A Complete Grammar of Esperanto

Kellerman, Ivy

Published: 1910
Categorie(s): Non-Fiction
Source: Project Gutenberg

About Kellerman:
Ivy Kellerman (Reed) was an American author in the international language Esperanto. She was an accomplished linguist with four academic
degrees for work in Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and Persian and half a dozen
modern languages.
Copyright: This work was published before 1923 and is in the public domain in the USA only.
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Preface
This volume has been prepared to meet a twofold need. An adequate
presentation of the International Language has become an imperative necessity. Such presentation, including full and accurate grammatical explanations, suitably graded reading lessons, and similarly graded material for translation from English, has not heretofore been accessible within
the compass of a single volume, or in fact within the compass of any two
or three volumes.
The combination of grammar and reader here offered is therefore
unique. It is to furnish not merely an introduction to Esperanto, or a superficial acquaintance with it, but a genuine understanding of the language and mastery of its use without recourse to additional textbooks,
readers, etc. In other words, this one volume affords as complete a
knowledge of Esperanto as several years' study of a grammar and various readers will accomplish for any national language. Inflection, wordformation and syntax are presented clearly and concisely, yet with a degree of completeness and in a systematic order that constitute a new feature. Other points worthy of note are the following:
The reasons for syntactical usages are given, instead of mere statements
that such usages exist. For example, clauses of purpose and of result are
really explained, instead of being dismissed with the unsatisfactory remark that "the imperative follows por ke," or the "use of tiel ke and
tia ke must be distinguished from that of tiel kiel and tia kia,"
etc., with but little intimation of when and why por ke, tiel ke and
tia ke are likely to occur.
Affixes are not mentioned until some familiarity with the general character of the language is assured, as well as the possession of a fair vocabulary. They are introduced gradually, with adequate explanation and illustration. Of importance in connection with word-formation is an element distinctly newthe explanation and classification of compound
words. Such words, like affixes, are withheld until the use of simple
words is familiar.
Another new feature is the gradual introduction of correlative words
in their logical order, and in their proper grammatical categories, before
they are called "correlatives," or tabulated. The tabulation finally presented is a real classification, with regard to the meaning and grammatical
character of the words, not merely an arbitrary alphabetical arrangement. The use of primary adverbs precedes the explanation of adverb derivation; prepositions, especially de, da, je, etc., receive careful attention,

also the verb system, and the differentiation of words whose English
equivalents are ambiguous.
A general characteristic of obvious advantage is that almost without
exception new forms and constructions are illustrated by means of
words or roots already familiar. Likewise, the new words or roots of
each lesson recur at least once in the next lesson, and usually in some lesson thereafter as well. Each reading exercise gives not only a thorough
application of the grammatical principles of the lesson, but a review of
those in the preceding lesson, and no use is made of words or constructions not yet explained. The comparative ease of the language, and the
lack of necessity for reciting paradigms, permit the reading exercises to
be long enough for the student to feel that he has really mastered
something. These exercises are further unique, in that each after the fifth
is a coherent narrative, and nearly every one is a story of genuine interest
in itself. These stories, if bound separately, would alone constitute a
reader equivalent to those used in first and second year work in national
languages. (For list of titles, see Table of Contents.)
The second element of the twofold need which this volume meets is
the necessity for a presentation of Esperanto, not as a thing apart, but in
that form which will make it most serviceable as an introduction to national tongues. A stepping-stone to both ancient and modern languages,
Esperanto may render invaluable aid, and pave the way for surmounting
the many difficulties confronting both student and teacher. Through
Esperanto, the labor in the acquirement of these languages may be reduced in the same proportion in which the pleasure and thoroughness of
such acquirement are increased. For this reason, the grammatical constructions of Esperanto are here explained as consistently as possible in
accordance with the usage of national languages, especially those in the
school curriculum, and precise names are assigned to them. Such matters
as contrary to fact conditions, indirect quotations, clauses of purpose and of result, accusatives of time and measure, expressions of separation, reference, etc.,
thus become familiar to the student, long before he meets them in the
more difficult garb of a national tongue, whose exceptions seem to outnumber its rules, and whose idioms prove more puzzling than its exceptions, unless approached by the smooth and gradual ascent of the International Language, Esperanto.
Ivy Kellerman.
Washington, D. C.,
August 3, 1910.

