IN D O -E U ROP EA N A N D T H E I N D O -E U ROP E A N S

CA L V ERT W A TK I N S

fter the initial identification of a prehistoric language underlying the modern Indo-European family and the foundation of the science of comparative linguistics, the detailed reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European proceeded by stages still fascinating to observe. The main outlines of the reconstructed language were already seen by the end of the 1870s, but it was only during the course of the 20th century that certain of these features received general acceptance. The last decades of the 20th century have happily witnessed a resurgence of Indo-European studies, catalyzed by advances in linguistic theory and by an increase in the available data, which have resulted in a picture of the reconstructed protolanguage that is, in a word, tighter. The grammar of Indo-European today is more tightly organized and more sharply focused, at all levels. There are fewer loose ends, fewer hazy areas, and those that do remain are more clearly identified as such. New etymologies continue to be made, and older etymologies undergo revision to incorporate new evidence or better analyses. The attention to detail in reconstruction in this revised Roots Appendix reflects these ongoing developments in the field: Indo-European studies are alive with excitement, growth, and change.

AN EXAMPLE OF RECONSTRUCTION Before proceeding with a survey of the lexicon and culture of the Indo-Europeans (see Lexicon and Culture), it may be helpful to give a concrete illustration of the method used to reconstruct the Proto-Indo-European vocabulary, followed by a brief description of some of the main features of the Proto-Indo-European lan-

guage. This example will serve as an introduction to the comparative method and indicate as well the high degree of precision that the techniques of reconstruction permit. A number of Indo-European languages show a similar word for the kinship term daughter-in-law: Sanskrit snus, Old English snoru, Old Church Slavonic snkha (Russian snokh), Latin nurus, Greek nus, and Armenian nu. All of these forms, called cognates, provide evidence for the phonetic shape of the prehistoric Indo-European word for daughter-in-law that is their common ancestor. Sanskrit, Germanic, and Slavic agree in showing an Indo-European word that began with sn-. We know that an Indo-European s was lost before n in other words in Latin, Greek, and Armenian, so we can confidently assume that Latin nurus, Greek nus, and Armenian nu also go back to an Indo-European *sn-. (Compare Latin nix [stem niv-], snow, with English SNOW, which preserves the s.) This principle is spoken of as the regularity of sound correspondences; it is basic to the sciences of etymology and comparative linguistics. Sanskrit, Latin, Greek, and Armenian agree in showing the first vowel as -u-. We know from other examples that Slavic regularly corresponds to Sanskrit u and that in this position Germanic o (of Old English snoru) has been changed from an earlier u. It is thus justifiable to reconstruct an Indo-European word beginning *snu-. For the consonant originally following *snu-, closer analysis is required. The key is furnished first by the Sanskrit form, for we know there is a rule in Sanskrit that s always changes to } (a sh-like sound) after the vowel u. Therefore a Sanskrit snu}- must go back to an earlier *snus-. In the same position, after u, an old s changes to kh (like the ch in Scottish loch or German ach) in Slavic; hence the Slavic word, too, reflects *snus-. In Latin always, and in Germanic under certain conditions, an old -s- between vowels went to -r-. For this reason Latin nurus and Old English snoru may go back to older *snus- (followed by a vowel) as well. In Greek and Armenian, on the other hand, an old -s- between vowels disappeared entirely, as we know from numerous instances. Greek nus and Armenian nu (stem nuo-) thus regularly presuppose the same earlier form, *snus- (followed by a vowel). All the comparative evidence agrees, then, on the Indo-European root form *snus-. For the ending, the final vowels of Sanskrit snu}7 , Old English snoru, and Slavic snkha all presuppose earlier -7 (*snus-7), which is the ordinary feminine ending of these languages. On the other hand, Latin nurus, Greek nus, and Armenian nu (stem nuo-) all regularly presuppose the earlier ending *-os (*snus-os). We have an apparent impasse; but the way out is given by the gender of the forms in Greek and Latin. They are feminine, even though most nouns in Latin -us and Greek -os are masculine. Feminine nouns in Latin -us and Greek -os, since they are an abnormal type, cannot have been created afresh; they must have been inherited. This suggests that the original Indo-European form was *snusos, of feminine gender. On the other hand, the commonplace freely formed ending for feminine nouns was *-7. It is reasonable to suggest that the three languages Sanskrit, Germanic, and Slavic replaced

the peculiar feminine ending *-os (because that ending was normally masculine) with the normal ordinary feminine ending *-7, and thus that the oldest form of the word was *snusos (feminine). One point remains to be ascertained: the accent. Of those four language groups that reflect the Indo-European accent, Sanskrit, (Balto-)Slavic, Greek, and Germanic, the first three are agreed in showing a form accented on the last syllable: snus7, snokh, nus. The Germanic form is equally precise, however, since the rule is that old -s- went to -r- (Old English snoru) only if the accented syllable came after the -s-. On this basis we may add the finishing touch to our reconstruction: the full form of the word for daughter-in-law in Indo-European is *snuss. It is noteworthy that no single language in the family preserves this word intact. In every language, in every tradition in the Indo-European family, the word has been somehow altered from its original shape. It is the comparative method that permits us to explain the different forms in this variety of languages by the reconstruction of a unitary common prototype, a common ancestor.

PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN GRAMMAR: SOUNDS AND FORMS A large part of the success of the comparative method with the Indo-European family is due to the number and the precision of the agreements among the languages, not only in the regular sound correspondences of the roots but even more strikingly so in the particulars of morphology, the forms of language in their grammatical function. Consider the partial paradigms of the words for dog (*kwon-) and to kill (*gwhen-): Hittite nominative accusative genitive kuwas kuwanan k7nas Greek kon kna kuns Vedic {(u)v7 {vnam {nas

Lithuanian nominative accusative genitive u ni us

Old Irish c coin con Hittite

Proto-Indo-European *k(u)wo(n) *kwnc *kuns

Vedic hnti

PIE *gwhn-ti

third singular present indicative

kuenzi

Hittite third plural present indicative kunanzi

Vedic ghnnti

PIE *gwhn-nti

The agreement of detail in sound correspondences, in vowel alternations and their distribution, in the accent, in the grammatical forms (endings), and in the syntactic functions is little short of astounding.

SPEECH SOUNDS AND THEIR ALTERNATIONS The system of sounds in Proto-Indo-European was rich in stop consonants. There was an unvoiced series, p, t, k, kw (like the qu of quick), a voiced series, b, d, g, gw, and a voiced aspirate or murmured series, bh, dh, gh, gwh, pronounced like the voiced series but followed by a puff of breath. (Some scholars would reinterpret the traditional voiced series as an unvoiced ejective, or glottalized, one. While this new glottalic theory accounts for some typological difficulties, it introduces more problems than it solves. In this work, as in most current handbooks, Indo-European forms appear in their traditional shape.) If the language was rich in stop consonants, it was correspondingly poor in continuants, or fricatives, such as English f, v, th, s, and z, having only s, which was voiced to z before voiced stop consonants. It had as well three so-called laryngeals or h-like sounds, all of which are written here as schwa, or N (equivalent notations are H or h). The sound is preserved as such (at least in part) only in Hittite and the other Anatolian languages in cuneiform documents from the second millennium B.C. Compare Hittite pahs-, to protect, coming directly from Indo-European *paN-s- (PASTOR). In all the other languages of the family, its former presence in a word can only be deduced from indirect evidence such as the contractions discussed immediately below. Elucidation of the details of these laryngeals remains one of the most interesting problems confronting Indo-Europeanists today. Proto-Indo-European had two nasals, m and n, two liquids, r and l, and the glides w and y. A salient characteristic of Indo-European was that these sounds could function both as consonants and as vowels. Their consonantal value was as in English. As vowels, symbolized c, i, _, and y, the liquids and nasals sounded much like the final syllables of English bottom, button, bottle, and butter. The vocalic counterparts of w and y were the vowels u and i. The laryngeals too could function both as consonants and as vowels: their consonantal value was that of h-like sounds, while as vowels they were varieties of schwa, much like the final syllable of English sofa; hence the choice of schwa to represent laryngeals in this Appendix. The other vowels of Indo-European were e, o, and a. These, as well as i and u, occurred both long and short, as did the diphthongs ei, oi, ai, eu, ou, au. (All vowels are pronounced as in Latin or Italian.) Since we can distinguish chronological layers

in Proto-Indo-European, it can be said that a number of the long vowels of later Indo-European resulted from the contraction of early Indo-European short vowels with a following N. Already in Proto-Indo-European itself, two of the three laryngeals had the property of coloring an adjacent fundamental vowel e to a and o, respectively, before the contractions took place. Thus the root p7-, to protect, is contracted from older *paN-, with a-coloring; the root do-, to give, is contracted from older *doN-, with o-coloring; and the root dhK-, to set, put, is contracted from older *dheN-, without coloring. The fundamental vowel in each of these roots, as in most Indo-European roots, was originally e. In scholarly usage it is now customary to write the noncoloring laryngeal as N1 (or h1), thus *dheN1-; the a-coloring laryngeal as N2 (or h2), thus *paN2-; and the o-coloring laryngeal as N3 (or h3), thus *doN3-. This typographically cumbersome notation has been simplified in the Appendix, since the vowel before the schwa is sufficient to distinguish the three in the cases of contraction to a long vowel, and in other positions in most languages other than Greek the three merge to one. No systematic notice has been taken in this Appendix of word-initial laryngeals before vowels (amply attested in Hittite), since the root forms with initial vowel are readily convertible by the student. Thus ant-, front, forehead, from *N2ant-, *Nant- (Hittite hant-, front, forehead); op-, to work, produce in abundance, from *N3op-, *Nop- (Hittite happ-in-ant-, rich); and ed-, to eat, from *N1ed-, *Ned- (Hittite ed-, to eat). A characteristic feature of Indo-European was the system of vocalic alternations termed apophony or ablaut. This was a set of internal vowel changes expressing different morphological functions. A clear reflex of this feature is preserved in the English strong verbs, where, for example, the vocalic alternations between write and wrote, give and gave, express the present and past tenses. Ablaut in Indo-European affected the vowels e and o. The fundamental form was e; this e could appear as o under certain conditions, and in other conditions both e and o could disappear entirely. On this basis we speak of given forms in Indo-European as exhibiting, respectively, the e-grade (or full grade), the o-grade, or the zero grade. The e and the o might furthermore occur as long K or o, termed the lengthened grade. To illustrate: the Indo-European root ped-, foot, appears in the e-grade in Latin ped- (PEDAL), but in the o-grade in Greek pod- (PODIATRIST). Germanic *fotuz (FOOT) reflects the lengthened o-grade *pod-. The zero grade of the same root shows no vowel at all: *pd-, a form attested in Sanskrit. When the zero grade involved a root with one of the sounds m, n, r, l, w, or y (collectively termed resonants), the resonant would regularly appear in its vocalic function, forming a syllable. We have the e-grade root senkw- in English SINK, the o-grade form *sonkw- in SANK, and the zero-grade form *sikw- in SUNK. In the paradigms cited earlier, the word for dog, kwon-, appears in the ograde in the accusative case *kwn-(c), in the zero grade in the genitive case *kun(s), and in the lengthened o-grade in the nominative case *kwo(n). Note that the nonsyllabic resonant w appears as the vowel u when it becomes syllabic. The verb to kill, gwhen-, appears in the e-grade in the third singular *gwhn-(ti), and in

the zero grade in the third plural *gwhn-(nti). It appears in the o-grade *gwhon- in Germanic *ban-on- (BANE). The n of the zero grade *gwhn- becomes syllabic (n) before a consonant: *gwhi(ty7 -) becoming Germanic *gundjo (GUN). In the case of roots with long vowels arising from contraction with N, the ablaut can be most clearly understood by referring to the older, uncontracted forms. Thus p7-, to protect, contracted from *paN-, has a zero grade *pN-; do-, to give, contracted from *doN-, has a zero grade *dN-; dhK-, to place, contracted from *dheN-, has a zero grade *dhN-. The fundamental vowel of the full grade disappears in the zero grade, and only the N remains. Long 7 and long X could also arise from contraction: full grade peuN-, to purify, has a zero grade *puN- contracted to *p- (PURE); full grade *peiN-, to be fat, swell, has a zero grade *piN- contracted to *pX- (IRISH). GRAMMATICAL FORMS AND SYNTAX. Proto-Indo-European was a highly inflected language. Grammatical relationships and the syntactic function of words in the sentence were indicated primarily by variations in the endings of the words. Nouns had different endings for different cases, such as the subject and the direct object of the verb, the possessive, and many other functions, and for the different numbers, namely the singular, plural, and a special dual number for objects occurring in pairs. Verbs had different endings for the different persons (first, second, third) and numbers (singular, plural, dual), for the voices active and passive (or middle, a sort of reflexive), as well as special affixes for a rich variety of tenses, moods, and categories such as causative-transitive (*-yo-) and stative-intransitive (*-K-) verbs. Practically none of this rich inflection is preserved in Modern English, but it has left its trace in many formations in Germanic and in other languages such as Latin and Greek. These are noted in the Appendix where they are relevant. With the exception of the numbers five to ten and a group of particles including certain conjunctions and quasi-adverbial forms, all Indo-European words underwent inflection. The structure of all inflected words, regardless of part of speech, was the same: root plus one or more suffixes plus ending. Thus the word *ker-wo-s, a stag, is composed of the root ker-1, horn, plus the noun suffix wo-, plus the nominative singular ending -s. The root contained the basic semantic kernel, the underlying notion, which the suffix could modify in various ways. It was primarily the suffix that determined the part of speech of the word. Thus a single root like prek-, to ask, could, depending on the suffix, form a verb *prk-sko-, to ask (Latin poscere), a noun *prek-, prayer (Latin precKs), and an adjective *proko-, asking (underlying Latin procus, suitor). Note that *prek-, *prok-, and *pykhave, respectively, e-grade, o-grade, and zero grade. The root could undergo certain modifications. Extensions or enlargements did not affect the basic meaning and simply reflect formal variations between languages. Suffixes had more specific values. There were verbal suffixes that made nouns into verbs and others that marked different types of action, like transitive and

intransitive. There were nominal suffixes that made agent nouns, abstract nouns, verbal nouns and verbal adjectives, and nouns of instrument and other functions. The root plus the suffix or suffixes constituted the stem. The stems represented the basic lexical stock of Indo-European, the separate words of its dictionary. Yet a single root would commonly furnish a large number of derivative stems with different suffixes, both nominal and verbal, much as English love is both noun and verb as well as the base of such derivatives as lovely, lover, and beloved. For this reason it is customary to group such collections of derivatives, in a variety of IndoEuropean languages, under the root on which they are built. The root entries of the Appendix are arranged in this way, with derivatives that exhibit similar suffixes forming subgroups consisting of Indo-European stems or words. Indo-European made extensive use of suffixation in the formation of words but had very few prefixes. The use of such prefixes (preverbs) as Latin ad-, con-, de-, ex- (ADVENT, CONVENE, DERIVE, EXPRESS) or Germanic be- (BECOME, BEGET) can be shown to be a development of the individual languages after the breakup of the common language. In Indo-European such compounds represented two independent words, a situation still reflected in Hittite and the older Sanskrit of the Vedas (the sacred books of the ancient Hindus) and surviving in isolated remnants in Greek and Latin. An important technique of word formation in Indo-European was composition, the combining of two separate words or notions into a single word. Such forms were and continue to be built on underlying simple sentences; an example in English would be he is someone who cuts wood, whence he is a woodcutter. It is in the area of composition that English has most faithfully preserved the ancient Indo-European patterns of word formation, by continuously forming them anew, re-creating them. Thus housewife is immediately analyzable into house + wife, a socalled descriptive compound in which the first member modifies the second; the same elements compounded in Old English, h7s + wXf, have been preserved as an indivisible unit in hussy. Modern English has many different types of compound, such as catfish, housewife, woodcutter, pickpocket, or blue-eyed; exactly similar types may be found in the other Germanic languages and in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Celtic, and Slavic. The comparative study of Indo-European poetics has shown that such compounds were considered particularly apt for elevated, formal styles of discourse; they are a salient characteristic especially of Indo-European poetic language. In addition, it is amply clear that in Indo-European society the names of individual personsat least in the priestly and ruling (or warrior) classeswere formed by such two-member compounds. Greek names like Sophocles, famed for wisdom, Celtic names like Vercingetorix, warrior-king, Slavic names like Mstislav, famed for vengeance, Old Persian names like Xerxes, ruling men, and Germanic names like Bertram, bright raven, are all compounds. The type goes as far back as ProtoIndo-European, even if the individual names do not. English family names con-

tinue the same tradition with such types as Cartwright and Shakespeare, as do those of other languages, like Irish (O)Toole, having the peoples valor. SEMANTICS. A word of caution should be entered about the semantics of the roots. It is perhaps more hazardous to attempt to reconstruct meaning than to reconstruct linguistic form, and the meaning of a root can only be extrapolated from the meanings of its descendants. Often these diverge sharply from one another, and the scholar is reduced in practice to inferring only what seems a reasonable, or even merely possible, semantic common denominator. The result is that reconstructed words and particularly roots are often assigned hazy, vague, or unspecific meanings. This is doubtless quite illusory; a portmanteau meaning for a root should not be confused with the specific meaning of a derivative of that root at a particular time and place. The apparent haziness in meaning of a given Indo-European root often simply reflects the fact that with the passage of several thousand years the different words derived from this root in divergent languages have undergone semantic changes that are no longer recoverable in detail.

LEXICON AND CULTURE The reconstruction of a protolanguagethe common ancestor of a family of spoken or attested languageshas a further implication. Language is a social fact; languages are not spoken in a vacuum but by human beings living in a society. When we have reconstructed a protolanguage, we have also necessarily established the existence of a prehistoric society, a speech community that used that protolanguage. The existence of Proto-Indo-European presupposes the existence, in some fashion, of a society of Indo-Europeans. Language is intimately linked to culture in a complex fashion; it is at once the expression of culture and a part of it. Especially the lexicon of a languageits dictionaryis a face turned toward culture. Though by no means a perfect mirror, the lexicon of a language remains the single most effective way of approaching and understanding the culture of its speakers. As such, the contents of the Indo-European lexicon provide a remarkably clear view of the whole culture of an otherwise unknown prehistoric society. The evidence that archaeology can provide is limited to material remains. But human culture is not confined to material artifacts alone. The reconstruction of vocabulary can offer a fuller, more interesting view of the culture of a prehistoric people than archaeology precisely because it includes nonmaterial culture. Consider the case of religion. To form an idea of the religion of a people, archaeologists proceed by inference, examining temples, sanctuaries, idols, votive objects, funerary offerings, and other material remains. But these may not be forthcoming; archaeology is, for example, of little or no utility in understanding the religion of the ancient Hebrews. Yet, for the Indo-European-speaking society, we can reconstruct with certainty the word for god, *deiw-os, and the two-word name of

the chief deity of the pantheon, *dyeu-pNter- (Latin J7piter, Greek Zeus patKr, Sanskrit Dyaus pitar, and Luvian Tatis Tiwaz). The forms *dyeu- and *deiw-os are both derivatives of a root deiw-, meaning to shine, which appears in the word for day in numerous languages (Latin diKs; but English DAY is not related). The notion of deity was therefore linked to the notion of the bright sky. The second element of the name of the chief god, *dyeu-pNter-, is the general Indo-European word for FATHER, used not in the sense of father as parent but with the meaning of the adult male who is head of the household, the sense of Latin pater familias. For the Indo-Europeans the society of the gods was conceived in the image of their own society as patriarchal. The reconstructed words *deiw-os and *dyeupNter- alone tell us more about the conceptual world of the Indo-Europeans than a roomful of graven images. The comparative method enables us to construct a basic vocabulary for the society of speakers of Proto-Indo-European that extends to virtually all aspects of their culture. This basic vocabulary is, to be sure, not uniform in its attestation. Most Indo-European words are found only in some of the attested languages, not in all, which suggests that they may well have been formed only at a period later than the oldest common Indo-European we can reconstruct. There are also dialectal words that are limited in the area of their extension, as in the case of an important sociological term such as the word for people, teut7-, which is confined to the western branches: Italic, Celtic, and Germanic. (It is the base of German Deutsch and of DUTCH and TEUTONIC.) In cases such as these, where a word is attested in several traditions, it is still customary to call it Indo-European, even though it may not date from the remotest reconstructible time. It is in this sense, universally accepted by scholars, that the term Indo-European has been used in this Appendix. We may examine the contents of this Indo-European lexicon, which aside from its inherent interest permits us to ascertain many characteristics of IndoEuropean society. It is remarkable that by far the greater part of this reconstructed vocabulary is preserved in native or borrowed derivatives in Modern English. GENERAL TERMS. It is appropriate to begin with a sampling of basic terms in the lexicon, which have no special cultural value but attest to the richness of the tradition. All are widespread in the family. There are two verbs expressing existence, es- and bheuN-, found in English IS, Latin esse, and English BE, Latin fu-t7rus (FUTURE), respectively. There are verbs meaning to sit (sed-), to lie (legh-, kei-1), and to stand (st7-). There are a number of verbs of motion, like gw7-, to come, ei-, to go, terN-2, to cross over, sekw-1, to follow, kei-, to set in motion, and the variants of rolling or turning motion in wel-, wer-, and kwel-1. Reconstructions are by no means confined to general, imprecise meanings such as these; we have also such specific semantic values as nes-1, to return safely home (NOSTALGIA).

The notion of carrying is represented by the widespread root bher-1 (BEAR1), found in every branch except Anatolian. This root is noteworthy in that it formed a phrase npmen- bher-, to bear a name, which is reconstructible from several traditions, including English. This phrase formed a counterpart to np-men- dhK-, to give a name, with the verb dhK-, to set, put, in Sanskrit, Greek, and Slavic tradition. The persistence of these expressions attests the importance of the namegiving ritual in Indo-European society. For the notions of eating and drinking, the roots ed- and po(i)- are most widespread. The metaphor in drunk, intoxicated, seems to have been created independently a number of times in the history of the Indo-European languages; Latin Kbrius, drunk (INEBRIATED), was without etymology until a cognate turned up in the Hittite verb meaning to drink; both are derived from the root Kgwh-. The verb to live was gwei-; it formed an adjective *gwX-wos, alive, which survives in English QUICK, whose original sense is seen in the biblical phrase the quick and the dead. For the notion of begetting or giving birth there are two roots, tek- and the extremely widely represented genN-, which appears not only as a verb but also in various nominal forms like *gen-os, race, and the prototypes of English KIN and KIND. A number of qualitative adjectives are attested that go back to the protolanguage. Some come in semantic pairs: sen-, old, and newo-, new; also sen-, old, and yeu-, youthful vigor; *tenu-, thin (under ten-), and tegu-, thick; gwerN-1, heavy, and legwh-, light. There are also the two prefixes su-, good, well-, and dus-, bad, ill-, in the Greek forms borrowed as EU- and DYS-. But normally adjectives denoting value judgments like good and bad are not widespread in the family and are subject to replacement; English good, Latin bonus, and Greek agathos have nothing to do with each other, and each is confined to its own branch of the family. The personal pronouns belong to the very earliest layer of Indo-European that can be reached by reconstruction. Their forms are unlike those of any other paradigms in the language; they have been called the Devonian rocks of Indo-European. The lack of any formal resemblance in English between the subject case (nominative) I and the object case (accusative) ME is a direct and faithful reflection of the same disparity in Proto-Indo-European, respectively eg (*ego) and me-1. The other pronouns are tu- (*te-), thou, nes-2 or we-, we, and yu-, you. No pronouns for the third person were in use. The cognate languages give evidence for demonstrative and interrogative pronouns. Both have also developed into relative pronouns in different languages. The most persistent and widespread pronominal stems are to- and kwo-, which are preserved in the English demonstrative and interrogative-relative pronouns and adverbs beginning with th- (THIS, THEN) and wh- (WHO, WHICH, WHEN). All the languages of the family show some or all of the Indo-European numerals. The language had a decimal system. There is complete agreement on the numerals from two to ten: dwo- (*duwo), trei- (*treyes), kwetwer- (*kwetwores),

penkwe, s(w)eks, sept, okto(u), newn , dekc. For the numeral one the dia lects vary. We have a root sem-1 in some derivatives, while the western Indo-European languages Germanic, Celtic, and Latin share the form oi-no-. The word for hundred, formed from dekc, ten, was *(d)kctom. No common form for thousand or any other higher number can be reconstructed for the protolanguage. NATURE AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT. A large number of terms relating to time, weather, seasons, and natural surroundings can be reconstructed from the daughter languages, some of which permit certain inferences about the homeland of the Indo-European-speaking people before the period of migrations took them to the different localities where they historically appear. There are several words for year, words that relate to differing conceptions of the passage of time. Such are yKr- (YEAR), related to words denoting activity; wet-2, the year as a measure of the growth of a domestic animal ( WETHER, basically yearling); and at- in Latin annus (ANNUAL), from a verb meaning to go, referring to the year as passage or change. The seasons were distinguished in Indo-European: ghei-, winter, wes-y, spring, and sem-2, summer. The lunar month was a unit of time. The word for month (*mKns-) is in some languages identical with the word for moon, in others a derivative of it, as in Germanic *mKnoth- from *mKnon-. Moon/month in Indo-European is a derivative of the verb to measure, mK-2. The adjective sen- (*seno-), old, was also used for the waning of the moon, on the evidence of several languages. The other celestial bodies recognized were the sun, s7wel-, and the stars, ster-3. There is evidence from several traditions for similar designations of the constellation Ursa Major, though these may not go back to the earliest Indo-European times. The movement of the sun dictated the names for the points of the compass. The word EAST is derived from the verbal root aus-, to shine, as is the word for dawn (Latin Aurora), deified since Indo-European times on the evidence of Greek, Lithuanian, and Sanskrit. The setting sun furnished the word for evening and west: wes-pero-. The most widespread of the words for night was nekwt-. Words for day include agh- and such dialectal creations as Latin diKs. The Indo-Europeans knew snow in their homeland; the word sneigwh- is nearly ubiquitous. Curiously enough, however, the word for rain varies among the different branches; we have words of differing distribution such as seuN-2. Conceptions of the sky, or heaven, were varied in the different dialects. As we have seen, the root deiw- occurs widely as the divine bright sky. On the other hand, certain languages viewed the heavens as basically cloudy; nebh- is sky in BaltoSlavic and Iranian, but cloud elsewhere. Another divine natural phenomenon is illustrated by the root (s)tenN-, thunder, and the name of the Germanic god THOR. A word for the earth can be reconstructed as dhghem- (*dheghom). Other terms of lesser distribution, like kaito-, designated forest or uncultivated land. Swampy or boggy terrain was apparently also familiar, judging from the evidence

of the root pelN-1. But since none of these runs through the whole family, it would not be justifiable to infer anything from them regarding the terrain of a hypothetical original homeland of the Indo-Europeans. On the other hand, from the absence of a general word for sea we may deduce that the Indo-Europeans were originally an inland people. The root moriis attested dialectally (MERE), but it may well have referred to a lake or other smaller body of water. Transportation by or across water was, however, known to the IndoEuropeans, since most of the languages attest an old word for boat or ship, nu-, probably propelled by oars or a pole (erN-, to row). The names for a number of different trees are widely enough attested to be viewed as Proto-Indo-European in date. The general term for tree and wood was deru-. The original meaning of the root was doubtless to be firm, solid, and from it is derived not only the family of English TREE but also that of English TRUE. Note that the semantic evolution has here been from the general to the particular, from solid to tree (and even oak in some dialects), and not the other way around. There are very widely represented words for the beech tree, bh7go-, and the birch, bherNg-. These formerly played a significant role in attempts to locate the original homeland of the Indo-Europeans, since their distribution is geographically distinct. But their ranges may have changed over several millenniums, and, more important, the same word may have been applied to entirely different species of tree. Thus the Greek and Latin cognates of BEECH designate a kind of oak found in the Mediterranean lands. Indo-European had a generic term for wild animal, ghwer- (FERAL). The wolf was known and evidently feared; its name is subject to taboo deformation (the conscious alteration of the form of a tabooed word, as in English gol-derned, dadburned). The variant forms w_kwo-, *lupo-, and w_p- (also fox) are all found. The name of the bear was likewise subject to a hunters taboo: the animal could not be mentioned by its real name on the hunt. The southern Indo-European languages have the original form, ytko- (Latin ursus, Greek arktos), but all the northern languages have a substitute term. In Slavic the bear is the honey-eater, in Germanic the brown one (BEAR2, and note also BRUIN). The BEAVER was evidently known (*bhi-bhru-, from bher-2), at least in Europe, and the MOUSE (m s-) then as now was ubiquitous. The HARE, probably named from its color (kas-, gray), is also widespread. Domesticated animals are discussed below. A generic term for fish existed, *dhgh7-(also *peisk- in Europe). The salmon (laks-) and the eel (*angwi-) were known, the latter also in the meaning snake. Several birds were known, including the crane (gerN-2) and the eagle (or-). The generic term for bird was awi- (Latin avis), and from this was derived the wellrepresented word for egg, *owyo-. The names for a number of insects can be reconstructed in the protolanguage, including the wasp (*wops7), the hornet (*krNs-yo-, a derivative of ker-1, head,

from the shape of the insect), and the fly (*m7-). The bee (bhei-) was particularly important as the producer of honey, for which we have the common Indo-European name melit- (MILDEW). Honey was the only source of sugar and sweetness (sw7d-, sweet, is ancient), and notably was the base of the only certain IndoEuropean alcoholic beverage, medhu-, which in different dialects meant both MEAD (wine in Greece and Anatolia) and honey. PEOPLE AND SOCIETY. For human beings themselves, a number of terms were employed, with different nuances of meaning. The usual terms for man and woman are wX-ro- (VIRILE) and *gwen7- from gwen- (GYNECOLOGY). For person in general, the oldest word was apparently *manu- (man-1), as preserved in English MAN and in Slavic and Sanskrit. In other dialects we find interesting metaphorical expressions, which attest a set of religious concepts opposing the gods as immortal and celestial to humankind as mortal and terrestrial. Humans are either *mortos, mortal (mer-, to die), or *dhghomyo-, earthling (dhghem-, earth). The parts of the body belong to the basic layer of vocabulary and are for the most part faithfully preserved in Indo-European languages. Such are ker-1, head (also kaput- in dialects, doubtless a more colloquial word), genu-2, chin, jaw, dent-, tooth, okw-, to see, whence eye, ous-, ear, nas-, nose, leb-, lip, bhr -, brow, os-, mouth, and dn gh -, tongue. The word for foot is attested everywhere (ped-), while that for hand differs according to dialect; the most widespread is *ghes-y- (CHIRO-). Internal organs were also named in Indo-European times, including the heart (kerd-), womb (*gwelbh-), gall (ghel-2), and liver (yekw). The male sexual organs, pes- and *ergh-, are common patrimony, as is ors-, backside. A large number of kinship terms have been reconstructed. They are agreed in pointing to a society that was patriarchal, patrilocal (the bride leaving her household to join that of her husbands family), and patrilineal (descent reckoned by the male line). Father and head of the household are one: pNter-, with his spouse, the m7ter-. These terms are ultimately derived from the baby-talk syllables pa(pa) and ma(ma), but the kinship-term suffix -ter- shows that they had a sociological significance over and above this in the Indo-European family. Related terms are found for the grandfather (awo-) and the maternal uncle (*awon-), and correspondingly the term nepot- (feminine *neptX-) applied to both grandson (perhaps originally daughters son) and nephew (sisters son). English SON and DAUGHTER clearly reflect Indo-European *s7nu- (from seuN-1) and dhughNter-. Male blood relations were designated as bhr7ter- (BROTHER), which doubtless extended beyond those with a common father or mother; the Greek cognate means fellow member of a clan-like group. The female counterpart was swesor-(SISTER), probably literally the female member of the kin group, with a feminine suffix *-sor- and the root s(w)e-, designating the self, ones own group. While there exist many special terms for relatives by marriage on the husbands side, like daiwer-, husbands brother, fewer corresponding terms on the

wifes side can be reconstructed for the protolanguage. The terms vary from dialect to dialect, providing good evidence for the patrilocal character of marriage. The root dem- denoted both the house (Latin domus) and the household as a social unit. The father of the family (Latin pater familias) was the master of the house (Greek despotKs) or simply he of the house (Latin dominus). A larger unit was the village, designated by the word weik-1. The community may have been grouped into divisions by location; this seems to be the basic meaning of the *d7mo- (from d7-) in Greek dKmos, people (DEMOCRACY). Human settlements were frequently built on the top of high places fortified for defense, a practice taken by Indo-European migrants into central and western Europe and into Italy and Greece, as confirmed by archaeological finds. Words for such fortified high places vary; there are pelN-3, variant *poli- (ACROPOLIS), the Celtic word for ring fort, dh no- (TOWN), and bhergh-2 (-burg in place names). ECONOMIC LIFE AND TECHNOLOGY. A characteristic of Indo-European and other archaic societies was the principle of exchange and reciprocal gift-giving. The presentation of a gift entailed the obligation of a countergift, and the acts of giving and receiving were equivalent. They were simply facets of a single process of generalized exchange, which assured the circulation of wealth throughout the society. This principle has left clear traces in the Indo-European vocabulary. The root do- of Latin don7re means to give in most dialects but in Hittite means to take. The root nem- is to distribute in Greek (NEMESIS), but in German it means to take, and the cognate of English GIVE (ghabh-) has the meaning to take in Irish. The notion of exchange predominates in the roots mei- and gher-2. The GUEST (ghos-ti-) in Indo-European times was the person with whom one had mutual obligations of hospitality. But he was also the stranger, and the stranger in an uncertain and warring tribal society may well be hostile: the Latin cognate hostis means enemy. The Indo-Europeans practiced agriculture and the cultivation of cereals. We have several terms of Indo-European antiquity for grain: gyN-no- (CORN), yewo-, and *p7ro-, which may have designated wheat or spelt. Of more restricted distribution is bhares-, barley. A root for grinding is attested, melN- (MEAL2, mill). Another Indo-European term is sK-, to sow, not found in Greek, Armenian, or Indo-Iranian. The verb to plow is *arN-, again a common European term, with the name of the plow, *arN-trom. Other related roots are yeug-, to yoke, and kerp-, to gather, pluck (HARVEST). The root gwerN-1, heavy, is the probable base of *gwerN-n7-, hand mill (QUERN). The term is found throughout the Indo-European-speaking world, including India. Stockbreeding and animal husbandry were an important part of Indo-European economic life. The names for all the familiar domesticated animals are present throughout the family: gwou-, cow and bull, owi-, sheep, *agwh-no-, swine, and porko-, farrow. The domestic dog was ancient (kwon-). The com-

mon Indo-European name of the horse, ekwo-, is probably derived from the adjective oku-, swift. The expansion and migration of the Indo-Europeanspeaking peoples in the later third and early second millenniums B.C. is intimately bound up with the diffusion of the horse. The verbal root demN-, to force, acquired the special sense of to tame horses, whence English TAME. Stock was a source and measure of wealth; the original sense of peku- was probably wealth, riches, as in Latin pecunia, which came to mean wealth in cattle and finally cattle proper. The verbal roots p7-, to protect, and kwel-1, to revolve, move around, are widely used for the notion of herding or watching over stock, and it is interesting to note that the metaphor of the god or priest watching over humankind like a shepherd (Latin p7stor) over his flock occurs in many Indo-European dialects as well as outside Indo-European. Roots indicating a number of technical operations are attested in most of the languages of the family. One such is teks-, which in some dialects means to fabricate, especially by working with an ax, but in others means to weave ( TEXTILE). The root dheigh-, meaning to mold, shape, is applied both to bread ( DOUGH) and to mud or clay, whence words for both pottery and mud walls (Iranian *pari-daiza, walled around, borrowed into Greek as the word that became English PARADISE.) The house (dem-) included a dhwer- (DOOR), which probably referred originally to the gateway into the enclosure of the household. The house would have had a central hearth, denoted in some languages by as- (properly a verb, to burn). Fire itself was known by two words, one of animate gender (*egni-, Latin ignis) and one neuter (p r-, Greek pur). Indo-European had a verb to cook (pekw-, also having the notion to ripen). Other household activities included spinning ((s)nK-), weaving (webh-), and sewing (sy -). The verb wes-2 (WEAR) is ancient and everywhere attested. The Indo-Europeans knew metal and metallurgy, to judge from the presence of the word *ayes- in Sanskrit, Germanic, and Latin. The term designated copper and perhaps bronze. Iron is a latecomer, technologically, and the terms for it vary from dialect to dialect. Latin has ferrum, while the Germanic and Celtic term was *isarno-, properly holy (metal), from eis-, doubtless so called because the first iron was derived from small meteorites. Gold, ghel-2, probably yellow (metal), was known from ancient times, though the names for it vary. Silver was arg-, with various suffixes, doubtless meaning white (metal). It was probably not long before the dispersal of the Proto-Indo-European community that the use of the wheel and wheeled transport was adopted. Despite the existence of widespread word families, most terms relating to wheeled vehicles seem to be metaphors formed from already existing words, rather than original, unanalyzable ones. So NAVE, or hub of the wheel (nobh-), is the same word as NAVEL. This is clearly the case with WHEEL itself, where the widespread *kw(e)-kwlo- is an expressive derivative of a verb (kwel-1) meaning to revolve or go around. Other words for wheel are dialectal and again derivative, such as Latin rota from

a verbal root ret-, to run. The root wegh-, to go, transport in a vehicle (WAGON), is attested quite early, though not in Hittite. This evidence for the late appearance of the wheel agrees with archaeological findings that date the distribution of the wheel in Europe to the latter part of the fifth millennium B.C., the latest posssible date for the community of Proto-Indo-European proper. IDEOLOGY. We pointed out earlier that the great advantage of the lexicon as an approach to culture and history is that it is not confined to material remains. Words exist for natural phenomena, objects, and things that can be found in nature or identified from their material remains. But there are also words for ideas, abstractions, and relations. The Indo-European protolanguage is particularly rich in such vocabulary items. A number of verbs denoting mental activity are found. The most widespread is men-1, preserved in English MIND. Other derivatives refer to remembering, warning (putting in mind), and thinking in general. A root notable for the diversity of its derivatives is med-, which may be defined as to take the appropriate measures. Reflexes of this verb range in meaning from rule, through measure (MODICUM, from Latin), to physician (Latin medicus). The notions of government and sovereignty were well represented. The presence of the old word for tribal king, *reg- (reg-), only in the extreme east (RAJAH) and the extreme west (Latin rKx, Celtic -rXx) virtually guarantees its presence in the earliest Indo-European society. (Here is an example of the phenomenon of marginal or peripheral conservation of a form lost in the central innovating area.) Roman tradition well attests the sacral character of kingship among the Indo-Europeans. The functions of king and priest were different aspects of a single function of sovereignty. It is this that is symbolized by the divine name *dyeu-pNter- (deiw-), the chief of the gods. Another aspect of the function of sovereignty is the sphere of the law. There is an old word, yewes-, probably for religious law, in Latin i7s. Latin lKx is also ancient (leg- or legh-), though the details of its etymology are uncertain. In a society that emphasized the principle of exchange and reciprocity, it is scarcely surprising that the notion of contractual obligation should be well represented. Several roots specify the notion of bond: bhendh-, ned-, and leig-, all of which have derivatives with technical legal meanings in various languages. The verb kwei-1 meant to pay compensation for an injury. Its derivative noun *kwoin7 was borrowed from Doric Greek into the most ancient Roman law as Latin poena and p7nXre, whence English PUNISH and a host of legal terms. The Greek word for justice, dikK, is derived from the notion of boundary marker (deik-). Indo-European is particularly rich in religious vocabulary. An important form, which is also found only in the peripheral languages Sanskrit, Latin, and Celtic, is the two-word metaphoric phrase *kred-dhK-, literally to put (dhK-) heart (kerd-). The two words have been joined together in the western languages, as in Latin crKdo, I believe. Here a term of the most ancient pagan religion has been

taken over by Christianity. A common word for religious formulation, *bhreghmen-, is preserved in Brahmin, a member of the priestly class, from Sanskrit. Oral prayers, requests of the deity, and other ritual utterances must have played a significant role in Indo-European religion. We have already seen prek(PRAY), and note also the roots *wegwh- (in Latin vovKre, to vow), sengwh- (SING), and gWerN-2, which in Latin gr7tia (GRACE) has had a new life in Christianity. The root spend- has the basic meaning of to make an offering or perform a rite, whence to engage oneself by a ritual act. Its Latin derivative spondKre means to promise (SPOUSE). A hint of Indo-European metaphysics appears in the word aiw-, vital force, whence long life, the eternal re-creation of life, eternity ( EON). It is noteworthy that the idea of holy is intimately bound up with that of whole, healthy, in a number of forms: kailo- (WHOLE and HOLY) and solN-, whence Latin salvus (SALVATION). An ancient root relating solely to religion is sak- (SACRED). In conclusion we may add that poetry and a tradition of poetics are also common patrimony in most of the Indo-European traditions. The hymns of the RigVeda are composed in meters related to those used by the Greek poets, and the earliest verse forms found among the Celts and the Slavs go back to the same IndoEuropean source. Many, perhaps most, of the stylistic figures and embellishments of poetic language that we associate with classical poetics and rhetoric can be shown, by the comparative method, to have their roots in Indo-European poetics itself. A number of metaphorical expressions appear to be creations of ancient, even Indo-European date. Latin terra, earth (TERRAN), is historically a transferred epithet, dry (land), from ters-, to dry, whose English descendant is THIRST. One securely reconstructible Indo-European place name rests squarely on a metaphor: *PXwer-i7 in Greek Pieria (PIERIAN SPRING) and wer-ion-, the prehistoric Celtic name for Ireland (Gaelic ire, rin), both continue an Indo-European feminine adjective *pXwer-iN, fat, metaphorically fertile, from peiN-, the same root that gives English FAT. Most interesting are the cases where it is possible to reconstruct from two or more traditions (usually including Homer and the Rig-Veda) a poetic phrase or formula consisting of two members. Such are the expressions imperishable fame, *klewos idhgwhitom (kleu-); holy (mental) force, *isNrom menos (eis-, men-1); and the weaver (or crafter) of words, the Indo-European poet himself, *wekwom teks-on (wekw-, teks-). The immortality of the gods (*i-mrto-, from mer-) is emphasized anew by the vivid verb phrase nek-1 terN-2, to overcome death, appearing in the Greek word nektar, the drink of the gods. And at least one threemember formula (in the sense of the word in traditional oral poetry) can be reconstructed for the poetic language of prayer, on the combined evidence of four languages, Latin, Umbrian, Avestan, and Sanskrit: Protect, keep safe, man and cattle! (p7- wX-ro- peku).

CONCLUSION This survey has touched on only a representative sample of the available reconstructed Indo-European lexicon and has made no attempt to cite the mass of evidence in all the languages of the family, ancient and modern, for these reconstructions. For this essay, we have given only the information about Indo-European culture that could be derived from language and lexicon alone. Other disciplines serve to fill out and complete the picture to be gathered from the study of vocabulary: archaeology, prehistory, comparative religion, and the history of institutions. Archaeologists have not in fact succeeded in locating the Indo-Europeans. An artifact other than a written record is silent on the language of its user, and prehistoric Eurasia offers an abundant choice of culture areas. Archaeologists are generally agreed that the so-called Kurgan peoples, named after the Russian word for their characteristic barrow or tumulus grave structure, spoke an Indo-European language. The correlation between the Kurgan cultural features described by archaeologists and the Indo-European lexicon are striking: for example, small tribal units (teut7-) ruled by powerful chieftains (reg-), a predominantly pastoral (p7-) economy including horse (ekwo-) breeding (demN-) and plant cultivation (yewo-), and architectural features such as a small subterranean or aboveground rectangular hut (*dom-, dem-) of timber uprights (*kli-t-, klei-, and *stu-t-, st7-, still with us in English STUD). Some time around the middle of the fifth millennium B.C., these people expanded from the steppe zone north of the Black Sea and beyond the Volga into the Balkans and adjacent areas. These Kurgan peoples bore a new mobile and aggressive culture into Neolithic Europe, and it is not unreasonable to associate them with the coming of the Indo-Europeans. But the Kurgan peoples movement into Europe took place in distinct waves from the fifth to the third millennium B.C. The earliest so far discovered might be compatible with a reasonable date for ProtoIndo-European, that is, a date sufficiently long ago for a single language to develop into forms as divergent as Mycenaean Greek and Hittite as they are historically attested by the middle of the second millennium B.C. But the subsequent Kurgan immigrations, after 4000 B.C., are too late to be regarded as incursions of speakers of undifferentiated Proto-Indo-European. The archaeological evidence for the later waves of Kurgan migrations points to their having had an Indo-European culture, but the languages spoken by the later Kurgan peoples must have been already differentiated Indo-European dialects, some of which would doubtless evolve into some of the historical branches of the family tree. We must be content to recognize the Kurgan peoples as speakers of certain Indo-European languages and as sharing a common Indo-European cultural patrimony. The ultimate cradle of the IndoEuropeans may well never be known, and language remains the best and fullest evidence for prehistoric Indo-European society. It is the comparative method in his-

torical linguistics that can illumine not only ancient ways of life but also ancient modes of thought.

G U I D E T O T HE A P PE N D I X
This Dictionary carries the etymology of the English language to its logical and natural conclusion, for if the documentary history of words is of interest and value, so is their reconstructed prehistory. The historical component is given in the etymologies, after the definitions in the main body of the Dictionary. This Appendix supplies the prehistoric component, tracing the ultimate Indo-European derivations of those English words that are descended from a selected group of Indo-European roots. The form given in boldface type at the head of each entry is, unless otherwise identified, an Indo-European root in its basic form; this is followed by a list of some of its more important Modern English descendants. The entry proper begins with a repetition of the basic root form, followed in some cases by one or more variants, also in boldface type. The basic meaning or meanings of the root are given immediately after the entry form and its variants (but see the cautionary note under Semantics in the preceding essay). Meanings that are different parts of speech are separated by a semicolon:
kei-1. To lie; bed, couch; beloved, dear. pelN-2. Flat; to spread. leg-. To collect; with derivatives meaning to speak.

After the basic meaning there may appear further information about the phonological shape or nature of the root:
skei-. To cut, split. Extension of sek-. kwmi-. Worm. Rhyme word to *wrmi-, worm (see wer-2). p7-. To protect, feed. Contracted from *paN-. lXk-. Body, form; like, same. Germanic root.

Most, but not all, of the additional information is self-explanatory. In the first two examples, the boldface forms sek- and wer-2 are cross-references to those roots, which are main entries in this Appendix. Every boldface form appearing in the text of an entry is such a cross-reference. In the example p7- the form *paN- represents an older root form; the nature of these contractions is explained in the preceding essay under Speech Sounds and their Alternations (page 0000). The entries lXk-, nKhw-iz, and re- are not, strictly speaking, Indo-European, since they are represented in only one branch of the family, but they are included within boldface brackets because of the number of English words among their descendants. The text of each entry describes in detail the development of Modern English words from the root. Each section of an entry begins with a list, in SMALL CAPITALS, of the Modern English words derived from a particular form of the root. The simple (uncompounded) derivatives are given first; the compounds follow, separated from them by a semicolon. Parentheses indicate that the etymology of a word in the main body of the Dictionary contains a cross-reference to the etymology at another entry. In some cases no further semantic or morphological development needs to be explained, and the lemma, the historically attested representative of the root, is immediately given:
awi-. Bird. I. 1. AVIAN . . . from Latin avis, bird.

Much more commonly, however, intermediate developments require explanation. These intermediate stages are reconstructions representing a word stem in Indo-European that is necessary to explain the lemma following it (see the section Grammatical Forms and Syntax in the preceding essay). The reconstructed forms are not historically attested; they are preceded by an asterisk (*) to note this fact. Sometimes earlier or later developments of the intermediate forms are given in parentheses, as in the example of st7- below. In these cases the symbol < is used to mean derived from and the symbol > is used to mean developed into. The following terms are used to describe typical morphological processes of Indo-European:
Full-grade form: A form with e-vocalism (the basic form); so identified for

descriptive contrast
O-grade form: A form with o-vocalism:
nekw-t-. O-grade form *nokw-t-.

Zero-grade form: A form with zero-vocalism:

men-1. I. Zero-grade form *m-.

Lengthened-grade form: A form with lengthened vocalism:

ked-. 1. Lengthened-grade form *kKd-.

Secondary full-grade form: A new full-grade form created by inserting the fun-

damental vowel e in the zero-grade form of an extended root:

st7-. V. Zero-grade extended root *st7- (< *stuN-). . . . VI. Secondary full-grade form *steuN-.

Basic form: The unchanged root; so identified for descriptive contrast. Suffixed form: A form with one or more suffixes, written with an internal

hyphen:
laks-. Suffixed form *laks-o-. maghu-. Suffixed form *magho-ti-. mel-2. 1. Suffixed (comparative) form *mel-yos-.

Prefixed form: A form with a prefix, written with an internal hyphen:

op-. 6. . . . from prefixed form *co-op-.

Extended form: A form with an extension or enlargement, written without inter-

nal hyphens:
pel-5. II. Extended form *pelN-.

Nasalized form: A form with a nasal infix, written with internal hyphens:
tag-. 1. Nasalized form *ta-n-g-.

Reduplicated form: A form prefixed by its own initial consonant followed by a

vowel:
segh-. 5. Reduplicated form *si-sgh-.

Expressive form: A form with expressive gemination (doubling of the final

consonant), written without internal hyphens:

gal-. 3. Expressive form *gall-.

Compound form. A form compounded with a form of another root, written

with internal hyphens:

dem-. 3. Compound form *dems-pot-.

Shortened form. A form with shortened vocalism:

sy -. III. Suffixed shortened form *syu-men-.

Reduced form. A form with loss of one or more sounds:

ghesor-. Reduced form *ghesr-.

Oldest root form. A root form showing a laryngeal (N) in a position, typically at

the beginning or end of a root, where it is preserved in only a few Indo-European languages, such as Greek or Hittite:
ster-3. 3. Oldest root form *Nster-.

Variant form. A form altered in any way other than those described in the above

categories:
deru-. 2. Variant form *dreu-. These terms can be combined freely to describe in as much detail as necessary the development from the root to the lemma. dhK(i)-. 1. Suffixed reduced form *dhK-mn7. FEMALE, FEMININE; EFFEMINATE, from Latin fKmina, woman (< she who suckles). gerN-1. 1. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *gKrN-s-. AGERATUM, GERIATRICS, from Greek gKras, old age. petN-. 2. Suffixed (stative) variant zero-grade form *pat-K-. PATENT, PATULOUS, from Latin patKre, to be open.

In order to emphasize the fact that English belongs to the Germanic branch of Indo-European and give precedence to directly inherited words in contrast to words borrowed from other branches, the intermediate stages in Germanic etymologies are covered in fuller detail. The Common or Proto-Germanic (here called simply Germanic) forms underlying English words are always given. Where no other considerations intervene, Germanic is given first of the Indo-European

groups, and Old English is given first within Germanic, although this order of precedence is not rigidly applied. The final item in most entries is an abbreviated reference, in brackets, to Julius Pokornys Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wrterbuch (Bern, 1959). This, the standard work of reference and synthesis in the Indo-European field, carries a full range of the actual comparative material on which the roots are reconstructed. Our Appendix presents only those aspects of the material that are directly relevant to English. For example, the English word MANY is found at the root menegh-, copious. This entry describes the transition of the Indo-European form through Germanic *managa- to Old English manig, mnig, many. It does not cite the evidence on which this assertion is based, but it refers to Pokorny men(e)gh- 730. The entry men(e)gh- on page 730 in Pokornys dictionary cites, in addition to the Old English word, the forms attested in Sanskrit, Celtic, Gothic, Old High German, Old Norse, Slavic, and Lithuanian, from which the reconstruction of the root was made. These references should serve as a reminder that the information given in this Appendix is assertive rather than expository and that the evidence and evaluation upon which its assertions are based are not presented here.

Symbols: * unattested < derived from > developed into

I N D O - E U R O P E A N RO O T S
adImportant derivatives are: at1, aid. To, near, at. 1. 2. , from Old English t, near, by, at, and from Middle English at, to, from Old Norse at, both from Germanic *at.
1

ADO, AT

AD-, -AD; (ADJUVANT), AID, AMOUNT, (PARAMOUNT),

from Latin ad,

ad-, to, toward. [Pokorny 1. ad- 3.]

agImportant derivatives are: act, agent, agile, ambiguous, essay, exact, navigate, agony. To drive, draw, move. 1.
ACT, AGENDUM, AGENT, AGILE, AGITATE; (ALLEGE), AMBAGE, AMBIGUOUS,

(ASSAY), (CACHE), COAGULUM, COGENT, ESSAY, EXACT, (EXAMINE), (EXIGENT), FUMIGATE, FUSTIGATE, INTRANSIGENT, LEVIGATE, LITIGATE, NAVIGATE, OBJURGATE, PRODIGALITY, RETROACTIVE, SQUAT, TRANSACT, VARIEGATE, from Latin agere, to do, act, drive, conduct, lead, weigh. 2. -AGOGUE, AGONY; ANAGOGE, (ANTAGONIZE), CHORAGUS, DEMAGOGUE, EPACT, GLUCAGON, HYPNAGOGIC, MYSTAGOGUE, PEDAGOGUE, PROTAGONIST, STRATAGEM, SYNAGOGUE, from Greek agein, to drive, lead, weigh. 3. Suffixed form *ag-to-. AMBASSADOR, EMBASSAGE, (EMBASSY), from Latin ambactus, servant, from Celtic *amb(i)-ag-to-, one who goes around (*ambi, around; see ambhi). 4. Suffixed form *ag-ti-, whence adjective *ag-ty-o-, weighty. AXIOM; AXIOLOGY, CHRONAXIE, from Greek axios, worth, worthy, of like value, weighing as much.

5. Possibly suffixed form *ag-ro-, driving, pursuing, grabbing. PELLAGRA, PODAGRA, from Greek agra, a seizing. [Pokorny a- 4.] Derivative agro-.

aghImportant derivatives are: day, today, dawn. A day (considered as a span of time). a.
DAY; DAISY, TODAY,

from Old English dg, day;

b. LANDTAG, from Old High German tag, day; c. from Old English denominative dagian, to dawn. a, b, and c all from Germanic *dagaz (with initial d- of obscure origin), day.
DAWN,

[Pokorny agher- 7.]

agroImportant derivatives are: acre, pilgrim, agro-. Field. Probably a derivative of ag-, to drive. 1. 2. 3.
ACRE,

from Old English cer, field, acre, from Germanic *akraz.

AGRARIAN; AGRICULTURE, PEREGRINE, (PILGRIM),

from Latin ager (genitive agrX), earlier *agros, district, property, field.
AGRIA, AGRO-; (AGROSTOLOGY), ONAGER, STAVESACRE,

from Greek

agros, field, and agrios, wild. [In Pokorny a- 4.]

aisAn important derivative is: ask. To wish, desire. Suffixed form *ais-sk-. ASK, from Old English 7scian, 7csian, to ask, seek, from Germanic *aiskon.

[Pokorny 1. ais- 16.]

aiwImportant derivatives are: no1, ever, every, never, medieval, age, eternal, eon. Vital force, life, long life, eternity; also endowed with the acme of vital force, young. 1. a. b. c. d.
NO
1

, from Old English 7, ever;

1

, from Old English 7wiht, 7uht, anything, ever a creature;

AUGHT

from Old English <fre (second element obscure), ever;

EVER; EVERY, NEVER,

; NAY, from Old Norse ei, ever. a, c, and d all from extended form in Germanic *aiwi; b from Germanic *aiwi + *wihti, ever a thing, anything (*wihti-, thing; see wekti-).
AYE
2

2. a. Suffixed form *aiw-o-. COEVAL, LONGEVITY, MEDIEVAL, PRIMEVAL, from Latin aevum, age, eternity; b. suffixed form *aiwo-t7(ti)-. AGE; COETANEOUS, from Latin aet7s (stem aet7ti-), age; c. suffixed form *aiwo-t-erno-. ETERNAL; SEMPITERNAL, from Latin aeternus, eternal. 3. Suffixed form *aiw-en-. EON, from Greek aion, age, vital force. [Pokorny ai- 17.] See also *yuwen- under yeu-.

akImportant derivatives are: edge, acute, hammer, heaven, acrid, eager1, vinegar, acid, acme, acne, acro-, oxygen. Sharp. 1. Suffixed form *ak-y7-.

a. b.

from Old English ecg, sharp side, from Germanic *agjo; , from Old Norse eggja, to incite, goad, from Germanic *agjan.
EGG
2

EDGE,

2. Suffixed form *ak-u-. a. b. c. , from Old English hher, Kar, spike, ear of grain, from Germanic *ahuz-;
EAR
2

ACICULA, (ACUITY), ACUMEN, ACUTE, AGLET, EGLANTINE,

from

Latin acus, needle;

ACEROSE,

from Latin acus, chaff.

3. Suffixed form *ak-i-. ACIDANTHERA, from Greek akis, needle. 4. Suffixed form *ak-men-, stone, sharp stone used as a tool, with metathetic variant *ka-men-, with variants: a. *ka-mer-. HAMMER, from Old English hamor, hammer, from Germanic *hamaraz; b. *ke-men- (probable variant). HEAVEN, from Old English heofon, hefn, heaven, from Germanic *hibin-, the stony vault of heaven, dissimilated form of *himin-. 5. Suffixed form *ak-on7-, independently created in: a. b. from Old Norse gn, ear of grain, and Old English agen, ear of grain, from Germanic *agano, and
PARAGON, AWN,

from Greek akonK, whetstone.

6. Suffixed lengthened form *7k-ri-. ACERATE, ACRID, ACRIMONY, 1 EAGER ; CARVACROL, VINEGAR, from Latin 7cer, sharp, bitter. 7. Suffixed form *ak-ri-bhwo-. ACERBIC, EXACERBATE, from Latin acerbus, bitter, sharp, tart. 8. Suffixed (stative) form *ak-K-. ACID, from Latin acKre, to be sharp. 9. Suffixed form *ak-Kto-. (ACETABULUM), (ACETIC), ACETUM; ESTER, from Latin acKtum, vinegar.

10. Suffixed form *ak-m7-. ACME, (ACNE), from Greek akmK, point. 11. Suffixed form *ak-ro-. ACRO-; (ACROBAT), ACROMION, from Greek akros, topmost. 12. Suffixed o-grade form *ok-ri-. MEDIOCRE, from Latin ocris, rugged mountain. 13. Suffixed o-grade form *ok-su-. AMPHIOXUS, OXALIS, OXYGEN, OXYURIASIS, PAROXYSM, from Greek oxus, sharp, sour. [Pokorny 2. a- 18, 3. em- 556.]

akw-7Important derivatives are: island, aquatic, ewer, sewer1. Water. 1. 2.

ISLAND,

from Old English Xg, Xeg, island, from Germanic *aujo, thing on the water, from *agwjo.
1

AQUA, AQUARELLE, AQUARIUM, AQUATIC, AQUI-, EWER, GOUACHE; SEWER

from Latin aqua, water. [Pokorny ak7- 23.]

al-1 Important derivatives are: alarm, alert, ultimate, ultra-, alternate, adulterate, other, else, alien, alibi, parallel. Beyond. 1. Variant *ol-, beyond. a. Suffixed forms *ol-se-, *ol-so-. ALARM, ALERT, ALLIGATOR, EL NIO, VOIL, from Latin ille (feminine illa, neuter illud), yonder, that, from Old Latin ollus; b. suffixed forms *ol-s, *ol-tero-. OUTR, ULTERIOR, ULTIMATE, 2 ULTRA-, UTTERANCE , from Latin uls, *ulter, ultr7, beyond. 2. Suffixed form *al-tero-, other of two. a.
ALTER, ALTERCATE, ALTERNATE, ALTRUISM; SUBALTERN,

from

Latin alter, other, other of two; b. from Latin adulter7re, to commit adultery with, pollute, probably from the phrase ad alterum, (approaching) another (unlawfully) (ad-, to; see ad-);
ADULTERATE, (ADULTERINE), (ADULTERY),

c. variant suffixed form *an-tero-, other (of two). OTHER, from Old English other, other, from Germanic *antharaz. 3. Extended form *alyo-, other of more than two. a. b. c. from Old English el-, elles, else, otherwise, from Germanic *aljaz (with adverbial suffix);
ALIAS, ALIEN; ALIBI, ALIQUOT, HIDALGO, ELSE; ELDRITCH,

from Latin alius,

other of more than two;

ALLO-; ALLEGORY, ALLELOMORPH, ALLELOPATHY, MORPHALLAXIS, PARALLAX, PARALLEL, TROPHALLAXIS,

from Greek allos, other.

[Pokorny 1. al- 24, 2. an- 37.]

al-2 Important derivatives are: old, elder1, haughty, altitude, enhance, exalt, adolescent, alumnus, coalesce, prolific. To grow, nourish. I. Suffixed (participial) form *al-to-, grown. a. b. c.
ALDERMAN, OLD, ELDER
1

from Old English eald, ald, old;

, from Old English (comparative) ieldra, eldra, older, elder; from Old English (superlative) ieldesta, eldesta,

ELDEST,

eldest; d. (see wX-ro-) Germanic compound *wer-ald-, life or age of man. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *alda-. 2.
ALT, ALTO, HAUGHTY, HAWSER; ALTIMETER, ALTIPLANO, ALTITUDE, ALTOCUMULUS, ALTOSTRATUS, ENHANCE, EXALT, (HAUTBOY),

from Latin

altus, high, deep. II.

ADOLESCENT, (ADULT), ALIBLE, ALIMENT, ALIMONY, ALTRICIAL, ALUMNUS; COALESCE,

from Latin alere, to nourish. III. Suffixed (causative) form *ol-eye-. ABOLISH, from Latin abolKre, to retard the growth of, abolish (ab-, from; see apo-). IV. Compound form *pro-al- (pro-, forth; see per1). PROLAN, PROLETARIAN, PROLIFEROUS, PROLIFIC, from Latin prolKs, offspring. V. Extended form *aldh-. ALTHEA, from Greek althein, althainein, to get well. [Pokorny 2. al-26.]

al-3 Important derivatives are: all, also. All. Germanic and Celtic root. 1. Suffixed form *al-na-. ALL; ALSO, from Old English all, eall, eal-, al-, all, from Germanic *allaz. 2. (see man-1) Germanic prefix *ala-, all, in *Ala-manniz, all men.

albhoImportant derivatives are: elf, oaf, albino, album, auburn, daub. White. a. b.
ELF, OAF,

from Old English lf, elf; from Old Norse alfr, elf;

c. OBERON, from Old French Auberon, from a source akin to Old High German Alberich. a, b, and c all possibly from Germanic *albiz, *albaz, if meaning white ghostly apparitions. 1. from Old English -elfen, elf, possibly from Germanic *albinjo.
ELFIN,

2.

ABELE, ALB, ALBEDO, ALBESCENT, ALBINO, ALBITE, ALBUM, ALBUMEN, AUBADE, AUBURN; DAUB,

from Latin albus, white.

[Pokorny albho- 30.]

aluAn important derivative is: ale. In words related to sorcery, magic, possession, and intoxication. Suffixed form *alu-t-. ALE, from Old English (e)alu, ale, from Germanic *aluth-. [Pokorny alu- 33.]

ambhi Important derivatives are: by1, be-, ambi-, amphi-. Also cbhiAround. Probably derived from ant-bhi. See ant-. 1. Reduced form *bhi. a. b. c. d.
BY
1

; ABAFT, BUT, from Old English bi, bX, be, by;

from Old English be-, on all sides, be-, also intensive prefix;
BELEAGUER, BIVOUAC,

BE-,

from Middle Dutch bie, by;

from Old High German bi, by, at. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *bi, *bi- (intensive prefix).

a. EMBER DAY, from Old English ymbe, around; b. c. a.

OMBUDSMAN, UMLAUT,

from Old Norse um(b), about, around;

from Old High German umbi, around. a, b, and c all from Germanic *umbi.
AMBI-,

from Latin ambi-, around, about;

b. (ALLEY1); AMBULATE, FUNAMBULIST, (PREAMBLE), from Latin amb-, around, about, in ambul7re, to go about, walk

(*al7re, to go). 2.
AMPHI-,

from Greek amphi, around, about.

3. (see ag-) Celtic *ambi. [Pokorny ambhi 34.]

anImportant derivatives are: on, acknowledge, alike, aloft, onslaught, ana-. On. Extended form *ana. a. b. c. d. 1.
ANA
2

ON; (ACKNOWLEDGE), ALIKE,

from Old English an, on, a, on,

and prefixed on-;

ALOFT, AMISS,

from Old Norse 7, in, on; from Old High German ana-, on;

ANLAGE, ANSCHLUSS, ONSLAUGHT,

from Middle Dutch aen, on. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *ana, *ano.

, ANA-, from Greek ana, on, up, at the rate of.

[Pokorny 4. an 39.]

anNImportant derivatives are: anima, animal, animus, equanimity, unanimous. To breathe. Suffixed form *anN-mo-. a.
ANIMA, ANIMADVERT, ANIMAL, ANIMATE, (ANIMATO), ANIMISM, ANIMOSITY, ANIMUS; EQUANIMITY, LONGANIMITY, MAGNANIMOUS, PUSILLANIMOUS, UNANIMOUS,

from Latin animus, reason, mind, spirit, and anima, soul, spirit, life, breath; from Greek anemos, wind.

b. [Pokorny 3. an(N)- 38.]

ANEMO-,

anghImportant derivatives are: anger, anxious, anguish, angina. Tight, painfully constricted, painful. 1. from Old English ang-ngl, painful spike (in the flesh), corn, excrescence (ngl, spike; see nogh-), from Germanic *ang-, compressed, hard, painful.
AGNAIL, (HANGNAIL),

2. Suffixed form *angh-os-. ANGER, from Old Norse angr, sorrow, grief, from Germanic *angaz. 3. Suffixed form *angh-os-ti-. ANGST1, from Old High German angust, anxiety, from Germanic *angusti-. 4.
ANXIOUS,

from Latin angere, to strangle, torment.

5. Suffixed form *angh-os-to-. ANGUISH, from Latin angustus, narrow. 6. 7.

QUINSY, ANGINA,

from Greek ankhein, to squeeze, embrace. from Greek ankhonK, a strangling.

[Pokorny anh- 42.]

ansuImportant derivatives are: Aesir, Ormazd. Spirit, demon. 1. AESIR, from Old Norse 7ss, god, from Germanic *ansu-. 2. Suffixed reduced form *isu-ro-. AHURA MAZDA, (ORMAZD), from Avestan ahura-, spirit, lord. [Pokorny ansu- 48.]

antImportant derivatives are: along, end, ante-, advance, anti-, antic, antique, until. Front, forehead. I. Inflected form (locative singular) *anti, against, with derivatives

meaning in front of, before; also end. 1. 2. 3. 4. ; ALONG, from Old English and-, indicating opposition, from Germanic *andi- and *anda-.
UN2

END,

from Old English ende, end, from Germanic *andja-.

1

, ANTE, ANTE-, ANTERIOR; ADVANCE, from Latin ante, before, in front of, against.
ANCIENT ANTI-; ENANTIOMER, ENANTIOMORPH,

from Greek anti, against, and

enantios, opposite. 5. Compound form *anti-Nkwo-, appearing before, having prior aspect (*Nkw-, appearance; see okw-). ANTIC, ANTIQUE, from Latin antXquus, former, antique. 6. Reduced form *iti-. a. b.
UNTIL, ELOPE,

from Old Norse und, until, unto;

from Middle Dutch ont-, away from. Both a and b from Germanic *und-.

7. Variant form *anto-. VEDANTA, from Sanskrit antaU, end. II. Probable inflected form (ablative plural) *antbhi, from both sides, whence *ambhi. See ambhi-. [Pokorny ant-s 48.]

apoImportant derivatives are: of, off, ebb, apo-, after, post-, deposit, dispose, impose, oppose, position, positive, post2, post3, suppose. Also ap-Off, away. a. b. c. d.
OF, OFF, OFFAL, EBB,

from Old English of, f, off;

from Old English ebba, low tide; from Old High German aba, off, away from;

ABLAUT,

AFT; ABAFT,

from Old English ftan, behind, from Germanic *aftan-. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *af.

1. 2.

AB-

, from Latin ab, ab-, away from. from Greek apo, away from, from.

APO-,

3. Suffixed (comparative) form *ap(o)-tero-. AFTER, from Old English fter, after, behind, from Germanic *aftar-. 4. Suffixed form *ap-t-is-. EFTSOONS, from Old English eft, again, from Germanic *aftiz. 5. Suffixed form *apu-ko-. AWKWARD, from Old Norse fugr, turned backward, from Germanic *afug-. 6. Possible variant root form *po(s), on, in. a. b. c.
POGROM,

from Russian po, at, by, next to;

POST-, POSTERIOR; (POSTMORTEM), PREPOSTEROUS, PUISNE,

(PUNY), from Latin post, behind, back, afterward;

APPOSITE, (APPOSITION), COMPONENT, (COMPOSE), (COMPOSITE),

(COMPOSITION), (COMPOUND), CONTRAPPOSTO, DEPONE, DEPOSIT, DISPOSE, EXPOUND, IMPOSE, INTERPOSE, OPPOSE, POSITION, 2 3 POSITIVE, POST , POST , POSTICHE, POSTURE, PREPOSITION, PROPOSE, PROVOST, REPOSIT, SUPPOSE, TRANSPOSE, from Latin ponere, to put, place, from *po-sinere (sinere, to leave, let; of obscure origin). [Pokorny apo- 53.]

arImportant derivatives are: arm1, arm2, army, alarm, disarm, harmony, art1, artist, inert, article, aristocracy, order, ordinary, ornate, adorn, rate1, ratio, reason, read, hatred, riddle2, rite, arithmetic, rhyme. Also arN-To fit together. I. Basic form *arN-. 1. Suffixed form *ar(N)-mo-. a. b. , from Old English earm, arm, from Germanic *armaz;
ARM
1

ARM

, (ARMADA), ARMADILLO, ARMATURE, ARMOIRE, ARMY;

ALARM, DISARM,

from Latin arma, tools, arms; from Latin armus, upper arm.

c.

ARMILLARY SPHERE,

2. Suffixed form *ar(N)-smo-. HARMONY, from Greek harmos, joint, shoulder. 3. Suffixed form *ar(N)-ti-. a. , ARTISAN, ARTIST; INERT, (INERTIA), from Latin ars (stem art-), art, skill, craft;
ART
1

b. further suffixed form *ar(N)-ti-o-. ARTIODACTYL, from Greek artios, fitting, even. 4. Suffixed form *ar(N)-tu-. ARTICLE, from Latin artus, joint. 5. Suffixed form *ar(N)-to-. COARCTATE, from Latin artus, tight. 6. Suffixed form *ar(N)-dhro-. ARTHRO-; ANARTHROUS, DIARTHROSIS, ENARTHROSIS, SYNARTHROSIS, from Greek arthron, joint. 7. Suffixed (superlative) form *ar(N)-isto-. ARISTOCRACY, from Greek aristos, best. II. Possibly suffixed variant form (or separate root) *or-dh-. 1.
ORDAIN, ORDER, ORDINAL, ORDINANCE, ORDINARY, ORDINATE, ORDO;

from Latin ordo, order (originally a row of threads in a loom).

COORDINATION, INORDINATE, SUBORDINATE,

2. 3.

EXORDIUM, PRIMORDIAL,

from Latin ordXrX, to begin to weave. from Latin orn7re, to adorn.

ORNAMENT, ORNATE; ADORN, SUBORN,

III. Variant or separate root *rK- (< *reN-). 1. , RATIO, REASON; (ARRAIGN), from Latin rKrX, to consider, confirm, ratify.
RATE
1

2. Suffixed form *rK-dh-. i. ii.

READ, REDE,

from Old English r<dan, to advise;

HATRED, KINDRED,

from Old English r<den, condition. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *rKdan;

i. ii.

RATHSKELLER,

from Old High German r7t,

counsel; , from Old English r<dels(e), opinion, riddle. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *rKdaz.
RIDDLE
2

3. Zero-grade form *rN-. (see dekc) Germanic *radam, number. IV. Variant (or separate root) *rX-. 1. Suffixed form *rX-tu-. RITE, from Latin rXtus, rite, custom, usage. 2. Suffixed form *(a)rX-dhmo-. ARITHMETIC, LOGARITHM, from Greek arithmos, number, amount. 3.
RHYME,

from a Germanic source akin to Old High German rXm, number, series.

[Pokorny 1. ar- 55.]

argAn important derivative is: argue. To shine; white; the shining or white metal, silver. 1. Suffixed form *arg-ent-. ARGENT, ARGENTINE, from Latin argentum, silver. 2. Suffixed form *arg-i-l(l)-. ARGIL, from Greek argillos, white clay. 3. Suffixed form *arg-u-ro-. LITHARGE, (PYRARGYRITE), from Greek arguros, silver. 4. Suffixed form *arg-i-n-. ARGININE, from Greek arginoeis, brilliant, bright-shining. 5. Extended form *argu-, brilliance, clarity, ARGUE, from Latin denominative arguere, to make clear, demonstrate. 6. Suffixed form *arg-ro-. a. (see pel-1). Greek argos (< *argros), white; b. [Pokorny ar(e)- 64.]
AGRIMONY,

possibly from Greek argos, white.

asImportant derivatives are: ash1, arid, ardent, arson, azalea. To burn, glow. 1. Extended form *asg-. ASH1, from Old English sce, asce, ash, from Germanic *askon-. 2. Suffixed form *7s-7-. ARA, from Latin 7ra, altar, hearth. 3. Suffixed (stative) form *7s-K-. a. b.
ARID,

from Latin 7ridus, dry, parched, from 7rKre, to be

dry; from Latin 7rdKre, to burn, be on fire, from 7ridus, parched.

ARDENT, ARDOR, ARSON,

4. Extended form *asd-. a. b. [Pokorny as- 68.]

ZAMIA,

from Greek azein, to dry; from Greek azaleos, dry.

AZALEA,

atImportant derivatives are: annual, anniversary, millennium, perennial. To go; with Germanic and Latin derivatives meaning a year (conceived as the period gone through, the revolving year). Suffixed form *at-no-. ANNALS, ANNUAL, ANNUITY; ANNIVERSARY, BIENNIUM, DECENNIUM, MILLENNIUM, PERENNIAL, QUADRENNIUM, QUINDECENNIAL, QUINQUENNIUM, SEPTENNIAL, SEXENNIAL, SUPERANNUATED, TRIENNIUM, VICENNIAL, from Latin annus, year. [Pokorny at- 69.]

7terImportant derivatives are: atrium, atrocious. Fire.

1. Suffixed zero-grade form *7tr-o-. ATRABILIOUS, from Latin 7ter (feminine 7tra), black ( 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *7tr-yo-. ATRIUM, from Latin 7trium, forecourt, hall, atrium (perhaps originally the place where the smoke from the hearth escaped through a hole in the roof). 3. Compound shortened zero-grade form *atro-Nkw- (*Nkw-, looking; see okw-). ATROCIOUS, from Latin 8trox, blacklooking, frightful. [Pokorny 7t(e)r- 69.]

auImportant derivatives are: audible, audience, audio-, audit, auditorium, obey, aesthetic, anesthesia. To perceive. Compound forms *aw-dh-, *awis-dh-, to place perception (see dhK-). 1. Suffixed form *awisdh-yo- or *awdh-yo-. AUDIBLE, AUDIENCE, AUDILE, AUDIO-, AUDIT, AUDITION, AUDITOR, AUDITORIUM, AUDITORY, OYEZ; OBEY, SUBAUDITION, from Latin audXre, to hear. 2.
AESTHETIC; ANESTHESIA,

from Greek aisthanesthai, to feel.

[Pokorny 8. a- 78.]

augImportant derivatives are: nickname, wax2, auction, augment, author, inaugurate, auxiliary.. To increase. Variant *(a)weg- (< *Nweg-). 1.
EKE
1

, from Old English Kacan, Kcan, to increase; a.

NICKNAME,

from Old English Kaca, an addition. Both a and b from Germanic *aukan.

2. Variant extended forms *wogs-, *wegs-. a.

WAX
2

, from Old English weaxan, to grow, from

Germanic *wahsan; b. from Old English *wst, growth, hence perhaps waist, size, from Germanic *wahs-tu-.
WAIST,

3. Form *aug-K-. AUCTION, AUGEND, AUGMENT, AUTHOR, (AUTHORIZE), (OCTROI), from Latin augKre, to increase. 4. 5.
AUGUR; INAUGURATE, AUGUST,

from Latin augur, diviner (

from Latin augustus, majestic, august.

6. Suffixed form *aug-s-. a. b. [Pokorny aeg- 84.]

AUXILIARY,

from Latin auxilium, aid, support, assistance; from Greek auxein, auxanein, to increase.

AUXIN, AUXESIS

ausImportant derivatives are: east, Easter, aurora. To shine. a. b. a.

EAST,

from Old English Kast, east (

OSTMARK,

from Old High German ostan, east. Both a and b from Germanic *aust-.
EASTERN,

from Old English Kasterne, eastern;

b. OSTROGOTH, from Late Latin ostro-, eastern. Both a and b from Germanic *austra-. 1. EASTER, from Old English Kastre, Easter, from Germanic *austron-, a dawn-goddess whose holiday was celebrated at the vernal equinox. 2. Possibly in AUSTRO-1, from Latin auster, the south wind, formally identical to the Germanic forms in 2 and 3, but the semantics are unclear. 3. Probably suffixed form *ausos-, dawn, also Indo-European goddess of the dawn.

a. b. [Pokorny aes- 86.]

AURORA, EO-,

from Latin aurora, dawn;

EOS; EOSIN, from Greek Kos, dawn.

awiImportant derivatives are: aviation, bustard, osprey, ostrich, auspice, cockney, oval, ovary, ovum, caviar. Bird. 1.
AVIAN, AVIARY, AVIATION; AVICULTURE, AVIFAUNA, BUSTARD, OCARINA, OSPREY, OSTRICH,

from Latin avis, bird.

2. Compound *awi-spek-, observer of birds (*spek-, to see; see spek-). AUSPICE, from Latin auspex, augur. II. Possible derivatives are the Indo-European words for egg, *owyo-, *Nyo-. a. b. 2. 3. 4.
COCKNEY, EGG
1

from Old English <g, egg;

, from Old Norse egg, egg. Both a and b from Germanic *ajja(m). from Latin ovum,

OVAL, OVARY, OVATE, OVI-, OVOLO, OVULE, OVUM,

egg.
OO-,

from Greek oion, egg.

CAVIAR,

from a source akin to Middle Persian kh7yak, egg, from Old Iranian *7vyaka-, diminutive of *avya-.

