile, i.e. they lose the information when not powered).

As shown in the diagram, traditionally there are two more sublayers of the primary storage, besides main large-capacity RAM: Processor registers are located inside the processor. Each register typically holds a word of data (often 32 or 64 bits). CPU instructions instruct the arithmetic and logic unit to perform various calculations or other operations on this data (or with the help of it). Registers are the fastest of all forms of computer data storage.

Processor cache is an intermediate stage between ultra-fast registers and much slower main memory. It's introduced solely to

increase performance of the computer. Most actively used information in the main memory is just duplicated in the cache memory, which is faster, but of much lesser capacity. On the other hand, main memory is much slower, but has a much greater storage capacity than processor registers. Multi-level hierarchical cache setup is also commonly usedprimary cache being smallest, fastest and located inside the processor; secondary cache being somewhat larger and slower.

Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a memory bus. It is actually two buses (not on the diagram): an address bus and a data bus. The CPU firstly sends a number through an address bus, a number called memory address, that indicates the desired location of data. Then it reads or writes the data itself using the data bus. Additionally, a memory management unit (MMU) is a small device between CPU and RAM recalculating the actual memory address, for example to provide an abstraction of virtual memory or other tasks.

As the RAM types used for primary storage are volatile (cleared at start up), a computer containing only such storage would not have a source to read instructions from, in order to start the computer. Hence, non-volatile primary storage containing a small startup program (BIOS) is used to bootstrap the computer, that is, to read a larger program from non-volatile secondary storage to RAM and start to execute it. A non-volatile technology used for this purpose is called ROM, for read-only memory (the terminology may be somewhat confusing as most ROM types are also capable of random access).

Many types of "ROM" are not literally read only, as updates are possible; however it is slow and memory must be erased in large portions before it can be re-written. Some embedded systems run programs directly from ROM (or similar), because such programs are rarely changed. Standard computers do not store nonrudimentary programs in ROM, rather use large capacities of secondary storage, which is non-volatile as well, and not as costly. Secondary storage

A hard disk drive with protective cover removed.

Secondary storage (also known as external memory or auxiliary storage), differs from primary storage in that it is not directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually uses its input/output channels to access secondary storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in primary storage. Secondary storage does not lose the data when the device is powered downit is non-volatile. Per unit, it is typically also two orders of magnitude less expensive than primary storage. Consequently, modern computer systems typically have two orders of magnitude more secondary storage than primary storage and data is kept for a longer time there. In modern computers, hard disk drives are usually used as secondary storage. The time taken to access a given byte of information stored on a hard disk is typically a few thousandths of

a second, or milliseconds. By contrast, the time taken to access a given byte of information stored in random access memory is measured in billionths of a second, or nanoseconds. This illustrates the significant access-time difference which distinguishes solid-state memory from rotating magnetic storage devices: hard disks are typically about a million times slower than memory. Rotating optical storage devices, such as CD and DVDdrives, have even longer access times. With disk drives, once the disk read/write head reaches the proper placement and the data of interest rotates under it, subsequent data on the track are very fast to access. As a result, in order to hide the initial seek time and rotational latency, data is transferred to and from disks in large contiguous blocks.

When data reside on disk, block access to hide latency offers a ray of hope in designing efficient external memory algorithms. Sequential or block access on disks is orders of magnitude faster than random access, and many sophisticated paradigms have been developed to design efficient algorithms based upon sequential and block access. Another way to reduce the I/O bottleneck is to use multiple disks in parallel in order to increase the bandwidth between primary and secondary memory.

Some other examples of secondary storage technologies are: flash memory (e.g. USB flash drives or keys), floppy disks, magnetic tape, paper tape, punched cards, standalone RAM disks, andIomega Zip drives.

The secondary storage is often formatted according to a file system format, which provides the abstraction necessary to organize data into files and directories, providing also additional

information (called metadata) describing the owner of a certain file, the access time, the access permissions, and other information.

Most computer operating systems use the concept of virtual memory, allowing utilization of more primary storage capacity than is physically available in the system. As the primary memory fills up, the system moves the least-used chunks (pages) to secondary storage devices (to a swap file or page file), retrieving them later when they are needed. As more of these retrievals from slower secondary storage are necessary, the more the overall system performance is degraded. Tertiary storage

Large tape library. Tape cartridges placed on shelves in the front, robotic arm moving in the back. Visible height of the library is about 180 cm.

Tertiary storage or tertiary memory, provides a third level of storage. Typically it involves a robotic mechanism which will mount (insert) and dismountremovable mass storage media into a storage device according to the system's demands; this data is often copied to secondary storage before use. It is primarily used for archiving rarely accessed information since it is much slower than secondary storage (e.g. 560 seconds vs. 110 milliseconds). This is primarily useful for extraordinarily large data

stores, accessed without human operators. Typical examples include tape libraries and optical jukeboxes. When a computer needs to read information from the tertiary storage, it will first consult a catalog database to determine which tape or disc contains the information. Next, the computer will instruct a robotic arm to fetch the medium and place it in a drive. When the computer has finished reading the information, the robotic arm will return the medium to its place in the library. Off-line storage

Off-line storage is a computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of a processing unit. The medium is recorded, usually in a secondary or tertiary storage device, and then physically removed or disconnected. It must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a computer can access it again. Unlike tertiary storage, it cannot be accessed without human interaction.

Off-line storage is used to transfer information, since the detached medium can be easily physically transported. Additionally, in case a disaster, for example a fire, destroys the original data, a medium in a remote location will probably be unaffected, enabling disaster recovery. Off-line storage increases generalinformation security, since it is physically inaccessible from a computer, and data confidentiality or integrity cannot be affected by computer-based attack techniques. Also, if the information stored for archival purposes is accessed seldom or never, off-line storage is less expensive than tertiary storage. In modern personal computers, most secondary and tertiary storage media are also used for off-line storage. Optical discs and

flash memory devices are most popular, and to much lesser extent removable hard disk drives. In enterprise uses, magnetic tape is predominant. Older examples are floppy disks, Zip disks, or punched cards. Characteristics of storage

A 1GB DDR RAM module (detail) Storage technologies at all levels of the storage hierarchy can be differentiated by evaluating certain core characteristics as well as measuring characteristics specific to a particular implementation. These core characteristics are volatility, mutability, accessibility, and addressibility. For any particular implementation of any storage technology, the characteristics worth measuring are capacity and performance. Volatility Non-volatile memory Will retain the stored information even if it is not constantly supplied with electric power. It is suitable for long-term storage of information. Volatile memory

Requires constant power to maintain the stored information. The fastest memory technologies of today are volatile ones (not a

universal rule). Since primary storage is required to be very fast, it predominantly uses volatile memory. Dynamic random-access memory

A form of volatile memory which also requires the stored information to be periodically re-read and re-written, or refreshed, otherwise it would vanish. Static random-access memory A form of volatile memory similar to DRAM with the exception that it never needs to be refreshed as long as power is applied. (It loses its content if power is removed). Mutability

Read/write storage or mutable storage Allows information to be overwritten at any time. A computer without some amount of read/write storage for primary storage purposes would be useless for many tasks. Modern computers typically use read/write storage also for secondary storage. Read only storage Retains the information stored at the time of manufacture, and write once storage (Write Once Read Many) allows the information to be written only once at some point after manufacture. These are called immutable storage. Immutable storage is used for tertiary and off-line storage. Examples include CD-ROM and CD-R. Slow write, fast read storage Read/write storage which allows information to be overwritten multiple times, but with the write operation being much slower than the read operation. Examples include CD-RW and flash memory. Accessibility

Random access Any location in storage can be accessed at any moment in approximately the same amount of time. Such characteristic is well suited for primary and secondary storage. Sequential access The accessing of pieces of information will be in a serial order, one after the other; therefore the time to access a particular piece of information depends upon which piece of information was last accessed. Such characteristic is typical of off-line storage. Addressability

Location-addressable Each individually accessible unit of information in storage is selected with its numerical memory address. In modern computers, location-addressable storage usually limits to primary storage, accessed internally by computer programs, since location-addressability is very efficient, but burdensome for humans. File addressable Information is divided into files of variable length, and a particular file is selected with human-readable directory and file names. The underlying device is still location-addressable, but the operating system of a computer provides the file system abstraction to make the operation more understandable. In modern computers, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage use file systems. Content-addressable Each individually accessible unit of information is selected based on the basis of (part of) the contents stored there. Contentaddressable storage can be implemented using software (computer program) or hardware (computer

device), with hardware being faster but more expensive option. Hardware content addressable memory is often used in a computer's CPU cache. Capacity Raw capacity The total amount of stored information that a storage device or medium can hold. It is expressed as a quantity of bits or bytes (e.g. 10.4 megabytes). Memory storage density The compactness of stored information. It is the storage capacity of a medium divided with a unit of length, area or volume (e.g. 1.2 megabytes per square inch). Performance Latency

The time it takes to access a particular location in storage. The relevant unit of measurement is typically nanosecond for primary storage, millisecond for secondary storage, and second for tertiary storage. It may make sense to separate read latency and write latency, and in case of sequential access storage, minimum, maximum and average latency. Throughput The rate at which information can be read from or written to the storage. In computer data storage, throughput is usually expressed in terms of megabytes per second or MB/s, though bit rate may also be used. As with latency, read rate and write rate may need to be differentiated. Also accessing media sequentially, as opposed to randomly, typically yields maximum throughput. Energy use

Storage devices that reduce fan usage, automatically shut-down during inactivity, and low power hard drives can reduce energy consumption 90 percent.