Lesson Contents
1.
Alphabet.Vowels.Consonants.Names
of
the
Letters.Diphthongs.Combinations of Consonants.Syllables.Accent.
2.
Nouns.The
Article.Adjectives.Attributive
Adjectives.Present Tense of the Verb
3. The Plural Number.Predicate Adjective and Noun
4. Transitive Verbs.The Accusative Case.The Conjunction
Kaj.The Negative Ne.
5. The Complementary Infinitive.Interrogation.The Conjunction
Nek.
6. Personal Pronouns.Agreement with Pronouns.Conjugation of
the Verb.
7. The Past Tense.Prepositions.Accusative Case of Personal
Pronouns.
8. Reflexive Pronouns.Reflexive Verbs.
9. Limitation of the Third Personal Pronoun.Possessive Adjectives.Pronominal Use of Possessive Adjectives.La Kato kaj la Pasero.
10. The Accusative of Direction.The Article for the Possessive Adjective.Apposition.La Arabo kaj la Kamelo.
11. Possessive Case of Nouns.Impersonal Verbs.Verbs Preceding
their Subjects.Coordinating Conjunctions.La Arabo en la Dezerto.
12. Indirect Statements.The Indefinite Personal Pronoun Oni.The
Future Tense.La Ventoflago.
13. The Demonstrative Pronoun Tiu.Tenses in Indirect Quotations.Formation of Feminine Nouns.En la Parko.
14. The Demonstrative Pronoun i tiu.Possessive Form of the Demonstrative Pronoun.The Suffix -Il-.The Expression of Means or Instrumentality.La Mano.
15. The Demonstrative Adjective.Adverbs Defined and Classified.Formation of Opposites.La Ruza Juna Viro.
16. The Demonstrative Adverb of Place.Accompaniment.The Adverb For.The Meaning of Povi.Malamikoj en la Dezerto.
17. The Demonstrative Temporal Adverb.Comparison of Adjectives.Manner and Characteristic.Diri, Paroli and Rakonti.Frederiko
Granda kaj la Juna Servisto.
18. The Demonstrative Adverb of Motive or Reason.Derivation of
Adverbs.Comparison of Words Expressing Quantity.Comparisons
Containing Ol.Causal Clauses.Pri la Sezonoj.

19. Ju and Des in Comparisons.The Preposition Inter.The Preposition Pro.Prepositions with Adverbs and Other Prepositions.La Atuno kaj la Vintro.
20. The Demonstrative Adverb of Manner and Degree.Prepositions
Expressing Time-Relations.En Septembro.
21. The Accusative of Time.Adverbs and the Accusative of
Time.The Preposition Por.La Sezonoj kaj la Mondo.
22. Clauses Expressing Duration of Time.Clauses Expressing Anticipation.The Infinitive with Anstata, Por, Anta ol.The Expression
of a Part of the Whole.Diogeno kaj Aleksandro Granda.
23. Adverbs Expressing a Part of the Whole.The Demonstrative Adverb of Quantity.Result Clauses.En la Butiko.
24. The Interrogative Pronoun.The Present Active Participle.Compound Tenses.The Progressive Present Tense.The Suffix
-Ej-.En Nia Domo.
25. The Interrogative Adjective.The Imperfect Tense.Salutations
and Exclamations.Word Formation.Koni and Scii.La Nepo Vizitas
la Avinon.
26. The Interrogative Adverb of Place.The Past Active Participle.Adverb Derivation from Prepositions.Adverbs Expressing Direction of Motion.The Suffix -Eg-.La Pluvego.
27. The Interrogative Temporal Adverb.The Perfect Tense.The
Preposition e.The Suffix -Ar-.Tempo and Fojo.The Orthography
of Proper Names.Roberto Bruce kaj la Araneo.
28. The Interrogative Adverb of Motive or Reason. The Infinitive as
Subject.Present Action with Past Inception.The Suffix -Ul-.Loi
and Vivi.Pri la Avo kaj la Avino.
29. The Interrogative Adverb of Manner and Degree.The Pluperfect
Tense.Cardinal Numbers.The Accusative of Measure.Nia Familio.
30. The Interrogative Adverb of Quantity.Modifiers of Impersonally
Used Verbs.Formation of Cardinal Numerals.The Suffix An-.Leciono Pri Aritmetiko.
31. The Relative Pronoun.The Future Perfect Tense.Ordinal
Numerals.Alfredo Granda kaj la Libro.
32. Kia as a Relative Adjective.Kie as a Relative Adverb.The Future Active Participle.The Periphrastic Future Tenses.The Suffix Ind-.Alfredo Granda kaj la Kukoj.
33. Kiam as a Relative Adverb.Kiel as a Relative Adverb.Numeral
Nouns and Adverbs.Word Derivation from Prepositions.La Invito.