[Pokorny aei- 86.]

awoImportant derivatives are: avuncular, uncle. An adult male relative other than one's father. 1. 2.
ATAVISM,

from Latin avus, grandfather. from Latin avunculus, maternal uncle.

AVUNCULAR, UNCLE,

3.

AYAH,

from Latin avia, grandmother.

[Pokorny ao-s 89.]

ayerImportant derivatives are: early, ere. Day, morning. a. b. 1.

ERST, EARLY, ERE, OR OR
2 2

, from Old English <r, before;

, from Old Norse 7r, before. Both a and b from Germanic *airiz.

from Old English <rest, earliest, from Germanic (superlative) *airistaz.

[Pokorny aer- 12.]

ayesAn important derivative is: era. A metal, copper or bronze.

AENEOUS, ERA,

from Latin aes, bronze, money.

[Pokorny aos- 15.]

bakImportant derivatives are: imbecile, bacterium. Staff used for support. 3. 4. ), (BAILEY); BACULIFORM, DEBACLE, IMBECILE, possibly from Latin baculum, rod, walking stick.
4

BACILLUS, BAGUETTE, (BAIL

BACTERIUM; (CORYNEBACTERIUM),

from Greek baktron, staff.

[Pokorny bak- 93.]

belDerivatives are: Bolshevik, debilitate.

Strong. 6. Suffixed o-grade form *bol-iyo-. BOLSHEVIK, from Russian bol'shoV, large. 7. Prefixed form *dK-bel-i-, without strength (dK-, privative prefix; see de-). DEBILITATE, DEBILITY, from Latin dKbilis, weak. [Pokorny 2. bel- 96.]

bh7-1 Important derivatives are: beacon, beckon, berry, banner, photo-, fantasy, phase. To shine. Contracted from *bhaN-. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhN-w-. a. b. c. d. e.
BEACON, BECKON,

from Old English bKac(e)n, beacon;

from Old English denominative bKcnan, bKcnian, to make a sign, beckon;

BUOY,

from Old French boue, buoy. a, b, and c all from Germanic *baukna-, beacon, signal.
BERRY; MULBERRY,

from Old English berie, berige, berry, and Old High German beri, berry;

from Old French framboise, raspberry, alteration of Frankish *br7m-besi, bramble berry. Both a and b from Germanic *bazja-, berry (bh7-1.
BANDOLEER,

FRAMBESIA,

f. g.

from Spanish banda, sash;

1

), (BANNERET2), from Late Latin bandum, banner, standard. Both a and b from Germanic *bandwa-, identifying sign, banner, standard, sash, also company united under a (particular) banner.

BANNER, (BANNERET

2. Suffixed form *bhN-w-es-. PHOS-, PHOT, PHOTO-; PHOSPHORUS, from Greek phos (stem phot-), light.

3. Extended and suffixed form *bhN-n-yo-. FANTASY, (PANT), -PHANE, PHANTASM, (PHANTOM), PHASE, PHENO-, PHENOMENON; DIAPHANOUS, EMPHASIS, EPIPHANY, HIEROPHANT, PHANEROGAM, (PHANTASMAGORIA), PHOSPHENE, SYCOPHANT, THEOPHANY, (TIFFANY), from Greek phainein, to bring to light, cause to appear, show, and phainesthai (passive), to be brought to light, appear, with zero-grade noun phasis (*bhN-ti-), an appearance. [Pokorny 1. bh7- 104.]

bh7-2 Important derivatives are: fable, fate, infant, preface, prophet, abandon, banish, bandit, fame, phono-, symphony, confess, blame. To speak. Contracted from *bhaN-. 4.
FABLE, FATE; AFFABLE, (FANTOCCINI), INEFFABLE, INFANT, (INFANTRY), PREFACE,

from Latin f7rX, to speak.

5. -PHASIA; APOPHASIS, PROPHET, from Greek phanai, to speak. a. b. , from Old English bannan, to summon, proclaim, and Old Norse banna, to prohibit, curse;
BAN
1

BANAL, BANNS; ABANDON,

from Old French ban, feudal jurisdiction, summons to military service, proclamation, Old French bandon, power, and Old English gebann, proclamation; from Old French banir, to banish;

c. d. e.

BANISH,

from Late Latin bannus, bannum, proclamation; from Italian bandire, to muster, band together (a, b, c, d, and e all from Germanic suffixed form *ban-wan, *bannan, to speak publicly (used of particular kinds of proclamation in feudal or prefeudal custom; to proclaim under penalty, summon to the levy, declare outlaw).
BANDIT,

CONTRABAND,

6. Suffixed form *bh7-ni-.

a. b.

BOON BEE
1

, from Old Norse bon, prayer, request;

, perhaps from Old English bKn, prayer, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse bon, prayer. Both a and b from Germanic *boni-.

7. Suffixed form *bh7-ma. a. b.

FAME, FAMOUS; DEFAME, INFAMOUS,

from Latin f7ma, talk,

reputation, fame;
EUPHEMISM,

from Greek phKmK, saying, speech.

8. Suffixed o-grade form *bho-n7. PHONE2, -PHONE, PHONEME, PHONETIC, PHONO-, -PHONY; ANTHEM, (ANTIPHON), APHONIA, CACOPHONOUS, EUPHONY, SYMPHONY, from Greek phonK, voice, sound, and (denominative) phonein, to speak. 9. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhN-to-. CONFESS, PROFESS, from Latin fatKrX, to acknowledge, admit. 10. (BLAME), BLASPHEME, from Greek blasphKmos, evil-speaking, blasphemous (first element obscure). [Pokorny 2. bh7- 105.]

bha-bh7An important derivative is: bean. Broad bean. 4.

FAVA BEAN,

from Latin faba, broad bean.

5. Variant form *bha-un-. BEAN, from Old English bKan, broad bean, bean of any kind, from Germanic *bauno. 6. Possible suffixed form *bha-ko-. PHACOEMULSIFICATION, from Greek phakos, lentil. [Pokorny bhabh7 106.]

bhadImportant derivatives are: better, best.

Good. 14. 15. 16. 17.

BETTER,

from Old English betera, better, from Germanic (comparative) *batizo. from Old English bet(e)st, best, from Germanic (superlative) *batistaz.
BOOT
2

BEST,

, from Old English bot, remedy, aid, from Germanic noun *boto.
BATTEN

, ultimately from Old Norse batna, to improve, from Germanic verb *batnan, to become better.
1

[Pokorny bh7d- 106.]

bhagDerivatives are: phago-, -phagous. To share out, apportion, also to get a share. 3. -PHAGE, -PHAGIA, PHAGO-, -PHAGOUS, from Greek phagein, to eat ( 4.
NEBBISH,

from a Slavic source akin to Czech neboh, poor, unfortunate, from Common Slavic *ne-bog, poor (unendowed).
PAGODA;

5.

BHAGAVAD-GITA, from Sanskrit bhagaU, good fortune.

6. Extended form *bhags-. BAKSHEESH, (BUCKSHEE), from Persian bakhshXdan, to give, from Avestan bakhsh-. [Pokorny 1. bhag- 107.]

bh7ghuAn important derivative is: bough. Arm.

BOUGH,

from Old English bog, boh, bough, from Germanic *boguz.

[Pokorny bh7gh-s 108.]

bh7goImportant derivatives are: book, buckwheat, beech. Beech tree. d. e. f. from Old English boc, written document, composition;
BUCKWHEAT, BOKML, BOOK,

from Middle Dutch boek, beech;

from Norwegian bok, book. a, b, and c all from Germanic *boko, beech, also beech staff for carving runes on (an early Germanic writing device).

4.

BEECH,

from Old English bKce, beech, from Germanic *bokjon-.

[Pokorny bh7go-s 107.]

bhardh-7Important derivatives are: beard, barb1, barber. Beard. 1. 2. 3.

BEARD,

from Old English beard, beard, from Germanic *bardaz.

HALBERD,

from Old High German barta, beard, ax, from Germanic *bardo, beard, also hatchet, broadax.
1

, BARBEL1, BARBELLATE, BARBER, (BARBETTE), BARBICEL, BARBULE; REBARBATIVE, from Latin barba, beard.
BARB

[Pokorny bhardh7 110.]

bharesImportant derivatives are: barley, barn, farina. Also bhars-Barley. a. b. 3. from Old English bere, barley, from Germanic *bariz-; from Old English brlic, barley-like, barley, from Germanic *barz-. from Latin far
BARLEY, BARN,

FARINA, (FARINACEOUS), (FARRAGINOUS), FARRAGO,

(stem farr-), spelt, grain.

[Pokorny bhares- 111.]

bhauImportant derivatives are: beat, buttock, halibut, butt1, button, refute. To strike. Contracted from *bhaNu3. 4. 5. 6. from Old English bKatan, to beat, from Germanic *bautan. , from Old English btl, hammer, mallet, from Germanic *bautilaz, hammer.
BEETLE
3

BEAT,

, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse beysta, to beat, denominative from Germanic *baut-sti-.
BASTE
3

from Old English diminutive buttuc, end, strip of land, from Germanic *b7taz. a. b.
HALIBUT, TURBOT,

BUTTOCK,

from Middle Dutch butte, flatfish;

from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Swedish but, flatfish. Both a and b from Germanic *butt-, name for a flatfish.

7. (BOUTON), BUTT1, BUTTON, BUTTRESS; ABUT, REBUT, SACKBUT, from Old French bo(u)ter, to strike, push, from Germanic *buttan. 8. Zero-grade form *bh7- (*bhuN-) with verbal suffix -t7-. a. b.
CONFUTE,

from Latin conf7t7re, to check, suppress, restrain (com-, intensive prefix; see kom);
REFUTE,

from Latin ref7t7re, to drive back, rebut (re-, back; see re-).

9. Possibly reduced suffixed form *bhu-tu- (*bhNu-). FOOTLE, from Latin futuere, to have intercourse with (a woman). [Pokorny 1. bhau- 112.]

bhegw-

Derivatives are: -phobe, -phobia. To run. 4. , from Old Norse bekkr, a stream, from Germanic *bakjaz, a stream.
BECK
2

5. -PHOBE, -PHOBIA, from Greek phobos, panic, flight, fear, from phebesthai, to flee in terror. [Pokorny bheg- 116.]

bheiAn important derivative is: bee1. A bee.

BEE
1

, from Old English bKo, a bee, from Germanic suffixed form *bXon-.

[Pokorny bhei- 116.]

bheidImportant derivatives are: beetle1, bite, bit1, bitter, bait1, boat, fission. To split; with Germanic derivatives referring to biting (hence also to eating and to hunting) and woodworking. a. b.
BEETLE
1

, BITE, from Old English bXtan, to bite;

TSIMMES,

from Old High German bXzan, bizzan, to bite. Both a and b from Germanic *bXtan.

2. Zero-grade form *bhid-. a.

BIT

, from Old English bite, a bite, sting, from Germanic *bitiz;

2

b. (i) BIT1, from Old English bita, a piece bitten off, morsel; (ii) BITT, from a Germanic source akin to Old Norse biti, bit, crossbeam. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *biton-; c. suffixed form *bhid-ro-. BITTER, from Old English bit(t)er, biting, sharp, bitter. 3. O-grade form *bhoid-.

a. b. 4.

, from Old Norse beita (verb), to hunt with dogs, and beita (noun), pasture, food;
BAIT
1

from Old French beter, to harass with dogs. Both a and b from Germanic *baitjan. from Old English b7t, boat, from

ABET,

BATEAU, BOAT; (BOATSWAIN),

Germanic *bait-, a boat ( 5. Nasalized zero-grade form *bhi-n-d-. -FID, FISSI-, (FISSILE), (FISSION), (FISSURE), from Latin findere, to split. [Pokorny bheid- 116.]

bheidhImportant derivatives are: bide, abide, fianc, affidavit, confide, confident, defy, federal, faith, fidelity, infidel. To trust, confide, persuade. 1. 2. from Old English bXdan, to wait, stay, from Germanic *bXdan, to await (bheidh-.
FIANC, FIDUCIAL, (FIDUCIARY); AFFIANCE, (AFFIANT), (AFFIDAVIT), BIDE; ABIDE, (ABODE),

(CONFIDANT), CONFIDE, (CONFIDENT), (DEFIANCE), DEFY, DIFFIDENT, from Latin fXdere, to trust, confide, and fXdus, faithful. 3. Suffixed o-grade form *bhoidh-es-. FEDERAL, FEDERATE; CONFEDERATE, from Latin foedus (stem foeder-), treaty, league. 4. Zero-grade form *bhidh-. FAITH, FEALTY, FIDELITY; INFIDEL, PERFIDY, from Latin fidKs, faith, trust. [Pokorny bheidh- 117.]

bhel-1 Important derivatives are: blue, bleach, bleak1, blaze1, blemish, blind, blend, blond, blank, blanket, blush, black, flagrant, flame. To shine, flash, burn; shining white and various bright colors. 1. 2.
BELUGA,

from Russian belyV, white. from Greek phalaros, having a white spot.

PHALAROPE,

3. Suffixed variant form *bhlK-wo-. BLUE, from Old French bleu, blue, from Germanic *blKwaz, blue. 4. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhlN-wo-. FLAVESCENT, FLAVO-; (FLAVIN), (FLAVONE), (FLAVOPROTEIN), from Latin fl7vus, golden or reddish yellow. II. Various extended Germanic forms. 1. 2. 3. from Old English bl<can, to bleach, from Germanic *blaikjan, to make white. , from Old Norse bleikr, shining, white, from Germanic *blaikaz, shining, white.
BLEAK
1

BLEACH,

from Old High German blcchazzen, to flash, lighten, from Germanic *blikkatjan. a. b. c. d. e. f. g.
BLAZE
1

BLITZKRIEG,

, from Old English blse, torch, bright fire; from Middle Dutch bles, white spot;

BLESBOK, BLEMISH,

from Old French ble(s)mir, to make pale. a, b, and c all from Germanic *blas-, shining, white. from Old English blind,

BLIND; (BLINDFOLD), (PURBLIND),

blind; from Old High German blentan, to blind, deceive;

BLEND, BLOND, BLENDE,

from Old Norse blanda, to mix;

from Old French blond, blond. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *blendaz, clouded, and *bland-, *blandja-, to mix, mingle (
1

h. i.

BLENCH

, from Old English blencan, to deceive;

from Old French blanc, white. Both a and b from Germanic *blenk-, *blank-, to shine, dazzle, blind.

BLANCH, BLANK, BLANKET; BLANCMANGE,

4.

from Old English blyscan, to glow red, from Germanic *blisk-, to shine, burn.

BLUSH,

III. Extended form *bhleg-, to shine, flash, burn. 1. O-grade form bhlog-. BLACK, from Old English blc, black, from Germanic *blakaz, burned. 2. Zero-grade form *bh_g-. a. b. c.
FULGENT, FULGURATE; EFFULGENT, FOUDROYANT, REFULGENT,

from Latin fulgKre, to flash, shine, and fulgur, lightning; from Latin fulmen (< *fulg-men), lightning, thunderbolt.
FLAGRANT; CONFLAGRANT, (CONFLAGRATION), DEFLAGRATE, FULMINATE,

from

Latin flagr7re, to blaze; d. (FLAMB), (FLAMBEAU), (FLAMBOYANT), FLAME, FLAMINGO, FLAMMABLE; INFLAME, from Latin flamma (< *flag-ma), a flame. 3.
PHLEGM, PHLEGMATIC,

PHLEGETHON, from Greek phlegein, to burn.

4. O-grade form *bhlog-. PHLOGISTON, PHLOX; PHLOGOPITE, from Greek phlox, a flame, also a wallflower. [Pokorny 1. bhel- 118, bheleg- 124, bhleu-(k)- 159.]

bhel-2 Important derivatives are: bowl1, bulk1, boulevard, boulder, bull1, phallus, ball1, balloon, ballot, bold, fool. To blow, swell; with derivatives referring to various round objects and to the notion of tumescent masculinity. 3. Zero-grade form bh_-. a. b. c. d.
BOWL BOLE, BULK,
1

, from Old English bolla, pot, bowl;

from Old Norse bolr, tree trunk; from Old Norse bulki, cargo ( from Old High German bolla, ball;

ROCAMBOLE,

e. (BOULEVARD), BULWARK, from Middle High German bole, beam, plank;

f. g. h.

BOLL,

from Middle Dutch bolle, round object; from Middle Dutch bille, buttock;

BILTONG, BOULDER,

from a Scandinavian source akin to Swedish bullersten, rounded stone, boulder, from *buller-, round object. a, b, c, d, e, f, g, and h all from Germanic *bul-.

4. Suffixed zero-grade form *bh_-n-. a. b. c. d. , from Old Norse boli, bull, from Germanic *bullon-, bull;
BULL
1

from Old English bulluc, bull, from Germanic *bulluka-;

PHALLUS; ITHYPHALLIC, FULL
2

BULLOCK,

from Greek phallos, phallus;

, from Latin fullo, a fuller, possibly from bhel-2.

5. O-grade form *bhol-. a. b. c. d. e. f.

BOLLIX, BALL
1

from Old English beallucas, testicles;

, from Old English *beall, ball;

BILBERRY,

probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Danish bolle, round roll;

BALLOON, BALLOT, (BALLOTTEMENT),

from Italian dialectal

balla, ball;
PALL-MALL, BALE
1

from Italian palla, ball;

, from Old French bale, rolled-up bundle. a, b, c, d, e, and f all from Germanic *ball-.

6. Possibly suffixed o-grade form *bhol-to-. a. b.

BOLD, BAWD,

from Old English bald, beald, bold;

from Old Low German bald, bold. Both a and b from Germanic *balthaz, bold.

7. Suffixed o-grade form *bhol-n-. FILS2, FOLLICLE, FOOL; (FOLLICULITIS), from Latin follis, bellows, inflated ball.

8. 9.

BALEEN,

from Greek phal(l)aina, whale, possibly from bhel-2.

2

PHELLEM; PHELLODERM, PHELLOGEN,

from Greek phellos, cork, cork oak, conceivably from bhel- (but more likely unrelated).

[Pokorny 3. bhel- 120. (The following derivatives of this root are entered separately: bhel-3, bhelgh-, bhleu-.)]

bhel-3 Important derivatives are: foliage, folio, bloom1, blossom, flora, flour, flourish, flower, bleed, blood, bless, blade. To thrive, bloom. Possibly from bhel-2. III. Suffixed o-grade form *bhol-yo-, leaf. 1. , (FOLIAGE), FOLIO, FOLIUM; (CINQUEFOIL), DEFOLIATE, EXFOLIATE, FEUILLETON, FOLIICOLOUS, MILFOIL, PERFOLIATE, PORTFOLIO, TREFOIL, from Latin folium, leaf.
FOIL
2

2. (-PHYLL), PHYLLO-, -PHYLLOUS; CHERVIL, GILLYFLOWER, PODOPHYLLIN, from Greek phullon, leaf. IV. Extended form *bhlK- (< *bhleN-). 1. O-grade form *bhlo-. a. suffixed form *bhlo-w-. BLOW3, from Old English blowan, to flower, from Germanic *blo-w-; i. ii.
BLOOM

, from Old Norse blom, blomi, flower, blossom;

1 2

, from Old English bloma, a hammered ingot of iron (semantic development obscure). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic suffixed form *blo-mon-;
BLOOM

b. c.

BLOSSOM,

from Old English blostm, blostma, flower, blossom, from Germanic suffixed form *blo-s-;
2

, (FLORA), FLORA, (FLORAL), FLORIATED, FLORID, FLORIN, FLORIST, -FLOROUS, (FLOUR), FLOURISH, FLOWER; (CAULIFLOWER), DEFLOWER, EFFLORESCE, ENFLEURAGE, FLORIGEN, from Latin flos (stem flor-), flower, from Italic suffixed form *flo-s-;
FERRET

d. suffixed form bhlo-to-; i. ii.

BLEED, BLOOD, BLESS,

from Old English blod, blood;

from Old English bloedsian, blKtsian, to consecrate, from Germanic *blodison, to treat or hallow with blood. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *blo-dam, possibly from bhel-3 in the meaning swell, gush, spurt.

2.

from Medieval Latin bl7dum, bladium, produce of the land, grain, from Germanic suffixed form *blK-da-.

EMBLEMENTS,

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhlN-to-. BLADE, from Old English bld, leaf, blade, from Germanic *bladaz. [Pokorny 4. bhel- 122.]

bhelghImportant derivatives are: bellows, belly, billow, budget, bulge. To swell. Extension of bhel-2. 7. O-grade form *bholgh-. BELLOWS, BELLY, from Old English bel(i)g, blig, bag, bellows, from Germanic *balgiz. 8. Zero-grade form *bh_gh-. BILLOW, from Old Norse bylgja, a wave, from Germanic *bulgjan. 9. Zero-grade form *bh_gh-. BOLSTER, from Old English bolster, cushion, from Germanic *bulgstraz. 10. O-grade form *bholgh-. BUDGET, BULGE, from Latin bulga, leather sack, from Celtic *bolg-. [Pokorny bhelgh- 125.]

bhendhImportant derivatives are: bind, bend1, band1, bond, bundle. To bind. a.

BIND; WOODBINE,

from Old English bindan, to bind;

b. 1.

BINDLESTIFF,

from Old High German binten, to bind. Both a and b from Germanic *bindan. from Sanskrit bandhati, he ties.

BANDANNA,

2. O-grade form *bhondh-. a. b. c. d. ; RIBBON, from Old English bend, band, and Old French bende, band;
BEND
2

BEND

, from Old English bendan, to bend; , BOND, from Old Norse band, band, fetter;

BAND BAND

, from Old French bande, bond, tie, link. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *band-.
1

3. Suffixed form *bhond-o-. BUND1; (CUMMERBUND), from Old Iranian banda-, bond, fetter. 4. Zero-grade form *bhidh-. a. b. [Pokorny bhendh- 127.]
BUND
2

, from Middle High German bunt, league;

BUNDLE,

from Middle Dutch bondel, sheaf of papers, bundle. Both a and b from Germanic *bund-.

bher-1 Important derivatives are: bear1, burden1, birth, bring, fertile, differ, offer, prefer, suffer, transfer, furtive, metaphor. To carry; also to bear children. i. ii.
BEAR
1

, from Old English beran, to carry;

1

, from Old English forberan, to bear, endure (for-, for-; see per1). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *beran;
FORBEAR

c. d.

from Old English bKr, b<r, bier, and Old French biere bier, both from Germanic *bKro;
BORE

BIER,

, from Old Norse b7ra, wave, billow, from Germanic *bKr-.

3

e. f. g. h. i. j.

from Old English bearn, child, from Germanic *barnam; , from Old English bearwe, basket, wheelbarrow, from Germanic *barwon-.
BARROW
1

BAIRN,

BURLY,

from Old English *borlic, excellent, exalted (*bur1

;
BURDEN

, from Old English byrthen, burden, from Germanic *burthinja;

from a source akin to Old Norse burdhr, birth, from Germanic *burthiz;
BIRR

BIRTH,

, from Old Norse byrr, favorable wind, perhaps from Germanic *burja-.
1

7. Compound root *bhrenk-, to bring (< *bher- + *enk-, to reach; see nek-2). BRING, from Old English bringan, to bring, from Germanic *brengan. 8. -FER, FERTILE; AFFERENT, CIRCUMFERENCE, CONFER, (DEFER1), DEFER2, DIFFER, EFFERENT, INFER, OFFER, PREFER, (PROFFER), REFER, SUFFER, TRANSFER, VOCIFERATE, from Latin ferre, to carry. 9. from Latin probrum, a reproach (< *pro-bhr-o-, something brought before one; pro-, before; see per1).
OPPROBRIUM,

10. Probably lengthened o-grade form *bhor-. FERRET1, FURTIVE, FURUNCLE; (FURUNCULOSIS), from Latin f7r, thief. 11.
FERETORY, -PHORE, -PHORESIS, -PHOROUS; AMPHORA, ANAPHORA, DIAPHORESIS, EUPHORIA, METAPHOR, PERIPHERY, PHEROMONE, TELPHER, TOCOPHEROL,

from Greek pherein, to carry, with o-grade noun phoros, a carrying. 12. 13.
PARAPHERNALIA,

from Greek phernK, dowry (something brought

by a bride).
SAMBAL,

from Sanskrit bharati, he carries, brings.

[Pokorny 1. bher- 128.]

bher-2 Important derivatives are: brown, burnish, beaver1, bear2. Bright, brown. 5. Suffixed variant form *bhr7-no-. a. b. c.
BROWN, BRUIN,

from Old English br7n, brown;

from Middle Dutch bruun;

BRUNET, BURNET, BURNISH,

from Old French brun, shining, brown. a, b, and c all from Germanic *br7naz.

6. Reduplicated form *bhibhru-, *bhebhru-, the brown animal, beaver. BEAVER1, from Old English be(o)for, beaver, from Germanic *bebruz. 7. 8. , from Old English bera, bear, from Germanic *bero, the brown animal, bear.
BEAR
2

BERSERKER,

from Old Norse bjrn, bear, from Germanic *bernuz.

[Pokorny 5. bher- 136.]

bherNgImportant derivatives are: bright, birch. To shine; bright, white. 4. from Old English beorht, bright, from Germanic *berhtaz, bright.
BRIGHT,

5. The white tree, the birch (also the ash). a.

BIRCH, (BIRK),

from Old English birc(e), birch, from Germanic *birkjon-;

b. probably suffixed zero-grade form *bhrag-s-. FRAXINELLA, from Latin fraxinus, ash tree. [Pokorny bherNg- 139.]

bhergh-1 Important derivatives are: bury, burial, borrow, bargain.

To hide, protect. a. (see kwel-1) Germanic compound *h(w)als-berg-, neck-protector, gorget (*h(w)alsaz, neck); b. (see sker-1) Germanic compound *skKr-berg-, swordprotector, scabbard (*skKr-, sword). Both a and b from Germanic *bergan. 3. Zero-grade form *bhygh-. a. b. c. d. [Pokorny bhergh- 145.] from Old English byrgan, to bury, from Germanic *burgjan; from Old English byrgels, burial, from Germanic derivative *burgisli-. from Old English borgian, to borrow, from Germanic *borgKn, to pledge, lend, borrow; from Old French bargaignier, to haggle, from Germanic derivative *borganjan.
BARGAIN, BORROW, BURIAL, BURY,

bhergh-2 Important derivatives are: iceberg, bourgeois, burglar, force, fort, comfort, effort, enforce, fortify. High; with derivatives referring to hills and hill-forts. c. d.
BARROW
2

, from Old English beorg, hill;

from Middle Dutch bergh, mountain. Both a and b from Germanic *bergaz, hill, mountain.

ICEBERG,

7. (see koro-) Germanic compound *harja-bergaz, army-hill, hill-fort (*harjaz, army). 8. from Old French berfroi, tower, from Germanic compound *berg-frij-, high place of safety, tower (*frij-, peace, safety; see prX-).
BELFRY,

9. Zero-grade form *bhygh-.

a. b. c. d.

BOROUGH, BURG,

from Old English burg, burh, byrig, (fortified) town;

BURGHER,

from Old High German burg, fortress; from Middle Dutch burch, town;

BURGOMASTER,

from Late Latin burgus, fortified place, and Old French burg, borough. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *burgs, hillfort.

BOURG, (BOURGEOIS), BURGESS, BURGLAR; FAUBOURG,

10. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *bhygh-to-. FORCE, FORT, (FORTALICE), FORTE1, FORTE2, FORTIS, (FORTISSIMO), FORTITUDE, FORTRESS; COMFORT, DEFORCE, EFFORT, (ENFORCE), FORTIFY, (PIANOFORTE), (REINFORCE), from Latin fortis, strong (but this is also possibly from dher-). [Pokorny bheregh- 140.]

bhesImportant derivatives are: psyche, psychic, psycho-. To breathe. Probably imitative. Zero-grade form *bhs-. PSYCHE, PSYCHIC, PSYCHO-; METEMPSYCHOSIS, from Greek psukhK, spirit, soul, from psukhein (< *bhs-7-kh-), to breathe. [Pokorny 2. bhes- 146.]

bheudhImportant derivatives are: bid, forbid, bode1, Buddha2. To be aware, to make aware. c. d. e.
BID,

from Old English bKodan, to proclaim; from Old English forbKodan, to forbid;

FORBID,

VERBOTEN,

from Old High German farbiotan, to forbid. a, b, and c all from Germanic *(for)beudan (*for, before; see per1).

4.

BODE

, from Old English bodian, to announce, from boda,

messenger, from Germanic *budon-. 5. from Old English bydel, herald, messenger, and Old High German butil, herald, both from Germanic *budilaz, herald.
OMBUDSMAN, BEADLE,

6.

from Old Norse bodh, command, from Germanic

*budam. 7. BUDDHA2; BODHISATTVA, BO TREE, from Sanskrit bodhati, he awakes, is enlightened, becomes aware, and bodhiU, perfect knowledge. [Pokorny bheudh- 150.]

bheuNImportant derivatives are: be, husband, booth, build, future, neighbor, beam. Also bheu-To be, exist, grow. III. Extended forms *bhwiy(o)-, *bhwX-. 1. 2.
BE,

from Old English bKon, to be, from Germanic *biju, I am, will be.
FIAT,

from Latin fierX, to become.

3. Possibly suffixed form *bhwX-lyo-. (see dhK(i)-) Latin fXlius, son. IV. Lengthened o-grade form *bhow-. a.
BONDAGE, BOUND

; BUSTLE1, HUSBAND, from Old Norse b7a, to live, prepare, and b7ask, to make oneself ready (-sk, reflexive suffix; see s(w)e-);
4

b. BAUHAUS, from Old High German b7an, to dwell; c. from Middle English bothe, market stall, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Danish both, dwelling, stall. a, b, and c all from Germanic *bowan.
BOOTH,

V. Zero-grade form *bhu-. a. from Old English byldan, to build, from bold, dwelling, house, from Germanic *buthla;
BUILD,

b. 2.

from Middle Dutch bodel, riches, property, from alternate Germanic form *bothla.

BOODLE,

PHYSIC, PHYSICS, PHYSIO-, PHYSIQUE, -PHYTE, PHYTO-, (PHYTON); APOPHYSIS, DIAPHYSIS, DIPHYODONT, EPIPHYSIS, EUPHUISM, HYPOPHYSIS, IMP,

MONOPHYSITE, NEOPHYTE, PERIPHYTON, SYMPHYSIS, TRACHEOPHYTE,

from Greek phuein, to bring forth, make grow, phutos, phuton, a plant, and phusis, growth, nature. 3. Suffixed form *bhu-t7-. EISTEDDFOD, from Welsh bod, to be. 4. Suffixed form *bhu-tu-. FUTURE, from Latin fut7rus, that is to be, future. VI. Zero-grade form *bh7- (< *bhuN-). a. b.
BOWER
1

, from Old English b7r, dwelling space, bower,

room; from Old English geb7r, dweller (ge-, collective prefix; see kom);
NEIGHBOR,

c. BOER, BOOR, from Middle Dutch gheboer, ghebuer, peasant. a, b, and c all from Germanic *b7ram, dweller, especially farmer. 2. 3.
BYRE,

from Old English bre, stall, hut, from Germanic *b7rjam, dwelling. from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse br, settlement, from Germanic *b7wi-.

BYLAW,

4. Suffixed form *bh7-lo-. PHYLE, PHYLETIC, PHYLUM; PHYLOGENY, from Greek phulon, tribe, class, race, and phulK, tribe, clan. VII. Suffixal forms in Latin. 1. (see dwo-) Latin dubius, doubtful, and dubit7re, to doubt, from *du-bhw-io-. 2. (see per1) Latin probus, upright, from *pro-bhw-o-, growing well or straightforward. 3. (see uper) Latin superbus, superior, proud, from *super-bhw-o, being above.

a. b. c. [Pokorny bheu- 146.]

BEAM, BOOM
2

from Old English bKam, tree, beam; , from Middle Dutch boom, tree;
1

BUMPKIN

, from Flemish boom, tree. a, b and c all from Germanic *baumaz (and *bagmaz), tree (? bheuN-.

bheugImportant derivatives are: bow3, bow2, bog. To bend; with derivatives referring to bent, pliable, or curved objects. I. Variant form *bheugh- in Germanic *beug-. a. b. c.
BEE
2

, from Old English bKag, a ring;

BAGEL,

from Old High German boug, a ring. Both a and b from Germanic *baugaz.
BOW
3

, from Old English boga, a bow, arch;

d. (see el-) Germanic compound *alino-bugon-, bend of the forearm, elbow (*alino-, forearm); e. 2. 3.
2

BOW

, from a source akin to Middle Low German boog, bow of a boat. a, b, and c all from Germanic *bugon-.
1

, BUXOM, from Old English b7gan, to bend, from Germanic b7gan.

BOW BAIL

, from Middle English beil, a handle, perhaps from Old English *bKgel or from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Swedish *bghil, both from Germanic *baugil-.
3

4. II.
BOG,

BIGHT,

from Old English byht, a bend, angle, from Germanic *buhtiz.

from Scottish and Irish Gaelic bog, soft, from Celtic *buggo-, flexible.

[Pokorny 3. bheug- 152.]

bhlKImportant derivatives are: blow1, bladder, blast, flavor, inflate. Also bhl7-To blow. Possibly identical to bhel-3 II *bhlK- above. 2.
BLOW

, from Old English bl7wan, to blow, from Germanic suffixed form *blK-w-.
1

a. b.

BLADDER, BLATHER,

from Old English bl<dre, blister, bladder;

from Old Norse bladhra (noun), bladder, and bladhra (verb), to prattle. Both a and b from Germanic suffixed form *blKdram, something blown up.
BLAST,

c. d. e.

from Old English bl<st, a blowing, blast; from Middle Dutch blas(e), a bladder;
3

ISINGLASS,

, from Middle Dutch bl7sen, to blow up, swell. a, b and c all from Germanic extended form *blKs-.

BLAS, BLAZE

3. Variant form *bhl7-. FLABELLUM, FLATUS, FLAVOR; AFFLATUS, CONFLATE, (DEFLATE), INFLATE, SOUFFL, from Latin fl7re, to blow. [In Pokorny 3. bhel- 120.]

bhleuImportant derivatives are: bloat, fluctuate, fluent, fluid, affluent, influence. To swell, well up, overflow. Extension of bhel-2. 1. from Old Norse blautr, soft, wet, from Germanic *blaut-, possibly from bhleu-.
BLOAT,

2. Extended form *bhleugw-. FLUCTUATE, FLUENT, FLUERIC, FLUID, FLUME, 2 FLUOR, (FLUORO- ), (FLUSH ), FLUVIAL, FLUX; AFFLUENT, CONFLUENT, EFFLUENT, (EFFLUVIUM), (EFFLUX), (FLUORIDE), FLUVIOMARINE, INFLUENCE, (INFLUENZA), MELLIFLUOUS, REFLUX, SUPERFLUOUS, from Latin fluere, to flow, and fluus, flowing. 3. Zero-grade form *bhlu-. PHLYCTENA, from Greek phluein, phluzein, to boil over.

4.

PHLOEM,

from Greek phloos, phloios, tree bark (bhleu-.

[Pokorny bhleu- 158.]

bhosoAn important derivative is: bare1. Naked. a. b. [Pokorny bhoso-s 163.]

BARE
1

, from Old English br, bare;

BALLAST,

from Old Swedish and Old Danish bar, bare. Both a and b from Germanic *bazaz.

bhr7terImportant derivatives are: brother, fraternal, pal. Brother, male agnate. a. b.

BROTHER, BULLY
1

from Old English brothor, brother;

, from Middle Dutch broeder, brother. Both a and b from Germanic *brothar-.

1. FRA, FRATERNAL, FRIAR; CONFRERE, FRATRICIDE, from Latin fr7ter, brother. 2. 3.

PHRATRY, PAL,

from Greek phratKr, fellow member of a clan.

from Sanskrit bhr7t7, bhr7tar-, brother.

[Pokorny bhr7ter- 163.]

bhregImportant derivatives are: break, breach, fraction, fracture, fragile, fragment, frail1, infringe, suffrage. To break. a. b.
BREAK,

from Old English brecan, to break; from Old English brKc, a breaking;

BREACH,

c. (BRASH2), BRECCIA, from Italian breccia, breccia, rubble,

breach in a wall, from Old High German *brehha, from brehhan, to break; d. e.
BRAY
2

, from Old French breier, to break;

BRIOCHE,

from Old French brier, dialectal variant of broyer, to knead. a, b, c, d, and e all from Germanic *brekan.
4

1.

BRACKEN, (BRAKE

), from Middle English brake(n), bracken, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *brakni, undergrowth; a.
BRAKE

, from Middle Low German brake, thicket. Both a and b from Germanic *brak-, bushes (
5

2.

, from Middle Low German brake, flax brake, from Germanic *br7k-, crushing instruments.
BRAKE
2

3. Nasalized zero-grade form *bhy-n-g-. (FRACTED), FRACTION, (FRACTIOUS), FRACTURE, FRAGILE, FRAGMENT, FRAIL1, FRANGIBLE; ANFRACTUOUS, CHAMFER, DEFRAY, DIFFRACTION, (INFRACT), INFRANGIBLE, 2 INFRINGE, OSSIFRAGE, REFRACT, (REFRAIN ), (REFRINGENT), SAXIFRAGE, SEPTIFRAGAL, from Latin frangere, to break. a. b. [Pokorny 1. bhreQ- 165.]
SUFFRAGAN, SUFFRAGE,

from Latin suffr7gium, the right to vote, from suffr7g7rX, to vote for (?
IRREFRAGABLE,

from Latin refr7g7rX, to vote against.

bhreuImportant derivatives are: brew, bread, broth, brood, breed, ferment, fervent. To boil, bubble, effervesce, burn; with derivatives referring to cooking and brewing. 1. 2. from Old English brKowan, to brew, from Germanic *breuwan, to brew. from Old English brKad, piece of food, bread, from Germanic *braudam, (cooked) food, (leavened) bread. a.
BROTH, BREAD, BREW,

from Old English broth, broth;

b.

BREWIS, BROIL

, from Vulgar Latin *brodum, broth. Both a and b from Germanic *brudam, broth.
2

II. Variant form *bhrK-. a. b.

BROOD, BREED,

from Old English brod, offspring, brood;

from Old English brKdan, to beget or cherish offspring, breed, from Germanic denominative *brodjan, to rear young. Both a and b from Germanic derivative *brod-o, a warming, hatching, rearing of young.
BRATWURST, SAUERBRATEN,

c. d.

from Old High German br7t,

br7to, roast meat; from Old French braon, meat. Both a and b from Germanic derivative *brKd-on-, roast flesh. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic *brKdan, to warm.
BRAWN,

e. Variant form *bhres-. BRAISE, BRAZE2, (BRAZIER2), BREEZE2, from Old French brese, burning coal, ember; f.
BRACIOLA,

from Italian dialectal bras'a, burning coal. Both a and b from Germanic *bres-.

III. Reduced form *bher-, especially in derivatives referring to fermentation. a. Suffixed form *bher-men-, yeast. BARM, (BARMY), from Old English beorma, yeast, from Germanic *bermon-; b. further suffixed form *bhermen-to-. FERMENT, from Latin fermentum, yeast. 2. Extended form *bherw-. FERVENT, FERVID, (FERVOR); DEFERVESCENCE, EFFERVESCE, from Latin fervKre, to be boiling or fermenting. IV. As a very archaic word for a spring. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhru-n(e)n-. BOURN1, BURN2, from Old English burn, burna, spring, stream, from Germanic *brunnon-. 2. Suffixed form *bhrKw-y. PHREATIC, from Greek phrear, spring. [Pokorny bh(e)reu- 143, 2. bher- 132.]

bhr7Important derivatives are: brow, bridge1.. Eyebrow. Contracted from *bhruN-. 1. from Old English br7-, eyebrow, eyelid, eyelash, from Germanic *br7s.
BROW,

2. Possibly in the sense of a beam of wood, and perhaps a log bridge. 1 BRIDGE , from Old English brycg(e), bridge, from Germanic *brugjo (with cognates in Celtic and Slavic). [Pokorny 1. bhr7- 172, 2. bhr7- 173.]

d7Important derivatives are: democracy, epidemic, demon, tide1, time. To divide. Contracted from *daN-. I. Suffixed form *d7-mo-, perhaps division of society. DEME, DEMOS, DEMOTIC; DEMAGOGUE, DEMIURGE, DEMOCRACY, DEMOGRAPHY, ENDEMIC, EPIDEMIC, PANDEMIC, from Greek dKmos, people, land. II. Variants *dai-, *dX-, from extended root *daNi-. 1. Root form *dai-. GEODESY, from Greek daiesthai, to divide. 2. Suffixed form *dai-mon-, divider, provider. DEMON, from Greek daimon, divinity. 3. Suffixed variant form *dX-ti-. a. b. c.
TIDE TIDE
1

; EVENTIDE, from Old English tXd, time, season;

, from Old English denominative tXdan, to happen ( from Old Norse tXdhr, occurring;

TIDING,

d. ZEITGEIST, from Old High German zXt, time. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *tXdiz, division of time. 4. Suffixed variant form *dX-mon-. TIME, from Old English tXma, time, period, from Germanic *tXmon-.

[Pokorny d7- 175.]

dailImportant derivatives are: deal1, ordeal. To divide. Northern Indo-European root extended from *da(N)i- (see d7-). 8. 9. 10. , from Old English d<lan, to share, from Germanic *dailjan.
DEAL
1

, from Old English d7l, portion, lot, from Germanic *dailaz.

DOLE
1

ORDEAL,

from Old English ord7l, trial by ordeal, from Germanic prefixed form *uz-dailjam, a portioning out, judgment (*uz-, out; see ud-).
FIRKIN,

11.

from Middle Dutch deel, part, from Germanic *dailiz.

[In Pokorny d7- 175.]

daiwerA derivative is: levirate. Husband's brother.

LEVIRATE,

from Latin lKvir, husband's brother.

[Pokorny d7iKr 179.]

dakruAn important derivative is: tear2. Tear. a. b.

TEAR
2

, from Old English tKar, tehher, tear;

TRAIN OIL,

from Middle Dutch trane, tear, drop. Both a and b from Germanic *tahr-, *tagr-.

4. Suffixed form *dakru-m7. LACHRYMAL, from Latin lacrima (Old Latin dacruma), tear.

[Pokorny dakru- 179.]

deImportant derivatives are: to, too, de-, deteriorate. Demonstrative stem, base of prepositions and adverbs. a. b. c. 11.
DE-, TO, TOO, TSIMMES, TATTOO
1

from Old English to, to; from Old High German zuo, ze, to;

, from Middle Dutch toe, to, shut. a, b, and c all from Germanic *to.

from Latin dK, dK-, from, perhaps from de-.

12. (see kwo-) Latin quando, when. 13.

DETERIORATE,

from Latin dKterior, worse.

14. (see bel-) Latin dKbilis, weak. 15. from Welsh eistedd, sitting, from Celtic *eks-dXsedo- (*dX- from *dK-).
EISTEDDFOD,

[Pokorny de-, do- 181.]

deikImportant derivatives are: teach, token, digit, toe, dictate, addict, condition, predict, preach, index, indicate, judge, prejudice, revenge, disk. To show, pronounce solemnly; also in derivatives referring to the directing of words or objects. I. Variant *deig-. 1. O-grade form *doig-. a.
TEACH,

from Old English t<can, to show, instruct, from Germanic *taikjan, to show; i. ii.
TOKEN,

from Old English t7cen, t7cn, sign, mark; from Old English t7cnian, to signify;

BETOKEN,

iii. iv.

TETCHY,

from Gothic taikns, sign;

TACHISME,

from Old French tache, teche, mark, stain. (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv) all from Germanic *taiknam.

2.

DIGIT,

from Latin digitus, finger (< pointer, indicator).

II. Basic form *deik-. 1. Possibly o-grade form *doik-. TOE, from Old English t7, tahe, toe, from Germanic *taihwo. 2. Basic form *deik-. DICTATE, DICTION, DICTUM, DITTO, DITTY; ADDICT, BENEDICTION, CONDITION, CONTRADICT, EDICT, FATIDIC, (INDICT), INDITE, INTERDICT, JURIDICAL, JURISDICTION, MALEDICT, PREDICT, VALEDICTION, VERDICT, VERIDICAL, VOIR DIRE, from Latin dXcere, to say, tell. 3. Zero-grade form *dik-7-. ABDICATE, DEDICATE, PREACH, PREDICATE, from Latin dic7re, to proclaim. 4. Agential suffix *-dik-. a. b. from Latin index, indicator, forefinger (in-, toward; see en);
JUDGE, JUDICIAL; PREJUDICE, INDEX, INDICATE,

from Latin i7dex (< *yewes-dik), judge, one who shows or pronounces the law (i7s, law; see yewes-);

c. (VENDETTA), VINDICATE; (AVENGE), REVENGE, from Latin vindex (first element obscure), surety, claimant, avenger. 5. , from Greek deiknunai, to show, with deigma (*deik-mi), sample, pattern.
2

DEICTIC; APODICTIC, PARADIGM, POLICY

6. Zero-grade form *dik-. DISK; DICTYOSOME, from suffixed form *dik-skos, from Greek dikein, to throw ( 7. Form *dik7. DICAST; SYNDIC, THEODICY, from Greek dikK, justice, right, court case. [Pokorny dei- 188.]

deiwImportant derivatives are: Tuesday, deity, divine, jovial, July, Jupiter, Zeus, dial, diary, dismal, journey, psychedelic. To shine (and in many derivatives, sky, heaven, god). I. Noun *deiwos, god. a. TIU, (TUESDAY), from Old English TXw (genitive TXwes), god of war and sky; b. TYR, from Old Norse Tr, sky god. Both a and b from Germanic *TXwaz. 2. 3.
DEISM, DEITY, DIVA, DIVINE,

DEUS, JOSS; ADIEU, DEIFIC, from Latin deus, god.

from Latin dXvus, divine, god.

4. DIVES, from Latin dXves, rich (< fortunate, blessed, divine). 5. Suffixed zero-grade form *diw-yo-, heavenly. DIANA, from Latin Di7na, moon goddess. 6. DEVI; DEODAR, DEVANAGARI, from Sanskrit de- vaU, god, and deva-, divine. II. Variant *dyeu-, Jove, the name of the god of the bright sky, head of the Indo-European pantheon. 1. JOVE, JOVIAL, from Latin Iovis, Jupiter, or Iov-, stem of Iuppiter, Jupiter. 2. JULY, from Latin I7lius, descended from Jupiter (name of a Roman gens), from derivative *iou-il-. 3. Vocative compound *dyeu-pNter-, O father Jove (*pNter-, father; see pNter-). JUPITER, from Latin Iuppiter, I7piter, head of the Roman pantheon. 4. DIONE, ZEUS; DIOSCURI, from Greek Zeus (genitive Dios), Zeus. III. Variant *dyK- (< *dyeN-). DIAL, DIARY, DIET2, DISMAL, DIURNAL; ADJOURN, CIRCADIAN, (JOURNAL), (JOURNEY), MERIDIAN, (POSTMERIDIAN), QUOTIDIAN, SOJOURN, from Latin diKs, day. IV. Variant *deiN-. PSYCHEDELIC, from Greek dKlos, (< *deyalos), clear.

[Pokorny 1. dei- 183.]

dekImportant derivatives are: decent, doctor, doctrine, document, dogma, paradox, decorate, dainty, dignity, disdain, indignant, disciple, discipline. To take, accept. 7. Suffixed (stative) form *dek-K-. DECENT, from Latin decKre, to be fitting ( 8. Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *dok-eye-. a. b.
DOCENT, DOCILE, DOCTOR, DOCTRINE, DOCUMENT,

from Latin

docKre, to teach (
DOGMA, (DOGMATIC); ORTHODOX, PARADOX,

DOCETISM, DOXOLOGY, HETERODOX,

from Greek dokein, to appear, seem,

think ( 9. Suffixed form *dek-es-. a. (DCOR), DECORATE, from Latin decus, grace, ornament; b.
DECOROUS,

from Latin decor, seemliness, elegance,

beauty. 10. Suffixed form *dek-no-. DAINTY, DEIGN, DIGNITY, CONDIGN, DIGNIFY, DISDAIN, INDIGN, (INDIGNANT), (INDIGNATION), from Latin dignus, worthy, deserving, fitting. 11. Reduplicated form *di-dk-ske-. DISCIPLE, (DISCIPLINE), from Latin discere, to learn. 12. (DOWEL), PANDECT, SYNECDOCHE, from Greek dekhesthai, to accept. 13.
DIPLODOCUS,

from Greek dokos, beam, support.

[Pokorny 1. de- 189.]

dekc Important derivatives are: ten, December, decimal, dime, dozen, dean, decade, tenth, hundred, cent, century, percent.

Ten. I. Basic form *dekc. a.

TEN,

from Old English tXen, ten;

b. (see okto(u)) Old Norse tjan, ten. Both a and b from Germanic *tehun. 2.
EIGHTEEN, FIFTEEN, FOURTEEN, NINETEEN, SEVENTEEN, SIXTEEN, THIRTEEN,

from Old English suffix -tKne, -tXne, -tne, ten, -teen, from Germanic *tehan. 3. DECEMBER, DECEMVIR, DECI-, DECIMAL, DECIMATE, DECUPLE, DICKER, DIME; (DECENNARY), DECENNIUM, DECUSSATE, DOZEN, DUODECIMAL, OCTODECIMO, SEXTODECIMO, from Latin decem, ten. 4. (DENARIUS), DENARY, (DENIER2), from irregular Latin distributive dKnX, by tens, ten each (formed by analogy with nonX, nine each). 5.
DEAN, DECA-, DECADE, (DOYEN); DECAGON,

DECALOGUE, DODECAGON,

from Greek deka, ten. II. Extended form *dekct-. (see dwo-) Old English -tig, ten, from Germanic *-tig. III. Ordinal number *dekcto-. TENTH, (TITHE), from Old English teogotha, tKotha, tenth, from Germanic *teguntha-. IV. Suffixed zero-grade form *-dkc-t8, reduced to *-kct8, and lengthened o-grade form *-dkom-t8, reduced to *-kont8. 1.
NONAGENARIAN, OCTOGENARIAN, SEPTUAGINT, SEXAGENARY,

from Latin -

gint7, ten times. 2. PENTECOST, from Greek *-konta, ten times. V. Suffixed zero-grade form *dkc-tom, hundred, reduced to *kctom. 1. from Old English hundred, hundred (-red, from Germanic *radam, number; see ar-), from Germanic *hundam, hundred.
HUNDRED,

2. (see teuN-) Germanic *th7s-hundi, swollen hundred, thousand.

3.

CENT, CENTAL, CENTAVO, (CENTENARIAN), CENTENARY, CENTESIMAL, CENTI-

, CENTIME, (CENTNER), CENTUM, CENTURY; CENTENNIAL, CINQUECENTO, 2 PERCENT, QUATTROCENTO, SEICENTO, (SEN ), (SENITI), SEXCENTENARY, TRECENTO, from Latin centum, hundred. 4. 5. 6. from Greek hekaton, a hundred (? dissimilated from *hem-katon, one hundred; see sem-1).
STOTINKA, SATEM, HECATOMB, HECTO-,

from Old Church Slavonic sto, hundred.

from Avestan satNm, hundred.

[Pokorny dec 191. See also compound root wXkctX.]

del-1 Important derivatives are: linger, long1, long2, length, Lent, longitude, lunge, prolong. Long. Probably extended and suffixed zero-grade form *dlon-gho-. a. b. c. d. e.
LONG
1

, from Old English lang, long, long; from Old High German lang, long;

LANGLAUF, BELONG, LONG

2

from Old English gelang, along;

, from Old English denominative langian, to grow longer, yearn for, from Germanic *langon; from Old English lengan, to prolong (possibly influenced by Old Norse lengja, to lengthen), from Germanic *langjan, to make long;
LINGER,

f. LOMBARD, from Latin compound Longobardus, Langobardus (with Germanic ethnic name *Bardi). a, b, c, d, e, and f all from Germanic *langaz, long. g.
LENGTH,

from Old English lengthu, length;

h. LENT, from Old English lengten, lencten, spring, Lent, from West Germanic *langitinaz, lengthening of day; i. , from Middle English lenge, ling, ling, from a Low German source akin to Dutch lenghe, linghe, long one.
LING
1

a, b, and c all from Germanic abstract noun *langitho. 4.

LONGERON, LONGITUDE; ELOIGN, (ELONGATE), LONGEVITY, LUNGE, OBLONG, PROLONG, PURLOIN,

from Latin longus, long.

5. Possibly suffixed variant *d_N-gho-. DOLICHOCEPHALIC, DOLICHOCRANIAL, from Greek dolikhos, long. [Pokorny 5. del- 196.]

del-2 Important derivatives are: tell, tale, talk. To recount, count. 4. 5. from Old English tellan, to count, recount, from Germanic *taljan.
TALL, TELL,

from Old English getl, quick, ready, from West Germanic *(ge-)tala-. a.
TALE,

from Old English talu, story;

b. TAAL2, from Middle Dutch t7le, speech, language. Both a and b from Germanic *talo. 6.
TALK,

from

Middle English talken, to talk, from a source probably akin to Old English denominative talian, to tell, relate. 1.
DOLERITE, SEDULOUS,

from Greek dolos, ruse, snare, perhaps from del-2.

[Pokorny 1. del- 193.]

demImportant derivatives are: dome, domestic, danger, domain, dominate, timber. House, household. 6. Suffixed o-grade form *dom-o-, dom-u-, house. a.
DOME, DOMESTIC, DOMICILE; MAJOR-DOMO,

from Latin domus,

house;

b. suffixed form *dom-o-no-. DAME, DAN2, DANGER, DOM, DOMAIN, DOMINATE, DOMINICAL, DOMINIE, DOMINION, (DOMINO1), DOMINO2, DON1, DUNGEON; (MADAM), MADAME, MADEMOISELLE, MADONNA, PREDOMINATE, from Latin dominus, master of a household (feminine domina). 7. Possibly lengthened-grade form *dom-c. DOME, from Greek doma, house. 8. Compound *dems-pot-, house-master (*-pot-, powerful; see poti-). DESPOT, from Greek despotKs, master, lord. 9. Root form *dem(N)-, to build (possibly a separate root). a. b. [Pokorny dem- 198.] from Old English timber, building material, lumber, from Germanic *timram; from Old Norse topt, homestead, from Germanic *tumfto.
TOFT, TIMBER,

demNImportant derivatives are: tame, daunt, adamant, diamond. To constrain, force, especially to break in (horses). 6. Suffixed o-grade form *dom(N)-o-. TAME, from Old English tam, domesticated, from Germanic *tamaz. 7. O-grade form *domN-. DAUNT; INDOMITABLE, from Latin dom7re, to tame, subdue. 8. Zero-grade form *dcN-. ADAMANT, (DIAMOND), from Greek daman, to tame ( adamas, unconquerable, from *i-dcN-nt-). [Pokorny (demN-), domN- 199.]

dentImportant derivatives are: tooth, tusk, dental, dandelion, indent1. Tooth. (Originally participle of ed- in the earlier meaning to bite.)

5. O-grade form *dont-. TOOTH, from Old English toth, tooth, from Germanic *tanthuz. 6. Zero-grade form *dit-. TUSK, from Old English t7sc, t7x, canine tooth, from Germanic *tunth-sk-. 7. Full-grade form *dent-. DENTAL, DENTATE, DENTI-, DENTICLE, DENTIST; 1 DANDELION, EDENTATE, EDENTULOUS, INDENT , (INDENTURE), TRIDENT, from Latin dKns (stem dent-), tooth. 8. O-grade variant form *(o)dont-. -ODON, -ODONT, ODONTO-; CERATODUS, MASTODON, from Greek odon, odous, tooth. [In Pokorny ed- 287.]

derImportant derivatives are: tear1, tart2, turd, epidermis, drab1, drape. To split, peel, flay; with derivatives referring to skin and leather. 5. 6.
TEAR
1

, from Old English teran, to tear, from Germanic *teran.

TART

, from Old English teart, sharp, severe, from Germanic *ter-t.

1

7. Suffixed zero-grade form *dy-tom, something separated or discarded. TURD, from Old English tord, turd, from Germanic *turdam, turd. 8. Reduplicated form *de-dr-u-. TETTER, from Old English tet(e)r, eruption, skin disease. 9.
DERRIS,

from Greek derris, leather covering.

10. Suffixed form *der-mi. -DERM, DERMA1, -DERMA, DERMATO-; EPIDERMIS, from Greek derma, skin. [Pokorny 4. der- 206.]

deruImportant derivatives are: tree, truce, true, truth, trust, tray, trough, trim, tar1, endure, druid. Also dreu-To be firm, solid, steadfast; hence specialized senses wood, tree,

and derivatives referring to objects made of wood. 10. Suffixed variant form *drew-o-. a. b.
TREE,

from Old English trKow, tree, from Germanic *trewam;

TRUCE,

from Old English trKow, pledge, from Germanic *treuwo.

11. Variant form dreu-. a. b. c. d. e. f.

TRUE,

from Old English trKowe, firm, true; from Old English trKowian, tr7wian, to trust;

TROW, TRIG
1

, from Old Norse tryggr, firm, true;

from Old English trKowth faith, loyalty, truth, from Germanic abstract noun *treuwitho;
TRUST,

TROTH, TRUTH; BETROTH,

from Old Norse traust, confidence, firmness, from Germanic abstract noun *traustam;

from Old French triste, waiting place (treysta, to trust, make firm. a, b, c, d, e, and f all from Germanic *treuwaz.

TRYST,

12. Variant form *drou-. TRAY, from Old English trKg, trXg, wooden board, from Germanic *traujam. 13. Suffixed zero-grade form *dru-ko-. TROUGH, from Old English trog, wooden vessel, tray, from Germanic *trugaz. 14. Suffixed zero-grade form *dru-mo-. a. b.
TRIM,

from Old English trum, firm, strong;

from Old English truma, troop. Both a and b from Germanic *trum-.

SHELTER,

15. Variant form *derw-. TAR1, from Old English te(o)ru, resin, pitch (obtained from the pine tree), from Germanic *terw-. 16. Suffixed variant form *dr7-ro-. DOUR, DURAMEN, DURESS, DURUM; (DURA MATER), ENDURE, INDURATE, OBDURATE, from Latin d7rus, hard

(many of whose English derivatives represent a semantic cross with Latin d7r7re, to last long; see deuN-). 17. Lengthened zero-grade form *dr7-. DRUPE, DRYAD; DRYOPITHECINE, GERMANDER, HAMADRYAD, from Greek drus, oak. 18. Reduplicated form *der-drew-, dissimilated with suffix in *derdrew-on. DENDRO-, DENDRON; PHILODENDRON, RHODODENDRON, from Greek dendron, tree. 19. from Latin druides, druids, probably from Celtic compound *dru-wid-, strong seer (*wid-, seeing; see weid-), the Celtic priestly caste.
DRUID,

20. O-grade form *doru-. DEODAR, from Sanskrit d7ru, wood, timber. [Pokorny deru- 214.]

deu-1 An important derivative is: tire1. To lack, be wanting. 1. Possibly suffixed form *deu-s-. a. b. , from Old English tKorian, tyrian, to fail, tire (*teuzon;
TIRE
1

DEONTOLOGY,

from Greek dein, to lack, want.

2. Suffixed form *deu-tero-. DEUTERO- ; DEUTERAGONIST, (DEUTERIUM), DEUTERONOMY, from Greek deuteros, missing, next, second. [Pokorny 3. deu- 219. (For suffixed zero-grade form *du-s-, combining form of *dew-es-, a lack, see dus-.)]

deu-2 Important derivatives are: bonus, bounty, benefactor, benefit, benign, beauty, embellish, dynamic, dynamite, dynasty. To do, perform, show favor, revere. 11. Suffixed form *dw-enos. BONBON, BONITO, BONUS, BOON2, BOUNTY;

BONANZA, BONHOMIE, DEBONAIR,

from Latin bonus, good (< useful,

efficient, working). 12. Adverbial form *dw-enK. BENEDICTION, BENEFACTION, (BENEFACTOR), (BENEFIC), (BENEFICENCE), (BENEFIT), BENEVOLENT, (BENIGN), (HERB BENNET), from Latin bene, well. 13. Diminutive *dw-en-elo-. BEAU, BEAUTY, BELLE; BELDAM, BELLADONNA, BELVEDERE, EMBELLISH, from Latin bellus, handsome, pretty, fine. 14. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *dw-eye-. (BEATITUDE); BEATIFIC, (BEATIFY), from Latin be7re, to make blessed. 15. Possible (but unlikely for formal and semantic reasons) suffixed zero-grade form *du-nN-. DYNAMIC, (DYNAMITE), DYNAST, (DYNASTY); AERODYNE, from Greek dunasthai, to be able. [Pokorny 2. deu- 218.]

deuNImportant derivatives are: durable, duration, during. Also dwaN-Long (in duration). Suffixed zero-grade form *d7-ro- (< *duN-ro-). DURABLE, DURANCE, DURATION, DURING; PERDURABLE, THERMODURIC, from Latin d7r7re, to last. [In Pokorny 3. deu- 219.]

deukImportant derivatives are: tug, wanton, tow1, tie, team, dock1, duct, duke, abduct, conduct, deduce, introduce, produce, reduce, subdue, educate. To lead. c. d.
TUG; WANTON, ZUGZWANG,

from Old English tKon, to pull, draw, lead;

from Old High German ziohan, to pull. Both a and b from Germanic *teuhan.

5. Suffixed zero-grade form *duk-7-. TOW1, from Old English togian, to draw, drag, from Germanic *tugon. 6. Suffixed o-grade form *douk-eyo-. TIE, from Old English

*tXegan, tXgan, to bind. 7. Suffixed o-grade form *douk-mo-. TEAM, from Old English tKam, descendant, family, race, brood, team, from Germanic *tau(h)maz. 8. , from Old English tKman, tXeman, to beget, from Germanic denominative *tau(h)mjan.
TEEM
1

9. Basic form *deuk-. DOGE, DOUCHE, (DUCAL), (DUCAT), (DUCE), (DUCHESS), (DUCHY), DUCT, DUCTILE, DUKE; (ABDUCENS), ABDUCT, 3 ADDUCE, CIRCUMDUCTION, (CON ), (CONDOTTIERE), CONDUCE, (CONDUCT), DEDUCE, (DEDUCT), EDUCE, (ENDUE), INDUCE, INTRODUCE, PRODUCE, (REDOUBT), REDUCE, SEDUCE, SUBDUCTION, SUBDUE, TRADUCE, TRANSDUCER, from Latin d7cere, to lead. 10. Suffixed zero-grade form *duk-7-. EDUCATE, from Latin Kduc7re, to lead out, bring up (K- < ex-, out; see eghs). [Pokorny deuk- 220.]

dhKImportant derivatives are: do1, deed, doom, -dom, deem, fact, factor, fashion, feat1, feature, affair, affect1, affection, amplify, benefit, defeat, defect, effect, efficient, infect, justify, modify, notify, perfect, profit, qualify, sacrifice, face, surface, difficulty, thesis, theme. To set, put. Contracted from *dheN-. 14. O-grade form *dho-. DO1; FORDO, from Old English don, to do, from Germanic *don. 15. Suffixed form *dhK-ti-, thing laid down or done, law, deed. DEED, from Old English d<d, doing, deed, from Germanic *dKdiz. 16. Suffixed o-grade form *dho-mo-. a.
DOOM,

from Old English dom, judgment (

b. -DOM, from Old English -dom, abstract suffix indicating state, condition, or power;

c. (see k7-) Old Norse -domr, condition; d. DUMA, from Russian Duma, Duma, from a Germanic source akin to Gothic doms, judgment; e. from Old English dKman, to judge, from Germanic denominative domjan. a, b, c, d, and e all from Germanic domaz.
DEEM,

17. Suffixed o-grade form *dho-t-. (see sak-) Latin sacerdos, priest, performer of sacred rites. 18. Zero-grade form *dhN-. a. prefixed form *kom-dhN-. ABSCOND, INCONDITE, RECONDITE, 2 SCONCE , from Latin condere, to put together, establish, preserve (*kom, together; see kom); b. prefixed and suffixed form *kom-dh(N)-yo-. CONDIMENT, from Latin condXre, to season, flavor; c. compound *kred-dhN-. (see kerd-) 19. Suffixed zero-grade form dhN-k-. a. -FACIENT, FACT, FACTION1, -FACTION, FACTITIOUS, FACTITIVE, 1 FACTOR, FASHION, FEASIBLE, FEAT , FEATURE, (FETISH), -FIC, (-FY), 1 2 HACIENDA; AFFAIR, AFFECT , (AFFECT ), (AFFECTION), (AMPLIFY), ARTIFACT, ARTIFICE, (BEATIFIC), BENEFACTION, (BENEFIC), (BENEFICE), (BENEFICENCE), (BENEFIT), CHAFE, COMFIT, CONFECT, (CONFETTI), COUNTERFEIT, (DEFEASANCE), DEFEAT, DEFECT, (DEFICIENT), (DISCOMFIT), (EDIFICE), (EDIFY), EFFECT, (EFFICACIOUS), (EFFICIENT), FACSIMILE, FACTOTUM, FORFEIT, INFECT, (JUSTIFY), MALEFACTOR, (MALFEASANCE), MANUFACTURE, MISFEASANCE, (MODIFY), (MOLLIFY), (NIDIFY), (NOTIFY), (NULLIFY), OFFICINAL, ORIFICE, PERFECT, (PETRIFY), (PLUPERFECT), PONTIFEX, PREFECT, (PROFICIENT), PROFIT, PUTREFY, (QUALIFY), RAREFY, (RECTIFY), REFECT, (REFECTORY), RUBEFACIENT, SACRIFICE, SATISFY, SPINIFEX, SUFFICE, (SUFFICIENT), SURFEIT, TUBIFEX, TUMEFACIENT, (VIVIFY), from Latin facere (< *fakyo-), to do, make, and Latin combining form -fex (< *fak-s), maker; b.
FAADE, FACE, (FACET), (FACIAL), FACIES; (DEFACE), EFFACE,

(SURFACE), from Latin derivative faciKs, shape, face ( c.

OFFICE,

from Latin compound officium (< *opi-fici-om), service, duty, business, performance of work (*opi-, work; see op-);

d. further suffixed form *dhN-k-li-. FACILE, (FACILITATE), FACULTY, DIFFICULTY, from Latin facilis (facul), feasible, easy. 20. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhN-s- (probably identical with zero-grade of dhKs-). NEFARIOUS, from Latin f7s, divine law, right. 21. from Latin -f7riam, adverbial suffix, as in bif7riam, in two places, parts, double, from *dwi-dh(N)-, making two (*dwi-, two; see dwo-).
MULTIFARIOUS, OMNIFARIOUS,

22. Reduplicated form *dhi-dhN-. THESIS, THETIC; ANATHEMA, ANTITHESIS, DIATHESIS, EPENTHESIS, EPITHET, HYPOTHESIS, METATHESIS, PARENTHESIS, PROSTHESIS, PROTHESIS, SYNTHESIS, from Greek tithenai, to put, with zero-grade noun thesis (*dhN-ti-), a placing, and verbal adjective thetos (*dhN-to-), placed. 23. Suffixed form *dhK-k-. THECA, TICK3; AMPHITHECIUM, APOTHECARY, (APOTHECIUM), BIBLIOTHECA, (BODEGA), (BOUTIQUE), CLEISTOTHECIUM, ENDOTHECIUM, PERITHECIUM, from Greek thKkK, receptacle. 24. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhN-mi. (THEMATIC), THEME, from Greek thema, thing placed, proposition. 25. Reduplicated form *dhe-dhK-. SANDHI, from Sanskrit dadh7ti, he places. 26. Basic form *dhK-. PURDAH, from Old Persian d7-, to place. 27. Suffixed form *dhK-to-, set down, created. (see s(w)e-) Old Iranian compound *khvato-d7ta-, created from oneself. 28. Reduced form *dh-. (see au-) [Pokorny 2. dhK- 235.]

dhK(i)-

Important derivatives are: female, feminine, fawn2, fetus, fennel, affiliate. To suck. Contracted from *dheN(i)-. 9. Suffixed reduced form *dhK-mn7-. FEMALE, FEMININE; EFFEMINATE, from Latin fKmina, woman ( 10. Suffixed reduced form *dhK-to-. FAWN2, (FETAL), FETUS; EFFETE, (FETICIDE), SUPERFETATE, from Latin fKtus, pregnancy, childbearing, offspring, with adjective fKtus, fKta, pregnant. 11. Suffixed reduced form *dhK-kwondo-. FECUND, from Latin fKcundus, fruitful. 12. Suffixed reduced form *dhK-no-. FENNEL, FINOCHIO; (FENUGREEK), SAINFOIN, from Latin fKnum, faenum, hay (< produce). 13. Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form *dhX-lyo- (< *dhiN-lyo-). 1 FILIAL, FILIATE; FILS ; AFFILIATE, HIDALGO, from Latin fXlius, son, and fXlia, daughter (but these are equally possibly from the root bheuN-). 14. Suffixed reduced form *dhK-lo-. FELLATIO, from Latin fKl7re, fell7re, to suck. 15. Suffixed reduced form *dhK-l-Xk-. FELICITATE, FELICITY; FELICIFIC, INFELICITY, from Latin fKlXx, fruitful, fertile, lucky, happy. 16. Suffixed reduced form *dhK-l7-. ENDOTHELIUM, EPITHELIUM, (MESOTHELIUM), from Greek thKlK, nipple. 17. Suffixed reduced form *dhK-l-u-. THEELIN, from Greek thKlus, female. [Pokorny dhK(i)- 241.]

dheighImportant derivatives are: dairy, lady, dough, figure, faint, fiction, effigy, paradise. To form, build. 6. from Old English d<ge, bread kneader, from Germanic *daigjon-.
DAIRY,

7.

from Old English compound hl<fdige, mistress of a household (hl7f, bread, loaf), from Germanic *dXg-.

LADY,

8. Suffixed o-grade form *dhoigh-o-. a. b.

DOUGH,

from Old English d7g, dough;

TEIGLACH,

from Old High German teic, dough. Both a and b from Germanic *daigaz.

9. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhigh-7r7. FIGURE; CONFIGURE, DISFIGURE, PREFIGURE, TRANSFIGURE, from Latin fig7ra, form, shape ( 10. Nasalized zero-grade form *dhi-n-gh-. (FAINT), FEIGN, (FEINT), FICTILE, FICTION, FIGMENT; EFFIGY, from Latin fingere, to shape. 11. Probable nasalized zero-grade form *dhi-n-g(h)-. THIGMOTAXIS, THIXOTROPY, from Greek thinganein, to touch. 12. Suffixed o-grade form *dhoigh-o-. PARADISE, from Avestan daKza-, wall (originally made of clay or mud bricks). [Pokorny dheigh- 244.]

dherImportant derivatives are: farm, firm1, confirm, throne. To hold firmly, support. 4. Suffixed form *dher-mo-. FARM, FERMATA, FIRM1, FIRM2, (FIRMAMENT); AFFIRM, CONFIRM, INFIRM, (INFIRMARY), from Latin firmus, firm, strong. 5. Perhaps extended form *dhergh-. (see bhergh-2) Latin fortis, strong (but this is also possibly from bhergh-2). 6. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhr-ono-. THRONE, from Greek thronos, seat, throne (< support). 7. Suffixed form *dher-mi. DHARMA, from Sanskrit dharma, statute, law ( 8. Suffixed form *dher-eno-. DHARNA, from Prakrit dharaha, a holding firm.

9. Suffixed o-grade form *dhor-o-. SIRDAR, TAHSILDAR, ZAMINDAR, from Iranian d7ra-, holding, whence Persian -d7r. [Pokorny 2. dher- 252.]

dhersAn important derivative is: dare. To venture, be bold. O-grade form *dhors- and zero-grade form *dhys-. DARE, (DURST), from Old English dearr and durst, first and third person singular present and past indicative of durran, to venture, respectively from Germanic *dors- and *durs. [Pokorny dhers- 259.]

dhKsImportant derivatives are: fair2, feast, festival, fanatic, profane, atheism, enthusiasm. Root of words in religious concepts. Contracted from dheNs-. Possibly an extension of dhK-. 11. Suffixed form *dhKs-y7. FAIR2, FERIA, from Latin fKriae (fKsiae), holidays. 12. Suffixed form *dhKs-to-. FEAST, (-FEST), (FESTAL), FESTIVAL, FESTIVE, (FESTOON), (FETE), (FIESTA); (GABFEST), OKTOBERFEST, from Latin fKstus, festive. 13. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhNs-no-. FANATIC; PROFANE, from Latin f7num, temple. 14. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhNs-o-. THEO-; APOTHEOSIS, ATHEISM, ENTHUSIASM, PANTHEON, POLYTHEISM, from Greek theos (< *thes-os), god. [Pokorny dhKs- 259.]

dheu-1

An important derivative is: dew. To flow. a. b.

DEW,

from Old English dKaw, dew; from Middle Dutch dau, dew;

SUNDEW,

c. (see melit-) Germanic compound *melith-dauwaz, honeydew. a, b, and c all from Germanic *dauwaz, dew. [Pokorny 1. dheu- 259.]

dheu-2 Important derivatives are: dead, death, die1, dwindle. To die. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *dhou-to-. DEAD, from Old English dKad, dead, from Germanic *daudaz. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *dhou-tu-. DEATH, from Old English dKath, death, from Germanic *dauthuz. 3. Suffixed o-grade form *dhow-yo-. DIE1, from Old Norse deyja, to die. 4. Suffixed extended zero-grade form *dhwX-no-. DWINDLE, from Old English dwXnan, to diminish, languish, from Germanic *dwXnan. [Pokorny 2. dheu- 260. See dh7-no-.]

dheubImportant derivatives are: deep, depth, dip, dive. Deep, hollow. 1. 2.

DEEP, (DEPTH),

from Old English dKop, deep, from Germanic

*deupaz. from Old English dyppan, to immerse, dip, from Germanic expressive denominative *duppjan.
DIP,

3. Parallel root form *dheubh-. DIVE, from Old English dfan, to

dip, and d7fan, to sink, dive, from Germanic verb *d7bjan, from *deub-, *dub-. [Pokorny dheu-b- 267.]

dheughDerivatives are: doughty, Pentateuch.. To produce something of utility. 4. from Old English dyhtig, dohtig, strong (< productive), from Germanic extended form *duht-.
DOUGHTY,

5. Suffixed form *dheugh-os-. HEPTATEUCH, (HEXATEUCH), PENTATEUCH, from Greek teukhos (< *theukhos), gear, anything produced, tool, container, scroll. [Pokorny dheugh- 271.]

dhghemImportant derivatives are: bridegroom, chamomile, humble, homage, homicide, human.. Earth. 5. Suffixed zero-grade form *(dh)ghc-on-, earthling. BRIDEGROOM, from Old English guma, man, from Germanic *gumon-. 6. O-grade form *dh(e)ghom-. CHTHONIC; AUTOCHTHON, from Greek khthon, earth. 7. Zero-grade form *dhghc-. CHAMAEPHYTE, CHAMELEON, CHAMOMILE, GERMANDER, from Greek khamai, on the ground. 8. Suffixed o-grade form *(dh)ghom-o-. HUMBLE, (HUMILIATE), (HUMILITY), HUMUS1; EXHUME, INHUME, TRANSHUMANCE, from Latin humus, earth. 9. Suffixed o-grade form *(dh)ghom-on-, earthling. a. , HOMINID, HOMO1, HOMUNCULUS, OMBRE; BONHOMIE, HOMICIDE, from Latin homo, human being, man;
1

HOMAGE, HOMBRE

b.

HUMAN, (HUMANE),

from Latin h7m7nus, human, kind, humane (in part from dhghem-).

10. Suffixed form *(dh)ghem-y7. CHERNOZEM, SIEROZEM, ZEMSTVO, from Old Russian zemV, land, earth. 11. Full-grade form *(dh)ghem-. ZAMINDAR, from Persian zamXn, earth, land. [Pokorny h?em- 414.]

dhgh(y)esAn important derivative is: yesterday. Yesterday. Suffixed (comparative) form *(dh)ghes-ter-. YESTER-, (YESTERDAY), from Old English geostran, giestran, yester-, from Germanic *ges-ter-. [Pokorny h?s 416.]

dhXgwImportant derivatives are: dike1, ditch, dig, fix, prefix. To stick, fix. c. d.
DIKE DIG,
1

, DITCH, from Old English dXc, trench, moat;

from Middle English diggen, to dig, from a source perhaps akin to Old French digue, trench. Both a and b from Germanic *dXk-. from Latin

1.

FIBULA, FICHU, FINCA, FIX, (FIXATE), (FIXITY), (FIXTURE); AFFIX, ANTEFIX, CRUCIFY, INFIX, MICROFICHE, PREFIX, SUFFIX, TRANSFIX,

fXgere, to fasten, fix. [Pokorny dhKig- 243.]

dhregImportant derivatives are: drink, drench, drown. To draw, glide. 4.

DRINK,

from Old English drincan, to drink, from nasalized

Germanic form *drenkan, to draw into the mouth, drink. 5. 6. from Old English drencan, to soak, from nasalized ograde Germanic causative form *drankjan, to cause to drink.
DROWN, DRENCH,

from a Scandinavian or late Old English source similar to Old Norse drukkna, to drown, from Germanic zero- grade suffixed form *drunk-non.

[Pokorny dhre- 273.]

dhreibhImportant derivatives are: drive, drift. To drive, push; snow. 4. 5. , from Old English drXfan, to drive, rush, from Germanic *drXban.
2

DRIVE, DROVE

from Middle English drift, drove, herd, akin to Old Norse drift, snowdrift, and Middle Dutch drift, herd, from Germanic zero-grade suffixed form *driftiz.

DRIFT,

[Pokorny dhreibh- 274.]

dhreuImportant derivatives are: drizzle, dreary, drowse, drop, droop, drip. To fall, flow, drip, droop. 1. Extended form *dhreus-. DRIZZLE, from Old English -drysnian (in gedrysnian, to pass away, vanish), from zero-grade Germanic derived verb *drus-inon. 2. Extended o-grade form *dhrous-. a. b.
DREARY,

from Old English drKor, flowing blood, from Germanic *drauzaz;

from Old English dr7sian, to be sluggish, from Germanic *dr7sjan.

DROWSE,

3. Extended zero-grade form *dhrub-.

a. b. c.

DROP,

from Old English dropa, drop, from Germanic *drupan;

DROOP,

from Old Norse dr7pa, to hang down, from Germanic *dr7pon, to let fall;
DRIP,

from Middle English drippen, to drip, drop, from an unattested Old English *dryppan or another source akin to Old English droppa, drop, from Germanic geminated *drupp-.

4. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhrubh-yo-. LITHOTRIPTER, (LITHOTRITY), from Greek thruptein, to crumble. [Pokorny dhreu- 274.]

dhughNterAn important derivative is: daughter. Daughter.

DAUGHTER,

from Old English dohtor, daughter, from Germanic *dohtKr.

[Pokorny dhug(h)Nter- 277.]

dh7-noImportant derivatives are: down1, dune, town. Enclosed, fortified place. Derivative of a verb *dhuN-, to close, finish, probably related to dheu-2, to die. a. b. 3.
TOWN, DOWN DUNE,
1

, DOWN3, from Old English d7n, hill;

from Middle Dutch d7ne, sandy hill. Both a and b from Germanic *d7naz, possibly from dh7-no-.

from Old English t7n, enclosed place, homestead, village, from Germanic *t7naz, fortified place, borrowed from Celtic *d7n-o-, hill, stronghold.

[In Pokorny 4. dheu- 261.]

dhwerImportant derivatives are: door, foreign, forest, forfeit, forum. Door, doorway (usually in plural). Originally an apophonic noun *dhwor, *dhur-, in the plural, designating the entrance to the enclosure (*dhwor-o-) surrounding the house proper. 1. Zero-grade form *dhur- in suffixed forms *dhur-is (accusative plural) and *dhur-o- (neuter). DOOR, from Old English duru, door (feminine, originally plural), and dor, door (neuter), respectively from Germanic *durunz and *duram. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *dhwor-7ns (accusative plural). FOREIGN, from Latin for7s, (toward) out of doors, outside. 3. Suffixed o-grade form *dhwor-ois (locative plural). FOREST; (AFFOREST), FAUBOURG, FORECLOSE, FORFEIT, from Latin forXs, (being) out of doors. 4. Suffixed o-grade form *dhwor-o-. FORENSIC, FORUM, from Latin forum, marketplace (originally the enclosed space around a home). 5.
DURBAR,

from Old Persian duvara-, door, gate.

6. Zero-grade form *dhur-. THYROID, from Greek thura, door. [Pokorny dhLr- 278.]

digh7Important derivatives are: tongue, language, linguist. Tongue. a. b. 1.

TONGUE, BILTONG,

from Old English tunge, tongue;

from Middle Dutch tonghe, tongue. Both a and b from Germanic *tungon-.

LANGUAGE, LANGUET, LIGULA, LIGULE, LINGO, LINGUA, LINGUIST;

(BILINGUAL), from Latin lingua (dingua), tongue, language. [Pokorny dih7 223.]

doImportant derivatives are: date, add, betray, edition, rent1, surrender, tradition, traitor, vend, donation, pardon, endow, dose, antidote. To give. Contracted from *doN-. a. Zero-grade form *dN-. DADO, DATE1, DATIVE, DATUM, DIE2; 1 ADD, (BETRAY), EDITION, PERDITION, RENDER, (RENT ), (SURRENDER), TRADITION, (TRAITOR), (TREASON), VEND, from Latin dare, to give; b. (see 4) Greek dosis, something given. 1. Suffixed form *do-no-. DONATION, (DONATIVE), (DONOR); CONDONE, PARDON, from Latin donum, gift. 2. Suffixed form *do-t(i)-. a. b. c.
DOT

, DOWAGER, DOWER, (DOWRY); ENDOW, from Latin dos (genitive dotis), dowry;
2

DACHA,

from Russian dacha, gift, dacha, from Slavic from Russian samizdat, samizdat, from dat',

*datja;
SAMIZDAT,

to give. 3. Suffixed form *do-ro-. LOBSTER THERMIDOR, from Greek doron, gift. 4. Reduplicated form *di-do-. DOSE; ANECDOTE, ANTIDOTE, APODOSIS, EPIDOTE, from Greek didonai, to give, with zero-grade noun dosis (< *dN-ti-), something given. [Pokorny do- 223.]

dusA derivative is: dys-. Bad, evil; mis- (used as a prefix). Derivative of deu-1. DYS-, from Greek dus-, bad.

[Pokorny dus- 227.]

dwoImportant derivatives are: two, twelve, twilight, biscuit, twist, twice, twenty, twine, between, twin, binary, combine, twig1, diploma, deuce1, dozen, dual, duet, double, duplicate, doubt, dubious. Two. I. Variant form *duwo. a. b. from Old English tw8, two (nominative feminine and neuter);
TWAIN, TWO,

from Old English twKgen, two (nominative and accusative masculine). Both a and b from Germanic *twa, two.

2.

from Old English twelf, twelve, and twelfta, twelfth, from Germanic compound *twa-lif-, two left (over from ten), twelve (*-lif-, left; see leikw-).

TWELFTH, TWELVE,

II. Adverbial form *dwis and combining form *dwi-. a. b. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

BI1

TWIBILL, TWILIGHT,

from Old English twi-, two;

ZWIEBACK, ZWITTERION,

from Old High German zwi-, twice. Both a and b from Germanic *twi-.

, BIS; BALANCE, BAROUCHE, BEZEL, BISCUIT, from Latin bis (combining form bi-), twice.
DI1

, from Greek dis (combining form di-), twice.

TWIST,

from Old English -twist, divided object, fork, rope, from Germanic *twis.

from Old English twige, twiga, twice, from Germanic *twiyes. from Old English twKntig, twenty, from Germanic compound *twKgentig, twice ten (*-tig, ten; see dekc). from Old English twXn, double thread, from Germanic *twXhna, double thread, twisted thread.
TWINE, TWENTY,

TWICE,

8.

from Old English betwKonum and betweox, betwix, between, from Germanic compounds *bitwXhna and *bi-twisk, at the middle point of two (bi, at, by; see ambhi).
TWILL,

BETWEEN, BETWIXT, (TWIXT),

9.

from Old English twilic, woven of double thread, from Germanic compound *twilic-, two-threaded fabric.

10. Suffixed form *dwis-no-. a. b. from Old English twinn, getwinn, two by two, twin, from Germanic *twisnaz, double;
BI-, BINAL, BINARY; COMBINE, TWIN,

from Latin bXnX, two by two,

two each. 11. Suffixed form *dwi-ko-. TWIG1, from Old English twigge, a branch, from Germanic *twig(g)a, a fork. 12. Compound *dwi-plo-, twofold (*-plo-, -fold; see pel-2). DIPLO-, DIPLOE, DIPLOID, DIPLOMA; ANADIPLOSIS, from Greek diploos, diplous, twofold. 13. Suffixed reduplicated form *dwi-du-mo-. DIDYMIUM, DIDYMOUS; EPIDIDYMIS, TETRADYMITE, from Greek didumos, double, the testicles. 14. Suffixed form *dwi-gha. DICHASIUM, DICHO-, from Greek dikha, in two. III. Inflected form *duwo. 1. 2.
DEUCE
1

, DOZEN, DUAL, DUET, DUO, DUO-; DUODECIMAL, from Latin duo, from Greek duo, duo, two.

two.
DUAD, DYAD; DODECAGON, HENDIADYS,

IV. Variant form *du-. 1. Compound *du-plo-, twofold (*-plo-, -fold; see pel-2). DOUBLE, (DOUBLET), DOUBLOON, DUPLE, from Latin duplus, double. 2. Compound *du-plek-, twofold (*-plek-, -fold; see plek-). DUPLEX, DUPLICATE, DUPLICITY; CONDUPLICATE, from Latin duplex, double.

3. Suffixed form *du-bhw-io-. DOUBT, DUBIOUS; (REDOUBTABLE), from Latin dubius, doubtful (dubit7re, to be in doubt. [Pokorny do(u)- 228.]

edImportant derivatives are: eat, etch, edible. To eat; original meaning to bite. See dent-. a. b. c. d.
EAT,

from Old English etan, to eat; from Old High German ezzen, to feed on, eat;

ETCH, ORT, FRET

1

from Middle Dutch eten, to eat;

, from Old English fretan, to devour, from Germanic compound *fra-etan, to eat up (*fra-, completely; see per1). a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *etan. from Latin edere, to eat.

5. 6.

EDACIOUS, EDIBLE, ESCAROLE, ESCULENT, ESURIENT; COMEDO, COMESTIBLE, OBESE,

PRANDIAL,

from Latin compound prandium (syncopated from *pram-ed-ium), first meal, lunch (*pram-, first; see per1).

7. Suffixed form *ed-un-7. ANODYNE, PLEURODYNIA, from Greek odunK, pain ( 8. SAMOYED, from Russian -ed, eater. [Pokorny ed- 287.]

eg Important derivatives are: I, ego. I. Nominative form of the personal pronoun of the first person singular. For oblique forms see me-1. 12. I, from Old English ic, I, from Germanic *ek. 13. Extended form *ego. EGO, (EGOIST), (EGOTISM), from Latin ego, I.

[Pokorny e- 291.]

eghs Important derivatives are: ex-, exotic, external, extra-, strange, extreme. Out. 5. Variant *eks. a. b.
EX
1

, EX-, from Latin ex, ex-, out of, away from; from

ECTO-, EXO-, EXOTERIC, EXOTIC; ELECTUARY, SYNECDOCHE,

Greek ex, ek, out of, from. 6. Suffixed (comparative) variant form *eks-tero-. EXTERIOR, EXTERNAL, EXTRA-, STRANGE, from Latin exter, outward (feminine ablative exter7, extr7, on the outside). 7. Suffixed (superlative) form. EXTREME, from Latin extrKmus, outermost (*-mo-, superlative suffix). 8. Suffixed form *eghs-ko-. ESCHATOLOGY, from Greek eskhatos, outermost, last. 9. 10.
EISTEDDFOD,

from Welsh eistedd, sitting, from Celtic *eks-dX-

sedo-.
SAMIZDAT,

from Russian iz, from, out of, from Balto-Slavic *iz.

[Pokorny ehs 292.]

KgwhA derivative is: inebriate. To drink. Suffixed form *Kgwh-r-yo-. a.

INEBRIATE,

from Latin Kbrius, drunk;

b. (see s(w)e-) Latin compound sobrius (sK, without).

ei-

Important derivatives are: ambition, circuit, exit2, issue, perish, sudden, transit, ion, commence, initial, janitor, January. To go. 8. Full-grade form *ei-. a.
ADIT, AMBIENT, (AMBITION), CIRCUIT, COITUS, COMITIA, EXIT, INTROIT, ISSUE, OBITUARY, PERISH, PRAETOR, PRETERIT, SEDITION,

(SUBITO), SUDDEN, (TRANCE), TRANSIENT, (TRANSIT), (TRANSITIVE), from Latin Xre, to go; b.
ION; ANION, CATION, DYSPROSIUM,

from Greek ienai, to go.

9. Suffixed zero-grade form *i-t-. a. further suffixed form *i-t-yo-. COMMENCE, INITIAL, INITIATE, from Latin initium, entrance, beginning (in-, in; see en); b. , COUNTY; CONCOMITANT, CONSTABLE, (VISCOUNT), from Latin comes (stem comit-), companion (com-, with; see kom).
COUNT
2

10. Suffixed form *i-ter. ERRANT, EYRE, ITINERANT, ITINERARY, from Latin iter, journey. 11. Extended form *y7- (< *yaN-) in suffixed forms *y7-no-, *y7nu-. a. from Latin i7nus, archway, and I7nus, god of doors and of the beginning of a year;
JANITOR, JANUARY, JANUS,

b. HINAYANA, MAHAYANA, from Sanskrit y7nam, way (in Buddhism, mode of knowledge, vehicle). [Pokorny 1. ei- 293.]

KikImportant derivatives are: ought1, owe, own, freight. To be master of, possess. 1. , OWE, from Old English 7gan, to possess, from Germanic *aigan, to possess.
OUGHT
1

2. 3.

from Old English 7gen, one's own, from Germanic participial form *aiganaz, possessed, owned.
OWN,

from Middle Low German and Middle Dutch vrecht, vracht, earnings, hire for a ship, freight, from Germanic prefixed form *fra-aihtiz, absolute possession, property (*fra-, intensive prefix; see per1).

FRAUGHT, FREIGHT,

[Pokorny Kik- 298.]

eisImportant derivatives are: irate, hierarchy, iron. In words denoting passion. 14. Suffixed form *eis-7-. IRASCIBLE, IRATE, IRE, from Latin Xra, anger. 15. Suffixed zero-grade form *is-(N)ro-, powerful, holy. HIERATIC, HIERO-; HIERARCH, (HIERARCHY), HIEROGLYPHIC, HIEROPHANT, from Greek hieros, filled with the divine, holy. a. b.
IRON,

from Old English Xse(r)n, Xren, iron;

GISARME, SPIEGELEISEN,

from Old High German Xsarn, Xsan, iron. Both a and b from Germanic *Xsarno-, holy metal (possibly from Celtic).

16. Suffixed o-grade form *ois-tro-, madness. ESTRUS; (ESTRONE), from Greek oistros, gadfly, goad, anything causing madness. [Pokorny 1. eis- 299.]

ekwoDerivatives are: equestrian, hippopotamus. Horse. Probably originally derived from oku-. 7. 8.
EQUESTRIAN, EQUINE, EQUITANT, (EQUITATION); EQUISETUM,

from Latin

equus, horse.
EOHIPPUS, HIPPOCAMPUS, HIPPOPOTAMUS,

HIPPOCRENE, HIPPODROME, HIPPOGRIFF,

from Greek hippos, horse.

[Pokorny eo-s 301.]

elAn important derivative is: elbow. Elbow, forearm. Extended o-grade form *olin7, elbow. a. b.
ELL

, from Old English eln, forearm, cubit, from Germanic *alino;

2

from Old English elnboga, elbow, from Germanic compound *alino-bugon-, bend of the forearm, elbow (*bugon-, bend, bow; see bheug-);
ULNA,

ELBOW,

c.

from Latin ulna, forearm;

d. lengthened variant form *olen7-. OLECRANON, from Greek olenK, elbow. [Pokorny 8. el- 307.]

emImportant derivatives are: example, exempt, premium, prompt, ransom, redeem, sample, vintage, assume, consume, resume. To take, distribute. 7.
ADEMPTION, EXAMPLE, (EXEMPLARY), (EXEMPLIFY), (EXEMPLUM),

(EXEMPT), (IMPROMPTU), PEREMPTORY, PREEMPTION, PREMIUM, PROMPT, (RANSOM), REDEEM, (REDEMPTION), (SAMPLE), VINTAGE, from Latin emere, to obtain, buy. 8.
SUMPTUARY, (SUMPTUOUS); ASSUME, CONSUME, PRESUME, RESUME, SUBSUME,

from Latin s7mere (< *sus(e)m-), to take, obtain, buy (sus-, variant of sub-, up from under; see upo).

[Pokorny em- 310.]

en Important derivatives are: in1, inner, en-1, intro-, enter, intimate2, industry, episode,

and. In. a. b. c. d. e.
IN IN
1

(preposition), from Old English in, in; (adverb), from Old English inn, into, inne, inside; from Old English inn, habitation, inn; from Old High German in, in;

INN,

TSIMMES, INNER,

from Old English innera, farther in, inner, from Germanic (comparative) *inn(e)ra; i. ii.
BEN,

from Old English binnan, within;

BILANDER,

from Middle Dutch binnen, within (be, by; see ambhi + innan, in, within). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *innan. a, b, c, d, e, and f all from Germanic *in.

2. 3.

ENEN-

, IN-2, from Latin in, in-, in, into. ; ENKEPHALIN, PARENCHYMA, PARENTHESIS, from Greek en, en-.

4. Suffixed form *en-t(e)ro-. a. b. c.

INTRO-; INTRODUCE, INTROIT, INTROMIT, INTRORSE, INTROSPECT,

from Latin intro, inward, within;

ENTER, INTRA-; (INTRADOS), INTERIM, INTRINSIC,

from Latin intr7, inside, within;

from Latin interim, meanwhile, with ablative suffix -im; intrXnsecus, on the inside, from int(e)rim + secus, alongside (see sekw-1).

5. Suffixed form *en-ter. ENTRAILS, INTER-, INTERIOR, INTERNAL, from Latin inter, inter-, between, among. 6. , from Latin (superlative) intimus, innermost (*-mo-, superlative suffix).
2

INTIMA, INTIMATE

7. Extended form *en-do. a. from Latin industrius, diligent (*stru-, to construct; see ster-2);
INDUSTRY,

b.

from Latin indigKre, to be in need (egKre, to be in need). Both a and b from indu-, within, from Old Latin endo;
ENDO-,

INDIGENT,

c.

from Greek endo, endo-, within.

8. Suffixed form *en-tos. a. b.

DEDANS, INTESTINE, INTINE, INTUSSUSCEPTION,

from Latin

intus, within, inside;

ENTO-,

from Greek entos, within.

9. Suffixed form *en-tero-. (ENTERIC), ENTERO-, ENTERON; DYSENTERY, EXENTERATE, MESENTERY, from Greek enteron, intestine. 10. Extended form *ens. a.
EPISODE,

from Greek eis, into;

b. suffixed form *ens-o. ESOTERIC, from Greek eso, within. 11. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *i-dha. AND, from Old English and, and, from Germanic *anda, *unda. [Pokorny 1. en 311.]

epi An important derivative is: epi-. Also opiNear, at, against. 10. 11. 12.
OB-, EPI-,

from Latin ob, ob-, before, to, against. from Greek epi, on, over, at. from Greek opisthen, behind,

OPISTHOBRANCH, OPISTHOGNATHOUS,

at the back. 13. Zero-grade *pi, on. (see sed-) Greek piezein, to press tight. 14.
OBLAST,

from Russian oblast', oblast, from Old Church Slavonic

ob, on. 15. Prefix *op- in *op-wer-yo-, to cover over (see wer-4).

[Pokorny epi 323.]

er-1 Important derivatives are: are1, earnest1, orient, origin, original, abort. To move, set in motion. 9. , ART2, from Old English eart and aron, second person singular and plural present of bKon, to be, from Germanic *ar-, *or-, *art(a), to be, exist, probably from er-1.
ARE
1

10.

, from Old English eornoste, zealous, serious, from Germanic suffixed form *er-n-os-ti-, perhaps from er-1.
EARNEST
1

11. Suffixed form *or-yo-. ORIENT, ORIGIN, (ORIGINAL); ABORT, from Latin orXrX, to arise, appear, be born. 12. Suffixed form *or-sm7-. HORMONE, from Greek hormK, impulse, onrush. [Pokorny 3. er- 326; ergh- 339.]

er-2 An important derivative is: earth. Earth, ground. Extended form *ert-. a. b. [Pokorny 4. er- 332.]
EARTH,

from Old English eorthe, earth;

AARDVARK, AARDWOLF,

from Middle Dutch aerde, eerde, earth. Both a and b from Germanic *ertho.

erNImportant derivatives are: row2, rudder. To row. 11. Variant form *rK- (< *reN-). a.
ROW
2

, from Old English rowan, to row, from Germanic

*ro-; b. suffixed form *ro-tro-. RUDDER, RUSSIAN, from Old English rother and Old Norse rodhr, steering oar, both from Germanic *rothra, rudder; c. suffixed form *rK-smo-. BIREME, REMEX, TRIREME, from Latin rKmus, oar. 12. Oldest variant form *NreN- becoming *erK-. TRIERARCH, from Greek triKrKs, trireme. [Pokorny 1. erN- 338.]

ersImportant derivatives are: race2, erratic, error. To be in motion. 21. Variant form *rKs-. RACE2, from Old Norse r7s, rushing, from Germanic *rKs-. 22. Form *ers-7-. ERR, ERRATIC, ERRATUM, ERRONEOUS, ERROR; ABERRATION, from Latin err7re, to wander. [Pokorny 2. ere-s- 336.]

esImportant derivatives are: am1, is, yes, soothe, sin1, essence, absent, interest, present1, proud. To be. 3. Athematic first person singular form *es-mi. AM1, from Old English eam, eom, am, from Germanic *izm(i). 4. Athematic third person singular form *es-ti. IS, from Old English is, is, from Germanic *ist(i). 5. Optative stem *sX-. YES, from Old English gKse, yes, (gKa, yea; see i- + sXe), from sXe, may it be (so), from Germanic *sijai-. 6. Participial form *sont-, being, existing, hence real, true. a.
SOOTH, SOOTHE,

from Old English soth, true, from

Germanic *santhaz; b. suffixed (collective) zero-grade form *sit-y7, that which is. SIN1, from Old English synn, sin, from Germanic *sun(d)jo, sin ( c.
SUTTEE; BODHISATTVA, SATYAGRAHA,

from Sanskrit sat-, sant-

, existing, true, virtuous. 7. Basic form *es-. ENTITY, ESSENCE; ABSENT, (IMPROVE), INTEREST, OSSIA, 1 2 PRESENT , (PRESENT ), PROUD, (QUINTESSENCE), (REPRESENT), from Latin esse, to be. 8. Basic form *es-. -ONT, ONTO-; (-BIONT), HOMOIOUSIAN, PAROUSIA, (SCHIZONT), from Greek einai (present participle ont-, being), to be (in pareinai, to be present). 9. Suffixed form *es-ti-. SWASTIKA, from Sanskrit sv-as-ti-, wellbeing (see su-). [Pokorny es- 340. See extension (e)su-.]

(e)suA derivative is: eu-. Good. Suffixed form of es-. EU-, from Greek eu-, well, combining form of eus, good. [Pokorny esu-s 342. See su-.]

eu-1 A derivative is: endue. To dress. 16. 17. 18.

ENDUE,

from Latin induere, to don (ind-, variant of in-, in, on; see en).
EXUVIAE,

from Latin exuere, to doff (ex-, off; see eghs). from Latin reduvia, fragment (red-, back, in reverse;

REDUVIID,

see re-). [Pokorny 2. eu- 346. See extension wes-2.]

eu-2 Important derivatives are: wane, want, vanish, vacant, vacation, vacuum, void, avoid, evacuate, waste. Lacking, empty. Extended forms *euN-, *w7-, *wN-. 11. Suffixed form *wN-no-. a. b. from Old English wanian, to lessen, and wana, lack, from Germanic *wanKn; from Old Norse vanta, to lack, from North Germanic *wanaton.
WANT, WANE,

12. Suffixed form *w7-no-. VAIN, VANITY, VAUNT; EVANESCE, VANISH, from Latin v7nus, empty. 13. Extended form *wak-. VACANT, VACATE, VACATION, (VACUITY),VACUUM, VOID; (AVOID), (DEVOID), EVACUATE, from Latin vac7re (variant voc7re), to be empty. 14. Extended and suffixed form *w7s-to-. WASTE; DEVASTATE, from Latin v7stus, empty, waste. [Pokorny 1. eu- 345.]

euN-dh-y Derivatives are: udder, exuberant. Udder. Related to wK-r-. 29. Suffixed zero-grade form *7dh-y. UDDER, from Old English 7der, udder, from Germanic *7dr-. 30. Suffixed o-grade form *oudh-y. (EXUBERANT), EXUBERATE, from Latin adjective 7ber, fertile, derived from 7ber, breast. [Pokorny Kudh- 347.]

galImportant derivatives are: call, clatter. To call, shout. 9. 10. from Old Norse kalla, to call, from Germanic expressive form *kall-.
CLATTER, CALL,

from Old English *clatrian, to clatter, from Germanic

*klat-. 11. Expressive form *gall-. GALLINACEOUS, (GALLINULE), from Latin gallus, cock (Gallus, Gallic, as if to mean the bird of Gaul, the cock being archaeologically attested as an important symbol in the iconography of Roman and pre-Roman Gaul). 12. Suffixed form *gal-so-. GLASNOST, from a Slavic source akin to Old Church Slavonic glas, voice. 13. Reduplicated form gal-gal-. GLAGOLITIC, from a Slavic source akin to Old Church Slavonic glagol, word. [Pokorny 2. gal- 350.]

g7uImportant derivatives are: gaudy1, joy, enjoy, rejoice. To rejoice; also to have religious fear or awe. Contracted from *gaNu-. 14. Suffixed form *gau-d-K-. GAUD, (GAUDY1), GAUDY2, JOY; ENJOY, REJOICE, from Latin gaudKre, to rejoice. 15. Form (with nasal infix) *gN-n-u-. GANOID, from Greek ganusthai, to rejoice. [Pokorny g7u- 353.]

gelImportant derivatives are: chill, cold, cool, jelly, glacier. Cold; to freeze. 11.
CHILL,

from Old English c(i)ele, chill, from Germanic *kaliz,

coldness. 12.
COLD,

from Old English ceald, cold, from Germanic *kaldaz,

COOL, KEEL
3

cold. a. b. from Old English col, cold, cool;

, from Old English cKlan, to cool, from Germanic *koljan, to cool. Both a and b from Germanic *kol-, cool.

13. Suffixed form *gel-7-. GELATIN, GELATION, JELLY; CONGEAL, from Latin gel7re, to freeze. 14. Suffixed form *gel-u-. GELID, from Latin gel7, frost, cold. 15. Probably suffixed zero-grade form *g_-k-. (GLAC), GLACIAL, GLACIATE, GLACIER, GLACIS, from Latin glaciKs, ice. [Pokorny 3. gel(N)- 365.]

gembhImportant derivatives are: comb, unkempt, gem. Tooth, nail. I. Suffixed o-grade form *gombh-o-. a. b. c.
COMB, KAME, CAM,

from Old English comb, camb, comb;

from Dutch kam, cog, comb;

from Old English cemban, to comb, from Germanic denominative *kambjan, to comb. a, b, and c all from Germanic *kambaz, comb. from Greek gomphos, tooth, peg, bolt.

UNKEMPT,

2.

GOMPHOSIS,

II. Suffixed zero-grade form *gcbh-on-. OAKUM, from Old English 7cumba, oakum. III. CHIME2, from Old English cim-, cimb-, rim (only in compounds), from Germanic *kimb-, perhaps from gembh-. IV. Possibly suffixed form *gembh-m7. GEM, GEMMA, GEMMATE, GEMMULE, from Latin gemma, bud, hence gem.

[Pokorny embh- 369.]

gemNDerivatives are: gamete, -gamous, -gamy. To marry. Suffixed zero-grade form *gcN- o-. GAMETE, GAMO-, -GAMOUS, -GAMY, from Greek gamos, marriage. [Pokorny em(e)- 369.]

genNImportant derivatives are: kin, king, kind1, kind2, gentle, general, generate, genius, engine, genuine, germ, genital, pregnant, nation, native, nature. Also gen-To give birth, beget; with derivatives referring to aspects and results of procreation and to familial and tribal groups. 12. Suffixed zero-grade form *gi-yo-. a. b.
KIN; KINDRED, KING,

from Old English cyn(n), race, family, kin;

from Old English cyning, king, from Germanic *kuningaz, king. Both a and b from Germanic *kunjam, family.

13. Suffixed zero-grade form *gi-t-. a.

KIND

, from Old English cynd, gecynd(e), origin, birth, race, family, kind, from Germanic *kundjaz, family, race;
2

b.

, from Old English gecynde, natural, native, fitting (ge-, collective prefix; see kom), from Germanic *kundiz, natural, native;
KIND
1

c. Suffixed form *gi-ti-. GENS, (GENTEEL), (GENTILE), GENTLE; GENDARME, from Latin gKns (stem gent-), race, clan; d.
KINDERGARTEN,

KRISS KRINGLE, from Old High German

kind, child, from Germanic secondary full-grade variant *kentham.

14. Suffixed full-grade form *gen-es-. a.

GENDER, GENERAL, GENERATE, (GENERATION), GENERIC, GENEROUS, GENRE, GENUS; CONGENER, DEGENERATE, (ENGENDER), MISCEGENATION,

from Latin genus (stem gener-), race,

kind; b.
GENE; ALLOGENEIC, GENEALOGY, GENOCIDE, GENOTYPE, HETEROGENEOUS, SYNGENEIC,

from Greek genos and genea,

race, family; c. -GEN, -GENY; EPIGENE, from Greek suffix -genKs, -born. 15. Suffixed full-grade form *gen-yo-. a.
GENIAL

, GENIUS; (CONGENIAL), from Latin genius, procreative divinity, inborn tutelary spirit, innate quality;
1

b.

ENGINE, INGENIOUS,

from Latin ingenium, inborn character

(in-, in; see en). 16. Suffixed full-grade form *gen-7-. INDIGEN, (INDIGENOUS), from Latin indigena, born in (a place), indigenous (indu-, within; see en). 17. Suffixed full-grade form *genN-wo-. (GENUINE), INGENUOUS, from Latin ingenuus, born in (a place), native, natural, freeborn (in-, in; see en). 18. Suffixed full-grade form *gen-men-. GERM, GERMAN2, (GERMANE), GERMINAL, GERMINATE, from dissimilated Latin germen, shoot, bud, embryo, germ. 19. Suffixed secondary zero-grade form *giN-ti-. GENESIS, -GENESIS, from Greek genesis, birth, beginning. 20. Reduplicated form *gi-gn-. GENITAL, GENITIVE, GENITOR, GENT1, (GINGERLY); CONGENITAL, PRIMOGENITOR, PRIMOGENITURE, PROGENITOR, (PROGENY), from Latin gignere (past participle genitus), to beget. 21. Suffixed zero-grade form *-gn-o-. BENIGN, MALIGN, from Latin benignus, good-natured, kindly (bene, well; see deu-2), and malignus, evil-natured, malevolent (male, ill; see mel-3).

22. Zero-grade form *giN- becoming *gn7-. PREGNANT1, from Latin praegn7s, pregnant (prae-, before; see per1). 23. Suffixed zero-grade form *giN-sko- becoming *gn7-sko-. NAIVE, NASCENT, NATAL, NATION, NATIVE, NATURE, NE, NOL; (ADNATE), AGNATE, COGNATE, CONNATE, ENATE, INNATE, NEONATE, PUISNE, (PUNY), RENAISSANCE, from Latin gn7scX, n7scX (present participle n7scKns, past participle gn7tus, n7tus), to be born. 24. Suffixed o-grade form *gon-o-. GONAD, GONO-, -GONY; ARCHEGONIUM, EPIGONE, from Greek gonos (combining form gonos), child, procreation, seed. 25. Zero-grade form *gi-. (see kwymi-) Sanskrit kxmi-ja-, produced by worms, from ja-. [Pokorny 1. en- 373.]

genu-1 Important derivatives are: knee, kneel, diagonal. Knee; also angle. 4. Variant form *gneu-. a. b. from Old English cnKo, knee, from Germanic *knewam; from Old English cnKowlian, to kneel, from Germanic *knewljan.
KNEEL, KNEE,

5. Basic form *genu-. GENICULATE, GENUFLECT, from Latin gen7, knee. 6. O-grade form *gonu. POLYGONUM, PYCNOGONID, from Greek gonu, knee. 7. Suffixed variant form *gonw-yN-. -GON, GONION; AMBLYGONITE, DIAGONAL, GONIOMETER, ORTHOGONAL, from Greek gonia, angle, corner. [Pokorny 1. enu- 380.]

genu-2

An important derivative is: chin. Jawbone, chin. 17. Form *genw-. CHIN, from Old English cin(n), chin, from Germanic *kinnuz. 18. Basic form *genu-. GENIAL2, from Greek genus, jaw, chin. 19. Suffixed variant form *gnN-dho-. GNATHAL, GNATHIC, -GNATHOUS; CHAETOGNATH, from Greek gnathos, jaw. 20. Variant form *g(h)enu-. HANUMAN, from Sanskrit hanu, jaw. [Pokorny 2. enu- 381.]

gerImportant derivatives are: cram, congregate, segregate, category. To gather. 9. Extended form *grem-. CRAM, from Old English crammian, to stuff, cram, from Germanic *kramm-. 10. Reduplicated form *gre-g-. GREGARIOUS; AGGREGATE, CONGREGATE, EGREGIOUS, SEGREGATE, from Latin grex (stem greg-), herd, flock. 11. Earliest forms *Nger-, *Ngor-7-. AGORA1, AGORAPHOBIA, ALLEGORY, CATEGORY, PANEGYRIC, from Greek ageirein, to assemble, and aguris, agora, marketplace. [Pokorny 1. ger- 382.]

gerbhImportant derivatives are: carve, crab1, crawl1, gram1, grammar, diagram, paragraph, program. To scratch. 6. 7. from Old English ceorfan, to cut, from Germanic *kerban. from Old English cyrf, a cutting (off), from zero-grade Germanic form *kurbiz.
KERF, CARVE,

8. Variant form *grebh-.

a. b. c.

CRAB

, from Old English crabba, a crab, from Germanic *krab(b)-;

1

from Old High German kerbiz, edible crustacean, from Germanic *krabiz-;
CRAWL

CRAYFISH,

, from Old Norse krafla, to crawl, from Germanic *krab-, perhaps from gerbh-.
1

9. Zero-grade form *gybh-. GRAFFITO, GRAM1, -GRAM, GRAMMAR, -GRAPH, -GRAPHER, GRAPHIC, -GRAPHY; AGRAPHA, AGRAPHIA, ANAGRAM, DIAGRAM, EPIGRAM, (EPIGRAPH), GRAPHITE, (ICONOGRAPHY), PARAGRAPH, PARALLELOGRAM, PROGRAM, PSEUDEPIGRAPHA, TETRAGRAMMATON, (TOPOGRAPHY), from Greek graphein, to scratch, draw, write, gramma (< *gybh-mi), a picture, written letter, piece of writing, and grammK, a line. [Pokorny gerebh- 392.]

gerN-1 An important derivative is: geriatrics. To grow old. 9. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *gKrN-s-. AGERATUM, GERIATRICS, from Greek gKras, old age. 10. Suffixed form *gerN-ont-. GERONTO-, from Greek geron (stem geront-), old man. [Pokorny ger- 390.]

gerN-2 Important derivatives are: crow1, crack, crane, cranberry, pedigree, geranium. To cry hoarsely; also the name of the crane. I. Words meaning to cry hoarsely; also words denoting the crow. a. b. c.
CROW CROW
1

, from Old English cr7we, a crow;

, from Old English cr7wan, to crow; from Old English cracian, to resound;

CRACK,

d. e. f. 2.
CUR,

CRACKNEL, CRAKE,

from Middle Dutch kr7ken, to crack;

from Old Norse kr7ka, a crow;

CROON,

from Middle Dutch kronen, to groan, lament. a, b, c, d, e, and f all from Germanic *krK-.

from Middle English curre, cur, akin to Old Norse kurra, to growl, from Germanic *kur(r)-, possibly from gerN-2 (but more likely imitative).

II. Words denoting a crane. a. b.

CRANE,

from Old English cran, crane;

CRANBERRY,

from Middle Low German kran, crane. Both a and b from Germanic *kran-, crane.

2. Extended form *gr7-. GRUS; PEDIGREE, from Latin gr7s, crane. 3. Suffixed variant form *gr7-k-. GRACKLE, from Latin gr7culus, jackdaw. 4. Suffixed extended form *gerN-no-. GERANIUM, from Greek geranos, crane. [Pokorny 2. ger- 383.]

geusImportant derivatives are: choose, choice, disgust. To taste, choose. a. b.

CHOOSE,

from Old English cKosan, ceosan, to choose, from Germanic *keusan;

CHOICE,

from a Germanic source akin to Gothic kausjan, to test, taste, from Germanic causative *kausjan.

16. Zero-grade *gus-. (see welN-) Old Norse Valkyrja, chooser of the slain, Valkyrie (valr, the slain), from Germanic *kur- from *kuz-. 17. Suffixed zero-grade form *gus-tu-. a. (GUST2), GUSTO; RAGOUT, from Latin gustus, taste;

b. [Pokorny eus- 399.]

DEGUST, DISGUST,

from Latin gust7re, to taste.

ghabhImportant derivatives are: give, forgive, gift, able, habit, exhibit, inhabit, malady, prohibit, debt, due, duty, endeavor. Also ghebh-To give or receive. 13. Form *ghebh-. a. b. from Old English giefan, to give, and Old Norse gefa, to give; from Old English forgi(e)fan, to give, give up, leave off (anger), remit, forgive, from Germanic compound *far-geban, to give away (*far-, away; see per1). Both a and b from Germanic *geban.
FORGIVE, GIVE,

14. Suffixed form *ghebh-ti-, something given (or received). GIFT, from Old Norse gipt, gift, a gift, from Germanic *giftiz. 15. O-grade form *ghobh-. GAVEL2, from Old English gafol, tribute, tax, debt, from Germanic *gab-ulam, something paid (or received). 16. Form *ghabh-K-. a.
ABLE, BINNACLE, HABILE, HABIT, HABITABLE, (HABITANT),

(HABITAT); (COHABIT), EXHIBIT, INHABIT, INHIBIT, MALADY, PREBEND, PROHIBIT, (PROVENDER), from Latin habKre, to hold, possess, have, handle ( habit7re, to dwell); b.
DEBENTURE, (DEBIT), DEBT, DEVOIR, DUE, (DUTY); (ENDEAVOR),

from Latin dKbKre, to owe (dK-, away from; see de-). [Pokorny ghabh- 407. Compare kap-.]

ghansImportant derivatives are: goose1, gosling, gander. Goose.

c. d. e. f.

GOOSE

; (GOSHAWK), from Old English gos (nominative plural gKs), goose;

1

GOSLING, GUNSEL, GONZO,

from Old Norse g7s, goose;

from Old High German gans, goose;

from Spanish ganso, goose, from a Germanic source akin to Old High German gans, goose. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *gans- (nominative plural *gansiz).

9. 10.

GANDER,

from Old English ganra, gandra, gander, from Germanic *gan(d)ron-.

from Old English ganot, gannet, from Germanic *ganoton-.

GANNET,

11. Suffixed form *ghans-er-. ANSERINE; MERGANSER, from Latin 7nser (< *hanser), goose. 12. Basic form *ghans-. CHENOPOD, from Greek khKn, goose. [Pokorny hans- 412.]

ghKImportant derivatives are: go, ago, heir, heritage, inherit, gait. To release, let go; (in the middle voice) to be released, go. Contracted from *gheN-. 13. , FORGO, from Old English g7n, to go, from Germanic variant form *gaian.
1

GO; AGO, FOREGO

14. Suffixed form *ghK-ro-. HEIR, HEREDITAMENT, HEREDITY, (HERITAGE); INHERIT, from Latin hKrKs, heir (? < bereft). 15. Possibly suffixed o-grade form *gho-ro-, empty space. a. from Greek khoros, place, country, particular spot;
CHOROGRAPHY,

b. -CHORE; ANCHORITE, from Greek denominative khorein, to move, go, spread about, make room for;

c.

CHORIPETALOUS,

from Greek khoris, khori, apart, separate.

16. Possible suffixed zero-grade form *ghN-t(w)7-. a.

GAIT, GATE
2

; RUNAGATE, from Old Norse gata, path, street;

b. (GANTLET1), GAUNTLET2, from Old Swedish gata, lane. Both a and b from Germanic *gatwon-, a going. 17. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghN-no-. HINAYANA, from Sanskrit hXna-, inferior, verbal adjective of jah7ti, he leaves, lets go (*ghe-ghK-ti, *ghe-gheN-ti). [Pokorny 1. hK- 418.]

ghebh-elDerivatives are: gable, cephalic. Head. 23. from Old Norse gafl, gable, from Germanic *gablaz, top of a pitched roof.
GABLE,

24. Form *kephal-, dissimilated from *khephal-. CEPHALIC, CEPHALO-, -CEPHALOUS; ENCEPHALO-, ENKEPHALIN, HYDROCEPHALUS, from Greek kephalK, head. [Pokorny ghebh-el- 423.]

ghedhImportant derivatives are: good, together, gather. To unite, join, fit. 10. Lengthened o-grade form *ghodh-. GOOD, from Old English god, good, from Germanic *godaz, fitting, suitable. 11. 12. from Old English togdere, together (to, to; see de-), from Germanic *gadurX, in a body. from Old English gad(e)rian, to gather, from Germanic *gaduron, to come or bring together.
GATHER, TOGETHER,

[Pokorny ghedh- 423.]

gheiAn important derivative is: hibernate. Theoretical base of *ghyem-, *ghiem-, winter. 19. Form *ghiem-. HIEMAL, from Latin hiems, winter. 20. Suffixed variant form *gheim-ri-no-. HIBERNACULUM, HIBERNATE, from Latin hXbernus, pertaining to winter. 21. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghim-y-yN, female animal one year (winter) old. CHIMERA, from Greek khimaira, she-goat. [Pokorny 2. hei- 425.]

ghel-1 Important derivatives are: yell, yelp, nightingale. To call. a. b. c.

YELL, YELP,

from Old English gellan, giellan, to sound, shout; from Old English gielpan, to boast, exult;

NIGHTINGALE,

from Old English galan, to sing. a, b, and c all from Germanic *gel-, *gal-.

15. Reduplicated form *ghi-ghl-. CICHLID, from Greek kikhlK, thrush, later also the name for a kind of wrasse (a sea fish that has bright colors and jagged waving fins, reminiscent of the plumage of a bird). 16.
CELANDINE,

from Greek khelidwon, khelidon, the swallow.

[Pokorny ghel- 428.]

ghel-2 Important derivatives are: yellow, gold, arsenic, gall1, melancholy, gleam, glimpse, glimmer, glitter, glass, glare1, glad, glee, glow, glide. To shine; with derivatives referring to colors, bright materials (probably yellow metal), and bile or gall. I. Words denoting colors.

1. Suffixed form *ghel-wo-. YELLOW, from Old English geolu, yellow, from Germanic *gelwaz. 2. Suffixed variant form *ghlo-ro-. CHLORO-; CHLORITE1, from Greek khloros, green, greenish yellow. 3. Suffixed variant form *ghlo-wo-. CHLOASMA, from Greek khloos (< *khlo-wo-s), greenish color. 4. O-grade form *ghol-. PODZOL, from Russian zola, ashes (from their color). 5. Suffixed form *ghel-i-. HARE KRISHNA, from Sanskrit hari-, tawny yellow. 6. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *gh_-wo-. GRISEOFULVIN, from Latin fulvus, tawny, perhaps from ghel-2 (with dialectal f- as in fel, gall). II. Words denoting gold. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *gh_-to-. a. b. c. d.
GOLD, GILD
1

from Old English gold, gold;

, from Old English gyldan, to gild, from Germanic denominative verb *gulthjan;
GUILDER, GULDEN, GOWAN,

from Middle Dutch gulden, golden;

from Middle English gollan, yellow flower, possibly from a source akin to Old Norse gullinn, golden. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *gultham, gold.

2. Suffixed o-grade form *ghol-to-. ZLOTY, from Polish zoto, gold. 3. Suffixed full-grade form *ghel-no-. ARSENIC, from Syriac zarnXk7, orpiment, from Middle Iranian *zarnik-, from Old Iranian *zarna-, golden. III. Words denoting bile. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *ghol-no-. GALL1, from Old English gealla, gall, from Germanic *gallon-, bile.

2. Suffixed o-grade form *ghol-7. CHOLE-, CHOLER, (CHOLERA); ACHOLIA, MELANCHOLY, from Greek kholK, bile. 3. Suffixed full-grade form *ghel-n-. FELON2, from Latin fel, bile. IV. A range of Germanic words (where no preforms are given, the words are late creations). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. from Old English gl<m, bright light, gleam, from Germanic *glaimiz.
GLIMPSE, GLEAM,

from Middle English glimsen, to glimpse, from a source akin to Middle High German glimsen, to gleam.
GLANCE

, GLINT, from Middle English glent, a glint, and glenten, to shine, from a source akin to Swedish dialectal glinta, to shine.
1

GLIMMER,

from Middle English glimeren, to glimmer, from a source akin to Swedish glimra, glimmer.
GLITTER,

from Old Norse glitra, to shine.

GLITZ,

from Old High German glXzan, to sparkle. from Old English glisnian, to shine.

GLISTEN, GLISTER,

from Middle Dutch glinsteren or Middle Low German glisteren, to shine.

GLASS, GLAZE, (GLAZIER),

from Old English gls, glass, from Germanic *glasam, glass.

1

, from Middle English glaren, to glitter, stare, from a source akin to Middle Low German glaren, to glisten, from Germanic *glaz-.
GLARE GLOSS
1

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

, from a source perhaps akin to Icelandic glossi, a spark.

2

GLANCE GLEG, GLAD,

, from Old High German glanz, bright.

from Old Norse glggr, clear-sighted.

from Old English gld, shining, joyful, from Germanic *gladaz. from Old English glKo, sport, merriment, from Germanic *gleujam.
GLEE,

a. b. c. d.

GLEED, GLOGG,

from Old English glKd, ember;

from Swedish gld, ember. Both a and b from Germanic *glo-di-.

GLOW,

from Old English glowan, to glow;

GLOWER,

from Middle English gloren, to gleam, stare, probably from a source akin to Norwegian dialectal glora, to gleam, stare;
GLOAT,

e.

from a source perhaps akin to Old Norse glotta, to smile (scornfully). a, b, and c all from Germanic *glo-. from Old English glom, twilight, from Germanic from Old English glXdan, to slip, glide; from Old French glier, to glide;

16.

GLOAMING,

*glo-m-. a. b. c. d.
GLIDE,

GLISSADE, GLITCH, GLEDE,

from Old High German glXtan, to glide;

from Old English glida, kite (< gliding, hovering bird), from derivative Germanic *glidon-. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *glXdan, to glide, possibly distantly related to ghel-2.

17.

GLIB,

from a source possibly akin to Middle Low German glibberich, slippery.

[Pokorny 1. hel- 429.]

ghendImportant derivatives are: get, forget, guess, prison, apprehend, comprehend, surprise, prey. Also ghed-To seize, take. a. b.
GET,

from Old Norse geta, to get;

from Old English beg(i)etan, to get, beget, from Germanic compound *bigetan, to acquire (*bi-, intensive prefix; see ambhi);

BEGET,

c.

from Old English forg(i)etan, to forget, from Germanic compound *fer-getan, to lose one's hold, forget (*fer-, prefix denoting rejection; see per1). a, b, and c all from Germanic *getan.

FORGET,

18.

from Middle English gessen, to guess, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Swedish gissa, to guess, from Germanic *getison, to try to get, aim at.

GUESS,

19. Basic form *ghend-. PREHENSILE, PREHENSION, PRISON, PRIZE2, (PRIZE3), (PRY2); APPREHEND, (APPRENTICE), (APPRISE), COMPREHEND, (COMPRISE), 1 EMPRISE, ENTERPRISE, (ENTREPRENEUR), MISPRISION , PREGNABLE, REPREHEND, (REPRISAL), (REPRISE), SURPRISE, from Latin prendere, prehendere, to get hold of, seize, grasp (pre-, prae-, before; see per1). 20. Form *ghed-. PREDATORY, PREY, SPREE; DEPREDATE, OSPREY, from Latin praeda, booty (< *prai-heda, something seized before; prai-, prae-, before; see per1). [Pokorny ghend- 437.]

gher-1 Important derivative are: girdle, yard2, orchard, kindergarten, garden, court, courteous, choir, choral. To grasp, enclose; with derivatives meaning enclosure. 13. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghy-dh-. a. b. c. , from Old English gyrdan, to gird, from Germanic *gurdjan;
GIRD
1

GIRDLE, GIRTH,

from Old English gyrdel, girdle;

from Old Norse gjrdh, girdle, girth.

14. Suffixed o-grade form *ghor-to- or (in Germanic) *ghor-dho-, an enclosure. i. ii. ; ORCHARD, from Old English geard, enclosure, garden, yard;
YARD
2

GARTH,

from Old Norse gardhr, garden, yard;

iii. iv. v.

KINDERGARTEN,

from Old High German garto,

garden;
GARDEN, HANGAR,

from Old North French gart, garden;

from Old French hangard, shelter, possibly from Germanic *haimgardaz (*haimaz, home; see tkei-);

vi. (see medhyo-) Germanic compound *midjagardaz, middle zone, earth. (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), and (vi) all from Germanic *gardaz; b.
HORTICULTURE, ORTOLAN,

from Latin hortus, garden.

15. Prefixed and suffiixed zero-grade form *ko(m)-ghy-ti(*ko(m)-, collective prefix, together; see kom). COHORT, CORTEGE, COURT, (COURTEOUS), COURTESAN, (COURTESY), (COURTIER), (CURTILAGE), (CURTSY), from Latin cohors (stem cohort-), enclosed yard, company of soldiers, multitude. 16. Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *ghor-o-. (CHOIR), (CHORAL), (CHORALE), CHORIC, (CHORISTER), CHORUS, HORA; CHORAGUS, TERPSICHORE, from Greek khoros, dancing ground (? perhaps originally a special enclosure for dancing), dance, dramatic chorus. [Pokorny 4. her- 442, herdh- 444.]

gher-2 Important derivatives are: yearn, greedy, exhort, charisma. To like, want. 10. Suffixed form *gher-n-. YEARN, from Old English giernan, gyrnan, to strive, desire, yearn, from Germanic *gernjan. 11. Possibly extended form *ghrK-. a. from Old English gr<dig, hungry, covetous, greedy, from Germanic *grKdigaz, hungry, formed from *grKduz, hunger;
CATACHRESIS, CHRESARD, CHRESTOMATHY, GREEDY,

b.

from Greek

khrKsthai, to lack, want, use, from khrK, it is necessary. 12. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghy-to-. HORTATIVE; EXHORT, from Latin hort7rX, to urge on, encourage ( 13. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghy-i-. CHARISMA; EUCHARIST, from Greek kharis, grace, favor. 14. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghy-yo-. CHERVIL, from Greek khairein, to rejoice, delight in. [Pokorny 1. her- 440.]

gherNImportant derivatives are: yarn, hernia, cord. Gut, entrail. 15. Suffixed form *gherN-no-. YARN, from Old English gearn, yarn, from Germanic *garno, string. 16. Suffixed form *gherN-n-. HERNIA, from Latin hernia, protruded viscus, rupture, hernia. 17. Suffixed o-grade form *ghorN-d-. (CHORD2), CORD, (CORDON); HARPSICHORD, TETRACHORD, from Greek khordK, gut, string. 18. O-grade form *ghorN-. CHORION, from Greek khorion, intestinal membrane, afterbirth. 19. Possible suffixed zero-grade form *ghyN-u-. HARUSPEX, from Latin haruspex, he who inspects entrails, diviner (-spex, he who sees < *spek-, to see; see spek-), but perhaps borrowed from Etruscan. [Pokorny 5. her- 443.]

ghesloImportant derivatives are: kilo-, mile, million. Seen by some as a base for words meaning thousand. 8. Suffixed form *ghesl-yo-. CHILIAD, KILO-, from Greek khilioi, thousand.

9.

MIL, MILE, MILLENARY, MILLESIMAL, MILLI-, MILLIARY, MILLIME, MILLION;

from Latin mXlle, thousand, which has been analyzed as *smX-, one + a form *ghslX-, but is of obscure origin. [Pokorny hslo- 446.]

MILFOIL, MILLENNIUM, MILLEPORE, MILLIPEDE,

ghesorImportant derivatives are: surgeon, surgery. Hand. Reduced form *ghesr-. CHIRO-; (CHIRURGEON), ENCHIRIDION, (SURGEON), SURGERY, from Greek kheir, hand. [Pokorny 1. hesor- 447.]

gheuImportant derivatives are: gut, funnel, fusion, confuse, refund1, refuse1. To pour, pour a libation. VIII. Extended form *gheud-. 1. Zero-grade form *ghud-. GUT, from Old English guttas, intestines, from Germanic *gut-. 2. Nasalized zero-grade form *ghu-n-d-. FOISON, FONDANT, (FONDUE), (FONT2), FOUND2, (FUNNEL), FUSE2, FUSILE, FUSION; AFFUSION, CIRCUMFUSE, CONFOUND, (CONFUSE), DIFFUSE, EFFUSE, INFUSE, PERFUSE, 1 2 PROFUSE, REFUND, (REFUSE ), (REFUSE ), SUFFUSE, TRANSFUSE, from Latin fundere, to melt, pour out. IX. Extended form *gheus-. a. b. , from Old Norse gustr, a cold blast of wind, from Germanic suffixed form *gustiz;
GUST
1

from Middle English gushen, to gush, perhaps akin to Icelandic gusa, to gush. Both a and b from Germanic zero-grade form *gus-.

GUSH,

2.

from Old Norse geysa, to gush, from Germanic suffixed o-grade form *gausjan.

GEYSER,

a. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghus-mo-. (CHYME); ECCHYMOSIS, from Greek khumos, juice; b. suffixed zero-grade form *ghus-lo-. CHYLE, from Greek khulos, juice. X. Suffixed form *gheu-ti-. FUTILE, from Latin f7tilis, (of a vessel) easily emptied, leaky, hence untrustworthy, useless. XI. Basic form *gheu-. CHOANOCYTE, PARENCHYMA, from Greek khein, to pour, with o-grade noun khoanK, funnel. [Pokorny heu- 447.]

gheu(N)Important derivatives are: god, giddy. To call, invoke. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghu-to-, the invoked, god. a. b. c. [Pokorny hau- 413.]
GOD,

from Old English god, god;

GIDDY,

from Old English gydig, gidig, possessed, insane, from Germanic *gud-igaz, possessed by a god; from Old High German got, god. a, b, and c all from Germanic *gudam, god.

GTTERDMMERUNG,

ghos-tiImportant derivatives are: guest, hostile, hospital, host1, hostage. Stranger, guest, host; properly someone with whom one has reciprocal duties of hospitality. 6. Basic form *ghos-ti-. a. b.
GUEST,

from Old Norse gestr, guest, from Germanic *gastiz;

HOST
2

, HOSTILE, from Latin hostis, enemy (< stranger).

7. Compound *ghos-pot-, *ghos-po(d)-, guest-master, one who

symbolizes the relationship of reciprocal obligation (*pot-, master; see poti-). HOSPICE, HOSPITABLE, HOSPITAL, (HOSPITALITY), 1 HOST , (HOSTAGE), (HOSTEL), (HOSTLER), from Latin hospes (stem hospit-), host, guest, stranger. 8. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghs-en-wo-. XENO-; EUXENITE, PYROXENE, from Greek xenos, guest, host, stranger. [Pokorny ghosti-s 453.]

ghrKImportant derivatives are: grow, green, grass. To grow, become green. Contracted from *ghreN-. 12. O-grade form *ghro-. GROW, from Old English growan, to grow, from Germanic *gro(w)an. 13. Suffixed o-grade form *ghro-n-yo-. GREEN, from Old English grKne, green, from Germanic *gronjaz, green. 14. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghrN-so-. GRASS, GRAZE1, from Old English grs, grass, from Germanic *grasam, grass. [Pokorny ghrK- 454.]

ghrebh-1 Important derivatives are: grasp, grab1. To seize, reach. 2. Zero-grade form *ghybh-. SATYAGRAHA, from Sanskrit gxbhh7ti, gxhh7ti, he seizes. a. b.
GRASP, GRAB
1

from Middle English graspen, to grasp;

, from Middle Dutch or Middle Low German grabben, to seize. Both a and b from parallel (imitative) Germanic creations with base *grab-, *grap-.

[Pokorny 1 ghrebh- 455.]

ghrebh-2 Important derivatives are: engrave, grave1, grub, groove. To dig, bury, scratch. 7. O-grade form *ghrobh-. i. ii. iii. iv. b. 8. 9.
GRUB, GRAVE
1

, (ENGRAVE), from Old English grafan, to dig, engrave, scratch, carve;

GRAVE
3

GRABEN,

from Old High German graban, to dig; from Swedish grava, to bury;

GRAVLAX, GRAVURE,

from Old French graver, to engrave. (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv) all from Germanic *graban;

, from Old English grf, trench, grave, from Germanic *grabam.

from Old English *grybban, to dig, from Germanic *grub(b)jan (with secondary ablaut).
GROOVE,

from Middle Dutch groeve, ditch, from Germanic

*grobo. [Pokorny 2. ghrebh- 455.]

ghredhImportant derivatives are: congress, progress, grade, degrade, degree. To walk, go. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghydh-yo-. a.
GRESSORIAL; AGGRESS, CONGRESS, DEGRESSION, DIGRESS, EGRESS, INGRESS, PINNIGRADE, PLANTIGRADE, PROGRESS, REGRESS, RETROGRADE, RETROGRESS, TRANSGRESS,

from Latin gradX (past

participle gressus), to walk, go; b. [Pokorny ghredh- 456.] from Latin gradus (*grad-u-), step, stage, degree, rank.
GRADE; CENTIGRADE, DEGRADE, DEGREE,

ghrKiImportant derivatives are: grisly, grime, Christ, christen, Christian, Christmas. To rub. 5. 6.
GRISLY,

from Old English grislXc, terrifying, from Germanic *gris-, to frighten (

GRIME,

from Middle English grime, grime, from a source akin to Middle Dutch grXme, grime, from Germanic *grXm-, smear.

7. Extended form *ghrXs-. CHRISM, CHRIST, (CHRISTEN), (CHRISTIAN); (CHRISTMAS), CREAM, from Greek khriein, to anoint. [Pokorny ghrKi- 457.]

ghrendhImportant derivatives are: grind, grist, refrain1. To grind. 4. 5. from Old English grindan, to grind, from Germanic *grindan.
GRIST, GRIND,

from Old English grXst, the action of grinding, from Germanic *grinst-, a grinding.

6. (FRAISE), FRENULUM, FRENUM; REFRAIN1, from Latin frendere, to grind. 7. Variant form *ghrend-. CHONDRO-; HYPOCHONDRIA, MITOCHONDRION, from Greek khondros, granule, groats, hence cartilage, sometimes but improbably regarded as from ghrendh-. [Pokorny ghren- 459.]

ghwerImportant derivatives are: feral, fierce, ferocious, treacle. Wild beast. 7. Suffixed form *ghwer-o-. FERAL, FIERCE, from Latin ferus, wild. 8. Compound *ghwero-Nkw-, of wild aspect (*-Nkw-, -looking;

see okw-). FEROCIOUS, from Latin ferox (stem feroc-), fierce. 9. Lengthened-grade form *ghwKr-. TREACLE; CHALICOTHERE, DINOTHERE, THEROPOD, from Greek thKr, wild beast. [Pokorny hLr- 493.]

gleubhImportant derivatives are: cleave1, clove2, clever, hieroglyphic. To tear apart, cleave. I. Basic form *gleubh-. 1.
CLEAVE

, from Old English clKofan, to split, cleave, from Germanic *kleuban.

1

2. Probably o-grade *gloubh-. CLEVER, from Middle English cliver, nimble, skillful, perhaps akin to East Frisian klfer, klifer, skillful, and Old Norse kleyfr, easy to split, from Germanic *klaubri-. II. Zero-grade form *glubh-. a. b. c.
CLOVE
2

, from Old English clufu, clove (of garlic); from Middle Dutch clove, a cleft;

KLOOF, CLEVIS,

from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse klofi, a cleft. a, b, and c all from Germanic *klub-, a splitting.

2. 3.

from Old English geclyft, fissure, from Germanic *klufti(*klub-ti-).

GLYPH, GLYPTIC; ANAGLYPH, HIEROGLYPHIC,

CLEFT,

from Greek gluphein, to

carve. 4. Suffixed zero-grade form *glubh-m7-. GLUME, from Latin gl7ma, husk of grain. [Pokorny gleubh- 401.]

gno-

Important derivatives are: know, can1, cunning, uncouth, notice, recognize, ignore, noble, diagnosis, narrate. To know. Contracted from *gnoN-. 5. Variant form *gnK-, contracted from *gnKN-. KNOW, from Old English cn7wan, to know, from Germanic *knK(w)-. 6. Zero-grade form *giN-. a.
CAN

, CON2, CUNNING, from Old English cunnan, to know, know how to, be able to, from Germanic *kunnan (Old English first and third singular can from Germanic *kann from o-grade *gonN-);
1

b.

KEN, KENNING,

from Old English cennan, to declare, and Old Norse kenna, to know, name (in a formal poetic metaphor), from Germanic causative verb *kannjan, to make known;

c. (COUTH); UNCOUTH, from Old English c7th, known, wellknown, usual, excellent, familiar, from Germanic *kunthaz; d.
KITH AND KIN,

from Old English cth(the), cththu, knowledge, acquaintance, friendship, kinfolk, from Germanic *kunthitho.

7. Suffixed form *gno-sko-. NOTICE, NOTIFY, NOTION, NOTORIOUS; (ACQUAINT), COGNITION, (COGNIZANCE), (CONNOISSEUR), (QUAINT), RECOGNIZE, from Latin (g)noscere, cognoscere, to get to know, get acquainted with. 8. Suffixed form *gno-ro-. IGNORANT, IGNORE, from Latin ignor7re, not to know, to disregard (i- for in-, not; see ne). 9. Suffixed form *gno-dhli-. NOBLE, from Latin nobilis, knowable, known, famous, noble. 10. Reduplicated and suffixed form *gi-gno-sko-. GNOME2, GNOMON, GNOSIS; AGNOSIA, DIAGNOSIS, PATHOGNOMONIC, PHYSIOGNOMY, PROGNOSIS, from Greek gignoskein, to know, think, judge, with gnosis (< *gno-ti-), knowledge, inquiry, and gnomon, judge, interpreter.

11. Suffixed zero-grade form *giN-ro-. NARRATE, from Latin narr7re (< *gnarr7re), to tell, relate, from gn7rus, knowing, expert. 12. Traditionally but improbably referred here are: a. b.
NOTE; ANNOTATE, CONNOTE, PROTHONOTARY,

from Latin nota, a mark, note, sign, cipher, shorthand character;

NORM,

NORMA, NORMAL; ABNORMAL, ENORMOUS, from Latin

norma, carpenter's square, rule, pattern, precept, possibly from an Etruscan borrowing of Greek gnomon, carpenter's square, rule. [Pokorny 2. en- 376.]

gyN-noImportant derivatives are: corn1, kernel, grain, granite, grenade. Grain. a. b. c.

CORN
1

, from Old English corn, grain; from Old English derivative noun cyrnel, seed,

KERNEL,

pip; from Old High German korn, grain. a, b, and c all from Germanic *kornam.
EINKORN,

1. (GARNER), GRAIN, GRAM2, GRANADILLA, GRANARY, GRANGE, GRANITE, GRANULE, (GRENADE); FILIGREE, POMEGRANATE, from Latin gr7num, grain. [In Pokorny er- 390.]

gw7Important derivatives are: come, welcome, become, adventure, convene, convenient, event, invent, prevent, revenue, souvenir, base1, basis, acrobat, diabetes. Contracted from *gwaN- Also gwemTo go, come. a.
COME,

from Old English cuman, to come;

b.

from Old English wilcuma, a welcome guest, and wilcume, the greeting of welcome, from Germanic compound *wil-kumon-, a desirable guest (*wil-, desirable; see wel-1), from *kumon-, he who comes, a guest; from Old English becuman, to become, from Germanic compound *bi-kuman, to arrive, come to be (*bi-, intensive prefix; see ambhi). a, b, and c all from Germanic *kuman.
BECOME,

WELCOME,

c.

1. Suffixed form *gw(e)m-yo-. VENIRE, VENUE; ADVENT, (ADVENTITIOUS), (ADVENTURE), (AVENUE), CIRCUMVENT, CONTRAVENE, CONVENE, (CONVENIENT), (CONVENT), (CONVENTICLE), (CONVENTION), (COVEN), (COVENANT), EVENT, INTERVENE, INVENT, (MISADVENTURE), PARVENU, PREVENIENT, PREVENT, PROVENANCE, (PROVENIENCE), REVENANT, REVENUE, SOUVENIR, SUBVENTION, SUPERVENE, from Latin venXre, to come. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *gwc-yo-. BASE1, BASIS; ABASIA, ACROBAT, ADIABATIC, AMPHISBAENA, ANABAENA, BATOPHOBIA, (DIABASE), DIABETES, HYPERBATON, KATABATIC, STEREOBATE, STYLOBATE, from Greek bainein, to go, walk, step, with basis (< *gwc-ti-), a stepping, tread, base, -batos (< *gwc-to-), going, and -batKs (< *gwN-to-, zero-grade of *gw7-), agential suffix, one that goes or treads, one that is based. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *gw(N)-u- in compound form *presgwu-, going before (see per1). 4. Basic form *gw7-. BEMA, from Greek bKma, step, seat, raised platform. 5.
JUGGERNAUT,

from Sanskrit jig7ti, he goes.

[Pokorny g7- 463.]

gweiImportant derivatives are: quick, vivid, revive, survive, vital, vitamin, whiskey, bio-, amphibious, microbe, hygiene. Also gweiN-To live. I. Suffixed zero-grade form *gwi-wo-, *gwX-wo- (< *gwiN-wo-), living.

a.

QUICK, QUICKSILVER,

from Old English cwic, cwicu, living,

alive; b. (COUCH GRASS), QUITCH GRASS, from Old English cwice, couch grass (so named from its rapid growth). Both a and b from Germanic *kwi(k)waz. c. d. 2.
AZOTH, VIVIFY, VIVIPAROUS,

from Latin vXvus, living, alive;

VIAND, VICTUAL, VIVA, VIVACIOUS, VIVID; CONVIVIAL, REVIVE, SURVIVE,

from Latin denominative vXvere, to live.

from Sanskrit jXva-, alive.

3. Further suffixed form *gwX-wo-t7. VIABLE, VITAL; VITAMIN, from Latin vXta, life. 4. Further suffixed form *gwi-wo-t7t-. USQUEBAUGH, (WHISKEY), from Old Irish bethu, life. II. Suffixed zero-grade form *gwiN-o-. BIO-, BIOTA, BIOTIC; AEROBE, AMPHIBIAN, ANABIOSIS, CENOBITE, DENDROBIUM, MICROBE, RHIZOBIUM, SAPROBE, SYMBIOSIS, from Greek bios, life ( biotK, way of life). III. Variant form *gwyo- (< *gwyoN-). 1.
AZO-, (DIAZO),

from Greek zoK, life.

2. Suffixed form *gwyo-yo-. -ZOIC, ZOO-, ZOON1, -ZOON, from Greek zoon, zoion, living being, animal. IV. Prefixed and suffixed form *su-gwiN-es-, having good life (*su-, well; see su-). HYGIENE, from Greek hugiKs, healthy. V.
QUIVER
1

, from Old English cwifer-, nimble, possibly from gwei-.

[Pokorny 3. ge- 467.]

gwelNImportant derivatives are: devil, emblem, metabolism, parable, parliament, parlor, problem, symbol, ball2, ballad, ballet, kill1. Also gwel-To throw, reach, with further meaning to pierce. I. Words denoting to throw, reach. Variant *gwlK-, contracted from

*gwleN-. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *gw_-n-N-. a.

BALLISTA; AMPHIBOLE, ASTROBLEME, BOLIDE, DEVIL, (DIABOLIC), EMBLEM, EPIBOLY, (HYPERBOLA), HYPERBOLE, METABOLISM,

(PALAVER), PARABLE, (PARABOLA), (PARLEY), (PARLIAMENT), (PARLOR), (PAROL), (PAROLE), PROBLEM, SYMBOL, from Greek ballein, to throw (with o-grade *bol- and variant *blK-); b. , (BALLAD), (BALLET), BAYADERE, from Greek ballizein, to dance.
BALL
2

2. Suffixed o-grade form *gwolN-7. BOLOMETER, from Greek bolK, beam, ray. 3. Possible suffixed o-grade form gwol(N)-s7. BOULE1, ABULIA, from Greek boulK, determination, will ( 4. Suffixed variant zero-grade form *gwelN-mno-. BELEMNITE, from Greek belemnon, dart, javelin. II. Words denoting to pierce. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *gwol-eyo-. a. b.
QUELL, QUAIL
2

from Old English cwellan, to kill, destroy;

, from Middle Dutch quelen, to be ill, suffer. Both a and b from Germanic *kwaljan.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *gw_-yo-. KILL1, from Middle English killen, to kill, perhaps from Old English *cyllan, to kill, from Germanic *kuljan. 3. Full-grade form *gwel-. BELONEPHOBIA, from Greek belonK, needle. [Pokorny 2. gel- 471, 1. gel- 470.]

gwenAn important derivative is: queen. Woman. 1. Suffixed form *gwen-7-.

a. b. c.

from Old English cwene, woman, prostitute, wife, from Germanic *kwenon-;
BANSHEE, ZENANA,

QUEAN,

from Old Irish ben, woman;

from Persian zan, woman.

2. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *gwKn-i-. QUEEN, from Old English cwKn, woman, wife, queen, from Germanic *kwKniz, woman, wife, queen. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *gwi-7-. -GYNE, GYNO-, - GYNOUS, -GYNY; GYNECOCRACY, (GYNECOLOGY), GYNOECIUM, from Greek gunK, woman. [Pokorny gen7 473.]

gwerN-1 Important derivatives are: grave2, grief, aggravate, baritone, guru, brute, blitzkrieg. Heavy. I. Zero-grade form *gwyN-. 1. Suffixed form *gwyN-u-i-. GRAVE2, GRAVID, GRAVITY, (GRIEF), GRIEVE; AGGRAVATE, (AGGRIEVE), from Latin gravis, heavy, weighty. 2. Suffixed form *gwyN-u-. a. b.
BARITE, (BARIUM), BARYON, BARYTA; BARITONE, BARYCENTER, BARYSPHERE, CHARIVARI, GURU,

from Greek barus, heavy;

from Sanskrit guru-, heavy, venerable.

3. Suffixed form *gwyN-es-. BAR2, BARO-; CENTROBARIC, ISALLOBAR, ISOBAR, from Greek baros, weight. 4. Possibly *gwrY-. (see ud-) Greek compound *u(d)-bri- from bri. II. Suffixed extended form *gwr7-to-. BRUT, BRUTE, from Latin br7tus, heavy, unwieldy, dull, stupid, brutish. III. Suffixed extended form gwrX-g-. a.
BRIO,

from Spanish brio or Provenal briu, vigor, from

Celtic *brXg-o-, strength; b. (BRIG), BRIGADE, (BRIGAND), (BRIGANTINE), from Old Italian briga, strife, from Celtic *brXg-7-, strife; c. from Old High German krKg, chrKg, stubbornness, from Germanic *krXg-.
BLITZKRIEG, SITZKRIEG,

IV. Suffixed full-grade form *gwerN-n7-, millstone. QUERN, from Old English cweorn, quern. [Pokorny 2. ger- 476.]

gwerN-2 Important derivatives are: grace, grateful, gratitude, agree, congratulate, bard1. To favor. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *gwyN-to-. GRACE, GRATEFUL, GRATIFY, GRATIS, GRATITUDE, GRATUITOUS, (GRATUITY); AGREE, CONGRATULATE, DISGRACE, INGRATE, INGRATIATE, MAUGRE, from Latin gr7tus, pleasing, beloved, agreeable, favorable, thankful, with related suffixed forms *gwyN-ti-, *gwyN-t-7-, *gwyN-t-olo-. 2. Possible suffixed zero-grade form *gwyN-d(h)o-, he who praises. BARD1, from Welsh bardd and Scottish and Irish Gaelic bard, bard, from Celtic bardo-, bard (but this is possibly from gwerN-1). [Pokorny 4. ger(N)- 478.]

gwetDerivatives are: bequeath, quoth. To say, speak. 1. Basic form *gwet-. BEQUEATH, QUOTH, from Old English cwethan, to say, speak, from Germanic *kwithan. 2. Suffixed form *gwet-ti-. BEQUEST, from Old English -cwis, will, from Germanic *kwessiz. [Pokorny 2. get- 480.]

gwhedhImportant derivatives are: bid, bead. To ask, pray. 1. Suffixed form *gwhedh-yo-. BID, from Old English biddan, to ask, pray, from Germanic *bidjan, to pray, entreat. 2.
BEAD,

from Old English bed(u), gebed, prayer (ge-, intensive and collective prefix; see kom), from Germanic *bidam, entreaty.

3. Suffixed form *gwhedh-to-. INFEST, MANIFEST, from Latin -festus, probably in Xnfestus, hostile, (< *i-gwhedh-to-, inexorable; *i, not; see ne), and perhaps in manifestus, caught in the act, redhanded (manus, hand; see man-2). [Pokorny ghedh- 488, 2. bhedh- 114.]

gwhenImportant derivatives are: bane, gun, defend, fence, offend. To strike, kill. 1. O-grade *gwhon-. a. b.
BANE,

from Old English bana, slayer, cause of ruin or destruction;

AUTOBAHN,

from Middle High German ban, bane, way, road (? a and b from Germanic suffixed form *ban-on.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *gwhi-ty7-. a. b.

GUN,

from Old Norse gunnr, war;

from Italian gonfalone, standard, from Germanic compound *gund-fanon-, battle flag (*fanon-, flag; see pan-). Both a and b from Germanic *gundjo, war, battle.

GONFALON,

3. Suffixed form *gwhen-do-. a.

DEFEND, (DEFENSE), (FENCE),

from Latin dKfendere, to ward

off (dK-, away; see de-); b.

OFFEND, (OFFENSE),

from Latin offendere, to strike against, be offensive, offend (ob-, against; see epi).

4. Suffixed zero-grade form *gwhi-tro-. BEZOAR, from Persian zahr, poison, from Old Iranian *jathra-. [Pokorny 2. ghen-(N)- 491, bhen- 126.]

gwherImportant derivatives are: burn1, brand, brandy, brandish, forceps, furnace. To heat, warm. 1. Zero-grade *gwhr-. a. b. c.
BURN

, from Old English beornan, byrnan (intransitive) and brnan (transitive), to burn;
1

BRIMSTONE,

from late Old English brynst7n, burning mineral, sulfur (st7n, stone; see stei-);

from Old Norse brenna, to burn. a, b, and c all from Germanic *brennan (intransitive) and brannjan (transitive), formed from *brenw- with nasal suffix and analogical vocalism. from Old English brand, piece of burning wood, sword;
BRANDY, BRAND,

BRINDLED,

d. e. f. g.

from Dutch branden, to burn, distill; from Old French brand, sword;

BRANDISH, BRANDADE,

from Old Provenal brand, sword. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *brandaz, a burning, a flaming torch, hence also a sword.

2. Suffixed form *gwher-mo-. THERM, -THERM, THERMO-, -THERMY; HYPOTHERMIA, from Greek thermos, warm, hot, and thermK, heat. 3. O-grade form *gwhor-. FORCEPS, FORCIPATE, from Latin forceps, pincers, fire tongs (-ceps, agential suffix, -taker; see kap-).

4. Suffixed o-grade form *gwhor-no-. a. FORNAX, FURNACE, HORNITO, from Latin furnus, fornus, forn7x, oven; b.
FORNICATE, FORNIX,

from Latin fornix, arch, vault (gwher-

. [Pokorny gher- 493, bhereu- 143.]

gwhXImportant derivatives are: filament, file1, profile. Thread, tendon. Contracted from *gwhiN-. Suffixed form *gwhX-slo-. FILAMENT, FILAR, FILARIA, FILE1, 2 FILLET, FILOSE, FILUM; (DEFILE ), ENFILADE, FILIFORM, FILIGREE, FILOPLUME, PROFILE, PURFLE, from Latin fXlum, thread. [Pokorny gheiN- 489.]

gwhrKImportant derivatives are: breath, breathe. To smell, breathe. Contracted from *gwhreN-. BREATH, (BREATHE), from Old English br<th, odor, exhalation, from Germanic suffixed form *brK-thaz.

gwhrenImportant derivatives are: frantic, frenetic, frenzy, phrase, paraphrase. To think. 1. (FRANTIC), FRENETIC, (FRENZY), -PHRENIA, PHRENO-; (PHRENITIS), from Greek phrKn, the mind, also heart, midriff, diaphragm. 2. Extended zero-grade root form *gwhri-d-. PHRASE; HOLOPHRASTIC, METAPHRASE, PARAPHRASE, PERIPHRASIS, from Greek phrazein, to point out, show. [Pokorny ghren- 496.]

gwouImportant derivatives are: cow1, beef, bugle1, bucolic, butter. Ox, bull, cow. Nominative singular form *gwou-s. 1. 2. , (KINE); COWSLIP, from Old English c7, c, ce, cow, from Germanic *kouz ( *k7z).
COW
1

BEEF, BOVINE, BUGLE

, from Latin bos (stem bov-), ox, bull, cow.

3. BOTES, BOUSTROPHEDON, BUCOLIC, BUGLOSS, BULIMIA, BUPRESTID, BUTTER, (BUTYRIC), from Greek bous, ox, bull, cow. 4.
GAYAL,

from Sanskrit go-, gauU, cow.

5. Suffixed form *gwou-ro-. GAUR, from Sanskrit gauraU, wild ox. 6. Zero-grade suffixed form *gww-7-. HECATOMB, from Greek hekatombK, sacrifice of a hundred oxen (hekaton, hundred; see dekc). [Pokorny gou- 482.]

iImportant derivatives are: yonder, yea, yes, yet, if, identity, item. Pronominal stem. 14. 15. , from Old English ilca, same, from Germanic *is-lXk-, same (*lXk-, like; see lXk-).
ILK
1

YON,

from Old English geon, that, from Germanic *jaino-, *jeno-. a. b. from Old English geond, as far as, yonder, from Germanic *jend-;
BEYOND, YOND, (YONDER),

from Old English geondan, beyond, from Germanic *jendana-.

16. Extended forms *y7m, *y7i. YEA, YES, from Old English gKa, affirmative particle, and gKse, yes (see es-), from Germanic *j7, *jai.

17.

YET,

from Old English gXet, gXeta (preform uncertain), still.

18. Relative stem *yo- plus particle. IF, from Old English gif, if, from Germanic *ja-ba. 19. Basic form *i-, with neuter *id-em. ID, IDEM, (IDENTICAL), IDENTITY; (IDENTIFY), from Latin is, he (neuter id, it), and Xdem, same. 20. Suffixed form *i-tero-. ITERATE; (REITERATE), from Latin iterum, again. 21. Suffixed and extended form *it(N)-em. ITEM, from Latin item, thus, also. 22. Stem *i- plus locatival particle *-dha-i. IBIDEM, from Latin ibXdem, in the same place. 23. Suffixed variant form *e-tero-. (see ko-). [Pokorny 3. e- 281.]

k7Important derivatives are: whore, caress, charity, cherish. To like, desire. Contracted from *kaN-. 24. Suffixed form *k7-ro-. i. ii.
WHORE,

from Old English hore, whore;

WHOREDOM,

from Old Norse compound hordomr, whoredom (-domr, condition; see dhK-). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *horaz (feminine *horon-), one who desires, adulterer; from Latin c7rus, dear.

b.