2.5 inch hard disk drives often consume less power than larger ones. Low capacity solid-state drives have no moving parts and consume less power than hard disks. Also, memory may use more power than hard disks. computer utilizingain to the primary storage, which is shared between multiple processors in a much lesser degreeDirect-attached storage (DAS) is a traditional mass storage, that does not use any network. This is still a most popular approach. This retronym was coined recently, together with NAS and SAN.Network-attached storage (NAS) is mass storage attached to a computer which another computer can access at file level over a local area network, a private wide area network, or in the case ofonline file storage, over the Internet. NAS is commonly associated with the NFS and CIFS/SMB protocolsSAN) is a specialized network, that provides other computers with storage capacity. The crucial difference between NAS and SAN is the former presents and manages file systems to client computers, whilst the latter provides access at block-addressing (raw) level, leaving it to attaching systems to manage data or file systems within the provided capacity. SAN is commonly associated with Fibre Channel networks. Basic hardware components Apart from the physical communications media themselves as described above, networks comprise additional basic hardware

building blocks interconnecting their terminals, such as network interface cards (NICs), hubs, bridges, switches, and routers. Network interface cards

A network card, network adapter, or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer hardware designed to allow computers to physically access a networking medium. It provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses.

Each Ethernet network interface has a unique MAC address which is usually stored in a small memory device on the card, allowing any device to connect to the network without creating an address conflict. Ethernet MAC addresses are composed of six octets. Uniqueness is maintained by the IEEE, which manages the Ethernet address space by assigning 3-octet prefixes to equipment manufacturers. The list of prefixes is publicly available.

Repeaters and hubs

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal, cleans it of unnecessary noise, regenerates it, and retransmits it at a higher power level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. A repeater with multiple ports is known as a hub. Repeaters work on the Physical Layer of

the OSI model. Repeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation delay which can affect network communication when there are several repeaters in a row. Many network architectures limit the number of repeaters that can be used in a row (e.g. Ethernet's 5-4-3 rule). Today, repeaters and hubs have been made mostly obsolete by switches (see below).

Repeaters Bridges

Hub

A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges broadcast to all ports except the port on which the broadcast was received. However, bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learn which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address to that port only.

Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored and the

bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. Bridges come in three basic types:

Local bridges: Directly connect LANs Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced with routers. Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs.

Switches

A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2 datagrams (chunks of data communication) between ports (connected cables) based on the MAC addresses in the packets.[15] A switch is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the frames to the ports involved in the communication rather than all ports connected. A switch breaks the collision domain but represents itself as a broadcast domain. Switches make forwarding decisions of frames on the basis of MAC addresses. A switch normally has numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and cascading additional switches.[16] Some switches are capable of routing based on Layer 3 addressing or additional logical levels; these are called multi-layer switches. The term switch is used loosely in marketing to encompass devices including routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic on load or by application content (e.g., a Web URL identifier).

Routers

A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by processing information found in the datagram or packet (Internet protocol information from Layer 3 of the OSI Model). In many situations, this information is processed in conjunction with the routing table (also known as forwarding table). Routers use routing tables to determine what interface to forward packets (this can include the "null" also known as the "black hole" interface because data can go into it, however, no further processing is done for said data).

Firewalls

A firewall is an important aspect of a network with respect to security. It typically rejects access requests from unsafe sources while allowing actions from recognized ones. The vital role firewalls play in network security grows in parallel with the constant increase in 'cyber' attacks for the purpose of stealing/corrupting data, planting viruses, etc. A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware components and computers interconnected

by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information.

Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics such as the medium used to transport the data, communications protocol used, scale, topology, and organizational scope.

The rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network are defined by communications protocols. Wellknown communications protocols are Ethernet, a hardware and Link Layer standard that is ubiquitous in local area networks, and the Internet Protocol Suite, which defines a set of protocols for internetworking, i.e. for data communication between multiple networks, as well as host-to-host data transfer, and applicationspecific data transmission formats. NETWORKS

A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers in a limited area such as home, school, computer laboratory or office building. The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to wide area networks (WANs), include their usually higher data-transfer rates, smaller geographic area, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines.

ARCNET, Token Ring and other technology standards have been used in the past, but Ethernet over twisted pair cabling, and WiFi are the two most common technologies currently used to build LANs. A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunication network that covers a broad area (i.e., any network that links across metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries). Business and

government entities utilize WANs to relay data among employees, clients, buyers, and suppliers from various geographical locations. In essence this mode of telecommunication allows a business to effectively carry out its daily function regardless of location.

This is in contrast with personal area networks (PANs), local area networks (LANs), campus area networks (CANs), or metropolitan area networks(MANs) which are usually limited to a room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area (e.g., a city) respectively.

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus. A MAN usually interconnects a number of local area networks (LANs) using a high-capacity backbone technology, such as fiber-optical links, and provides up-link services to wide area networks (or WAN) and the Internet.

Description of OSI layers According to recommendation X.200, there are seven layers, each generically known as an N layer. An N+1 entity requests services from the layer-N entity. At each level, two entities (N-entity peers) interact by means of the N protocol by transmitting protocol data units (PDU).

A Service Data Unit (SDU) is a specific unit of data that has been passed down from an OSI layer to a lower layer, and which the lower layer has not yet encapsulated into a protocol data unit (PDU). An SDU is a set of data that is sent by a user of the services of a given layer, and is transmitted semantically unchanged to a peer service user.

The PDU at any given layer, layer N, is the SDU of the layer below, layer N-1. In effect the SDU is the 'payload' of a given PDU. That is, the process of changing a SDU to a PDU, consists of an encapsulation process, performed by the lower layer. All the data contained in the SDU becomes encapsulated within the PDU. The layer N-1 adds headers or footers, or both, to the SDU, transforming it into a PDU of layer N-1. The added headers or footers are part of the process used to make it possible to get data from a source to a destination. OSI Model Data unit Layer Function

7. Application Network process to application Data representation, encryption and decryption, convert 6. Presentation machine dependent data to machine independent data 5. Session Segments 4. Transport Interhost communication End-to-end connections, reliability and flow control Path determination andlogical addressing Physical addressing Media, signal transmission and binary

Data Host layers

Packet/Datagram 3. Network Media Frame layers Bit 2. Data link 1. Physical

Some orthogonal aspects, such as management and security, involve every layer.

Security services are not related to a specific layer: they can be related by a number of layers, as defined by ITU-T X.800 Recommendation.

These services are aimed to improve the CIA triad(confidentiality, integrity, and availability) of transmitted data. Actually the availability of communication service is determined by network design and/or network management protocols. Appropriate choices for these are needed to protect againstdenial of service. Layer 1: physical layer

The physical layer defines electrical and physical specifications for devices. In particular, it defines the relationship between a device and a transmission medium, such as a copper or optical cable. This includes the layout ofpins, voltages, cable specifications, hubs, repeaters, network adapters, host bus adapters (HBA used in storage area networks) and more. The major functions and services performed by the physical layer are:

Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium. Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively shared among multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flow control. Modulation, or conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel. These are signals

operating over the physical cabling (such as copper and optical fiber) or over a radio link.

Parallel SCSI buses operate in this layer, although it must be remembered that the logical SCSI protocol is a transport layer protocol that runs over this bus. Various physical-layer Ethernet standards are also in this layer; Ethernet incorporates both this layer and the data link layer. The same applies to other local-area networks, such as token ring, FDDI, ITU-T G.hn and IEEE 802.11, as well as personal area networks such as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4. Layer 2: data link layer

The data link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the physical layer. Originally, this layer was intended for point-to-point and point-tomultipoint media, characteristic of wide area media in the telephone system. Local area network architecture, which included broadcast-capable multiaccess media, was developed independently of the ISO work in IEEE Project 802. IEEE work assumed sublayering and management functions not required for WAN use. In modern practice, only error detection, not flow control using sliding window, is present in data link protocols such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), and, on local area networks, the IEEE 802.2 LLC layer is not used for most protocols on the Ethernet, and on other local area networks, its flow control and acknowledgment mechanisms are rarely used. Sliding window flow control and acknowledgment is used at the transport layer by

protocols such as TCP, but is still used in niches where X.25 offers performance advantages.

The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over existing wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete data link layer which provides both error correction and flow control by means of a selective repeat Sliding Window Protocol.