34. Prepositions as Prefixes.The Suffix -Ebl-.Expression of the

Highest Degree Possible.Titles and Terms of Address.e la Festo.
35. Kiom as a Relative Adverb.The Present Passive Participle.Fractions.Descriptive Compounds.La inoj.
36. The Present Passive Tense.The Use of De to Express
Agency.The General Meaning of De.Word Derivation from Primary
Adverbs.The Suffix -Ist-.Antikva Respubliko.
37. The Distributive Pronoun.The Preposition Po.Dependent Compounds.La apelo sur la Stango.
38.
The
Distributive
Adjective.The
Imperfect
Passive
Tense.Compound Tenses of Impersonal Verbs.Reciprocal Expressions.The Suffix -Uj-.Vilhelmo Tell kaj la Pomo.
39. The Distributive Adverb of Place.The Future Passive
Tense.Possessive Compounds.The Time of Day.The Suffix Obl-.En la Stacidomo.
40. The Distributive Temporal Adverb.The Distributive Adverb ial.The Past Passive Participle.The Perfect Passive Tense.The Preposition La.The Suffix -Em-.La Perdita Infano.
41. The Distributive Adverb iel.The Distributive Adverb
iom.The Pluperfect Passive Tense.The Future Perfect Passive
Tense.The Expression of Material.The Suffix -Et-.La Donaco.
42. The Future Passive Participle.The Passive Periphrastic Future
Tenses.The Generic Article.The Suffix -Ec-.Sur la Vaporipo.
43. The Indefinite Pronoun.Participial Nouns.The Prefix Ek-.The
Suffix -Id-.La Nesto sur la Tendo.
44. The Indefinite Adjective.The Indefinite Adverb of
Place.Predicate Nominatives.La evalo kaj la Sonorilo.
45. The Indefinite Temporal Adverb.The Indefinite Adverb
Ial.Causative Verbs.Emphasis by Means of Ja.e la Malnova
Ponto.
46. The Indefinite Adverb Iel.The Indefinite Adverb Iom.The
Suffix -Ad-.The Use of Mem.Arimedo kaj la Kronoj.
47. The Negative Pronoun.The Adverbial Participle.The Prefix
Re-.La Filozofo Arimedo.
48. The Negative Adjective.The Negative Adverb of Place.The
Negative Temporal Adverb.The Suffix -A-.The Adverb Jen.Du
Artkonkursoj.
49. The Negative Adverbs Nenial, Neniel, Neniom.The Suffix I-.La Krepusko.