CARESS, CHARITY, CHERISH,

25. Suffixed form *k7-mo-. KAMA; KAMASUTRA, from Sanksrit k7maU, love, desire. [Pokorny k7- 515.]

kadImportant derivatives are: cadaver, cadence, cascade, case1, chance, chute, accident, decay, incident, occasion. To fall. , CHANCE, CHUTE; ACCIDENT, DECAY, DECIDUOUS, ESCHEAT, INCIDENT, OCCASION, RECIDIVISM, from Latin cadere, to fall, die.
1

CADAVER, CADENCE, CADENT, CADUCOUS, CASCADE, CASE

[Pokorny 1. kad- 516.]

kaN-idImportant derivatives are: cement, chisel, scissors, circumcise, concise, decide, precise. To strike. 16.
CAESURA, CEMENT, CESTUS
2

, CHISEL, -CIDE, SCISSOR; ABSCISE, CIRCUMCISE, CONCISE, DECIDE, EXCISE , INCISE, PRECISE, RECISION, from Latin caedere, to cut, strike.
2

17. CAELUM, from Latin caelum (? < *caedum), sculptor's chisel. [Pokorny (s)k(h)ai- 917.]

kaiImportant derivatives are: hot, heat. Heat. Extended form *kaid-. a. b. [Pokorny k8i- 519.]
HOT,

from Old English h7t, hot, from Germanic *haitaz; from Old English h<tu, from Germanic *haitX-.

HEAT,

kailoImportant derivatives are: whole, wholesome, health, heal, holy, hallow. Whole, uninjured, of good omen. a.
HALE
1

, WHOLE, from Old English h7l, hale, whole;

b.

WHOLESOME,

from Old English *h7lsum ( Middle English holsom), wholesome;

c. (HAIL2); WASSAIL, from Old Norse heill, healthy. a, b, and c all from Germanic *hailaz. 2. 3. from Old English h<lth, health, from Germanic *hailitho.
HEAL, HEALTH,

from Old English h<lan, to heal, from Germanic *hailjan.

HOLY,

a. b.

from Old English h7lig, holy, sacred;

from Old English h7lgian, to consecrate, bless, from Germanic derivative verb *hailagon. Both a and b from Germanic *hailagaz.

HALLOW,

[Pokorny kai-lo- 520.]

kaitoImportant derivatives are: heath, heathen. Forest, uncultivated land. 26. from Old English h<th, heath, untilled land, from Germanic *haithiz. a. b. [Pokorny kaito- 521.]
HEATHEN, HOYDEN, HEATH,

from Old English h<then, heathen, savage (

from Middle Dutch heiden, heathen. Both a and b from Germanic *haithinaz.

kakkaDerivatives are: poppycock, cacophony. Also kaka-To defecate. Root imitative of glottal closure. 8. 9. 10.
CUCKING STOOL,

from Middle English cukken, to defecate, from a source akin to Old Norse *k7ka, to defecate.
POPPYCOCK,

from Latin cac7re, to defecate. from

CACO-; CACODYL, CACOTHES, CACOPHONOUS, (CACOPHONY),

Greek kakos, bad. [Pokorny kakka- 521.]

kanImportant derivatives are: hen, chant, accent, enchant, incentive, charm. To sing. 21. 22.
HEN,

from Old English hen(n), hen, from Germanic *han(e)nX.

2

CANOROUS, CANT

, CANTABILE, CANTATA, CANTICLE, CANTILLATE, (CANTO), CANTOR, CANZONE, CHANT; ACCENT, DESCANT, ENCHANT, (INCANTATION), INCENTIVE, PRECENTOR, RECANT, from Latin canere, to sing ( cant7re, to sing, frequentative of canere). from Latin oscen, a singing bird used in divination (< *obs-cen, one that sings before the augurs; ob-, before; see epi-).
OSCINE,

23.

24. Suffixed form *kan-men-. CHARM, from Latin carmen, song, poem. [Pokorny kan- 525.]

kandImportant derivatives are: candid, candidate, candle, candor, incandesce, incense. To shine. 12. Suffixed (stative) form *kand-K-. CANDENT, CANDID, (CANDIDA), (CANDIDATE), CANDLE, CANDOR; INCANDESCE, from Latin candKre to shine. 13. (INCENDIARY), INCENSE1, INCENSE2 from Latin compound incendere, to set fire to, kindle (in-, in; see en), from transitive *candere, to kindle. [Pokorny kand- 526.]

kapImportant derivatives are: have, heavy, haven, hawk1, heave, cable, capable, caption,

captive, catch, chase1, accept, conceive, deceive, except, intercept, municipal, occupy, participate, perceive, receive, recover, capsule, chassis. To grasp. VI. Basic form *kap-. 1. from Old English hefeld, thread used for weaving, heddle (a device which grasps the thread), from Germanic *haf-.
HAFT, HEDDLE,

2.

from Old English hft, handle, from Germanic *haftjam.

3. Form *kap-o-. HAVE, from Old English habban, to have, hold, from Germanic *habai-, *habKn. 4. 5. 6. from Old English hefig, heavy, from Germanic *hafigaz, containing something, having weight. from Old English hfen, a haven, from Germanic *hafno-, perhaps place that holds ships.
HAWK HAVEN, HEAVY,

, from Old English h(e)afoc, hawk, from Germanic *habukaz.

1

7. (see per1) Latin combining form -ceps (< *kap-s), taker. 8. VII. , from Provenal gafar, to seize, from Germanic *gaf-, probably akin to kap-.
GAFF
1

Suffixed form *kap-yo-. 1. 2.

HEAVE,

from Old English hebban, to lift, from Germanic *hafjan.

CABLE, CAPABLE, CAPACIOUS, CAPIAS, CAPSTAN, CAPTION, CAPTIOUS,

(CAPTIVATE), CAPTIVE, CAPTOR, CAPTURE, CATCH, (CHASE1), ACCEPT, ANTICIPATE, CONCEIVE, DECEIVE, EXCEPT, INCEPTION, (INCIPIENT), INTERCEPT, INTUSSUSCEPTION, MUNICIPAL, NUNCUPATIVE, OCCUPY, PARTICIPATE, PERCEIVE, PRECEPT, RECEIVE, (RECOVER), RECUPERATE, (RX), SUSCEPTIBLE, from Latin capere, to take, seize, catch. VIII. Lengthened-grade variant form *kop-. a. b.
BEHOOF,

from Old English behof, use, profit, need; from Old English behofian, to have need of.

BEHOOVE,

Both a and b from Germanic compound *bi-hof, that which binds, requirement, obligation (*bi-, intensive prefix; see ambhi), from *hof-. 2.
COPEPOD,

from Greek kopK, oar, handle.

[Pokorny kap- 527. Compare ghabh-.]

kaputImportant derivatives are: head, cadet, capital1, caprice, captain, cattle, chapter, chief, biceps, decapitate, kerchief, mischief. Head. a. b. 11.
HEAD,

from Old English hKafod, head;

HETMAN,

from Old High German houbit, head. Both a and b from Germanic *haubudam, *haubidam.
2

, CAPITAL1, CAPITAL2, CAPITATE, CAPITATION, CAPITELLUM, (CAPITULATE), CAPITULUM, CAPO1, (CAPO2), CAPRICE, CAPTAIN, CATTLE, 2 CAUDILLO, (CHAPITER), CHAPTER, CHIEF, CHIEFTAIN, CORPORAL ; BICEPS, DECAPITATE, KERCHIEF, MISCHIEF, OCCIPUT, PRECIPITATE, RECAPITULATE, SINCIPUT, TRICEPS, from Latin caput, head

CADET, CAPE

[Pokorny kap-ut- 529.]

karImportant derivatives are: hard, standard, hardy1, cancer, canker. Hard. III. Variant form *ker-. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *kor-tu-. a.
HARD,

from Old English hard, heard, hard;

b. -ARD, from Germanic *-hart, *-hard, bold, hardy; c. d.

STANDARD,

from Old French estandard, rallying place, perhaps from Frankish *hard, hard;
1

, from Old French hardir, to make hard. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *harduz.
HARDY

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *kyt-es-, from earlier full-grade form *kret-es-. -CRACY, from Greek kratos, strength, might, power. IV. Possible basic form *kar- in derivatives referring to things with hard shells. 1. 2.
CAREEN, CARINA,

from Latin carXna, keel of a ship, nutshell, possibly from kar-.

KARYO-; EUCARYOTE, GILLYFLOWER, SYNKARYON,

from Greek karuon,

nut, possibly from kar-. 3. Reduplicated form *kar-kr-o-. (CANCER), CANKER, CHANCRE, from dissimilated Latin cancer, crab, cancer, constellation Cancer. 4. Suffixed form *kar-k-ino-. CARCINO-, CARCINOMA, from Greek karkinos, cancer, crab. [Pokorny 3. kar- 531.]

kasAn important derivative is: hare. Gray. c. d.

HARE,

from Old English hara, hare;

from Old High German haso, rabbit. Both a and b from Germanic *hazon-, *hason-.

HASENPFEFFER,

18. Suffixed form *kas-no-. CANESCENT, from Latin c7nus, white, gray, grayed hair. [Pokorny as- 533.]

katA derivative is: cata-. Down. 17.

CATA-,

from Greek kata, down, possibly from kat-.

18. Suffixed form *kat-olo-. CADELLE, from Latin catulus, young puppy, young of animals (dropped).

[Pokorny 2. kat- 534.]

kauImportant derivatives are: hew, haggle, hoe, hay. To hew, strike. a. b. c. 13. 14.
HAG
2

HEW,

from Old English hKawan, to hew; from Old Norse hgg-va, to cut;

HAGGLE, HOE,

from Old French houe, a hoe. a, b, and c all from Germanic *hawwan.

, from a source akin to Old Norse hgg, a gap, a cutting blow, from Germanic *hawwo. from Old English hXeg, hay, cut grass, from Germanic *haujam.
HAY,

15. Suffixed form *kau-do-. INCUS, from Latin c7dere (< *caudere), to strike, beat. [Pokorny k7u- 535.]

kedImportant derivatives are: cease, cede, abscess, access, ancestor, concede, decease, exceed, precede, proceed, succeed, necessary. To go, yield. 18. Lengthened-grade form *kKd-. CEASE, CEDE, CESSION; ABSCESS, ACCEDE, ACCESS, ANCESTOR, ANTECEDE, CONCEDE, (CONCESSION), DECEASE, EXCEED, INTERCEDE, PRECEDE, PREDECESSOR, PROCEED, RECEDE, RETROCEDE, SECEDE, SUCCEED, from Latin cKdere, to go, withdraw, yield. 19. Prefixed and suffixed form *ne-ked-ti-, (there is) no drawing back (*ne-, not; see ne). NECESSARY, from Latin necesse, inevitable, unavoidable. [In Pokorny sed- 884.]

keg-

Important derivatives are: hook, heckle, hack1. Hook, tooth. a. b. c. d. e. 25. 26.
HECKLE, HAKE,

from Old English haca, hook, akin to Old Norse haki, hook;
HARQUEBUS,

from Middle Dutch hake, hook. Both a and b from Germanic *hakan-.
HOOK,

from Old English hoc, hook;

1

HOOKER HA?EK,

, from Middle Dutch hok, hoec, hook;

from Old High German h7ko, hook. a, b, and c all from Germanic lengthened form *hoka-.

from Middle Dutch hekel, hatchel, a flax comb with long metal hooklike teeth, from Germanic *hakila-. , from Old English -haccian, to hack to pieces as with a hooked instrument, from Germanic *hakkijan.
HACK
1

[Pokorny keg- 537.]

kei-1 Important derivatives are: city, civic, civil, cemetery. To lie; bed, couch; beloved, dear. V. Basic form *kei-. 1. Suffixed form *kei-wo-. a. b.
HIND

, from Old English hXwan, members of a household, from Germanic *hXwa-;

3

HIDE

, from Old English hXgid, hXd, a measure of land (< household), from suffixed Germanic form *hXwido.
3

2. Suffixed form *kei-wi-. CITY, CIVIC, CIVIL, from Latin cXvis, citizen ( 3. Suffixed form *kei-liyo-. CEILIDH, from Old Irish cKle, companion. VI. O-grade form *koi-.

1. Suffixed form *koi-n7. INCUNABULUM, from Latin c7nae, a cradle. 2. Suffixed form *koi-m-7. CEMETERY, from Greek koiman, to put to sleep. VII. Suffixed zero-grade form *ki-wo-. SHIVA, from Sanskrit {iva-, auspicious, dear. [Pokorny 1. ei- 539.]

kei-2 Important derivatives are: cite, excite, incite, resuscitate, solicitous, kinetic. To set in motion. I. Possibly extended o-grade from *koid-. 1. from Old English h7tan, to call, summon, order, from Germanic *haitan.
HIGHT,

2. Suffixed form *koid-ti-. a. b.

HEST,

from Old English h<s, a command, a bidding;

from Old English compound beh<s, a vow, promise, command (be-, intensive prefix; see ambhi). Both a and b from Germanic *haissiz from *hait-ti(but Germanic *hait- of 1 and 2 is perhaps to be referred to a separate root *kaid-).

BEHEST,

II. Zero-grade form *ki-. Suffixed iterative form *ki-eyo-. CITE; EXCITE, INCITE, OSCITANCY, RESUSCITATE, SOLICITOUS, from Latin ciKre (past participle citus), with its frequentative cit7re, to set in motion, summon. III. Extended root *kyeu-. Nasal infixed form *ki-n-eu-. KINEMATICS, KINESICS, -KINESIS, KINETIC; CINEMATOGRAPH, HYPERKINESIA, KINESIOLOGY, KINESTHESIA, KININ, (TELEKINESIS), from Greek kinein, to move. [Pokorny kKi- 538.]

kekwA derivative is: copro-. To excrete.

Suffixed o-grade form *kokw-ro-. COPRO-, from Greek kopros, dung. [Pokorny ek- 544.]

kel-1 Important derivatives are: hell, hall, hull, hole, hollow, holster, apocalypse, eucalyptus, helmet, occult, color, cell, cellar, conceal. To cover, conceal, save. V. O-grade form *kol-. a.
HELL,

from Old English hell, hell;

b. HEL, from Old Norse Hel, the underworld, goddess of death. Both a and b from Germanic *haljo, the underworld ( c.
HALL,

from Old English heall, hall;

d. VALHALLA, from Old Norse hll, hall. Both a and b from Germanic *hallo, covered place, hall. 2. Suffixed form *kol-eyo-. COLEUS; COLEOPTERAN, COLEOPTILE, COLEORHIZA, from Greek koleon, koleos, sheath. VI. Zero-grade form *k_-. a. b. c. d. e. f.
HOLD
2

, HULL, from Old English hulu, husk, pod ( from Old English hol, a hollow; from Old English holh, hole, hollow;

HOLE,

HOLLOW, HAUGH,

from Old English healh, secret place, small hollow. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *hul-. from Old High German hulft, covering;

HOLSTER, HOUSING
2

, from Medieval Latin hultia, protective covering. Both a and b from suffixed Germanic form *hulftX-.

2. Suffixed form *k_-to-. (see III. 2. below) Latin occultus. 3. Extended form *kl7 (< *k_N-). CLANDESTINE, from Latin clam, in

secret. 4. Suffixed variant form *kal-up-yo-. CALYPSO1, CALYPTRA; APOCALYPSE, EUCALYPTUS, from Greek kaluptein, to cover, conceal. VII. Full-grade form *kel-. a. b.
HELM
2

, from Old English helm, protection, covering;

from Middle English helmet, helmet, from a source akin to Frankish *helm, helmet. Both a and b from Germanic *helmaz, protective covering.

HELMET,

2.

OCCULT,

from Latin occulere < *ob-kel- (past participle occultus < ob-k_-to-; see II. 3. above), to cover over (ob-, over; see epi).

3. Suffixed form *kel-os-. COLOR, from Latin color, color, hue ( 4. Suffixed form *kel-n7-. CELL, CELLA, CELLAR, CELLARER; (RATHSKELLER), from Latin cella, storeroom, chamber. 5. Suffixed form *kel-yo-. CILIUM, SEEL; SUPERCILIOUS, (SUPERCILIUM), from Latin cilium, lower eyelid. VIII. Lengthened-grade form *kKl-7-. CONCEAL, from Latin cKl7re, to hide.

[Pokorny 4. el- 553.]

kel-2 Important derivatives are: hill, excel, culminate, colonel, column. To be prominent; hill. 18. Zero-grade form *k_-. a. b.
HILL,

from Old English hyll, hill, from suffixed Germanic form *hul-ni-;

from Old Norse holmr, islet in a bay, meadow, from suffixed Germanic form *hul-ma-.

HOLM,

19. Suffixed form *kel-d-. EXCEL, from Latin excellere, to raise up, elevate, also to be eminent (ex-, up out of; see eghs). 20. O-grade form *kol-.

a.

COLOPHON,

from Greek kolophon, summit;

b. suffixed form *kol(u)men-. CULMINATE, from Latin culmen, top, summit; c. extended and suffixed form *kolumn7. COLONEL, COLONNADE, COLUMN, from Latin columna, a projecting object, column. [Pokorny 1. kel- 544.]

kelN-1 Important derivatives are: lee, chafe, caldron, chowder, scald1, calorie. Warm. Variant *klK-, contracted from *kleN-. 21. Suffixed variant form *klK-wo-. a. b.
LEE,

from Old English hlKo, hlKow, covering, protection (as from cold);
LUKEWARM,

from Old English -hlKow, warm. Both a and b from Germanic *hlKwaz.

22. Suffixed zero-grade form *k_N-K-. a. b.

CALENTURE, CHAFE; DECALESCENCE, INCALESCENT, NONCHALANT, RECALESCENCE,

from Latin calKre, to be warm;

1

CALDRON, CAUDLE, (CHOWDER); SCALD

, from Latin derivative

adjective calidus, warm. 23. Suffixed zero-grade form *k_N-os-. CALORIC, CALORIE; CALORECEPTOR, CALORIFIC, CALORIMETER, CALORIMETRY, from Latin calor, heat. [Pokorny 1. el- 551.]

kelN-2 Important derivatives are: claim, clamor, acclaim, exclaim, reclaim, haul, council, calendar, clear, declare, class.

To shout. I. Variant form *kl7- (< *klaN-). 1.

LOW

, from Old English hlowan, to roar, low, from Germanic *hlo-.

2

2. Suffixed form *kl7-m7-. CLAIM, CLAMANT, CLAMOR; ACCLAIM, DECLAIM, EXCLAIM, PROCLAIM, RECLAIM, from Latin cl7m7re, to call, cry out. II. O-grade form *kolN-. a. b.
KEELHAUL, HALE
2

from Middle Dutch halen, to haul, pull (?

, HAUL, from Old French haler, to haul. Both a and b from Germanic *halon, to call.

III. Zero-grade form *k_N- ( *kal-). 1. Suffixed form *kal-yo-. CONCILIATE, COUNCIL, from Latin concilium, a meeting, gathering (con-, together; see kom). 2. Suffixed form *kal-end-. CALENDAR, CALENDS, from Latin kalendae, the calends, the first day of the month, when it was publicly announced on which days the nones and ides of that month would fall. 3. Suffixed form *kal-e-. ECCLESIA, PARACLETE, from Greek kalein (variant klK-), to call. 4. Suffixed form *kal-7-. INTERCALATE, NOMENCLATOR, from Latin cal7re, to call, call out. 5. Suffixed form *k_N-ro- or suffixed variant form *klaN-rocontracted to *kl7-ro-. CLEAR, GLAIR; CHIAROSCURO, CLAIRVOYANT, DECLARE, CLAIR, (ECLAIRCISSEMENT), from Latin cl7rus, bright, clear. IV. Possibly extended zero-grade form *k_d-, becoming *klad- in suffixed form *klad-ti-. CLASS, from Latin classis, summons, division of citizens for military draft, hence army, fleet, also class in general. [Pokorny 6. kel- 548.]

kenAn important derivative is: recent. Fresh, new, young. 15. Suffixed form *ken-t-. RECENT, from Latin recKns, young, fresh, new (re-, again; see re-). 16. Suffixed zero-grade form *ki-yo-. -CENE; CAINOTOPHOBIA, CENOZOIC, KAINITE, from Greek kainos, new, fresh. [Pokorny 3. ken- 563.]

kenkImportant derivatives are: cinch, precinct, succinct. To gird, bind. Variant form *keng-. CINCH, CINCTURE, CINGULUM; ENCEINTE1, ENCEINTE2, PRECINCT, SHINGLES, SUCCINCT, from Latin cingere, to gird. [Pokorny 1. kenk- 565.]

kensImportant derivatives are: censor, census.. To proclaim, speak solemnly. Form *kens-K-. CENSOR, CENSUS; RECENSION, from Latin cKnsKre, to judge, assess, estimate, tax. [Pokorny ens- 566.]

kentImportant derivatives are: center, eccentric. To prick, jab. 20.

CENTER; AMNIOCENTESIS, DICENTRA, ECCENTRIC,

from Greek kentein, to

prick. 21. Suffixed form *kent-to-. CESTUS1, from Greek kestos, belt, girdle. [Pokorny ent- 567.]

ker-1 Important derivatives are: horn, cornea, corner, cornet, Capricorn, unicorn, hornet, reindeer, cranium, migraine, cheer, carrot, cervix, carat, rhinoceros, cerebrum. Horn, head; with derivatives referring to horned animals, horn-shaped objects, and projecting parts. I. Zero-grade form *ky-. 1. Suffixed form *ky-n-. i. ii.
HORN, (HORNBEAM),

from Old English horn, horn;

ALPENHORN, ALTHORN, FLGELHORN, HORNBLENDE,

from Old High German horn, horn. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *hurnaz;

b.

, CORNEA, CORNEOUS, CORNER, CORNET, CORNICULATE, CORNU; BICORNUATE, CAPRICORN, CORNIFICATION, LAMELLICORN, LONGICORN, TRICORN, UNICORN, from Latin corn7, horn.
CORN
2

2. Suffixed and extended form *kys-n-. HORNET, from Old English hyrnet, hornet, from Germanic *hurznuta-. 3. Suffixed form *kr-ei-. a. b. from Old Norse hreinn, reindeer, from Germanic *hraina-;
RINDERPEST, REINDEER,

from Old High German hrind, ox, from Germanic *hrinda-.

4. Suffixed extended form *kyNs-no-. CRANIUM; MIGRAINE, OLECRANON, from Greek kranion, skull, upper part of the head. 5. Suffixed form *ky-N-. a. b. c.
CHARIVARI; CHEER, CAROTID, CARROT,

from Greek karK, kara, head;

from Greek karoun, to stupefy, be stupefied (

from Greek karoton, carrot (from its hornlike

shape). 6. Possibly extended form *krX-. CRIOSPHINX, from Greek krios,

ram. II. Suffixed form *ker-wo-. 1. 2.

CERVINE, SERVAL, CERVIX,

from Latin cervus, deer.

from Latin cervXx, neck.

III. Extended and suffixed form *keru-do-. a. b.

HART,

from Old English heorot, hart, stag;

HARTEBEEST,

from Middle Dutch hert, deer, hart. Both a and b from Germanic *herutaz.

IV. Extended form *kerNs-. 1.

CARAT, CERASTES, KERATO-; CERATODUS, CHELICERA, CLADOCERAN, KERATIN,

MONOCEROS, RHINOCEROS, TRICERATOPS, from Greek keras,

horn. 2.
SIRDAR,

from Persian sar, head.

3. Suffixed form *kerNs-ro. CEREBELLUM, CEREBRUM, SAVELOY, from Latin cerebrum, brain. V. Extended o-grade form *koru-. 1. 2.
CORYMB,

from Greek korumbos, uppermost point (< head). from Greek koruphK, head.

CORYPHAEUS,

3. Suffixed form *koru-do-. CORYDALIS, from Greek korudos, crested lark. 4. Suffixed form *koru-n7. CORYNEBACTERIUM, from Greek korunK, club, mace. [Pokorny 1. er- 574.]

ker-2 Important derivatives are: cereal, create, Creole, crescent, crew1, concrete, decrease, increase, recruit, sincere. To grow.

1. Suffixed form *ker-es-. CEREAL, CERES, from Latin CerKs, goddess of agriculture, especially the growth of grain. 2. Extended form *krK- (< *kreN-). a. suffixed form *krK-y7-. CREATE, CREOLE; PROCREATE, from Latin cre7re, to bring forth, create, produce ( b. suffixed form *krK-sko-. CRESCENDO, CRESCENT, CREW1; ACCRUE, (CONCRESCENCE), CONCRETE, DECREASE, EXCRESCENCE, INCREASE, RECRUIT, from Latin crKscere, to grow, increase. 3. Suffixed o-grade form *kor-wo-, growing, adolescent. DIOSCURI, HYPOCORISM, from Greek kouros, koros, boy, son, and korK, girl. 4. Compound *sc-kKro-, of one growth (*sc-, same, one; see sem-1). SINCERE, from Latin sincKrus, pure, clean. [Pokorny 2. er- 577.]

ker-3 Important derivatives are: hearth, carbon, cremate, ceramic. Heat, fire. 4. Suffixed form *ker-t7. HEARTH, from Old English heorth, hearth, from Germanic *hertho. 5. Zero-grade form *ky-. a.
CARBON, CARBUNCLE,

from Latin carbo, charcoal, ember;

b. extended form *krem-. CREMATE, from Latin crem7re, to burn. 6. Possibly suffixed and extended form *kerN-mo-. CERAMIC, from Greek keramos, potter's clay, earthenware. 7. Possibly variant extended form *kr7s-. CRASH2, from Russian krasit', to color. [Pokorny 3. ker(N)- 571.]

kerdImportant derivatives are: heart, cordial, courage, quarry1, accord, discord, record, cardiac, credence, credible, credit, grant. Heart. 9. Suffixed form *kerd-en-. HEART, from Old English heorte, heart, from Germanic *herton-. 10. Zero-grade form *kyd-. a.
CORDATE, CORDIAL, COURAGE, QUARRY

; ACCORD, CONCORD, CORDIFORM, DISCORD, MISERICORD, RECORD, from Latin cor (stem cord-), heart;
1

b. suffixed form *kyd-y7-. CARDIA, CARDIAC, CARDIO-; ENDOCARDIUM, EPICARDIUM, MEGALOCARDIA, MYOCARDIUM, PERICARDIUM, from Greek kardia, heart, stomach, orifice. 11. Possibly *kred-dhN-, to place trust (an old religious term; *dhN-, to do, place; see dhK-). CREDENCE, CREDIBLE, CREDIT, CREDO, CREDULOUS, GRANT; MISCREANT, RECREANT, from Latin crKdere, to believe. [Pokorny ered- 579.]

kerNImportant derivatives are: rare2, uproar, crater. To mix, confuse, cook. 15. Variant form *kr7- (< *kraN-). a. b.
RARE

, from Old English hrKr, lightly boiled, half-cooked, possibly from kerN-;
2

from Middle Low German ror, motion. Both a and b from Germanic *hror-.

UPROAR,

16. Zero-grade form *kyN-. a. suffixed form *kyN-ti-. IDIOSYNCRACY; DYSCRASIA, from Greek krasis, a mixing; b. suffixed form *kyN-ter-. CRATER, from Greek kratKr, mixing vessel.

[Pokorny erN- 582.]

kerpImportant derivatives are: harvest, carpet, excerpt, scarce. To gather, pluck, harvest. Variant *karp-. 3. 4. from Old English hrfest, harvest, from Germanic *harbistaz.
CARPET; EXCERPT, (SCARCE), HARVEST,

from Latin carpere, to pluck.

5. -CARP, CARPEL, CARPO-, -CARPOUS, from Greek karpos, fruit. [In Pokorny 4. sker- 938.]

kersImportant derivatives are: corridor, courier, course, current, cursive, cursor, concur, discourse, excursion, incur, intercourse, occur, recur, car, career, cargo, carry, charge, carpenter. To run. Zero-grade form *kys-. 10.
CORRAL, CORRIDA, CORRIDOR, (CORSAIR), COURANTE, COURIER, COURSE, CURRENT, CURSIVE, CURSOR, CURULE; CONCOURSE, CONCUR, DECURRENT, DISCOURSE, EXCURSION, (HUSSAR), INCUR, INTERCOURSE, OCCUR, PERCURRENT, PRECURSOR, RECOURSE, RECUR, SUCCOR,

from Latin

currere, to run. 11. Suffixed form *kys-o-. a.

CAR, CAREER, CARGO, CARICATURE, CARIOLE, (CARK), CAROCHE,

(CARRY), CHARGE, CHARIOT; (DISCHARGE), from Latin carrus, a two-wheeled wagon; b.

CARPENTER,

from Latin carpentum, a two-wheeled carriage. Both a and b from Gaulish carros, a wagon, cart.

[Pokorny 2. ers- 583.]

kesImportant derivatives are: castrate, castle, caste, chaste, incest, cashier. To cut. Variant *kas-. 6. Suffixed form *kas-tro-. a. b.
CASTRATE,

from Latin castr7re, to castrate;

ALCAZAR, CASTLE,

from Latin castrum, fortified place, camp (perhaps separated place).

7. Suffixed form *kas-to-. CASTE, CHASTE; CASTIGATE, INCEST, from Latin castus, chaste, pure ( 8. Suffixed (stative) form *kas-K-. CARET, from Latin carKre, to be cut off from, lack. 9. Extended geminated form *kasso-. (CASHIER), QUASH1, from Latin cassus, empty, void. [Pokorny es- 586.]

keuImportant derivatives are: hear, acoustic, show, scavenger, sheen. Also Nkeu-To perceive, see, hear. O-grade form *Nkou-. 8. Extended form *kous-. i. ii.
HEAR,

from Old English hXeran, to hear;

from Old English he(o)rcnian, to harken. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *hausjan;

HEARKEN,

b. suffixed form *Nkous-yo-. ACOUSTIC, from Greek akouein, to hear. 9. Variant *skou-. i.
SHOW,

from Old English scKawian, to look at;

ii.

SCAVENGER,

from Flemish scauwen, to look at;

iii. WELTANSCHAUUNG, from Old High German scouwon, to look at. (i), (ii), and (iii) all from Germanic *skauwon; b. c. [Pokorny 1. keu- 587.]
SCONE,

from Middle Dutch schoon, beautiful, bright (< conspicuous, attractive);

from Old English scXene, bright, sheen, from Germanic *skauniz.

SHEEN,

keuNImportant derivatives are: cave, cavern, concave, excavate, cumulus, accumulate, church. To swell; vault, hole. I. O-grade form *kouN-. 1. Basic form *kouN- becoming *kaw-. CAVE, CAVERN, CAVETTO, CAVITY; CONCAVE, EXCAVATE, from Latin cavus, hollow. 2. Suffixed form *kow-ilo-.(-CELE2), CELIAC, -COEL, COELOM, from Greek koilos, hollow. 3. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *kow-o-. CODEINE, from Greek koos, hollow place, cavity. II. Zero-grade form *k7- (< *kuN-). 1. Suffixed shortened form *ku-m-olo. CUMULATE, CUMULUS; ACCUMULATE, from Latin cumulus, heap, mass. 2. Basic form *k7-. a. suffixed form *k7-ro-, swollen, strong, powerful. CHURCH, (KIRK), KYRIE, from Greek kurios (vocative kurie), master, lord; b. suffixed form *kuw-eyo-. CYMA; PSEUDOCYESIS, from Greek kuein, to swell, and derivative kuma (< *k7-mi), a swelling, wave;

c. suffixed form *en-k7-yo- (*en, in; see en-). ENCEINTE1; from Latin inciKns, pregnant. [Pokorny 1. eu- 592.]

kleiImportant derivatives are: decline, incline, recline, proclivity, lid, lean1, client, clinic, climax, climate, ladder. To lean. I. Full-grade form *klei-. 1. Suffixed form *klei-n-. DECLINE, INCLINE, RECLINE, from Latin clXn7re, to lean, bend. 2. Suffixed form *klei-tro-. CLITELLUM, from Latin clXtellae, packsaddle, from diminutive of *clXtra, litter. 3. Suffixed form *klei-wo-. ACCLIVITY, DECLIVITY, PROCLIVITY, from Latin clXvus, a slope. 4. Suffixed form *klei-tor-, incline, hill. CLITORIS, from Greek feminine diminutive kleitoris. II. Zero grade form *kli-. 1.
LID,

from Old English hlid, cover, from Germanic *hlid-, that which bends over, cover.

2. Suffixed form *kli-n-. LEAN1, from Old English hlinian and hleonian, to lean, from Germanic *hlinKn. 3. Suffixed form *kli-ent-. CLIENT, from Latin cliKns, dependent, follower. 4. Suffixed form *kli-to-. (see ous-) Latin auscult7re, to hold one's ear inclined, to listen to, from *aus-klit-7-. 5. Suffixed form *kli-n-yo-. -CLINAL, CLINE, (-CLINE), (-CLINIC), CLINO-; ACLINIC LINE, ANACLISIS, CLINANDRIUM, ENCLITIC, MATRICLINOUS, PATROCLINOUS, PERICLINE, (PROCLITIC), from Greek klinein, to lean. 6. Lengthened form *klX-.

a. suffixed form *klX-n-7. CLINIC; DICLINOUS, MONOCLINOUS, TRICLINIUM, from Greek klinK, bed; b. suffixed form *klX-m-. CLIMAX, from Greek klimax, ladder; c. suffixed form *klX-mi. CLIMATE, from Greek klima, sloping surface of the earth. III. Suffixed o-grade form *kloi-tr-. LADDER, from Old English hl<d(d)er, ladder, from Germanic *hlaidri-. [Pokorny lei- 600.]

kleuImportant derivatives are: leer, listen, loud. To hear. III. Extended form *kleus-. LEER, from Old English hlKor, cheek (< ear), from Germanic *hleuza-. IV. Zero-grade form *klu-. 1. 2.
LIST

, from Old English hlystan, to listen, from Germanic *hlustjan.

4

LISTEN,

from Old English hlysnan, to listen, from Germanic *hlusinon.

3. Suffixed lengthened form *kl7-to-. a. b.

LOUD,

from Old English hl7d, loud;

from Old High German hl7t, sound. Both a and b from Germanic *hl7daz, heard, loud.

ABLAUT, UMLAUT,

V. Full-grade form *kleu-. 1. Suffixed form *klew-yo-. CLIO, from Greek kleiein, to praise, tell. 2. Suffixed form *klew-es-. HERCULES, from Latin HerculKs, from Greek HKraklKs, HKrakleKs. 3. Suffixed form *kleu-to-. SAROD, from Old Iranian srauta-.

[Pokorny 1. leu- 605.]

koImportant derivatives are: he1, him, his, her, it, here, hence, et cetera. Stem of demonstrative pronoun meaning this. I. Variant form *ki-. a. b. c. d. e. f. g.
HE
1

, from Old English hK, he; from Old English him, him (dative of hK);

HIM, HIS,

from Old English his, his (genitive of hK);

HER,

from Old English hire, her (dative and genitive of heo, she); from Old English hit, it (neuter of hK); from Old English hKr, here;

IT,

HERE,

from Old English heonane, heonon, from here. a, b, c, d, e, f, and g all from Germanic *hi-,

HENCE,

2. Suffixed form *ki-tro-. HITHER, from Old English hider, hither, from Germanic *hi-thra-. 3. Suffixed form *ki-s. CIS-, from Latin cis, on this side of. II. Variant form *ke-. 1. Preposed in *ke-etero- (*e-tero-, a second time, again; see i-). ET CETERA, from Latin cKterus (neuter plural cKtera), the other part, that which remains. 2. (see nu-) Postposed in Latin -ce. 3. 4. 5. , from Old English behindan, in the rear, behind (bi, at; see ambhi).
1

BEHIND, HIND

HINTERLAND, HINDER
1

from Old High German hintar, behind.

, from Old English hindrian, to check, hinder, from Germanic derivative verb *hindron, to keep back. 1, 2, and 3 all from Germanic root *hind-, behind, attributed by some to this

root (but more likely of obscure origin). [Pokorny 1. ko- 609.]

koAn important derivative is: cone. To sharpen, whet. Contracted from *koN-. 2. Suffixed extended form *koNi-no-. HONE1, from Old English h7n, stone, from Germanic *haino. 3.
CONE, CONIC; CONIFER, CONODONT,

from Greek konos, cone, conical

object (ko-. [Pokorny Ki- 541.]

kobImportant derivatives are: happen, happy, hapless, mishap. To suit, fit, succeed.
HAP, (HAPPEN), (HAPPY); (HAPLESS), (MISHAP),

from Old Norse happ, chance, good

luck, from Germanic *hap-. [Pokorny kob- 610.]

kom Important derivatives are: enough, co-, contra-, contrary, counter1, country, encouter. Beside, near, by, with. 6.
ENOUGH, GEMOT, HANDIWORK, YCLEPT; WITENAGEMOT,

from Old English ge-, with, also participial, collective, and intensive prefix, from Germanic *ga-, together, with (collective and intensive prefix and marker of the past participle).
CUM; COONCAN,

7.

from Latin cum, co-, with.

8. (CO-), COM-, from Old Latin com, with (collective and intensive prefix).

9. (see merg-) British Celtic *kombrogos, fellow countryman, from Celtic *kom-, collective prefix. 10. Suffixed form *kom-tr7. (CON1), CONTRA-, CONTRARY, (COUNTER1), COUNTER-, COUNTRY; ENCOUNTER, from Latin contr7, against, opposite. 11. Suffixed form *kom-yo-. COENO-; CENOBITE, EPICENE, KOINE, from Greek koinos, common, shared. 12. Reduced form *ko- (see gher-1, mei-1, smei-). [Pokorny kom 612.]

konkImportant derivatives are: hang, hinge. To hang. a. b. c.

HANG,

from Old English hon, to hang; from Dutch (dialectal) hankeren, to long for;

HANKER, HINGE,

from Middle English he(e)ng, hinge, hinge, possibly related (ultimately from the base of Old English hangian, to hang). a, b, and c all from Germanic *hanhan (transitive), hangKn (intransitive), hang.

1. Suffixed form *konk-t-7-. CUNCTATION, from Latin c7nct7rX, to delay. [Pokorny enk- 566, onk- 614.]

koroImportant derivatives are: harbor, harbinger, herald, harry, harangue. War; also war-band, host, army. 4. 5.
HERIOT,

from Old English here, army.

ARRIRE-BAN,

from Old French herban, a summoning to military service (ban, proclamation, summons; see bh7-2).

a. b.

HARBOR,

from Old English herebeorg, lodging;

HARBINGER,

from Old French herberge, lodging. Both a and b from Germanic compound *harja-bergaz, army hill, hill-fort, later shelter, lodging, army quarters (*bergaz, hill; see bhergh-2).

6.

from Anglo-Norman herald, from Germanic compound *harja-waldaz, army commander (*wald-, rule, power; see wal-).
HARNESS,

HERALD,

7.

from Old French harneis, harness, from Germanic compound *harja-nestam, army provisions (*nestam, food for a journey; see nes- 1). 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 all from Germanic *harjaz, army.

III. HARRY, from Old English hergian, to ravage, plunder, raid, from Germanic denominative *harjon. IV. HARANGUE, from Old Italian aringo, arringa, public square, from Germanic compound *harihring, assembly, host-ring (*hringaz, ring; see sker-2). [Pokorny koro-s 615.]

kostImportant derivatives are: coast, cutlet, accost. Bone. Probably related to ost-. COAST, COSTA, COSTARD, COSTREL, CUESTA, CUTLET; ACCOST, INTERCOSTAL, STERNOCOSTAL, from Latin costa, rib, side. [Pokorny kost- 616.]

kreiImportant derivatives are: riddle1, garble, crime, criminal, discriminate, certain, concern, decree, discern, excrement, secret, crisis, critic,, hypocrisy. To sieve, discriminate, distinguish. 4. Basic form with variant instrumental suffixes. a. suffixed form *krei-tro-. RIDDLE1, from Old English

hridder, hriddel, sieve, from Germanic *hridra-, a sieve; b. suffixed form *krei-dhro-. CRIBRIFORM, GARBLE, from Latin crXbrum, a sieve. 5. Suffixed form *krei-men-. a. b.
CRIME, (CRIMINAL); RECRIMINATE,

from Latin crXmen,

judgment, crime;
DISCRIMINATE,

from Latin discrXmen, distinction (dis-,

apart). 6. Suffixed zero-grade form *kri-no- (participial form *kri-to-). CERTAIN; CONCERN, DECREE, DISCERN, (EXCREMENT), EXCRETE, (INCERTITUDE), RECREMENT, SECERN, SECRET, from Latin cernere (perfect crKvX; past participle crKtus), to sift, separate, decide. 7. Suffixed zero-grade form *kri-n-yo-. CRISIS, CRITIC, CRITERION; APOCRINE, DIACRITIC, ECCRINE, ENDOCRINE, EPICRITIC, EXOCRINE, HEMATOCRIT, HYPOCRISY, from Greek krinein, to separate, decide, judge ( krinesthai, to explain). [Pokorny 4. sker-, Section II. 945.]

kreuNImportant derivatives are: raw, pancreas, crude, cruel. Raw flesh. 1. Lengthened-grade form *krKw-. RAW, from Old English hrKaw, raw, from Germanic *hrKwaz. 2. Suffixed form *krewN-s-. CREATINE, CREODONT, CREOSOTE, PANCREAS, from Greek kreas, flesh. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *kr7-do- (< *kruN-do-). a. b. [Pokorny 1. A. kreu- 621.]
CRUDE; ECRU, RECRUDESCE, CRUEL,

from Latin cr7dus, bloody, raw;

from Latin cr7dKlis, cruel.

kreusImportant derivatives are: crust, crustacean, crystal. To begin to freeze, form a crust. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *krus-to-. a. b.
CROUTON, CRUST, CRUSTACEAN, CRUSTACEOUS, CRUSTOSE; ENCRUST,

from Latin crusta, crust; from Greek krustallos,

CRYSTAL, CRYSTALLINE, CRYSTALLO-,

ice, crystal. 4. Suffixed zero-grade form *krus-es-. CRYO-, from Greek kruos, icy cold, frost. 5. Suffixed zero-grade form *krus-mo-. CRYMOTHERAPY, from Greek krumos, icy cold, frost. [Pokorny 1. B. kreu- 621.]

ksun Important derivatives are: syn-, sputnik. Preposition and preverb meaning with. 3.
SYN-,

from Greek sun, xun, together, with.

4. Basic form *su(n)-. a. b. [In Pokorny 2. sem- 902.] from Old Russian compound svIt, assembly, from s(n)-, with, together;
SPUTNIK, SOVIET,

from Russian sputnik, fellow traveler, sputnik (see pent-), from so-, s-, with, together, from s(n).

kwe Derivatives are: sesqui-, ubiquity. And (enclitic).

SESQUI-, UBIQUITY,

from Latin -que, and.

[Pokorny ke 635.]

kwei-1 Important derivatives are: pain, penalty, punish, impunity, subpoena. To pay, atone, compensate. Suffixed o- grade form *kwoi-n7. PAIN, PENAL, (PENALTY), PINE2, PUNISH; IMPUNITY, PENOLOGY, (PUNITORY), (REPINE), SUBPOENA, from Greek poinK, fine, penalty. [Pokorny kei-(t-) 636.]

kwei-2 Important derivatives are: cheetah, poem, poet. To pile up, build, make. O-grade form *kwoi-. a.
CHEETAH,

from Sanskrit k7yaU, body;

b. suffixed form *kwoi-wo-, making, in denominative verb *kwoiw-eyo-. POEM, POESY, POET, POETIC, -POIESIS, -POIETIC; EPOPEE, MYTHOPOEIC, ONOMATOPOEIA, PHARMACOPOEIA, PROSOPOPEIA, from Greek poiein, to make, create. [Pokorny 2. kei- 637.]

kweiNImportant derivatives are: while, tranquil, coy, quiet, acquiesce. To rest, be quiet. I. Suffixed zero-grade variant form *kwX-lo- (< *kwiN-lo-). a. b. 2.
WHILE,

from Old English hwXl, while;

WHILOM,

from Old English hwXlum, sometimes. Both a and b from Germanic *hwXlo.

TRANQUIL,

from Latin tranquillus, tranquil (tr7ns, across, beyond; see terN-2), possibly from kweiN-.

II. Variant form *kwyK- (< *kwyeN-). COY, QUIET; ACQUIESCE, REQUIEM, REQUIESCAT, from Latin quiKs, quiet, requiKs, rest, and requiKscere, to rest.

[Pokorny kei- 638.]

kweitImportant derivatives are: white, wheat.. White; to shine. 5. Suffixed form *kweit-o-. a. b. c. d.
WHITE,

from Old English hwXt, white; from Middle Dutch wit, white; , from Middle Dutch wijting, whiting;

WITLOOF, WHITING
2

EDELWEISS,

from Old High German hwXz, wXz, white. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *hwXtaz.

6. Suffixed o-grade form *kwoit-yo-. WHEAT, from Old English hw<te, wheat (from the fine white flour it yields), from Germanic *hwaitjaz. [Pokorny 3. ei- 628.]

kwel-1 Important derivatives are: colony, cult, cultivate, culture, wheel, cycle, cyclone, bicycle, collar, pole1, pulley,, bucolic. To revolve, move around, sojourn, dwell. I. Basic form *kwel-. COLONY, CULT, CULTIVATE, (CULTURE); INCULT, INQUILINE, SILVICOLOUS, from Latin colere, to till, cultivate, inhabit. II. Suffixed form *kwel-es-. TELIC, (TELIUM), TELO-; ENTELECHY, TALISMAN, TELEOLOGY, (TELEOST), TELEUTOSPORE, from Greek telos, completion of a cycle, consummation, perfection, end, result. III. Suffixed reduplicated form *kw(e)-kwl-o-, circle. 1. 2. from Old English hwKol, hweogol, wheel, from Germanic *hwewlaz.
CYCLE, CYCLO-, CYCLOID, CYCLONE, CYCLOSIS; (BICYCLE), ENCYCLICAL, EPICYCLE, WHEEL,

from Greek kuklos, circle, wheel.

3.

CHAKRA, CHUKKER,

from Sanskrit cakram, circle, wheel.

4. Metathesized form *kwe-lkw-o-. CHARKHA, from Old Persian *carka-. IV. O-grade form *kwol-. 1. Suffixed form *kwol-so-, that on which the head turns, neck. i. ii. iii.
HAWSE,

from Old Norse h7ls, neck, ship's bow; from Middle Dutch hals, neck;

RINGHALS, HAUBERK,

from Old French hauberc, hauberk, from Germanic compound *h(w)als-berg-, neck-protector, gorget (*bergan, to protect; see bhergh-1). (i), (ii), and (iii) all from Germanic *h(w)alsaz;
1

b.

COL, COLLAR, COLLET, CULLET; ACCOLADE, DECOLLATE

DCOLLET, MACHICOLATE, (MACHICOLATION), TORTICOLLIS,

from Latin collum, neck. 2. Suffixed form *kwol-7. -COLOUS; PRATINCOLE, from Latin -cola and incola, inhabitant (in-, in; see en). 3. Suffixed form *kwol-o-. a.
ANCILLARY,

from Latin anculus, he who bustles about, servant (an-, short for ambi-, around, about; see ambhi);
POLE
1

b. c.

, PULLEY, from Greek polos, axis of a sphere;

from Greek boukolos, cowherd, from -kolos, herdsman.

BUCOLIC,

4. Suffixed form *kwol-es- (probably a blend of o-grade *kwol-oand expected e-grade *kwel-es-). CALASH, KOLACKY, from Slavic kolo, koles-, wheel. 5. Suffixed o-grade form *kwol-eno-. (see wes-3) Old Iranian *vah7-carana-, sale-traffic, from *carana-, trade, traffic. 6. Suffixed zero-grade form *kw_-i-. PALIMPSEST, PALINDROME, PALINGENESIS, PALINODE, from Greek palin, again (< revolving).

[Pokorny 1. kel- 639.]

kwel-2 Derivatives are: tele-, paleo-. Far (in space and time). 7. Lengthened-grade form *kwKl-. TELE-, from Greek tKle, far off. 8. Suffixed zero-grade form *kw_-ai. PALEO-, from Greek palai, long ago. [Pokorny 2. kel- 640.]

kwent(h)Important derivatives are: pathetic, pathos, sympathy. To suffer. 1. Suffixed form *kwenth-es-. NEPENTHE, from Greek penthos, grief. 2. Zero-grade form *kwith-. PATHETIC, PATHO-, PATHOS, -PATHY; APATHY, (PATHOGNOMONIC), SYMPATHY, from Greek pathos, suffering, passion, emotion, feelings. [Pokorny kenth- 641.]

kwerAn important derivative is: karma. To make. 1. SANSKRIT, from Sanskrit karoti, he makes. 2. Suffixed form *kwer-or with dissimilated form *kwel-or. PELORIA, from Greek pelor, monster (perhaps that which does harm). 3. Suffixed form *kwer-Ns-. TERA-; (TERATOCARCINOMA), TERATOGEN, TERATOID, TERATOMA, from Greek teras, monster. 4. Suffixed form *kwer-mi. KARMA, from Sanskrit karma, act, deed. [Pokorny ker- 641.]

kwesImportant derivatives are: wheeze, quarrel1, querulous, cyst. To pant, wheeze. 1. 2. from Old Norse hvsa, to hiss, from Germanic *hwKsjan.
QUARREL
1

WHEEZE,

, QUERULOUS, from Latin querX, to complain.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *kus-ti-. CYST, CYSTO-, from Greek kustis, bladder, bag (< bellows). [Pokorny es- 631.]

kwKtImportant derivatives are: squash2, discuss, rescue. To shake. Zero-grade form *kwNt-, becoming *kwat-. a. ; CONCUSS, DISCUSS, PERCUSS, RESCUE, SUCCUSSION, from Latin quatere (past participle quassus, in composition -cussus), to shake, strike;
2

CASCARA, SCUTCH, SQUASH

b. [Pokorny kKt- 632.]

PASTE

, from Greek passein, to sprinkle.

kwetwerImportant derivatives are: four, forty, fourteen, quatrain, squad, square, quadri-, quadrant, quarantine, tetra-, trapezium, fourth, farthing, quart, quarter. Four. I. O-grade form *kwetwor-. a. b. c.
FOUR,

from Old English fKower, four; from Old English fKowertig, forty;

FORTY,

from Old English fKowertKne, fourteen (-tKne, ten; see dekc). a, b, and c all from Germanic

FOURTEEN,

*fe(d)wor-, probably from *kwetwor-. 2. 3.

QUATRAIN; CATER-CORNERED, QUATTROCENTO,

from Latin quattuor,

four.
CZARDAS,

from Old Iranian cathw7ro, four.

II. Multiplicatives *kweturs, *kwetrus, and combining forms *kwetur-, *kwetru-. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

CAHIER, (CARILLON), (CARNET), QUATERNARY, QUATERNION, QUIRE
1

, from

Latin quater, four times. , QUARREL2, QUARRY2; (SQUAD), SQUARE, TROCAR, from Latin quadrum, square.
1

CADRE, QUADRATE, QUADRILLE

QUADRI-,

from Latin quadri-, four. from Latin quadr7ns, a fourth part. from Latin quadr7gint7, forty (-gint7, ten times; see

QUADRANT,

QUARANTINE,

dekc). 6. Variant form *kwet(w)y-. a. b. c.

TETRA-,

from Greek tetra-, four;

from Greek tessares, tettares (genitive tessaron), four;

TETRAD,

TESSERA; DIATESSARON,

from Greek tetras, group of four;

d. zero-grade form *kwt(w)y-. TRAPEZIUM, from Greek tra-, four. III. Ordinal adjective *kwetur-to-. a. b. c.
FOURTH, FIRKIN,

from Old English fKortha, fKowertha, fourth;

from Middle Dutch veerde, fourth;

from Old English fKorthing, fKorthung, fourth part of a penny. a, b, and c all from Germanic *fe(d)worthon-.
2

FARTHING,

2.

QUADRILLE

, QUADROON, QUART, QUARTAN, QUARTER, QUARTO, from Latin qu7rtus, fourth, quarter.

[Pokorny keter- 642.]

kwoImportant derivatives are: who, what, why, which, how, when, where, whether, neither, either, quorum, quip, quasi, quote, quotient, quantity, quality, neuter, alibi. Also kwi-Stem of relative and interrogative pronouns. a.
WHO, WHOSE, WHOM,

from Old English hw7, hws, hw<m, who, whose, whom, from Germanic personal pronouns *hwas, *hwasa, *hwam; from Old English hwt, what, from Germanic pronoun *hwat;
WHY,

b. c. d.

WHAT,

from Old English hw, why, from Germanic adverb *hwX;

from Old English hwilc, hwelc, which, from Germanic relative pronoun *hwa-lXk- (*lXk-, body, form; see lXk-); from Old English h7, how, from Germanic adverb *hwo; i. ii.
WHEN, HOW,

WHICH,

e.

from Old English hwenne, hwanne, when;

from Old English hwanon, whence. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic adverb *hwan-;

WHENCE,

f. g.

from Old English hwider, whither, from Germanic adverb *hwithrK; from Old English hw<r, where, from Germanic adverb *hwar-. a, b, c, d, e, f, g, and h all from Germanic *hwa-, *hwi-.
WHETHER; NEITHER, WHERE,

WHITHER,

h. i.

from Old English hwther, hwether, which of two, whether;

from Old English <ghwther, <ther, either, from Germanic phrase *aiwo gihwatharaz, ever each of two (*aiwo, *aiwi, ever; see aiw-; *gi- from *ga-, collective prefix; see kom). Both a and b from Germanic
EITHER,

*hwatharaz. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

QUA, QUIBBLE, QUORUM,

from Latin quX (genitive plural quorum), from Latin quid, what,

who.
HIDALGO, QUIDDITY, QUIDNUNC, QUIP,

something.
QUASI,

from Latin quasi, as if (quam + sX, if; see swo-), from quam, as, than, how.
QUODLIBET,

from Latin quod, what. from Latin quot, how many.

QUOTE, QUOTIDIAN, QUOTIENT; ALIQUOT, QUONDAM, COONCAN, QUANTITY, QUALITY, CUE

2

from Latin quom, when. from Latin quem, whom. from Latin quantus, how great.

from Latin qu7lis, of what kind.

, from Latin quando, when (from *kw7m + -do, to, til; see de-).
NEUTER,

from Latin uter, either of two. from Latin ubi, where, and ibi, there.

ALIBI, UBIQUITY, CHEESE

3

, from Old Persian *ci-ciy, something (< *kwid-kwid).

[Pokorny ko- 644.]

kwonImportant derivatives are: cynic, hound, dachshund, canary, canine, kennel1. Dog. 1.
CYNIC; CYNOSURE,

PROCYON, QUINSY, from Greek kuon, dog.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *kwi-to-. a. b.

HOUND,

from Old English hund, dog; from Old High German hunt, dog;

DACHSHUND,

c.

KEESHOND,

from Middle Dutch hond, dog. a, b, and c all from Germanic *hundaz.

3. Nominative form *kwo. CORGI, from Welsh ci, dog. 4. Variant *kan-i-. CANAILLE, CANARY, CANICULAR, CANINE, CHENILLE, 1 KENNEL , from Latin canis, dog. [Pokorny kon- 632.]

kwrepImportant derivatives are: midriff, corporal1, corporate, corporeal, corps, corpse, corpuscle, corsage, corset, leprechaun. Body. 1. Suffixed form *kwrep-es-. MIDRIFF, from Old English hrif, belly from Germanic *hrefiz-. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *kwyp-es-. CORPORAL1, CORPORAL3, CORPORATE, CORPOREAL, CORPOSANT, CORPS, CORPSE, CORPULENCE, CORPUS, CORPUSCLE, CORSAGE, CORSE, CORSET; LEPRECHAUN, from Latin corpus, body, substance. [Pokorny 1. krep- 620.]

kwymiAn important derivative is: crimson. Worm. Rhyme word to *wymi-, worm (see wer-2). (CRIMSON), KERMES, from Arabic qirmiz, kermes, borrowed from Sanskrit compound kxmi-ja-, (red dye) produced by worms (ja-, produced; see genN-), from kxmi-, worm. [Pokorny kymi- 649.]

laksA derivative is: lox1. Salmon. Suffixed form *laks-o-.

a. b. [Pokorny lak- 653.]

LOX

, from Old High German lahs, salmon;

GRAVLAX,

from Swedish lax, salmon. Both a and b from Germanic *lahsaz.

lasImportant derivatives are: lust, wanderlust, lascivious. To be eager, wanton, or unruly. a. b. c.

LUST,

from Old English lust, lust; from Old High German lust, desire;

WANDERLUST, LIST
5

, from Old English lystan, to please, satisfy a desire, from Germanic denominative verb *lustjan. a, b, and c all from suffixed Germanic zero-grade form *lustuz.

18. Suffixed form *las-ko-. LASCIVIOUS, from Latin lascXvus, wanton, lustful. [Pokorny las- 654.]

lauAn important derivative is: lucrative. Gain, profit. 16. Suffixed form *lau-no-. GUERDON, from Old High German lon, reward from Germanic *launam. 17. Suffixed zero-grade form *lu-tlo-. LUCRATIVE, LUCRE, from Latin lucrum, gain, profit. [Pokorny l7u- 655.]

lKImportant derivatives are: let1, liege, late, latter, last1, alas, lenient. To let go, slacken. Contracted from *leN-. V. Extended form *lKd-.

a. b.

, from Old English l<tan, to allow, leave undone, from Germanic *lKtan;
LET
1

LIEGE,

from Late Latin laetus, semifree colonist, from Germanic derivative *lKthigaz, freed.

2. Zero-grade form *lNd-. a. , from Old English lt, late, with its comparative ltra, latter, and its superlative latost, last, from Germanic *lataz;
1

LATE, LATTER, LAST

b.

LET

, from Old English lettan, to hinder, impede (*latjan;

c. suffixed form *lNd-to-. LASSITUDE; ALAS, from Latin lassus, tired, weary. VI. Suffixed basic form *lK-ni-. LENIENT, LENIS, LENITIVE, LENITY, from Latin lKnis, soft, gentle. [Pokorny 3. lK(i)- 666.]

lebImportant derivatives are: lip, labial. Lip. 27.

LIP,

from Old English lippa, lip, from Germanic *lep-.

28. Variant form *lab-. a. suffixed form *lab-yo-. LABIAL, LABIUM, from Latin labium, lip; b. suffixed form *lab-ro-. LABELLUM, LABRET, LABRUM, from Latin labrum, lip. [Pokorny lLb- 655.]

legImportant derivatives are: leech1, lectern, lecture, legend, legible, legion, lesson, coil1, collect1, diligent, elect, intelligent, neglect, sacrilege, select, lexicon, catalog, dialect, dialogue, eclectic, legal, legitimate, loyal, legislator, privilege, legacy, allege, colleague, delegate, relegate, logic, analogous, apology, epilogue, logarithm, prologue, syllogism.

To collect; with derivatives meaning to speak. 11. , from Old English l<ce, physician, from Germanic *lKkjaz, enchanter, one who speaks magic words, perhaps from leg-.
LEECH
1

12.

LECTERN, (LECTION), LECTURE, LEGEND, LEGIBLE, LEGION, LESSON; (COIL COLLECT

1

),

, DILIGENT, ELECT, INTELLIGENT, NEGLECT, PRELECT, SACRILEGE, SELECT, SORTILEGE, from Latin legere, to gather, choose, pluck, read. 13.
LEXICON, LOGION, -LOGUE, -LOGY; ALEXIA, ANALECTS, ANTHOLOGY, CATALOG, DIALECT, (DIALOGUE), DYSLEXIA, ECLECTIC, HOROLOGE,

from Greek legein, to gather, speak, with logos, speech (see 6). 14. Suffixed form *leg-no-. LIGNEOUS, LIGNI-, from Latin lignum, wood, firewood ( 15. Possibly lengthened-grade form *lKg-. a. b.
LEGAL, LEGIST, LEGITIMATE, LEX, LOYAL; LEGISLATOR, PRIVILEGE,

PROLEGOMENON,

from Latin lKx, law (?

LEGACY, LEGATE; COLLEAGUE, (COLLEGIAL), DELEGATE, RELEGATE,

from Latin denominative lKg7re, to depute, commission, charge (legh-). 16. Suffixed o-grade form *log-o-. LOGIC, LOGISTIC, LOGO-, LOGOS, LOGY; ANALOGOUS, APOLOGUE, APOLOGY, DECALOGUE, EPILOGUE, HOMOLOGOUS, LOGARITHM, PARALOGISM, PROLOGUE, SYLLOGISM, from Greek logos, speech, word, reason. [Pokorny le- 658.]

leghImportant derivatives are: lie1, lay1, ledge, ledger, lair, beleaguer, lees, low1, litter, law, fellow, outlaw. To lie, lay. 25. Suffixed form *legh-yo-. a. , from Old English licgan, to lie, from Germanic *LIGJAN;
LIE
1

i. ii.

LAY

, LEDGE, (LEDGER), from Old English lecgan, to

lay; from Old English belecgan, to cover, surround (be-, over; see ambhi). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *lagjan.
BELAY,

26. Suffixed form *legh-ro-. a. b. c. 27.

LEES, LAIR,

from Old English leger, lair;

1

LEAGUER

; BELEAGUER, from Middle Dutch leger, lair, camp;

from Old High German legar, bed, lair. a, b, and c all from Germanic *legraz.

LAAGER, LAGER; (STALAG),

from Medieval Latin lia, sediment, from Celtic *leg-y7-.

28. Lengthened-grade form *lKgh-. LOW1, from Old Norse l7gr, low, from Germanic *lKgaz, lying flat, low. 29. Suffixed form *legh-to-. COVERLET, LITTER; WAGON-LIT, from Latin lectus, bed. 30. Suffixed o-grade form *logh-o-. a. b. c. d. 31.
LAGAN, LAW; BYLAW,

(DANELAW), from Old Norse *lagu, lag-, law, that which is set down;
FELLOW,

from Old Norse lag, a laying down; from Old Norse lg, law;

OUTLAW,

ANLAGE, VORLAGE,

from Old High German l7ga, act of laying. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *lagam.

from Old Norse lgn, dragnet (*lag-Xno-.

32. Suffixed o-grade form *logh-o-. LOCHIA, from Greek lokhos, childbirth, place for lying in wait. [Pokorny legh- 658, 2. lKh- 660.]

legwhImportant derivatives are: light2, leaven, lever, levity, alleviate, carnival, elevate,

relieve, leprechaun, lung. Light, having little weight. 14. Suffixed form *legwh-t-. a. b.
LIGHT
2

, from Old English lXht, lKoht, light;

2

, from Old English lXhtan, to lighten. Both a and b from Germanic *lXht(j)az.
LIGHTER

15. Suffixed form *legwh-u-i-. LEAVEN, LEVER, LEVITY; ALLEVIATE, CARNIVAL, ELEVATE, LEGERDEMAIN, (MEZZO-RELIEVO), RELIEVE, from Latin levis, light, with its derivative lev7re, to lighten, raise. 16. Variant form *lagwh-. LEPRECHAUN, from Old Irish l7-, small. 17. Nasalized form *l(e)ngwh-. LUNG, from Old English lungen, lungs (from their lightness), from Germanic *lung-. 18. (see lei-) Latin oblXvXscX, to forget, attributed by some to this root, is more likely from lei-. [Pokorny legh- 660.]

leiImportant derivatives are: slime, slippery, slick, loam, slight, slip1, oblivion, liniment. Also slei-Slimy. a. b. c. d. e. f.
SLIME,

from Old English slXm, slime; from Old English slipor, slippery;

SLIPPERY, SLICK, LIME

3

from Old English *slice, smooth;

, from Old English lXm, cement, birdlime; from Old English l7m, loam;

LOAM,

from Middle English slight, slender, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse slKttr, smooth, sleek; , from Middle English slippen, to slip, probably from a source akin to Middle Dutch and Middle Low German slippen, to slip, slip away;
SLIP
1

SLIGHT,

g.

h.

from Middle Low German slKpen, to drag. a, b, c, d, e, f, g, and h all from Germanic *slY- with various extensions.

SCHLEP,

3. Suffixed form *lei-mo-. LIMACINE, LIMICOLINE, from Latin lXmus, slime. 4. Suffixed form *lei-w-. OBLIVION, OUBLIETTE, from Latin oblXvXscX, to forget (ob-, away; see epi). 5. Extended form *(s)leiN-, with metathesis *(s)leN(i)-. a. Zero-grade form with nasal infix *li-n-N-. LINIMENT, from Latin linere (perfect lKvX), to anoint; b. suffixed zero-grade form *lX- (< *liN-). LITOTES, from Greek litos, plain, simple; c. suffixed metathesized form *leN-wo-, whence *lK-wo-. LEVIGATE, from Latin lKvis, smooth. [Pokorny 3. lei- 662.]

leidImportant derivatives are: ludicrous, allude, collude, delude, elude, illusion, interlude, prelude. To play, jest. Suffixed o-grade form *loid-o-. LUDIC, LUDICROUS; ALLUDE, COLLUDE, DELUDE, ELUDE, ILLUSION, INTERLUDE, PRELUDE, PROLUSION, from Latin l7dus, game, play, with its derivative l7dere, to play (but both words may possibly be from Etruscan). [Pokorny leid- 666.]

leigImportant derivatives are: league1, liable, lien, alloy, ally, furl, oblige, rally, rely. To bind. 12.
LEECH

, from Middle Low German lXk, leech line, from Germanic *lXk-.
2

13. Suffixed agent noun *l(e)ig-tor-. LICTOR, from Latin lictor, lictor.

14. Zero-grade form *lig-7-. LEAGUE1, LEGATO, LIABLE, LIEN, LIGASE, 1 LIGATE, LIGATURE; ALLOY, (ALLY), COLLIGATE, FURL, OBLIGE, (RALLY ), (RELIGION), RELY, from Latin lig7re, to bind. [Pokorny 4. leig- 668.]

leighImportant derivatives are: lick, lecher. To lick. 5.

ELECTUARY, LICHEN,

from Greek leikhein, to lick.

6. Zero-grade form *ligh-. a. b.

LICK,

from Old English liccian, to lick;

LECHER,

from Old French lechier, to live in debauchery. Both a and b from Germanic *likkon.

7. Nasalized zero-grade form *li-n-gh-. ANILINGUS, CUNNILINGUS, from Latin lingere, to lick. [Pokorny leigh- 668.]

leikwImportant derivatives are: eclipse, ellipsis, lend, loan, delinquent, derelict, relinquish. To leave. 19. Basic form *leikw-. ECLIPSE, ELLIPSIS, from Greek leipein, to leave. 20. O-grade form *loikw-. a. suffixed form *loikw-nes-. LOAN, from Old Norse l7n, loan, from Germanic *laihwniz; b. from Old English l<nan, to lend, loan from Germanic denominative *laihwnjan.
LEND,

21. Zero-grade form *likw-. a. (see oi-no-) Old English endleofan, eleven, from Germanic *ain-lif-, one left (beyond ten);

b. (see dwo-) Old English twelf, twelve, from Germanic *twa-lif-, two left (beyond ten). Both a and b from Germanic *-lif-, left. 22. Nasalized zero-grade form *li-n-kw-. DELINQUENT, (DERELICT), RELINQUISH, from Latin linquere, to leave. [Pokorny leik- 669.]

leipImportant derivatives are: life, lively, live1, leave1, liver1. To stick, adhere; fat. 19. from Old English lXf, life (< continuance), from Germanic *lXbam. a. b. c. d.
LIVE
1

LIFE, LIVELY,

, from Old English lifian, libban, to live;

LEBENSRAUM,

from Old High German lebKn, to live. Both a and b from Germanic *libKn.
1

LEAVE

, from Old English l<fan, to leave, have remaining;

from Old French laier, to leave, from Frankish *laibjan. Both a and b from o-grade Germanic causative *-laibjan.

DELAY, RELAY,

20.

, from Old English lifer, liver (formerly believed to be the blood-producing organ), from Germanic *libro.
LIVER
1

21. Zero-grade form *lip-. LIPO-, from Greek lipos, fat. 22. Variant form *Nleibh-. ALIPHATIC; SYNALEPHA, from Greek aleiphein, to anoint with oil. [Pokorny leip- 670.]

leis-1 Important derivatives are: last2, lore1, learn, delirium. Track, furrow. 16. O-grade form *lois-.

a. b.

LAST

, from Old English l7st, l<st, sole, footprint, from Germanic *laist-;
3

, from Old English l<stan, to continue, from Germanic *laistjan, to follow a track;
LAST
2

c. suffixed form *lois-7. LORE,1 from Old English l7r, learning, from Germanic *laizo. 17. from Old English leornian, to learn, from Germanic zero-grade form *liznon, to follow a course (of study).
LEARN,

18. Suffixed full-grade form *leis-7. DELIRIUM, from Latin lXra, a furrow. [Pokorny leis- 671.]

leis-2 Important derivatives are: least, less. Small.

LEAST, LESS,

from Old English comparative l<s, l<ssa and superlative l<st, l<rest, from Germanic comparative *lais-izo and superlative *lais-ista-.

leitImportant derivatives are: lead1, load, lode, livelihood. To go forth, die. 20. Suffixed o-grade form *loit-eyo-. a. b.
LEAD
1

, from Old English l<dan, to lead;

LEITMOTIF,

from Old High German leitan, to lead. Both a and b from Germanic *laidjan.

21. Suffixed variant o-grade form *loit-7. LOAD, LODE; LIVELIHOOD, from Old English l7d, course, way, from Germanic *laido. [Pokorny leit(h)- 672.]

lendh-

Important derivatives are: land, landscape, hinterland, lawn1. Open land. a. b. c. d.

LAND; ISLAND,

from Old English land, land; from Middle Dutch land,

2

BILANDER, LANDSCAPE, UITLANDER,

land;
AUSLANDER, GELNDESPRUNG, HINTERLAND, LANDSMAN

, from

Old High German lant, land;

LANDGRAVE, (LANDGRAVINE),

from Middle Low German

lant, country; e. LANDSML, from Old Norse land, land; f. , from Old French launde, heath, pasture. a, b, c, d, and e all from Germanic *landam; f from Germanic, or from Celtic *land7.
LAWN
1

[Pokorny 3. lendh- 675.]

leuImportant derivatives are: forlorn, -less, lose, loss, loose, analysis, paralysis, soluble, solve, absolute, absolve, dissolve, resolve. To loosen, divide, cut apart. VIII. Extended Germanic root *leus-. a.
LORN, (LOSEL),

from Old English -lKosan, to lose; from Old English forlKosan, to forfeit,

i. ii.

FORLORN,

lose;
FORLORN HOPE,

from Dutch verliezen (past participle verloren), to lose. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *fer-leusan, *far-leusan (*fer-, *far-, prefix denoting rejection or exclusion; see per1). Both a and b from Germanic *leusan.

b. c.

LEASING, -LESS,

from Old English lKas, loose, free from, without, untrue, lacking; from Old English los, loss;

LOSE, (LOSS),

d. e.

LOOSE, LOESS,

from Old Norse lauss, louss, loose;

from German dialectal lsch, loose. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *lausaz.

IX. Basic form *leu-. 1.

LAG

, probably from a source akin to Swedish lagg, barrel stave (*lawwo.

2

2. Zero-grade form *lu-. a.

LYO-, LYSIS, LYSO-, -LYTE, (LYTIC), -LYTIC; ANALYSIS, CATALYSIS, DIALYSIS, LYASE, PARALYSIS, TACHYLYTE,

from Greek luein, to

loosen, release, untie; b. from Latin luKs, plague, pestilence (< dissolution, putrefaction);
LUES,

c. prefixed form *se-lu- (se-, apart; see s(w)e-). SOLUBLE, SOLUTE, SOLVE; ABSOLUTE, (ABSOLVE), ASSOIL, CONSOLUTE, DISSOLVE, RESOLVE, from Latin solvere, to loosen, untie. [Pokorny 2. leu- 681.]

leubhImportant derivatives are: livelong, furlough, belief, believe, love, libido. To care, desire; love. IV. Suffixed form *leubh-o-. LIEF; LEMAN, LIVELONG, from Old English lKof, dear, beloved, from Germanic *leubaz. V. O-grade form *loubh-. a. b. c. , from Old English lKaf, permission (< pleasure, approval);
LEAVE
2

FURLOUGH,

from Middle Dutch verlof, leave, permission (ver-, intensive prefix, from Germanic *fer-; see per1);

from Old English gelKafa, belief, faith (bi-, about; see ambhi), from Germanic *galaubo (*ga-, intensive prefix; see kom). a, b, and c all from Germanic *laubo.

BELIEF,

2.

from Old English gelKfan, belKfan, to believe, trust (be-, about; see ambhi), from Germanic *galaubjan, to hold dear, esteem, trust (*ga-, intensive prefix; see kom).

BELIEVE,

VI. Zero-grade form *lubh-. 1. Suffixed form *lubh-7-. LOVE, from Old English lufu, love, from Germanic *lubo. 2. Suffixed (stative) form *lubh-K-. QUODLIBET, from Latin libKre, to be dear, be pleasing. 3.
LIBIDO,

from Latin libXdo, pleasure, desire.

[Pokorny leubh- 683.]

leudhImportant derivatives are: liberal, liberate, liberty, livery, deliver. To mount up, grow. 1. Basic form *leudh-. LANDSLEIT, from Old High German liut, person, people, from Germanic *liud-i-. 2. Suffixed form *leudh-ero-. LIBERAL, LIBERATE, LIBERTINE, LIBERTY, LIVERY; DELIVER, from Latin lXber, free (the precise semantic development is obscure). [Pokorny 1. leudh- 684.]

leu(N)Important derivatives are: lye, lather, lotion, deluge, dilute, latrine. To wash. 21. Suffixed form *lou-k7. LYE, from Old English lKag, lye, from Germanic *laugo. 22. Suffixed form *lou-tro-. LATHER, from Old English lKthran, lXthran, to lather. 23. Variant form *law-. a.
LOMENT, LOTION; ABLUTION, ALLUVION, COLLUVIUM, DELUGE,

DILUTE, (ELUANT), ELUTE, (ELUVIUM),

from Latin lavere, to wash, with its derivative -luere, to wash;

b. form *law-7-. LAVE, from Latin lav7re, to wash; c.

LATRINE,

from Latin lav7trXna, l7trXna, a bath, privy.

24. O-grade form *lou-. PYROLUSITE, from Greek louein, to wash. [Pokorny lou- 692.]

leughImportant derivatives are: warlock, belie, lie2. To tell a lie. a. b. 24.

LIE
2

WARLOCK, BELIE,

from Old English lKogan, to lie;

from Old English belKogan, to deceive (be-, about; see ambhi). Both a and b from Germanic *leugan.

, from Old English lyge, a lie, falsehood, from Germanic *lugiz.

[Pokorny leugh- 686.]

leukImportant derivatives are: light1, luminary, luminous, illuminate, lunar, lunatic, luster, illustrate, lea, lucid, elucidate, translucent, lynx. Light, brightness. V. Basic form *leuk-. 1. Suffixed form *leuk-to-. a. b.
LIGHT
1

, from Old English lKoht, lXht, light;

LIGHTNING,

from Old English lXhtan, to shine, from Germanic *leuht-jan, to make light. Both a and b from Germanic *leuhtam.

2. Unsuffixed form *leuk-. LUCINA, LUCULENT, LUX; LUCIFER, (LUCIFERIN), from Latin l7x, light.

3. Suffixed form *leuk-smen-. LIMN, LUMEN, LUMINARY, LUMINOUS; ILLUMINATE, PHILLUMENIST, from Latin l7men, light, opening. 4. Suffixed form *leuk-sn7-. LUNA, LUNAR, LUNATE, LUNATIC, LUNE, LUNULA; SUBLUNARY, from Latin l7na, moon. 5. Suffixed form *leuk-stro-. a. b.
LUSTER, (LUSTRUM), ILLUSTRATE,

from Latin l7strum, purification;

from Latin l7str7re, to purify, illuminate.

6. Suffixed form *leuko-dhro-. LUCUBRATE, from Latin l7cubr7re, to work by lamplight. 7. Suffixed form *leuk-o-. LEUKO-, from Greek leukos, clear, white. VI. O-grade form *louk-. 1. Suffixed form *louk-o-. a. b.
LEA,

from Old English lKah, meadow (*lauhaz;

LEVIN,

from Middle English levin, lightning, from Germanic *lauh-ubni-.

2. Suffixed (iterative) form *louk-eyo-. LUCENT, LUCID; ELUCIDATE, NOCTILUCA, PELLUCID, RELUCENT, TRANSLUCENT, from Latin l7cKre, to shine. VII. Zero-grade form *luk-. 1. Suffixed form *luk-sno-. LINK2, LYCHNIS, from Greek lukhnos, lamp. 2.
LYNX, OUNCE

, from Greek lunx, lynx (as if from its shining eyes), attributed by some to this root (but more likely of obscure origin).
2

[Pokorny leuk- 687.]

lXkThe following entry is not, strictly speaking, Indo-European, since it is represented in only one branch of the family. Important derivatives are: -ly1, -ly2,

alike, like2, each, likely, frolic, like1. [Not, strictly speaking, Indo-European. Body, form; like, same. Germanic root. 17.
LYCH-GATE,

from Old English lXc, form, body.

18. -LY1, -LY2, from Old English -lXc, having the form of. a. b.
ALIKE, LIKE

, LIKELY, from Old English gelXc, similar, and Old Norse (g)lXkr, like, both from Germanic *galXkaz;
2

from Old English <lc, each, from Germanic phrase *aiwo galXkaz, ever alike (*aiwo, *aiwi, ever; see aiw-).
EACH; EVERY,

19. (see i-) Old English ilca, the same, from Germanic *is- lXk-. 20. 21. 22.
ALIKE,

from Old English onlXc, from Germanic *ana-lXkaz. from Middle Dutch -lijc, -like.

FROLIC, LIKE
1

, from Old English lXcian, to please, from Germanic *lXkjan.

23. (see kwo-) Germanic *hwa-lXk-, which. [Pokorny 2. lLig- 667.]

lYnoImportant derivatives are: line1, linen, lingerie, lint, linseed. Flax. 22. Form *lino-. LINOLEIC ACID, from Greek linon, flax. 23. Form *lXno-. LINE1, LINE2, LINEN, LINGERIE, LININ, LINNET, LINT; CRINOLINE, LINSEED, from Latin lXnum, flax, linen, thread. [Pokorny lX-no- 691.]

l7sAn important derivative is: louse. Louse.

LOUSE,

from Old English l7s louse, from Germanic *l7s-.