Both WAN and LAN service arrange bits, from the physical layer, into logical sequences called frames. Not all physical layer bits necessarily go into frames, as some of these bits are purely intended for physical layer functions. For example, every fifth bit of the FDDI bit stream is not used by the layer. Layer 3: network layer

The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences from a source host on one network to a destination host on a different network, while maintaining the quality of service requested by the transport layer (in contrast to the data link layer which connects hosts within the same network). The network layer performs network routingfunctions, and might also perform fragmentation and reassembly, and report delivery errors. Routers operate at this layer, sending data throughout the extended network and making the Internet possible. This is a logical addressing scheme values are chosen by the network engineer. The addressing scheme is not hierarchical. The network layer may be divided into three sublayers: Subnetwork access that considers protocols that deal with the interface to networks, such as X.25;

Subnetwork-dependent convergence when it is necessary to bring the level of a transit network up to the level of networks on either side

Subnetwork-independent convergence handles transfer across multiple networks.

Feature Name Connection oriented network Connectionless network

TP0 TP1 TP2 TP3 TP4 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No Yes

Concatenation and separation No Yes Yes Yes Yes

Segmentation and reassembly Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Error Recovery Layer 4: transport No Yes Yes Yes Yes layer

Reinitiate connection (if an excessive number of PDUs are No Yes No Yes No unacknowledged)

The transport layer provides transparent Multiplexing and transfer of demultiplexing over a No No Yes Yes Yes data between single virtual circuit end users, providing Explicit flow control No No Yes Yes Yes reliable data transfer Retransmission on timeout No No No No Yes services to the Reliable Transport Service No Yes No Yes Yes upper layers. The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state- and connection-oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred.

OSI defines five classes of connection-mode transport protocols ranging from class 0 (which is also known as TP0 and provides the least features) to class 4 (TP4, designed for less reliable networks, similar to the Internet). Class 0 contains no error recovery, and was designed for use on network layers that provide error-free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains

functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. Also, all OSI TP connection-mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Detailed characteristics of TP0-4 classes are shown in the following table:

Perhaps an easy way to visualize the transport layer is to compare it with a Post Office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. Do remember, however, that a post office manages the outer envelope of mail. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such as IBM's SNA or Novell's IPX over an IP network, or end-to-end encryption with IPsec. While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a network-layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete frames or packets to deliver to an endpoint. L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport packet.

Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI definition of the transport layer, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol(UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer-4 protocols within OSI.

Layer 5: session layer

The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full-duplex,half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls. Layer 6: presentation layer

The presentation layer establishes context between applicationlayer entities, in which the higher-layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service provides a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation service data units are encapsulated into session protocol data units, and passed down the stack. This layer provides independence from data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application accepts. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.

The original presentation structure used the basic encoding rules of Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1), with capabilities such as converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded file,

orserialization of objects and to XML. Layer 7: application layer

other data

structures from

and

The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application-layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. When determining resource availability, the application layer must decide whether sufficient network or the requested communication exist. In synchronizing communication, all communication between applications requires cooperation that is managed by the application layer. Cross-layer functions There are some functions or services that are not tied to a given layer, but they can affect more than one layer. Examples are

security service (telecommunication)[3] as defined by ITUT X.800 Recommendation. management functions, i.e. functions that permit to configure, instantiate, monitor, terminate the communications of two or more entities: there is a specific application layer protocol, common management information protocol (CMIP) and

its corresponding service, common management information service (CMIS), they need to interact with every layer in order to deal with their instances. MPLS operates at an OSI-model layer that is generally considered to lie between traditional definitions of layer 2 (data link layer) and layer 3 (network layer), and thus is often referred to as a "layer-2.5" protocol. It was designed to provide a unified data-carrying service for both circuit-based clients and packetswitching clients which provide a datagram service model. It can be used to carry many different kinds of traffic, including IP packets, as well as native ATM, SONET, and Ethernet frames. ARP is used to translate IPv4 addresses (OSI layer 3) into Ethernet MAC addresses (OSI layer 2)

Interfaces Neither the OSI Reference Model nor OSI protocols specify any programming interfaces, other than as deliberately abstract service specifications. Protocol specifications precisely define the interfaces between different computers, but the software interfaces inside computers are implementation-specific.

For example Microsoft Windows' Winsock, and Unix's Berkeley sockets and System V Transport Layer Interface, are interfaces between applications (layer 5 and above) and the transport (layer 4).NDIS and ODI are interfaces between the media (layer 2) and the network protocol (layer 3). A set of techniques where by a sequence of information-carrying quantities occurring at discrete instances of time is encoded into a corresponding regular sequence of electromagnetic carrier

pulses. Varying the amplitude, polarity, presence or absence, duration, or occurrence in time of the pulses gives rise to the four basic forms of pulse modulation: pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM), pulse-code modulation (PCM), pulse-width modulation (PWM, also known as pulse-duration modulation, PDM), and pulse-position modulation (PPM). Analog-to-digital conversion An important concept in pulse modulation is analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion, in which an original analog (time- and amplitude-continuous) information signal s(t) is changed at the transmitter into a series of regularly occurring discrete pulses whose amplitudes are restricted to a fixed and finite number of values. An inverse digital-to-analog (D/A) process is used at the receiver to reconstruct an approximation of the original form of s(t). Conceptually, analog-to-digital conversion involves two steps. First, the range of amplitudes of s(t) is divided or quantized into a finite number of predetermined levels, and each such level is represented by a pulse of fixed amplitude. Second, the amplitude of s(t) is periodically measured or sampled and replaced by the pulse representing the level that corresponds to the measurement. See also Analog-to-digital converter; Digitalto-analog converter. According to the Nyquist sampling theorem, if sampling occurs at a rate at least twice that of the bandwidth of s(t), the latter can be unambiguously reconstructed from its amplitude values at the sampling instants by applying them to an ideal low-pass filter whose bandwidth matches that of s(t).

Quantization, however, introduces an irreversible error, the socalled quantization error, since the pulse representing a sample measurement determines only the quantization level in which the measurement falls and not its exact value. Consequently, the process of reconstructing s(t) from the sequence of pulses yields only an approximate version of s(t). Pulse-amplitude modulation In PAM the successive sample values of the analog signal s(t) are used to effect the amplitudes of a corresponding sequence of pulses of constant duration occurring at the sampling rate. No quantization of the samples normally occurs (Fig. 1a, b). In principle the pulses may occupy the entire time between samples, but in most practical systems the pulse duration, known as the duty cycle, is limited to a fraction of the sampling interval. Such a restriction creates the possibility of interleaving during one sample interval one or more pulses derived from other PAM systems in a process known as timedivision multiplexing (TDM). See also Multiplexing and multiple

access. sine wave. (a) Analog signal, s(t). (b) Pulseamplitude modulation. (c) Pulse-width modulation. (d) Pulseposition modulation."> Forms of pulse modulation for the case where the analog signal, s(t), is a sine wave. (a) Analog signal, s(t). (b) Pulse-

amplitude modulation. (c) Pulse-width modulation. (d) Pulseposition modulation. Pulse-width modulation In PWM the pulses representing successive sample values of s(t) have constant amplitudes but vary in time duration in direct proportion to the sample value. The pulse duration can be changed relative to fixed leading or trailing time edges or a fixed pulse center. To allow for time-division multiplexing, the maximum pulse duration may be limited to a fraction of the time between samples (Fig. 1c). Pulse-position modulation PPM encodes the sample values of s(t) by varying the position of a pulse of constant duration relative to its nominal time of occurrence. As in PAM and PWM, the duration of the pulses is typically a fraction of the sampling interval. In addition, the maximum time excursion of the pulses may be limited (Fig. 1d). Pulse-code modulation Many modern communication systems are designed to transmit and receive only pulses of two distinct amplitudes. In these socalled binary digital systems, the analog-to-digital conversion process is extended by the additional step of coding, in which the amplitude of each pulse representing a quantized sample of s(t) is converted into a unique sequence of one or more pulses with just two possible amplitudes. The complete conversion process is known as pulse-code modulation.

Figure 2a shows the example of three successive quantized samples of an analog signal s(t), in which sampling occurs every T seconds and the pulse representing the sample is limited to T/2 seconds. Assuming that the number of quantization levels is limited to 8, each level can be represented by a unique sequence of three two-valued pulses. In Fig. 2b these pulses are of amplitude V or 0, whereas in Fig. 2c the amplitudes are V and V.