50. The Pronouns ending in -O.Correlative Words.The Use of

Ajn.The Suffix -Ing-.La Gordia Ligao.
51. The Pronoun Amba.Formations with -Ig- and -I-.Factual
Conditions.La Monaoj kaj la Azeno.
52. The Conditional Mood.Compound Tenses of the Conditional
Mood.Less Vivid Conditions.Independent Use of the Conditional
Mood.The Prefix Dis-.Pri la Gravitado.
53. Conditions Contrary to Fact.The Verb Devi.The Preposition
Sen.La Filozofo Sokrato.
54. Summary of Conditions.Clauses of Imaginative Comparison.The Use of Al to Express Reference.The Suffix -Estr-.La Ostracismo de Aristejdo.
55. The Imperative Mood.Resolve and Exhortation.Commands
and Prohibitions.Less Peremptory Uses of the Imperative.The Use of
Moto.La Glavo de Damoklo.
56. The Imperative in Subordinate Clauses.The Preposition Je.The
Suffix -Op-.La Marado de la Dekmil Grekoj.
57. Clauses Expressing Purpose.Further Uses of the Accusative.Synopsis of the Conjugation of the Verb.The Suffix -Um-.La
Reirado de la Dekmilo.
58. Permission and Possibility.The Prefix Ge-.The Suffix A-.Interjections.Aleksandro Granda.
59. The Position of Unemphatic Pronouns.Some Intransitive
Verbs.The
Suffix
-Er-.The
Prefixes
Boand
Duon-.Correspondence.Kelkaj Leteroj.
60 Some Transitive Verbs.Elision.The Prefix Eks-.The Prefix
Pra-.The Suffixes -j- and -Nj-.Weights and Measures.The International Money System.Abbreviations.Pri La Kamero.

Lesson 1
ALPHABET.
1. The Esperanto alphabet contains the following letters: a, b, c, , d, e,
f, g, , h, , i, j, , k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, , t, u, , v, z.
VOWELS.
2. The vowels of the alphabet are pronounced as follows:
a as in far.
e as in fianc, like a in fate.
This "long a" sound in English frequently ends with a vanish,a brief
terminal sound of , which makes the vowel slightly diphthongal, as in
day, aye. Such a vanish must not be given to any of the Esperanto
vowels.
i as in machine.
o as in toll, for.
u as in rude, rural.
CONSONANTS.
3. The consonants b, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, t, v, z, are pronounced as in
English, and the remaining eleven as follows:
c like ts in hats, tsetse.
like ch in chin, much.
g like g in go, big.
like g in gem, j in jar.
is produced by expelling the breath forcibly, with the throat only
partially open.

As in pronouncing German and Scotch ch, Spanish j, Irish gh, Russian

x, Classical Greek etc. There are only a few words containing this
consonant.
j like y in yes, beyond.
like z in azure, s in visual.
r is slightly trilled or rolled.
s like s in see, basis.
like sh in shine, rash, ch in machine.
like w or consonantal u. See Diphthongs, 5.
NAMES OF THE LETTERS.
4. The vowels are named by their sounds, as given in 2. The names of
the consonants are bo, co, o, do, fo, go, o, ho, o, jo, o, ko, lo, mo, no,
po, ro, so, o, to, o, vo, zo. These are used in speaking of the letters, in
pronouncing them in abbreviations, as ko to po for k. t. p. (= etc.), and in
spelling words, as bo, i, ro, do, o, birdo.
DIPHTHONGS.
5. Diphthongs are combinations of two vowels uttered as a single
sound, by one breath-impulse. The diphthongs in Esperanto contain an i
or u sound as the second element, but in order to avoid confusion with
combinations of vowels not forming diphthongs (as in naiva, like English nave, etc.), they are written with j and instead. Their pronunciation is as follows:
aj like ai in aisle.
ej like ei in vein, ey in they.
oj like oi in coin, oy in boy.
uj like ui in ruin, u(e)y in gluey.

10

e like ayw in wayward, or like (h)oo pronounced together.

a like ou in out, ow in owl.
COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS.
6. Each consonant, in a combination of two or more consonants, is pronounced with its full value, whether within a word or at its beginning.
There are no silent letters.
a. Thus, both consonants are clearly sounded in the groups kn, kv, gv,
sv, in such words as knabo, kvin, gvidi, sviso.
b. The combination kz, as in ekzisti, ekzameno, must not be modified
to the gs or ks represented by x in exist, execute.
c. The combination sc, as in escepte, scias, is equivalent to the combination sts in last said, first song, pronounced together rapidly. The s in a
word beginning with sc may be sounded with the end of the preceding
word, if that word ends in a vowel, as mis-cias for mi scias.
d. The n and g are pronounced separately in the combination ng, in
such words as lingvo, angulo, producing the sound of ng heard in linger,
not that in singer.
e. Each of two similar letters is clearly sounded, as interrilato, ellasi,
like inter-relate, well-laid.
SYLLABLES.
7. Each word contains as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. The division of syllables within a word is as follows:
a. A single consonant goes with the following vowel, as pa-no, be-la, ae-ro.
b. A consonant followed by l or r (which are liquids) goes with the l or
r, as in ta-blo, a-kra, a-gra-bla.

