CIHEAM - Options Mediterraneennes

OVERVIEW OF SOILLESSCULTURE: ADVANTAGES, CONSTRAINTSAND PERSPECTIVES FOR ITS USE IN MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES
C. M. OLYMPIOS
Department of Vegetable Production. Agricultural University of Athens. Botanikos, Athens118 55, Greece

Abstract: Considerable progresshas been made recentlyin the development of media and economically
viable soilless systems and a number of growers in different Mediterranean countries are using soilless culture commerciallythe extend of which varies, accordingto the level of education of the growers, the existing greenhouses facilities and their level of organization. It known that soilless culture offers is well an alternative to soil culture when serious soil and water problems (i.e., soilborn pests, soil and water of fertilesoil,watershortage,etc.),create salinity,chemicalresidues in soil,watersalinity,lack difficulties in traditional soil-based production. The main advantages of soilless culture are the most accurate control over supply of water, nutrients,pH, root temperature, etc., increase productivity due the to easier and more accurate control of production factors, reduction of labour requirement, no need for soil sterilization, more crops per year, etc. On the other hand there are disadvantages like the higher initial capital investment for the construction and maintenance of the soilless setup, the risk of disease infections mainlyin the recirculating (close) systems, occasionally increase of labour requirement and the the need for higher standard of management and compared to crops growing in soil. The margin of skill error in fertilizing and watering is reduced with soilless culture. Also of importance is the subject of the environmental (soil& water) pollution by waste nutrients with open systems which in less developed countries are more popular because they are easier to handle. Expansion of soilless culture in various Mediterranean countries at present and years to come will depend in one hand on existing knowledge the as well as thedegreeof level of the growers, the organizationandbackgroundfacilitiesavailable education and adoption of new technological deveIopments soilless culture.On the other hand, the the on speed of expansion in Mediterranean countries is greatly depended on the development of technically or simple, reliable, withlow cost, soilless systems, usingif possible local low cost materials as substrates of pure hydroponic systems with simplest automated systems which can be installed in structureslow the investment, requiring low management techniques, in order to attract the attention and interest of the growers.

The originsof soilless culturego back at least to the 17th century when, in 1666, Boyle attempted to grow plants in vials containing nothing but water, and reported that one species (spearmint, Raphanza aquatica) survived for nine months. However, it was not until the 19th century that Liebig(1803-73)andKnopandSachs(around1859)initiated the systematicstudy of plant nutrition (Cooper, 1979). The first person to promote the commercial potential of liquid culture was Gericke (1929). The plants were planted in a layer of sand which was supported on the surface of the solution by netting and canvas through which the roots could pass into the liquid phase. Originally Gericke (1929) defined his method as aquaculture. However, since this term was already in use for the culture of aquatic plants and animals, otherterms were quickly introduced. namely water culture and solution culture. Finally, the term hydroponics was proposed by Setchell, based on the Greek hydro (water) and ponos (labour).

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Gerickes method however, has a main disadvantage, lack of aeration. Oneway of overcoming the -the difficulties of oxygenation was development of nutrient film (NFT) and circulating nutrient the solutions. Another way wasthe use of aggregate substrates in which although all the nutrientsare supplied to the plant with the water, there is nevertheless inert rooting medium which provides an both support for the plant and a means of oxygenationaeration of the roots (Figure 1). Although / there has frequently been dispute concerning the precise definition of what is and what is not a soilless (or hydroponic) medium -for example, organic substrates such as peat may contribute to the nutrient status of the system- the classification proposed by the FAO Report (1990) is widely accepted today. Soillessculturehasoftenbeencalled definition of certain types.

hydroponics, although nutri-culture is amore accurate

The methodsof growing plants without soil into two general categories: fall (a) Liquid culture (true hydroponics), where the nutrient solution is recirculated after reaeration NFT) and and adjustment of pH and nutrient levels (e.g. the (b) Aggregate culture, where the nutrient solution is supplied to plants via an irrigation system through the media, and excess solution is allowed to run to waste or the solution is recirculated (e.g. rockwool, pumice, perlite, sand culture, gravelculture etc.).

Table 1 -

SOILLESS CULTIVATIONS SYSTEMS HYDROPONICS

SOLUTION CULTURE AGGREGATE SYSTEMS

(TRUEHYDROPONICS)
INORGANIC MEDIA (HYDROPONIC)
1. STATIC SOLUTIONS

ORGANIC MEDIA

NATURAL MEDIA 1. SAND 2. GRAVEL

3. ROCKWOOL
4. GLASSWOOL 5. PERLITE 6. VERMICULITE 7. PUMICE 8. EXPANTEDCLAY 9. ZEOLITE 1O. VOLCANIC ITUFF 1 1. SEPIOLITE

2. CIRCULATING SOLUTIONS

SYNTHETIC MEDIA 1. FOAM MATS (PUR) (POLYURETHANE)