[Pokorny l's- 692.]

m7-1 Important derivatives are: mature, premature, matinee. Good; with derivatives meaning occurring at a good moment, timely, seasonable, early. 1. Suffixed form *m7-tu-. a. further suffixed form *m7-tu-ro-. MATURE; IMMATURE, PREMATURE, from Latin m7t7rus, seasonable, ripe, mature; b. further suffixed form *m7-tu-to-. (MATINEE), MATINS, (MATUTINAL), from Latin M7tta, name of the goddess of dawn. 2. Suffixed form *m7-ni-. a. b. [Pokorny 2. m7- 693.]
MAANA, MANES,

from Latin m7ne, (in) the morning;

from Latin m7nis, m7nus, good.

m7-2 An important derivative is: mammal. Mother. A linguistic near-universal found in many of the world's languages, often in reduplicated form. 1. 2.
MAMMA
2

, MAMMAL, MAMMILLA, from Latin mamma, breast.

MAIA, MAIEUTIC,

from Greek Maia, good mother (respectful form of address to old women), also nurse, probably from m72 .
MAMA,

3.

more recently formed in the same way.

[Pokorny 3. m7- 694.]

magImportant derivatives are: make, mason, match1, mingle, among, mongrel, magma, mass, amass. Also mak-To knead, fashion, fit. i. ii. iii.
MAKE,

from Old English macian, to make; from Old French masson, mason;

MASON,

MAQUILLAGE,

from Middle Dutch maken, to make. (i), (ii), and (iii) all from Germanic verb *makon, to fashion, fit;

b.

, from Old English gemcca, mate, spouse, from Germanic compound noun *ga-mak-(j)on-, one who is fitted with (another) (*ga-, with, together; see kom). Both a and b from Germanic *mak-.
MATCH
1

a. b.

MINGLE,

from Old English mengan, to mix;

from Old English gemang, mixture, crowd (ge-, together; see kom). Both a and b from Germanic nasalized form *mangjan, to knead together.

AMONG, MONGREL,

1. Suffixed form *mak-yo-. MAGMA, from Greek magma, unguent, from massein (aorist stem mag-), to knead. 2. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *m7g-ya-. MASS; (AMASS), MAZAEDIUM, from Greek maza, a (kneaded) lump, barley cake. 3. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *m7k-ero-. MACERATE, from Latin m7cer7re, to tenderize, to soften (food) by steeping. [Pokorny ma- 696, 2. m7k- 698, men(N)k- 730.]

maghImportant derivatives are: may1, dismay, might1, main, machine, mechanic, magic. To be able, have power. a. b.
MAY
1

, from Old English magan, to be able; from Old French esmaier, to frighten. Both a

DISMAY,

and b from Germanic *magan, to be able. 1. 2.

MIGHT

, from Old English miht, power, from Germanic suffixed form *mah-ti-, power.
1

from Old English mgen, power, from Germanic suffixed form *mag-inam, power.

MAIN,

3. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *m7gh-an7-, that which enables. MACHINE, MECHANIC, (MECHANISM), (MECHANO-), from Greek (Attic) mKkhanK, (Doric) m7khan7, device. 4. Possibly suffixed form *magh-u-. (MAGIC), MAGUS, from Old Persian magu, member of a priestly caste ( [Pokorny magh- 695.]

maghuImportant derivatives are: maid, maiden. Young person of either sex. Suffixed form *magho-ti-. a. b. [Pokorny maghos 696.]
MAID, MAIDEN,

from Old English mgden, virgin;

from Dutch maagd, maid. Both a and b from Germanic *magadi-, with diminutive *magadin-.

MATJES HERRING,

m7kImportant derivatives are: meager, emaciate, macro-. Long, thin. Contracted from *maNk-. 1. Zero-grade form *mNk- becoming *mak- in suffixed form *mak-ro-. a. b.
MEAGER; EMACIATE,

from Latin macer, thin; from Greek makros, long,

MACRO-, MACRON; AMPHIMACER,

large.

2. Suffixed form *m7k-es-. MECOPTERAN, PARAMECIUM, from Greek mKkos, length. [Pokorny m7k- 699.]

man-1 Important derivatives are: man, Norman1, mannequin, ombudsman. Also mon-Man. 1. Extended forms *manu-, *manw-. a. b. c.
MAN;

NORMAN, from Old English man(n) (plural menn),

man;
FUGLEMAN, LANDSMAN
2

, from Old High German man, man; from Middle Dutch man, man;

MANIKIN, (MANNEQUIN),

d. NORMAN1, OMBUDSMAN, from Old Norse madhr, mannr, man; e. ALEMANNI, possibly from Germanic *Ala-manniz, tribal name (< *all men: *ala-, all; see al-3). a, b, c, d, and e all from Germanic *manna- (plural *manniz). 2. 3.
MENSCH,

from Old High German mennisco, human, from Germanic adjective *manniska-, human.
MUZHIK,

from Russian muzh, man, male, from Slavic suffixed form *mon-gyo-.

[Pokorny manu-s 700.]

man-2 Important derivatives are: manacle, manage, manner, manual, maintain, maneuver, manicure, manifest, manipulation, manufacture, manure, manuscript, mastiff, emancipate, mandate, command, commando, commend, countermand, demand, recommend. Hand. 1.
MANACLE, MANAGE, (MANGE), MANNER, MANUAL, MANUBRIUM, MANUS; AMANUENSIS, MAINTAIN, MANEUVER, MANICOTTI, MANICURE, MANIFEST,

MANIPLE, MANIPULATION, MANSUETUDE, MANUFACTURE, MANUMIT, MANURE, MANUSCRIPT, MASTIFF, MORTMAIN, QUADRUMANOUS,

from

Latin manus, hand. 2. Suffixed form *man-ko-, maimed in the hand. MANQU, from Latin mancus, maimed, defective. 3. 4. from Latin compound manceps, he who takes by the hand, purchaser (-ceps, agential suffix, taker; see kap-).
MANDAMUS, MANDATE; COMMAND, (COMMANDO), COMMEND, EMANCIPATE,

from Latin compound mand7re, to put into someone's hand, entrust, order (-dere, to put; see dhK-). [Pokorny mN-r 740.]

COUNTERMAND, DEMAND, (RECOMMEND), REMAND,

markoAn important derivative is: mare1. Horse. , from Old English mere, miere, mare, from Germanic feminine *marhjon-.
MARE
1

[Pokorny marko- 700.]

m7terImportant derivatives are: mother1, maternal, maternity, matriculate, matrix, matron, matrimony, metropolis, material, matter. Mother. Based ultimately on the baby-talk form m7-2, with the kinship term suffix *-ter-. a. b. 1.
MOTHER MOTHER
1

, from Old English modor, mother;

, from Middle Dutch moeder, mother. Both a and b from Germanic *modar-.
2

MATER, MATERNAL, MATERNITY, (MATRICULATE), MATRIX, MATRON; MADREPORE, MATRIMONY,

from Latin m7ter, mother.

2. 3.

METRO-; METROPOLIS, MATERIAL, MATTER,

from Greek mKtKr, mother.

from Latin m7teriKs, m7teria, tree trunk (< matrix, the tree's source of growth), hence hard timber used in carpentry, hence (by a calque on Greek hulK, wood, matter) substance, stuff, matter.

4. DEMETER, from Greek compound DKmKtKr, name of the goddess of produce, especially cereal crops (dK-, possibly meaning earth). [Pokorny m7ter- 700.]

me-1 Important derivatives are: me, myself, mine2, my. Oblique form of the personal pronoun of the first person singular. For the nominative see eg. 1.
ME, MYSELF,

from Old English mL (dative and accusative), from Germanic *mL-.

2. Possessive adjective *mei-no-. a. b.

MINE
2

, MY, from Old English mXn, my;

MYNHEER,

from Middle Dutch mijn, my. Both a and b from Germanic *mXn-.

3. Possessive adjective *me-yo-. MADAME, MONSIEUR, from Latin meus, mine. 4. Genitive form *me-wo. MAVOURNEEN, from Old Irish mo, my. [Pokorny 1. me- 702.]

me-2 Derivatives are: midwife, meta-. In the middle of. 1. Suffixed form *me-dhi. MIDWIFE, from Old English mid, among, with, from Germanic *mid-.

2. Suffixed form *me-ta. META-, from Greek meta, between, with, beside, after. [Pokorny 2. me- 702.] See also medhyo-.

mK-1 Important derivatives are: mood1, moral, morale, morose. Expressing certain qualities of mind. Contracted from *meN-. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *mo-to-. i. ii. , from Old English mod, mind, disposition;
MOOD
1

GEMTLICH, (GEMTLICHKEIT); BISMUTH,

from Old High German muot, mind, spirit. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *mothaz.

2.

from Latin mos (< *mo-s-), wont, humor, manner, custom, perhaps from mK-1.

MORAL, (MORALE), MORES, MOROSE,

[Pokorny 5. mK- 704.]

mK-2 Important derivatives are: meal2, piecemeal, measure, dimension, immense, meter1, diameter, geometry, moon, Monday, month, menopause, menstruate, semester. To measure. Contracted from *meN-. I. Basic form mK-. 1. Suffixed form *mK-lo-. MEAL2; PIECEMEAL, from Old English m<l, measure, mark, appointed time, time for eating, meal, from Germanic *mKlaz. 2. Suffixed form *mK-ti-. a.
MEASURE, (MENSURAL); (COMMENSURATE), DIMENSION, IMMENSE,

from Latin mKtXrX, to measure; b. METIS, from Greek mKtis, wisdom, skill.

3.

, METER2, (METER3), -METER, METRICAL, -METRY; DIAMETER, GEOMETRY, ISOMETRIC, METROLOGY, METRONOME, SYMMETRY, from Greek metron, measure, rule, length, proportion, poetic meter, possibly from mK-2 (but this is referred by some to med-).
METER
1

II. Extended and suffixed forms *mKn-, *mKn-en-, *mKn-ot-, *mKn-s-, moon, month (an ancient and universal unit of time measured by the moon). 1. 2. 3. 4.
MOON;

(MONDAY), from Old English mona, moon, from Germanic *mKnon-.

MONTH,

from Old English monath, month, from Germanic *mKnoth-.

AMENORRHEA, CATAMENIA, DYSMENORRHEA, EMMENAGOGUE, (MENARCHE), MENISCUS, (MENOPAUSE)

from Greek mKn, mKnK, month.

MENSES, MENSTRUAL, (MENSTRUATE); BIMESTRIAL, SEMESTER, TRIMESTER,

from Latin mKnsis, month. [Pokorny 3. mK- 703, mKnot- 731.]

mK-3 Important derivatives are: more, most. Big. Contracted from *meN-. 1. Suffixed (comparative) form *mK-is-. MORE, from Old English m7ra, greater, and m7re (adverb), more, from Germanic *maizon-. 2. Suffixed (superlative) form *mK-isto-. MOST, from Old English m<st, most, from Germanic *maista-. 3. Suffixed form *mK-ro-, *mK-ri-. MRCHEN, from Old High German m7ri, news, narration. 4. Suffixed o-grade form *mo-ro-. CLAYMORE, from Gaelic mor, big, great. [Pokorny 4. mK- 704.]

mK-4 Important derivatives are: mow2, aftermath, meadow. To cut down grass or grain with a sickle or scythe. Contracted from *meN-. 1.
MOW
2

, from Old English m7wan, to mow, from Germanic *mK-.

2. Suffixed form *mK-ti-. AFTERMATH, from Old English m<th, a mowing, a mown crop, from Germanic *mKdiz. 3. Suffixed form *mK-tw7-, a mown field. MEAD2, MEADOW, from Old English m<d (oblique case m<dwe), meadow, from Germanic *mKdwo. [Pokorny 2. mK- 703.]

medImportant derivatives are: mete1, medicine, remedy, meditate, modest, moderate, mode, model, modern, modify, module, mold1, accomodate, commodity, must1, empty. To take appropriate measures. a. b.
METE

, from Old English metan, to measure (out), from Germanic *metan;

1

MEET

, from Old English gem<te, commensurate, fit (ge-, with; see kom), from Germanic derivative *m<to, measure.
2

a. b.

MEDICAL, MEDICATE, (MEDICINE), (MEDICO); METHEGLIN, REMEDY,

from Latin medKrX, to look after, heal, cure; from Latin medit7rX, to think about, consider,

MEDITATE,

reflect. 1. Suffixed form *med-es-. a. b.

MODEST; IMMODEST,

from Latin modestus, keeping to the appropriate measure, moderate;

MODERATE; IMMODERATE,

from Latin moder7rX, to keep

within measure, to moderate, control. Both a and b from Latin *modes-, replacing *medes- by influence of modus (see 5 below). 2. MEDUSA, from Greek medein, to rule (feminine participle medousa < *med-ont-ia). 3. Suffixed o-grade form *mod-o-. MODAL, MODE, MODEL, MODERN, 1 2 MODICUM, MODIFY, MODULATE, MODULE, MODULUS, MOLD , (MOOD ), (MOULAGE); (ACCOMODATE), (COMMODE), COMMODIOUS, (COMMODITY), from Latin modus, measure, size, limit, manner, harmony, melody. 4. Suffixed o-grade form *mod-yo-. MODIOLUS, MUTCHKIN, from Latin modius, a measure of grain. 5. Possibly lengthened o-grade form *mod-. a. b. , MUST1, from Old English motan, to have occasion, to be permitted or obliged;
MOTE
2

from Old English <metta, rest, leisure, from Germanic compound *K-mot-ja- (prefix *K-, meaning uncertain, from Indo-European *K, *o, to). Both a and b from Germanic *mot-, ability, leisure.
EMPTY,

[Pokorny 1. med- 705.]

medhuImportant derivatives are: mead1, amethyst. Honey; also mead. 1. 2.

MEAD
1

, from Old English meodu, mead, from Germanic *medu. from Greek methu, wine.

AMETHYST, METHYLENE,

[Pokorny mdhu- 707.]

medhyoImportant derivatives are: mid1, amid, middle, mean3, medial, mediate, medium, intermediate, medieval, mediocre, mediterranean, meridian. Middle.

a. b.

MID

; AMID, from Old English midd(e), middle;

MIDDLE,

from Old English middel, middle, from West Germanic diminutive form *middila-;

c. MIDGARD, from Old Norse Midhgardhr, Midgard, from Germanic compound *midja-gardaz, middle zone, name of the earth conceived as an intermediate zone lying between heaven and hell (*gardaz, enclosure, yard; see gher-1). a, b, and c all from Germanic *midja-. 1. , MEDIAL, MEDIAN, MEDIASTINUM, MEDIATE, MEDIUM, MIZZEN, MOIETY, MULLION; INTERMEDIATE, MEDIEVAL, MEDIOCRE, MEDITERRANEAN, MERIDIAN, MILIEU, from Latin medius, middle, half.
MEAN
3

2.

MESO-,

from Greek mesos, middle.

[Pokorny medhi- 706.] See also me-2.

megImportant derivatives are: much, magnate, magnitude, magnum, magnanimous, magnificent, magnify, major, majority, mayor, majesty, maestro, magistrate, master, mister, mistress, maximum, May, mega-, maharajah. Great. a. b.
MICKLE, MUCH, MICKLE,

from Old English micel, mycel, great;

from Old Norse mikill. Both a and b from Germanic suffixed form *mik-ila-.

1. Suffixed form *mag-no-. MAGNATE, MAGNITUDE, MAGNUM; MAGNANIMOUS, MAGNIFIC, (MAGNIFICENT), (MAGNIFICO), (MAGNIFY), MAGNILOQUENT, from Latin magnus, great. 2. Suffixed (comparative) form *mag-yos-. a. b. c.
MAJOR, MAJOR-DOMO, MAJORITY, MAJUSCULE, MAYOR,

from

Latin m7ior, greater;

MAESTOSO, MAJESTY,

from Latin m7iest7s, greatness,

authority;
MAESTRO, MAGISTERIAL, MAGISTRAL, MAGISTRATE, MASTER,

(MISTER), MISTRAL, (MISTRESS), from Latin magister, master,

high official ( 3. Suffixed (superlative) form *mag-samo-. MAXIM, MAXIMUM, from Latin maximus, greatest. 4. Suffixed (feminine) form *mag-ya-, she who is great. MAY, from Latin Maia, name of a goddess. 5. Suffixed form *meg-N-(l-). MEGA-, MEGALO-; ACROMEGALY, ALMAGEST, OMEGA, from Greek megas (stem megal-), great. 6. Variant form *megh- (< *meg-N-). MAHARAJAH, MAHARANI, MAHARISHI, MAHATMA, MAHAYANA, from Sanskrit mah7-, mahat-, great. [Pokorny me(h)- 708.]

mei-1 Important derivatives are: permeate, mad, molt, mutate, commute, mutual, mis-1, amiss, mistake, miss1, common, communicate, communism, municipal, remunerate, immune, amoeba, migrate, emigrate. To change, go, move; with derivatives referring to the exchange of goods and services within a society as regulated by custom or law. 1.
MEATUS; CONG, IRREMEABLE, PERMEATE,

from Latin me7re, to go,

pass. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *moi-to-. a.

MAD,

from Old English *gem<dan, to make insane or foolish, from Germanic *ga-maid-jan, denominative from *ga-maid-az, changed (for the worse), abnormal (*ga-, intensive prefix; see kom); , MOLT, MUTATE; COMMUTE, PERMUTE, REMUDA, TRANSMUTE, from Latin m7t7re, to change;
MEW
1

b. c.

MUTUAL,

from Latin m7tuus, done in exchange, borrowed, reciprocal, mutual.

3. Suffixed extended zero-grade form *mit-to-. a.

MIS-

, from Old English mis-, mis-, and Old French mes(from Frankish *miss-);
1

b. c.

AMISS, MISTAKE,

from Old Norse mis(s), mis(s)-, miss,

mis-;
MISS

, from Old English missan, to miss, from Germanic *missjan, to go wrong. a, b, and c all from Germanic *missa-, in a changed manner, abnormally, wrongly.
1

4. Suffixed o-grade form *moi-n- in compound adjective *komoin-i-, held in common (*ko-, together; see kom). a. b. , (DEMEAN2), from Old English gem<ne, common, public, general, from Germanic *gamainiz;
MEAN
2

), COMMUNE2, COMMUNICATE, (COMMUNISM), from Latin comm7nis, common, public, general.

1

COMMON, (COMMUNE

5. Suffixed o-grade form *moi-n-es-. a.

MUNICIPAL, MUNIFICENT, REMUNERATE,

from Latin m7nus, service performed for the community, duty, work, public spectacle paid for by a magistrate, gift;
IMMUNE,

b.

from Latin imm7nis, exempt from public service (in-, negative prefix; see ne).

6. Extended form *(N)meigw-. a. b.

AMOEBA,

from Greek ameibein, to change; from Latin migr7re, to change one's

MIGRATE; EMIGRATE,

place of living. [Pokorny 2. mei-, 3. mei- 710, meig- 713, 2. meit(h)- 715.]

mei-2 Important derivatives are: menu, mince, minute2, diminish, minor, minus, minimum, minestrone, minister. Small. 1.
MEIOSIS;

MIOCENE, from Greek meion, less, lesser.

2. (see ne) Latin nimis, too much, very (< *ne-mi-s, not little; ne-, negative prefix).

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *mi-nu-. a. b. ; COMMINUTE, DIMINISH, from Latin minuere, to reduce, diminish;
2

MENU, (MINCE), MINUEND, MINUTE

from Latin minor (influenced by the comparative suffix -or), less, lesser, smaller;

MINOR, MINUS; MINUSCULE,

c. further suffixed (superlative) form *minu-mo-. MINIMUM, from Latin minimus, least; d. , from Latin minister, an inferior, servant (formed after magister, master; see meg-);
2

MINESTRONE, MINISTER, MINISTRY, MYSTERY

e. MENSHEVIK, from Russian men'she, less. [Pokorny 5. mei- 711.]

meighImportant derivatives are: mist, mistletoe. To urinate. a. b.

MIST,

from Old English mist, mist;

1

, from Middle English misellen, to drizzle, from a source perhaps akin to Dutch dialectal mieselen, to drizzle;
MIZZLE

c. (MISSEL THRUSH), MISTLETOE, from Old English mistel, mistletoe, from Germanic diminutive form *mihst-ila-, mistletoe (which is propagated through the droppings of the missel thrush). a, b, and c all from Germanic suffixed form *mih-stu-, urine, hence mist, fine rain. 1. Suffixed form *migh-tu-. MICTURATE, from Latin micturXre, to want to urinate (desiderative of meiere, to urinate). [Pokorny meik- 713.]

meikImportant derivatives are: meddle, medley, mestizo, miscellaneous, mix, mixture,

pell-mell, promiscuous, mash. To mix. 1. Variant form *meig-. AMPHIMIXIS, APOMIXIS, PANMICTIC, PANMIXIA, from Greek mignunai, to mix, with zero-grade noun mixis (< *mig-ti-), a mingling. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *mik-sk-. MEDDLE, (MEDLEY), (MELANGE), MESTIZO, MISCELLANEOUS, MISCIBLE, MIX, MIXTURE, MUSTANG; ADMIX, COMMIX, IMMIX, MISCEGENATION, (PELL-MELL), PROMISCUOUS, from Latin miscKre (past participle mixtus), to mix. 3. from Old English *m7sc, *m7cs, m7x-, mashed malt, from a possible Germanic form *maisk-.
MASH,

[Pokorny mei- 714.]

mei-noImportant derivatives are: moan, bemoan, mean1. Opinion, intention. 1. 2. from Old English *m7n, opinion, complaint, from Germanic *main-. ; BEMOAN, from Old English m<nan, to signify, tell, complain of, moan, from Germanic *mainjan.
MEAN
1

MOAN,

[Pokorny mei-no- 714.]

mel-1 Important derivatives are: melt, malt, mollify, mollusk, bland, smelt1, enamel, mild, mulch. Soft; with derivatives referring to soft or softened materials of various kinds. I. Extended form *meld-. 1. 2.
MELT,

from Old English meltan, to melt, from Germanic *meltan.

MILT,

from Old English milte, spleen, and Middle Dutch milte, milt, from Germanic *miltja-, possibly from mel-1.

3.

from Old English mealt, malt, from Germanic *malta-, possibly from mel-1.

MALT,

4. Suffixed variant form *mled-sno-. BLENNY, from Greek blennos, slime, also a name for the blenny. 5. Suffixed zero-grade form *m_d-wi-. MOIL, MOLLIFY, MOLLUSK, (MOUILL); EMOLLIENT, from Latin mollis, soft. 6. Possibly nasalized variant form *mlad-. BLAND, BLANDISH, from Latin blandus, smooth, caressing, flattering, soft-spoken. II. Variant form *smeld-. a. b. c. d. e.
SMELT

, from Middle Dutch or Middle Low German smelten, to smelt;

1

SCHMALTZ, SMALT,

from Old High German smalz, animal fat;

from Italian smalto, enamel, glaze; from Old French esmail, enamel;

ENAMEL, SMELT
2

, from Old English smelt, smylt, a marine fish, smelt, perhaps from mel-1. a, b, c, d, and e all from Germanic *smelt-.

III. Extended form *meldh-. 1. 2.

MILD,

from Old English milde, mild, from Germanic *mildja-.

MALTHA,

from Greek maltha, a mixture of wax and pitch, possibly from mel-1.

IV. Suffixed form *mel-sko-. MULCH, from Old English mel(i)sc, mylsc, mild, mellow, from Germanic *mil-sk-. V. Extended form *m_Nk-. BONANZA, CHONDROMALACIA, MALACOLOGY, OSTEOMALACIA, from Greek malakos, soft. VI. MUTTON, from Old French moton, sheep, from Celtic *molto-, sheep, possibly from mel-1. VII. Suffixed zero-grade form *(N)ml-u-. AMBLYGONITE, AMBLYOPIA, from Greek amblus, blunt, dull, dim. [Pokorny 1. mel- 716.]

mel-2 Important derivatives are: ameliorate, multi-, multitude. Strong, great. 1. Suffixed (comparative) form *mel-yos-. (AMELIORATE), MELIORATE, MELIORISM, from Latin melior, better. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *m_-to-. MOLTO, MULTI-, MULTITUDE, from Latin multus, much, many. [Pokorny 4. mel- 720.]

mel-3 Important derivatives are: mal-, malice, malign, dismal, malady, malefactor, malevolent. Bad.
MAL-, MALICE, (MALIGN); DISMAL, MALADY, MALARIA, MALEDICT, MALEFACTOR, MALEFIC, MALENTENDU, MALEVOLENCE, MALVERSATION,

from Latin malus, bad, and male, ill (

malignus, harmful). [Pokorny mKlo- 724.]

melNImportant derivatives are: maelstrom, meal1, mill1, immolate, millet, malleable, mallet, maul. Also mel-To crush, grind; with derivatives referring to various ground or crumbling substances (such as flour) and to instruments for grinding or crushing (such as millstones). 1. O-grade form *mol-. MAELSTROM, from Middle Dutch malen, to whirl, from Germanic *mal-. 2. Full-grade form *mel-. MEAL1, from Old English melu, flour, meal, from Germanic suffixed form *mel-wa-. 3. Zero-grade form *m_-. MOLD3, (MOLDER), from Old English molde, soil, from Germanic suffixed form *mul-do. 4. Full-grade form *mel-.

a.

, MOLA2, MOLAR2, MOLE4, (MOULIN); EMOLUMENT, IMMOLATE, ORMOLU, from Latin molere, to grind (grain), and its derivative mola, a millstone, mill, coarse meal customarily sprinkled on sacrificial animals;
MILL
1

b. possible suffixed form *mel-iyo-. MEALIE, MILIUM, MILLET, from Latin milium, millet. 5. Suffixed variant form *mal-ni-. MALLEABLE, (MALLET), MALLEUS, MAUL; PALL-MALL, from Latin malleus, hammer, mallet. 6. Zero-grade form *m_-. AMYLUM, MYLONITE, from Greek mulK, mulos, millstone, mill. 7. Possibly extended form *mlX-. BLIN, BLINTZ, from Old Russian blin, pancake. [Pokorny 1. mel- 716.]

melgImportant derivatives are: emulsion, milk, galaxy, lacto-, lettuce. To rub off; also to milk. 1. Zero-grade form *m_g-. EMULSION, from Latin mulgKre, to milk. 2. Full-grade form *melg-. a. b. c.
MILK,

from Old English meolc, milc, milk;

MILCH,

from Old English -milce, milch, from Germanic suffixed form *meluk-ja-, giving milk;

from Old High German miluh, milk. a, b, and c all from Germanic *melkan, to milk, contaminated with an unrelated noun for milk, cognate with the Greek and Latin forms given in II below, to form the blend *meluk-.

MILCHIG,

II. Included here to mark the unexplained fact that no common IndoEuropean noun for milk can be reconstructed is another root *g(a)lag, *g(a)lakt-, milk, found only in: a. (GALACTIC), GALACTO-, GALAXY; AGALACTIA, POLYGALA, from Greek gala (stem galakt-), milk;

b. (LACTATE), LACTEAL, LACTESCENT, LACTO-, LETTUCE, from Latin lac (stem lact-), milk; c. the blended Germanic form cited in I. 2. above. [Pokorny mLl- 722, glag- 400.]

melitImportant derivatives are: marmalade, mellifluous, molasses, mildew. Honey. 1.

HYDROMEL, MARMALADE, MELILOT, OENOMEL,

from Greek meli, honey.

a.

MELLIFEROUS, MELLIFLUOUS, MOLASSES,

from Latin mel (stem mell-), honey, from *meld-, syncopated from *melid-;

b. suffixed zero-grade form *m_d-to-, honied. MOUSSE, from Latin mulsus, honey-sweet. 2.
MILDEW,

from Old English mildKaw, honeydew, nectar, from Germanic compound *melith-dauwaz, honeydew (a substance secreted by aphids on leaves; it was formerly imagined to be distilled from the air like dew; *dauwaz, dew; see dheu-1), from *melith-.

[Pokorny melit- 723.]

men-1 Important derivatives are: mind, mental, mention, automatic, memento, comment, reminiscent, mania, mandarin, mint1, money, monitor, monster, monument, muster, admonish, demonstrate, premonition, summon, mosaic, Muse, museum, music, amnesia, amnesty. To think; with derivatives referring to various qualities and states of mind and thought. I. Zero-grade form *mi-. 1. Suffixed form *mi-ti-. a. from Old English gemynd, memory, mind, from Germanic *ga-mundi- (*ga-, intensive prefix; see kom);
MIND,

b. c.

MENTAL

; AMENT2, DEMENT, from Latin mKns (stem ment-), from Latin mentio, remembrance, mention.

mind;
MENTION,

2. Suffixed form *mi-to-. AUTOMATIC, from Greek -matos, willing. 3. Suffixed form *mi-yo-. a.
MAENAD,

from Greek mainesthai, to be mad;

b. AHRIMAN, from Avestan mainiiu, spirit. II. Full-grade form *men-. 1. Suffixed form *men-ti-. a. b. a. b. c.
MINNESINGER, MINIKIN,

from Old High German minna, love;

from Middle Dutch minne, love. Both a and b from Germanic *minthjo. from Latin reduplicated form meminisse, to remember; from Latin comminXscX, to contrive by thought (com-, intensive prefix; see kom); from Latin reminXscX, to recall, recollect (re-, again, back; see re-);
REMINISCENT, COMMENT, MEMENTO,

d. MINERVA, from Latin Minerva, name of the goddess of wisdom, possibly from men-1. a. MENTOR, from Greek Mentor, Mentor, man's name (probably meaning adviser); b.
MANIA, MANIAC, MANIC,

from Greek mania, madness;

c. -MANCY, MANTIC, MANTIS, from Greek mantis, seer. 2.

MANDARIN, MANTRA,

from Sanskrit mantraU, counsel, prayer,

hymn. III. O-grade form *mon-.

1. Suffixed (causative) form *mon-eyo-. MONISH, MONITION, MONITOR, MONSTER, MONUMENT, MUSTER; ADMONISH, DEMONSTRATE, PREMONITION, SUMMON, from Latin monKre, to remind, warn, advise. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *mon-twN. MOSAIC, MUSE, MUSEUM, MUSIC, from Greek Mousa, a Muse. IV. Extended form *mn7-, contracted from *mnaN-. 1. 2.
AMNESIA, AMNESTY, ANAMNESIS,

from Greek reduplicated form

mimnKskein, to remember.
MNEMONIC,

from Greek mnKmon, mindful.

V. Indo-European verb phrase *mens dhK-, to set mind (see dhK-), underlying compound *mis-dhK-. AHURA MAZDA, (ORMAZD), from Avestan mazd7-, wise. [Pokorny 3. men- 726, mendh- 730.]

men-2 Important derivatives are: mouth, menace, amenable, demean1, promenade, eminent, imminent, prominent, mount1, mountain, amount. To project. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *mi-to- in a western Indo-European word for a projecting body part, variously chin, jaw, mouth. a. b. 2. 3. from Old English m7th, mouth, from Germanic *munthaz;
MENTAL
2

MOUTH,

, from Latin mentum, chin.

1

MENACE, MINACIOUS; AMENABLE, DEMEAN

, PROMENADE, from Latin from Latin -minKre,

minae, projecting points, threats.

EMINENT, IMMINENT, PROMINENT, (PROMONTORY),

to project, jut, threaten. 4. Suffixed o-grade form *mon-ti-. MONS, (MONTAGNARD), MONTANE, 1 2 MONTE, MONTICULE, MOUNT , MOUNT , MOUNTAIN; AMOUNT, ULTRAMONTANE, from Latin mons (stem mont-), mountain.

[Pokorny 1. men- 726, 2. menth- 732.]

men-3 Important derivatives are: manor, mansion, mnage, permanent, remain. To remain. Variant suffixed (stative) form *man-K-. MANOR, MANSE, MANSION, (MNAGE); IMMANENT, PERMANENT, REMAIN, from Latin manKre, to remain. [Pokorny 5. men- 729.]

men-4 Important derivatives are: monastery, monk, mono-, minnow. Small, isolated. 1.
MANOMETER,

from Greek manos, rare, sparse.

2. Suffixed o-grade form *mon-wo-. MONAD, MONASTERY, MONK, MONO-; PSEUDOMONAD, from Greek monos, alone, single, sole. 3. Possibly also suffixed form *men-i-, a small fish. MINNOW, from Middle English meneu, a small fish, from a source akin to Old English myne, mynwe, minnow. [Pokorny 4. men- 728, meni- 731.]

mendhImportant derivatives are: mathematical, mathematics. To learn. Zero-grade form *midh-. MATHEMATICAL, (MATHEMATICS); CHRESTOMATHY, POLYMATH, from Greek manthanein (aorist stem math-), to learn. [Pokorny mendh- 730.]

meneghAn important derivative is: many. Copious.

MANY,

from Old English manig, mnig, many, from Germanic *managa-.

[Pokorny men(e)gh- 730.]

merImportant derivatives are: nightmare, mortar, mordant, morsel, remorse, morbid, murder, mortal, mortuary, mortgage, mortify, postmortem, ambrosia. To rub away, harm. 1. 2. from Old English mare, mre, goblin, incubus, from Germanic *maron-, goblin.
MARASMUS; AMARANTH, NIGHTMARE,

from Greek marainein, to waste away,

wither. 3. Probably suffixed zero-grade form *my- to-, ground down. MORTAR, from Latin mort7rium, mortar. 4. Possibly extended root *merd-. MORDACIOUS, MORDANT, MORDENT, MORSEL; PREMORSE, REMORSE, from Latin mordKre, to bite. 5. Possibly suffixed form *mor-bho-. MORBID, from Latin morbus, disease (but this is more likely of unknown origin). II. Possibly the same root, but more likely distinct, is *mer-, to die, with derivatives referring to death and to human beings as subject to death. 1. Zero-grade form *my-. a. suffixed form *my-tro-. MURDER, from Old English morthor, murder, from Germanic suffixed form *murthra-; b. suffixed form *my-ti-. MORT1, MORTAL; AMORTIZE, MORTIFY, POSTMORTEM, from Latin mors (stem mort-), death; c. suffixed form *my-yo-. MORIBUND, MORTUARY, MURRAIN, MORTGAGE, (MORTMAIN), from Latin morX, to die, with irregular past participle mortuus (< *my-two-), replacing older *my-to- (for which see d); d. prefixed and suffixed form *i-my-to-, undying, immortal. (*i-, negative prefix; see ne).

i. ii. iii.

IMMORTAL, AMBROSIA,

from Latin immort7lis;

from Greek ambrotos, immortal, divine (a- + -mbrotos, brotos, mortal); from Sanskrit amxtam, immortality (a- + mxta-, dead).
AMRITA,

2. Suffixed o-grade form *mor-t-yo-. MANTICORE, from Greek mantikhoras (corrupted from martiokhoras), manticore, probably from Iranian compound *martiya-khv7ra-, maneater (*khv7ra-, eating; see swel-), from Old Persian martiya, a mortal man. [Pokorny 4. mer-, 5. mer- 735.]

mergImportant derivatives are: mark1, marquee, marquis, demarcation, mark2, remark, march1, margin. Boundary, border. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. , from Old English mearc, boundary, landmark, sign, trace;
MARK
1

MARGRAVE, MARCH
2

from Middle Dutch marc, border;

, (MARQUEE), MARQUIS, (MARQUISE), from Old French marc, marche, border country; from Medieval Latin marca, boundary, border;
DEMARCATION, MARK
2

MARCHESE, MARCHIONESS,

from Old Italian marcare, to mark out;

, from Old English marc, a mark of weight or money;

MARKKA,

from Swedish mark, a mark of money. a, b, c, d, e, f, and g all from Germanic *mark-, boundary, border territory; also to mark out a boundary by walking around it (ceremonially beating the bounds); also a landmark, boundary marker, and a mark in general (and in particular a mark on a metal currency

bar, hence a unit of currency); these various meanings are widely represented in Germanic descendants and in Romance borrowings. 1. 2. 3.
MARQUETRY; REMARK,

from Old Norse merki, a mark, from Germanic *markja-, mark, border.
MARC, MARCH

, from Frankish *markon, to mark out, from Germanic denominative verb *markon.
1

MARGIN; EMARGINATE,

from Latin margo, border, edge.

4. Celtic variant form *mrog-, territory, land. CYMRY, from Welsh Cymro, Wales, from British Celtic *kombrogos, fellow countryman (*kom-, collective prefix; see kom), from -brogos, district. [Pokorny mere- 738.]

meuNImportant derivatives are: mob, mobile, moment, momentous, momentum, motif, motion, motive, motor, move, movement, commotion, emotion, promote, remote, remove. To push away. (MOB), MOBILE, MOMENT, (MOMENTOUS), MOMENTUM, MOSSO, (MOTIF), MOTION, MOTIVE, MOTOR, MOVE, (MOVEMENT); COMMOTION, EMOTION, PROMOTE, (REMOTE), (REMOVE), from Latin movKre, to move. [Pokorny 2. meu- 743.]

moriImportant derivatives are: mere2, mermaid, meerschaum, marsh, morass, marine, maritime, ultramarine. Body of water; lake (?), sea (?). a. b. ; (MERMAID), from Old English mere, sea, lake, pond;
MERE
2

MARRAM,

from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse marr, sea;

c. a. b. 1.
MARE
2

MEERSCHAUM,

from Old High German mari, sea. a, b, and c all from Germanic *mari-. from Old English mersc, merisc, marsh;

MARSH,

MORASS,

from Old French maresc, mareis, marsh. Both a and b from Germanic *mariska-, water-logged land.

, (MARINARA), MARINE, MARITIME; BCHE-DE-MER, MARICULTURE, ORMER, ULTRAMARINE, from Latin mare, sea.

[Pokorny mori 748.]

mregh-uImportant derivatives are: brief, abbreviate, abridge, merry, mirth, brace, brassiere, pretzel, embrace. Short. I. Suffixed form *mregh-w-i-. BRIEF, BRUMAL; ABBREVIATE, (ABRIDGE), from Latin brevis, short. II. Zero-grade form *myghu-. a. b.
MERRY, MIRTH,

from Old English myrge, mirige, pleasant;

from Old English myrgth, pleasure, joy, from Germanic *murgitho, pleasantness. Both a and b from Germanic *murgja-, short, also pleasant, joyful. from Greek brakhus, short.

2. 3.

BRACHY-; AMPHIBRACH, TRIBRACH,

BRACE, BRACERO, BRACHIUM, BRASSARD, BRASSIERE, PRETZEL; (EMBRACE),

from Greek comparative brakhion, shorter, hence also upper arm (as opposed to the longer forearm). [Pokorny mreghu- 750.]

m7sImportant derivatives are: mouse, muscle. A mouse; also a muscle (from the resemblance of a flexing muscle to the movements of a mouse).

1.

MOUSE,

from Old English m7s (plural ms), mouse, from

Germanic *m7s- (plural *m7siz). 1. 2.

MURINE, MUSCLE, MUSTELINE,

from Latin m7s, mouse. from

MYELO-, MYO-; EPIMYSIUM, MYOSOTIS, MYSTICETE, PERIMYSIUM, SYRINGOMYELIA,

Greek mus, mouse, muscle. [Pokorny m7s 752.]

nasImportant derivatives are: nose, nuzzle, nostril, nasal, nasturtium, pince-nez. Nose. 3. 4. from Old English nosu, nose, from Germanic zero-grade form *nuso.
NESS, NOSE, (NUZZLE); NOSTRIL,

from Old English nss, headland, from Germanic *nasja-.

5. Lengthened-grade form *n7s-. a.

NARIS,

from Latin n7ris, nostril;

b. expressive form *n7ss-. NASAL, NASO-; NASTURTIUM, PINCENEZ, from Latin n7sus, nose. 6.
NARK

, from Romany n7k, nose, from expressive Indo-Aryan form *nakka-.

2

[Pokorny nas- 755, neu-ks- 768.]

n7uImportant derivatives are: naval, navigate, navy, nausea, nautical, nautilus, noise, astronaut. Boat. Contracted from *naNu-. 4. 5.
NACELLE, NAVAL, NAVE
1

, NAVICULAR, NAVIGATE, (NAVY), from Latin

n7vis, ship.
NAUSEA, NAUTICAL, NAUTILUS, (NOISE); AERONAUT, AQUANAUT,

ARGONAUT, ASTRONAUT, COSMONAUT, from Greek naus, ship, and

nautKs, sailor. [Pokorny 1. n7u- 755.]

idherImportant derivatives are: under, inferior, infernal, inferno, infra-. Under. a.

UNDER, UNDER-,

from Old English under, under;

b. U-BOAT, from Old High German untar, under. Both a and b from Germanic *under-. 4. 5. 6.
INFERIOR,

from Latin Xnferus, lower. from Latin Xnfernus, lower.

INFERNAL, (INFERNO), INFRA-,

from Latin Xnfr7, below.

[Pokorny idhos 771.]

ne Important derivatives are: naught, naughty, neither, never, no1, no2, none, nor1, not, nothing, nay, annul, nefarious, neuter, nice, null, nullify, annihilate, non-, neglect, negligee, negotiate, negate, deny, renegade. Not. a.
NAUGHT, (NAUGHTY), NEITHER, NEVER, NILL, NO

, NO2, NONE, (NOR1), (NOT), (NOTHING), from Old English ne, not, and n7, no;
1

b. c. 5.

NAY, NIX
2

from Old Norse ne, not;

, from Old High German ne, ni, not. a, b, and c all from Germanic *ne-, *na-.

ANNUL, NEFARIOUS, NESCIENCE, NEUTER, (NICE), NULL, NULLIFY,

from Latin ne-, not, and n7llus, none (ne- + 7llus, any; see oi-no-). 6.
NIMIETY,

NULLIPARA,

from Latin nimis, too much, excessively, very (< *ne-

mi-s, not little; *mi-, little; see mei-2). 7.

NIHILISM, (NIHILITY), NIL; ANNIHILATE,

from Latin nihil, nXl, nothing, contracted from nihilum, nothing (< *ne-hXlum, not a whit, nothing at all; hXlum, a thing, trifle; origin unknown).
NON-,

8. 9.

from Latin non, not (< *ne-oinom, not one thing; *oino-, one; see oi-no-).
NISI,

from Latin nXsX, unless (nX, not, from *nei + sX, if; see swoa. b.
NEGLECT, (NEGLIGEE), NEGOTIATE,

). from Latin prefix neg-, not; from Latin neg7re, to deny. Both a and b from Italic *nek, not. from Greek nK-, not.
NEGATE; ABNEGATE, DENY, RENEGADE, (RENEGE),

10.

NEPENTHE,

11. Zero-grade combining form *i-. i.

UN1

, from Old English un-, not;

ii. ZUGUNRUHE, from Old High German un-, not. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *un-; b. c. d. [Pokorny ne 756.]
INA1 1

, from Latin in-, not;

, (AN-), from Greek a-, an-, not; from Sanskrit a-, an-, not.

AHIMSA, AMRITA,

nebhImportant derivatives are: nebula, nebulous, nimbus. Cloud. 1. Suffixed form *nebh-(e)lo-. a. NIFLHEIM, from Old Norse nifl-, mist or dark, probably from Germanic *nibila-; b. NIBELUNG, from Old High German Nibulunc, Nibilung,

from Germanic suffixed patronymic form *nibul-unga, beside Old High German nebul, mist, fog, from Germanic *nebla-. 2. Suffixed form *nebh-el7-. a. b.
NEBULA, NEBULOUS,

from Latin nebula, cloud; from Greek nephelK, cloud.

NEPHELINE; NEPHELOMETER,

3. Suffixed form *nebh-es-. NEPHOLOGY, from Greek nephos, cloud. 4. Nasalized form *ne-m-bh-. NIMBUS, from Latin nimbus, rain, cloud, aura. [Pokorny (enebh-) 315.]

nedImportant derivatives are: net1, nettle, node, nodule, annex, connect. To bind, tie. 3. O-grade form *nod-. a. b.
NET

, from Old English net(t), a net, from Germanic *nati-;

1

from Old English netel(e), netle, nettle, from Germanic *nat-ilo, a nettle (nettles or plants of closely related genera such as hemp were used as a source of fiber); , from Anglo- Norman nouch, brooch, from Germanic *nat-sk-.
OUCH
2

NETTLE,

c.

4. Lengthened o-grade form *nodo-. NODE, NODULE, NODUS; DNOUEMENT, from Latin nodus, a knot. 5. With re-formation of the root. NEXUS; (ADNEXA), ANNEX, CONNECT, from Latin nectere (past participle nexus), to tie, bind, connect. [Pokorny 1. ned- 758.]

nKhw-iz

The following entry is not, strictly speaking, Indo-European, since it is represented in only one branch of the family. Important derivatives are: near, neighbor, next, nigh. [Not, strictly speaking, Indo-European. Near. Germanic root. NEAR, NEIGHBOR, NEXT, NIGH, from Old English nKah, near.

nek-1 Important derivatives are: pernicious, nuisance, innocent, innocuous, noxious, obnoxious, necrosis, necromancy, nectar, nectarine. Death. 4.
INTERNECINE, PERNICIOUS,

from Latin nex (stem nec-), death.

5. Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *nok-eyo-. NOCENT, NOCUOUS, NUISANCE; INNOCENT, INNOCUOUS, from Latin nocKre, to injure, harm. 6. Suffixed o-grade form *nok-s-. NOXIOUS; OBNOXIOUS, from Latin noxa, injury, hurt, damage entailing liability. 7. Suffixed full-grade form *nek-ro-. NECRO-, NECROSIS; NECROMANCY, from Greek nekros, corpse. 8. from Greek nektar, the drink of the gods, overcoming death (*tar-, overcoming; see terN-2).
NECTAR, (NECTARINE),

[Pokorny ne- 762.]

nek-2 Important derivatives are: enough, oncology. To reach, attain. I. O-grade form *nok-. ENOUGH, from Old English genog, enough, from Germanic *ganoga-, sufficient, from *ga-nah, suffices (*ga-, intensive prefix; see kom). II. Variant form *enk-. 1. from Greek onkos, a burden, mass, hence a tumor, from reduplicated enenkein, to carry.
ONCOGENESIS, ONCOLOGY,

2. Compound root *bhrenk- (see bher1). [Pokorny ene- 316.]

nekw-tImportant derivatives are: night, nocturnal, equinox. Night. O-grade form *nokw-t-. 5. 6. 7. 8. from Old English niht, neaht, night, from Germanic *naht-.
NOCTI-, (NOCTURN), NOCTURNAL, EQUINOX, NIGHT,

from Latin nox (stem

noct-), night.
NOCTUID, NOCTULE,

from Latin noctua, night owl. from Greek nux (stem nukt-), night.

NYCTALOPIA, NYCTITROPISM,

[Pokorny nek(t)- 762.]

nemImportant derivatives are: numb, nimble, nemesis, economy, astronomy, autonomous, metronome, nomad, number, enumerate. To assign, allot; also to take. a. b. c. 5.
NIM, NUMB; (BENUMB),

from Old English niman, to take,

seize; from Old English n<mel, quick to seize, and numol, quick at learning, seizing;
NIM NIMBLE,

, from Old High German nman, to take. a, b, and c all from Germanic *nem-.
2

NEMESIS; ECONOMY,

from Greek nemein, to allot.

6. O-grade form *nom-. a.

NOME, -NOMY; ANOMIE, ANTINOMIAN, ANTINOMY, (ASTRONOMER),

(ASTRONOMY), AUTONOMOUS, DEUTERONOMY, METRONOME, NOMOGRAPH, NOMOLOGY, NOMOTHETIC, NUMISMATIC, from

Greek nomos, portion, usage, custom, law, division, district; b. c. d.

NOMA,

from Greek nomK, pasturage, grazing, hence a spreading, a spreading ulcer; from Greek nomas, wandering in search of pasture; from Greek nomimos, legal.

NOMAD,

NUMMULAR, NUMMULITE,

7. Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *nom-eso-. NUMBER; ENUMERATE, SUPERNUMERARY, from Latin numerus, number, division. [Pokorny 1. nem- 763.]

nepotImportant derivatives are: nephew, nepotism, niece. Grandson, nephew. Feminine *neptX-.
NEPHEW, NEPOTISM, NIECE,

from Latin nepos, grandson, nephew, and neptis,

granddaughter, niece. [Pokorny nepot- 764.]

ner-1 Important derivatives are: Nordic, north, Norman1, northern, Norse. Under, also on the left; hence, with an eastward orientation, north. Suffixed zero-grade form *ny-t(r)o-. a. NORDIC, NORTH, from Old English north, north; b.
NORTHERN,

from Old English northerne, northern;

c. NORSE, from Middle Dutch nort, north; d. NORMAN1, NORWEGIAN, from Old Norse nordhr, north. [Pokorny 2. ner- 765.]

ner-2

A derivative is: andro-. Also Nner-Man; basic sense vigorous, vital, strong. Oldest root form *Nner-.
ANDRO-, -ANDROUS, -ANDRY; PHILANDER,

from Greek anKr (stem andr-, from zero-

grade *Nnr-), man. [Pokorny 1. ner-(t)- 765.]

nes-1 Important derivatives are: harness, nostalgia. To return safely home. 3.

HARNESS,

from Old French harneis, harness, possibly from a Germanic source akin to Old English, Old High German (in composition), and Old Norse nest, food for a journey, from Germanic *nes-tam.

4. Suffixed o-grade form *nos-to-. NOSTALGIA, from Greek nostos, a return home. [Pokorny nes- 766.]

nes-2 Important derivatives are: us, our, ours. Oblique cases of the personal pronoun of the first person plural. For the nominative see we-. 1. Zero-grade form *is-. US, from Old English 7s, us (accusative), from Germanic *uns. 2. Suffixed (possessive) zero-grade form *is-ero-. OUR, OURS, from Old English 7ser, 7re, our, from Germanic *unsara-. 3. O-grade form *nos-, with suffixed (possessive) form nost(e)ro-. NOSTRUM; PATERNOSTER, from Latin nos, we, and noster, our. [Pokorny 3. ne- 758.]

neu-

Important derivatives are: announce, denounce, enunciate, pronounce, renounce. To shout. Suffixed (participial) o-grade form *now-ent-(yo-), shouting. NUNCIO; ANNOUNCE, DENOUNCE, ENUNCIATE, PRONOUNCE, RENOUNCE, from Latin n7ntius, announcing, hence a messenger, also a message, and n7ntium, message. [Pokorny 1. neu- 767.]

newi Important derivatives are: nine, nineteen, ninety, ninth, November, novena, noon. Nine. 5.
NINE, NINETEEN, NINETY, NINTH,

from Old English nigon, nine, with derivatives nigontig, ninety, and nigontKne, nineteen (-tKne, ten; see dekc), from Germanic *nigun, variant of *niwun.

6. NOVEMBER, NOVENA; (NONAGENARIAN), from Latin novem, nine (< *noven, with m for n by analogy with the m of septem, seven, and decem, ten). 7. Ordinal form *neweno-. NONA-, NONES, NOON; (NONAGON), (NONANOIC ACID), from Latin nonus, ninth. 8. Prothetic or prefixed forms *enewi, *enwi. ENNEAD, from Greek ennea, nine (< *ennewa, *enwa-). [Pokorny e-neen 318.]

newoImportant derivatives are: new, neo-, neon, nova, novel1, novel2, novelty, novice, innovate, renovate. New. Related to nu-. 4. Suffixed form *new-yo-. a. b.
NEW,

from Old English nKowe, nXwe, new;

from Old Norse nr, new. Both a and b from Germanic *neuja-.

SPAN-NEW,

5. Basic form *newo-. NEO-, NEON, NEOTERIC; MISONEISM, from Greek newos, neos, new. 6. Suffixed form *new-aro-. ANEROID, from Greek nKron, water, from nKros, fresh (used of fish and of water), contracted from nearos, young, fresh. 7. Basic form *newo-. NOVA, NOVATION, NOVEL1, NOVEL2, (NOVELTY), NOVICE; INNOVATE, RENOVATE, from Latin novus, new. 8. Suffixed form *new-er-ko-. NOVERCAL, from Latin noverca, stepmother ( [Pokorny neos 709.]

nobhImportant derivatives are: nave2, navel, umbilicus. Also ombh-Navel; later also central knob, boss of a shield, hub of a wheel. c. d.
NAVE
2

, from Old English nafu, nafa, hub of a wheel;

AUGER,

from Old English nafog7r, auger, from Germanic compound *nabo-gaizaz, tool for piercing wheel hubs (*gaizaz, spear, piercing tool). Both a and b from Germanic *nabo.

6. Variant form *ombh-. UMBO, from Latin umbo, boss of a shield. 7. Suffixed form *nobh-alo-. NAVEL, from Old English nafela, navel, from Germanic *nabalo. 8. Suffixed variant form *ombh-alo-. a. b.
UMBILICUS; NOMBRIL, OMPHALOS,

from Latin umbilXcus, navel;

from Greek omphalos, navel.

[Pokorny 1. (enebh-) 314.]

noghAn important derivative is: nail. Also Nnogh-, ongh-Nail, claw.

3. Suffixed (diminutive) form *nogh-ela-. NAIL, from Old English ngl, nail, from Germanic *nagla-. 4. Form *Nnogh-. ONYX; PARONYCHIA, PERIONYCHIUM, SARDONYX, from Greek onux (stem onukh-), nail. 5. Variant form *ongh-. UNGUIS, from Latin unguis, nail, claw, hoof, with diminutive ungula, hoof, claw, talon (< *ongh-el7-). [Pokorny onogh- 780.]

nogwImportant derivatives are: naked, nude, denude, gymnasium, gymnast. Naked. 3. Suffixed forms *nogw-eto-, *nogw-oto-. NAKED, from Old English nacod, naked, from Germanic *nakweda-, *nakwada-. 4. Suffixed form *nogw-edo-. NUDE, NUDI-; DENUDE, from Latin n7dus, naked. 5. Suffixed form *nogw-mo-. GYMNASIUM, (GYMNAST); GYMNOSOPHIST, GYMNOSPERM, from Greek gumnos, naked. [Pokorny nog- 769.]

np-menImportant derivatives are: name, nominal, nominate, noun, ignominy, misnomer, pronoun, renown, anonymous, eponym, homonymous, metonymy, pseudonym, synonymous. Name. Earlier form *(N)noN-mi, zero-grade form *(N)nN-men-. 7. 8.
NAME,

from Old English nama, name, from Germanic *namon-.

NOMINAL, NOMINATE, NOUN; AGNOMEN, (BINOMIAL), COGNOMEN, DENOMINATE, IGNOMINY, MISNOMER, NOMENCLATOR, NUNCUPATIVE, PRAENOMEN, (PRONOUN), RENOWN,

from Latin nomen, name,

reputation. 9.
ONOMASTIC, -ONYM, -ONYMY; ANONYMOUS, ANTONOMASIA, EPONYM,

(EPONYMOUS), EUONYMUS, HETERONYMOUS, HOMONYMOUS, METONYMY, METRONYMIC, ONOMATOPOEIA, (PARONOMASIA), PARONYMOUS, PATRONYMIC, PSEUDONYM, SYNONYMOUS, from Greek onoma, onuma, name. 10.
MONIKER,

from Old Irish ainm, name.

[Pokorny en(o)mi- 321.]

nuAn important derivative is: now. Now. Related to newo-. 7. 8.

NOW,

from Old English n7, now.

from Latin nunc, now (< *nun-ce; -ce, a particle meaning this, here; see ko-).

QUIDNUNC,

[Pokorny nu- 770.]

odImportant derivatives are: annoy, ennui, noisome, odium. To hate.

ANNOY, ENNUI, (NOISOME), ODIUM,

from Latin odX, I hate, and odium, hatred.

[Pokorny 2. od- 773.]

oi-noImportant derivatives are: a1, an1, once, one, alone, atone, lone, lonely, none, eleven, inch1, ounce1, union, unite, unity, unanimous, unicorn, universe, any, unique. One, unique. I. Basic form *oi-no-. a. (A1), AN1, ONCE, ONE; (ALONE), ANON, (ATONE), (LONE), (LONELY), NONE, from Old English 7n, one; b.
ELEVEN,

from Old English endleofan, eleven, from

Germanic compound *ain-lif-, one left (beyond ten), eleven (*lif-, left over; see leikw-); c. 2.
EINKORN, TURNVEREIN,

from Old High German ein, one. a, b, and c all from Germanic *ainaz. from Latin 7nus, one.

UNI-, UNION, UNITE, UNITY; COADUNATE, TRIUNE, UNANIMOUS, UNICORN, UNIVERSE,

3. (see ne) Latin non, not (< *ne-oinom, not one thing; ne, not). II. Suffixed form *oino-ko-. a. b. c. from Old English <nig, one, anyone, from Germanic *ainigaz;
ANY, UNIQUE, INCH
1

from Latin 7nicus, sole, single.

, OUNCE1, UNCIAL; (QUINCUNX), from Latin uncia, one twelfth of a unit (unc-, shortened form of *7nc-).

III. Suffixed form *oino-lo-. (see ne) Latin 7llus, any. [In Pokorny e- 281.]

okto(u) Important derivatives are: eight, octave, octet, October, octogenarian, octopus. Eight. a.
EIGHT, EIGHTEEN, EIGHTY,

from Old English eahta, eight, with derivatives eahtatig, eighty, and eahtatKne, eighteen (-tKne, ten; see dekc);
ATTO- ,

b.

from Old Norse 7ttj7n, eighteen (tj7n, ten; see dekc). Both a and b from Germanic *ahto.

6. OCTANS, OCTANT, OCTAVE, OCTAVO, OCTET, OCTO-, OCTOBER, OCTONARY; OCTODECIMO, OCTOGENARIAN, from Latin octo, eight. 7.
OCTAD, OCTO-; OCTOPUS,

from Greek okto, eight.

[Pokorny oto 775.]

okuA derivative is: accipiter. Swift. 7.

OXYTOCIC,

from Greek okus, swift.

8. Possibly altered zero-grade form *aku- in compound *akupetro-, swift-flying (*pet-ro-, flying; see pet-). ACCIPITER, from Latin accipiter, hawk. [Pokorny ou-s 775.] See also ekwo-.

okwImportant derivatives are: eye, daisy, window, eyelet, ocular, inoculate, monocle, myopia, autopsy, synopsis, optic, optometry. To see. e. f. g.
EYE; DAISY,

from Old English Kage, eye; from Old Norse auga, eye;

WALLEYED, WINDOW, OGLE,

from Low German oog, oge, eye. a, b, and c all from Germanic *augon- (with taboo deformation).

12. Suffixed form *okw-olo-. a. b.

EYELET, OCELLUS, OCULAR, OCULIST, ULLAGE; INOCULATE, MONOCLE, OCULOMOTOR, PINOCHLE, INVEIGLE,

from Latin oculus, eye;

from French aveugle, blind, from Gallo-Latin compound *ab-oculus, blind, modeled on Gaulish exops, blind.

13. Form *okw-s. METOPIC, MYOPIA, NYCTALOPIA, PELOPS, PHLOGOPITE, PYROPE, TRICERATOPS, from Greek ops, eye (and stem *op-, to see). 14. Suffixed form *okw-ti-. (OPSIN), -OPSIS, -OPSY; AUTOPSY, (IODOPSIN), (RHODOPSIN), SYNOPSIS, from Greek opsis, sight, appearance. 15. Suffixed form *okw-to-. OPTIC; DIOPTER, OPTOMETRY, PANOPTIC, from Greek optos, seen, visible. 16. Suffixed form *okw-7. METOPE, from Greek opK, opening.

17. Suffixed form *okw-mi. OMMATIDIUM, OMMATOPHORE, from Greek omma (< *opma), eye. 18. Suffixed form *okw-tro-. CATOPTRIC, from Greek katoptron, back-looker, mirror (kata-, down, back; see kat-). 19.
OPHTHALMO-; EXOPHTHALMOS,

from Greek ophthalmos, eye (with

taboo deformation). 20. Zero-grade form *Nkw- (of oldest full-grade form *Nokw-). a. (see ant-) Latin antXquus, appearing before, having prior aspect, former (*anti-, before); b. (see 7ter-) Latin 8trox, black-looking, frightful (*atro-, black); c. (see ghwer-) ferox, wild-looking, fierce (*ghwero-, wild). [Pokorny ok- 775.]

opImportant derivatives are: opera1, operate, opus, cooperate, inure, maneuver, manure, opulent, omni-, optimum, copious, copy, cornucopia. To work, produce in abundance. 5. Suffixed form *op-es-. OPERA1, OPERATE, OPEROSE, OPUS; COOPERATE, INURE, MANEUVER, MANURE, OFFICINAL, from Latin opus (stem oper-), work, with its denominative verb oper7rX, to work, and secondary noun opera, work. 6. (see dhK-) Latin officium, service, duty, business (< *opi-ficiom, performance of work; *-fici-, doing). 7. Suffixed form *op-en-ent-. OPULENT, from Latin dissimilated opulentus, rich, wealthy. 8. Suffixed form *op-ni-. OMNI-, OMNIBUS; OMNIUM-GATHERUM, from Latin omnis, all (< abundant). 9. Suffixed (superlative) form *op-tamo-. OPTIMUM, from Latin optimus, best (< wealthiest).

10.

from Latin copia, profusion, plenty, from prefixed form *co-op- (co-, collective and intensive prefix; see kom).

COPIOUS, COPY; CORNUCOPIA,

[Pokorny 1. op- 780.]

orDerivatives are: erne, ornitho-. Large bird. 6. Suffixed form *or-n-. ERNE, from Old English earn, eagle, from Germanic *arnuz, eagle. 7. Suffixed form *or-n-Xth-. ORNITHO-; AEPYORNIS, ICHTHYORNIS, NOTORNIS, from Greek ornis (stem ornith-), bird. [Pokorny 1. er- 325.]

orbhImportant derivatives are: orphan, robot. To put asunder, separate. Suffixed form *orbh-o-, bereft of father, also deprived of free status. a. b.
ORPHAN, ROBOT,

from Greek orphanos, orphaned;

from Czech robota, compulsory labor, drudgery, from Old Church Slavonic rabota, servitude, from rab, slave, from Old Slavic *orb.

[Pokorny orbho- 781.]

orsImportant derivatives are: ass2, squirrel. Buttocks, backside. 3. Suffixed form *ors-o-. a. b.
ASS
2

, from Old English rs, ears, backside; from Middle Dutch rs, backside, tail. Both a

DODO,

and b from Germanic *arsaz. 4. Suffixed form *ors-7-. a.

URO-

, -UROUS; ANTHURIUM, ANURAN, CYNOSURE, DASYURE, EREMURUS, OXYURIASIS, SQUIRREL, TRICHURIASIS, from Greek oura, tail;
2

b. [Pokorny ers- 340.]

SILURID,

from Greek silouros, sheatfish (oura), probably from ors-.

osImportant derivatives are: oral, usher. Mouth. 9.

ORAL, OS

, OSCILLATE, OSCULATE, OSCULUM, OSTIARY, OSTIUM, USHER; INOSCULATE, ORIFICE, ORINASAL, OROTUND, OSCITANCY, (PERORAL), from Latin os (stem or-), mouth, face, orifice, and derivative ostium (*os-to-), door.
1

10. AURIGA, from Latin aurXga, charioteer (< *or-ig-, he who manages the (horse's) bit; -Xg-, lengthened from ig-, driving, from *ag-; see ag-), possibly from os-. [Pokorny 1. ous- 784.]

ostImportant derivatives are: ossify, osteo-, ostracize, oyster. Bone. 8. 9. , OSSEOUS, OSSICLE, OSSUARY; OSSIFRAGE, OSSIFY, from Latin os (stem oss-), bone.
OS
2

OSTEO-; ENDOSTEUM, EXOSTOSIS, PERIOSTEUM, SYNOSTOSIS, TELEOST,

from

Greek osteon, bone. 10. Suffixed form *ost-r-. a.

OSTRACIZE, OSTRACOD,

from Greek ostrakon, shell,

potsherd;

b. c.

OYSTER,

from Greek ostreon, oyster;

from variant form in Greek astragalos, vertebra, ball of the ankle joint, knucklebone, Ionic molding.

ASTRAGAL, ASTRAGALUS,

[Pokorny ost(h)- 783.]

ousImportant derivatives are: ear1, aural1, scout1. Also aus-Ear. 3. Suffixed form *ous-en-. EAR1, from Old English Kare, ear, from Germanic *auzon-. 4. Suffixed form *aus-i-. AURAL1, AURICLE; AURIFORM, ORMER, from Latin auris, ear. 5.
AUSCULTATION, SCOUT

, from Latin auscult7re, to listen to (*aus- + *kli-to-, inclined; see klei-).

1

6. Suffixed basic form *ous-os-. a.

OTIC, OTO-; MYOSOTIS, PAROTID GLAND,

from Greek ous (stem

ot-), ear; b. (see slKg-) Greek lagos, hare (< *lag-ous-, with drooping ears; *lag-, to droop). [Pokorny ous- 785.]

owiImportant derivatives are: ewe, ovine. Sheep. 5. 6.

EWE,

from Old English Kwe, eowu, ewe, from Germanic *awi-. from Latin ovis, sheep.

OVINE,

[Pokorny oi-s 784.]

p7Important derivatives are: fodder, forage, fur, pabulum, food, feed, foster, pasture, antipasto, pester, repast, pastor, pantry, companion, company. To protect, feed. Contracted from *paN-. 1. Suffixed form *p7-trom. a. b. c.
FODDER, FORAGE, FUR,

from Old English fodor, fodder; from Old French feurre, fodder;

from Old French forre, fuerre, trimming made from animal skin, fur (< sheath, case, lining). a, b, and c all from Germanic *fodram.

2. Suffixed form *p7-dhlom (doublet of *p7-trom). PABULUM, from Latin p7bulum, food, fodder. 3. Extended form *p7t-. a. b. from Old English foda, food, from Germanic *fod-, food; from Old English fKdan, to feed, from Germanic denominative *fodjan, to give food to;
FEED, FOOD,

c. suffixed form *p7t-tro-. FOSTER, from Old English fostor, food, nourishment, from Germanic *fostra-. 4. Extended form *p7s-. a. suffixed form *p7s-sko-. PASTURE; ANTIPASTO, REPAST, from Latin p7scere, to feed; b. suffixed form *p7s-tor-. PASTOR, PESTER, from Latin p7stor, shepherd; c. suffixed form *p7s-t-ni-. PANADA, PANATELA, PANNIER, (PANOCHA), PANTRY, PASTILLE, (PENUCHE); APPANAGE, 1 COMPANION , (COMPANY), from Latin p7nis, bread. 5. Suffixed form *p7-tor-. BEZOAR, from Persian p7d, protecting against, from Iranian *p7tar- (Avestan p7tar-).

6. Suffixed form *p7-won-, protector. SATRAP, from Old Persian khshathra-p7v7, protector of the province. [Pokorny p7- 787, 1. po(i)- 839.]

pagImportant derivatives are: fang, compact1, impinge, pay1, peace, appease, pacific, pacify, pact, pale1, palisade, pole2, impale, travail, travel, palette, pagan, peasant, page1, pageant, propagate, pectin. Also pak-To fasten. 8. Lengthened-grade form *p7k-. FAY1, from Old English fKgan, to fit closely, from Germanic *fogjan, to join, fit. 9. Nasalized form *pa-n-g-, also *pa-n-k-. i. ii. iii. from Old English fang, feng, plunder, booty, from Germanic *fangam, *fangiz; from Dutch vangen, to catch, from remade Germanic verb *fangan;
NEWFANGLED, VANG, FANG,

from Middle English *-fangel, taken, akin to Old High German -fangolon, to close, from Germanic *fanglon, to grasp. (i), (ii), and (iii) all derivatives of Germanic *fanhan, to seize;
1

b.

COMPACT

, IMPINGE, from Latin pangere, to fasten.

10. Root form *p8k-. a. b. , PAY1, PEACE; APPEASE, PACIFIC, PACIFY, from Latin p7x, peace (
PACE
2

PACT,

from Latin pacXscX, to agree.

11. Suffixed form *pak-slo-. a. b. , PALISADE, PAWL, PEEL3, POLE2; IMPALE, TRAVAIL, (TRAVEL), from Latin p7lus, stake (fixed in the ground);
PALE
1

PALETTE, PEEL

, from Latin p7la, spade, probably from

pag-.

12. Lengthened-grade form *p7g-. a. b.

PAGAN, PEASANT,

from Latin p7gus, boundary staked out on the ground, district, village, country;
PAGE

, PAGEANT, from Latin p7gina, trellis to which a row of vines is fixed, hence (by metaphor) column of writing, page;
1

c. d.

from Latin prop7g7re, to propagate (pro-, before, in front; see per1);

PECTIN, PEGMATITE;

PROPAGATE,

AREOPAGUS, from Greek pKgnunai, to

fasten, coagulate, with derivative pagos (< *pag-o-), mass, hill. [Pokorny p8- 787.]

panImportant derivatives are: vane, pane, panel. Fabric. a.

VANE,

from Old English fana, flag, banner, weathercock;

b. (see gwhen-) Germanic compound *gund-fanon-, battle-flag. Both a and b from Germanic *fanon. 9. Extended form *panno-. PANE, PANEL, from Latin pannus, piece of cloth, rag. [Pokorny pan- 788.]

pantDerivatives are: pan-, pancreas. All. Attested only in Tocharian and Greek. PAN-; DIAPASON, PANCRATIUM, PANCREAS, from Greek pas (neuter pan, stem pant-), all. [In Pokorny 1. eu- 592.]

papa Important derivatives are: papa, pope. A child's word for father, a linguistic near- universal found in many languages. 21. 22.
PAPA,

from French papa, father.

PAPPUS, POPE,

from Greek pappas, father, and pappos, grandfather.

[Pokorny pap(p)a 789.]

pastImportant derivatives are: fast1, steadfast, fasten, fast2, breakfast. Solid, firm. a. b. 11. 12.
FASTEN, FAST
1

; STEADFAST, from Old English fst, fixed, firm;

AVAST,

from Middle Dutch vast, firm, fast. Both a and b from Germanic *fastuz, firm, fast.

from Old English fstnian, to fasten, establish, from Germanic *fastinon, to make firm or fast.

from Old Norse festa, to fix, affirm, from Germanic causative *fastjan, to make firm. a. b.
FAST
2

HANDFAST,

, from Old English fstan, to abstain from food;

from Old Norse fasta, to abstain from food. Both a and b from Germanic *fastKn, to hold fast, observe abstinence.

BREAKFAST,

[Pokorny pasto- 789.]

pauImportant derivatives are: few, paucity, paraffin, pauper, poor, poverty, foal, filly, pony, pullet, puerile, encyclopedia, orthopedics. Few, little. I. Adjectival form *pau-, few, little. 1.
FEW,

from Old English fKawe, few, from Germanic *fawaz.

2. Suffixed form *pau-ko-. PAUCITY, POCO, from Latin paucus, little, few. 3. Suffixed form *pau-ro- in metathetical form *par-wo-. PARAFFIN, PARVOVIRUS, from Latin parvus, little, small, neuter parvum, becoming parum, little, rarely. 4. Compound *pau-paros, producing little, poor (*par-os, producing; see perN-1). PAUPER, POOR, POVERTY, from Latin pauper, poor. II. Suffixed reduced variant form *pu-lo-, young of an animal. 1. 2. from Old English fola, young horse, colt, from Germanic *fulon-. from Old Norse fylja, young female horse, from Germanic derivative *fuljo.
FILLY, FOAL,

III. Basic form *pau- and variant form *p'-, boy, child. 1. Suffixed form *pu-ero-. PUERILE, PUERPERAL, from Latin puer, child. 2. Extended form *put-. a. b. , POULARD, PULLET; CATCHPOLE, from Latin pullus (< *putslo-), young of an animal, chicken;
2

POLTROON, PONY, POOL

PUSILLANIMOUS,

from Latin pusillus (< *putslo-lo), old diminutive of pullus.

3. Suffixed form *paw-id-. PEDO-2; ENCYCLOPEDIA, ORTHOPEDICS, from Greek pais (stem paid-), child ( paideia, education). [Pokorny pou- 842.]

pedImportant derivatives are: foot, fetter, fetlock, pawn2, pedal, pedestrian, peon, pioneer, millipede, trivet, expedite, impede, impeach, pew, podium, octopus, platypus, podiatry, pajamas, fetch1, impair, pessimism, impeccable. Foot. I. Nominal root.

1. Lengthened o-grade form *pod-. FOOT, from Old English fot, foot, from Germanic *fot-. 2. Suffixed form *ped-ero-. FETTER, from Old English fetor, feter, leg iron, fetter, from Germanic *fetero. 3. Suffixed form *ped-el-. FETLOCK, from Middle English fitlock, fetlock, fetlock, from a Germanic source akin to Old High German vizzelach, fetlock, from Germanic *fetel-. 4. Basic form *ped-. PAWN2, -PED, PEDAL, PEDATE, PEDESTRIAN, PEDI-, PEDICEL, PEDUNCLE, (PEON), PES, PIONEER; MILLIPEDE, SESQUIPEDAL, (TRIPEDAL), TRIVET, VAMP1, from Latin pKs (stem ped-), foot. 5. Form *ped-yo-. a. b.
EXPEDITE,

from Latin expedXre, to free from a snare (ex-, out of; see eghs);
IMPEDE,

from Latin impedXre, to put in fetters, hobble, shackle, entangle, hinder (in-, in; see en).

6. Suffixed form *ped-ik7. IMPEACH, from Latin pedica, fetter, snare. 7. O-grade form *pod-. a. (PEW), -POD, PODITE, PODIUM; ANTIPODES, APODAL, APPOGGIATURA, APUS, LYCOPODIUM, MONOPODIUM, OCTOPUS, (PELECYPOD), PHALAROPE, PLATYPUS, PODAGRA, PODIATRY, PODOPHYLLIN, POLYP, (POLYPOD), SYMPODIUM, from Greek pous (stem pod-), foot; b.
PODZOL,

from Russian pod, under.

8. Suffixed form *ped-ya. TRAPEZIUM, from Greek peza, foot. 9. Suffixed form *ped-o-. a.
PEDO1

; PARALLELEPIPED, from Greek pedon, ground, soil;

b. (PAISA), (PICE), PIE3, PUG3, from Sanskrit padam, footstep, foot, and p7t, foot; c.
PAJAMA, TEAPOY,

from Middle Persian p7X, leg, foot;

d. lengthened-grade form *pKd-o-. i. ii.

PILOT,

from Greek pKdon, rudder, steering oar; from Greek pKdan, to leap.

DIAPEDESIS,

10. Suffixed form ped-X-. CYPRIPEDIUM, from Greek pedilon, sandal. II. Verbal root *ped-, to walk, stumble, fall. 1.
FETCH

, from Old English fetian, feccean, to bring back, from Germanic *fetKn.
1

a. Suffixed (comparative) form *ped-yos-. PEJORATION; IMPAIR, from Latin pKior, worse (< stumbling); b. suffixed (superlative) form *ped-samo-. PESSIMISM, from Latin pessimus, worst; c. suffixed form *ped-ko-. PECCABLE, PECCADILLO, PECCANT; IMPECCABLE, from Latin pecc7re, to stumble, sin. a, b, and c all from Latin *ped-. [Pokorny 2. pLd- 790.]

pK(i)Important derivatives are: fiend, passion, passive, patient, compassion. Also pK-, pX-To hurt. Contracted from *peN(i)-. 5. Suffixed (participial) form *pX-ont- (< *piN-ont-). FIEND, from Old English fKond, fXond, enemy, devil, from Germanic *fXjand, hating, hostile. 6. Possibly *pK- in suffixed zero-grade *pN-to-. PASSIBLE, PASSION, PASSIVE, PATIENT; COMPASSION, from Latin patX, to suffer. [Pokorny pK(i)- 792.]

peiNImportant derivatives are: fat, pituitary, pine1, Irish. To be fat, swell. 11. Extended o-grade form *poid-. FAT, from Old English f<t(t),

fat, from Germanic past participle *faitidaz, fattened, from derivative verb *faitjan, to fatten, from *faitaz, plump, fat. 12. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *pX-tu-. PIP5, PITUITARY, from Latin pXtuXta, moisture exuded from trees, gum, phlegm. 13. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *pX-nu-. PINE1, PINEAL, PINNACE, PION, PINOT; PIA CLOTH, from Latin pXnus, pine tree (yielding a resin). 14. Suffixed zero-grade form *pX-won-. PROPIONIC ACID, from Greek pion, fat. 15. Suffixed zero-grade form *pX-wer-, fat, fertile. a. (ERSE), IRISH, from Old English Xras, the Irish, from *Xwer-i7, the prehistoric Celtic name for Ireland; b. PIERIAN SPRING, from Greek Pieria, a region of Macedonia, from *PXwer-i7. [Pokorny pe(N)- 793.]

peigImportant derivatives are: file2, paint, picture, picturesque, pigment, pimento, pinto, depict. Also peik-To cut, mark (by incision). 11. Alternate form *peik-. FILE2, from Old English fXl, file, from Germanic *fXhala, cutting tool. 12. Nasalized zero-grade form *pi-n-g-. PAINT, PICTOR, PICTURE, PICTURESQUE, PIGMENT, PIMENTO, PINT, PINTO; DEPICT, PICTOGRAPH, from Latin pingere, to embroider, tattoo, paint, picture. 13. Suffixed zero-grade form *pik-ro-. PICRO-, from Greek pikros, sharp, bitter. 14. O-grade form *poik-. PLATY2, POIKILOTHERM, from Greek poikilos, spotted, pied, various. [Pokorny 1. peig- 794.]

pekuImportant derivatives are: fellow, fee, pecuniary, peculiar. Wealth, movable property. c. d. e. 7.
FELLOW, FEE,

from Old Norse fK, property, cattle;

from Old French fie, fief;

2

FEUD

, from Medieval Latin feudum, feudal estate. a, b, and c all from Germanic *fehu-. from Latin pecus, cattle.

PECORINO,

8. Suffixed form *peku-n-. PECUNIARY; IMPECUNIOUS, from Latin pec7nia, property, wealth. 9. Suffixed form *peku-l-. PECULATE, PECULIAR, from Latin pec7lium, riches in cattle, private property. [In Pokorny 2. pe- 797.]

pekwImportant derivatives are: cook, cuisine, kitchen, apricot, biscuit, concoct, precocious, culinary, kiln, pumpkin, peptic, dyspepsia. To cook, ripen. 7. Assimilated form (in Italic and Celtic) *kwekw-. a.
COOK, CUISINE, KITCHEN, QUITTOR; APRICOT, BISCUIT, CONCOCT, DECOCT, PRECOCIOUS, RICOTTA, TERRA COTTA,

from Latin

coquere, to cook; b. 8. 9. 10. 11.

CULINARY, KILN,

from Latin culXna, kitchen, deformed

from coquXna.
PEPO; PUMPKIN,

from Greek pepon, ripe.

from Greek peptein, to cook, ripen, digest ( peptos, cooked).

DYSPEPSIA, PUKKA,

PEPTIC, PEPTIZE; DRUPE, EUPEPTIC, PEPSIN, PEPTONE,

from Greek -pepsia, digestion.

from Sanskrit pakva-, ripe.