Pulse-code modulation. (a) Three successive quantized samples of an analog signal. (b) With pulses of amplitude V or 0. (c) With pulses of amplitude V or V. PCM enjoys many important advantages over other forms of pulse modulation due to the fact that information is represented by a two-state variable. First, the design parameters of a PCM transmission system depend critically on the bandwidth of the original signal s(t) and the degree of fidelity required at the point of reconstruction, but are otherwise largely independent of the information content of s(t). This fact creates the possibility of deploying generic transmission systems suitable for many types of information. Second, the detection of the state of a

two-state variable in a noisy environment is inherently simpler than the precise measurement of the amplitude, duration, or position of a pulse in which these quantities are not constrained. Third, the binary pulses propagating along a medium can be intercepted and decoded at a point where the accumulated distortion and attenuation are sufficiently low to assure high detection accuracy. New pulses can then be generated and transmitted to the next such decoding point. This so-called process of repeatering significantly reduces the propagation of distortion and leads to a quality of transmission that is largely independent of distance. Time-division multiplexing An advantage inherent in all pulse modulation systems is their ability to transmit signals from multiple sources over a common transmission system through the process of time-division multiplexing. By restricting the time duration of a pulse representing a sample value from a particular analog signal to a fraction of the time between successive samples, pulses derived from other sampled analog signals can be accommodated on the transmission system. One important application of this principle occurs in the transmission of PCM telephone voice signals over a digital transmission system known as a T1 carrier. In standard T1 coding, an original analog voice signal is band-limited to 4000 hertz by passing it through a low-pass filter, and is then sampled at the Nyquist rate of 8000 samples per second, so that the time between successive samples is 125 microseconds. The samples are quantized to 256 levels, with each of them being represented

by a sequence of 8 binary pulses. By limiting the duration of a single pulse to 0.65 microsecond, a total of 193 pulses can be accommodated in the time span of 125 microseconds between samples. One of these serves as asynchronization marker that indicates the beginning of such a sequence of 193 pulses, while the other 192 pulses are the composite of 8 pulses from each of 24 voice signals, with each 8-pulse sequence occupying a specified position. T1 carriers and similar types of digital carrier systems are in widespread use in the world's telephone networks. Bandwidth requirements Pulse modulation systems may incur a significant bandwidth penalty compared to the transmission of a signal in its analog form. An example is the standard PCM transmission of an analog voice signal band-limited to 4000 hertz over a T1 carrier. Since the sampling, quantizing, and coding process produces 8 binary pulses 8000 times per second for a total of 64,000 binary pulses per second, the pulses occur every 15.625 microseconds. Depending on the shape of the pulses and the amount of intersymbol interference, the required transmission bandwidth will fall in the range of 32,000 to 64,000 hertz. This compares to a bandwidth of only 4000 hertz for the transmission of the signal in analog mode. See alsoBandwidth requirements (communications). Applications PAM, PWM, and PPM found significant application early in the development of digital communications, largely in the domain of

radio telemetry for remote monitoring and sensing. They have since fallen into disuse in favor of PCM. Since the early 1960s, many of the world's telephone network providers have gradually, and by now almost completely, converted their transmission facilities to PCM technology. The bulk of these transmission systems use some form of timedivision multiplexing, as exemplified by the 24-voice channel T1 carrier structure. These carrier systems are implemented over many types of transmission media, including twisted pairs of telephone wiring, coaxial cables, fiber-optic cables, and microwave. See also Coaxial cable; Communications cable; Microwave; Optical communications; Optical fibers; Switching systems (communications). The deployment of high-speed networks such as the Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN) in many parts of the world has also relied heavily on PCM technology. PCM and various modified forms such as delta modulation (DM) and adaptive differential pulse-code modulation (ADPCM) have also found significant application in satellite transmission systems. See also Communications satellite; Data communications; Electrical communications; Integrated services digital network (ISDN); Modulation.

Sampled signal (discrete signal): discrete time, continuous values.

Quantized signal: continuous time, discrete values.

Digital signal (sampled, quantized): discrete time, discrete values. Quantization, in mathematics and digital signal processing, is the process of mapping a large set of input values to a smaller set such as rounding values to some unit of precision. A device oralgorithmic function that performs quantization is called a quantizer. The error introduced by quantization is referred to as quantization error or round-off error. Quantization is involved to some degree in nearly all digital signal processing, as the process of representing a signal in digital form ordinarily involves rounding. Quantization also forms the core of essentially all lossy compression algorithms. Because quantization is a many-to-few mapping, it is an inherently non-linear and irreversible process (i.e., because the same output value is shared by multiple input values, it is impossible in general to recover the exact input value when given only the output value). The set of possible input values may be infinitely large, and may possibly be continuous and therefore uncountable (such as the set

of all real numbers, or all real numbers within some limited range). The set of possible output values may be finite or countably infinite. The input and output sets involved in quantization can be defined in rather general way. For example, vector quantization is the application of quantization to multi-dimensional (vector-valued) input data.[1] There are two substantially different classes of applications where quantization is used:

The first type, which may simply be called rounding quantization, is the one employed for many applications, to enable the use of a simple approximate representation for some quantity that is to be measured and used in other calculations. This category includes the simple rounding approximations used in everyday arithmetic. This category also includes analog-to-digital conversion of a signal for a digital signal processing system (e.g., using a sound card of a personal computer to capture an audio signal) and the calculations performed within most digital filtering processes. Here the purpose is primarily to retain as much signal fidelity as possible while eliminating unnecessary precision and keeping the dynamic range of the signal within practical limits (to avoid signal clipping or arithmetic overflow). In such uses, substantial loss of signal fidelity is often unacceptable, and the design often centers around managing the approximation error to ensure that very little distortion is introduced. The second type, which can be called ratedistortion optimized quantization, is encountered insource coding for "lossy" data compression algorithms, where the purpose is to

manage distortion within the limits of the bit rate supported by a communication channel or storage medium. In this second

Module setting, the amount of introduced distortion may be managed carefully by sophisticated techniques, and introducing some significant amount of distortion may be unavoidable. A quantizer designed for this purpose may be quite different and more elaborate in design than an ordinary rounding operation. It is in this domain that substantial ratedistortion theory analysis is likely to be applied. However, the same concepts actually apply in both use cases. The analysis of quantization involves studying the amount of data (typically measured in digits or bits or bit rate) that is used to represent the output of the quantizer, and studying the loss of precision that is introduced by the quantization process (which is referred to as thedistortion). The general field of such study of rate and distortion is known as ratedistortion theory.

Signal Representation and Baseband Processing

Version 2 ECE IIT, Kharagpur

Lesson 21

Nyquist Filtering and Inter Symbol Interference

Version 2 ECE IIT, Kharagpur

After reading this lesson, you will learn about: Power spectrum of a random binary Inter symbol interference sequence;filter for avoiding Nyquist (ISI); Practical improvisation of ideal ISI; Raised Cosine (RC) filter and RootRaised Cosine Nyquist filter; (RRC) filtering; Nyquists sampling theorem plays a significant role in the shaping filters, which enable us to restrict the bandwidth of design lesson, we start with a short discussion on the In this of pulseinformation-bearing pulses. Nyquist Filtering. then focus on the concepts of spectrum of a (possible) frequency band that will be needed the narrowest random sequence and Specifically,at a given symbol about information we develop an idea for transmission of rate. Consider a random binary sequence shown in Fig.4.21.1 common style (NRZ: Non-Return-to-Zero Pulses) for its (a) following a sequence may be represented in several binary random Note that a representation. The impulse sequence of Fig.4.21.1 (b) is Fig.4.21.1 (b). ways. For example, sequence in Fig.4.21.1 (a) with a version of the NRZ consider an instantaneously sampled the random binary sequence The information embedded in sampling rate of impulse sequence of Fig.4.21.1 (b). Verify preserved in the one sample/pulse. of Fig.4.21.1 (a) is fully by looking at the impulses. So, the logical sequence only that you can easily read out equivalent so far as their information content is concerned. the two waveforms are the energy carried practical standpoint, is The obvious difference, from 1 0 0 0 1 by a pulse. 1 +a 1 0 Time -a T=t Fig.4.21.1(a) Sketch of a NRZ ( Non-Return-to-Zero) sequence 10 0 1011 waveform for a random binary +1 0 -1 Fig.4.21.1 (b): Instantaneously sampled version of the NRZ sequence in Fig.4.21.1 (a) Version 2 ECE IIT, Kharagpur

Power Spectrum of Random Binary Sequence Let us consider the NRZ representation of Fig.4.21.2(a) and duration Tb. is ofwishas aget an idea about of aspectrum where in a pulse We height a sequence may be viewed to sample function the random approach is to find TheACF the of such sequences.So, our of X(t) first and then take its process,instant of observation need not synchronize with say X(t). starting Fourier Transform. Now, the of assume that the starting timewe the first pulse (i.e. the initial the start time of a pulse. So, lie anywhere between 0 and delay)td is equally1likely to ,0tT = Tb, i.e., pt = T = d b 4.21.1 () n 0,elsewhere b Next, the 0-s and 1-s are equally likely. So, we can readily note that, E[X(t)] = 0. +a t -a td Tb Fig. 4.21.2(a): A random NRZ sequence representing an information sequence ACF of X(t) Let Rx (tk,ti) denote the ACF Rx (tk,ti) = E[X(tk) X(ti)] of X(t). Two distinct cases are to be considered: a) when the shift, 4.21.2 bit duration Tb and b) when tk i.e. tk - ti is greater than the ti= Tb. Case-I: Let, tk - ti> In this case,each other. This occur in different bit independent of X (tk) and X (ti) Tb. intervals and hence(tk) X (ti)] = E [X (ti)] E [X E [X they are implies, (tk)] = 0; tk4.21.3 . For simplicity, let us set tk Case-II: - ti<Tb In this case, the random variables X(tk) and X(ti) occur = 0 td < Tb<tk =- 0. Further, both X(tk) and X(ti) are of iff and ti - tk ti. polarity. same pulse interval in the same magnitude a and same Version 2 ECE IIT, Kharagpur