2. OASISy (PLASTIC FOAM) 3. HYDROGEL

1. SAWDUST
2. BARK
3. WOOD CHIPS 4 PEAT . 5. FLEECE 6. MARC 7. COCOSOIL

===4
3. AEROPONICS

(NW

In Northern WestEuropeover the last decades the applicationofhydroponicand substrate cultures has increased considerable a result of the non suitable soil conditions and monocultures as (Table 2). The initial aim was higher yields and abetter control of root growing factors and the the nutrition and more recently to avoid the pollution of the environmentby waste fertilizers and pesticides. Z many Mediterranean Countries with lessagricultural development, the application of n soilless culture for crop production isstill limited (Table 3).
To satis@ the initial aim the first soilless systems adopted commercially were the openones. Excess nutrient solutions flows directly into soil surface and underground water polluting the the

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environment. In places with large areas under greenhouses cultivation in a relatively small area, like Holland, becauseof the pollution problem the government was forced to vote a legislation that by the year 2000 nearly all the glasshouse area should be based soilless systems that is separate on from the subsoil. Also by 2000 the use of pesticides will decreaseto 65% of the level of 1988 and 50% higher energy efficiency compared to 1980 (Ammerlaan, 1994);Table 2. Recent regulations in Gemany, do not permt anymore newinstallations of open systems (Schrder, 1994).

Table 2.

GlasshouseproductionintheNetherlands i 1992, area of soilless cultureand n targets of Dutch governmentfor the years1994 and 2000
Glasshouse Droduction in the Netherlands in 1992. ha 4590 : ha 5344

Vegetables : flowersCut plants Pot &

Area (ha and%j of soilless culture for vegetable and flower cropsin the Netherlands. Vegetables Cut flowers Pot plants % ha % ha YO ha Year 449 9 89 278 26 1985 1139 1O 0 19 2735 61 479 983 1990, 566 21 1049 1O0 65 2942 1991 23 1081 1O0 652 72 1992 3290
~ ~~ ~~

Dutch governmenttargets in percentage area (%) Year 1994 Flowers Vegetables 80 30 Independent of soil 30 30 Closed systems (recirculation)
Source:Ammerlaan,1994.

2000
1 O0 100

Table 3.

Area of soilless culture various in .mediterranean countries some and other countries of the world
AREA (HA) Vegetables Total Ornamentals
REMARKS

COUNTRY 900 France

Rockwool 73 ool 973 or

173), (NFT SO) OlvmDios 1994 Spain Italy Greece Emt 6 21.5 Morocco Tunisia Germany Belgium Japan Pozzolane, Rockwool, 30 36.8 30
15

Perlite and 1 O00 Rockwool bags, Sand 6.8 3 1O 0 Castilla (pers.com.) NFT, Perlite (Rockwool 26), (Perlite 3), (NFT 3), 1996 (Cocosoil 1) WFT 3),6), (Vermiculite (Sand + Peat 100). Rockwool Abou-Hadid (pers. com.) 1996 Pozzolane Sand, Sand, Rockwool Mainly Rockwool Schrder, 1994

33

Peat, 115

7.5

6 60

10 60

00 700

(Rockwool 278), (Deepflow 102), @FT 256), (Gravel 26)

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Furthermore, the Ministry of Environment in Holland set guidelines stating that the creation of waste and the consumptionofrawmaterialsmustbeprevented.Newclosedsoillesssystems should not create new wastes. Therefore, the sustainability of substrates and materials used in closedsystems is veryimportant. So, materials,which can be recycled after their use, .are preferred. Various studies have shown that water and fertilizer consumption and hence waste of fertilizers into the environment could be substantially reduced (Van 1994). Os,

ADVANTAGES AND CONSTRAINTS OF SOILLESS CULTURE3

Advantages of soilless cultures
A considerable amount of research work was published in recent years stating the advantages of soilless culture. The advantages to be mention in this paper does not necessarily applied to all soilless systems and substrates employed, taking into account variation betweenthe systems all the and the degree of sophistication applied each one of them. to

l-Increase productivity
Thematter of increasedyieldswith the application of soilless culture should'beexamined carefully. It is true that precise control of nutrition to the plants grown in soilless cultures will result in higher yields and quality, but this does not necessarily mean that yields from the best cultures in soil are much inferior (Stoughton, 1969). Nevertheless it is difficult to believe that the fast increase in area in soilless culture in the Netherlands and other European countries would have occurred unless commercial growers were confident some yield increase to help offset the of additional cost of soilless culture (Van Os, 1982). It is of course understandable that if there are soil problems, (i.e. poor soil. saline soil, toxicitiesin soil,etc.),thensoilless culture willproducemuchbettercrops.Manyreportswerepublished during the last 15 years presenting results on comparison of soilless methods and soil. Most of them advantages show towards the soilless systems, this usually due but was been to a combination of factors such as reduction of labor, higher yields and the greater uniformity of quality due to themore uniform conditions ofgrowth. It must be mentioned however, in many that experiments the management of crops inthe soil is not controlled properly.