[Pokorny pek- 798.]

pel-1 Important derivatives are: pale1, pallid, pallor, appall, palomino, falcon, poliomyelitis. Pale. 4. Suffixed variant form *pal-wo-. i. ii. b. c.
PALE
2

from Old English fealu, fealo, reddish yellow;

FAUVISM,

FALLOW DEER,

from Frankish falw-, reddish-yellow. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *falwaz;

, PALLID, PALLOR; APPALL, from Latin pallKre, to be pale;

PALOMINO,

from Latin palumbKs (influenced in form by Latin columbus, dove), ringdove, gray-bird.

5. Probably suffixed form *pel-ko-. FALCON; (GYRFALCON), from Late Latin falco, falcon, from Germanic *falkon-, falcon ( 6. Suffixed extended form *peli-wo-. a. PELOPS, from Greek pelios, dark; b. o-grade form *poli-wo-. POLIOMYELITIS, from Greek polios, gray. 7.
PELARGONIUM,

from Greek pelargos (< *pelawo-argos), stork (argos, white; see arg-), perhaps from pel-1.

[Pokorny 6. pel- 804.]

pel-2 Important derivatives are: fold1, -fold, multiple, triple. To fold. 9. Extended o-grade form *polt-. a. b.
FOLD
1

, from Old English fealdan, faldan, to fold; from Old High German faldan, to fold;

FALTBOAT,

c.

FURBELOW,

from Italian falda, fold, flap, pleat;

i. ii.

FALDSTOOL,

from Medieval Latin compound faldistolium, folding chair;

FAUTEUIL,

from Old French faldestoel, faldstool. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic compound *faldistolaz, folding stool (*stolaz, stool; see st7-);

d. -FOLD, from Old English -feald, -fald, -fold, from Germanic combining form *-falthaz, *-faldaz. a, b, c, d, and e all from Germanic *falthan, *faldan. 10. Combining form *-plo-. a.
DECUPLE, MULTIPLE, OCTUPLE, QUADRUPLE, QUINTUPLE, SEPTUPLE,

(SEXTUPLE), TRIPLE, from Latin -plus, -fold (as in triplus, threefold); b. (-PLOID); TRIPLOBLASTIC, from Greek -plos, -ploos, -fold (as in haploos, haplous, single, and triploos, triple). [Pokorny 3. a. pel- 802.]

pel-3 Important derivatives are: film, pelt1, surplice. Skin, hide. 9. Suffixed form *pel-no-. FELL3, from Old English fell, skin, hide, from Germanic *felnam. 10. from Old English filmen, membrane, from Germanic suffixed form *fel-man-ja-.
FILM,

11. Suffixed form *pel-ni-. PELISSE, PELLICLE, (PELT1), PELTRY, PILLION; PELLAGRA, SURPLICE, from Latin pellis, skin. 12.
ERYSIPELAS,

from Greek -pelas, skin.

13. Suffixed form *pel-to-. PELTATE, from Greek peltK, a shield (made of hide). [Pokorny 3. b. pel- 803.]

pel-4 An important derivative is: monopoly. To sell. Lengthened o-grade form *pol-. BIBLIOPOLE, MONOPOLY, from Greek polein, to sell. [Pokorny 5. pel- 804.]

pel-5 Important derivatives are: anvil, felt1, filter, pulsate, pulse1, push, compel, expel, propel, repel, polish, appeal. To thrust, strike, drive. I. Suffixed form *pel-de-. a. from Old English anfilt(e), anfealt, anvil (something beaten on); i. ii.
FELT
1

ANVIL,

, from Old English felt, felt;

from Medieval Latin filtrum, filter, piece of felt. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *feltaz, *filtiz, compressed wool. Both a and b from Germanic *felt-, *falt-, to beat.

FILTER,

2.

, POUSSETTE, PULSATE, PULSE1, PUSH; COMPEL, DISPEL, EXPEL, IMPEL, PROPEL, REPEL, from Latin pellere (past participle pulsus), to push, drive, strike.
PELT
2

a. Suffixed o-grade form *pol-o-, fuller of cloth. POLISH, from Latin polXre, to make smooth, polish ( b. suffixed o-grade form *pol-o- (with different accentuation from the preceding), fulled (of cloth). INTERPOLATE, from Latin compound adjective inter-polis (also interpolus), refurbished (inter-, between; see en). II. Extended form *pelN-. 1. Present stem *peln7-.

a. b.

APPEAL,

from Latin appell7re, to drive to, address, entreat, appeal, call (ad-, to; see ad-); from Latin compell7re, to accost, address (com-, intensive prefix; see kom).
COMPELLATION,

2. Possible suffixed zero-grade extended adverbial form *plN-ti-, or locative plural *plN-si. PLESIOSAUR, from Greek plKsios, near (*pl7ti or *pl7si. [Pokorny 2. a. pel- 801.]

pelN-1 Important derivatives are: full1, fill, plenitude, plenty, replenish, folk, plural, plus, surplus, poly-, accomplish, complete, compliment, comply, deplete, expletive, implement, supply, plebeian, plethora. To fill; with derivatives referring to abundance and multitude. Variant *plK-, contracted from *pleN-. I. Zero-grade form *p_N-. 1. Suffixed form *p_N-no- FULL1, from Old English full, full, from Germanic *fulnaz, *fullaz, full. 2.
FILL,

from Old English fyllan, to fill (from Germanic derivative verb *fulljan, to fill), and fyllu, full amount (from Germanic abstract noun *full-Xno-, fullness).
PLENARY, PLENITUDE, PLENTY, PLENUM; PLENIPOTENTIARY, REPLENISH,

3.

from Latin plKnus, full, from Latin stem *plKno-, replacing *pl7no- (influenced by Latin verb plKre, to fill; see III. 1. below). 4. Suffixed form *p_N-go-. a. b.
FOLK,

TERREPLEIN,

from Old English folc, people;

VOLKSLIED,

from Old High German folc, people. Both a and b from Germanic *folkam.

II. Suffixed form *p(e)lN-u-. 1. Obscure comparative form. PI, PLURAL, PLUS; NONPLUS, PLUPERFECT, SURPLUS, from Latin pl7s, more (Old Latin plous). See also III. 4.

below. 2. O-grade form *pol(N)-u-. POLY-; HOI POLLOI, from Greek polus, much, many. 3.
PALUDAL, PALUDISM,
1

from Latin pal7s, marsh, possibly from pelN(? < inundated; but probably rather from pel-1).

III. Variant form *plK-. 1. (ACCOMPLISH), COMPLETE, COMPLIMENT, (COMPLY), DEPLETE, EXPLETIVE, IMPLEMENT, REPLETE, SUPPLY, from Latin plKre, to fill. 2. Possibly suffixed form *plK-dhw-. (PLEBE), PLEBEIAN, PLEBS; PLEBISCITE, from Latin plKbs, plKbKs, the people, multitude. 3. Suffixed form *plK-dhwo-. PLETHORA; PLETHYSMOGRAPH, from Greek derivative verb plKthein, to be full. 4. Suffixed adjective (positive) form *plK-ro-. PLEROCERCOID, from Greek plKrKs, full. 5. Suffixed (comparative) form *plK-i(s)on-. PLEO-, PLEONASM; PLEIOTAXY, PLEIOTROPISM, PLIOCENE, from Greek pleon, pleion, more. 6. Suffixed (superlative) form *plK-isto-. PLEISTOCENE, from Greek pleistos, most. IV. POORI, from Sanskrit p7raU, cake (pelN-1. [Pokorny 1. pel- 798.]

pelN-2 Important derivatives are: field, floor, plain, plane1, plane2, explain, palm1, palm2, planet, plasma, plaster, plastic, polka. Flat; to spread. Variant *pl7-, contracted from *plaN-. 6. Suffixed form *pel(N)-tu-. FIELD, from Old English feld, open field, from Germanic *felthuz, flat land. 7. Suffixed form *pel(N)-t-es- (by-form of *pel(N)-tu-). a.
FELDSPAR,

from Old High German feld, field;

b.

VELDT,

from Middle Dutch veld, velt, field. Both a and b from Germanic *feltha-, flat land.

8. Variant form *pl7-. a. suffixed form *pl7-ru-. FLOOR, from Old English flor, floor, from Germanic *floruz, floor; b. suffixed form *pl7-no-. LLANO, PIANO2, PLAIN, PLANARIAN, 1 2 3 PLANE , PLANE , PLANE , PLANISH, PLANO-, PLANULA; EXPLAIN, (PIANOFORTE), from Latin pl7nus, flat, level, even, plain, clear. 9. Suffixed zero-grade form *p_N-m7. PALM1, PALM2, from Latin palma (< *palama), palm of the hand. 10. Possibly extended variant form *plan-. a. b.
PLANET; APLANATIC, FLNEUR,

from Greek planasthai, to wander (

from French flner, to walk the streets idly, from a Germanic source akin to Old Norse flana, to wander aimlessly, from Germanic *flan-, possibly from pelN-2.

11. Suffixed zero-grade form *plN-dh-. -PLASIA, PLASMA, -PLAST, PLASTER, PLASTIC, (PLASTID), -PLASTY; (DYSPLASIA), METAPLASM, (TOXOPLASMA), from Greek plassein (< *plath-yein), to mold, spread out. 12. O-grade form *polN-. a.
POLYNYA,

from Russian polyV, open;

b. POLACK, POLKA, from Slavic polje, broad flat land, field. [Pokorny pelN- 805.] See also extensions pl7k-1, plat-

pelN-3 Important derivatives are: police, policy1, politic, metropolis. Citadel, fortified high place. ), POLIS, POLITIC, (POLITY); ACROPOLIS, COSMOPOLIS, COSMOPOLITE, MEGALOPOLIS, METROPOLIS, NECROPOLIS, POLICLINIC, PROPOLIS, from Greek polis, city.
1

POLICE, (POLICY

[In Pokorny 1. pel- 798.]

penkwe Important derivatives are: five, fifteen, penta-, pentad, pentagon, pentathlon, Pentecost, fifth, quintet, quintessence, finger, fist, foist. Five. I. Basic form *penkwe. 1. Assimilated form *pempe. a. b. c. d. from Old English fXf, five, with derivative fXftig, fifty (-tKne, ten; see dekc);
FIN FIVE; FIFTY,

, from Old High German finf, funf, five. Both a and b from Germanic *fimf.
2

FIFTEEN, FEMTO-,

from Old English fXftKne, fifteen;

from Old Norse fimmt7n, fifteen. Both a and b from Germanic compound *fimftehun, fifteen (*tehun, ten; see dekc).

2. Assimilated form *kwenkwe. a. b. c. 3. 4.

CINQUAIN, CINQUE, QUINQUE-; CINQUECENTO, (CINQUEFOIL), QUINCUNX,

from Latin quXnque, five; from Latin distributive quXnX, five each;

KENO, QUINATE, QUINDECENNIAL,

from Latin compound quXndecim, fifteen (decem, ten; see dekc).

PENTA-, PENTAD; PENSTEMON, (PENTAGON), (PENTAMETER),

(PENTATHLON), from Greek pente, five.

PUNCH
3

; PACHISI, from Sanskrit paca, five.

II. Compound *penkwe-(d)konta, five tens, fifty (*-(d)konta, group of ten; see dekc). 1.
QUINQUAGENARIAN,

QUINQUAGESIMA, from Latin quXnqu7ginta, fifty.

2. PENTECOST, from Greek pentKkonta, fifty.

III. Ordinal adjective *penkw-to-. 1. 2.

FIFTH, QUINT

from Old English fXfta, fifth, from Germanic *fimfton-.

1

, QUINTAIN, QUINTET, QUINTILE; QUINTESSENCE, QUINTILLION, QUINTUPLE, from Latin quXntus (< *quinc-tos), feminine quXnta, fifth.

IV. Suffixed form *penkw-ro-. FINGER, from Old English finger, finger, from Germanic *fingwraz, finger ( V. Suffixed reduced zero-grade form *pik-sti-. a. b.
FIST,

from Old English fst, fist;

FOIST,

from Dutch vuist, fist. Both a and b from Germanic *funhstiz

[Pokorny penke 808, piksti- 839.]

pentImportant derivatives are: find, pontiff, pontoon, punt1, sputnik, path. To tread, go. 9.
FIND,

from Old English findan, to find, from Germanic *finthan, to come upon, discover.

10. Suffixed o-grade form *pont-i-. a. ; (TRANSPONTINE), from Latin pons (stem pont-), bridge (earliest meaning, way, passage, preserved in the priestly title pontifex, he who prepares the way; -fex, maker; see dhK-);
1

PONS, PONTIFEX, PONTIFF, PONTINE, PONTOON, PUNT

b.

SPUTNIK,

from Russian sputnik, fellow traveler, sputnik, from put', path, way.

11. Zero-grade form *pit-. PERIPATETIC, from Greek patein, to tread, walk. 12. Suffixed zero-grade form *pit-N-. a.
PATH,

from Old English pth, path;

b.

FOOTPAD,

from Middle Dutch pad, way, path. Both a and b from Germanic *patha-, way, path, probably borrowed (? via Scythian) from Iranian *path-.

[Pokorny pent- 808.]

per1 Important derivatives are: far, paramount, paradise, for, forth, afford, further, foremost, former2, first, prow, protein, proton, fore, forefather, before, from, furnish, veneer, purchase, prone, reciprocal, approach, reproach, approximate, probable, probe, proof, prove, approve, improve, pre-, private, privilege, privy, deprive, proper, property, appropriate, premier, primal, primary, primate, prime, primitive, prince, principal, principle, pristine, priest. Base of prepositions and preverbs with the basic meanings of forward, through, and a wide range of extended senses such as in front of, before, early, first, chief, toward, against, near, at, around. I. Basic form *per and extended form *peri. a. b.
TURNVEREIN,

from Middle High German vereinen, to unite, from Old High German far-;
VEER
2

, from Middle Dutch vieren, to let out, slacken;

c. (see ghend-) Germanic compound *fer-getan, to lose one's hold, forget. d. from Middle Dutch verrompelen, to wrinkle. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *fer-, *far-, used chiefly as an intensive prefix denoting destruction, reversal, or completion.
FRUMP,

2. Suffixed (comparative) form *per-ero-, farther away. FAR, from Old English feor(r), far, from Germanic *fer(e)ra. 3. 4.
PER, PER-; PARAMOUNT, PARAMOUR, PARGET, PARVENU,

from Latin per,

through, for, by.

PERI-; PERISSODACTYL,

from Greek peri, around, near, beyond.

a. b.

PARADISE, PURDAH,

from Avestan pairi-, around;

from Old Persian pari, around, over;

c. (see wer-) Old Iranian *pari-v7raka-, protective. a, b, and c all from Old Iranian *pari-, around. 5.
PERESTROIKA,

from Old Russian pere-, around, again, from Slavic

*per-. II. Zero-grade form *py-. a. b.

FOR,

from Old English for, before, instead of, on account of;

FOR-,

from Old English for-, prefix denoting destruction, pejoration, exclusion, or completion. Both a and b from Germanic *fur, before, in.

2. Extended form *pyt-. FORTH; AFFORD, from Old English forth, from Germanic *furth-, forward. 3. Suffixed (comparative) form *py-tero-. FURTHER, from Old English furthra, furthor, farther away, from Germanic *furthera-. a. Compound *py-st-i- (or *por-st-i-, with o-grade form *por-), that which stands before, stake, post (see st7); b. from Latin por-, forth, forward. Both a and b from Latin por- from *py-.
PORRECT,

4. Suffixed form *py-sod. PARGET, from Latin porro, forward. III. Extended zero-grade form *pyN-. 1. Suffixed (superlative) form *pyN-mo-. a. , from Old English forma, first, foremost, from Germanic *fruma-, *furma-;
2

FOREMOST, FORMER

b. (see ed-) Latin compound prandium, first meal, late breakfast, lunch (probably < *pr7m-d-ium < *pyNm(e)d-yo-; second element *-(e)d-, to eat). 2. Suffixed (superlative) form *pyN-isto-. FIRST, from Old English fyrst, fyrest, first, from Germanic *furista-, foremost. 3. Suffixed form *pyN-wo-.

a. b.

from Greek proira, forward part of a ship, from analogically suffixed form *prow-arya; from Greek protos, first, foremost, from suffixed (superlative) form *prow-ato-. Both a and b from Greek *prowo-, first, foremost.
PROTEIN, PROTIST, PROTO-, PROTON,

PROW,

4. Suffixed form *pyN-i. ARPENT, from Latin arepennis, half-acre (second element obscure), from Gaulish ari (combining form are-), before, from Celtic *(p)ari, *are. IV. Extended form *pyN8. a. b. c.
FORE, FORE-; (FOREFATHER),

from Old English fore, for,

before;
VORLAGE, BEFORE,

from Old High German fora, before;

from Old English beforan, before, from Germanic prefixed and suffixed form *bi-fora-na, in the front (*bi-, at, by; see ambhi). a, b, and c all from Germanic *fura, before. ; PALFREY, from Greek para, beside, alongside of, beyond.

2.

PARA-

V. Extended form *prp. a. from Old Norse fr7, from, from Germanic *fra, forward, away from;
FRO; (FROWARD),

b. (see ed-, Kik-) Germanic *fra-, completely. 2. Suffixed form *prp-mo-. a. b. from Old English from, from, from Germanic *fram, from; from Old French f(o)urnir, to supply, provide, from Germanic derivative verb *frumjan, to further, from Germanic *frum, forward;
PRAM
2

FROM,

FURNISH, VENEER,

c.

, from Czech prm, raft.

3. Suffixed form *pro-wo-. FRAU, (FRULEIN), from Old High German frouwa, lady, from Germanic *frowo-, lady, lengthened-grade feminine of *frawan-, lord.

4. Suffixed form *pro-wo-. NAPRAPATHY, from Slavic prav, right. 5.

PRO

, PRO-1, (PROUD); (IMPROVE), PURCHASE, from Latin pro, prp-, before, for, instead of.
1

6. Suffixed form *pro-no-. PRONE, from Latin pronus, leaning forward. 7. Possible suffixed form *pro-ko-. RECIPROCAL, from Latin compound reciprocus, alternating, backward and forward (*re-ko-, backward; see re-). 8. Suffixed adverb *pro-kwe. a.
APPROACH, (RAPPROCHEMENT), REPROACH,

from Latin prope,

near; b. suffixed form *prokw-inkwo-. PROPINQUITY, from Latin propinquus, near; c. suffixed (superlative) form *prokw-samo-. PROXIMATE; APPROXIMATE, from Latin proximus, nearest. 9. Compound *pro-bhw-o-, growing well or straightforward (*bhw-o-, to grow; see bheuN-). (PROBABLE), PROBE, PROBITY, (PROOF), PROVE; APPROVE, IMPROBITY, (REPROVE), from Latin probus, upright, good, virtuous. 10.
PRO2

, from Greek pro, before, in front, forward.

11. Suffixed (comparative) form *pro-tero-. HYSTERON PROTERON, PROTEROZOIC, from Greek proteros, before, former. 12. PRAKRIT, from Sanskrit pra-, before, forth. 13. (see wKro-) Celtic *ro-, intensive prefix, in *ro-wero-, sufficiency. VI. Extended forms *prai-, *prei-. 1.
PRE-; PRETERIT,

from Latin prae, before.

2. Suffixed (comparative) form *prei-yos-. PRIOR2, from Latin prior, former, higher, superior. 3. Suffixed form *prei-wo-.

a. b.

PRIVATE, PRIVILEGE, PRIVITY, PRIVY; DEPRIVE,

from Latin

prXvus, single, alone (

PROPER, PROPERTY; APPROPRIATE, PROPRIOCEPTION, PROPRIOCEPTOR,

from Latin proprius, one's own, particular (< pro prXvo, in particular, from the ablative of prXvus, single; pro, for; see V. 5.).

4. Extended form *preis-. a. Suffixed (superlative) form *preis-mo-. i.

PREMIER, PRIMAL, PRIMARY, PRIMATE, PRIME, PRIMITIVE,

, PRIMEVAL, PRIMIPARA, PRIMOGENITOR, PRIMOGENITURE, PRIMORDIAL, from Latin prXmus (< *prXsmus; ablative plural prXmXs), first, foremost;
1

PRIMO, PRIMUS; IMPRIMIS, PRIMAVERA

ii.

PRINCE, PRINCIPAL, PRINCIPLE,

from Latin compound prXnceps, he who takes first place, leader, chief, emperor (-ceps, -taker; see kap-);

b. suffixed form *preis-tano-. PRISTINE, from Latin prXstinus, former, earlier, original. VII. Extended form *pres- in compound *pres-gwu-, going before (*gw-u-, going; see gw7-). PRESBYTER, (PRIEST); PRESBYOPIA, from Greek presbus, old, old man, elder. VIII. Extended form *proti. PROS-, from Greek pros, against, toward, near, at. [Pokorny 2. A. per 810.] Other possibly related forms are grouped under per-2, per-3, per-4, per-5

per-2 Important derivatives are: firth, fjord, fare, wayfarer, welfare, pore2, emporium, ferry, fern, ford, port1, opportune, porch, portal, portable, portage, porter1, export, import, important, portfolio, rapport, report, sport, support, transport. To lead, pass over. A verbal root belonging to the group of per1. I. Full-grade form *per-. 1. Suffixed form *per-tu-. FIRTH, FJORD, from Old Norse fjrdhr, an

inlet, estuary, from Germanic *ferthuz, place for crossing over, ford. 2. Suffixed form *per-on7. PERONEAL, from Greek peronK, pin of a brooch, buckle ( 3. Suffixed form *per-yo-. DIAPIR, from Greek peirein, to pierce. II. O-grade form *por-. i. ii.
FARE; WAYFARER, WAYFARING, (WELFARE),

from Old English faran, to go on a journey, get along; from Old English faran, possibly altered by folk etymology in Old English, from an uncertain original;
FIELDFARE,

b.

GABERDINE,

from Old High German faran, to go, travel. Both a and b from Germanic *faran, to go.

2. Suffixed form *por-o-, passage, journey. PORE2; EMPORIUM, POROMERIC, from Greek poros, journey, passage. 3. Suffixed (causative) form *por-eyo-, to cause to go, lead, conduct. FERRY, from Old English ferian, to transport, from Germanic *farjan, to ferry. 4. Lengthened-grade form *por-. a. from Old English (ge)fKra, fellow-traveler, companion (ge-, together, with; see kom), from Germanic suffixed form *for-ja-; from Old High German fuoren, to lead, from Germanic suffixed (causative) form *for-jan.
FHRER, FERE,

b.

5. Possibly suffixed form *por-no-, feather, wing ( a. b.

FERN,

from Old English fearn, fern (having feathery fronds), from Germanic *farno, feather, leaf;
2

PAN

, from Sanskrit parham, leaf, feather.

III. Zero-grade form *py-. 1. Suffixed form *py-tu-, passage.

a. b.

FORD,

from Old English ford, shallow place where one may cross a river, from Germanic *furdu-;
PORT
1

; IMPORTUNE, OPPORTUNE, from Latin portus, harbor (< passage).

2. Suffixed form *py-t7. PORCH, PORT3, PORTAL, PORTCULLIS, PORTER2, PORTICO, PORTIRE, PORTULACA, from Latin porta, gate. 3. Suffixed (denominative) form *py-to-. PORT5, PORTABLE, PORTAGE, 1 PORTAMENTO, PORTATIVE, PORTER ; COMPORT, DEPORT, EXPORT, IMPORT, (IMPORTANT), PORTFOLIO, PURPORT, RAPPORT, REPORT, (SPORT), SUPPORT, TRANSPORT, from Latin port7re, to carry. [Pokorny 2. B. per 816.]

per-3 Important derivatives are: fear, peril, experience, experiment, expert, pirate, empiric. To try, risk ( A verbal root belonging to the group of per1. 4. Lengthened grade *pKr-. FEAR, from Old English f<r, danger, sudden calamity, from Germanic *fKraz, danger. 5. Suffixed form *perX-tlo-. (PARLOUS), PERIL, from Latin perXclum, perXculum, trial, danger. 6. Suffixed form *per-yo-. EXPERIENCE, EXPERIMENT, EXPERT, from Latin experXrX, to try, learn by trying (ex-, from; see eghs). 7. Suffixed form *per-ya. PIRATE; EMPIRIC, from Greek peira, trial, attempt. [Pokorny 2. E. per 818.]

per-4 Important derivatives are: press1, pressure, print, compress, depress, express, imprint, oppress, repress, reprimand, suppress. To strike. A verbal root possibly belonging to the group of per1. Extended forms *prem-

, *pres-. PREGNANT2, PRESS1, PRESSURE, PRINT; APPRESSED, COMPRESS, DEPRESS, EXPRESS, 1 IMPRESS , (IMPRINT), OPPRESS, REPRESS, (REPRIMAND), SUPPRESS, from Latin premere (past participle pressus), to press. [Pokorny 3. per- 818.]

per-5 Important derivatives are: interpret, praise, precious, price, appraise, appreciate, depreciate, pornography. To traffic in, sell (per1. Base of two distinct extended roots. I. Root form *pret-. 1.
INTERPRET,

from Latin compound inter-pres (stem inter-pret-), go-between, negotiator (inter-, between; see en).

2. Suffixed form *pret-yo-. PRAISE, PRECIOUS, PRICE; APPRAISE, (APPRECIATE), DEPRECIATE, from Latin pretium, price. II. Root form *perN-. Suffixed form *p(e)r-n-N-, with o-grade *por(N)-n7. PORNOGRAPHY, from Greek pornK, prostitute, from pernanai, to sell. [In Pokorny 2. C. per 817.]

perdImportant derivatives are: fart, partridge.. To fart. 1. 2. from Old English *feortan, to fart, from Germanic *fertan, *farton.
PARTRIDGE, FART,

from Greek perdix, partridge (which makes a sharp whirring sound when suddenly flushed).

[Pokorny perd- 819.] See also pezd-.

perN-1 Important derivatives are: parade, pare, parry, apparatus, apparel, disparate, emperor, imperative, imperial, parachute, parasol, prepare, rampart, repair1, separate, sever, several, parent, repertory.

To produce, procure. Possibly the same root as perN-2. See also per-5 II. Zero-grade form *pyN(becoming *par- in Latin). a. root form *par-7-. PARADE, PARE, (PARLAY), PARRY, (PARURE); APPARATUS, (APPAREL), COMPRADOR, DISPARATE, EMPEROR, (IMPERATIVE), (IMPERIAL), (PARACHUTE), PARASOL, PREPARE, 1 RAMPART, REPAIR , SEPARATE, (SEVER), (SEVERAL), from Latin par7re, to try to get, prepare, equip; b. suffixed form *par-yo-. -PARA, PARENT, PARITY2, -PAROUS, PARTURIENT, POSTPARTUM, REPERTORY, from Latin parere, parXre, to get, beget, give birth; c. suffixed form *par-o-, producing, in compound *pauparos, producing little, poor (see pau-); d. suffixed form *par-ik7. PARCAE, from Latin Parcae, the Fates (who assign one's destiny). [Pokorny 2. D. per 818.]

perN-2 Important derivatives are: parcel, parse, part, impart, repartee, portion, proportion, pair, par, parlay, peer2, compare, nonpareil. To grant, allot (reciprocally, to get in return). Possibly the same root as perN-1. See also per-5 II. Zero-grade form *pyN- (becoming *par- in Latin). a. suffixed form *par-ti-. PARCEL, (PARCENER), PARSE, PART; BIPARTITE, COMPART, IMPART, REPARTEE, from Latin pars (stem part-), a share, part; b. possibly suffixed form *par-tio. PORTION, PROPORTION, from Latin portio, a part (first attested in the phrase pro portione, in proportion, according to each part, perhaps assimilated from *pro partione); c. ), PEER2; COMPARE, IMPARITY, NONPAREIL, PARI-MUTUEL, from Latin p7r, equal, perhaps from perN2 .
1

PAIR, PAR, (PARITY

[Pokorny 2. per, Section C. 817.]

perkwuImportant derivatives are: fir, cork. Oak. 1. Zero-grade form *pykw-. FIR, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Icelandic fri, fir, from Germanic *furh-jon. 2. Assimilated form *kwerkwu-. CORK, QUERCETIN; QUERCITRON, from Latin quercus, oak. [Pokorny perku-s 822.]

pesImportant derivatives are: pencil, penicillium, penis. Penis. Suffixed form *pes-ni-. PENCIL, (PENICILLIUM), PENIS, from Latin pKnis (< *pesnis), penis, tail. [Pokorny 3. pes- 824.]

petImportant derivatives are: feather, petition, appetite, compete, perpetual, repeat, pen1, propitious, ptomaine, symptom, hippopotamus. Also petN-To rush, fly. Variant *ptK-, contracted from *pteN-. 3. Suffixed form *pet-r7. FEATHER, from Old English fether, feather, from Germanic *fethro, feather. 4. -PETAL, PETITION, PETULANT; APPETITE, COMPETE, IMPETUS, PERPETUAL, REPEAT, from Latin petere, to go toward, seek. 5. Suffixed form *pet-n7. PANACHE, PEN1, PENNA, PENNATE, PENNON, PIN, PINNA, PINNACLE, PINNATE, (PINNATI-), PINNULE; EMPENNAGE, from Latin penna, pinna, feather, wing. 6. Suffixed form *pet-ro- (see oku-). 7. Suffixed form *pet-yo-. PROPITIOUS, from Latin propitius,

favorable, gracious, orginially a religious term meaning falling or rushing forward, hence eager, well-disposed (said of the gods; pro-, forward; see per1). 8. Suffixed zero-grade form *pt-ero-. -PTER; ACANTHOPTERYGIAN, APTERYX, ARCHAEOPTERYX, COLEOPTERAN, MECOPTERAN, ORTHOPTERAN, PERIPTERAL, PLECOPTERAN, PTERIDOLOGY, PTERYGOID, from Greek pteron, feather, wing, and pterux, wing. 9. Suffixed zero-grade form *pt-ilo-. COLEOPTILE, from Greek ptilon, soft feathers, down, plume. 10. Suffixed variant form *ptK-no-. STEAROPTENE, from Greek ptKnos, winged, flying. 11. Reduplicated form *pi-pt-. PTOMAINE, PTOSIS; ASYMPTOTE, PERIPETEIA, PROPTOSIS, SYMPTOM, from Greek piptein, to fall, with nominal derivatives pto-to-, pto-ti-, pto-ma. 12. O-grade form *pot-. HIPPOPOTAMUS, from Greek potamos rushing water, river (-amo-, Greek suffix). 13. Suffixed form *pet-tro-. TALIPOT, from Sanskrit pattram, feather, leaf. [Pokorny 2. pet- 826.]

petNImportant derivatives are: fathom, patent, pace1, pass, compass, expand, petal, pan1. To spread. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *pot(N)-mo-. FATHOM, from Old English fthm, fathom, from Germanic *fathmaz, length of two arms stretched out. 2. Suffixed (stative) variant zero-grade form *pat-K-. PATENT, PATULOUS, from Latin patKre, to be open. 3. Probably variant zero-grade form in remade nasalized form *pat-no-. PACE1, (PAS), (PASS), PASSIM; (COMPASS), EXPAND, REPAND, from Latin pandere (past participle passus < *pat-to-), to spread out.

4. Suffixed form *pet-alo-. PETAL, from Greek petalon, leaf. 5. Suffixed form *pet-ano-. (PAELLA), PAN1, PATEN, (PATINA1), (PATINA2), from Greek patanK (? < *petan7), platter, thing spread out. 6. from Greek petasos, broad-brimmed hat, from Greek suffixed form *peta-so-.
PETASOS,

[Pokorny 1. pet 824.]

peuImportant derivatives are: putative, account, amputate, compute, count1, dispute, impute, repute, pave. To cut, strike, stamp. 5. Suffixed (participial) zero-grade form *pu-to, cut, struck. a.
PUTAMEN, PUTATIVE; (ACCOUNT), AMPUTATE, COMPUTE, COUNT
1

from Latin put7re, to prune, clean, settle an account, think over, reflect; b.
PIT
1

DEPUTE, DISPUTE, IMPUTE, REPUTE,

, from Latin puteus, well, possibly from peu-.

6. Variant form *pau-. a. suffixed form *pau-yo. PAVE, (PAV), from Latin pavXre, to beat; b. suffixed (stative) form *paw-K-. PAVID, from Latin pavKre, to fear ( c. [Pokorny 3. pKu- 827.]
ANAPEST,

from Greek paiein, to beat, perhaps from peu-.

peuNImportant derivatives are: pure, purge, Puritan, expurgate. To purify, cleanse. Suffixed zero-grade form *p7-ro- (< *puN-ro). POUR, PURE, PURGE, PURITAN; COMPURGATION, DEPURATE, EXPURGATE, (SPURGE), from Latin p7rus, pure, and

p7rg7re, to purify (< *p7r-ig7re; second element agere, to drive; see ag-). [Pokorny 1. peu- 827.]

peukImportant derivatives are: pugilism, pugnacious, impugn, poignant, point, pounce1, punctuate, puncture, pungent, expunge, pygmy. Also peug-To prick. Zero-grade form *pug-. 4. Suffixed form *pug-no-. PONIARD, PUGILISM, PUGIL STICK, PUGNACIOUS; IMPUGN, OPPUGN, REPUGN, from Latin pugil, pugilist, and pugnus, fist, with denominative pugn7re, to fight with the fist. 5. Nasalized zero-grade form *pu-n-g-. BUNG, POIGNANT, POINT, 1 3 1 POINTILLISM, PONTIL, (POUNCE ), (POUNCE ), PUNCHEON , PUNCTUATE, PUNCTURE, PUNGENT; COMPUNCTION, EXPUNGE, SPONTOON, TRAPUNTO, from Latin pungere, to prick. 6. (PYGMAEAN), PYGMY, from Greek pugmK, fist. [Pokorny peu- 828.]

pezdDerivatives are: fizzle, petard. To fart. 1. Suffixed form *pezd-i-. FEIST, FIZZLE, from Middle English fisten, to fart, from Germanic *fistiz, a fart. 2. 3.
PETARD,

from Latin pKdere, to fart. from Latin pKdis, louse (? pezd-.

PEDICULAR,

[Pokorny pezd- 829, 2. peis- 796.] See also perd-.

pNterImportant derivatives are: father, forefather, padre, paternal, patrician, patrimony, patron, expatriate, perpetrate, patriot, patriarch. Father.

5. 6. 7.

FATHER; (FOREFATHER),

from Old English fder, father, from

Germanic *fadar.
PADRE, PATER, PATERNAL, PATRI-, PATRICIAN, PATRIMONY, PATRON, PRE; EXPATRIATE, PERPETRATE,

from Latin pater, father. from

PATRI-, PATRIOT; ALLOPATRIC, EUPATRID, PATRIARCH, SYMPATRIC,

Greek patKr, father. [Pokorny pNt K(r) 829.]

pl7k-1 Important derivatives are: fluke1, flake1, flaw1, placebo, placid, plea, plead, pleasant, please, complacent, placate, plank, placenta, archipelago. Also plak-To be flat. Extension of pelN-2. 2.
FLOE,

from Old Norse flo, layer, coating, from Germanic *floho.

3. Variant form *pl7g-. a. b.

FLUKE

, from Old English floc, flatfish, from Germanic *flok-;

1 1

, from Middle English flake, flake, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Norwegian flak, flat piece, flake, from Germanic *flakaz;
FLAKE

c.

, from Old Norse flaki, fleki, hurdle, from Germanic *flak-.

FLAKE
2

4. Extended form *plak7. FLAG4, FLAW1, from Old Norse flaga, layer of stone, from Germanic *flago. 5. Possibly suffixed (stative) form *plak-K-, to be calm (as of the flat sea). PLACEBO, PLACID, PLEA, (PLEAD), PLEASANT, PLEASE; COMPLACENT, from Latin placKre, to please, be agreeable. 6. Root noun *plak-. (SUPPLICATE), SUPPLE, from Latin supplex, suppliant (whence denominative supplic7re, to beg humbly, first attested in Archaic Latin as sub vos placo, I entreat you; sub, under; see upo.) 7. Lengthened suffixed form *pl7k-7-. PLACABLE, PLACATE, from Latin pl7c7re, to calm (causative of placKre).

8. Nasalized form *pla-n-k-. PLANCHET, PLANK, from Latin plancus, flat, flat-footed. 9. Variant form *plag-. a. b.
PLAGIARY,

from Latin plaga, net (? pl7k-1; from Greek plagos, side.

PLAGAL, PLAGIO-, PLAYA,

10. Root form *plak-. PLACENTA, PLACOID; LEUKOPLAKIA, from Greek plax, flat, flat land, surface. 11. Possible variant form *pelag-. PELAGIC; ARCHIPELAGO, from Greek pelagos, sea. [Pokorny 1. pl7-k- 831.]

pl7k-2 Important derivatives are: fling, plaint, complain, plankton, plague, apoplexy, paraplegia. To strike. 1. Nasalized variant forms *pla-n-k-, *pla-n-g-. a. from Middle English flingen to fling, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse flengja, to flog, whip, from Germanic *flang-; from Latin plangere, to strike (one's own breast), lament;
PLAINT, PLANGENT; COMPLAIN, FLING,

b.

c. suffixed form *plang-yo-. PLANKTON, from Greek plazein, to drive away, turn aside. 2. Variant form *pl7g-. PLAGUE, from Latin pl7ga, a blow, stroke. 3. Suffixed form *pl7k-yo-. PLECTRUM, -PLEGIA, PLEXOR; APLOPLEXY, CATAPLEXY, PARAPLEGIA, from Greek plKssein, to beat, strike. [Pokorny 2. pl7k- 832.]

platImportant derivatives are: flat1, flatter1, flat2, flounder2, clan, plan, plant, supplant,

place, plate, plateau, platitude, plaza. To spread. Also *plet-. Extension of pelN-2. 2. Variant form *plad-. a. b.
FLAT
1

, from Old Norse flatr, flat;

1

, from Old French flater, to flatter. Both a and b from Germanic *flataz, flat.
FLATTER

3. Suffixed variant form *plad-yo-. FLAT2, from Old English flet(t), floor, dwelling, from Germanic *flatjam. 4. Basic form *plat-. FLAN, from Late Latin flado, flat cake, pancake, from Germanic *flatho(n), flat cake. 5. , from Anglo-Norman floundre, flounder, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Old Swedish flundra, flatfish, flounder, from Germanic nasalized suffixed form *flu-n-th-r-jo-.
FLOUNDER
2

6. Nasalized form *pla-n-t-. CLAN, PLAN, PLANT, PLANTAIN1, PLANTAR; PLANTIGRADE, SUPPLANT, TRANSPLANT, from Latin planta, sole of the foot, and denominative plant7re, to drive in with the sole of the foot, plant, whence planta, a plant. 7. Suffixed zero-grade form *p_t-u-. PIAZZA, PLACE, PLAICE, PLANE4, (PLANE TREE), PLATE, (PLATEAU), (PLATITUDE), (PLATY2), PLATY-, (PLAZA), from Greek platus, flat, broad. [Pokorny plat- 833.]

plekImportant derivatives are: flax, multiplex, plait, pliant, plight1, ply1, apply, complicate, deploy, display, employ, implicate, reply, complex, perplex. To plait. Extension of pel-2. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *plok-so-. FLAX, from Old English fleax, flax, from Germanic *flahsam, flax.

2. Full-grade form *plek-. MULTIPLEX, from Latin -plex, -fold (in compounds such as duplex, twofold; see dwo-). 3. , PLISS, PLY1; APPLY, COMPLICATE, COMPLICE, DEPLOY, DISPLAY, EMPLOY, EXPLICATE, IMPLICATE, REPLICATE, (REPLY), from Latin plic7re, to fold (also in compounds used as denominatives of words in -plex, genitive -plicis).
1

PLAIT, PLIANT, PLICA, PLICATE, PLIGHT

4. Suffixed forms *plek-to- and *plek-t-to-. PLEACH, PLEXUS; AMPLEXICAUL, COMPLECT, (COMPLEX), PERPLEXED, from Latin plectere (past participle plexus), to weave, plait, entwine. 5.
PLECOPTERAN, PLECTOGNATH,

from Greek plekein, to plait, twine,

and plektos, twisted. [Pokorny ple- 834.]

pleuImportant derivatives are: plover, pulmonary, pneumonia, Pluto, flow, flood, fly1, fly2, flee, fledge, flight1, fowl, fleet1, fleet2, float, flutter, flit, fluster. To flow. I. Basic form *pleu-. 1. (PLOVER), (PLUVIAL), PLUVIOUS, from Latin pluere, to rain. 2.
PLEUSTON,

from Greek pleusis, sailing.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *plu-elos. PYELITIS, from Greek dissimilated puelos, trough, basin. 4. Suffixed form *pl(e)u-mon-, floater, lung(s). a. b.
PULMONARY,

from Latin pulmo (< *plumonKs), lung(s);

from Greek pleumon, pneumon (influenced by pneuma, breath; see pneu-), lung.

PNEUMO-, PNEUMONIA, PNEUMONIC,

5. Suffixed o-grade form *plou-to. PLUTO; PLUTOCRACY, PLUTOGRAPHY, from Greek ploutos, wealth, riches (< overflowing). 6. Lengthened o-grade form *plo(u)-.

i. ii.

FLOW, FLUE
2

from Old English flowan, to flow;

, from Middle Dutch vluwe, fishnet, perhaps from pleu-. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *flowan, to flow;

b. suffixed form *plo-tu-. FLOOD, from Old English flod, flood, from Germanic *floduz, flowing water, deluge. II. Extended form *pleuk-. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
FLY

, from Old English flKogan, to fly, from Germanic *fleugan, to fly.

1

, from Old English flKoge, a fly, from Germanic *fleugon-, flying insect, fly.
FLY
2

from Old English flKon, to flee, from Germanic *fleuhan, to run away, probably from pleu-.
FLEY,

FLEE,

from Old English flgan, flKgan, to put to flight, from Germanic causative *flaugjan. from Old French fleche, arrow, from Germanic suffixed form *fleug-ika.

FLCHE, FLETCHER,

6. Zero-grade form *pluk-. a. b.

FLEDGE,

from Old English *flycge, with feathers (only in unfligge, featherless), from Germanic *flugja-, feather;
FLIGHT

, FLIGHT2, from Old English flyht, act of flying, and *flyht, act of fleeing, escape, from Germanic suffixed form *flug-ti-;
1

c.

from Old English fugol, bird, from Germanic *fuglaz, bird, dissimilated from possible (but unlikely) suffixed form *flug-laz; from Middle High German vlgel, wing, from Germanic suffixed form *flug-ila.
FLGELHORN, FUGLEMAN,

FOWL,

d.

III. Extended form *pleud-. 1.

FLEET

, FLEET2, from Old English flKotan, to float, swim (from Germanic *fleutan), and Old Norse fliotr, fleet, swift (from
1

Germanic *fleutaz). 2. Zero-grade form *plud-. i. ii.

FLOAT,

from Old English flotian, to float;

FLOTSAM,

from Old French floter, to float. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic derivative *floton, to float; from Old Norse floti, raft, fleet;

b. c.

FLOTILLA, FLUTTER,

from Old English floterian, flotorian, to float back and forth (-erian, iterative and frequentative suffix);
FLIT,

d.

from Old Norse flytja, to further, convey, from Germanic *flutjan, to float. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *flut-, *flot-.

3.

probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Icelandic flaustr, hurry, and flaustra, to bustle, from Germanic *flausta-, contracted from suffixed form *flaut-st7-, probably from *pleud-, o-grade *ploud-.

FLUSTER,

[Pokorny pleu- 835, pl(e)u-mon- 837.]

pneuImportant derivatives are: sneeze, snore, snort, pneumatic. To breathe. Imitative root. 1. 2. 3. from Old English fnKosan, to sneeze, from Germanic *fneu-s-.
SNORE, (SNORT), SNEEZE,

from Old English fnora, sneezing, from Germanic *fnu-s-.

APNEA, DIPNOAN, DYSPNEA, EUPNEA, HYPERPNEA, HYPOPNEA, POLYPNEA,

from Greek pnein, to breathe, with o-grade nouns pnoia, breathing, and pnoK, breath. 4. Suffixed form *pneu-mi. PNEUMA, PNEUMATIC, PNEUMATO-, PNEUMO, from Greek pneuma, breath, wind, spirit.

TACHYPNEA,

5. Germanic variant root *fnes-. SNEER, from Old English fn<ran, to snort, gnash one's teeth. [Pokorny pneu- 838.]

po(i)Important derivatives are: potable, poison, potion, beer, beverage, imbibe, symposium. To drink. Contracted from *poN(i)-. I. Basic form *po(i)-. a. Suffixed reduced form *po-to-. POTABLE, POTATION, POTATORY, from Latin potus, drunk; a drink (whence pot7re, to drink); b. suffixed form *po-ti-. POISON, POTION, from Latin potio, a drink. 2. Reduplicated form *pi-pN-o-, whence *pi-bo-, assimilated to *bi-bo-. BEER, BEVERAGE, BIB, BIBULOUS; IMBIBE, (IMBRUE), from Latin bibere, to drink. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *pN-ti-, *po-ti-. SYMPOSIUM, from Greek posis, drink, drinking. II. Zero-grade form *pX- (< *piN-). 1. Suffixed form *pX-ro-. PIROG, from Old Church Slavonic pir, feast. 2. Suffixed (nasal present) form *pX-no-. PINOCYTOSIS, from Greek pinein, to drink. [Pokorny 2. po(i)- 839.]

polImportant derivatives are: feel, palpable, palpitate, catapult, psalm. To touch, feel, shake. a.
FEEL,

from Old English fKlan, to examine by touch, feel;

b.

SPRACHGEFHL,

from Old High German vuolen, to feel. Both a and b from Germanic *foljan, to feel.

1. Reduplicated zero-grade form *pal-p-. a. b. c.

PALP,

from Latin palpus, a touching;

1

PALPABLE, PALPATE

, PALPITATE, from Latin palp7rX, palp7re, to stroke gently, touch; from Latin palpebra, eyelid (

PALPEBRA,

2. Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form *pal-yo-. CATAPULT, from Greek pallein, to sway, brandish. 3. Perhaps suffixed form *psal-yo-. PSALM, PSALTERY, from Greek psallein, to pluck, play the harp (but more likely of imitative origin). [Pokorny 1. G. pel- 801.]

porkoImportant derivatives are: aardvark, porcelain, pork, porcupine, porpoise. Young pig. a. b. 1.
FARROW
1

, from Old English fearh, little pig;

AARDVARK,

from Middle Dutch diminutive form varken, small pig. Both a and b from Germanic *farhaz. from Latin porcus,

PORCELAIN, PORCINE, PORK; PORCUPINE, PORPOISE,

pig. [Pokorny poro-s 841.]

potiImportant derivatives are: possess, power, possible, potent, impotent. Powerful; lord. 1. 2.
PODESTA, POSSESS, POWER,

from Latin potis ( *pots pos-), powerful, from Latin

able.
POSSIBLE, POTENT; (IMPOTENT), OMNIPOTENT, PREPOTENT,

compound posse, to be able (contracted from potis, able + esse, to be; see es-). 3. Form *pot-. a. compound *ghos-pot-, guest-master, host (see ghosti-); b. compound *dems-pot-, house- master, ruler (see dem-). 4. PADISHAH, from Old Persian pati-, master. [Pokorny poti-s 842.]

prekImportant derivatives are: pray, prayer1, precarious, deprecate, postulate. To ask, entreat. 1. Basic form *prek-. PRAY, PRAYER1, PRECARIOUS; DEPRECATE, IMPRECATE, from *prex, prayer (attested only in the plural precKs), with Latin denominative prec7rX, to entreat, pray. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *pyk-sk- becoming *pork-sk-, contracted into *posk- in suffixed form *posk-to, contracted into *posto-. POSTULATE; EXPOSTULATE, from Latin postul7re, to ask, request. [Pokorny 4. per- 821.]

preusImportant derivatives are: freeze, frost, prurient. To freeze, burn. 1.

FREEZE,

from Old English frKosan, to freeze, from Germanic *freusan, to freeze.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *prus-to-. FROST, from Old English forst, frost, frost, from Germanic *frustaz, frost. 3. Suffixed form *preus-i-. PRURIENT, PRURIGO, PRURITUS, from Latin denominative pr7rXre, to burn, itch, yearn for, from *preusis,

*preuris, act of burning. 4. Suffixed zero-grade form *prus-wXn7. PRUINOSE, from Latin pruXna, hoarfrost. [Pokorny preus- 846.]

prXImportant derivatives are: free, filibuster, friend, afraid, Friday. To love. Contracted from *priN-. 1. Suffixed form *priy-o-. a. from Old English frKo, free, and frKon, freogan, to love, set free;
FREE,

b. (FILIBUSTER), FREEBOOTER, from Dutch vrij, free. Both a and b from Germanic *frijaz, beloved, belonging to the loved ones, not in bondage, free, and *frijon, to love. 2. Suffixed (participial) form *priy-ont-, loving. FRIEND, from Old English frXond, frKond, friend, from Germanic *frijand-, lover, friend. 3. Suffixed shortened form *pri-tu-. a. SIEGFRIED, from Old High German fridu, peace; b. from Old French esfreer, to disturb, from Vulgar Latin *exfred7re, to break the peace, from ex-, out, away (see eghs) + *frid7re, to make peace, from Germanic *frithu-, peace;
AFFRAY, AFRAID,

c. (see bhergh-2) Germanic compound *berg-frij-, high place of safety, from *frij-, peace, safety. a, b, and c all from Germanic *frithuz, peace. 4. Suffixed feminine form *priy-7, beloved. a. FRIGG, from Old Norse Frigg, goddess of the heavens, wife of Odin;

b. FRIDAY, from Old English FrXgedg, Friday, from Germanic compound *frije-dagaz, day of Frigg (translation of Latin Veneris diKs, Venus's day). Both a and b from Germanic *frijjo, beloved, wife. [Pokorny pr7i- 844.]

p'Important derivatives are: foul, filth, defile1, fuzzy, putrid, potpourri, putrefy, purulent, pus.. To rot, decay. 1. Suffixed form *p7-lo-. a. b. c. d.
FOUL,

from Old English f7l, unclean, rotten; from Old Norse f7ll, foul;

FULMAR, FILTH,

from Old English flth, foulness, from Germanic abstract noun *f7litho; ; DEFILE1, from Old English flan, to sully, from Germanic denominative *f7ljan, to soil, dirty. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *f7laz, rotten, filthy.
FILE
3

2. Extended form *pug-. FOG2, from Middle English fog, fogge, aftermath grass, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Icelandic f7ki, rotten sea grass, and Norwegian fogg, rank grass, from Germanic *fuk-. 3. Extended variant form *pous-. FUZZY, from Low German fussig, spongy, from Germanic *fausa-. 4. Suffixed form *pu-tri-. PUTRESCENT, PUTRID; (OLLA PODRIDA), (POTPOURRI), PUTREFY, from Latin puter (stem putri-), rotten. 5. Suffixed form *puw-os-. a. b. 6.
EMPYEMA, PURULENT, PUS; SUPPURATE, PYO-,

from Latin p7s, pus;

from Greek puon, puos, pus.

from Greek compound empuein, to suppurate (en-, in; see

en).

[Pokorny 2. p'- 848.]

p7rImportant derivatives are: fire, pyre. Fire. Contracted from *puNr-, zero-grade form of *paNwy. 1. 2.
FIRE,

from Old English fr, fire, from Germanic suffixed form *f7rfrom Greek

i-.
PYRE, PYRETIC, PYRITES, PYRO-, PYRRHOTITE, PYROSIS; EMPYREAL,

pur, fire. [Pokorny peor 828.]

reThe following entry is not, strictly speaking, Indo-European, since it is represented in only one branch of the family. It is included because of the many English words among its descendants. Important derivatives are: re-, retro-, arrears. Also red-Backward. Latin combining form conceivably from Indo-European *wret-, metathetical variant of *wert-, to turn (wer-2. 7.
RE-,

from Latin re-, red-, backward, again.

8. Suffixed form *re(d)-tro-. RETRAL, RETRO-; ARREARS, REAR GUARD, 2 REARWARD , REREDOS, from Latin retro, backward, back, behind. 9. Suffixed form *re-ko-. (see per1) Latin reciprocus, backward and forward.

rKImportant derivatives are: real1, republic. To bestow, endow. Contracted from *reN-. Suffixed form *reN-i-, goods, wealth, property. RE2, 1 REAL , REBUS, REIFY, REPUBLIC, from Latin rKs, thing. [Pokorny 4. rei- 850.]

rKdImportant derivatives are: rodent, corrode, erode, rostrum, rash2, abrade, erase. To scrape, scratch, gnaw. 13. O-grade form *rod-. a.
RODENT; CORRODE, ERODE,

from Latin rodere, to gnaw;

b. suffixed (instrumental) form *rod-tro-. ROSTRUM, from Latin rostrum, beak, ship's bow. 14. Possibly variant form *r7d-. a. , RASORIAL; ABRADE, CORRADE, ERASE, from Latin r7dere, to scrape;
2

RADULA, RASH

b. suffixed (instrumental) form *r7d-tro-. RACLETTE, from Latin r7strum, rake. [Pokorny 2. rKd- 854.]

regImportant derivatives are: right, realm, rector, rectum, regent, regime, regiment, region, correct, direct, erect, rectangle, rectify, surge, rich, regal, reign, royal, maharajah, rail1, regular, regulate, rule, rake1, rack1, reckon, interrogate, prerogative, reckless. To move in a straight line, with derivatives meaning to direct in a straight line, lead, rule. I. Basic form *reg-. 1. Suffixed form *reg-to-. RIGHT, from Old English riht, right, just, correct, straight, from Germanic *rehtaz. 2.
REALM, RECTITUDE, RECTO, RECTOR, RECTUM, REGENT, REGIME, REGIMENT, REGION; CORRECT, DIRECT, ERECT, (PORRECT), RECTANGLE, RECTIFY,

(RISORGIMENTO), SURGE, from Latin regere, to lead straight, guide, rule (past participle rKctus, hence adjective rKctus, right, straight). 3. from Greek oregein, to stretch out, reach out for (with prothetic vowel from oldest root form *Nreg-).
ANORECTIC, ANOREXIA,

RECTILINEAR, (RESURGE),

II. Lengthened-grade form *rKg-, Indo-European word for a tribal king. a.

BISHOPRIC, ELDRITCH,

from Old English rXce, realm;

b. RIKSML, from Old Norse rXki, realm; c. REICHSMARK, from Old High German rXchi, realm; d. from Old English rXce, strong, powerful, and Old French riche, wealthy. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *rXkja-, from Celtic suffixed form *rXg-yo-.
RICH,

2.

REAL

, REGAL, REGULUS, REIGN, ROYAL; REGICIDE, REGIUS PROFESSOR, VICEREINE, VICEROY, from Latin rKx, king (royal and priestly title).
2

3. Suffixed form *rKg-en-. RAJ, RAJAH, (RANI), (RYE2); MAHARAJAH, MAHARANI, from Sanskrit r7j7, r7jan-, king, rajah (feminine r7jX, queen, rani), and r7jati, he rules. III. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *rKg-ol7. RAIL1, REGLET, REGULAR, REGULATE, RULE, from Latin rKgula, straight piece of wood, rod. IV. O-grade form *rog-. 1. 2. 3.
RAKE

, from Old English raca, racu, rake (implement with straight pieces of wood), from Germanic *rako.
1 1

RACK

, from Middle Dutch rec, framework, from Germanic *rak-.

RANK
2

, from Old English ranc, straight, strong, hence haughty, overbearing, from Germanic *rankaz (with nasal infix), possibly from reg-. from Old English gerecenian, to arrange in order, recount (ge-, collective prefix; see kom), from Germanic *rakinaz, ready, straightforward.
RECKON,

4.

5. Suffixed form *rog-7-. ROGATION, ROGATORY; ABROGATE, ARROGATE, CORVE, DEROGATE, INTERROGATE, PREROGATIVE, PROROGUE, SUBROGATE, SUPEREROGATE, from Latin rog7re, to ask ( 6. Suffixed form *rog-o-. ERGO, from Latin ergo, therefore, in consequence of, perhaps contracted from a Latin phrase *K rogo, from the direction of (K < ex, out of; see eghs), from a possible Latin noun *rogus, extension, direction.

V. Lengthened o-grade form *rog-. 1. Old English rec(c)an, to pay attention to, take care (formally influenced by Old English reccan, to extend, stretch out, from Germanic *rakjan), from Germanic *rokjan.
RECKLESS, RECK,

2.

from Old English rKcelKas, careless (-lKas, lacking; see leu-), from Germanic rokja-.

[Pokorny 1. re- 854.]

reiImportant derivatives are: run, rill, rival, rivulet, derive. To flow, run. 23. Suffixed zero-grade form *ri-nu-. a. from Old English rinnan, to run, and Old Norse rinna, to run (from Germanic *rinnan, to run, from *ri-nw-an), and from Old English causative rnan, eornan, to run (from secondary Germanic causative *rannjan);
RUN, RUNNEL,

b. EMBER DAY, from Old English ryne, a running, from secondary Germanic derivative *runiz; c. from Old English *rynet, from secondary Germanic derivative *runita-.
RENNET,

24. Suffixed zero-grade form *ri-l-. RILL, from Dutch ril or Low German rille, running stream, from Germanic *ril-. 25. Suffixed form *rei-wo-. RIVAL, RIVULET; DERIVE, from Latin rXvus, stream. [Pokorny 3. er- 326.]

reidhImportant derivatives are: ride, raid, road, ready, array. To ride. I. Basic form *reidh-.

a. b. 2.
PALFREY,

RIDE,

from Old English rXdan, to ride;

from Middle Dutch rXden, to ride. Both a and b from Germanic *rXdan.

RITTER,

from Latin verKdus, post horse, from Celtic *wo-rKd(*wo-, under; see upo).

II. O-grade form *roidh-. a. b.

RAID, ROAD, RADDLE
1

from Old English r7d, a riding, road;

, from Middle High German reidel, rod between upright stakes (reidh-. Both a and b from Germanic *raid-.

2. 3.

from Old English rde, gerde, ready (*raid-ja-, probably from reidh-.
ARRAY, CURRY

READY,

, from Vulgar Latin *-rKd7re, to arrange, from Germanic *raidjan, probably from reidh-.
1

[Pokorny reidh- 861.]

reigImportant derivatives are: reach, rigid, rigor. To reach, stretch out. 4. O-grade form *roig-. REACH, from Old English r<can, to stretch out, reach, from Germanic *raikjan. 5. Possibly suffixed (stative) zero-grade form *rig-K-. RIGID, RIGOR, from Latin rigKre, to be stiff (? [Pokorny (rei) 862.]

repImportant derivatives are: rape1, rapid, rapt, ravish, surreptitious. To snatch. Suffixed zero-grade form *rap-yo-. RAPACIOUS, RAPE1, RAPID, RAPINE, RAPT, (RAVEN2), RAVIN, RAVISH; EREPSIN, (SUBREPTION), SURREPTITIOUS, from Latin rapere, to seize.

[Pokorny rep- 865.]

retImportant derivatives are: Tory, rodeo, roll, rotary, rotate, rotund, roulette, round1, control, prune2. To run, roll. 2. Prefixed form *to-wo-ret-, a running up to (to-, to; wo, under, up, up from under; see upo). TORY, from Old Irish toir, pursuit. 3. Suffixed o-grade form *rot-7-. RODEO, ROLL, ROTA, ROTARY, ROTATE, 1 ROTUND, (ROTUNDA), ROULETTE, ROUND , ROWEL; BAROUCHE, CONTROL, 2 PRUNE , ROTIFORM, ROTOGRAVURE, from Latin rota, wheel. 4. Suffixed (participial) form *ret-ondo-. ROTUND, from Latin rotundus, round, probably from *retundus, rolling. [Pokorny ret(h)- 866.]

reudhImportant derivatives are: red, rufous, robust, corroborate, rambunctious, ruddy, rust, rouge, rubeola, ruby, rubric, russet. Red, ruddy. III. O-grade form *roudh-. a. b. 2. 3. 4. 5.
ROWAN, RED,

from Old English rKad, red;

RORQUAL,

from Old Norse raudhr, red. Both a and b from Germanic *raudaz.

from a source akin to Old Norse reynir, mountain ash, rowan (from its red berries), from Germanic *raudnia-.
RUFESCENT, RUFOUS,

from Latin r7fus (of dialectal Italic origin),

reddish.
RUBIGINOUS,

from Latin robus, red.

from Latin robur, robus, red oak, hardness, and robustus, strong.

ROBLE, ROBORANT, ROBUST; CORROBORATE, (RAMBUNCTIOUS),

IV. Zero-grade form *rudh-. 1. Form *rudh-7-. a. b. c.

RUDDLE,

from Old English rudu, red color; from Old English rudduc, robin;

RUDDOCK, RUDDY,

from Old English rudig, ruddy. a, b, and c all from Germanic *rudo.

2. Suffixed form *rudh-sto-. RUST, from Old English r7st (also rust?), rust, from Germanic *rust-. 3. 4. 5.
ROUGE, RUBEOLA, RUBY; RUBEFACIENT, RUBICUND, RUBIDIUM,

from Latin rubeus, red.

from Latin rubicundus, red, ruddy. from Latin rubidus, red.

6. Suffixed (stative) form *rudh-K-. RUBESCENT, from Latin rubKre, to be red. 7. Suffixed form *rudh-ro-. a. b. c. d.
RUBELLA, RUBRIC; BILIRUBIN, RUTILANT,

from Latin ruber, red;

from Latin rutilus, reddish;

from Greek eruthros, red (with prothetic vowel, from oldest root form *Nreudh-);
ERYSIPELAS,

ERYTHEMA, ERYTHRO-,

from possibly remade Greek erusi-, red, reddening.

8. Suffixed form *rudh-to-. RISSOLE, ROUX, RUSSET, from Latin russus, red. [Pokorny reudh- 872.]

reuNImportant derivatives are: room, rummage, rural, rustic. To open; space. 16. Suffixed variant form *r7-mo- (< *ruN-mo-).

a. b. c. d.

ROOM,

from Old English r7m, space; from Old High German r7m, space;

LEBENSRAUM, RUMMAGE,

from Old Provenal run, ship's hold, space. a, b, and c all from Germanic *r7maz; , from Old English rman, to widen, open up, from Germanic denominative *r7mjan.
REAM
2

17. Suffixed form *reu(N)-es-. RURAL, RUSTIC, from Latin r7s, open land, the country. [Pokorny reN-, r7- 874.]

reugAn important derivative is: reek. To vomit, belch; smoke, cloud. 15.
REEK,

from Old English rKocan, to smoke, reek, and rKcan, to fumigate, from Germanic *reukan.

16. Suffixed zero-grade form *rug-to-. ERUCT, from Latin ruct7re, to belch. [Pokorny 4. reu- 871.]

reupImportant derivatives are: rip1, bereave, rover, rob, robe, loot, usurp, rout1, rupture, abrupt, bankrupt, corrupt, disrupt, erupt, interrupt. Also reub-To snatch. I. Basic form *reub-. RIP1, from Flemish rippen, to rip, from Germanic *rupjan. II. O-grade form *roup-. a. b. c.
REAVE
1

, from Old English rKafian, to plunder;

BEREAVE,

from Old English berKafian, to take away (be-, bi-, intensive prefix; see ambhi);
ROVER
2

, from Middle Dutch and Middle Low German

roven, to rob. a, b, and c all from Germanic *(bi)raubon. d. e. 2.

ROBE, ROB,

from Old French rober, to rob;

RUBATO,

from Italian rubare, to rob. Both a and b from a Romance borrowing from Germanic *raubon, to rob.

from Old French robe, robe (*raubo, booty.

3. Suffixed form *roup-tro-. LOOT, from Sanskrit loptram, booty. 4. from Old Russian rubiti, to chop, hew, from Slavic *rubje/a-.
RUBLE,

III. Zero-grade form *rup-. 1.

USURP,

from Latin 7s7rp7re (< *7su-rup-; 7sus, use, usage, from 7tX, to use), originally to interrrupt the orderly acquisition of something by the act of using, whence to take into use, usurp.

2. Nasalized form *ru-m-p-. ROUT1, RUPTURE; ABRUPT, BANKRUPT, CORRUPT, DISRUPT, ERUPT, INTERRUPT, IRRUPT, RUPICOLOUS, from Latin rumpere, to break. [Pokorny 2. reu- 868.]

ytkoImportant derivatives are: arctic, Arthur. Bear. 12. 13.

URSINE, ARCTIC,

from Latin ursus, bear (< *orcsos).

ARCTURUS, from Greek arktos, bear.

[Pokorny yto-s 875.]

s7Important derivatives are: sad, sate1, satiate, asset, satisfy, satire, saturate. To satisfy. Contracted from *saN-.

10. Suffixed zero-grade form *sN-to-. a. b. from Old English sd, sated, weary, from Germanic *sadaz, sated; , from Old English sadian, to sate, from derivative Germanic verb *sadon, to satisfy, sate.
SATE
1

SAD,

11. Suffixed zero-grade form *sN-ti-. SATIATE, SATIETY; (ASSAI2), ASSET, SATISFY, from Latin satis, enough, sufficient. 12. Suffixed zero-grade form *sN-tu-ro-. SATIRE, SATURATE, from Latin satur, full (of food), sated. 13. Suffixed zero-grade form *sN-d-ro-. HADRON, from Greek hadros, thick. [Pokorny s7- 876.]

s7gImportant derivatives are: seek, sake1, forsake, ransack, presage, sagacious, hegemony. To seek out. Contracted from *saNg-. 15. Suffixed form *s7g-yo-. SEEK, from Old English s<can, sKcan, to seek, from Germanic *sokjan. 16. Suffixed form *s7g-ni-. SOKE, from Old English socn, attack, inquiry, right of local jurisdiction, from Germanic *sokniz. 17. Zero-grade form *sNg-. a.
SAKE

, from Old English sacu, lawsuit, case, from Germanic derivative noun *sako, a seeking, accusation, strife;
1

i.

FORSAKE,

from Old English forsacan, to renounce, refuse (for-, prefix denoting exclusion or rejection; see per1);

ii.

RANSACK,

from Old Norse *saka, to seek. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *sakan, to seek, accuse,

quarrel. Both a and b from Germanic *sak-. 18. Independent suffixed form *s7g-yo-. PRESAGE, from Latin s7gXre, to perceive, seek to know. 19. Zero-grade form *sNg-. SAGACIOUS, from Latin sag7x, of keen perception. 20. Suffixed form *s7g-eyo-. EXEGESIS, HEGEMONY, from Greek hKgeisthai, to lead ( [Pokorny s7g- 876.]

sakImportant derivatives are: sacred, consecrate, execrate, saint, sanctum, sanctify. To sanctify. 3. Suffixed form *sak-ro-. a.
SACRED; CONSECRATE, EXECRATE,

from Latin sacer, holy,

sacred, dedicated; b. compound *sakro-dhot-, performer of sacred rites (*dhot-, doer; see dhK-). SACERDOTAL, from Latin sacerdos, priest. 4. Nasalized form *sa-n-k-. SAINT, (SANCTUM); CORPOSANT, SACROSANCT, SANCTIFY, from Latin sancXre (past participle sanctus), to make sacred, consecrate. [Pokorny sak- 878.]

salImportant derivatives are: salt, silt, sauce, salad, salami, salary, saline, saltcellar, saltpeter. Salt. 26. Extended form *sald-. a. suffixed form *sald-o-. SALT, from Old English sealt, salt, from Germanic *saltam; i.
SOUSE
1

, from Old French sous, pickled meat;

ii.

SILT,

from Middle English cylte, fine sand, from a source probably akin to Danish and Norwegian sylt, salt marsh. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic zero-grade suffixed extended form *sult-jo;

b. (SALSA), SAUCE, from Latin sallere (past participle salsus < *sald-to-), to salt. 27. 28.
SAL, SALAD, SALAMI, SALARY, SALI-, SALINE; SALTCELLAR, SALTPETER,

from

Latin s7l (genitive salis), salt.

HALO-,

from Greek hals (stem hal-), salt, sea.

[Pokorny 1. sal- 878.]

s7welImportant derivatives are: sun, Sunday, south, southern, solar, parasol, solstice, helium. Also s(u)wel-, su(N)el-, su(N)en-, sun-The sun. Contracted from *saNwel-. 4. Variant forms *swen-, *sun-. i. ii.
SUN,

from Old English sunne, sun;

SUNDEW,

from Middle Dutch sonne, sun. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *sunnon-;

b. SUNDAY, from Old English sunnandg, Sunday, from Germanic compound *sunnon-dagaz, day of the sun (translation of Latin diKs solis); c.
SOUTH, SOUTHERN,

from Old English s7th, south, and s7therne, southern, from Germanic derivative *sunthaz, sun-side, south.

5. Variant form *s(N)wol-. SOL3, SOL, SOLAR, SOLARIUM; GIRASOL, INSOLATE, PARASOL, SOLANINE, SOLSTICE, TURNSOLE, from Latin sol, the sun. 6. Suffixed form *s7wel-yo-. HELIACAL, HELIO-, HELIUM; ANTHELION, APHELION, ISOHEL, PARHELION, PERIHELION, from Greek hKlios, sun. [Pokorny s7wel- 881.]

sKImportant derivatives are: sow1, seed, season, semen, seminary, disseminate. To sow. Contracted from *seN-. 6.
SOW
1

, from Old English s7wan, to sow, from Germanic *sKan.

7. Suffixed form *sK-ti-, sowing. a. b.

SEED,

from Old English s<d, seed;

COLZA,

from Middle Dutch saet and Middle Low German s7t, seed. Both a and b from Germanic *sKdiz, seed.

8. Reduplicated zero-grade form *si-s(N)-. SEASON, from Latin serere, to sow, satio (< *sN-tio), sowing. 9. Suffixed form *sK-men-, seed. SEM, SEMEN, SEMINARY; DISSEMINATE, from Latin sKmen, seed. [In Pokorny 2. sK(i)- 889.]

sedImportant derivatives are: sit, set1, ersatz, settle, saddle, soot, seat, sance, sedentary, sediment, session, siege, assess, dissident, obsess, possess, preside, reside, subsidy, supersede, subside, sedate1, soil1, chair. To sit. 5. Suffixed form *sed-yo-. a. b.
SIT,

from Old English sittan, to sit;

from Old High German sizzen, to sit. Both a and b from Germanic *sitjan.

SITZ BATH, SITZKRIEG, SITZMARK,

6. Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *sod-eyo-. a. b.

SET
1

, from Old English settan, to place; from Old English besettan, to set near;

BESET,

c.

ERSATZ,

from Old High German irsezzan, to replace, from sezzan, to set. a, b, and c all from Germanic *(bi)satjan, to cause to sit, set.

7. Suffixed form *sed-lo-, seat. SETTLE, from Old English setl, seat, from Germanic *setlaz. 8. O-grade form *sod-. SADDLE, from Old English sadol, saddle, from Germanic *sadulaz, seat, saddle (perhaps from *sod-dhlo). 9. Suffixed lengthened o-grade form *sod-o-. SOOT, from Old English sot, soot (*sotam. 10. Suffixed lengthened-grade form sKd-i-, settler. COSSET, possibly from Old English s<ta, -s<te, inhabitant(s), from Germanic *s7ti-. 11. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *sKd-yo-. SEAT, from Old Norse sti, seat, from Germanic *(ge)sKtjam, seat (*ge-, *ga-, collective prefix; see kom). 12. Form *sed-K-. SANCE, SEDENTARY, SEDERUNT, SEDILE, SEDIMENT, SESSILE, 2 SESSION, SEWER , SIEGE; ASSESS, ASSIDUOUS, DISSIDENT, (INSESSORIAL), INSIDIOUS, OBSESS, POSSESS, PRESIDE, RESIDE, SUBSIDY, SUPERSEDE, from Latin sedKre, to sit. 13. Reduplicated form *si-zd-. a. b.
SUBSIDE,

from Latin sXdere, to sit down, settle; from Greek hizein, to sit down, settle down.

SYNIZESIS,

14. Lengthened-grade form *sKd-. SEE2, from Latin sKdKs, seat, residence. 15. Lengthened-grade form *sKd-7-. SEDATE1, from Latin sKd7re, to settle, calm down. 16. Suffixed o-grade form *sod-yo-. SOIL1, from Latin solium, throne, seat. 17. Suffixed form *sed-r7-. -HEDRON; CATHEDRA, (CHAIR), EPHEDRINE, EXEDRA, SANHEDRIN, TETRAHEDRON, from Greek hedra, seat, chair, face of a geometric solid.

18. Prefixed and suffixed form *pi-sed-yo-, to sit upon (*pi, on; see epi). PIEZO-; ISOPIESTIC, from Greek piezein, to press tight. 19. Basic form *sed-. a.
EDAPHIC,

from Greek edaphos, ground, foundation (with Greek suffix -aphos);

b. UPANISHAD, from Sanskrit upani}ad, Upanishad, from sad-; c.

TANIST,

from Old Irish t7naise, designated successor, from Celtic *t7nihessio-, one who is waited for, from *to-ad-ni-sed-tio, from *to-ad-ni-sed-, to wait for.

20. Suffixed form *sed-o-, sitting. EISTEDDFOD, from Welsh eistedd, sitting, from Celtic *eks-dX-sedo- (see eghs, de-). [Pokorny sed- 884.]

seghImportant derivatives are: hectic, eunuch, epoch, scheme, scholar, scholastic, school1. To hold. 9. Suffixed form *segh-es-. SIEGFRIED, from Old High German sigu, sigo, victory, from Germanic *sigiz-, victory ( 10.
HECTIC; CACHEXIA, CATHEXIS, ECHARD, ENTELECHY, EUNUCH,

OPHIUCHUS,

from Greek ekhein, to hold, possess, be in a certain condition, and hexis, habit, condition. 11. O-grade form *sogh-. EPOCH, from Greek epokhK, a holding back, pause, cessation, position in time (epi-, on, at; see epi). 12. Zero-grade form *sgh-. a.
SCHEME,

from Greek skhKma, a holding, form, figure;

b. (SCHOLAR), SCHOLASTIC, SCHOLIUM, SCHOOL1, from Greek skholK, a holding back, stop, rest, leisure, employment of leisure in disputation, school. 13. Reduplicated form *si-sgh-. ISCHEMIA, from Greek iskhein, to keep back.

[Pokorny seh- 888.]

sekImportant derivatives are: scythe, saw1, sedge, Saxon, skin, secant, section, sector, segment, dissect, insect, intersect, sickle. To cut. 18. from Old English sXthe, sigthe, sickle, from Germanic *segitho, sickle.
SCYTHE,

19. Suffixed o-grade form *sok-7-. SAW1, from Old English sagu, sage, saw, from Germanic *sago, a cutting tool, saw. 20. Suffixed o-grade form *sok-yo-. SEDGE, from Old English secg, sedge, from Germanic *sagjaz, sword, plant with a cutting edge. 21. Suffixed o-grade form *sok-so-. SAXON, from Late Latin Saxo, (plural SaxonKs), a Saxon, from West Germanic tribal name *Saxon-, Saxon, traditionally (but doubtfully) regarded as from Germanic *sahsam, knife, sword (as if warrior with knives). 22. Extended root *skend-, to peel off, flay. SKIN, from Old Norse skinn, skin, from Germanic *skinth-. 23. Basic form *sek-. SECANT, -SECT, SECTILE, SECTION, SECTOR, SEGMENT; DISSECT, INSECT, INTERSECT, RESECT, (TRANSECT), from Latin sec7re, to cut. 24. Lengthened-grade form *sKk-. SICKLE, from Latin sKcula, sickle. 25. Possible suffixed variant form *sak-so-. a. b.
ZAX,

from Old English seax, knife; from Latin saxum, stone (

SAXATILE; SAXICOLOUS, SAXIFRAGE,

[Pokorny 2. sLk- 895, sken-(d-) 929.] See also extended roots skei-, sker-1, sker-3

sekw-1 Important derivatives are: sect, sequel, sequence, sue, suitor, consequent, ensue, execute, persecute, prosecute, pursue, subsequent, sequester, second2, intrinsic, seal1,

sign, assign, designate, insignia, resign, social, society, associate, dissociate. To follow. 17.
SECT, SEGUE, SEGUIDILLA, SEQUACIOUS, SEQUEL, SEQUENCE, SUE, SUITOR; CONSEQUENT, ENSUE, EXECUTE, OBSEQUIOUS, PERSECUTE, PROSECUTE,

(PURSUE), SUBSEQUENT, from Latin sequX, to follow. 18.

SEQUESTER, SEQUESTRUM,

from Latin sequester, follower,

mediator, depositary. 19. Suffixed (participial) form *sekw-ondo-. SECOND2, SECONDO, SECUND, SECUNDINES, from Latin secundus, following, coming next, second. 20. Suffixed form *sekw-os, following. EXTRINSIC, INTRINSIC, from Latin secus, along, alongside of. 21. Suffixed form *sekw-no-. SEAL1, SEGNO, SIGN; ASSIGN, CONSIGN, DESIGNATE, INSIGNIA, RESIGN, from Latin signum, identifying mark, sign ( 22. Suffixed o-grade form *sokw-yo-. SOCIABLE, SOCIAL, SOCIETY, SOCIO-; ASSOCIATE, CONSOCIATE, DISSOCIATE, from Latin socius, ally, companion (< follower). [Pokorny 1. sek- 896.]

sekw-2 Important derivatives are: see1, sight. To perceive, see. 3. 4.

SEE

, from Old English sKon, to see, from Germanic *sehwan, to see.

1

from Old English sihth, gesiht, vision, spectacle, from Germanic abstract noun *sih-tiz.

SIGHT,

[Pokorny 2. sek- 897.]

sekw-3 Important derivatives are: say, saw2, saga, scold. To say, utter.

14. O-grade form *sokw-. a. suffixed form *sokw-yo-. SAY, from Old English secgan, to say, from Germanic *sagjan; b. suffixed form *sokw-7-. i. ii.
SAW
2

, from Old English sagu, a saying, speech;

from Old Norse saga, a saying, narrative. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *sago, a saying.

SAGA,

15. Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form *skw-e-tlo-, narration. SCOLD, SKALD, from Middle English scolde, an abusive person, and Old Norse sk7ld, poet, satirist (to which the probable Scandinavian source of Middle English scolde is perhaps akin), from North Germanic *skathla. [In Pokorny 2. sek- 897.]

selImportant derivatives are: salient, sally, saut, assail, desultory, exult, insult, result, somersault, salmon. To jump. 8. Suffixed zero-grade form *sal-yo-. a.
SALACIOUS, SALIENT, SALLY, (SAUT); ASSAIL, DESULTORY, DISSILIENT, EXULT, INSULT, RESILE, RESULT, SOMERSAULT,

from

Latin salXre, to leap; b. 9.