Thus, we get a conditional T expectation: Xt elsewhere --t 4.21.4 EXt k = () ()iat dbk 2< t , it d 0, Averaging this result over all possible values of =apt () ki dt btd, we get,EXtdXt d () Ttt()2 ki -0- Ttt a dt a 2 1,tt i t = == kiTT - k ti b k-T b d 0 bb 2 4.21.5 By similar argument, it can be shown that for other values waveform is a function of the time shift t = tk - ti. So, the can , expressed a of tkbethe ACF ofas binary autocorrelation t t function Rx(t) [Fig.4.21.2(b)]:T aT -< R t = () 2 b 4.21.6 x 0,t T = 1, b b Rx(t)a2 -Tb 0 Tb t

Fig. 4.21.2(b): Auto Correlation Function Rx(t) for a Now the power waveform random binaryspectral density of the random process X(t) Fourierobtained by of () be can() Transform taking the Rx(t jTf-2 1texp ): Sf a=dt b Tp t x -T 2 b b sin ( 22 aT=c fT) 4.21.7 b b A rough sketch of Sx(f) is shown in Fig. 4.21.2(c). Note 1n. A . value ofspectrum has aspectrum stretches towards 8 and it a2.Tb. The peak T that the b normalized version of the spectrum is shown in Fig. has nulls at normalized with respect to the peak amplitude and the 4.21.2(d) where terms of fTb. isthe amplitude is frequency axis expressed in Version 2 ECE IIT, Kharagpur

Sx(f) a2 Tb

f -3/Tb -2/Tb -1/Tb 1/Tb 4.21.2(c) : A sketch3/Tb power spectral density, 2/Tb Fig. sequence of the pulse Sx(f) for a random binary NRZ

Fig. 4.21.2(d) : Normalized power spectral density, Sx(f) sequence for a random binary NRZ pulse The wide stretch of the spectrum is understandable as the sharply limited within a bit duration. But then, if such a time pulses carrier sinusoid, one can easily imagine that the modulate a are random NRZ sequence iswidth to hence, such a will also have an infinite used and modulated signal spectrum wireless channel, which is without distortion though a modulated signal cannotabe transmittedchannel without signal is forced through band limited band-limited. Ifmodulated signal at the receiver will be spectrum of the the modulated appropriate spectral channel. From the principle of timecharacteristic of the shaping, the truncated due to the band pass guess that the energy of a transmitted pulse will no more be frequency duality, one can durationwithin its typical now limited Tb. Version 2 ECE IIT, Kharagpur

Alternatively, the energy of one pulse will spill over the more subsequent pulses, causing Inter Symbol Interference time slot of one or duration Tb, the receiver willsituationenergy duenegative (ISI). So, over a specific pulse collect is when a to one pulses. A typically vulnerable positive pulses or vice versa. In desired and multiple undesired general, the received signal pulse appears indemodulation; the information sequence noise and upon a string of becomes more the quality of received information depends degradation in vulnerable to may transmitted pulse and how of effect of ISI is addresses erroneous. The extent of a betime spread of energy this on the in the receiver. why sharp rectangular pulses, even though Another reason following Gramm-Scmidt orthogonalization procedure, are designed is that, one is simply not allowed to use the full channels not good for band-limited presented by a physical channel. Specifically, most bandwidth that frombe priori approval may concerned regulatory authority of a wireless transmissionsdone precisely over the narrow signal transmission is must have a country. Itadjacent bandsthat be allocated for other so that the is mandatory can portion of the allocated bandwidth transmissionconserve bandwidth for various transmission Further, to schemes. narrowest feasible frequency slot only may be allocated. So, applications, the issue of ISI in general and the issue of small transmission it is necessary to address the techniques available for There are several equalization bandwidth by shaping pulses. physical channel and use the of these techniques probe the addressing the issue of ISI. Many devising powerful adaptive equalizers. In this course, we channel stateand focus only on the issue of pulse shaping equalization information in skip further discussion on bandwidth. for reduction in transmission Nyquist Filter for avoiding ISI Let us recollect the second part of Nyquists sampling signals which says that a signal band limited to B Hz can be theorem for low passand instantaneous samples of the signal of uniformly spaced recovered from a sequence 2B samples per second. Following this theorem, we may taken at least at the rate(b), which contains information sequence of Fig.4.21.1 of now observe that the impulse band limited to x described by an analog signal, 1001011, can be equivalentlysample/sec, the minimum 1 bit/sec and we sample it at 1 1sample/pulse. That is, if the brick-wall type frequency An ideal low-pass filter with bit rate is bandwidth necessaryan Hz! 0.5 Hz will generate is equivalent analog waveform (pulse response and having a cutoff of random impulse sequence) when fed with the sequence. that the impulse response of an ideal low-pass Recollect function [y = sinc(x), Fig. 4. 21.3]. We note that a) sinc(0) filter is a has nulls at x = 1, 2, . sec, b) null-to-null response sinc impulse = 1.0 and the c) the pulse is symmetric around t = 0 and d) pulse is 2 sec, time-widththe the prominent as that of the input impulse. pulse is of of same polarity the peak amplitude of the is simply superposition of sinc output analog waveform As the filter is a linear network, in time by 1 sec, which is adjacent sinc pulses are separated pulses, where the peaks of the sampling interval. Version 2 ECE IIT, Kharagpur

Fig. 4. 21.3(a) Plot of y = sinc(x) t R t s2 R2 s

Fig. 4. 21.3(b) Sketch of output of Nyquist filter for positive and if the information symbol rate is Rs In general, negative impulses second, interval is1R i.e. thethe single-sided bandwidth of the lowTs = symbols/sec, filter, symbol s pass equivalent Nyquist Bandwidth, known R Hz. popularly as the s isA simple2extension of the above observations implies that BN = samples of random information-bearing pulse (or symbol) for instantaneous symbol) will exhibit nulls at nTs seconds at the filter sequence baseband channel of bandwidth BN and per noise less (@ 1 samplesame filter output waveform zero (or can comment that the will output. Now, assuming an ideal Though known) delay, weappear will fixed butthe waveformthe receiver. much differ ent from the appear at the(embedded in the polarity and magnitude) can information input of initial other pulses by sampling the received baseband of the symbol sequence, the be retrieved without any effect each shaped pulse as at those time instants all other pulses signal exactly at peak position of wall type filter is known as the Nyquist Filter for zero-ISI have nulls.some important features of highlights This ideal brickcondition. Fig. 4.21.4 Nyquist Filter. Version 2 ECE IIT, Kharagpur

Fig. 4.21.4 Typical impulse response of a Nyquist filter been used to obtain the responses using a digital computer. [5 samples /symbol duration1.0 is the normalized peak value of have 32 sample duration around shown] Mathematical Explanation Let us consider an ideal lowpass filter with single-sided convenient to deal with the normalized impulse response bandwidth (2Wt) = (2Wt 4.21.8 is usually p h(t)=sinc W. It sin) ) p h(t) of the filter where in,2 Wt Now be an impulseas, strength A is applied at the input of may if expressed of the filter at t = t1, the filter o/p (t- t1) 4.21.9 An y(t) = Ah(t- t1)=A.sinc 2W sequence may be information-carrying symbol t represented asA .t( - i where Ai = A and ti = i.Ts 4.21.10 8 i d ), i= The response0of the low-pass filter to this sequence is, yt)= 8Asin2 (t - i)} 4.21.11 ( . { i tc W Now, if weand 1=0 = 2.Ti set W=R/2 sample the output of the filter at t = s to see that, it isseasy m.Ts, m yt=m.T Ai ()-iTs mi.sinc(m=A 4.21.12 ( s = .sinc2W = A -i) m ) m = = i0 So, we obtain the peak of thei 0 m-th pulse clean and devoid previous pulses. of any interference from

Version 2 ECE IIT, Kharagpur

Practical improvisations: The above discussion on Nyquist bandwidth is ideal (LPF) with brick-wall type response can be realized because neither a low-pass filter a discrete information sequence be generated to represent physically nor can an ideal impulse there is any error in the sampling instant (which, for a sequence. Further, note that if the effects of thermal noise occur from time to time due to practical system isthe other adjacent pulses will creep into contribution from very likely to and other disturbances), cause Inter Symbol Interference. For example, the second the sample valueto the main lobe peak and the decay of the lower compared and will lobe peak is only about 13with increase in x. So, the function is not very rapid dB side-peaks of a sin x/x be significant. Fortunately, the adjacent symbols may contribution ofare notpeaks froma sinc pulse. Other pulse zero crossings these unique to desired features of pulse epoch and with similar features, though the bandwidth requirement for shapes are possible to will be more compared to the information sequence design transmitting a discrete (BN). Two such relevant constructs are known as a) Raised corresponding Nyquist bandwidth Root-Raised Cosine (RRC) Cosine (RC) filter and b) filter. Cosine Filter Raised Let us denote a normalized pulse shape which avoids ISI x(0) s n nT as x(t). of the(tpractical0and 1 4.21.13 are then,x )t== =0, requirements on x(t) Some (a) Energy in the main pulse is as much as possible the following: distributed beyond the first nulls around the main peak. comparednoise at the receiver for a given signal against to the total energy Thisthe magnitde of the local maxima of the i-th pulse of that ensures better immunity desired transmission power. So, it is rapidly decreases monotonically and x(t) between iT= < (i+1)T (b) The pulse shapet x(t) should be so chosen that some with time. not result in appreciable ISI. These two receiver does error in instants of sampling at the technical depicted in the form of a mask in requirements are usually Out of several mathematical possibilities, the following standards. for application on the ideal Nyquist filter very useful amplitude mask is cos t T p impulse response h(t): mt)2 1-(422/Ts ) = ( t 4.21.14 s The resulting pulse shape is known as a Raised Cosine =1). he Raised Cosine pulse is pulse with a roll-off of ( 0 p described as: cos t T pRC (t) = 2 t 1-(422/Ts s 4.21.15 sinc(t/Ts). ) The normalized spectrum of Raised Cosine pulse is: Version 2 ECE IIT, Kharagpur