2-Control of plant nutrition

The accurate control of plant nutrition compared soil cultures,is also one of the most important to advantages of soilless culture.This can be seen from:
- The point of view of the controlled concentrations which can be applied to the various crops, various environments, stage of plant growth, etc. Also harmful elements to plants, above certain concentrations can be kept within safe concentrations (i.e. Mn,B, Zn, Cu, Pb, etc.) - Another important advantage relatedto plant nutritionin soilless culture,is the uniformity with which nutrition elements can be supplied to the substrate. This is particularly true with water culture and the more sophisticated systems and lesstrue for the aggregate cultures, especially the most simple ones using surface drip irrigation systems (sand culture, etc.). - Whenusingwater cultures or aggregate cultures withinert substrates the level of nutrients supplied to the new crops are those chosen by the manager. This is not the case with soil cultures where in manycases excess nutrient levels the soil from the previous crops produce salinity. in
,

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- Another advantage of the soilless culture related to plant nutrition is the ability to control the pHand the E.C. of the nutrientsolutionaccording to therequirementofthecropandthe environmental conditions. Similar control in soil cultures very difficult and expensive. is

3-Water economy and control

Water is by all means the most important factor for crop production. Protected crops require large amounts of water dueto exclusion of rainfall when crop production is required in hot, arid regions of the world, water is like to be a limiting factor not only of availability but also of quality and cost. The advantage of soilless culture related to the ease of irrigation appliesmainly to certain soilless systems,such as NFTandother true hydroponicsystems(where the plantshavetheirroots immersedinto the nutrientsolution)and to sub-irrigated substrate culture,and is not hlly applicable to the rest of the soilless cultures using various inorganic or organic substrates.In fact, watering the later, the frequencyanddurationofirrigation is muchmore criticalforcertain substrates with low water holding capacity, compared soil. to With reference to water saving, certain soilless systems, for instance the close recirculated ones, undoubtedly economize water because drainage and evaporation fromthe surface is eliminated by the design and operational scheme of the systems (NFT, closed systems, sub-irrigated soilless culture). In addition,withsoillessculturesmore accurate controlover the supplyofwater is practiced. Furthermore,watercultureandsub-irrigated substrate systems save muchlabor in the timeconsuming task of checking and cleaning irrigation nozzles. On the contrary, crops grown on substrates and soil, require fiequent examination of trippers as these can easily be blocked by calcium carbonate orothercompoundsespeciallywithahardwatersupply.Theblockage problemcanbeeliminatedeither by acidificationofnutrientsolutionor by pretreatment of irrigation water.

4-Reduction of labor requirement

Out of soil production exclude all cultural practices associated with the cultivation of the soil, sterilization of soil, weed control, etc. Labor requirement for soilless culture is not similar to all soilless systems. Therefore, the system itself, the degree of automation, the type of substrate, the number of crops raised on each substrate, etc. but in any case, generally speaking, there is a is employed. saving in labor impute when soilless culture

5-Steriliition practices
The greenhouse soil must be free from any soil-born pathogens before the establishment of any new crop. Sterilization is a difficult and costly operation, but necessary and of great importance. It is justified because the greenhouse business require high investment in structures, facilities, plant materials, running costs, etc. and the need to obtain maximum yields and returns, is obvious to haveaneconomicallyviableoperation.Themosteffectivemethodof soil sterilization is by steaming, but the method is expensive due to the high cost of energy and labour, therefore its application is eliminated. Chemical sterilization is less expensive but not without disadvantages, i.e. the use of formaldehyde had the problems of fumes which are highly phytotoxic and the most important chemical, methyl bromide, a very toxic materialto handle, has the problem of chemical residues (bromide ions taken up by crop) and environmenta1 pollution. the

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It is thereforeof great advantage the cultivation ofcrops outside of the soil as there is no need for Sterilizationwhenmaterialsand substrates are usedonly for onetime,becausespreadingof diseases is avoided. When closed soilless culture is used depending on the system, the need for sterilization varies, i.e. to clean true hydroponic culture structures, following the removal of all debris, etc., a dilute rate of formaldehyde is used, followed with clean water. In the NFT system the film that forms the gullies can be replaced. When solid substrates are used, steam or chemical sterilization should be applied if the material is to be used again. In this case the application of both is more easier and moreeconomic but in any case sterilization of soilless culture systems is more easierthan soil sterilization.

6-Control of root environment

Possibilities for more accurate control of root temperature, root oxygen supplyare more easily to achieve in soilless cultures.

7-Multiple crops per year

Due to the absence of the cultivation techniques, operations like soil cultivation, soil sterilization etc., the numberofcropsperyear is increased,in a given production area, because the time interval between crops nearly zero. is

8-Unsuitable soil
Soilless culture offers an ideal crop alternativeto soil culture when there is no soil availableat all, or there is no suitable soil for crop production,whensoilsalinity is high orthere are toxic is substances intothe soil and finally there an accumulation of soil pathogens into the soil.