SALMON, HALTER
2

, from Greek hallesthai, to leap, jump.

from Latin salmo (borrowed from Gaulish), salmon

(sel-. [Pokorny 4. sel- 899.]

sem-1 Important derivatives are: simultaneous, assemble, ensemble, single, Sanskrit, same, anomalous, seem, seemly, some, similar, assimilate, resemble, simplicity, simple. One; also adverbially as one, together with.

I. Full-grade form *sem-. a.

HENDECASYLLABIC, HENDIADYS, HENOTHEISM, HYPHEN,

from

Greek heis (*hen-s < *hem-s), one; b. (see dekc) Greek he- in hekaton, one hundred (? dissimilated from *hem-katon). Both a and b from Greek *hem-. 2. Suffixed form *sem-el-. SIMULTANEOUS; ASSEMBLE, ENSEMBLE, from Latin simul, at the same time. 3. Suffixed form *sem-golo-. SINGLE, from Latin singulus, alone, single. 4. Compound *sem-per- (*per, during, for; see per1). SEMPRE; SEMPITERNAL, from Latin semper, always, ever ( II. O-grade form *som-. 1.
SAMSARA, SANDHI, SANSKRIT,

from Sanskrit sam, together.

2. Suffixed form *som-o-. a. b. c.

SAME,

from Old Norse samr, same, from Germanic *samaz, same;

HOMEO-, HOMO-; ANOMALOUS,

from Greek homos, same;

HOMILY,

from Greek homilos, crowd.

3. Suffixed form *som-alo-. HOMOLOGRAPHIC, from Greek homalos, like, even, level. III. Lengthened o-grade form *som-. 1. Suffixed form *som-i-. SEEM, SEEMLY, from Old Norse smr, fitting, agreeable (*somiz. 2. Suffixed lengthened o-grade form *som-o-. SAMIZDAT, SAMOVAR, from Russian sam(o)-, self. IV. Zero-grade form *sc-. 1. (ACOLYTE), ANACOLUTHON, from Greek compound a-kolouthos, accompanying (a- + keleuthos, way, path), from ha-, a-, together.

2. Compound form *sc-plo- (*-plo-, -fold; see pel-2). HAPLOID, from Greek haploos, haplous, single, simple. 3. Suffixed form *scm-o-. a.
SOME,

from Old English sum, one, a certain one;

b. -SOME1, from Old English -sum, -like. Both a and b from Germanic *sumaz. 4. Suffixed form *scm-alo-. SIMILAR; ASSIMILATE, RESEMBLE, from Latin similis, of the same kind, like. 5. Compound *sc-kKro-, of one growing (see ker-2). 6. Suffixed form *sc-tero-. HETERO-, from Greek heteros (earlier hateros), one of two, other. 7. Compound *sc-plek-, one-fold, simple (*plek-, -fold; see plek-). SEMPLICE, SIMPLEX, SIMPLICITY, from Latin simplex, simple. 8. Compound *sc-plo-, one-fold, simple (*-plo-, -fold; see pel2 ). SIMPLE, from Latin simplus, simple. 9. Extended form *scma. HAMADRYAD, from Greek hama, together with, at the same time. [Pokorny 2. sem- 902.]

sem-2 An important derivative is: summer1. Also semN-Summer. Suffixed zero-grade form *scN-aro-. SUMMER1, from Old English sumor, summer, from Germanic *sumaraz. [Pokorny 3. sem- 905.]

sKmiAn important derivative is: semi-. Half. 14.

SAND-BLIND,

from Old English s7m-, half, from Germanic *sKmi-.

15. 16. 17.

SEMI-,

from Latin sKmi-, half. from Latin sKmis, half.

SESQUI-, SESTERCE, HEMI-,

from Greek hKmi-, half.

[Pokorny sKmi- 905.]

senImportant derivatives are: senate, senescent, senile, senior, sir, sire, surly. Old.
SEIGNIOR, SENATE, SENECTITUDE, SENESCENT, SENILE, SENIOR, SENOPIA, (SIGNORY), (SIR), SIRE, (SURLY),

from Latin senex, old, an elder.

[Pokorny sen(o)- 907.]

sengwhImportant derivatives are: sing, song. To sing, make an incantation. a.

SING,

from Old English singan, to sing;

b. MEISTERSINGER, MINNESINGER, SINGSPIEL, from Old High German singan, to sing. Both a and b from Germanic *singan. 3. Suffixed o-grade form *songwh-o-, singing, song. SONG, from Old English sang, song, song, from Germanic *sangwaz. [Pokorny sengh- 906.]

sentImportant derivatives are: send1, godsend, scent, sense, sentence, sentinent, sentiment, sentinel, assent, consent, dissent, resent. To head for, go. 1.
WIDDERSHINS,

from Old High German sin(d), direction, from Germanic form *sinthaz.

2. Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *sont-eyo-. SEND1, from Old

English sendan, to send, from Germanic *sandjan, to cause to go. 3. Suffixed o-grade form *sont-o-. GODSEND, from Old English sand, message, messenger, from Germanic *sandaz, that which is sent. 4. Perhaps suffixed form *sent-yo-. SCENT, SENSE, (SENSILLIUM), SENTENCE, SENTIENT, SENTIMENT, SENTINEL; ASSENT, CONSENT, DISSENT, PRESENTIMENT, RESENT, from Latin sentXre, to feel ( [Pokorny sent- 908.]

sepImportant derivatives are: sage1, sapient, savant, savor, savvy, insipid. To taste, perceive. Suffixed zero-grade form *sap-yo-. SAGE1, SAPID, SAPIENT, SAPOR, SAVANT, SAVOR, SAVVY; INSIPID, from Latin sapere, to taste, have taste, be wise. [Pokorny sap- 880.]

septc Important derivatives are: seven, September, septet. Seven. 13. from Old English seofon, seven, with derivatives (hund)seofontig, seventy, and seofontXne, seventeen (-tXne, ten; see dekc), from Germanic *sebum.
SEVEN; SEVENTEEN, SEVENTY,

14. SEPTEMBER, SEPTENNIAL, SEPTET, SEPTUAGINT, SEPTUPLE; SEPTENTRION, from Latin septem, seven. 15.
HEBDOMAD, HEPTA-, HEPTAD,

from Greek hepta, seven.

[Pokorny septc 909.]

ser-1 Important derivatives are: conserve, observe, preserve, reserve, reservoir, hero. To protect.

2. Extended form *serw-. CONSERVE, OBSERVE, PRESERVE, RESERVE, (RESERVOIR), from Latin serv7re, to keep, preserve. 3. Perhaps suffixed lengthened-grade form *sKr-os-. HERO, from Greek hKros, protector, hero. [Pokorny 2. ser- 910.]

ser-2 Important derivatives are: series, assert, exert, insert, sermon, sorcerer, sort, assort, consort. To line up. 13. , DISSERTATE, EXERT, INSERT, from Latin serere, to arrange, attach, join (in speech), discuss.
3

SERIES, SERTULARIAN; ASSERT, DESERT

14. Suffixed form *ser-mon-. SERMON, from Latin sermo (stem sermon-), speech, discourse. 15. Perhaps suffixed form *ser-7-. SEAR2, (SERRIED), from Latin sera, a lock, bolt, bar (? 16. Suffixed zero-grade form *sy-ti-. SORCERER, SORT; ASSORT, CONSORT, SORTILEGE, from Latin sors (stem sort-), lot, fortune (probably from the lining up of lots before drawing). 17. Suffixed o-grade form *sor-mo-. HORMOGONIUM, from Greek hormos, chain, necklace. [Pokorny 4. ser- 911.]

seuN-1 An important derivative is: son. To give birth. Suffixed zero-grade form in derivative noun *su(N)-nu-, son. SON, from Old English sunu, son, from Germanic *sunuz. [Pokorny 2. seu- 913.] See also s7-.

seuN-2

Important derivatives are: soup, sup2, sop, sip, suck, soak, suction, succulent. To take liquid. IX. Suffixed zero-grade form *suN-yo-, contracted to *s7-yo. HYETAL; ISOHYET, from Greek huetos, rain, from huein, to rain. X. Possible extended zero-grade form *s7b-. a. b. c. d.
SUP
1

, from Old English s7pan, s7pian, to drink, sip;

2

), from Old French soup(e), soup. Both a and b from Germanic *s7p-.
SOP,

SOUP, (SUP

from Old English sopp- in soppcuppe, cup for dipping bread in; from Middle English sippen, to sip, from a source probably akin to Low German sippen, to sip, possibly from seuN-2. Both a and b from Germanic *supp-.

SIP,

XI. Possible extended zero-grade form *s7g-. 1. 2. 3.

SUCK, SOAK,

from Old English s7can, to suck, from Germanic *s7k-.

from Old English socian, to steep, from Germanic shortened form *sukon. from Latin s7gere, to suck.

SUCTION, SUCTORIAL,

4. Variant form *s7k-. SUCCULENT, from Latin s7cus, succus, juice. [Pokorny 1. seu- 912.]

skandImportant derivatives are: scan, scansion, ascend, descend, transcend, scandal, scale2. Also skend-To leap, climb. 4.
SCAN, SCANDENT, SCANSION, SCANSORIAL; ASCEND, (CONDESCEND), DESCEND, TRANSCEND,

from Latin scandere, to climb.

5. Suffixed form *skand-alo-. SCANDAL, from Greek skandalon, a snare, trap, stumbling block. 6. Suffixed form *skand-sl7-. ECHELON, ESCALADE, SCALE2, from Latin

sc7lae, steps, ladder.

skeiImportant derivatives are: shin1, science, conscious, nice, shit, schism, rescind, shed1, sheath, ski, esquire, squire. To cut, split. Extension of sek-. a. b.
SHIN
1

, from Old English scinu, shin, shinbone (

from Old French eschine, backbone, piece of meat with part of the backbone. Both a and b from Germanic suffixed form *ski-no-. from Latin

CHINE,

8.

SCIENCE, SCILICET, SCIOLISM; ADSCITITIOUS, CONSCIENCE, CONSCIOUS, NESCIENCE, (NICE), OMNISCIENT, PLEBISCITE, PRESCIENT,

scXre, to know ( 9. Suffixed zero-grade form *skiy-en7. SKEAN, from Old Irish scXan, knife. 10. Extended root *skeid-. i. ii. iii.
SHIT,

from Old English *scXtan, to defecate;

3

SKATE

, from Old Norse skXta, to defecate;

SHYSTER,

from Old High German skXzzan, to defecate. (i), (ii), and (iii) all from Germanic *skXtan, to separate, defecate;

b. suffixed zero-grade form *sk(h)id-yo-. SCHISM, SCHIST, SCHIZO-, from Greek skhizein, to split; c. nasalized zero-grade form *ski-n-d-. SCISSION; EXSCIND, PRESCIND, RESCIND, from Latin scindere, to split. 11. Extended root *skeit-. i. ii.
SHED
1

, from Old English scKadan, to separate;

from Old English scKath, sheath (skei-. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *skaith-,

SHEATH,

*skaidan; b. from Old Norse skXdh, log, stick, snowshoe, from Germanic *skXdam;
SKI,

c. o-grade form *skoit-. CU, ESCUDO, ESCUTCHEON, ESQUIRE, SCUDO, SCUTUM, (SQUIRE), from Latin sc7tum, shield (< board). 12. Extended root *skeip-. a. b. c.
SHEAVE SKIVE,
2

, from Middle English sheve, pulley (

from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse skXfa, to slice, split;

SHIVER

, from Middle English shivere, scivre, splinter, possibly from a Low German source akin to Middle Low German schever, splinter. a, b, and c all from Germanic *skif-.
2

[Pokorny skei- 919.]

skel-1 Important derivatives are: shell, shale, scale1, scalp, shield, skill, cutlass, shelf, half, scalpel, sculpture. Also kel-To cut. a. b. c. d. e. f.
SHELL,

from Old English scell, sciel, shell;

SCAGLIOLA,

from Italian scaglia, chip. Both a and b from Germanic *skaljo, piece cut off, shell, scale. from Old English sc(e)alu, husk, shell;

SHALE, SCALE
1

, from Old French escale, husk, shell. Both a and b from Germanic *skalo. from Old Norse skalli, bald head (

SCALL, SCALP,

from Middle English scalp, top of the head, from a source akin to Old Norse skalpr, sheath, shell. Both a and b from Germanic *skal-.

2. 3.

, SKOAL, from Old Norse sk7l, bowl, drinking vessel (made from a shell), from Germanic *skKlo.
SCALE
3

SHIELD,

from Old English scield, shield (< board), from Germanic *skelduz. a. b. from Old Norse skil, reason, discernment, knowledge (< incisiveness); from Middle English scheld, variegated, from a Low German source akin to Middle Dutch schillen, to diversify, with past participle schillede, separated, variegated. Both a and b from Germanic *skeli-.
2

SKILL,

SHELDRAKE,

4.

, SHOAL2, from Middle Low German schole, troop, or Middle Dutch scole, both from Germanic *skulo, a division.
SCHOOL

5. Suffixed variant form *kel-tro-. COULTER, CULTRATE, CUTLASS, from Latin culter, knife. 6. Suffixed zero-grade form *sk_-yo-. SCALENE, from Greek skallein, to stir up, hoe ( skalenos, uneven). 7. Extended root *skelp-. a. b.
SHELF, HALF,

from Middle Low German schelf, shelf (*skelf-;

from Old English healf, half, from Germanic *halbaz (*kelp-), divided possibly from skel-1;

c. perhaps variant *skalp-. SCALPEL, SCULPTURE, from Latin scalpere, to cut, scrape, with derivative sculpere (originally as the combining form of scalpere), to carve [Pokorny 1. (s)kel- 923.]

skel-2 An important derivative is: shall. To be under an obligation. O-grade (perfect) form *skol-. SHALL, from Old English sceal (used with the first and third person singular pronouns), shall, from Germanic *skal, I owe, hence I ought.

[Pokorny 2. (s)kel- 927.]

sker-1 Important derivatives are: shear, share1, shears, scabbard, score, shard, short, shirt, skirt, skirmish, screen, carnage, carnal, carnation, carnival, carrion, carnivorous, incarnate, curt, cortex, sharp, scrap1, scrape, scrub1, shrub1, screw. Also ker-To cut. VIII. Basic form *sker-, *ker-. a. b.
SHEAR, SHEER
1

from Old English scieran, sceran, to cut;

, from Low German scheren, to move to and fro, and Dutch scheren, to withdraw, depart. Both a and b from Germanic *skeran.
SHARE
2

c. d.

, from Old English scKar, plowshare;

SHARE

, from Old English scearu, scaru, portion, division (but recorded only in the sense of fork of the body, tonsure). Both a and b from Germanic *skeraz.
1

e.

from Old English scKar, scissors, from Germanic *skKr-o- and *sker-ez-;

SHEAR,

f. compound *skKr-berg-, sword protector, scabbard (see bhergh-1). SCABBARD, from Old French escauberc, scabbard, possibly from a Germanic source akin to Old High German scarberc, scabbard. Both a and b from Germanic *skKr-. 2. 3. from Old Norse skor, notch, tally, twenty, from Germanic *skur-.
SCAR
2

SCORE,

, SKERRY, from Old Norse sker, low reef (*skar-jam.

4. Suffixed o-grade extended form *skorp-o-. SCARF2, from Old Norse skarfr, diagonally-cut end of a board, from Germanic *skarfaz. 5. Suffixed o-grade extended form *skord-o-. SHARD, from Old English sceard, a cut, notch, from Germanic *skardaz. 6. Extended form *skerd- in suffixed zero-grade form *skyd-o-.

a. b. c. d.

SHORT, SHIRT, SKIRT,

from Old English scort, sceort, cut, short;

from Old English scyrte, skirt (

from Old Norse skyrta, shirt. a, b, and c all from Germanic *skurtaz. from Old French eskermir, to fight with a sword, fence, and Old Italian scaramuccia, skirmish, from a source akin to Old High German skirmen, to protect; from Middle Dutch scherm, shield. Both a and b from Germanic extended form *skerm-.
SCREEN, SKIRMISH,

e.

7. Variant form *kar-. CARNAGE, CARNAL, CARNASSIAL, CARNATION, CARNIVAL, CARRION, CARUNCLE, CHARNEL, CRONE; CARNIVOROUS, INCARNATE, from Latin caro (stem carn-), flesh. 8. Suffixed o-grade form *kor-yo. CORIACEOUS, CORIUM, CUIRASS, CURRIER; EXCORIATE, from Latin corium, leather (originally piece of hide). 9. Suffixed zero-grade form *ky-to-. CURT, CURTAL, KIRTLE, from Latin curtus, short. 10. Suffixed o-grade form *kor-mo-. CORM, from Greek kormos, a trimmed tree trunk. 11. Suffixed o-grade form *kor-i-. COREOPSIS, from Greek koris, bedbug (< cutter). 12. Suffixed zero-grade form. SHORE1, from Old English scora, shore, from Germanic *skur-o. IX. Extended roots *skert-, *kert-. 1. Zero-grade form *kyt- or o-grade form *kort-. CORTEX; DECORTICATE, from Latin cortex, bark ( 2. Suffixed form *kert-sn7-. CENACLE, from Latin cKna, meal ( X. Extended root *skerp-. SCURF, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old English sceorf, scab, scurf, from Germanic *skerf-. XI. Extended root *skerb(h)-, *skreb(h)-.

a. b.

SHARP, SCARP,

from Old English scearp, slope;

from Italian scarpa, embankment, possibly from a Germanic source akin to Gothic skarpo, pointed object. Both a and b from Germanic *skarpaz, cutting, sharp.
SCRAP
1

c. d. e. f. 2. 3. 4.
SHRUB
1

, from Old Norse skrap, pieces, remains;

SCRAPE,

from Old Norse skrapa, to scratch. Both a and b from Germanic *skrap-. from Middle Dutch schrabben, to scrape;

SCRABBLE, SCRUB
1

, from Middle Dutch schrobben, to scrape. Both a and b from Germanic *skrab-. , from Old English scrybb, shrub (*skrub-. from Latin scrobis, trench, ditch. from Latin scrofa, a sow (< rooter, digger).

SCROBICULATE,

SCREW, SCROFULA,

[Pokorny 4. sker-, Section I. 938.]

sker-2 Important derivatives are: shrink, ring1, ranch, range, rank1, rink, arrange, ridge, curb, curve, crest, crepe, crisp, circle, search, crown. Also ker-To turn, bend. Presumed base of a number of distantly related derivatives. 3. Extended form *(s)kreg- in nasalized form *(s)kre-n-g-. a. from Old English scrincan, to wither, shrivel up, from Germanic *skrink-;
SHRINK,

b. variant *kre-n-g-. i. ii.

RUCK
2

, from Old Norse hrukka, a crease, fold;

1

, from Old French fronce, pleat, from Frankish *hrunkjan, to wrinkle. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *hrunk-.
FLOUNCE

4. Extended form *(s)kregh- in nasalized form *skre-n-gh-.

a. b. c.

RING

, from Old English hring, a ring;

1

RANCH, RANGE, RANK

, RINK; ARRANGE, DERANGE, from Old French renc, reng, line, row;

from Middle Dutch rinc (combining form ring-), a ring. a, b, and c all from Germanic *hringaz, something curved, circle.

RINGHALS,

5. Extended form *kreuk-. a. b.

RIDGE,

from Old English hrycg, spine, ridge;

RUCKSACK,

from Old High German hrukki, back. Both a and b from Germanic hrugjaz.

6. Suffixed variant form *kur-wo-. CURB, CURVATURE, CURVE, CURVET, from Latin curvus, bent, curved. 7. Suffixed extended form *kris-ni-. CRINOLINE, from Latin crXnis (< *crisnis), hair. 8. Suffixed extended form *kris-t7-. CREST, CRISTA, CRISTATE, from Latin crista, tuft, crest. 9. Suffixed extended form *krip-so-. CREPE, CRISP, CRISPATE, from Latin crispus (metathesized from *cripsus), curly. 10. Extended expressive form *krXss-. CRISSUM, from Latin crXs7re, (of women) to wiggle the hips during copulation. 11. Perhaps reduplicated form *ki-kr-o-. (CIRCA), CIRCLE, (CIRCUM-), SEARCH; CRICOID, from Greek krikos (with metathesis), a ring. 12. Suffixed o-grade form *kor-ono-. (CORONA), CROWN, from Greek koronos, curved. 13. Suffixed variant form *kur-to. KURTOSIS, from Greek kurtos, bent. [Pokorny 3. (s)ker- 935.]

sker-3 A derivative is: dreck.

Excrement, dung. Extension of sek-, to cut, separate, hence to void excrement. 8. Suffixed unextended form *sk-or/n-. SCATO-, SCORIA, SKATOLE, from Greek skor (genitive skatos < *sk-it-), dung. 9. Extended form *skert- in taboo metathesis *sterk-os-. a.
STERCORACEOUS,

from Latin stercus, dung;

b. variant forms *(s)terg-, *(s)treg-. DRECK, from Middle High German drc, dung, from Germanic *threkka-. [Pokorny ser-d- 947, 8. (s)ter- 1031.]

(s)keuImportant derivatives are: sky, meerschaum, scum, obscure, hide2, cuticle, recoil, hose, hoard, hide1, hut. To cover, conceal. Zero-grade form *(s)ku-. Variant *(s)keuN-, zero-grade form *(s)kuN-, contracted to *(s)k7-. 3. Suffixed basic form. a. b.
SKY,

from Old Norse sk, cloud;

SKEWBALD,

from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse sk, cloud. Both a and b from Germanic *skeu-jam, cloud (cloud cover).

4. Zero-grade form *sk7-. a. suffixed form *sk7-mo-. i. ii. iii.

SKIM,

from Old French escume, scum; from Old High German sc7m,

MEERSCHAUM,

scum; from Middle Dutch sch7m, scum. (i), (ii), and (iii) all from Germanic *sk7maz, foam, scum (
SCUM,

b. suffixed form *sk7-ro-. OBSCURE; CHIAROSCURO, from Latin obsc7rus, covered, dark (ob-, away from; see epi). 5. Zero-grade form *k'-. a. suffixed form *k7-ti-. HIDE2, from Old English hd, skin, hide, from Germanic *h7diz; b. suffixed form *ku-ti-. CUTANEOUS, CUTICLE, CUTIS; CUTIN, from Latin cutis skin; c. possibly suffixed form *k7-lo-. CULET, CULOTTE; BASCULE, RECOIL, from Latin c7lus, the rump, backside; d. suffixed form *ku-to-. -CYTE, CYTO-, from Greek kutos, a hollow, vessel. 6. Extended zero-grade form *kus-. i. ii. from Old English hosa, hose, covering for the leg; from Old High German hosa, leg covering. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *huson-;
LEDERHOSEN, HOSE,

b. suffixed form *kus-dho- (or suffixed extended form *kudh-to-). HOARD, from Old English hord, stock, store, treasure (*huzdam; c.
KISHKE,

from Russian kishka, gut (< sheath).

7. Suffixed extended zero-grade form *kut-no-. CUNNILINGUS, from Latin cunnus, vulva (< sheath). 8. Extended root *keudh-. a.
HIDE

, from Old English hdan, to hide, cover up, from Germanic suffixed lengthened zero-grade form *h7djan;
1

b. c.

from French hutte, hut, from Germanic suffixed zero-grade form *h7d-jon-;
HUDDLE,

HUT,

from Low German hudeln, to crowd together, probably from Germanic *h'd-.

9.

from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse sk7li, hut, from Germanic suffixed o-grade form *skaw-ala-.

SHIELING,

[Pokorny 2. (s)keu- 951.]

skeudImportant derivatives are: shoot, shot1, shut, shuttle, sheet1, scuttle1. To shoot, chase, throw. 14. from Old English scKotan, to shoot, from Germanic *skeutan, to shoot. a. b. c. d.
SHOT
1

SHOOT,

, from Old English sceot, scot, shooting, a shot; from Old High German scuz, shooting, a shot;

SCHUSS,

from Old Norse skot and Old French escot, contribution, tax (
WAINSCOT,

SCOT, (SCOT AND LOT),

from Middle Dutch sc(h)ot, crossbar, wooden partition. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *skutaz, shooting, shot.

15. 16.

SHUT,

from Old English scyttan, to shut (by pushing a crossbar), probably from Germanic *skutjan.

from Old English scytel, a dart, missile, from Germanic *skutilaz. a. b. c. d.

SHEET SHEET
2

SHUTTLE,

, from Old English scKata, corner of a sail;

, from Old English scKte, piece of cloth. Both a and b from Germanic *skautjon-.
1

SCOUT

, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse sk7ta, mockery (

2

SHOUT,

from Old Norse sk7ta, a taunt. Both a and b from Germanic *skut-.

[Pokorny 2. (s)keud- 956.]

skrXbh-

Important derivatives are: scribble, scribe, script, Scripture, ascribe, circumscribe, conscript, describe, inscribe, manuscript, postscript, prescribe, subscribe, transcribe. To cut, separate, sift. Extension of sker-1. 7.
SCRIBBLE, SCRIBE, SCRIPT, SCRIPTORIUM, SCRIPTURE, SERIF, SHRIVE; ASCRIBE, CIRCUMSCRIBE, CONSCRIPT, DESCRIBE, FESTSCHRIFT, INSCRIBE, MANUSCRIPT, POSTSCRIPT, PRESCRIBE, PROSCRIBE, RESCRIPT, SUBSCRIBE, SUPERSCRIBE, TRANSCRIBE,

from Latin scrXbere, to scratch, incise, write.

8.

SCARIFY

, from Greek skariphos, scratching, sketch, pencil.

[Pokorny 4. sker-, Section II. 945.]

slKbAn important derivative is: sleep. To be weak, sleep. Possibly related to slKg- through a hypothetical base *slK- (< *sleN-). SLEEP, from Old English sl<pan, to sleep, and sl<p, sleep, from Germanic *slKpan, *slKpaz. [In Pokorny 1. leb- 655.]

slKgImportant derivatives are: slack1, lax, relax, languish. To be slack, be languid. Possibly related to slKb- through a hypothetical base *slK- (< *sleN-). Zerograde form *slNg-, becoming *slag-. 7. , from Old English slc, loose, indolent, careless, from Germanic *slak-.
SLACK
1

8. Suffixed form *lag-so-. LAX; RELAX, from Latin laxus, loose, slack. 9. Suffixed nasalized form *la-n-g-u-. LANGUISH, from Latin languKre, to be languid. 10. Compound *lag-ous-, with drooping ears (*ous-, ear; see ous-). LAGOMORPH, from Greek lagos, lagos, hare.

11. Suffixed form *lag-no-. ALGOLAGNIA, from Greek lagnos, lustful, lascivious. 12. Basic form *slKg-. CATALECTIC, from Greek lKgein, to leave off. [Pokorny (s)lKg- 959.]

sleubhImportant derivatives are: sleeve, lubricate, cowslip, slop1, sloop. To slide, slip. I. Basic form *sleubh-. 1. 2.
SLEEVE,

from Old English slKf, slXf, slXef, sleeve (into which the arm slips), from Germanic *sleub-.
SLOVEN,

from Middle Low German slven, to put on clothes carelessly, from Germanic *slaubjan.

3. Suffixed form *sleubh-ro-. LUBRICATE, LUBRICITY, LUBRICIOUS, from Latin l7bricus, slippery. a. b. c. 4.
SLOOP, SLIP

; COWSLIP, OXLIP, from Old English slypa, slyppe, slipa, slime, slimy substance;
3

SLOP

, from Old English *sloppe, dung;

, from Old English (ofer)slop, surplice. a, b, and c all from Germanic *slup-.
SLOP
2

from Middle Dutch sl7pen, to glide. Both 1 and 2 from variant Germanic root form *sleup-.

[Pokorny sleub(h)- 963.]

slXDerivatives are: sloe, livid. Bluish. Contracted from *sliN-. 4. O-grade form *sloi-. SLOE, from Old English sl7h, sl7, sloe (*slaihwon.

5. Suffixed form *slX-wo-. LIVID, from Latin lXvKre, to be bluish. 6. Suffixed form *slX-w7-. SLIVOVITZ, from Serbo-Croatian ljva, plum [Pokorny (s)lX- 965.]

smeiImportant derivatives are: smirk, smile, marvel, miracle, mirage, mirror, admire. To laugh, smile. 8. 9. from Old English smercian, to smile (with -k- formative), from Germanic reshaped forms *smer-, *smar-.
SMILE, SMIRK,

from Middle English smilen, to smile, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Swedish smila, to smile, from Germanic extended form *smXl-.

10. Suffixed form *smei-ro-. MARVEL, MIRACLE, MIRAGE, MIRROR; ADMIRE, from Latin mXrus, wonderful. 11. Prefixed zero-grade form *ko(m)-smi-, smiling with (*ko-, *kom-, together; see kom). COMITY, from Latin comis (< cosmis), courteous. [Pokorny 1. (s)mei- 967.]

(s)mer-1 Important derivatives are: mourn, memorable, mermorandum, memory, commemorate, remember. To remember. 12. Suffixed zero-grade form *my-no-. MOURN, from Old English murnan, to mourn, from Germanic *murnan, to remember sorrowfully. 13. Reduplicated form *me-mor-. a. MIMIR, from Old Norse Mimir, a giant who guards the well of wisdom, from Germanic *mi-mer-; b.
MEMORABLE, (MEMORANDUM), MEMORY; COMMEMORATE,

REMEMBER,

from Latin memor, mindful.

[Pokorny (s)mer- 969.]

(s)mer-2 Important derivatives are: merit, emeritus. To get a share of something. 4. Suffixed (stative) form *mer-K-. MERETRICIOUS, MERIT; EMERITUS, TURMERIC, from Latin merKre, merKrX, to receive a share, deserve, serve. 5. Suffixed form *mer-o-. -MERE, MERISTEM, MERO-, -MEROUS; (ALLOMERISM), (DIMER), (ISOMER), (MONOMER), (TRIMER), from Greek meros (feminine meris), a part, division. [In Pokorny (s)mer- 969.]

sn7Derivatives are: natant, natation. To swim. Contracted from *snaN-. 8. Extended form *sn7gh-. NEKTON, from Greek nKkhein, to swim. 9. Suffixed zero-grade form *(s)nN-to-. NATANT, NATATION, NATATORIAL, (NATATORIUM); SUPERNATANT, from Latin nat7re, to swim. 10. from Greek nKsos, island, attributed by some to this root (but more likely obscure).
CHERSONESE,

[Pokorny sn7- 971.] See (s)n7u-.

(s)n7uImportant derivatives are: nourish, nurse, nutrient, nutrition. To swim, flow, let flow, whence suckle. Contracted from *snaNu-; extension of sn7-.

6. Suffixed basic form *n7w-yo-. NAIAD, from Greek Naias, fountain nymph, probably from naein, to flow. 7. Variant root form *(s)neu(N)-. NEUSTON, from Greek nein, to swim. 8. Zero-grade form *(s)n7- (< *snuN-) in suffixed form *n7-trX (with feminine agent suffix). NOURISH, NURSE, NURTURE, NUTRIENT, NUTRIMENT, NUTRITION, NUTRITIOUS, NUTRITIVE, from Latin n7trXx, nurse, and n7trXre, to suckle, nourish. [In Pokorny sn7- 971.]

(s)nKAn important derivative is: needle. Also nK-To spin, sew. Contracted from *(s)neN-. 1. Suffixed form *nK-tl7. NEEDLE, from Old English n<dl, needle, from Germanic *nKthlo. 2. Suffixed form *snK-mi. NEMATO-; AXONEME, CHROMONEMA, PROTONEMA, SYNAPTINEMAL COMPLEX, TREPONEMA, from Greek nKma, thread. 3. Suffixed o-grade form *sno-t7-. SNOOD, from Old English snod, headband, from Germanic *snodo. [Pokorny (s)nK- 973.]

(s)neNuImportant derivatives are: neuron, nerve. Tendon, sinew. Extension of (s)nK-. Suffixed form *(s)neNw-y-, with further suffixes. a. *neu-r-o-. NEURO-, NEURON; APONEUROSIS, from Greek neuron, sinew; b. metathesized form *nerwo-. NERVE; ENERVATE, from Latin nervus, sinew.

[Pokorny snKu- 977.]

soImportant derivatives are: the1, she. This, that (nominative). For other cases see to-. 1. 2.
THE

, from Late Old English the, masculine demonstrative pronoun, replacing se (with th- from oblique forms; see to-).
1

HOI POLLOI,

from Greek ho, the.

3. Feminine form *sy7. SHE, from Old English sKo, sXe, she, from Germanic *sjo. 4. Compound variant form *sei-ke (*-ke, that; see ko-). SIC1, from Latin sXc, thus, so, in that manner. [Pokorny so(s), s7, sX 978.]

solImportant derivatives are: solid, consolidate, catholic, solicitous, solemn, salute, safe, salvage, salvo, save1. Also solN-Whole. I. Basic form *sol-. 1. Suffixed form *sol-ido-. SOLID; CONSOLIDATE, from Latin solidus, solid. 2. Suffixed form *sol-wo-. HOLO-; CATHOLIC, from Greek holos, whole. 3. Dialectal geminated form *soll-o-. a. b.
SOLICITOUS, SOLEMN,

from Latin sollus, whole, entire, unbroken;

from Latin sollemnis (second element obscure), celebrated at fixed dates (said of religious rites), established, religious, solemn.

II. Variant form *solN-.

1. Suffixed zero-grade form slN-u- giving *sal-u-. SALUBRIOUS, SALUTARY, SALUTE, from Latin sal7s, health, a whole or sound condition. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *s_N-wo- giving *sala-wo-. SAFE, SAGE2, 1 2 SALVAGE, SALVO, SAVE , SAVE , from Latin salvus, whole, safe, healthy, uninjured. [Pokorny solo- 979.]

spKImportant derivatives are: speed, despair, prosper. To thrive, prosper. Contracted from *speN-. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *spo-ti-. SPEED, from Old English spKd, success, from Germanic *spodiz. 3. Suffixed form *spK-s-. DESPAIR, ESPERANCE, from Latin spKr7re, to hope, denominative of spKs (plural spKrKs), hope. 4. Suffixed zero-grade form *spN-ro-. PROSPER, from Latin prosperus, favorable, prosperous (traditionally regarded as from pro spKrK, according to one's hope; pro-, according to; see per1). [Pokorny 3. sp(h)Ki- 983.]

spekImportant derivatives are: spy, espionage, specimen, spectacle, spectrum, speculate, aspect, circumspect, conspicuous, despise, expect, inspect, perspective, prospect, respect, respite, suspect, species, especial, despicable, skeptic, bishop, telescope. To observe. I. Basic form *spek-. a. b.
ESPY, SPY,

from Old French espier, to watch;

from Old Italian spione, spy, from Germanic derivative *speh-on-, watcher. Both a and b from Germanic *spehon.

ESPIONAGE,

2. Suffixed form *spek-yo-. SPECIMEN, SPECIOUS, SPECTACLE, SPECTRUM, SPECULATE, SPECULUM; ASPECT, CIRCUMSPECT, CONSPICUOUS, DESPISE, EXPECT, FRONTISPIECE, INSPECT, INTROSPECT, PERSPECTIVE, PROSPECT, RESPECT, (RESPITE), RETROSPECT, SUSPECT, TRANSPICUOUS, from Latin specere, to look at. 3.
SPECIES; ESPECIAL,

from Latin speciKs, a seeing, sight, form.

a. (see gherN-) Latin haruspex, diviner; b. (see awi-) Latin auspex, augur. Both a and b from Latin -spex (< *-spek-), he who sees. 4. Suffixed form *spek-7-. DESPICABLE, from Latin (denominative) dKspic7rX, to despise, look down on (dK-, down; see de-). 5. Suffixed metathetical form *skep-yo-. SKEPTIC, from Greek skeptesthai, to examine, consider. II. Extended o-grade form *spoko-. SCOPE, -SCOPE, -SCOPY; BISHOP, EPISCOPAL, HOROSCOPE, TELESCOPE, from metathesized Greek skopos, one who watches, also object of attention, goal, and its denominative skopein (< *skop-eyo-), to see. [Pokorny spe- 984.]

(s)penImportant derivatives are: spider, spin, spindle, pansy, pendant1, pension1, pensive, poise1, append, appendix, compensate, depend, dispense, expend, penthouse, perpendicular, suspend, span1, pound1, ponder, spontaneous. To draw, stretch, spin. I. Basic form *spen-. 1. Suffixed form *spen-wo-. a. from Old English spinnan, to spin, and spXthra, spider, contracted from Germanic derivative *spin-thron-, the spinner;
SPINDLE, SPIDER, SPIN,

b.

from Old English spinel, spindle, from Germanic derivative *spin-ilon-. Both a and b from Germanic *spinnan, to spin.

2. Extended form *pend-. PAINTER2, (PANSY), PENCHANT, PENDANT1, 1 1 PENDENTIVE, PENDULOUS, PENSILE, PENSION , PENSIVE, PESO, POISE ; ANTEPENDIUM, APPEND, (APPENDIX), AVOIRDUPOIS, COMPENDIUM, COMPENSATE, DEPEND, DISPENSE, EXPEND, IMPEND, (PENTHOUSE), PERPEND, PERPENDICULAR, PREPENSE, PROPEND, SUSPEND, VILIPEND, from Latin pendKre, to hang (intransitive), and pendere, to cause to hang, weigh, with its frequentative pKns7re, to weigh, consider. 3. Perhaps suffixed form *pen-ya-. -PENIA, from Greek penia, lack, poverty ( 4. from Greek ponos, toil, and ponein, to toil, o-grade derivatives of penesthai, to toil.
GEOPONIC, LITHOPONE,

II. O-grade forms *spon-, *pon-. a. b. 2. 3.

SPAN
1

SPAN

, from Middle Dutch spannen, to bind;

SPANNER,

from Old High German spannan, to stretch. Both a and b from Germanic *spannan.

, from Old English span(n), distance, from Germanic *spanno-.

SPANGLE,

from Middle Dutch spange, clasp, from Germanic *spango, perhaps from (s)pen-.

4. Suffixed and extended form *pond-o-. POUND1, from Latin pondo, by weight. 5. Suffixed and extended form *pond-es-. PONDER, PONDEROUS; EQUIPONDERATE, PREPONDERATE, from Latin pondus (stem ponder-), weight, and its denominative ponder7re, to weigh, ponder. 6. Suffixed o-grade form *spon-t-. SPONTANEOUS, from Latin sponte, of one's own accord, spontaneously, possibly from (s)pen-, but more likely to a homophonous Germanic verb *spanan, to entice. [Pokorny (s)pen-(d)- 988.]

spendImportant derivatives are: sponsor, spouse, respond.

To make an offering, perform a rite, hence to engage oneself by a ritual act. O-grade from *spond-. 5. Suffixed form *spond-eyo-. SPONSOR, SPOUSE; DESPOND, ESPOUSE, RESPOND, from Latin spondKre, to make a solemn promise, pledge, betroth. 6. Suffixed form *spond-7. SPONDEE, from Greek spondK, libation, offering. [Pokorny spend- 989.]

sperImportant derivatives are: sprawl, sprout, spurt, spread, Diaspora, sperm1, spore, sporadic, spray1. To strew. I. Zero-grade form *spr-. 1.
SPRAWL,

from Old English sprKawlian, to sprawl, from Germanic

*spr-. 2. Extended form *spreud-. a. b. c. d.

SPROUT,

from Old English spr7tan, to sprout; from Middle High German sprtzen, to

SPRITZ, SPRITZER,

spurt, spray;
SPRIT,

from Old English sprKot, pole (< sprout, stem);

from Middle Low German bochsprKt, bowsprit. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *spr7t-.

BOWSPRIT,

3. Extended form *spreit-. SPRAY2, SPREAD, from Old English spr<dan, to spread, from Germanic *spraidjan. II. Basic form *sper-. 1. Suffixed form *sper-yo-. DIASPORA, from Greek speirein, to scatter, with derivative spora, a scattering, sowing (see III. 1.). 2. Suffixed form *sper-mi. SPERM1, from Greek sperma, sperm, seed (

III. O-grade form *spor-. 1. Suffixed form *spor-7-. SPORE, SPORO-, from Greek spora, a sowing, seed. 2. Suffixed form *spor-id-. SPORADIC, from Greek sporas (stem sporad-), scattered, dispersed. IV. Extended Germanic root *sprK(w)-. SPRAY1, from Middle Dutch spraeien, sprayen, to sprinkle, from Germanic *sprKwjan. [Pokorny 2. (s)p(h)er- 993.]

sperNImportant derivatives are: spur, spurn, spoor. Ankle. Zero-grade form *spy(N)-. 7.
SPUR,

from Old English spura, spora, spur, from Germanic suffixed form *spur-on-.

8. Nasalized form *spy-n-N-. SPURN, from Old English spurnan, spornan, to kick, strike against, from Germanic *spurnon. 9. from Middle Dutch spor, spoor, track of an animal, from Germanic suffixed form *spur-am.
SPOOR,

[Pokorny 1. sp(h)er- 992.]

sreuImportant derivatives are: stream, diarrhea, hemorrhoid, rhythm. To flow. 3. Suffixed o-grade form *srou-mo-. a. b.
STREAM,

from Old English strKam, stream;

MAELSTROM,

from Middle Dutch stroom, stream. Both a and b from Germanic *straumaz, stream.

4. Basic form *sreu-.

a.

RHEO- , -RRHEA; CATARRH, DIARRHEA, HEMORRHOID, RHYOLITE,

from Greek rhein, to flow, with o-grade rhoos, flowing, a flowing; b. suffixed form *sreu-mi. RHEUM, from Greek rheuma, stream, humor of the body. 5. Suffixed zero-grade form *sru-dhmo-. RHYTHM, from Greek rhuthmos, measure, recurring motion, rhythm. 6. Zero-grade extended form *srug-. SASTRUGA, from Russian struga, deep place, perhaps from sreu-. [Pokorny sreu- 1003.]

st7Important derivatives are: steed, stud2, stool, stage, stance, stanza, stay1, arrest, circumstance, constant, contrast, cost, distant, instant, obstacle, obstetric, rest2, substance, stand, understand, standard, stem1, station, static, destine, obstinate, state, statue, statute, institute, prostitute, substitute, superstition, establish, stable1, assist, exist, insist, resist, ecstasy, system, post1, store, steer1, steer2. To stand; with derivatives meaning place or thing that is standing. Contracted from *staN-. I. Basic form *st7-. 1. Extended form *st7dh-. a. b.
STEED,

from Old English stKda, stallion, studhorse (*stod-

jon-;
STUD

, from Old English stod, establishment for breeding horses, from Germanic *stodo.
2

2. Suffixed form *st7-lo-. a.

STOOL,

from Old English stol, stool;

b. (see pel-2) Germanic compound *faldistolaz. Both a and b from Germanic *stolaz. 3. , STANCHION, (STANZA), STATOR, STAY1, STET; ARREST, CIRCUMSTANCE, CONSTANT, CONTRAST, (COST), DISTANT, 2 EXTANT, INSTANT, OBSTACLE, OBSTETRIC, (OUST), REST , RESTIVE,
1

ESTANCIA, STAGE, STANCE, STANCH

SUBSTANCE,

from Latin st7re, to stand.

4. Suffixed form *st7-men-. ETAMINE, STAMEN, STAMMEL, from Latin st7men, thread of the warp (a technical term). 5. Suffixed form *st7-mon-. PENSTEMON, from Greek stKmon, thread. 6. Suffixed form *st7-ro-. STARETS, from Old Church Slavonic star, old (long-standing). II. Zero-grade form *stN- (before consonants). 1. Nasalized extended form *stN-n-t-. a. b. c. d.
STAND,

from Old English standan, to stand;

from Old English understandan, to know, stand under (under-, under-; see idher);
STANDARD, STOUND,

UNDERSTAND,

from Frankish *standan, to stand;

from Old English stund, a fixed time, while, from secondary zero-grade form in Germanic *stund-o. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *standan.

2. Suffixed form *stN-tyo-. STITHY, from Old Norse stedhi, anvil, from Germanic *stathjon-. 3. Suffixed form *stN-tlo-. STADDLE, STARLING2, from Old English stathol, foundation, from Germanic *stathlaz. 4. Suffixed form *stN-mno-. STEM1, from Old English stefn, stem, tree trunk, from Germanic *stamniz. 5. Suffixed form *stN-ti-. i. ii. iii. b. c.
STAT
2

STEAD,

from Old English stede, place; from Dutch stad, place;

STADHOLDER, SHTETL,

from Old High German stat, place. (i), (ii), and (iii) all from Germanic *stadiz;

, from Latin statim, at once; from Latin statio, a standing still;

STATION,

d. e.

ARMISTICE, SOLSTICE, STASIS,

from Latin -stitium, a stoppage;

from Greek stasis (see III. 1. b.), a standing, a standstill.

6. Suffixed form *stN-to-. a. from Old Norse stadhr, place, from Germanic *stadaz, placed;
BESTEAD,

b. -STAT, STATIC, STATICE, STATO-; ASTASIA, (ASTATINE), from Greek statos, placed, standing. 7. Suffixed form *stN-no-. a. b. from Latin dKstin7re, to make firm, establish (dK-, thoroughly; see de-); from Latin obstin7re, to set one's mind on, persist (ob-, on; see epi).
OBSTINATE, DESTINE,

8. Suffixed form *stN-tu-. STATE, STATISTICS, (STATUE), STATURE, STATUS, STATUTE; CONSTITUTE, DESTITUTE, INSTITUTE, PROSTITUTE, RESTITUTE, SUBSTITUTE, SUPERSTITION, from Latin status, manner, position, condition, attitude, with derivatives stat7ra, height, stature, statuere, to set up, erect, cause to stand, and superstes (< *-stN-t), witness (who stands beyond). 9. Suffixed form *stN-dhlo-. STABLE2; CONSTABLE, from Latin stabulum, standing place, stable. 10. Suffixed form *stN-dhli-. ESTABLISH, STABLE1, from Latin stabilis, standing firm. 11. Suffixed form *stN-t7. -STAT; ENSTATITE, from Greek -statKs, one that causes to stand, a standing. III. Zero-grade form *st-, *st(N)- (before vowels). 1. Reduplicated form *si-st(N)-. a. b.
ASSIST, CONSIST, DESIST, EXIST, INSIST, INTERSTICE, PERSIST, RESIST, SUBSIST,

from Latin sistere, to set, place, stop, stand;

APOSTASY, CATASTASIS, DIASTASIS, ECSTASY, EPISTASIS, EPISTEMOLOGY, HYPOSTASIS, ICONOSTASIS, ISOSTASY, METASTASIS,

PROSTATE, SYSTEM,

from Greek histanai (aorist stanai), to set, place, with stasis (*stN-ti-), a standing (see II. 5. e.);
HISTO-; HISTIOCYTE,

c.

from Greek histos, web, tissue (

2. Compound form *tri-st-i-, third person standing by (see trei-). 3. Compound form *por-st-i-, that which stands before (*por-, before, forth; see per1). POST1, from Latin postis, post. 4. Suffixed form *st-o- in compound *upo-st-o-, one who stands under (see upo). IV. Extended root *st7u- (< *staNu-), becoming *stau- before consonants, *st7w- before vowels; basic meaning stout-standing, strong. 1. Suffixed extended form *st7w-7. STOW, from Old English stow, place, from Germanic *stowo. 2. Probable o-grade suffixed extended form *stow-y7. STOA, STOIC, from Greek stoa, porch. 3. Suffixed extended form *stau-ro-. i. ii. b.
STORE; INSTAURATION,

from Latin Xnstaur7re, to restore, set upright again (in-, on; see en);

RESTORE,

from Latin restaur7re, to restore, rebuild (re-, anew, again; see re-); from Greek stauros, cross, post, stake.

STAUROLITE,

4. Variant *tau-ro-, bull (see tauro-). V. Zero-grade extended root *st7- (< *stuN-). Suffixed form *st7-lo-. STYLITE; AMPHISTYLAR, ASTYLAR, EPISTYLE, HYPOSTYLE, PERISTYLE, PROSTYLE, STYLOBATE, from Greek stulos, pillar. VI. Secondary full-grade form *steuN-. Suffixed form *steuN-ro-. THERAVADA, from Sanskrit sthavira-, thick, stout, old. VII. Variant zero-grade extended root *stu-. Suffixed form *stu-t-. 1 STUD , from Old English stuthu, studu, post, prop. Secondary full-grade form *steu-.

VIII.

1. Suffixed form *steu-r7. STARBOARD, from Old English stKor-, a steering, from Germanic *steuro, a steering. a. b.
STEER
1

, from Old English stXeran, stKran, to steer;

, from Middle English sterne, stern of a boat, possibly from a source akin to Old Norse stjorn, a rudder, a steering, derivative of stra, to steer. Both a and b from Germanic denominative *steurjan.
STERN
2

2. Suffixed form *steu-ro-, a larger domestic animal. STEER2, from Old English stKor, steer, from Germanic *steuraz, ox. 3.
STIRK,

from Old English stXrc, stierc, calf, from Germanic diminutive *steur-ika-, probably from st7-.

[Pokorny st7- 1004.]

(s)tegImportant derivatives are: thatch, deck2, deck1, thug, tile, detect, protect. To cover. I. O-grade form *tog-. a. b. c. d. e.
THATCH, DECK
2

from Old English theccan, to cover;

, from Middle Dutch decken, to cover;

DECKLE,

from Old High German decchen, to cover. a, b, and c all from Germanic *thakjan. from Old English thc, thatch;

THATCH, DECK
1

, from Middle Dutch dec, decke, roof, covering. Both a and b from Germanic *thakam.

2. Suffixed form *tog-7-, covering. TOGA, from Latin toga, toga. 3.

THUG,

from Sanskrit sthagayati, he covers, possibly from (s)teg-

. II. Basic form *steg-. STEGODON, from Greek stegein, to cover. III. Basic form *teg-.

1.

TECTRIX, TECTUM, TEGMEN, TEGMENTUM, TEGULAR, TEGUMENT, TILE, TUILLE; DETECT, INTEGUMENT, OBTECT, PROTECT,

from Latin tegere, to cover, and tKgula, tile (with lengthened-grade root).
TAJ,

2.

from Persian t7j, crown.

[Pokorny 1. (s)teg- 1013.]

steghImportant derivatives are: sting, stag. To stick, prick; pointed. 1. Perhaps nasalized form *stengh-. STING, from Old English stingan, to sting, from Germanic *stingan. 2. O-grade form *stogh-. a. b. [Pokorny stegh- 1014.] from Old English stagga, stag, from Germanic *stag-;
STOCHASTIC, STAG,

from Greek stokhos, pointed stake or pillar (used as a target for archers), goal.

steiImportant derivatives are: stone, tungsten, stein. Stone. Possibly contracted from *staNi-. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *stoi-no-. a. b. c. d.
STONE,

from Old English st7n; from Middle Dutch steen, stone; from Old Norse steinn, stone;

STEENBOK, TUNGSTEN, STEIN,

from Old High German stein, stone. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *stainaz.

2. Possibly suffixed form *st7y-y (earlier *staNi-y). STEARIC, STEARIN,

STEATITE, STEATO-; STEAPSIN,

from Greek stear, solid fat, suet.

[Pokorny st7i- 1010.]

steigImportant derivatives are: stitch, stick, etiquette, ticket, distinguish, instinct, stigma, tiger, instigate, steak. To stick; pointed. Partly blended with stegh-. I. Zero-grade form *stig-. 1. from Old English sticel, a prick, sting, from Germanic suffixed form *stik-ilaz.
STICKLEBACK,

2. Suffixed form *stig-i-. STITCH, from Old English stice, a sting, prick, from Germanic *stikiz. 3.
STICK,

from Old English sticca, stick, from Germanic expressive form *stikkon-.

4. (ETIQUETTE), TICKET, from Old French estiquier, to stick, from Germanic stative *stikkKn, to be stuck. 5. from Middle Dutch steken, to stick, stab, from Germanic blended variant *stekan.
SNICKERSNEE,

6. Nasalized form *sti-n-g-. DISTINGUISH, EXTINGUISH, INSTINCT, from Latin stinguere, to quench, perhaps originally to prick, and its apparent derivative distinguere, to separate (phonological and semantic transitions obscure). 7. Suffixed form *stig-yo-. STIGMA; ASTIGMATISM, from Greek stizein, to prick, tattoo. 8. Suffixed reduced form *tig-ro-. TIGER, from Greek tigris, tiger (from its stripes), from the same Iranian source as Old Persian tigra-, sharp, pointed, and Avestan tighri-, arrow. II. Basic form *steig-. INSTIGATE, from Latin XnstXg7re, to urge, from -stXg7re, to spur on, prod. III. Suffixed o-grade form *stoig-7-. STEAK, from Old Norse steik, roast, steak, and steikja, to roast (on a spit), from Germanic *staiko.

[Pokorny steig- 1016.]

steighImportant derivatives are: stirrup, acrostic, stair. To stride, step, rise. I. Basic form *steigh-. STY2; STIRRUP, from Old English stXgan, to go up, rise, from Germanic *stXgan. II. Zero-grade form *stigh-. 1. , from Old English stigel, series of steps, from Germanic *stigila-.
STILE
1

2. Suffixed form *stigh-to-. STICKLE, from Old English stiht(i)an, to settle, arrange, from Germanic *stihtan, to place on a step or base. 3. Suffixed form *stigh-o-. STICH; ACROSTIC, CADASTRE, DISTICH, HEMISTICH, PENTASTICH, STICHOMETRY, STICHOMYTHIA, from Greek stikhos, row, line, line of verse. III. O-grade form *stoigh-. 1. Suffixed form *stoigh-ri-. STAIR, from Old English st<ger, stair, step, from Germanic *staigrX. 2.
STOICHIOMETRY,

from Greek stoikheion, shadow line, element.

[Pokorny steigh- 1017.]

stelImportant derivatives are: still1, apostle, epistle, stall1, installment1, stallion, pedestal, install, gestalt, stole1, stalk1, stilt, stout. To put, stand; with derivatives referring to a standing object or place. I. Basic form *stel-. 1. Suffixed form *stel-ni-. STILL1, from Old English stille, quiet, fixed, from Germanic *stilli-. 2. Suffixed form *stel-yo-. APOSTLE, DIASTOLE, EPISTLE, PERISTALSIS, SYSTALTIC, from Greek stellein, to put in order, prepare, send,

make compact (with o-grade and zero-grade forms stol- and stal-). II. O-grade form *stol-. 1. Suffixed form *stol-no-. a. b. c. d. e. f. ; FORESTALL, from Old English steall, standing place, stable;
STALL
1

STALE

; INSTALLMENT1, from Old French estal, place; from Anglo-Norman estaloun, stallion; from Old Italian stallo, stall;

STALLION, PEDESTAL, INSTALL, GESTALT,

from Medieval Latin stallum, stall;

from Old High German stellen, to set, place, from Germanic denominative *stalljan. a, b, c, d, e, and f all from Germanic *stalla-.

2. Suffixed form *stol-on-. STOLON, from Latin stolo, branch, shoot. 3. Suffixed form *stol-ido-. STOLID, from Latin stolidus, firmstanding, stupid. 4. Suffixed form *stol-7-. a. b.
STALK

, from Old English stalu, upright piece, stalk, from Germanic *stalo-;
1 1

STOLE

, from Greek stolK, garment, array, equipment.

III. Zero-grade form *st_-. 1. Suffixed form *st_-to-. STULTIFY, from Latin stultus, foolish (< unmovable, uneducated). 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *st_-no-. STULL, (STOLLEN), from Old High German stollo, post, support, from Germanic *stullon-. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *stal-n7-. STELE, from Greek stKlK, pillar. IV. Extended form *steld-.

a.

STILT,

from Middle English stilte, crutch, stilt, from a source akin to Low German and Flemish stilte, stick, from Germanic *stiltjon-;

b. zero-grade form *st_d-. STOUT, from Old French estout, stout, from Germanic *stult-, walking on stilts, strutting. [Pokorny 3. stel- 1019.]

(s)tenNImportant derivatives are: thunder, Thursday, tornado, astonish, detonate, stun. To thunder. 1. Zero-grade form *stiN-. a. b.
THUNDER;

THURSDAY, from Old English thunor, thunder,

Thor;
BLUNDERBUSS, DUNDERHEAD,

from Middle Dutch doner,

donder, thunder. c. THOR, from Old Norse Thorr (older form Thunarr), thunder, thunder god. a, b, and c all from Germanic *thunaraz. 2. O-grade form *tonN-. TORNADO; ASTONISH, DETONATE, STUN, from Latin ton7re, to thunder. [Pokorny 1. (s)ten- 1021.]

ster-1 Important derivatives are: stare, stark, starch, stern1, stereo-, stork, strut, start, startle, starve, torpedo, torpor. Stiff. I. O-grade form *stor-. 1. Suffixed form *stor-K-. STARE, from Old English starian, to stare, from Germanic *staren. 2. Extended form *stor-g-.

a. b.

STARK,

from Old English stearc, hard, severe, from Germanic *starkaz;

STARCH,

from Old English *stercan, to stiffen, from Germanic denominative *starkjan.

II. Full-grade form *ster-. 1.

STERN

, from Old English stierne, styrne, firm, from Germanic *sternjaz.

1

2. Suffixed form *ster-ewo-. STERE, STEREO-; CHOLESTEROL, from Greek stereos, solid. 3. Lengthened-grade form *stKr-. STERIGMA, from Greek stKrizein, to support. III. Zero-grade form *sty-. 1. Extended form *styg-. STORK, from Old English storc, stork (probably from the stiff movements of the bird), from Germanic *sturkaz. 2. from Old English str7tian, to stand out stiffly, from Germanic *str7t-.
STRUT,

IV. Extended form *sterd-. 1.

REDSTART,

from Old English steort, tail, from Germanic *stertaz. from Old English *styrtan, to leap up (

a. b.

START,

from Old English steartlian, to kick, struggle. Both a and b from Germanic *stert-.

STARTLE,

V. Extended form *sterbh-. STARVE, from Old English steorfan, to die (*sterban. VI. Extended form *(s)terp- in suffixed (stative) zero-grade form *typ-K-. TORPEDO, TORPID, TORPOR, from Latin torpKre, to be stiff. [Pokorny 1. (s)ter- 1022.]

ster-2 Important derivatives are: structure, construct, destroy, instruct, obstruct, industry,

strew, straw, street, stratagem. Also sterN-To spread. I. Extended form *streu-. 1. 2.
STRAIN

, from Old English strKon, something gained, offspring, from Germanic suffixed form *streu-nam.
2

STRUCTURE; CONSTRUCT, DESTROY, INSTRUCT, OBSTRUCT, SUBSTRUCTION,

from Latin struere, to pile up, construct. 3. Zero-grade form *stru-. INDUSTRY, from Latin industrius, diligent, from Old Latin indostruus (endo-, within; see en). 4. from Old High German str7la, arrow, lightning bolt, from Germanic *strKlo.
BREMSSTRAHLUNG,

II. O-grade extended form *strou-. 1. Suffixed form *strou-eyo-. a. b.

STREW,

from Old English strK(o)wian, to strew;

STREUSEL,

from Old High German strouwen, strowwen, to sprinkle, strew. Both a and b from Germanic *strawjan.

2. Suffixed form *strow-o. STRAW, from Old English strKaw, straw, from Germanic *strawam, that which is scattered. III. O-grade extended form *stroi-. PERESTROIKA, from Old Russian strojV, order. IV. Basic forms *ster-, *sterN-. 1. Nasalized form *ster-n-N-. STRATUS, STREET; CONSTERNATE, PROSTRATE, SUBSTRATUM, from Latin sternere (past participle str7tus from zero-grade *strN-to-), to stretch, extend. 2. Suffixed form *ster-no-. STERNUM, from Greek sternon, breast, breastbone. V. Zero-grade form *sty-, *styN-. 1. Suffixed form *sty-to-. STRATAGEM; STRATOCRACY, from Greek stratos, multitude, army, expedition. 2. Suffixed form *styN-to-. STRATH, from Old Irish srath, a wide

river valley, from Celtic *s(t)rato-. 3. Suffixed extended form *styN-mi. STROMA; (STROMATOLITE), from Greek stroma, mattress, bed. [Pokorny 5. ster- 1029.]

ster-3 Important derivatives are: star, stellar, constellation, aster, asterisk, asteroid, disaster. Star. 1. Suffixed form *ster-s-. STAR, from Old English steorra, star, from Germanic *sterzon-. 2. Suffixed form *stKr-l7-. STELLAR, STELLATE; CONSTELLATION, from Latin stKlla, star. 3. Oldest root form *Nster-. ASTER, ASTERIATED, ASTERISK, ASTERISM, ASTEROID, ASTRAL, ASTRO-; ASTRAPHOBIA, DISASTER, from Greek astKr, star, with its derivative astron, star, and possible compound astrapK, asteropK, lightning, twinkling (ops, stem op-, eye, appearance; see okw-). 4. ESTHER, from Persian sitareh, star, from Iranian stem *st8r-. [Pokorny 2. ster- 1027.]

streb(h)Important derivatives are: strop, strophe, apostrophe1, catastrophe, stroboscope. To wind, turn. 1.
STREPTO-, STROP, STROPHE, STROPHOID, STROPHULUS; ANASTROPHE,

, BOUSTROPHEDON, CATASTROPHE, DIASTROPHISM, from Greek strephein, to wind, turn, twist, with o-grade derivatives strophK, a turning, and strophion, headband.
APOSTROPHE
1

2. Unaspirated o-grade form *strob-. STROBILUS; STROBOSCOPE, from Greek strobos, a whirling, whirlwind. 3. Unaspirated zero-grade form *styb-. STRABISMUS, STRABOTOMY, from Greek strabos, squinting.

[Pokorny strebh- 1025.]

streigImportant derivatives are: strike, streak, stroke1, strain1, strict, stringent, constrain, prestige, restrict. To stroke, rub, press. I. Basic form *streig-. a. b. 2. 3.
STRIKE, TRICOT,

from Old English strXcan, to stroke;

from Old French estriquier, to strike. Both a and b from Germanic *strXkan.

STRICKLE,

from Old English stricel, implement for leveling grain, from Germanic diminutive *strik-ila-.
STREAK,

from Old English strica, stroke, line, from Germanic *strikon-.

II. O-grade form *stroig-. STROKE1, from Old English *str7c, stroke, from Germanic *straik-. III. Zero-grade form *strig-. 1. Suffixed form *strig-7-. STRIGOSE, from Latin striga, row of grain, furrow drawn lengthwise over the field. 2. Suffixed form *strig-y7-. STRIA, from Latin stria, furrow, channel. 3. Nasalized form *stri-n-g-. STRAIN1, STRAIT, STRICT, STRINGENDO, STRINGENT; ASTRINGENT, CONSTRAIN, DISTRAIN, PRESTIGE, RESTRICT, from Latin stringere, to draw tight, press together. 4.
STRIGIL,

from Latin strigilis, strigil, possibly akin to stringere.

[Pokorny 1. streig- 1036; 4. ster- 1028.]

suA derivative is: swastika. Well, good.

1.

SWASTIKA,

from Sanskrit sv-asti, well-being, good luck, from su-, well- (see es-).

2. Compound *su-gwiN-es-, having good life (see gwei-). [Pokorny su- 1037.]

s7Important derivatives are: swine, hog, socket, sow2, hyena. Pig. Contracted from *suN-; probably a derivative of seuN-1. 1. Suffixed form *suN-Xno-. a. b.
SWINE,

from Old English swXn, swine;

from Old Norse svXn, swine. Both a and b from Germanic *swXnam.

KEELSON,

2. Suffixed form *su-k7. a. b.

HOG,

from Old English hogg, hog, from British *hukk-;

SOCKET,

from Anglo-Norman soc, plowshare, perhaps from s7-. Both a and b from Celtic expressive form *sukko-, swine, snout of a swine, plowshare;
SOW
2

c.

, from Old English sugu, sow, from Germanic *sugo.

3. Basic form *s7-. SOW2, from Old English s7, from Germanic *s7-. 4. 5.
SOIL
2

, from Latin s7s, pig. from Greek hus, swine.

HYENA; HYOSCINE,

[Pokorny s'-s 1038.]

sw7dImportant derivatives are: sweet, dissuade, persuade, suave, hedonism. Sweet, pleasant.

1.

SWEET,

from Old English swKte, sweet, from Germanic *swotja-.

2. Suffixed form *sw7d-K-. SUASION; (ASSUASIVE), DISSUADE, PERSUADE, from Latin su7dKre, to advise, urge ( 3. Suffixed form *sw7d-w-i-. SOAVE, SUAVE; ASSUAGE, from Latin su7vis, delightful. 4. Suffixed form *sw7d-es-. AEDES, from Greek Kdos, pleasure. 5. Suffixed form *sw7d-on7. HEDONIC, HEDONISM, from Greek hKdonK, pleasure. [Pokorny s7d- 1039.]

s(w)eImportant derivatives are: self, gossip, bustle1, suicide, secede, seclude, secret, secure, sedition, seduce, segregate, select, separate, sure, sober, sole2, solitary, solitude, solo, sullen, desolate, soliloquy, custom, ethic, ethnic, idiom, idiot, idiosyncrasy.. Pronoun of the third person and reflexive (referring back to the subject of the sentence); further appearing in various forms referring to the social group as an entity, (we our-)selves. 1. Suffixed extended form *sel-bho-. SELF, from Old English self, sylf, self, same, from Germanic *selbaz, self. 2. Suffixed form *s(w)e-bh(o)-. SIB; GOSSIP, from Old English sibb, relative, from Germanic *sibja-, one's own, blood relation, relative. 3. Suffixed form *se-ge. BUSTLE1, from Old Norse -sk, reflexive suffix, as in b7ask, to make oneself ready, from sik, oneself (reflexive pronoun), from Germanic *sik, self. 4. Suffixed form *swoi-no-. SWAIN; (BOATSWAIN), from Old Norse sveinn, herdsman, boy, from Germanic *swainaz, one's own (man), attendant, servant. 5. Suffixed form *s(u)w-o-, one's own. a. b.
SUICIDE, SWAMI,

from Latin suX (genitive), of oneself;

from Sanskrit sv7min, one's own master, owner, prince, from sva- (< *swo-), one's own.

6. Extended form *sed. SECEDE, SECERN, SECLUDE, SECRET, SECURE, SEDITION, SEDUCE, SEDULOUS, SEGREGATE, SELECT, SEPARATE, (SURE), from Latin sKd, sK, sK-, without, apart ( a.
SOBER,

from Latin compound sobrius, not drunk (Kbrius, drunk; see Kgwh-).

7. Possibly suffixed lengthened o-grade form *so-lo. SOLE2, SOLITARY, SOLITUDE, SOLO, SULLEN; DESOLATE, SOLILOQUY, SOLIPSISM, from Latin solus, by oneself alone. 8. Extended root *swLdh-, that which is one's own, peculiarity, custom. a. from Latin sod7lis, companion (< one's own, relative);
SODALITY,

b. suffixed form *swKdh-sko-. (CONSUETUDE), CUSTOM, DESUETUDE, MANSUETUDE, MASTIFF, from Latin suKscere, to accustom, get accustomed; c.
ETHIC, ETHOS; CACOETHES,

from Greek Kthos, custom,

disposition, trait; d. suffixed form *swedh-no-. ETHNIC, ETHNO-, from Greek ethnos, band of people living together, nation, people ( 9. Suffixed extended form *swet-aro-. HETAERA, from Greek hetairos, comrade, companion, earlier hetaros. 10. Suffixed extended form *swed-yo-. IDIO-, IDIOM, IDIOT; (IDIOPATHY), (IDIOSYNCRASY), from Greek idios, personal, private (particular to oneself). 11. Suffixed form *swei-no-. SINN FEIN, from Old Irish fKin, self. 12. Suffixed (ablatival) form *swe-tos, from oneself. KHEDIVE, from Old Iranian khvad7ta-, lord, by haplology from compound form *khvato-d7ta-, created from oneself (d7ta-, created; see dhK-). [Pokorny se- 882.]

sweid-

An important derivative is: sweat. Sweat; to sweat. I. O-grade form *swoid-. 1. from Old English sw<tan, to sweat, from Germanic *swaitaz, sweat, with its denominative *swaitjan, to sweat.
SWEAT,

2. Suffixed form *swoid-os-. SUDORIFIC; SUDORIFEROUS, from Latin s7dor, sweat. 3. O-grade form *swoid-7-. SUDATORIUM, SUINT; EXUDE, TRANSUDE, from Latin s7d7re, to sweat. II. Suffixed zero-grade form *swid-r-os-. HIDROSIS, from Greek hidros, sweat. [Pokorny 2. seid- 1043.]

s(w)eks Important derivatives are: six, semester, sestet, sextant, hexa-. Six. I. Form *seks. 1. from Old English s(i)ex, six, with derivatives sixtig, sixty, and sixtne, sixteen (-tne, ten; see dekc), from Germanic *seks.
SENARY, SEX-; SEICENTO, SEMESTER, SIX; SIXTEEN, SIXTY,

2.

from Latin sex, six.

3. Suffixed form *seks-to-. SESTET, SESTINA, SEXT, SEXTANT, SEXTILE; SEXTODECIMO, from Latin sextus, sixth. II. Form *sweks. HEXA-, HEXAD, from Greek hex, six. [Pokorny ses 1044.]

swelImportant derivatives are: swill, swallow1. To eat, drink. 1.

SWILL,

from Old English swilian, to wash out, gargle, from

Germanic *swil-, perhaps from swel-. 2. Extended form *swelk-. SWALLOW1; GROUNDSEL1, from Old English swelgan, to swallow, from Germanic *swelgan, *swelhan. 3.
MANTICORE,

from Greek mantikhoras, manticore, probably from Iranian *khv7ra-, eating.

[Pokorny 1. sel(k)- 1045.]

swenImportant derivatives are: swan, sonic, sonnet, sound1, unison, sonata, sonorous, consonant, dissonant, resound. To sound. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *swon-o-. a. b. from Old English swan, swan, from Germanic *swanaz, *swanon-, singer;
SONE, SONIC, SONNET, SOUND
1

SWAN,

; UNISON, from Latin sonus, a

sound. 2. Form *swen-7-. SONANT, SONATA, SONOROUS; ASSONANCE, CONSONANT, DISSONANT, RESOUND, from Latin son7re, to sound. [Pokorny sen- 1046.]

swepImportant derivatives are: insomnia, hypnosis. To sleep. 1. Suffixed form *swep-os-. SOPOR; (SOPORIFIC), from Latin sopor, a deep sleep. 2. Suffixed form *swep-no-. SOMNI-, SOMNOLENT; INSOMNIA, from Latin somnus, sleep. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *sup-no-. HYPNO-, (HYPNOSIS), HYPNOTIC, from Greek hupnos, sleep. [Pokorny 1. sep- 1048.]

swerImportant derivatives are: swear, answer.. To speak, talk. O-grade form *swora. b. from Old English swerian, to swear, proclaim, from Germanic *swarjan; from Old English andswaru, answer, from Germanic *and-swaro, a swearing against, rebuttal (*andi-, against; see ant-).
ANSWER, SWEAR,

[Pokorny 1. ser- 1049.]

swesorImportant derivatives are: sister, cousin, sorority. Sister. 1. Zero-grade form *swesr-. a. from Old English sweostor, sister, and Old Norse systir, sister, both from Germanic *swestr-;
SISTER,

b. suffixed form *swesr-Xno-. COUSIN, from Latin sobrinus, maternal cousin. 2.

SORORAL, SORORITY,

from Latin soror, sister.

[Pokorny sesor- 1051.]

swoImportant derivatives are: so1, such. Pronominal stem; so. Derivative of s(w)e-. a. b.
SO
1

, from Old English sw7, so;

from Old English swylc, such, from Germanic compound *swa-lXk-, so like, of the same kind (*lXk-,

SUCH,

same; see lXk-). 1. Adverbial form *swai. NISI, QUASI, from Latin sX, if, in nisi, unless (nX, not; see ne- + sX, if), quasi (quam, as; see kwo- + sX, if). [In Pokorny 2. seu- 882.]

sy7Important derivatives are: sew, seam, suture, couture, hymen. To bind, sew. I. Basic form *sy7-. SEW, from Old English seowian, siowan, to sew, from Germanic *siwjan. II. Variant form *s7-. 1. 2.
SEAM,

from Old English sKam, seam, from Germanic *saumaz. from Latin suere (past participle s7tus), to sew.

SUTURE; COUTURE,

3. Suffixed form *s7-dhl7-. SUBULATE, from Latin s7bula, awl ( 4. Suffixed form *s7-tro-. SUTRA; KAMASUTRA, from Sanskrit s7tram, thread, string. III. Suffixed shortened form *syu-men-. HYMEN, from Greek humKn, thin skin, membrane. [Pokorny s7- 915.]

tagImportant derivatives are: tact, tangent, tangible, taste, tax, attain, contact, intact, entire, integer, contaminate. To touch, handle. 14. Nasalized form *ta-n-g-. TACT, TANGENT, TANGIBLE, TASTE, TAX; ATTAIN, CONTACT, INTACT, TACTORECEPTOR, TANGORECEPTOR, from Latin tangere, to touch, with derivatives tax7re, to touch, assess (possibly a frequentative of tangere, but probably influenced by Greek tassein, taxai, to arrange, assess), and t7ctus, touch. 15. Compound form *i-tag-ro-, untouched, intact (*i-, negative

prefix; see ne). ENTIRE, INTEGER, INTEGRATE, INTEGRITY, from Latin integer, intact, whole, complete, perfect, honest. 16. Suffixed form *tag-smen-. CONTAMINATE, from Latin cont7min7re, to corrupt by mixing or contact (< *con-t7men-, bringing into contact with; con-, com-, with; see kom). [Pokorny tag- 1054.]

tauroImportant derivatives are: Taurus, toreador, torero. Bull. Derivative of st7-, but an independent word in Indo-European. 21. 22.
TAURINE
1

, TAURUS, TOREADOR, TORERO; BITTERN1, from Latin taurus,

bull.
TAURINE
2

; TAUROCHOLIC ACID, from Greek tauros, bull.

[In Pokorny tKu- 1083.]

teguAn important derivative is: thick. Thick.

THICK,

from Old English thicce, thick, from Germanic *thiku-.

[Pokorny tegu- 1057.]

tekA derivative is: thane. To beget, give birth to. 5. Suffixed form *tek-no-, child. THANE, from Old English thegn, freeman, nobleman, military vassal, warrior, from Germanic *thegnaz, boy, man, servant, warrior. 6. Suffixed o-grade form *tok-o-. OXYTOCIC, POLYTOCOUS, TOCOLOGY, from Greek tokos, birth.

[Pokorny 1. tek- 1057.]

teksImportant derivatives are: text, tissue, context, pretext, subtle, architect, technical, technology. To weave; also to fabricate, especially with an ax; also to make wicker or wattle fabric for (mud-covered) house walls. 29.
TEXT, TISSUE; CONTEXT, PRETEXT,

from Latin texere, to weave,

fabricate. 30. Suffixed form *teks-l7. a. b.

TILLER

, TOIL2, from Latin tKla, web, net, warp of a fabric, also weaver's beam (to which the warp threads are tied);
2

from Latin subtXlis, thin, fine, precise, subtle (< *sub-tKla, thread passing under the warp, the finest thread; sub, under; see upo).

SUBTLE,

31. Suffixed form *teks-on, weaver, maker of wattle for house walls, builder (possibly contaminated with *teks-tor, builder). TECTONIC; ARCHITECT, from Greek tekton, carpenter, builder. 32. Suffixed form *teks-n7-, craft (of weaving or fabricating). TECHNICAL, (POLYTECHNIC), TECHNOLOGY, from Greek tekhnK, art, craft, skill. a. b.
DACHSHUND, DASSIE,

from Old High German dahs, badger;

from Middle Dutch das, badger. Both a and b from Germanic *thahsu-, badger, possibly from teks(the animal that builds, referring to its burrowing skill) but more likely borrowed from the same preIndo-European source as the Celtic totemic name Tazgo-, Gaelic Tadhg, originally badger.

[Pokorny tet- 1058.]

telNImportant derivatives are: toll1, philately, tolerate, retaliate, talent, tantalize, Atlantic, Atlas, collate, elate, legislator, relate, superlative, translate, extol.

To lift, support, weigh; with derivatives referring to measured weights and thence to money and payment. 7. Suffixed form *telN-mon-. TELAMON, from Greek telamon, supporter, bearer. 8. Suffixed form *tel(N)-es-. a. b.
TOLL
1

; PHILATELY, from Greek telos, tax, charge; from Latin toler7re, to bear, endure.

TOLERATE,

9. Suffixed zero-grade form *t_N-i-. TALION; RETALIATE, from Latin t7lio, reciprocal punishment in kind, possibly something paid out, from *tali- (influenced by t7lis, such). 10. Suffixed variant zero-grade form *tala-nt-. TALENT, from Greek talanton, balance, weight, any of several specific weights of gold or silver, hence the sum of money represented by such a weight. 11. Perhaps (but unlikely) intensive reduplicated form *tantal-. (TANTALIZE), TANTALUS, from Greek Tantalos, name of a legendary king, the sufferer. 12. Perhaps (but unlikely) zero-grade form *t_N-. ATLANTIC, ATLAS, from Greek Atlas (stem Atlant-), name of the Titan supporting the world. 13. Suffixed zero-grade form *t_N-to-. ABLATION, COLLATE, DILATORY, 1 ELATE, ILLATION, LEGISLATOR, OBLATE , PRELATE, PROLATE, RELATE, SUBLATE, SUPERLATIVE, TRANSLATE, from Latin l7tus, carried, borne, used as the suppletive past participle of ferre, to bear (see bher-1), with its compounds. 14. Suffixed zero-grade form *t_N-7-. TOLA, from Sanskrit tul7, scales, balance, weight. 15. Nasalized zero-grade form *t_-n-N-. EXTOL, from Latin tollere, to lift. [Pokorny 1. tel- 1060.]

tem-

Important derivatives are: tome, anatomy, atom, diatom, epitome, temple1, contemplate. Also temN-To cut. IV. Form *temN-. Nasalized form *t(e)m-n-N-. TMESIS, TOME, (-TOME), -TOMY; ANATOMY, ATOM, DIATOM, DICHOTOMY, ENTOMO-, EPITOME, from Greek temnein, to cut, with o-grade forms tomos, cutting, a cut, section, volume, and tomK, a cutting. V. Form *tem-. 1. Suffixed form *tem-lo-. TEMPLE1, TEMPLE3; CONTEMPLATE, from Latin templum, temple, shrine, open place for observation (augury term 2. Extended root *tem-d- becoming *tend- in o-grade suffixed (iterative) form *tond-eyo-. TONSORIAL, TONSURE, from Latin tondKre, to shear, shave. [Pokorny 1. tem-, tend- 1062.]

tenImportant derivatives are: tend1, tendon, tense1, tent1, attend, contend, extend, intend, pretend, hypotenuse, sitar, tenacious, tenant, tenement, tenor, tenure, contain, continue, detain, entertain, lieutenant, maintain, obtain, pertain, retain, sustain, thin, tenuous, tender1, tone. To stretch. III. Derivatives with the basic meaning. 1. Suffixed form *ten-do-. a.
TEND

, TENDER2, TENSE1, TENT1; ATTEND, CONTEND, DETENT, DISTEND, EXTEND, INTEND, OSTENSIBLE, PRETEND, SUBTEND, from Latin tendere, to stretch, extend;
1

b.