H(f) = 1,= 1- () for f 2 ,T p s )s- 1 , for1- =f =1 + = () ( )T f cos2( 2 2s T 2s T 2 T s 1 = 0, for 2()+ 4.21.16 f > T s Figs. 4.21.5 (a)-(c) highlight features of a Raised Cosine factor is used to find a trade off between the absolute (RC) filter. The roll offof the order of the filter and the the difficulty (in terms bandwidth that isthe be used and in implementing to filter. The minimum usable bandwidth associated BN (for inaccuracy) and =0) bandwidth,delay Nyquist for which the filter is unrealizable is obviously the absolute bandwidth of 2BN (for the practical systems where between 0.2 and a maximum = 1.0) makes it much in practice while 0.5 for most of not a to design the filter. components was dominant Use of analog easierluxury. bandwidth is lies transmission filters. While digital FIR structure usually to use digital earlier thoughIIR structuretrend is used to reduce the performance, the modern is also ensures better accuracy and necessary hardware.

Fig. 4.21.5 (a) Typical impulse response of a Raised = 0.5[5 samples /symbol duration have been used to obtain Cosine filter with a roll off factor the normalized computer. 32using a digital around the responses sample duration peak value of 1.0 is shown]

Version 2 ECE IIT, Kharagpur

Fig. 4.21.5 (b) Typical amplitude spectrum of a Raised = 0.5. The magnitude is not normalized. Multiply the Cosineabove by a factor of 5factor the frequency shown filter with a roll off to read normalized 0.1(from the above figure)x5 = 0.5 = (1 -).Rs, values example, i) frequency rate. For here and ii) 0.3(from the normalized to symbol filter starts transition band of the where The stop band of the filter +).Rs. =0.5 and Rs = 1. The above figure)x5 = 1.5 = (1 starts here.

Fig. 4.21.5 (c) Typical phase spectrum of a Raised 0.5. Multiply the normalized frequency values shown above Cosine filter with a roll symbol frequency normalized to off factor = by a factor of 5 to read the rate. side lobe peaks in the impulse response of a Raised The faster with time and hence results in less ISI compared to Cosine filtererror in the of sampling decreases the ideal Nyquist filter in case receiver. another interesting issue in the design of pulse There is comes to applying the concepts in a practical shaping filtersfar, it may be apparent that the pulse-shaping discussion so when it communication transceiver.signal our transmitter only, before the From is modulated by a carrier filter is for use in the channel. However, there is always a need for an equivalent or eliminate in the physical to launched out-of-band noise before demodulation and lowpass filter in the receiver decision operations are carried Version 2 ECE IIT, Kharagpur

out. This purpose is accomplished in a practical receiver by filter in two parts. Each part is known as a Root Raised splittingplaced in the transmitter while the other part is filter is a Raised Cosine Cosine (RRC) filter does the job of pulse shaping and transmit RRC filter. One RRC placed in the the zero-ISI condition completely. In case of a not ensuring receiver. The bandwidth-restrictionRRC filter, in tandem with the channel, the receiver fully while linear time invariant physical zero-ISI condition. Additionally, it filters out undesired outtransmit RRC filter, fully ensures whole, this approach ensures zero-ISI condition in the of-band thermal noise.ensures that the equivalent noiseand it also effectively On the demodulator where it is necessary is equal to thethe received signal BN. The overall bandwidth of Nyquist bandwidthin performance compared reduced without any degradation filter in the of the transceiver is and a complexity transmitter a RC different out-of-band noise to a system employing Figs. 4.21.6filter in summarize some features of a Root(a)-(c) the receiver. eliminating Raised Cosine filter.

Fig. 4.21.6 (a) Typical impulse response of a Root Raised factor = 0.5[5 samples /symbol duration have been used Cosine filter with a rollsample duration around the off a digital computer. 32 using to obtain shown] the responses normalized peak value of 0.5 is

Version 2 ECE IIT, Kharagpur

Fig. 4.21.6 (b) Typical amplitude spectrum of a Raised = 0.5. Multiply the normalized frequency values shown Cosine filter with a roll off factor the frequency normalized to above by a factor of 5 to read symbol rate.

Fig. 4.21.6 (c) Typical phase spectrum of a Raised 0.5. Multiply the normalized frequency values shown above Cosine filter with a roll symbol frequency normalized to off factor = by a factor of 5 to read the rate. will mention another practical issue related to the We of pulse-shaping filters. Usually, an information sequence is design and implementation pulse shaping filter in the form of pulses (.e.g. bipolar presented atnegligiblyof a (as in that case the energy per pulse is not the input small NRZ) and the width of such ago unrecognized). This finite hence some pulses may even pulse would be near zero RC or RRC pulse shape. The causes a distortion in the and non-zero width of the pulses flat-top sampling of a bandwhat happens when we go for situation is somewhat analogous topulse-width results in instantaneous sampling. The finite limited analog signal instead of introduces ISI. It needs a relatively simple pulse magnitude amplitude fluctuation and again x is commonly which amplitude compensation to restore the correction referred as sin x quality of shaped Version 2 ECE IIT, Kharagpur

pulses. The transfer function of the RRC shapin appropriately to incorporate the amplitude the transmitter is scaled correction. Problems Q4.21.1) Mention possible causes of Inter Sym communication receiver. Interference (ISI) in a digital Q4.21.2) Sketch the power spectrum of a long logic levels are represented by +5V binary sequence when the two and 0V. Sketch the frequency response charac Q4.21.3) filter. an ideal Nyquist low pass Q4.21.4) What are the practical difficulties in filter? implementing an ideal Nyquist low pass

% Sample the signal 100 times per second, for 2 seconds. Fs = 100; t = [0:2*Fs+1]'/Fs; Fc = 10; % Carrier frequency

Version 2 ECE Kharagpur

x = sin(2*pi*t); % Sinusoidal signal % Modulate x using single- and double-sideband AM. ydouble = ammod(x,Fc,Fs); ysingle = ssbmod(x,Fc,Fs); % Compute spectra of both modulated signals. zdouble = fft(ydouble); zdouble = abs(zdouble(1:length(zdouble)/2+1) ); frqdouble = [0:length(zdouble)1]*Fs/length(zdouble)/2; zsingle = fft(ysingle); zsingle = abs(zsingle(1:length(zsingle)/2+1) ); frqsingle = [0:length(zsingle)1]*Fs/length(zsingle)/2; % Plot spectra of both modulated signals. figure;

subplot(2,1,1); plot(frqdouble,zdouble); title('Spectrum of double-sideband signal'); subplot(2,1,2); plot(frqsingle,zsingle); title('Spectrum of single-sideband signal');

FM MODULATION [r, c] = size(x);

if r*c == 0 y = []; return; end; if (r == 1) x = x(:); len = c; else len = r; end; Df = 2*pi*beta*100; x = interp(x,20); x = x*Df; Fs = 20*8000; Fc = 40000; t = (0:1/Fs:((size(x,1)-1)/Fs))'; t = t(:, ones(1, size(x, 2))); x = 2 / Fs * pi * x; x = [zeros(1, size(x, 2)); cumsum(x(1:size(x,1)-1, :))]; y = cos(2 * pi * Fc * t + x ); plot(y)

FM DEMODULATION function x = FMdemod(y,beta) [r, c] = size(y); if r*c == 0 y = []; return; end; if (r == 1) y = y(:); len = c; else len = r; end; Fc = 40000; Fs = 8000*20; pi2 = 2*pi; [num, den] = butter(5, Fc * 2 / Fs); sen = 2*pi*beta*100; %pre-process the filter. if abs(den(1)) < eps

error('First denominator filter coefficient must be non-zero.'); else num = num/den(1); if (length(den) > 1) den = - den(2:length(den)) / den(1); else den = 0; end; num = num(:)'; den = den(:)'; end; len_den = length(den); len_num = length(num); x = y; y = 2 * y; ini_phase = pi/2; for ii = 1 : size(y, 2) z1 = zeros(length(den), 1); s1 = zeros(len_num, 1); intgl = 0; memo = 0; for i = 1:size(y, 1)

%start with the zero-initial condition integer. vco_out = cos(pi2 * intgl+ini_phase); if len_num > 1 s1 = [y(i, ii) * vco_out; s1(1:len_num-1)]; else s1 = y(i, ii); end tmp = num * s1 + den * z1; if len_den > 1 z1 = [tmp; z1(1:len_den-1)]; else z1 = tmp; end; intgl = rem(((tmp*sen + Fc)/ Fs + intgl), 1); x(i, ii) = tmp; end; end; x = x; x = decimate(x,20);