Constraints of soilless cultures

l-High capital investment

Introduction soilless of systems involves an increase of inputs for the construction and maintenance, compared to the cultivation in soil. The degree of increase of inputs depends onthe soilless system to beuseand also the degreeofperfection of controlmeasuresusedby the particular system adopted, i.e. the initial cost for establishingan NFT system is higher compared to the rockwool system, but the annual running cost is lower with the NFT system. NFT system with metal trays and raised stands is more expensive than the corrugated asbestos sheets used for NFT lettuce production, etc. Sand culture is less expensive in certain countries. Perlite has lower cost in Greece, but is more expensive in U.K., etc. Economic data on the application of soilless are culture varies from countryto country as prices of materials and services not the same. Further to the above the cost of the greenhouse structure,the cost of the greenhouse environmental management devices and controls, which are of great importance for a successful soilless culture, shold be taken intoconsideration.Weassume that electricityandgoodqualitywater are available.

2-Increased technical demands Ithe management

To succeed with the soilless culture methods, one must have orto be able to learn and have some knowledge of how to grow the crop, plant physiology, elementary chemistry, familiarity with the controlsystems,etc. It is evident that soilless culture isnot an easyoperation.Furthermore, scientific technical and support from the research workers, extension services private and

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enterprisesdealingwith importance.

all relevantmaterialsandaccessoriesforsoillessculture,

is of great

a higher, standardofmanagement.Successful Growingcropsinrestrictedvolumerequires commercialsoillesscultures are demandinggoodmanagementandskilled staff. Therefore, the person in charge must havea very wide range of skills, i.e. able to prepare and adjust the nutrient solutions,setandcontrolelectronicequipment, to have knowledge plant of physiology, to recognize andbe able to control plant diseases. Risk of disease infections is much higher.
Reference also must be made to the simple forms of soilless systems. These are more easy to manage and are more suitable to be installed in areas where the knowledgeand facilities are limited. It is important to remember that soil with its buffering capacity forgives any mistake from the grower related to nutrient supply, but a small error in the composition of nutrient solutionor the pH, the EC., will be harmful to plants in soilless culture. Failure to the power supply or water supply can mean total loss in a short period of time.

3-Risk of disease infections

In the open soilless systemthe risk of disease infections is lower, provided that drain solution flows away from the roots of the plants. In the closed systems or in systems when excess drain water flows along the roots of all plants, then if there is an infection with pathogens, all plants in the system become infected.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS USED IN SOILLESS CULTURES

Technical specificationsof structural materials used to built systems
A number of materials are used to construct the soilless growing systems,the most common are: polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC, polystyrene foam, aluminum, steels, asbestos corrugated sheets and concrete. The materials should be sustainable. Koning & van Weed (1992) (cited from Van Os, 1994) describe the specification these materials must have.

- no leakages during installation and and possibility of measuring possible leakages. use - no damaging volatilition of damps or substances. - resistance to steam sterilization,W radiation and pesticides. - taking backof materials after use and a guarantee of primary recyclingthe suppliers. by - lowcosts

The above specifications refer Holland but most of them could easily applied to other countries to as well.

Technical specifications for substrates

According to Csaba, 1995 and Koning et al., 1992, substrates must have the following properties:
- Inert (no reaction with the nutrients) - pH neutral - Porous - Low density - Hydrophilic

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Free from grit, heavy metals and radioactive pollutants Applicable in natural form without need for processing Can be mined or produced by industry the Has constant quality (no decrease of physical properties during use) Having a lifespan forat least three years Easy to use Low cost Recyclable or destroyed without hazard Resistant to sterilized several times without structural quality change. Pest free Among the substrates that meet the abovedemands are rockwool,polyurethanefoam,clay granulates, pumice stone, perlite, Irish peat, sand, etc. Thedifficultproblemofselectionof the growingmediumisovercomewiththeuseof true hydroponic systems provided that the greenhouse structures are developed (construction, controls, two etc.). The most well known methods NFT, Plant Plain Hydroponic (roots develop between are plastic films) and Aeroponic. In these systems water can easily be sterilized, has a long life and does not create a waste flow. However, from cultivation point of view, there disadvantages the are like the great risks from mistakes and disturbances, power failure, the very low buffer capacity hence the danger of disease infection, etc.

SELECTION OF SUBSTIQATEMATEFUAL
A very important aspect of establishing soilless culture, is the selection of the proper growing media. The main criteria for selection of a particularsubstrate, should be based on:

- Agronomic characteristicsof the substrates - Technical level of cultivation - Environmental conditions which can be provided(structure, controls and other facilities)
- Effect of substance on crop susceptibilityto diseases - Economic situation of thefarm business - Scientific support to the grower or levelof education of the grower - Availability of the substrate (local or imported) - Cost of substrate - Environmental effect ofthe substrate (pollution, etc.) - Marketing prospects in remunerative prices of produce the

The available growing media and the desirable characteristics have already beenpresented.It remains to sayfewthings about the establishedmaterialsand the newoneswhich are under evaluation and look promising.