11

c. Otherwise, the syllable division is made before the last consonant of

the group, as sus-pek-ti, sank-ta, deks-tra.
d. Prefixes are separated from the words to which they are attached, as
dis-meti, mal-akra, and compound words are divided into their component parts, as ef-urbo, sun-ombrelo.
ACCENT.
8. Words of more than one syllable are accented upon the syllable before the last, as t-blo, a-gr-bla, sus-pk-ti.
WORDS FOR PRACTICE.
9. (To be pronounced aloud, and correctly accented) Afero, trairi, najbaro, aero, hodia, pacienco, centono, ielo, e, samideano, treege, obei,
obeu, Eropo, gvidi, ojo, iujn, justa, uste, jui, ado, lingvo, knabo,
lara, pagi, kvieteco, ekzemplo, ellerni, fojo, krajono, forrajdi, kuirejo, evalejo, sankteco, scio, nescio, edzo, meze, duobla, ipo, ari, poo,
svingi, sklavo, palaj, afao, atmosfero, monao, geometrio, ladi, vasta,
eksplodi, senesa, sensencao, malluma, arbaranoj, mano, frea,
askulti, dari.

12

Lesson 2
NOUNS.
10. Words which are the names of persons or things are called nouns.
The ending, or final letter, of nouns in Esperanto is o:
knabo, boy.
evalo, horse.
pomo, apple.
tablo, table.
THE ARTICLE.
11. The definite article is la, the, as la knabo, the boy, la evalo, the
horse, la tablo, the table, la pomo, the apple. In English there is an indefinite article "a, an" for the singular, but none for the plural. Esperanto has
no indefinite article for either singular or plural. Therefore knabo may
mean boy, or a boy, pomo may mean apple or an apple.
ADJECTIVES
12. A word used with a noun (expressed or understood) to express a
quality or characteristic is called an adjective. The ending of adjectives in
Esperanto is a:
bela, beautiful.
flava, yellow.
granda, large.
forta, strong.
ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES.
13. An adjective is said to modify a noun whose quality it expresses.
When directly preceding or following its noun, it is called an attributive
adjective:
la granda evalo, the large horse.
bela birdo, a beautiful bird.
floro flava, a yellow flower.
forta knabo, a strong boy.

13

PRESENT TENSE OF THE VERB.

14. Words which express action or condition are called verbs. When
representing an act or condition as a fact, and dealing with the present
time, they are said to be in the present tense. The ending of all Esperanto
verbs in the present tense is -as:
kuras, runs, is running.
flugas, flies, is flying.
brilas, shines, is shining.
dormas, sleeps, is sleeping.
15. The person or thing whose action or condition the verb expresses is
called the subject of the verb:
La suno brilas, the sun shines (is shining), subject: suno.
Knabo kuras, a boy runs (is running), subject: knabo.
Vocabulary.
(To be memorized in this and in all following lessons.)
bela, beautiful.
birdo, bird.
blanka, white.
bona, good.
brilas, shines, is shining.
evalo, horse.
dormas, sleeps, is sleeping.
flava, yellow.
floro, flower.
flugas, flies, is flying.
forta, strong,
granda, large.
kaj, and.
kantas, sings, is singing.
knabo, boy.
kuras, runs, is running.
la, the.
luno, moon.
maras, walks, is walking.
pomo, apple.