KARPAGA VINAGA COLLEGE OF ENGINERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING EC1351- DIGITAL COMMUNICATION QUESTION BANK

SEM/YEAR/SEC: VI/III/B

STAFF I/C: A.JOTHIMANI

UNIT-I
PULSE MODULATION

Part A 1. Give the mathematical form of sampling process 2. List out uses of sampling theorem 3. Define instantaneous sampling 4. What is anti aliasing effect 5. What is PWM 6. List out the types of Quantization 7. What is 8. Transfer 01101001 in to Manchester code 9. What is noise consideration in PCM 10. Define processing gain. 11. What are the two limitations of Delta Modulation? (Apr/May-04) 12. What you understand by the term aliasing ? (Nov/Dec05) 13. A band pass signal has the spectral range that extends from 20 KHz to82 KHz. Find the acceptable range of sampling frequency fs . (Nov/Dec05) 14. State Sampling Theroem ( May/June -07) 15. Define Quantization error ( May/June -07) 16. What is SNR of PCM system if the number of quantization levels? (Apr/May-06) 17. State band pass sampling theorem. (Apr/May-06) 18. Plot the magnitude spectrum of the ideally sampled version of the signal M(t)=2cos(200t)+40sin(290t).Assuming that the sampling rate is 1khz. (Apr/May - 08) 19.Define position modulation scheme with a suitable diagram (Apr/May -08) 20.State band pass sampling theorem. (Apr/May-04)

Part B 1. Drive the expression for the sampling process in time domain. (16) 2. What are all the types of sampling technique and explain about any two. (16) 3. a. Explain the generation of PPM and PWM with neat circuit diagram. (8) b. Explain the quantization process with PCM block diagram. (8) 4. Write brief notes on 1) TDMA (8 ) 2) FDMA (8) 5. Compare DM with ADM and explain linear prediction filter. (16) What is meant by a compander?What are the two types of compression?(8) (ii) Explain the frame format and signaling scheme used in T1 carrier system?(8) (Apr/May-04) 6..(i) Derive expressions quantization noise and signal-to-noise in a PCM system using a

Uniform quantiser.(10). (ii) A sinusoidal signal is transmitted using PCM.An output SNR of 55.8dB is required Find the number of representation levels required to achieve this performance. ( Nov/Dec-05) 7. (i) Explain with a neat diagram, the direct sequence spread binary PSK system?(8) (ii) Obtain the expression for the processing gain(PG) in this system. (8) (Apr/May-06) 8.. (i) Derive the expression for SNR in PCM system and compare it with Delta modulation. Explain how can the SNR be improved in a PCM system.(10) (ii) Show that prediction error variance is less than the variance of the predictor input Of the predictor of order one. (Apr/May-06) 9. (i) With supporting derivation, prove that if a signal contains no frequencies higher than W Hertz,it may be reconstructed from its samples at a sequence of points spaced W seconds apart. (8) (ii) Explain the principle of Delta modulation and derive an expression for average output noise power in delta modulation.(8) (Apr/May-06) 10. Explain the process of quantization, encoding and decoding in pulse code Modulation?In what way differential PCM is better than PCM?(16) ( May/June 07) 11. Describe the following systems by presenting appropriate diagrams. (i) Time Division Multiplexing(8) (ii) Delta Modulation.(8) ( May/June -07) 12.(a) (i) Give the block diagram of differential pulse code modulation scheme and explain the principles in detail(9) (ii) Obtain an expression for the processing gain of a DPCM system.(4) (iii)Suppose an existing standard PCM system for the voice signal is replaced by a DPCM processing gain 6dB,while maintaining the (SNR)Q. What will be the reduction in the bit rate achieved by DPCM?(3) (Apr/May -08) 13.(i) For a Uniform quantizer,discuss the way in which the number of quantization Levels (L) influence the bandwidth and the Quantization noise.(3) (ii) Discuss the need for Non-uniform Quantization of speech signal (2). (iii) Outline the principles of compander used for speech signal.(4) (iv) Give the bit rate of a Delta modulator fed with samples at a rate of 40ksamples/sec.(2) (v)How does adaptive delta modulation help in alleviating the problems associated with Delta modulation scheme.(5) (Apr/May -08) 14. Explain the principle,operation ,signals ,constellation diagram transmitter and receiver of a MSK system.(16) (May/June-07)

UNIT -2 BASEBAND PULSE TRANSMISSION Part A 1. Define matched filter 2. What is decision device 3. Draw the block diagram of base band binary data transmission system 4. What is Nyquist channel

5. Draw the frequency and time response of raised cosine spectrum 6. What you mean by correlative level coding 7. Define LMSA 8. What is DFE 9. List out the use of eye patterns 10. Define zero crossing effect 11.. How is the eye pattern obtained on the CRO? (Apr/May-04) 12. What is the condition for zeros Inter symbol Interference? (Apr/May-04) 13.What is the purpose of using an eye pattern? (Nov/Dec05) 14. Why do you need adaptive equalization in switched telephone network? (Nov/Dec05) 15.What is an ideal Nyquist channel? (Apr/May-06) 16. What is meant by intersymbol interference? (Apr/May-06) 17. Why do we need equalization in base band pulse transmission? ( May/June -07) 18. A message has zero mean value and a peak value of 10V. It is to be quantized using a Step size of 0.1V with one level coinciding to 0 V. Find number of bits required for encoding the quantized signal. ( May/June -07) 19. Give the Nyquist criterion for zero ISI.Plot the impulse response of an ideal Nyquist channel. (Apr/May -08) 20.Draw an eye pattern and respresent the ways in which it could be used to evaluate the performance a baseband pulse transmission system. (Apr/May -08)

Part B 1. Derive the expression for the matched filter and prove any one property. (16) 2. Prove the effect ISI using necessary block diagram and design. (16) 3. Write brief notes on Nyquists criterion for distortion less base band binary transmission. (16) 4. Explain the six array PAL transmission. (16) 5. a) (i) Explain the cross talk produced due to high frequency cutoff of the channel in PAM. What is the effect of pulse width on the cross talk factor?(8) (ii) Compare the power spectra of different binary formats.(8) (Apr/May-06) 6. (i) With neat sketches, explain the duo binary signaling scheme.(8) (ii) Write briefly about eye pattern and adaptive equalization for data transmission.(8) (Apr/May-06) 7. a) (i) Generate the code words for (7,4) Hamming code.(8) (ii) State and prove the properties of syndrome decoding. (8) (Apr/May-06) 8. (i) Explain briefly about linear block codes.(4) (ii) Evaluate the syndrome S for all five probable single error patterns in (5,1) Repetition code.(6) (iii) Briefly explain the Viterbi decoding algorithm .(6) (Apr/May-06) 9. Why do we adoptive equalizer and design any one type of adoptive equalizer. (16) 10..Find the optimum filter frequency response How that maximizes the output SNR When the input noise is not a white noise.(16) ( May/June -07) 11. Discuss the following: (i) Adaptive Equalization(8) (ii) Base band M-ary PAM transmission. (8) ( May/June -07) 12. (a) (i) What are the special features of correlative coding?(2) (ii) Draw the block diagram of a Duobinary encoder and obtain an expression for

the frequency response of the same.(6) (iii) What is the need for precoder.(1) (iv) For the binary sequence 011010100110 give the output of a Duobinary encoder (in the absence of a precoder).(3) (v) For the binary sequence 011010100110 give the output of a Duobinary Encoder with a precoder. (4) (Apr/May-08) (vi) (i) Obtain the expression for the average probability of symbol error assuming NRZ signaling,if the noise is modeled as AWGN.(10) (ii) Compare a baseband binary PAM system with that of M-ary PAM system.(6) (Apr/May -08) 13. (i) Sketch the time response and frequency response of signal with raised cosine pulse spectrum.(8) (ii) Why is the precoding used with duobinary signaling scheme?Draw the block diagram of precoderand explain its operation (8) (Apr/May-04) 14. (i) Draw the block diagram of an adaptive filter and explain the LMS algorithm.(10) (ii) Explain how eye pattern is used to study the performance of a data transmission system. (6) (Apr/May-04). 15. What do you understand by the term Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)?Discuss in detail the Nyquist criterion for minimizing ISI.Explain the difficulties in implementing it in a practical system.(16). (Nov/Dec05) 16.(i)Discuss the merits and demerits of Duobinary Signalling.(6) (ii)The binary data(0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 ) are applied to the input of a duobinary encoder.Construct the duobinary encoder output and corresponding receiver output,without a precoder .Suppose due to error during transmission ,the level produced by the third digit is reduced to zero,construct the new receiver output(10). (Nov/Dec05)

UNIT - 3 PASSBAND DATA TRANSMISSION Part - A 1. Define FSK 2. Draw the Basic block diagram of FSK 3. Define MFSK 4. Draw the wave form of the MPSK 5. What is MSK 6. Define Non-coherent FSK 7. Differentiate coherent FSK from Non-coherent FSK 8. What do you mean by Probability error. 9. Define Passband transmission. 10 Draw the baseband signal. 11. How is the transfer function of the Matched Filter related to the spectrum of the signal? (Apr/May-04) 12. In minimum shift keying what is the relation between the signal frequencies and bit rate? (Apr/May-04)