Ftoekwool
Good results have been obtained with rockwool in many countries and examples of using this material in commercial greenhouses are well known (Holland, France, U.K., Denmark, etc.), all having good control on the environmental growing factors and the application of nutrient solution. But there are still some disadvantages using rockwool, such as:
- The high cost, which in many countries remains a limiting factor. - The recycling subjectis still an unsolved problem in many countries.

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- The rumour that rockwool produces carcenogenic and skin irritation effects which of course have not been proved scientifically (Csuba, 1995).

Polyurethaneether foam (PUR)

Benoit and Ceustermans (1993a, 1993b, and 1994), introduced PUR (trade name Aggrofoam). It was used for 10 years and was stream treated for 8 years at l 10C. The authors expect is that this substrate can be used for cultivation for15 years. PUR substrate gave satisfactory results and now is usedinpractice for growingvegetables in Belgium at 10% of the area @enoitand Ceustermans,1993).Also, the cost of this material is highand acts as limiting factor of its application in many countries. In some countries plastic other substrates are available as growing media, Oasis, i.e. Styroplast, Biolaston, etc. These are stable materials, they can be used for many years, they are relatively cheap, chemically inert and generally hydrophobic. Furthermore, they do have the problem of disposal.

Perlite
Perlite has very good physical characteristics, and high potential to be used as a closed waterefficient system in areas with good quality water oras an open system where poorer quality water dictates this. Several systems have been developed which use perlite as a substrate. These have et al, (1994) and been described by Wilson (1980), Adams (1989), Olympios (1992), Olympios Guler et al. (1 995). In the literature quite a bignumber of research papers have shown the superiority of perlite as a substrate forcropproduction.Referencewillbemadeon the experiencegained in Greece. Comparing perlite, rockwool and sand in .open systems, yield and quality of sweet melon was evaluated. Results have shown that perlite gave similar results as rockwool and has the great advantage ofthe much lower cost (Guler al., 1995). et Similarly in another experiment natural pumiceous perlite, and row perlite gave similar results as horticultural perlitein both growth and production, when tomatoes were grown in open systems on these substrates (Olympios et al., 1994).

Sand

In anexperimentcarried out in Egypt to compare the use of sand and rockwool for tomato production in recirculating systems under protected cultivation, it was found that sand was as productive as rockwool(Abou-Hadid et al., 1987).Sandhas the advantage of thelowcost compared to rockwool whereas its high cost imposed an initial barrier for itsuse. They concluded that drip irrigation with sand, provided significant saving in water, power and could be managed is more reliable inareas where skilled personnel not readily available. Muncini and Mugnozza (1993), compared the production of Chinese cabbage in NFT and sand. TheyieldinNFTwashigher(9,Okgr/m2)compared tosand(6,3kgr/m2),but the nitrate in accumulation in leaf blades was higherNFT (2900 mgkg f w) compared to 1033 mgkg f w in sand. In Malaysia the utilization of sandas substrate was found suitable for the cultivation of tomatoes giving similar yieldas that grown in the liquid hydroponic. Nutrient application and irrigation are important factors determining growth and yield in sand culture. Fertigation was reportedthe most efficient method of cultivation sand culture (Fujiyama and Nagal, 1987). in

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In an experiment to investigate substrates X volume X irrigation fiequencies, best results were given when 6 litres of sand were irrigated times daily (Ismail et al., 1993). The importance of 4-5 proper irrigation management was evident when there was a 70% reduction in overall yield with one and two, compared four or five irrigations daily. to

In Eastern and South Spain sand is the most widespread growing media for soilless culture. The typical sandused in sojlless systemsin Spain is often excessively fine compared the particle size to suggested by Jensen and Collings (1985). It must be mentioned that sand availability in Spain is dramatically decreasing due environmental protective regulations (Martinez and Abad, 1992). to
The low air-filled porosity (AFP) found in sand is probably the reason for the lower yield in this substrate, in spite of the good levels for E.C. during the growing period and better availability of water compared to perlite sepiolite and (Martinez Abad, and 1992). This resultedpoor a distribution ofthe root system within substrate volume. Roots were developed only the space the in between the bag cover andthe sand, where moreair exchange was possibleas shown by Brian and Eliassal, (1980). low The AFP in sand makes more even important and accurate water management for this type of sand and it seems that is necessary to apply water less frequently. When comparing substrates in a common experiment, is a mistake to irrigate all substances the same way because due to different properties, moisture holding capacity and retention is different, therefore different substrates should be treated accordingly. Nevertheless, in conclusion we can say that sand can be a good alternative media for soilless crop production, in countries where this material is in abundance and in low cost. The experience of Spain and Egypt in this respect can be a good base use this substrate. to Sepiolite In Spain, commercial-scale experiment was conducted in a polyethylene greenhouse to evaluate sand, perlite, rockwool slabs and sepiolite (a local fibrous structure, claystone material mainly based on hydrated magnesium silicate) alone or mixed with leonardite by volume) and organic (3% fertilizer with 60% content of humic substances. Results shown that higher yields obtained perlite sepiolite were with and (4/20-mesh plus leonardite)androckwool(MartinezandAbad,1992).The authors suggestsepiolite as anew substrate for horticulture, because it has good performance under conditions of saline water, no pollutant effect and has a low cost. The total pore space of sepiolite is 78,13% the Air Filled Porosity 43,87% andthe easily available water about 2%. Perlite and sand were the materials that kept the lowest E.C. until the end ofthe experiment.