PORTEND,

from Latin portendere, to stretch out before (por-, variant of pro-, before; see per1), a technical term in augury, to indicate, presage, foretell.

2. Suffixed form *ten-yo-. TENESMUS; ANATASE, BRONCHIECTASIS, CATATONIA, EPITASIS, HYPOTENUSE, PERITONEUM, PROTASIS, SYNTONIC, TELANGIECTASIA, from Greek teinein, to stretch, with o-grade

form ton- and zero-grade noun tasis (< *ti-ti-), a stretching, tension, intensity. 3. Reduplicated zero-grade form *te-tan-o-. TETANUS, from Greek tetanos, stiff, rigid. 4. Suffixed full-grade form *ten-tro-. a. b.
TANTRA, SITAR,

from Sanskrit tantram, loom;

from Persian t7r, string.

5. Basic form (with stative suffix) *ten-K-. TENABLE, TENACIOUS, TENACULUM, TENANT, TENEMENT, TENET, TENON, TENOR, TENURE, TENUTO; ABSTAIN, CONTAIN, (CONTINUE), DETAIN, ENTERTAIN, LIEUTENANT, MAINTAIN, OBTAIN, PERTAIN, PERTINACIOUS, RETAIN, (RETINACULUM), SUSTAIN, from Latin tenKre, to hold, keep, maintain ( IV. Derivatives meaning stretched, hence thin. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *ti-u-. THIN, from Old English thynne, thin, from Germanic *thunniz, from *thunw-. 2. Suffixed full-grade form *ten-u-. TENUOUS; ATTENUATE, EXTENUATE, from Latin tenuis, thin, rare, fine. 3. Suffixed full-grade form *ten-ero-. TENDER1, (TENDRIL), from Latin tener, tender, delicate. V. Derivatives meaning something stretched or capable of being stretched, a string. 1. Suffixed form *ten-on-. TENDON, TENO-, from Greek tenon, tendon. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *ton-o-. TONE; (BARITONE), TONOPLAST, from Greek tonos, string, hence sound, pitch. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *ti-ya-. TAENIA; POLYTENE, from Greek tainia, band, ribbon. [Pokorny 1. ten- 1065.]

terN-1

Important derivatives are: trite, detriment, thrash, thresh, threshold, turn, contour, return, drill1, throw, thread, trauma, truant. To rub, turn; with some derivatives referring to twisting, boring, drilling, and piercing; and others referring to the rubbing of cereal grain to remove the husks, and thence to the process of threshing either by the trampling of oxen or by flailing with flails. Variant *trK-, contracted from *treN-. V. Full-grade form *ter(N)-. a.
TRITE, TRITURATE; ATTRITION, CONTRITE, DETRIMENT,

from Latin terere (past participle trXtus), to rub away, thresh, tread, wear out;
TEREDO,

b.

from Greek terKdon, a kind of biting worm.

2. Suffixed form *ter-et-. TERETE, from Latin teres (stem teret-), rounded, smooth. 3. Suffixed form *ter-sko-. a. (THRASH), THRESH, from Old English therscan, to thresh; b. from Old English therscold, threscold, sill of a door (over which one treads; second element obscure). Both a and b from Germanic *therskan, *threskan, to thresh, tread.
THRESHOLD,

VI. O-grade form *tor(N)-. 1.

TOREUTICS,

from Greek toreus, a boring tool.

2. Suffixed form *tor(N)-mo-, hole. DERMA2, from Old High German darm, gut, from Germanic *tharma-. 3. Suffixed form *tor(N)-no-. TURN; (ATTORN), CONTOUR, (DETOUR), (RETURN), from Greek tornos, tool for drawing a circle, circle, lathe. VII. Zero-grade form *tr-. DRILL1, from Middle Dutch drillen, to drill, from Germanic *thr-. VIII. Variant form *trK- (< *treN-). 1.
THROW,

from Old English thr7wan, to turn, twist, from Germanic *thrKw-.

2. Suffixed form *trK-tu-. THREAD, from Old English thr<d, thread, from Germanic *thrKdu-, twisted yarn. 3. Suffixed form *trK-mi (< *treN- or *tyN-). MONOTREME, TREMATODE, from Greek trKma, perforation. 4. Suffixed form *trK-ti- (< *treN- or *tyN-). ATRESIA, from Greek trKsis, perforation. IX. Extended form *trX- (< *triN-). 1. Probably suffixed form *trX-on-. SEPTENTRION, from Latin trio, plow ox. 2. Suffixed form *trX-dhlo-. TRIBULATION, from Latin trXbulum, a threshing sledge. X. Various extended forms 1. Forms *tro-, *trau-. TRAUMA, from Greek trauma, hurt, wound. 2. Form *trXb-. DIATRIBE, TRIBOELECTRICITY, TRIBOLOGY, TRYPSIN, from Greek tribein, to rub, thresh, pound, wear out. 3. Form *trog-, *trag-. a. b.
TROGON, TROUT, DREDGE
2

from Greek trogein, to gnaw;

, from Greek tragKma, sweetmeat.

4. Form *trup-. TREPAN1; TRYPANOSOME, from Greek trupK, hole. 5. Possible form *tr7g-. TRUANT, from Old French truant, beggar. [Pokorny 3. ter- 1071.]

terN-2 Important derivatives are: thrill, nostril, thorough, through, trans-, transient, trench, trunk. To cross over, pass through, overcome. Variant *tr7-, contracted from *traN-. I. Zero-grade form *ty(N)-. 1.
THRILL; NOSTRIL,

from Old English thyr(e)l, threl, a hole (*thur-

ila-.

2. Suffixed form *tyN-kwe. THOROUGH, THROUGH, from Old English thurh, thuruh, through, from Germanic *thurh. 3. (see nek-1) Greek nek-tar, overcoming death. 4. Zero-grade form *tyN- and full-grade form *ter(N)-. AVATAR, from Sanskrit tirati, tarati, he crosses over. II. Variant form *tr7- (< *traN-). 1. from Latin tr7ns, across, over, beyond, through (perhaps originally the present participle of a verb *tr7re, to cross over).
TRANS-, TRANSIENT, (TRANSOM),

2. Suffixed form *tr7-yo-. CARAVANSARY, from Persian sar7y, inn, from Middle Persian sr7yXdhan, to protect, from Iranian thr7ya-, to protect. III. Possible extended form *tru-. 1. Suffixed form *tru-k-. TRUCULENT, from Latin trux (stem truc-), savage, fierce, grim (< overcoming, powerful, penetrating). 2. Suffixed nasalized form *tru-n-k-o-. TRENCH, TRUNCATE, TRUNK, from Latin truncus, deprived of branches or limbs, mutilated, hence trunk (? < overcome, maimed). [Pokorny 5. ter- 1075.]

terkwImportant derivatives are: queer, thwart, torch, torment, torque1, tortuous, distort, extort, nasturtium, retort1. To twist. Extension of terN-1. 23. Possible variant form *t(w)erk-. a. b.
QUEER,

from Middle Low German dwer, oblique;

from Old Norse thverr, transverse. Both a and b from Germanic *thwerh-, twisted, oblique.

THWART,

24. Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *torkw-eyo-. TORCH, TORMENT, 1 2 TORQUE , TORQUE , TORSADE, TORT, TORTUOUS, TRUSS; CONTORT, DISTORT, 1 EXTORT, NASTURTIUM, RETORT , TORTICOLLIS, from Latin torquKre, to twist. [Pokorny terk- 1077.]

tersImportant derivatives are: thirst, terrace, terrain, terrier, territory, inter, mediterranean, subterranean, toast1, torrent, torrid. To dry. 5. Suffixed zero-grade form *tys-. a. b. from Old English thurst, dryness, thirst, from Germanic suffixed form *thurs-tu-; from Old Norse thorskr, cod (a and b from Germanic *thurs-.
CUSK, THIRST,

6. Suffixed basic form *ters-7-. TERRACE, (TERRAIN), TERRAN, TERRENE, TERRESTRIAL, TERRIER, TERRITORY, TUREEN; FUMITORY, INTER, MEDITERRANEAN, PARTERRE, SUBTERRANEAN, TERRAQUEOUS, TERREPLEIN, TERRE-VERTE, TERRICOLOUS, TERRIGENOUS, TURMERIC, VERDITER, from Latin terra, dry land, earth. 7. Suffixed o-grade form *tors-eyo-. TOAST1, TORRENT, TORRID, from Latin torrKre, to dry, parch, burn. 8. Suffixed zero-grade form *tys-o-. TARSUS, from Greek tarsos, frame of wickerwork (originally for drying cheese), hence a flat surface, sole of the foot, ankle. [Pokorny ters- 1078.]

teuNImportant derivatives are: thigh, thousand, thimble, thumb, tumor, truffle, tuber, butter, tomb. Also teu-To swell. 16. Extended form *teuk-. THIGH, from Old English thKoh, thigh, from Germanic *theuham, the swollen or fat part of the leg,

thigh. 17. Extended form *t7s-. THOUSAND, from Old English th7send, thousand, from Germanic compound *th7s-hundi-, swollen hundred, thousand (*hundi-, hundred; see dekc). 18. Probably suffixed zero-grade form *tu-l-. a. b.
THOLE PIN,

from Old English thol(l), oar pin, oarlock

1

(*thul-;
TYLECTOMY, TYLOSIS

, from Greek tulos, callus, lump.

19. Extended zero-grade form *t7m-. a.

THIMBLE, THUMB,

from Old English th7ma, thumb

(*th7mon-; b. suffixed (stative) form *tum-K-. TUMESCENT, TUMID, TUMOR; DETUMESCENCE, INTUMESCE, TUMEFACIENT, (TUMEFY), from Latin tumKre, to swell, be swollen, be proud; c. suffixed form *tum-olo-. TUMULUS, from Latin tumulus, raised heap of earth, mound. 20. Extended zero-grade form *t7bh-. TRUFFLE, TUBER; PROTUBERATE, from Latin t7ber, lump, swelling. 21. Suffixed zero-grade form *t7-ro- (< *tuN-ro-). a. b.
BUTTER, TYROSINE, TYROTHRICIN, OBTURATE,

from Greek turos, cheese (

from Latin -t7r7re, to stop up, possibly from *t7ros, swollen, coagulated, stopped up.

22. Suffixed variant form *two-ro-. SORITES, SORUS, from Greek soros, heap, pile. 23. Suffixed variant form *two-mi. SOMA, SOMATO-, -SOME3; PROSOMA, from Greek soma, body ( 24. Suffixed zero-grade form *twN-wo-. CREOSOTE, SOTERIOLOGY, from Greek sozein, to save, rescue, derivative of saos, sos, safe, healthy (< swollen, strong). 25. Perhaps nasalized extended form *tu-m-b(h)- (or extended

zero-grade form *tum-). TOMB, from Greek tumbos, barrow, tomb. [Pokorny tKu- 1080.]

teut7Important derivatives are: Dutch, Teuton, total. Tribe. a. DUTCH, from Middle Dutch duutsch, German, of the Germans or Teutons; b. PLATTDEUTSCH, from Old High German diutisc, of the people. Both a and b from Germanic *theudiskaz, of the people, derivative of *theud7-, people. 10. Suffixed form *teut-onos, they of the tribe. TEUTON, from Latin TeutonX, the Teutons, borrowed via Celtic from Germanic tribal name *theudanoz. 11.
TOTAL, TUTTI; FACTOTUM, TEETOTUM,

from Latin totus, all, whole,

possibly from teut7- (? [In Pokorny tKu- 1080.]

tkeiImportant derivatives are: home, hamlet, haunt, hangar, situate. To settle, dwell, be home. 10. Suffixed o-grade form *(t)koi-mo-. a.
HOME,

from Old English h7m, home;

b. NIFLHEIM, from Old Norse heimr, home; c. d. e. f.

HAIMISH, HAME,

from Old High German heim, home;

from Middle Dutch hame, hame (< covering); from Old French ham, village, home;

HAMLET, HAUNT,

from Old French hanter, to frequent, haunt, from Germanic *haimatjan, to go or bring home;

g.

from Old French hangard, shelter, possibly from Germanic *haimgardaz (*gardaz, enclosure; see gher-1). a, b, c, d, e, f, and g all from Germanic *haimaz, home.

HANGAR,

11. Zero-grade form *tki-. a. b.

AMPHICTYONY,

from Greek ktizein, to found, settle, from metathesized kti-;

from Latin situs, location, from suffixed form *si-tu- from si-, probably from *tki-.

SITUATE, SITUS,

[Pokorny 1. ei- 539, tei- 626.]

toImportant derivatives are: the1, decoy, though, these, this, than, then, there, they, their, them, that, those, thus, tandem. Demonstrative pronoun. For the nominative singular see so-. a. b. 18.
THE

; NATHELESS, from Old English thK, th (instrumental case), by the;

2

DECOY,

from Middle Dutch de, the. Both a and b from Germanic *thK-.

from Middle English though, though, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse tho, though, from Germanic *thauh, for all that.
THESE, THIS, (THOSE),

THOUGH,

19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

from Old English thes, this, this, from

Germanic *thasi-.
THAN, THEN,

from Old English thanne, thnne, thenne, than, then, from Germanic *thana-. from Old English thanon, thence, from Germanic *thanana-.
THERE, THENCE,

from Old English th<r, thKr, there, from Germanic *thKr. from Old English thder, thider, thither, from

THITHER,

Germanic *thathro. 24. 25. 26. from Old Norse their, they, from Germanic nominative plural *thai. from Old Norse their(r)a, theirs, from Germanic genitive plural *thaira. from Old Norse theim and Old English th<m, them, from Germanic dative plural *thaimiz.
THEM, THEIR, THEY,

27. Extended neuter form *tod-. THAT, from Old English tht, that, from Germanic *that. 28.
THUS,

from Old English thus, thus, from Germanic *thus-.

29. Adverbial (originally accusative) form *tam. TANDEM, TANTAMOUNT, from Latin tandem, at last, so much, and tantus, so much. 30. Suffixed reduced form *t-7li-. TALES, from Latin t7lis, such. 31.
TAUTO-,

from Greek to, the.

[Pokorny 1. to- 1086.]

tolkwImportant derivatives are: loquacious, circumlocution, colloquium, elocution, soliloquy, ventriloquism. To speak. Metathesized form *tlokw-. LOCUTION, LOQUACIOUS; ALLOCUTION, CIRCUMLOCUTION, COLLOQUIUM, (COLLOQUY), ELOCUTION, GRANDILOQUENCE, INTERLOCUTION, MAGNILOQUENT, OBLOQUY, SOLILOQUY, VENTRILOQUISM, from Latin loquX, to speak. [Pokorny tolk- 1088.]

tongImportant derivatives are: thank, think, thought. To think, feel. 4. from Old English thanc, thought, good will, and thancian, to thank, from Germanic *thankaz, thought,
THANK,

gratitude, and *thankon, to think of, thank. 5. 6. 7. from Old English (bi)thencan, to think, from Germanic *(bi-)thankjan.
THOUGHT, BETHINK, THINK,

from Old English (ge)thoht, thought, from Germanic *(ga)thanht- (*ga-, collective prefix; see kom).
METHINKS,

from Old English thyncan, (third person singular present indicative thyncth), to seem, from Germanic *thunkjan.

[Pokorny 1. tong- 1088.]

trebDerivatives are: thorp, trave. Dwelling. 5. Zero-grade form *tyb-. THORP, from Old English thorp, village, hamlet, from Germanic *thurp-. 6.
TRABEATED, TRABECULA, TRAVE; ARCHITRAVE,

from Latin trabs, beam,

timber. [Pokorny treb- 1090.]

treiImportant derivatives are: three, thrice, thirteen, thirty, trio, third, tertiary, triple, testament, testimony, attest, contest, detest, protest, testify, sitar, trinity. Three. I. Nominative plural form *treyes. a.
THREE, THRICE; THIRTEEN, THIRTY,

from Old English thrXe, thrKo, thrX, three, with its derivatives thrXga, thrXwa, thrice, thrXtig, thirty, and thrKotXne, thirteen (-tXne, ten; see dekc); from Old Swedish thrXr, three. Both a and b from Germanic *thrijiz, from Latin
TRILLIUM,

b. 2.

TREY; TRAMMEL, TRECENTO, TREPHINE, TRIUMVIR, TROCAR,

trKs, three.

3.

TRISKAIDEKAPHOBIA,

from Greek treis, tris, three.

II. Zero-grade form *tri-. 1. Suffixed form *tri-tyo-. i. ii. b.

THIRD, RIDING

from Old English thrid(d)a, thirdda, third;

2

, from Old Norse thridhi, third. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *thridjaz, third; from

TERCEL, TERCET, TERTIAN, TERTIARY, TIERCE; SESTERCE,

Latin tertius (neuter tertium), third. 2. Combining form *tri-. a. b.

TRI-, TRIBE, TRIO, TRIPLE,

from Latin tri-, three;

TRI-; TRICLINIUM, TRICROTIC, TRIDACTYL, TRIGLYPH, TRITONE,

from Greek tri-, three; c. TRIMURTI, from Sanskrit tri-, three. 3. 4. 5.

TRIAD,

from Greek trias, the number three. from Greek trikha, in three parts.

TRICHOTOMY, TRIERARCH,

from Greek compound triKrKs, galley with three banks of oars, trireme (-KrKs, oar; see erN-).

6. Suffixed form *tri-to-. TRITIUM; TRITANOPIA, from Greek tritos, third. 7. Compound form *tri-pl-, threefold (*-pl- *-plo-; see pel-2). TRIPLOBLASTIC, from Greek triploos, triple. 8. Compound form *tri-plek-, threefold (*-plek-, -fold; see plek-). TRIPLEX, from Latin triplex, triple. 9. Compound form *tri-st-i-, third person standing by (see st7). TESTAMENT, (TESTIMONY); ATTEST, CONTEST, DETEST, OBTEST, PROTEST, TESTIFY, from Latin testis, a witness. 10.
SITAR,

from Persian si, three.

III. Extended zero-grade form *tris, thrice.

1. 2.

TERN

; TERPOLYMER, from Latin ter, thrice. from Greek tris, thrice.

TRISOCTAHEDRON,

3. Suffixed form *tris-no-. TRINE, (TRINITY), from Latin trXnX, three each. IV. Suffixed o-grade form *troy-o-. TROIKA, from Russian troje, group of three. [Pokorny trei- 1090.]

trepImportant derivatives are: trope, contrive, retrieve, trophy, tropic, entropy. To turn. 4. -TROPOUS; APOTROPAIC, (ATROPOS), TREPONEMA, from Greek trepein, to turn, with o-grade tropos, turning. 5. O-grade form *trop-. a. suffixed form *trop-o-. TROPE, (TROUBADOUR), (TROVER); CONTRIVE, (RETRIEVE), from Greek tropos, a turn, way, manner; b. suffixed form *trop-7-. TROPHY, TROPIC, TROPO-; ENTROPY, from Greek tropK, a turning, change. [Pokorny 2. trep- 1094.]

treudImportant derivatives are: threat, thrust, intrude, protrude. To squeeze. 18. Suffixed o-grade form *troud-o-. THREAT, from Old English thrKat, oppression, use of force, from Germanic *thrautam. 19. Variant form *tr7d-. THRUST, from Old Norse thrsta, to squeeze, compress, from Germanic *thr7stjan. 20.
ABSTRUSE, EXTRUDE, INTRUDE, OBTRUDE, PROTRUDE,

from Latin tr7dere,

to thrust, push.

[Pokorny tr-eu-d 1095.]

tuImportant derivatives are: thee, thou1, thine, thy. Second person singular pronoun; you, thou. 5. Lengthened form *t7 (accusative *te, *tege). (THEE), THOU1, from Old English th7 (accusative thec, thK), thou, from Germanic *th7 (accusative *theke). 6. Suffixed extended form *t(w)ei-no-. THINE, THY, from Old English thXn, thine, from Germanic *thXnaz. [Pokorny tu- 1097.]

udImportant derivatives are: out, utmost, carouse, outlaw, utter1, utter2, but, about, ersatz, hubris. Also 7d-Up, out. a. b. c. d. e. f. g.
OUT; UTMOST,

from Old English 7t, out; from Old High German 7z, out;

CAROUSE; AUSLANDER, OUTLAW,

from Old Norse 7t, out; from Middle Dutch ute, uut, out;

UITLANDER, UTTER UTTER

1

, from Middle Low German 7t, out;

, from Old English 7tera, outer, from Germanic suffixed (comparative) form *7t-era-;
2

from Old English b7tan, b7te, outside (adverb), from Germanic compound *bi-7tana, at the outside (*bi-, by, at; see ambhi). a, b, c, d, e, f, and g all from Germanic *7t-, out.

BUT; ABOUT,

17. Extended form *uds. a.

ERSATZ,

from Old High German irsezzan, to replace, from ir-, out;

b.

ORT,

from Middle Dutch oor, out;

c. (see dail-) Germanic *uz-dailjam, a portioning out, judgment; d. URSPRACHE, from Old High German ur-, out of, original. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *uz, *uz-, out. 18. Suffixed (comparative) form *ud-tero-. HYSTERESIS, HYSTERON PROTERON, from Greek husteros, later, second, after. 19.
HUBRIS,

from Greek compound hubris, violence, outrage, insolence (bri-, perhaps heavy, violent; see gwerN-1), from hu-.
VIGORISH,

20.

from Russian vy-, out.

[Pokorny 'd- 1103.]

uper Important derivatives are: over, sovereign, super-, superior, supreme, sirloin, superb, sum, summit, soprano, somersault, hyper-. Over. 23. Extended form *uperi. a. b.
OVER,

from Old English ofer, over;

ORLOP,

from Middle Low German over, over. Both a and b from Germanic *uberi.

24. Variant form *(s)uper. a.

SOUBRETTE, SOVEREIGN, SUPER-, SUPERABLE, SUPERIOR, SUPREME,

(SUPREMO), SUR-; SIRLOIN, from Latin super, super-, above, over; b. suffixed form *(s)uper-no-. SUPERNAL, from Latin supernus, above, upper, top; c. suffixed form *super-bhw-o-, being above (*bhw-o-, being; see bheuN-). SUPERB, from Latin superbus, superior, excellent, arrogant;

d. suffixed (superlative) reduced form *sup-mo-. SUM, SUMMIT, from Latin summus, highest, topmost; e. suffixed form *super-o-. (SOPRANINO), SOPRANO, SUPRA-; SOMERSAULT, from Latin supr7 (feminine ablative singular), above, beyond. 25. Basic form *uper. HYPER-, from Greek huper, over. [Pokorny uper 1105.]

upo Important derivatives are: up, uproar, open, above, often, eaves, eavesdrop, sub-, supine1, supple, hypo-, valet, vassal, opal. Under, up from under, over. a. b. c. d. 7. 8.
OPEN, UP,

from Old English up, uppe, up; from Old English 7p-, upp-, up; from Middle Low German up, up;

UP-,

UPROAR,

from Old High German 7f, up. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *upp-, up.

AUFKLRUNG,

from Old English open, open, from Germanic *upanaz, put or set up, open. from Old English b7fan, above, over, from Germanic compound *bi-ufana, on, above (*bi-, by, at; see ambhi).
ABOVE,

9. Possibly suffixed form *up-t-. OFT, OFTEN, from Old English oft, often, from Germanic *ufta, frequently. 10. Extended form *upes-. a. b.
EAVES,

from Old English efes, eaves;

from Old English yfesdrype, water from the eaves, from Germanic *obisdrup-, dripping water from the eaves (*drup-, to drip, from *dhrub-; see dhreu-). Both a and b from Germanic *ubaswo, *ubizwo, vestibule, porch, eaves (

EAVESDROP,

11. Variant form *(s)up-. a. b.

SOUTANE, SUB-, SUPINE,

from Latin sub, under;

from Latin supXnus, lying on the back (

c. suffixed form *sup-ter. SUBTERFUGE, from Latin subter, secretly; d. (see pl7k-1) Latin supplex, suppliant, from sub, under. 12. Basic form *upo. HYPO-, from Greek hupo, under. 13. Suffixed variant form *ups-o-. HYPSO-, from Greek hupsos, height, top. 14. Basic form *upo-. (see reidh-) Latin verKdus, post horse, from Celtic *wo-, under. 15. Probably compound *upo-st-o-. (VALET), (VARLET), VASSAL, from Vulgar Latin *vassus, vassal, from Celtic *wasso-, one who stands under, servant, young man (*sto-, standing; see st7-). 16.
OPAL,

UPANISHAD, from Sanskrit upa, near to, under (in upani}ad,

Upanishad). [Pokorny upo 1106.]

walImportant derivatives are: valence, valiant, valid, valor, value, avail, convalesce, equivalent, invalid1, prevail, wield. To be strong. 21. Suffixed (stative) form *wal-K-. VALE2, VALENCE, VALETUDINARIAN, VALIANT, VALID, VALOR, VALUE; AMBIVALENCE, AVAIL, CONVALESCE, 1 2 COUNTERVAIL, EQUIVALENT, (INVALID ), INVALID , PREVAIL, (VALEDICTION), from Latin valKre, to be strong. 22. Extended o-grade form *wold(h)-. a. from Old English wealdan, to rule, and wieldan, to govern, from Germanic *waldan, to rule;
WIELD,

b. (see koro-) Germanic *harja-waldaz, army

commander, from *wald-, power, rule. 23. Suffixed extended o-grade form *wold-ti-. OBLAST, from Old Church Slavonic vlastV, rule. [Pokorny al- 1111.]

weAn important derivative is: we. We. For oblique cases of the pronoun see nes-2. Suffixed variant form *wey-es. WE, from Old English wK, we, we, from Germanic *wXz. [Pokorny L- 1114.]

wKImportant derivatives are: weather, wind1, window, vent, ventilate, wing, nirvana. To blow. Contracted from *weN-; oldest basic form *NwK- (< *NweN-). 26. Suffixed irregular shortened form *we-dhro-. WEATHER, from Old English weder, weather, storm, wind, from Germanic *wedram wind, weather. 27. Suffixed (participial) form *wK-nt-o-, blowing. i. ii. b. 28.
WING, VENT
1

WIND

, from Old English wind, wind;

from Old Norse vindr, wind. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *windaz;

WINDOW,

, VENTAIL, VENTILATE, from Latin ventus, wind.

from Middle English wenge, wing, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse vngr, wing, from suffixed Germanic form *wK-ingjaz.

29. Basic form *wK-. NIRVANA, from Sanskrit v7ti (stem *v7-), it blows. [Pokorny 10. a(K)- 81.]

webhImportant derivatives are: weave, web, weevil, wafer, waffle1, wave, wobble. To weave, also to move quickly. 17. 18. , from Old English wefan, to weave, from Germanic *weban.
1

WEAVE, WOOF

from Old English wefta, weft, cross thread, from Germanic *wefta-.

WEFT,

19. Suffixed o-grade form *wobh-yo-. WEB, WEBSTER, from Old English web(b), web, from Germanic *wabjam, fabric, web. 20.
WEEVIL,

from Old English wifel, weevil (*webila-. i. ii.

GOFFER,

from Old French gaufre, honeycomb,

waffle; from Old North French waufre, wafer. Both (i) and (ii) from a source akin to Middle Low German w7fel, honeycomb;
1

WAFER,

b.

WAFFLE

, from Middle Dutch w7fel, waffle. Both a and b from suffixed Germanic form *wabila-, web, honeycomb.

c. d. e.

from Old English wafian, to move (the hand) up and down;

WAVER,

WAVE,

from Middle English waveren, to waver;

WOBBLE,

from Low German wabbeln, to move from side to side, sway. a, b, and c all from Germanic *wab-, to move back and forth as in weaving, possibly from webh-.

21. Suffixed zero-grade form *ubh-7-. HYPHA, from Greek huphK, web. [Pokorny ebh- 1114.]

wed-1

Important derivatives are: water, wet, wash, winter, hydrant, hydro-, undulate, abound, inundate, redundant, surround, otter, Hydra, whiskey, vodka. Water; wet. 33. Suffixed o-grade form *wod-or. a. b.
WATER,

from Old English wter, water;

KIRSCHWASSER,

from Old High German wassar, water. Both a and b from Germanic *watar.

34. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *wKd-o-. WET, from Old English w<t, wKt, wet, from Germanic *wKd-. 35. O-grade form *wod-. WASH, from Old English wscan, wacsan, to wash, from Germanic suffixed form *wat-skan, to wash. 36. Nasalized form *we-n-d-. WINTER, from Old English winter, winter, from Germanic *wintruz, winter, wet season. 37. Suffixed zero-grade form *ud-or. (HYDRANT), HYDRO-, (HYDROUS), UTRICLE; ANHYDROUS, CLEPSYDRA, DROPSY, HYDATHODE, HYDATID, from Greek hudor, water. 38. Suffixed nasalized zero-grade form *u-n-d-7-. UNDINE, UNDULATE; ABOUND, INUNDATE, (REDOUND), REDUNDANT, SURROUND, from Latin unda, wave. 39. Suffixed zero-grade form *ud-ro-, *ud-r7-, water animal. a. b.
OTTER,

from Old English otor, otter, from Germanic *otraz, otter;

NUTRIA,

from Latin lutra, otter (with obscure l-);

c. HYDRUS, from Greek hudros, a water snake; d. HYDRA, from Greek hudra, a water serpent, Hydra. 40. Suffixed zero-grade form *ud-skio-. USQUEBAUGH, (WHISKEY), from Old Irish uisce, water. 41. Suffixed o-grade form *wod-7-. VODKA, from Russian voda, water. [Pokorny 9. a(e)- 78.]

wed-2 Important derivatives are: ode, comedy, melody, parody, rhapsody, tragedy. To speak. 16. Oldest root form *Nwed- becoming *awed- in possible reduplicated form *awe-ud-, dissimilated to *aweid-, with suffixed o-grade form *awoid-o- (but more likely a separate root *Nweid- becoming Greek *aweid-, to sing). ODE; COMEDY, EPODE, HYMNODY, MELODY, MONODY, PARODY, RHAPSODY, TRAGEDY, from Greek aeidein (Attic aidein), to sing, and aoidK (Attic oidK), song, ode, with aoidos (Attic oidos), a singer, singing. 17. THERAVADA, from Sanskrit v7daU, sound, statement. [Pokorny 6. au- 76.]

wegImportant derivatives are: wake1, waken, watch, bivouac, wait, vegetable, vigor, vigil, vigilante, reveille, velocity. To be strong, be lively. 3. Suffixed o-grade form *wog-K-. WAKE1, from Old English wacan, to wake up, arise, and wacian, to be awake, from Germanic *wakKn. 4. Suffixed o-grade form *wog-no-. WAKEN, from Old English wcnan, wcnian, to awake, from Germanic *waknan. 5. from Old English wccan, to be awake, from Germanic *wakjan.
WATCH,

6. Suffixed form *weg-yo-. (WICCA), (WICKED), WITCH; (BEWITCH), from Old English wicca, sorcerer, wizard (feminine wicce, witch), from Germanic *wikkjaz, necromancer ( 7.
BIVOUAC,

from Old High German wahta, watch, vigil, from Germanic *wahtwo. a. b.
WAIT, WAFT,

from Old North French waitier, to watch;

from Middle Dutch and Middle Low German wachten, to watch, guard. Both a and b from Germanic

*waht-. 8. Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *wog-eyo-. VEGETABLE, from Latin vegKre, to be lively. 9. Suffixed (stative) form *weg-K-. VIGOR, from Latin vigKre, to be lively. 10. Suffixed form *weg-(e)li-. VEDETTE, VIGIL, (VIGILANT), VIGILANTE; REVEILLE, SURVEILLANT, from Latin vigil, watchful, awake. 11. Suffixed form *weg-slo-. VELOCITY, from Latin vKlox, fast, lively. [Pokorny e- 1117.]

weghImportant derivatives are: weigh1, wee, weight, way, always, away, wagon, wag1, vogue, earwig, wiggle, vector, vehicle, convection, via, voyage, convey, deviate, devious, envoy1, obvious, previous, trivial, vex, convex. To go, transport in a vehicle. 4. 5.
WEIGH

, from Old English wegan, to carry, balance in a scale, from Germanic *wegan.
1

from Old English w<g(e), weight, unit of weight, from Germanic lengthened-grade form *wKgo.

WEE,

6. Suffixed form *wegh-ti-. WEIGHT, from Old English wiht, gewiht, weight, from Germanic *wihti-. a.
WAY; ALWAYS, AWAY,

from Old English weg, way;

b. NORWEGIAN, from Old Norse vegr, way. Both a and b from Germanic *wegaz, course of travel, way. 7. Suffixed o-grade form *wogh-no-. a. b.
WAIN,

from Old English w(g)n, wagon;

WAGON,

from Middle Dutch wagen, wagon. Both a and b from Germanic *wagnaz.

8. Suffixed o-grade form *wogh-lo-.

a. b.

WALLEYED,

from Old Norse vagl, chicken roost, perch, beam, eye disease, from Germanic *waglaz;
OCHLOCRACY, OCHLOPHOBIA,

from Greek okhlos, populace,

mob ( 9. Distantly related to this root are: i. ii.

WAG

, from Middle English waggen, to wag, possibly from wegh-;

1

GRAYWACKE,

from Old High German waggo, wacko, boulder rolling on a riverbed. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *wag-, to move about;

b.

from Old French voguer, to row, sail, from Old Low German *wogon, to rock, sway, from Germanic *wKga-, water in motion; i. ii.
EARWIG, WIGGLE,

VOGUE,

from Old English wicga, insect (

from Middle Dutch and Middle Low German wiggelen, to move back and forth, wag. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *wig-.

10. Basic form *wegh-. VECTOR, VEHEMENT, VEHICLE; ADVECTION, CONVECTION, EVECTION, INVEIGH, from Latin vehere (past participle vectus), to carry. 11. Suffixed basic form *wegh-y7. FOY, VIA, VOYAGE; CONVEY, DEVIATE, 1 DEVIOUS, (ENVOI), ENVOY , OBVIOUS, PERVIOUS, PREVIOUS, (TRIVIAL), TRIVIUM, (VIADUCT), from Latin via, way, road. 12. Suffixed form *wegh-s-. VEX, from Latin vex7re, to agitate ( 13. Probably suffixed form *wegh-so-. CONVEX, from Latin convexus, carried or drawn together (to a point), convex (com-, together; see kom). [Pokorny eh- 1118.]

weiImportant derivatives are: wire, ferrule, vise, viticulture, iris.

Also weiN-To turn, twist; with derivatives referring to suppleness or binding. XI. Form *wei-. a. b.
WIRE,

from Old English wXr, wire;

from Old French garlande, wreath, from Frankish *wiara, *weara, wire. Both a and b from Germanic suffixed form *wX-ra-, *wK-ra-.

GARLAND,

2.

from Old English w7r, seaweed, from suffixed Germanic form *wai-ra-, probably from wei-.

SEAWARE,

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *wi-ria-. FERRULE, from Latin viriae, bracelets (of Celtic origin). 4. Suffixed form *wei-ti-. WITHY, from Old English wXthig, willow, withy, from Germanic *wXth-, willow. 5. Suffixed zero-grade form *wi-t-. WITHE, from Old English withthe, supple twig, from Germanic *withjon-. XII. Form *weiN-, zero-grade *wX- (< *wiN-). 1. Suffixed form *wX-ti-. VISE; VITICULTURE, from Latin vXtis, vine. 2. Suffixed form *wX-t7- becoming *witt7. VITTA, from Latin vitta, headband. 3. Suffixed form *wX-men-. MIMBRES, from Latin vXmen, withy, wicker. 4. Probably suffixed form *wX-ri-. (IRIDACEOUS), IRIDO-, IRIS, IRIS; (IRIDIUM), (IRITIS), from Greek iris, rainbow, and Iris, rainbow goddess. 5. Perhaps suffixed form *wX-n-. INION; EXINE, INOSITOL, INOTROPIC, from Greek is (genitive inos), sinew. [Pokorny 1. ei- 1120.]

weidImportant derivatives are: guide, wise1, wisdom, guise, idol, kaleidscope, Hades, wit1, unwitting, view, visa, vision, advice, clairvoyance, envy, evident, interview, provide,

review, supervise, survey, idea, history, story1, penguin. To see. IV. Full-grade form *weid-. a. b. c. d.
TWIT,

from Old English wXtan, to reproach; from Old Provenal guidar, to guide;

GUIDE, GUY
1

, from Old French guier, to guide;

from Old English wXte, fine, penalty, from Germanic derivative noun *wXti-. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *wXtan, to look after, guard, ascribe to, reproach.

WITE,

2. Suffixed form *weid-to-. a. b. c.

WISE
1

, from Old English wXs, wise;

WISDOM,

from Old English wXsdom, learning, wisdom (dom, abstract suffix; see dhK-); from Old High German wXssago, seer, prophet;
2

WISEACRE,

i. ii.

WISE

, from Old English wXse, wXs, manner;

from Old French guise, manner. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *wXsson-, appearance, form, manner. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *wXssaz.

GUISE,

3. Suffixed form *weid-es-. EIDETIC, EIDOLON, IDOL, IDYLL, -OID; IDOCRASE, KALEIDOSCOPE, from Greek eidos, form, shape. V. Zero-grade form *wid-. a. b. 2.
WIT
2

, from Old English wit, witt, knowledge, intelligence;

WIT
1

from Old English wita, wise man, councilor. Both a and b from Germanic *wit-.

WITENAGEMOT,

; UNWITTING, from Old English witan, to know, from Germanic *witan.

3. Suffixed form *wid-to-. IWIS, from Old English gewis, gewiss,

certain, sure, from Germanic *wissaz, known. 4. Form *wid-K- (with participial form *weid-to-). VIDE, VIEW, VISA, VISAGE, VISION, VISTA, VOYEUR; ADVICE, (ADVISE), BELVEDERE, BLACK-AVISED, CLAIRVOYANT, ENVY, EVIDENT, INTERVIEW, PREVISE, PROVIDE, REVIEW, SUPERVISE, SURVEY, from Latin vidKre, to see, look. 5. Suffixed form *wid-es-ya. IDEA, IDEO-, from Greek idea, appearance, form, idea. 6. Suffixed form *wid-tor-. HISTORY, (STORY1); POLYHISTOR, from Greek histor, wise, learned, learned man. 7.
HADAL,

HADES, from Greek HaidKs (also AidKs), the underworld,

perhaps the invisible and from *wid-. 8. Suffixed nasalized form *wi-n-d-o-. a. b.
COLCANNON, PENGUIN,

from Old Irish find, white (

from Welsh gwyn, gwynn, white.

9. (see deru-) Celtic compound *dru-wid-, strong seer (*dru-, strong). VI. Suffixed o-grade form *woid-o-. VEDA; RIG-VEDA, from Sanskrit vedaU, knowledge. [Pokorny 2. (e)di- 1125.]

weiNImportant derivatives are: vim, violate, violent. Vital force. Related to wX-ro-. Zero-grade form *wX- (< *wiN-). VIM, VIOLATE, VIOLENT, from Latin vXs, force, with irregular derivatives viol7re, to treat with force, and violentus, vehement. [In Pokorny 3. ei- 1123.]

weik-1 Important derivatives are: village, villain, vicinity, diocese, ecology, economy, parish. Clan (social unit above the household).

25. Suffixed form *weik-sl7. VILLA, VILLAGE, VILLAIN, VILLANELLE, (VILLEIN); (BIDONVILLE), from Latin vXlla, country house, farm. 26. Suffixed o-grade form *woik-o-. a. (VICINAGE), VICINITY; (BAILIWICK), from Latin vXcus, quarter or district of a town, neighborhood; b.
ANDROECIUM, AUTOECIOUS, DIOCESE, DIOECIOUS, DIOICOUS, ECESIS, ECOLOGY, ECONOMY, ECUMENICAL, HETEROECIOUS,

from Greek oikos, house, and its derivatives oikia, a dwelling, and oikKsis, dwelling, administration. 27. Zero-grade form *wik-. VAISYA, from Sanskrit vi{aU, dwelling, house. [Pokorny ei- 1131.]

MONOECIOUS, PARISH,

weik-2 Important derivatives are: wicker, wicket, weak, week, vicar, vicarious. Also weig-To bend, wind. IV. Form *weig-. a. b.
WYCH ELM,

from Old English wice, wych elm (having pliant branches);

WICKER,

from Middle English wiker, wicker, from a Scandinavian source akin to Swedish viker, willow twig, wand;
WICKET,

c. d. e. 2.
WEEK,

from Old North French wiket, wicket (vikja, to bend, turn. a, b, and c all from Germanic *wik-.
WEAK,

from Old Norse veikr, pliant;

from Middle Dutch weec, weak, soft. Both a and b from Germanic *waikwaz.

WEAKFISH,

from Old English wicu, wice, week, from Germanic *wikon-, a turning, series.

V. Form *weik-. Zero-grade form *wik-.

a. b. [Pokorny 4. eik- 1130.]

from Latin *vix (genitive vicis), turn, situation, change;

VETCH,

VICAR, (VICARIOUS), VICE-; VICISSITUDE,

from Latin vicia, vetch (

weik-3 Important derivatives are: vanquish, victor, convince, evict. To fight, conquer. 26.
WIGHT
2

, from Old Norse vXgr, able in battle, from Germanic

*wXk-. 27. Nasalized zero-grade form *wi-n-k-. VANQUISH, VICTOR, VINCIBLE; CONVINCE, EVICT, from Latin vincere, to conquer. 28. Zero-grade form *wik-. ORDOVICIAN, from Celtic Ordovices (*ordo-wik-), those who fight with hammers (*ordo-, hammer). [Pokorny 2. eik- 1128.]

weipImportant derivatives are: waive, wipe, whip, vibrate. To turn, vacillate, tremble ecstatically. 12. O-grade form *woip-. WAIF1, WAIF2, (WAIVE), (WAIVER), from Anglo-Norman waif, ownerless property, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Old Norse veif, waving thing, flag, from Germanic *waif-. 13. Variant form *weib-. a. b. c.
WIPE,

from Old English wXpian, to wipe; from Old French guiper, to cover with silk;

GUIPURE, WHIP,

from Middle English wippen, to whip. a, b, and c all from Germanic *wXpjan, to move back and forth.

14. Perhaps suffixed nasalized zero-grade form *wi-m-p-ila-.

a.

WIMPLE,

from Old English wimpel, covering for the neck

( b. (GIMP1), GUIMPE, from Old High German wimpal, guimpe; c.

WIMBLE,

from Middle Dutch wimmel, auger (weip-.

15. Suffixed zero-grade variant form *wib-ro-. VIBRATE, from Latin vibr7re, to vibrate. [Pokorny eip- 1131.]

wektiImportant derivatives are: wight1, aught2, naught, not. Thing, creature. c. d. [Pokorny ek-ti- 1136.] ; (AUGHT2), NAUGHT, (NOT), from Old English wiht, person, thing;
WIGHT
1

NIX

, from Old High German wiht, thing, being. Both a and b from Germanic *wihti-.
2

wekwImportant derivatives are: vocal, voice, vowel, equivocal, vocation, vouch, advocate, avocation, evoke, invoke, provoke, revoke, epic. To speak. 32. O-grade form *wpkw-. a.
VOCAL, VOICE, VOWEL; EQUIVOCAL, UNIVOCAL,

from Latin vox

(stem voc-), voice; b. CALLIOPE, from Greek ops, voice. 33. Suffixed o-grade form *wokw-7-. VOCABLE, VOCATION, VOUCH; ADVOCATE, AVOCATION, CONVOKE, EVOKE, INVOKE, PROVOKE, REVOKE, from Latin voc7re, to call. 34. Suffixed form *wekw-es-. EPIC, EPOS; EPOPEE, ORTHOEPY, from Greek epos, song, word.

[Pokorny ek- 1135.]

wel-1 Important derivatives are: well2, wealth, will1, will2, gallop, gallant, volition, voluntary, benevolent, malevolent, voluptuous. To wish, will. 8. 9. 10. 11.
WELL
2

, from Old English wel, well (*wel-.

, WEALTH, from Old English wela, weola, well-being, riches, from Germanic *welon-.
WEAL
1

, from Old English willa, desire, will power, from Germanic *wiljon-.
WILL
1

; NILL, from Old English willan, to desire, from Germanic *wil(l)jan.

WILL
2

12. (see gw7-) Germanic compound *wil-kumon-. 13. O-grade form *wol-. a. b. c.
GALLOP, WALLOP,

from Old French galoper, to gallop; from Old North French *waloper, to gallop;

GALLANT,

from Old French galer, to rejoice, from Frankish Latin *wal7re, to take it easy, from Frankish *wala, good, well. a, b, and c all from Germanic *wal-.

14. Basic form *wel-. VELLEITY, VOLITION, VOLUNTARY; BENEVOLENT, MALEVOLENCE, from Latin velle (present stem vol-), to wish, will. 15. Suffixed form *wel-up-. VOLUPTUARY, VOLUPTUOUS, from Latin volupt7s, pleasure. [Pokorny 2. el- 1137.]

wel-2 Important derivatives are: waltz, willow, walk, well1, wallow, vault1, vault2, volume, evolve, involve, revolve, vulva, valve, valley, helix. To turn, roll; with derivatives referring to curved, enclosing objects.

a. b. 7. 8. 9.
WHELK
1

WALTZ,

from Old High German walzan, to roll, waltz;

WELTER,

from Middle Low German or Middle Dutch welteren, to roll. Both a and b from Germanic *walt-.

, from Old English weoluc, weoloc, mollusk (having a spiral shell), whelk, from Germanic *weluka-.

from Old English welig, willow (with flexible twigs), from Germanic *wel-, perhaps from wel-2. from Old English wealcan, to roll, toss, and wealcian, to muffle up, from Germanic *welk-, perhaps from wel-2.
WALK,

WILLOW,

10. O-grade form *wol-. a. b. c.

WELL
1

, from Old English wiella, wlla, welle, a well ( from Old High German wallon, to roam;

GABERDINE, WALLET,

possibly from Old North French *walet, roll, knapsack. a, b, and c all from Germanic *wall-.

11. Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *wol-7-. a.

WALE,

from Old English walu, streak on the skin, weal,

welt; b. (see wr7d-) Old High German *wurzwalu, rootstock, from *-walu, a roll, round stem. Both a and b from Germanic *walo. 12. Extended form *welw-. a. b. from Old English wealwian, to roll (in mud), from Germanic *walwon; , VAULT2, (VOLT2), VOLUBLE, VOLUME, VOLUTE, VOLUTIN, VOLVOX, VOUSSOIR; CIRCUMVOLVE, CONVOLVE, DEVOLVE, EVOLVE, INVOLVE, REVOLVE, from Latin volvere, to roll;
VAULT
1

WALLOW,

c. suffixed o-grade form *wolw-7-. VOLVA, VULVA, from Latin vulva, volva, covering, womb; d. suffixed zero-grade form *w_w-7-. VALVE, from Latin valva, leaf of a door (

e. Suffixed zero-grade form *w_u-ti-. ALYCE CLOVER, from Greek halusis, chain; f. suffixed form *welu-tro-. ELYTRON, from Greek elutron, sheath, cover. 13. Suffixed form wel-n-. ILEUS; NEURILEMMA, from Greek eilein (< *welnein), to turn, squeeze. 14. Perhaps variant *wall-. VAIL1, VALE1, VALLEY, from Latin vallKs, vallis, valley ( 15. Possibly suffixed form *wel-en7. ELECAMPANE, INULIN, from Greek helenion, elecampane, from the Greek name HelenK (earliest form Welen7), Helen. 16. Suffixed form *wel-ik-. HELIX, from Greek helix, spiral object. 17. Suffixed form *wel-mi-nth-. HELMINTH; ANTHELMINTIC, PLATYHELMINTH, from Greek helmis, helmins (stem helminth-), parasitic worm. [Pokorny 7. el- 1140.]

welNAn important derivative is: vulnerable. To strike, wound. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *wol(N)-o-. a. VALHALLA, from Old Norse Valhll, Valhalla; b. VALKYRIE, from Old Norse Valkyrja, chooser of the slain, name of one of the twelve war goddesses (-kyrja, chooser; see geus-). Both a and b from Old Norse valr, the slain in battle, from Germanic *walaz. 2. Suffixed basic form *welN-nes-. VULNERABLE, from Latin vulnus (stem vulner-), a wound. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *wlN-to-. BERDACHE, from Old Iranian *varta- (Avestan varNta-), seized, prisoner. [In Pokorny 8. el- 1144.]

wemNImportant derivatives are: vomit, emetic. To vomit. 6. from Middle English wam(e)len, to feel nausea, stagger, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Old Norse vamla, qualm, and Danish vamle, to become sick, from Germanic *wam-.
NUX VOMICA, VOMIT, EMESIS, EMETIC, WAMBLE,

7. 8.

from Latin vomere, to vomit.

from Greek emein, to vomit.

[Pokorny em- 1146.]

wen-1 Important derivatives are: win, winsome, wont, wean1, wish, venerate, venereal, Venus, venom, venial, venison. To desire, strive for. 21. Suffixed form *wen-w-. WIN, from Old English winnan, to win, from Germanic *winn(w)an, to seek to gain. 22. Suffixed zero-grade form *wi-y7. WYNN, WINSOME, from Old English wynn, wen, pleasure, joy, from Germanic *wunjo. 23. Suffixed (stative) zero-grade form *wi-K-, to be contented. 1 WON , (WONT), from Old English wunian, to become accustomed to, dwell, from Germanic *wunKn. 24. Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *won-eyo-. WEAN, from Old English wenian, to accustom, train, wean, from Germanic *wanjan. 25. from Old English wKnan, to expect, imagine, think, from Germanic denominative *wKnjan, to hope, from *wKniz, hope.
WEEN,

26. Suffixed zero-grade form *wi-sko-. WISH, from Old English wscan, to desire, wish, from Germanic *wunsk-. 27. Perhaps o-grade *won-.

a. VANIR, from Old Norse Vanir, the Vanir; b. from Old Norse VanadXs, name of the goddess Freya. Both a and b from Germanic *wana-.
VANADIUM,

28. Suffixed form *wen-es-. a.

VENERATE, VENEREAL, VENERY
1

, VENUS, from Latin venus,

love; b. suffixed form *wen-es-no-. VENOM, from Latin venKnum, love potion, poison. 29. Possibly suffixed form *wen-eto-, beloved. WEND, from Old High German Winid, Wend, from Germanic *Weneda-, a Slavic people. 30. Suffixed form *wen-y7. VENIAL, from Latin venia, favor, forgiveness. 31. Lengthened-grade form *wKn-7-. VENATIC, VENERY2, VENISON, from Latin vKn7rX, to hunt. 32. Suffixed basic form *wen-o-. WANDEROO, from Sanskrit vanam, forest. 33. Possibly zero-grade suffixed form *wi-ig-. BANYAN, from Sanskrit vahik, v7hijaU, merchant (? [Pokorny 1. en- 1146.]

wen-2 An important derivative is: wound1. To beat, wound. 7. Suffixed zero-grade form *wi-to-. WOUND1, from Old English wund, a wound, from Germanic *wundaz. 8. Suffixed o-grade form *won-yo-. WEN1, from Old English wen(n), wn(n), wen, from Germanic *wanja-, a swelling. [In Pokorny 1. 7- 1108.]

wepAn important derivative is: evil. Bad, evil. From earlier *Nwep-. Suffixed zero-grade form *up-elo-. EVIL, from Old English yfel, evil, from Germanic *ubilaz, evil.

wer-1 Important derivatives are: artery, aerial, air, aria, malaria, aura. To raise, lift, hold suspended. Earlier form *Nwer-. 7. Basic form *awer-. AORTA, ARSIS, ARTERIO-, ARTERIOLE, ARTERY, from Greek aeirein, to raise, and artKria, windpipe, artery. 8. (Obscure basic form *7wer-). AERIAL, AERO-, AIR, ARIA; MALARIA, from Greek aKr, air, possibly referred to this root. 9. Zero-grade form *aur-. AURA, from Greek aura, breath, vapor (related to Greek aKr, air). [Pokorny 1. er- 1151.]

wer-2 Important derivatives are: inward, worth1, stalwart, weird, versatile, verse1, version, versus, vertebra, vertex, adverse, anniversary, avert, controversy, convert, divert, invert, pervert, prose, universe, wreath, writhe, wrath, worry, wring, wrong, wrench, wrinkle, converge, wry, wriggle, wrist, wrestle, briar1, warp, reverberate, wrap, rhapsody, worm, vermin. Conventional base of various Indo-European roots; to turn, bend. I. Root *wert-, to turn, wind. i. -WARD, from Old English -weard, toward ( ii. from Old English inweard, inward, from Germanic *inwarth, inward (*in, in; see en). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic variant *warth;
1

INWARD,

b.

WORTH

; STALWART, from Old English weorth, worth, valuable, and derivative noun weorth, wierth, value,

from Germanic derivative *werthaz, toward, opposite, hence equivalent, worth, perhaps from wer-2. Both a and b from Germanic *werth-. 2. , from Old English weorthan, to befall, from Germanic *werthan, to become (
WORTH
2

3. Zero-grade form *wyt-. WEIRD, from Old English wyrd, fate, destiny (*wurthi-. 4. , VERSION, VERSUS, VERTEBRA, VERTEX, VERTIGO, VORTEX; ADVERSE, ANNIVERSARY, AVERT, BOULEVERSEMENT, CONTROVERSY, 1 CONVERSE , CONVERT, DEXTRORSE, DIVERT, EVERT, EXTRORSE, (EXTROVERSION), EXTROVERT, INTRORSE, INTROVERT, INVERT, MALVERSATION, OBVERT, PERVERT, PROSE, RETRORSE, REVERT, SINISTRORSE, SUBVERT, TERGIVERSATE, TRANSVERSE, UNIVERSE, from Latin vertere, to turn, with its frequentative vers7re, to turn, and passive vers7rX, to stay, behave (
1

VERSATILE, VERSE

5.

from Russian versta, line, from Balto-Slavic *wirst7-, a turn, bend.

VERST,

II. Root *wreit-, to turn. a. b. c.

WREATH, WRITHE,

from Old English writha, band ( from Old English wrXthan, to twist, torture;

from Old English wr7th, angry (< tormented, twisted). a, b, and c all from Germanic *wrXth-, *wraith-.

WRATH, WROTH,

III. Root *wergh-, to turn. 1. from Old English wyrgan, to strangle, from Germanic *wurgjan.
WORRY,

2. Nasalized variant *wrengh-. a. from Old English wringan, to twist, from Germanic *wreng-; i. from Middle English wrong, wrong, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *vrangr, rangr, curved, crooked, wrong;
WRONG, WRING,

ii.

WRANGLE,

from Middle English wranglen, to wrangle, from a Low German source akin to wrangeln, to wrestle. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *wrang-.

IV. Root *werg-, to turn. 1. Nasalized variant form *wreng-. a. b.

WRENCH, WRINKLE,

from Old English wrencan, to twist;

from Old English gewrinclian, to wind (ge-, collective prefix; see kom). Both a and b from Germanic *wrankjan.

2.

VERGE

; CONVERGE, DIVERGE, from Latin vergere, to turn, tend toward.

2

V. Root *wreik-, to turn. a. b. c. d.

WRY,

from Old English wrXgian, to turn, bend, go;

WRIGGLE,

from Middle Low German wriggeln, to wriggle. Both a and b from Germanic *wrXg-.
WRIST,

from Old English wrist, wrist;

GAITER,

from Old French guietre, gaiter, from Frankish *wrist-. Both a and b from Germanic *wristiz, from *wrihst-.

2.

from Old English wr<stan, to twist, from secondary Germanic derivative *wraistjan.

WREST, WRESTLE,

3. Possibly o-grade form *wroik-. BRIAR1, (BRUSQUE), from Late Latin br7cus, heather, from Gaulish *br7ko-. VI. RIBALD, from Old French riber, to be wanton, from Germanic root *wrib-. VII. Root *werb-, also *werbh-, to turn, bend. 1. 2. from Old English weorpan, to throw away, from Germanic *werp-, *warp-, to fling by turning the arm.
REVERBERATE, WARP,

from Latin verber, whip, rod.

3.

VERBENA, (VERVAIN),

from Latin verbKna, sacred foliage.

4. Zero-grade form *wyb-. RHABDOMANCY, RHABDOVIRUS, from Greek rhabdos, rod. 5. Nasalized variant form *wrembh-. RHOMBUS, from Greek rhombos, magic wheel, rhombus. VIII. Root *werp-, to turn, wind. 1. Metathesized form *wrep-. WRAP, from Middle English wrappen, to wrap, from a source akin to Danish dialectal vravle, to wind, from Germanic *wrap-. 2. Zero-grade form *wyp-. RAPHE, RHAPHIDE; RHAPSODY, STAPHYLORRHAPHY, TENORRHAPHY, from Greek rhaptein, to sew. IX. Root *wymi-, worm; rhyme word to kwymi-. 1. 2. from Old English wyrm, worm, from Germanic *wurmiz.
VERMEIL, VERMI-, VERMICELLI, VERMICULAR, VERMIN, WORM,

from Latin vermis,

worm. [Pokorny 3. er- 1152.]

wer-3 Important derivatives are: wary, aware, ward, lord, steward, warden, award, reward, wardrobe, guard, panorama, revere1. To perceive, watch out for. III. O-grade form *wor-. 1. Suffixed form *wor-o-. a. b. c.
WARY,

from Old English wr, watchful;

AWARE,

from Old English gewr, aware (ge-, collective and intensive prefix; see kom);
2

WARE

, from Old English warian, to beware. a, b, and c all from Germanic *waraz.

2. Suffixed form wor-to-.

i. ii. b. c. d.

WARD; LORD, STEWARD,

from Old English weard, a

watching, keeper;
WARDER
2

, from Old English weardian, to ward, from Old North

guard;
WARDEN; AWARD, REWARD, WARDROBE,

French warder, to guard;

GUARD,

from Old French guarder, to guard;

2

, from Anglo-Norman warde, guard. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *wardaz, guard, and *wardon, to guard.
REARWARD

3.

WARE

, from Old English waru, goods, protection, guard, from Germanic *waro.
1

4. Suffixed form *wor-wo-. ARCTURUS, PYLORUS, from Greek ouros, a guard. 5. Probably variant *(s)wor-, *s(w)or-. EPHOR, PANORAMA, from Greek horan, to see. IV. Suffixed (stative) form *wer-K-. REVERE1, from Latin verKrX, to respect, feel awe for. [Pokorny 8. er- 1164.]

wer-4 Important derivatives are: weir, aperture, overt, overture, cover, warn, warrant, warranty, garage, garret, garrison, warren, garment, garnish. To cover. XII. Basic form *wer-. 1.
WEIR,

from Old English wer, dam, fish trap, from Germanic *wer-jon-.

2. Compound form *ap-wer-yo- (*ap-, off, away; see apo-). APERIENT, APRITIF, APERTURE; OVERT, OVERTURE, PERT, from Latin aperXre, to open, uncover. 3. Compound form *op-wer-yo- (*op-, over; see epi). COVER,

OPERCULUM,

from Latin operXre, to cover.

4. Suffixed form *wer-tro-. AMBARELLA, from Sanskrit v7aU, enclosure, from lengthened-grade derivative *v7rt(r)a-. XIII. O-grade form *wor-. 1. from Old English *war(e)nian, to take heed, warn, from Germanic *war-non. i. ii.
GUARANTY, WARN,

from Old French garant, warrant, authorization;

from Old North French warant, warrant, and warantir, to guarantee; from Old French garer, to guard, protect; from Old French g(u)arir, to defend,

WARRANT, (WARRANTEE), WARRANTY,

b. c. d. e.

GARAGE,

GARRET, GARRISON,

protect;
WARREN,

from Old North French warenne, enclosure, game preserve; from Old French g(u)arnir, to equip. a, b, c, d, and e all from Germanic *war-.

GARMENT, GARNISH,

2. Suffixed form *wor-o-. BARBICAN, from Old Iranian compound *pari-v7raka-, protective (*pari-, around; see per1). [Pokorny 5. er- 1160.]

wer-5 Important derivatives are: word, verb, verve, adverb, proverb, irony. Also werN-To speak. Variant *wrK-, contracted from *wreN-. 14. Suffixed zero-grade form *wy-dho-. WORD, from Old English word, word, from Germanic *wurdam. 15. Suffixed form *wer-dho-. VERB, VERVE; ADVERB, PROVERB, from Latin verbum, word. 16. Suffixed form *wer-yo-. IRONY, from Greek eirein, to say, speak.

17. Variant form *wrK- in suffixed form *wrK-tor-. RHETOR, from Greek rhKtor, public speaker. [Pokorny 6. er- 1162.]

wK-rAn important derivative is: urine. Contracted from *weN-r-. Water, liquid, milk. Related to euN-dh-y. Suffixed zero-grade form *7r-Xn7-. URINE, from Latin 7rXna, urine. [In Pokorny 9. a(e)- 78.]

wergImportant derivatives are: work, boulevard, allergy, dramaturge, energy, liturgy, metallurgy, surgery, wrought, wright, organ, orgy. To do. I. Suffixed form *werg-o-. a.
WORK,

from Old English weorc, werc, work;

b. (BOULEVARD), BULWARK, from Old High German werc, work. Both a and b from Germanic *werkam, work. 2.
ERG, -URGY; ADRENERGIC, ALLERGY, ARGON, CHOLINERGIC, DEMIURGE, DRAMATURGE, ENDERGONIC, ENDOERGIC, ENERGY, ERGOGRAPH, ERGOMETER, ERGONOMICS, EXERGONIC, EXERGUE, EXOERGIC, GEORGIC, LITURGY, METALLURGY, SURGERY, (SYNERGID), SYNERGISM, THAUMATURGE,

from

Greek ergon, work, action. II. Zero-grade form *wyg-. 1. Suffixed forms *wyg-yo-, *wyg-to-. a. b.
WROUGHT, IRK,

from Old English wyrcan, to work;

from Old Norse yrkja, to work. Both a and b from Germanic *wurkjan, to work, participle *wurhta-.

2. Suffixed form *wyg-t-. WRIGHT, from Old English wryhta, maker, wright, from Germanic *wurhtjo-.

III. O-grade form *worg-. a. b. [Pokorny 2. er- 1168.]

ORGAN, ORGANON,

from Greek organon (with suffix -ano-

), tool; from Greek orgia, secret rites, worship (< service).

ORGY,

wKroImportant derivatives are: warlock, verity, very, verdict, verify, severe, persevere. True. 10. 11. 12.
WARLOCK,

from Old English w<r, faith, pledge, from Germanic

*wKra-.
VERACIOUS, VERISM, VERITY, VERY; AVER, VERDICT, VERIDICAL, VERIFY, VERISIMILAR, VOIR DIRE,

from Latin vKrus, true.

from Latin sevKrus, grave, serious; regarded by some as a compound of se-, sed, without (see s(w)e-), and vKrus, true, but the semantic difficulties make this explanation improbable.

SEVERE; ASSEVERATE, PERSEVERE,

13. Normal grade *wero-, from *werN-o-. GALORE, from Old Irish roar, enough, from *ro-wero-, sufficiency (*ro-, intensive prefix, from *pro-; see per1). [Pokorny 11. er- 1165.]

wersImportant derivatives are: war, guerrilla, worse, worst, liverwurst. To confuse, mix up. Compare ers-. I. Suffixed basic form. a. b.
WAR,

from Old North French werre, war;

GUERRILLA,

from Spanish guerra, war. Both a and b from Germanic *werra-, from *werz-a-.

2. 3.

from Old English wyrsa, worse, from Germanic comparative *wers-izon-.

WORST,

WORSE,

from Old English wyrsta, worst, from Germanic superlative *wers-istaz.

II. Suffixed zero-grade form *wys-ti-. WURST; (LIVERWURST), from Old High German wurst, sausage (< mixture), from Germanic *wursti-. [Pokorny ers- 1169.]

wes-1 Important derivatives are: was, were, astute. To stay, dwell, pass the night, with derivatives meaning to be. 9. O-grade form *wos-. WAS, from Old English ws, was, from Germanic *was-. 10. Lengthened-grade form *wKs-. WERE, from Old English w<re (subjunctive), w<ron (plural), were, from Germanic *wKz-. 11.
WASSAIL,

from Old Norse vesa, vera, to be, from Germanic

*wesan. 12. Perhaps suffixed form *wes-t7-. VESTA, from Latin Vesta, household goddess. 13. Possibly suffixed variant form *was-tu-. ASTUTE, from Latin astus, skill, craft (practiced in a town), from Greek astu, town ( 14. Suffixed form *wes-eno-. DIVAN, from Old Persian vahanam, house. [Pokorny 1. es- 1170.]

wes-2 Important derivatives are: wear, vest, invest, travesty. To clothe. Extension of eu-1. 13. Suffixed o-grade form *wos-eyo-. WEAR, from Old English werian, to wear, carry, from Germanic *wazjan.

14. Suffixed form *wes-ti-. VEST; DEVEST, INVEST, REVET, TRAVESTY, from Latin vestis, garment. 15. Suffixed form *wes-nu-. HIMATION, from Greek hennunai, to clothe, with nominal derivative heima, hima (< *wes-mi), garment. [Pokorny 5. es- 1172.]

wes-3 Important derivatives are: vend, bazaar. To buy. 5. Suffixed form *wes-no-. VENAL, VEND, from Latin vKnum, sale. 6. Suffixed o-grade form *wos-no-. DUOPSONY, from Greek oneisthai, to buy. 7. Suffixed form *wes-7-. BAZAAR, from Persian b7z7r, from Old Iranian *vah7-carana-, sale-traffic. [Pokorny 8. es- 1173.]

wes-peroImportant derivatives are: west, western, Visigoth, vesper. Evening, night. III. Reduced form *wes-. 1. Suffixed form *wes-to-. a. b. c.
WEST,

from Old English west, west; from Old English westerne, western;

WESTERN,

WESTERLY,

from Old English westra, more westerly. a, b, and c all from Germanic *west-.

2. VISIGOTH, from Late Latin VisigothX, West Goths (GothX, the Goths), from Germanic *wis-, possibly from wes-pero-. IV. Basic form *wespero-.

1.

VESPER, VESPERTILIONID,

from Latin vesper, evening.

2. HESPERIAN, from Greek hesperos, evening. [Pokorny esperos 1173.]

wesy An important derivative is: vernal. Spring.

VERNAL; PRIMAVERA
1

, from Latin vKr, spring (phonologically irregular).

[Pokorny es-y 1174.]

wet-1 Important derivatives are: Wednesday, fan1, atmosphere. To blow, inspire, spiritually arouse. Related to wK-. 12. Lengthened-grade form *wot-. a. WODEN, from Old English Woden, Woden; b. WEDNESDAY, from Old English Wodnesdg, Woden's day; c. ODIN, from Old Norse odhinn, Odin; d. WOTAN, from Old High German Wuotan. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic suffixed form *wod-eno-, *wod-ono, raging, mad, inspired, hence spirit, name of the chief Teutonic god *Wod-enaz; e.
WOOD

, from Old English wod, mad, insane, from Germanic *wodaz.

2

13. Lengthened variant form *w7t-. VATIC, from Latin v7tKs, prophet, poet. 14. Variant form *wat-. WEDELN, from Old High German wedil, fan, from Germanic suffixed form *wath-ila-.

15. Suffixed variant form *wat-no-. FAN1, VAN3, from Latin vannus, a winnowing fan. 16. Oldest basic form *Nwet- becoming *awet- in suffixed form *awet-mo-. ATMOSPHERE, from Greek atmos (< *aetmos), breath, vapor. [Pokorny 7t- 1113.]

wet-2 Important derivatives are: wether, veteran, inveterate, veterinary, veal. Year. 14. Suffixed form *wet-ru-. WETHER, from Old English wether, wether, from Germanic *wethruz, perhaps yearling. 15. Suffixed form *wet-es-. a. b. c.
VETERAN; INVETERATE, VETERINARY,

from Latin vetus, old (

from Latin veterXnus, of beasts of burden, of cattle (perhaps chiefly old cattle); from Greek etos, year.

ETESIAN,

16. Suffixed form *wet-olo-. VEAL, VITELLUS, from Latin vitulus, calf, yearling. [Pokorny et- 1175.]

wiImportant derivatives are: wide, with. Apart, in half. 6. Suffixed form *wi-itos. WIDE, from Old English wXd, wide (*wXdaz. 7. Suffixed (comparative) form *wi-tero-. a. b.
WITH, WITHERS,

from Old English wither, against, with its derivative with, with, against;
GUERDON; WIDDERSHINS,

from Old High German widar,

against. Both a and b from Germanic *withro, against. [Pokorny 1. Y- 1175.]

wXkctX A derivative is: vigesimal. Twenty. Compound of wi-, in half, hence two, and *(d)kct-X (nominative dual), decade, reduced zero-grade form of dekc. 11. 12. 13.
VICENARY, VIGESIMAL, ICOSAHEDRON, PACHISI,

from Latin vXgintX, twenty.

from Greek eikosi, twenty.

from Sanskrit vib{atiU, twenty.

[Pokorny X-kct-X 1177.]

wX-roImportant derivatives are: werewolf, world, virile, virtue, virtuoso. Man. Derivative of weiN-. a.
WEREWOLF, WERGELD,

from Old English wer, man;

i. ii.

WORLD,

from Old English weorold, world;

WELTANSCHAUUNG,

from Old High German weralt, world. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic compound *wer-ald-, life or age of man (*ald-, age; see al-2);

b.

from Old French garoul, werewolf, from Frankish *wer-wulf, man-wolf (*wulf, wolf; see w_kwo-). Both a and b from Germanic *weraz, from shortened form *wiraz. from Latin vir, man.

LOUP-GAROU,

9. 10.

VIRAGO, VIRILE, VIRTUE, (VIRTUOSA), (VIRTUOSO); DECEMVIR, DUUMVIR, TRIUMVIR, CURIA,

from Latin c7ria, curia, court, possibly from wX-ro-, if

regarded as from *co-vir, men together (*co-, together; see kom). [Pokorny Xro- s 1177.]

w_kwoAn important derivative is: wolf. Wolf. a. b. c.

WOLF,

from Old English wulf, wolf; from Middle Dutch wolf, wulf, wolf;

AARDWOLF, WOLFRAM,

from Old High German wolf, wolf;

d. (see wX-ro-) Frankish *wulf, wolf. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *wulfaz. 4. Taboo variant *lupo-. LOBO, (LUPINE1), LUPINE2, LUPUS; LOUP-GAROU, from Latin lupus, wolf. 5. Taboo variant *lukwo-. a.
LYCANTHROPE, LYCOPODIUM,

from Greek lukos, wolf;

b. suffixed form *lukw-ya. LYTTA; ALYSSUM, from Greek lussa, martial rage, madness, rabies (wolf-ness). [Pokorny _kos 1178.]

w_p-KA derivative is: vulpine. Fox. 6.

VULPINE,

from Latin vulpKs, fox.

7. Taboo variant *NlopLk-. ALOPECIA, from Greek alopKx, fox. [Pokorny _p-, lup- 1179.]

wps

An important derivative is: rendezvous. You (plural).

RENDEZVOUS,

from Latin vos, you.

[In Pokorny 1. u- 513.]

wr7dImportant derivatives are: root1, wort, radical, radish, eradiate, ramify, licorice. Branch, root. III. Basic form *wr7d-. ROOT1; RUTABAGA, from Old Norse rot, root, from Germanic *wrot-. IV. Zero-grade form *wyNd-. a.
WORT
1

, from Old English wyrt, plant, herb;

b. GEWRZTRAMINER, from Old High German wurz, plant, root; c. from German Wurzel, root (< *wurzwala, rootstock; *-wala, a roll, round stem; see wel-2). a, b, and c all from Germanic *wurtiz.
MANGEL-WURZEL,

2. Suffixed form *wyNd-y7-. WORT2, from Old English wyrt, brewer's wort, from Germanic *wurtjo-. 3.
RADICAL, RADICLE, RADISH, RADIX; DERACINATE, ERADICATE,

from Latin

r7dXx, root. 4. Suffixed form *wrNd-mo-. RAMOSE, RAMUS; RAMIFY, from Latin r7mus, branch. 5. Perhaps suffixed reduced form *wy(N)d-ya. RHIZO-, RHIZOME; COLEORHIZA, LICORICE, MYCORRHIZA, from Greek rhiza, root. [Pokorny (e)r7d- 1167.]

yKImportant derivatives are: jet2, abject, adjacent, adjective, conjecture, ease, eject, inject, object, project, reject, subject, catheter, enema.

To throw. Contracted from *yeN-. 24. Extended zero-grade forms *yak-yo- and *yak-K- (stative). GIST, (GITE), JACTITATION, JESS, JET2, JOIST; ABJECT, ADJACENT, ADJECTIVE, AMICE, CONJECTURE, DEJECT, (EASE), EJACULATE, EJECT, INJECT, INTERJECT, OBJECT, PARGET, PROJECT, REJECT, SUBJACENT, SUBJECT, SUPERJACENT, TRAJECT, from Latin iacere, to throw, lay, and iacKre, to lie down (iaculum, dart. 25. Basic form *yK- and zero-grade form *yN-. CATHETER, DIESIS, ENEMA, PARESIS, SYNESIS, from Greek hienai, to send, throw. [Pokorny K- 502.]

yegAn important derivative is: icicle. Ice.

ICICLE,

from Old English gicel, icicle, ice, from Germanic *jakilaz, *jekilaz.

[Pokorny eg- 503.]

yekImportant derivatives are: jewel, jocular, joke, juggle, jeopardy. To speak. Suffixed o-grade form *yok-o-. JEWEL, JOCOSE, JOCULAR, JOKE, JUGGLE, (JUGGLER); JEOPARDY, from Latin iocus, joke. [Pokorny ek- 503.]

yLkwy An important derivative is: hepatitis. Liver. 30. 31.

HEPATIC, HEPATO-; HEPARIN, (HEPATITIS), GIZZARD,

from Greek hKpar, liver.

from Persian jigar, liver.

[Pokorny ek-yt 504.]

yKrImportant derivatives are: year, hour, horoscope. Year, season. 22. Suffixed basic form *yKr-o-. YEAR, from Old English gKar, year, from Germanic *jKram. 23. Suffixed o-grade form *yor-7-. HOUR; HOROLOGE, HOROLOGY, HOROSCOPE, from Greek hora, season. [In Pokorny 1. ei- 293.]

yesImportant derivatives are: yeast, eczema. To boil, foam, bubble. 42. 43. 44.
YEAST,

from Old English gist, yeast, from Germanic *jest-.

from Old High German jsan, to ferment, and jerian, to cause to ferment, from Germanic *jes-.
ECZEMA, ZEOLITE,

KIESELGUHR,

from Greek zeein, zein, to boil.

[Pokorny es- 506.]

yeuImportant derivatives are: youth, young, junior, juvenile, rejuvenate. Vital force, youthful vigor. Earliest form *Nyeu-; variant of aiw-. Suffixed zerograde form *yuwen- (< *yu-Nen-), possessing youthful vigor, young. 18. Further suffixed form *yuwi-ti-. YOUTH, from Old English geoguth, youth, from Germanic *jugunthi-, *jugunth7-. 19. Further suffixed form *yuwi-ko-. i. ii.
YOUNG, JUNKER,

from Old English geong, young; from Old High German junc, young;

iii.

from Middle Dutch jonc, young. (i), (ii), and (iii) all from Germanic *jungaz from *juwungaz; from Old Irish oac, from Celtic *yowanko-. from Latin iuvenis, young.

YOUNKER,

b. 20.

GALLOWGLASS,

JUNIOR, JUVENILE; REJUVENATE,

[Pokorny 3. eu- 510.]

yeugImportant derivatives are: yoke, jugular, subjugate, joust, adjust, juxtapose, join, junction, juncture, junta, conjugal, injunction, yoga. To join. VI. Zero-grade form *yug-. 1. Suffixed form *yug-o-. a. b. c. from Old English geoc, yoke, from Germanic *yukam;
JUGATE, JUGULAR, JUGUM; CONJUGATE, SUBJUGATE, YOKE,

from Latin from

iugum, yoke;
ZYGO- ZYGOMA, ZYGOTE, -ZYGOUS; (AZYGOUS), SYZYGY,

Greek zugon, yoke, and zugoun, to join; d. YUGA, from Sanskrit yugam, yoke. 2. Suffixed (superlative) form *yug-istos. JOUST; ADJUST, JUXTAPOSE, (JUXTAPOSITION), from Latin iuxt7, close by, from *iugist7 (vi7), on a nearby (road). 3. Nasalized form *yu-n-g-. JOIN, JUNCTION, JUNCTURE, JUNTA; ADJOIN, CONJOIN, (CONJUGAL), (CONJUNCT), ENJOIN, INJUNCTION, SUBJOIN, from Latin iungere, to join. VII. VIII. Suffixed form *yeug-mi. ZEUGMA, from Greek zeugma, a bond. Suffixed o-grade form *youg-o-. YOGA, from Sanskrit yogaU, union.

[Pokorny 2. eu- 508.]

yewesImportant derivatives are: jurist, jury1, conjure, injury, perjure, judge, prejudice, just1.. Law. 14.
JURAL, JURIST, JURY

; ABJURE, ADJURE, CONJURE, INJURY, JURIDICAL, JURISCONSULT, JURISDICTION, JURISPRUDENCE, (NONJUROR), OBJURGATE, PERJURE, from Latin i7s (stem i7r-), law, and its derivative i7r7re, to pronounce a ritual formula, swear.
1

15. Compound form *yewes-dik-, one who shows or pronounces the law. (see deik-) Latin i7dex, judge. 16. Suffixed from *yewes-to-. JUST1, from Latin i7stus, just. [Pokorny eos 512.]

yewoA derivative is: zein. Grain. Suffixed form *yew-ya. ZEIN, from Greek zeia, one-seeded wheat. [Pokorny eo- 512.]

yuImportant derivatives are: ye2, you. You. Second person (plural) pronoun. , YOU, from Old English gK and Kow, you, from Germanic *j7z (nominative) and *iwwiz (oblique).
YE
2

[Pokorny 1. u- 513.]