13. Draw an illustrative figure to show the operation of a correlation receiver? (Nov/Dec05) 14.Highlight the major difference between a QPSK signal and aMSK signal. (Nov/Dec05) 15. Compare the probability of error of PSK with that of FSK. (Apr/May-06) 16. State the difference between coherent and non coherent binary modulation schemes. (Apr/May-06) 17. Differentiate coherent and non coherent receivers. ( May/June -07) 18. What do you understand by continuous phase frequency shift keying? ( May/June -07) 19.Plot the power spectrum of a BPSK signal operated with a carrier frequency of 140MHz,modulated by data bits at a rate of 2400 bits/sec.What is the bandwidth requirement? (Apr/May -08) 20.Give the signal space representations of QPSK.How is the performance of the system related to the distances between the symbols in the signal space ? (Apr/May -08)

Part B 1. Derive the expression for the BPSK technique. (16) 2. Explain the MFSK and derive the pe. (16) 3. Draw the space diagram of MSK and explain about the same. (16) 4. Derive the error probability expression for the MPSK. (16) 5. Compare the all types of Passband transmission. (16) 6. (i) Discuss briefly about Minimum Shift Keying for a Continuous Phase Frequency Shift Keying(CPFSK) signal.(8) (ii)With necessary equations and signal space diagram, explain briefly about FSK system.(8) (Apr/May-06) 7 (i) Explain the Quadriphase Shift keying (QPSK) modulation(8) (ii) Obtain probability of error interms of Eb and No (Apr/May-06) 8.(i) In a PSK system, the received waveforms S1(t)=A Coswt,S2(t)=-A Coswt are Coherently detected with a matched filter. The value of A is 20 mV, and the bit Rate is 1 Mbps. Assume that the noise power spectral density h/2=10-11 W/Hz. Find the proability of error Pe.(6) (ii) Enumerate on carrier and symbol synchronization(5+5) ( May/June -07)

9. (i) Give the block diagram for the generation and detection of BFSK signal and Give a brief explanation of the same.(8) (ii)What are the special properties of MSK scheme?(4) (iii) Compare the performance of BPSK with that of BFSK.(4) (Apr/May -08) 10. (i) Discuss the generation and detection of QPSK with suitable block Diagrams (10) . Write a note on DPSK.(6) (Apr/May -08) 11. Explain the direct sequence spread spectrum modulation with coherent binary Phase shift keying.(16) (May/June-07) 12. Describe the following: (i) Signal space dimensionality and processing gain. (8) (ii). Maximum length and Gold codes. (8) (May/June-07)

13. (i) Explain the technique used for generating N orthonormal basis functions.(8) (ii) What do you understand by coherent detection?(2) (iii)Discuss a method for bit synchronization.(6) (Apr/May-04) 14.(i) Draw the block diagram of QPISIC transmitter and coherent QPSK receriver and explain their operation.(10) (ii)Compare the BER of coherent PSK coherent QPSK and coherent FSK. (6) (Apr/May04)

Unit- 4 ERROR CONTROL CODING Part A 1. Define the Channel coding 2. List out the uses of the Channel Coding 3. Differentiate Sourced coding from the Channel coding. 4. Prove any two properties of Block Codes. 5. What is syndrome? 6. Define Code rate. 7. What is BSC? 8. Draw the channel diagram of the BPSK system 9. What is turbo codes 10. Define CRC. 11. What is meant by syndrome of a linear block code? (Apr/May-04) 12. The minimum transmitter power requirement in the absence of channel coding of a communication System is 2W. If a channel coding scheme of 3 dB is incorporated in the system give the minimum required transmitter power. (Apr/May-04) 13.Explain the fundamental difference between block codes and convolutional codes. (Nov/Dec05) 14.How will you define coding gain with reference to error control codes ? (Nov/Dec05) 15. List t7. What is meant by BCH code? (Apr/May-06) 16. What is a convolution code? (Apr/May-06) he advantages of Turbo codes ( May/June -07) 17. Define Minimum distance. ( May/June -07) Part B 1. Explain the channel coding technique used in the Block codes. (16) 2. What are all the message vectors can be extracted from the code vector that was generated by 1+X+X3. (16) 3. Explain the Viterbi algorithm for the detection of any two message vectors (One Word) from the code vectors that were generated by (111), (101) and (011). (16) 4. Explain the construction of Block Code and Explain how error syndrome is calculated. (16) 5. Explain in detail about Orthogonal codes, Biorthogonal codes and Transorthogonal codes. (16) 6. Consider a (7,4) linear block code with the parity-check matrix give by (i)Construct code words for this (7,4) code (ii)Show that this code is Hamming code. (iii)Illustrate the relation between the minimum distance and the structure of the parity-check matrix H by considering the word 0101100. (May/June-07) 7.Let g(x) be the generator polynomial of a cyclic code C.Find a scheme in

Encoding the data sequence (d0,d1dk-1) into an (n,k) system code C. (16) (May/June-07) 8.(a) (i) Give the properties of cyclic codes.(3) (ii) Give the details of implementation of cyclic encoder and decoder based on Linear feedback shift registers.(9) (iii) A communication system operates at a bit rate of 10kbps with a transmitter power of 50Watts with a BER of 10^-7 using BPSK.If a channel coder of coding gain 3 dB is incorporated into the system,calculate the transmitter power required to maintain the same BER.(assume the modulation scheme remains the same).State the disadvantage of including the channel coder,if there is any.(4) (Apr/May -08) 9. (i) Draw the block diagram of a convolutional encoder of constraint length 3 And code rate .(3) (ii) Draw the state diagram for the encoder you have given in.(5) (iii) Discuss the decoder algorithm in detail for the encoder given by you.(8) (iv) Define Hamming distance between linear block codes.Give the error correction and error detection capability in terms of Hamming distance. (Apr/May -08) (v) Give the special features of Trellis codes. (Apr/May -08) 10.(i)Write the generator matrix and parity check matrix of a (7,4) Hamming code.(6) (ii)Describe a decoding procedure for linear block code.(6) (iii)Explain the features of RS code (4) (Apr/May-04) 11.(i)Draw the diagram of a rate -1/2 convolutional encoder with constraint length 12.What is the generator polynomial of the encoder? Find the encoded sequence you have drawn ,corresponding to the message sequence(10011).(12) (ii)obtain the Trellis diagram of the encoder that you have drawn.(4). (Apr/May-04) UNIT- 5 SPREAD SPECTRUM MODULATION Part A 1 What are all the types of SSM 2 What is the use of PN sequence 3 List out the prosperities of PN sequence 4 What is the processing gain of SSM. 5 Define jamming margin 6 Define FHSSM 7 Define SFHSS. 8 Define FFHSM. 9 Draw the PN sequence generator for [6,4,2,1] 10 What you mean by runs in PN sequence 11 State the Gold Theorem 12. When is the PN sequence called as maximal length sequence? 13. What is meant by processing gain of DS spread spectrum system? (Apr/May-04) 14. Write down the properties of PN sequences. (Nov/Dec05) 15How do you define processing gain for aDS-CDMA system? (Nov/Dec05) 16.fine frequency hopping? April/may-06) 17 What are the applications of Spread spectrum modulation? April/may-06 18 What do you mean by Jamming? ( May/June -07) 19List any two applications of spread spectrum modulation. ( May/June -07) Part B 1. Generate the PN sequence for [5, 4, 3, 1] and prove the all properties of the same. (16)

2. List out and prove the Properties of the PN sequence. (16) 3. Explain the concept of DS/BPSK. (16) 4. List out the uses of the FH. Explain the FH techniques with the frequency spectrum. (16) 5. Write shorts notes on 1. Probability Error. (4) 2. Jamming Margin (4) 3. (S/N) of the DS System. (8) 6.(i). Discuss the configuration of a Direct Sequence spread spectrum system with BPSK in detail.(13) (ii) In a direct sequence spread spectrum system with BPSK,the information bit Duration is 4.095 ms and the PN chip duration is 1us.Calculate the processing Gain of the system and the feedback shift length used for the PN sequence. (3) (Apr/May -08) 7. With suitable block diagrams ,discuss the structure of the transmitter and Receiver of frequency hopping spread spectrum systems.(10). (ii)What is the difference between slow FH and fast FH systems?(2) Assume that a slow FH system employs M-FSK data modulation with N hop bands and operates with a binary input data rate of R bits/sec.What is the minimum bandwidth requirement of the system?(4) (Apr/May -08) 8 give the properties of maximal length sequence(PN sequence). (Apr/May -08) 9List any two applications of spread spectrum. (Apr/May -08) 10State and explain the properties of maximal length sequences.(6) (ii)Draw the block diagram of DS- spread spectrum system transmitter and receiver and explain the function performed by each block in brief.(10) (Apr/May-04) 11Explain the principle of operation of frequency hopped M-ary FSK spread spectrum system(10) (ii)Discuss the ways in which fast hopping scheme and slow frequency hopping (spread spectrum) schemes could be used to mitigate multipath effect.(6) (Apr/May-04)