(NFT), is one form of soilless production system, using only recirculating Nutrient Film Technique nutrient solution for the production of crops. The development of the NFT system removes the necessity forthe determination of water requirements and provides opportunity of more precise the control over plant nutrition. The simplicity of the technique allowed the development of almost totally automated systems.
Also the flexibility of the NFT system has enabled it to be adapted to a wide range of crops (Burrage,1992).Theability to control the rootenvironmenthasled to practices of solution heating, variation in solutionconductivityandintermittentflow, to controlcropgrowth. The minimal use of water and nutrients has made it highly desirable and semi-arid climates. in arid

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With the recent concern of pollution caused by and the cost involved in the open systems, (i.e. open rockwool production, open perlite, etc.) we may in the future an expansion of NFT. is a see It system that has considerable potential but requires a higher level of management than conventional productionandinsome areas this maybe the maininhibitoryfactor for itsexpansion.NFT simplifies the work ofthe labour but places a greater responsibility on management. the In Greece, a low cost NFT system for the production of lettuce has beendevelopedandwas accepted by the greenhouse growers. Plants are grown on suitably supported corrugated asbestos cement sheets, formingfive to eight (5-8)parallel channels, 9 cm apart, 9 cm wide and 5 cm deep. These sheets are placed in position with a 1.5% slope. Polyethylene film used to isolate the root is system and nutrient solution fiom direct contact with the asbestos-cement sheet and expanded polystyrene sheets are used to cover the channels and support the plants. Several lettuce cropscan be grown duringthe same season,assuring high incometo the growers (Qlympiqs, 1993). In an experiment to study the differencebetweensweetpepperplantbehaviourinNFTand rockwool, it was shown that the plants grown in NFT gave higher total yield than those grown in rockwool (Abou-Hadid and Burrage, 1994). The NFT technique greatly simplifies watering, it eliminates soil cultivation and soil sterilization andensuresuniformityofnutrientsupply,thereforeit appears as an economically attractive cropping system. In this technique the use of water and nutrient is regulated to the minimum needed for plant growth and productivity. As reaction of the various vegetable cropsas well as the the different cultivars of each vegetable crop react differently in the NFT, it is recommended to study the composition ofthe nutrient solution,the E.C., pH and root temperature match the crop to requirements underthe Mediterranean environmental conditions.

Aeroponic culture
A soillessmethod which has been developed and evaluated in several countries but it is still at the experimental stage. As a soilless method it has an extra advantage, the increased plant density which can be used and the high water efficiency use (Abou-Hadid Medany, and 1994). Encouraging results were also reportedbyLeoni et al., (1994) withtomatoesgrowninHigh Density Aeroponic System (HDAS), 20-30 plants/m2, where yields of 5.0 to 8.0 kg/ m2 of good qualitytomatoeswereharvestedfromtomatoespruned to singlecluster,threemonthsafter transplanting. The system allows 4 cultivation cycles in one year (12 months).

ORGANIC SIJBSTRATES
Formore than 30 years organic substrates (peatmoss,etc.),havebeen the dominatingbulk material in substrates for growing plants. It is clear that organic substrate decay quickly due to microbiologicalactionsandalsotheyreactchemicallywith the nutrientsolution.This is a disadvantage of the organic materials as it is not easy to control these reactions, therefore it is necessary to interfere in the growing process, to adjust by the fiequency of the nutrient application the changes in the E.C., pH and the levels of the trace elements. If the soilless system is closed, then more frequent chemical analysis the solution is required (Benoit and Ceustermans, 1994). of

Peat and otherorganic substrates

Peat is a very good substrate, used successfully for many years, but now, due to environmental reasons other organic products are suggested for replacement, i.e. coconut coir, ricehusk, rufia bark, straw from grass species. Moreover, there is a large number of composted organic products which been have studied their for use as horticulturalsubstrates, such as sewage sludge, composted softwood and hardwood bark (Verdonck, 1983) or composted municipal yardwaste,

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composted turkey broiler litter (Bilderback and Fonteno, 1994). The one-year compostable organic pine fibre Hortifibre was introduced Benoi? et al., 1988, (cited fiom Benoit and Ceustermans, by 1993). Thematerialshowed a numberofmicrobiologicalandchemicalreactions that were uncontrollable and therefore the growing technique requires modification, perhaps more fiequent flows of nutrient solution with the first in the morning to last longer, so that to wash out the disproportionate nutrient ions. It is interestingto mention the cork oak bark organicsubstrate which was used by Aguado et al., 1993, and provedto be a suitable substrate for growing plants. Organic substrates have a reasonable price, they be disposed of without any tetrimental effect can on the environment or they be recycled. can

Marc
Pisanu et al. (1 994)reported that the growth and production of gerbera on marc substrate was particularlyinterestingbecause of the lowcostofthe substrate and its greatavailabilityin Mediterranean Countries. Number of flowers produced mark were similar those produced on to in rockwooI, although perlite gave significantly higher number of flowers per m2, (195, 194 and 2 19 respectively).

WATER QUALITY
One of the most important factor for a successful production in soilless cultures (hydroponics or substrate cultures) is water quality and availability. Water can be available fiom rivers, lakes, rainwater,undergroundreservoirs, spring ormainswater, fiom desalinizationor fiom other treatments. The choice must be based mainly on quality, storage capacity and price (Van Assche and Vangheel, 1994).

PLANT DISEASES IN SOILLESS CULTURE

In the past, we thought that changing fiom soil culture to substrate or hydroponics culture it was possible to elimiiatethe dangerous soil bom diseases and pathogens. Unfortunately, this is not the case. Transferring a plant from the soil with its natural buffering effect against pkysico-chemical and biological pathogenous influences some biological vacuum, has even increased the chance to of epidemics (Van Assche and Vangheel, 1989). Most root - infecting pathogens also occur in these new cultivation systems. Because of the absence of potential antagonists in substrate and hydroponic cultures, pathogens entering the systems will not meet any obstruction, therefore it will be multiplied and spread. The disease problems might not be the same or the same extend in soilless to culture as in soil culture, forexamplesomeminorpathogensinsoilcultivationsmayinsoillessdevelopintomajor pathogens,i.e. Pythium,Phytophthora, CucumberGreenMottleMosaicVirusandTomato Mosaic Virus, etc. are easily transmitted in recirculating water. Theaboveproblems, as suggested by VanAssche and Vangheed, (1994) canbefaced by optimizing the plants growing conditions (i.e. increasing the substrates or the nutrient solutions buffering effect by adding humid acids of by introducing antagonistic bacteria into the substrate or hydroponic culture) orassistingplants to developmoreCultivationTechnicalResistance (controllingthe growth medium by balancing the nutrients or using the optimum temperature).

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Phytiatry
Application of chemicals in soilless culture for the control of pathogens is an important aspect of production and must be carried out with increase care. soil cultures possible dosage errors will In not be punished due to the buffering effect of soil, but in soilless culture this is different and therefore the chemical's applicability in the nutrient solution should be examined very carefully (solubility, possible systemic activity and phytotoxicity). The residual of the chemicalin the level plant and fruits also must be measured. Of course, application of chemical through the nutrient solution offersa number of important advantagesas well, like: labour saving, homogenous spread and guick effect.

Treatment of nutrient solutions substrats and

Soilless culture requires high technological knowledge, advanced technological equipment and skill from the side of producer in orderto apply preventing and control phytiatric treatments. the In the case of recirculating nutrient solutions (close systems) disinfestation is importance and of various physical principles can be applied such heating, ultra - sonication, ozone treatment, as W - radiation and filtration. Ultra ;violet radiationcan be effective against plant pathogens providing the dose under controlled conditions is sufficient. The clarity of the solution must be high to avoid the blocking of the penetration of the rays. Removing suspended solids from solution before UV treatment UV the the by filtering is necessaryto improve the clarity. Using sand filter is a satisfactory filtering device. m Ultra - violet is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 100 - 400 n . In this area, UV rays with a wavelength of 200 - 280 nm (short wave) havea strong germicidal effect with an optimum at 253,7 nm (Gelzhauser et aL, 1985 cited from Rania, 1994). These W rays destruct microorganisms by a photochemical reaction. Reuse substrates (rockwool, polyurethane) can be disinfested by steam at a temperature of 100l 10C for1 O minutes to preventinfestationof the culture onthesematerials@enoitand Ceustermans, 1994).

IMPORTANCE OF GROWING ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

There is no doubt that for a successful crop production under protected cultivation it is important to controltheclimaticandgrowthfactorssuch as temperature,ventilation,radiation,COZ concentration and plant nutrition. However, one of most important factor in soilless culture is the the fertirrigation.

in are Most of the greenhouses the Mediterranean Countries simple structures, covered with plastic films, with simple equipment and technologies for both irrigation and climate control. The choice of such a production system is mainly due to the low level of investment the growers of these Countries could support. Because the climatic conditions in these Countries vary considerable during the year and also there variations between Countries and within Country at different are the locations, there are serious production problems which affect the quantity and the quality of the products. So, it is important to find out and recommendhow to produce better (quantity and quality) with the existing structures, which in many times production factors like temperature, water quality etc.,are atsub-optimum levels.
To have good resultswithsoillesscultures,itisnecessary to have some control the of environmental factors, temperature, humidity, ventilation, This etc. means improvement of

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greenhouse structures and greenhouse equipment. Also, growing conditions must be applied to near /optimum levels as possible, for root growth and activity, top growth, for production, etc. Furthermore, good control of nutrient supply, optimum temperature of the solution and solution free from pathogens must our efforts. be There is increasingawarenessamongscientistsandprotectedcropsgrowers,of the potential pollution problems associated with conventional hydroponic growing systems (open systems). In opensystemsit is standard practice to feedapproximately 30% above the plants theoretical requirements, in order to allow for inaccuracies in irrigation systems. The excess containing high levels of nutrients run to waste together with any fingicides which may have been applied to the crop. This run-off liquid goes into the greenhouse soil and may then reach underground water (Hardgrave, 1993). However the surplus of the nutrientsolutionmust be as small as possible.Therehasbeen experimental evidence that high crop yields can be reached even with minimal nutrient solution excess (2 to 6%), if the supply of water and plant nutrients adequately controlled. are It is of great importance to reduce nutrient leaching from soilless production systems to ground and surface waters, therefore closed systems.should be employed. Recirculating solutions be can usedsuccessfullyprovided that goodqualitywaterisavailable,andnutrientadditionsmatch uptake by the plants. These systems course require high technological equipment and imply of can risks of a rapid spread of root diseases (Raniaet al., 1988). The definition closed systems means emission routes are closed in such way, that soil, water that and air willnotbepollutedandwastes are removedonlyinacontrolledway. Theclosed systems referred to cultures in which plants are grown out of the soil on artificial substrates. By growing n artificial substrates, chemical sterilization can be avoided and there is no leaching of chemicals to the soil and ground or surface water. However, leaching of chemicals by evaporation through the glasshouse windows might be very difficult to prevent in this way ( h e r l a a n , 1994). Open and closed growing methods were comparedBartosik et al., 1993 with tomatoes grown in by peat and rockwool. The advised fertigation levels in tomatoes growing the open method was up in to 40% more than the plant requires. The comparison between open and closed growing systems indicated that it is possible to prevent leaching by using closed growing system, but not without disadvantages (less yield).

To changefromsoilcultivation to soilless culture is not a simpleoperationformostof Mediterranean Countries and this a result of is

the

- lack of technical background of the new technique among growers and horticulturists in many
countries.

- adaptation of soilless technology to the very simple greenhouse installations, those extensively
used in Mediterranean ountries is not easy.

- the substrates in the international markets, i.e. rockwool, perlite, peat, etc., are expensive.
In the differentMediterraneanCountries the interestshouldbeconcentrated to develop and evaluate the local substrates to be used for soilless culture. Some times there is a need to transfer waste materials into useful products.
So, local-low cost and well knownto growers materials canbe used, with the necessary alteration as required by the soilless culture methods, for example, local sand (is the most abundant material

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in many Mediterranean Countries), gravel, perlite, pumice, sepiolite, etc. It is important to find a substrate with a good performance underlocal conditions of water quality, of low cost with no and pollution effect. Due to the problemsinproductivityinMediterraneanCountries in. soilcultivation(reported earlier), we must emphasize the importance ,of the soilless culture and the need to develop and adapt a suitable, technically simple, reliable, to use and of low cost hydroponic system for safe the Mediterranean Countries so as to be able to produce in simple structures of low investments and low management technology. The suggestions proposed by Baille (1994), show the necessary steps to follow, if soilless culture is to be promoted successfully in the Mediterranean Countries with less technological development at present.
- Controlofclimaticfactors.Thismeansimprovementinboth structures (design,etc.)and equipmentefficiency(control of air temperature, W, air movementandventilation, COZ enrichment, etc.). - Improve root environment that means good control of water and nutrient supply (i.e. nutrient composition, pH, E.C., etc.), optimum temperature and control of pathogens (sterilization of growing media and nutrient solution when recirculating). - Growers must be trained use equipments and controlsfor climate and irrigation control. to

In principle, most substrates are suitable for successful soillessculture if adequately supplied with of water and nutrients. The optimization factors such as the temperature and humidityof the aerial environment and aeration, nutrition and temperature inroot zoneis essential if the full potential the of hydroponic culture for plant growth, fiuit yield and quality is be achieved. to Ecological aspects are becoming more and more important when choosing substrates for soilless culture andeconomicefficiency is takenintoaccount as well. The two mainenvironmental problems of substrate culture are the cumulating waste substrate material and the effluent of the overdosed nutrient solution from substrate into the soil, resultingin pollution ofthe soil and the the ground water. The solutionto the problem is touse substrates which can be recycled and to adopt the closed soilless systems. It must be stressed that closed systems have a limited expansion in Mediterranean Countries so far because they have high initial costs, management problems and there is lack of experience in thissectornotonlyamongproducers,buttosomeextentamongresearchersandextension specialists. In conclusion, it can be said that considerable progresshas been made recently in development the of economically viable soilless systems and there is a relatively broad commercial application now-a-days in Countrieswithadvanced agricultural technology,i.e.Holland,otherNorthern EuropeanCountries,Japan, USA, etc. In manyothercountries,includingtheMeditteranean Countries with less agricultural technological development, there are still in their initial phase of development in spite of promising research findings.

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