14

suno, sun.
tablo, table.
violo, violet.
viro, man.
READING LESSON.
1. Bona viro. 2. La granda tablo. 3. Blanka floro. 4. Flava birdo. 5. La
bela birdo kantas. 6. Forta knabo kuras. 7. La bona viro maras. 8. La bela
evalo kuras. 9. La suno brilas. 10. Birdo flugas kaj knabo kuras. 11.
evalo blanka maras. 12. La bela luno brilas. 13. La knabo kantas kaj la
viro dormas. 14. Bela granda pomo. 15. La bona knabo kantas. 16. La
granda evalo dormas. 17. La suno brilas kaj la luno brilas. 18. Granda
forta tablo. 19. Violo flava. 20. La bona flava pomo.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. A beautiful flower. 2. A good large table. 3. A yellow violet and a
white violet. 4. The moon is-shining (shines). 5. The good boy is-walking
(walks). 6. The beautiful yellow bird is-flying (flies). 7. The strong man
is-sleeping (sleeps). 8. The white bird is-singing (sings). 9. A strong horse
runs, and a man walks. 10. The sun shines, and the boy is-singing (sings).
11. The large yellow apple. 12. An apple large and good.

15

Lesson 3
THE PLURAL NUMBER.
16. The plural number of nouns, that is, the form which indicates more
than one person or thing, is made by adding -j to the noun, as viroj, men,
from viro, man; tabloj, tables, from tablo, table.
-oj is pronounced like oy in boy. See 5.
17. An adjective modifying a plural noun agrees with it in number, being given the plural form by the addition of the ending -j. An adjective
modifying two or more nouns used together is of course given the plural
form:
bonaj viroj, good men.
grandaj evaloj, large horses.
belaj birdo kaj floro (bela birdo kaj bela floro), beautiful bird and
(beautiful) flower.
-aj is pronounced like ai in aisle. See 5.
18. The article is invariable, that is, does not change in form when used
with plural nouns, as la viro, the man, la viroj, the men. The verb is also
invariable in form:
La viroj maras, the men walk, the men are walking.
La suno kaj la luno brilas, the sun and the moon are shining.
La viro estas, the man is.
La viroj estas, the men are.
PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN.
19. When the adjective is a part of that which is told or predicated of
the subject of the verb, as when used with the verbs "to be," "to seem,"
etc., it is called a predicate adjective:
La birdo estas bela, the bird is beautiful.
La knabo ajnas bona, the boy seems good.
La viroj estas fortaj, the men are strong.

16

20. A noun may also be used as part of the predicate, and is then called
a predicate noun:
Violoj estas floroj, violets are flowers.
La kolombo estas birdo, the dove is a bird.
21. Predicate nouns and adjectives agree in number with the word or
words with which they are in predicate relation:
Rozoj estas belaj, roses are beautiful.
La knabo kaj la viro ajnas fortaj, the boy and the man seem strong.
Vocabulary.
alta, high, tall.
arbo, tree.
ambro, room.
domo, house.
en, in.
estas, is, are.
folio, leaf.
frea, fresh.
ardeno, garden.
kampo, field.
kolombo, dove.
kuas, lies, is lying, lie.
longa, long.
rozo, rose.
rua, red.
seo, chair.
sidas, sits, sit, is sitting.
sur, on.
ajnas, seems, seem.
verda, green.
READING LESSON.
1. La alta viro estas en la ardeno. 2. Blanka evalo estas en la kampo.
3. Belaj birdoj sidas sur la verda arbo. 4. La bonaj knaboj estas en la

17

domo. 5. La ambroj en la bela domo estas grandaj. 6. Freaj floroj kuas

sur la tablo. 7. La violoj en la kampo estas belaj. 8. La luno kaj la suno ajnas grandaj. 9. La kolomboj estas belaj birdoj. 10. La knaboj ajnas fortaj.
11. Ruaj pomoj estas sur la tablo en la ambro. 12. La fortaj viroj sidas
sur seoj en la longa ambro. 13. La arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. 14. La kolomboj sur la arboj kantas. 15. Fortaj evaloj maras kaj kuras en la verdaj
kampoj. 16. La knaboj dormas en la granda domo. 17. Ruaj, flavaj, kaj
verdaj folioj estas en la ardeno. 18. Longa tablo estas en la domo. 19.
Belaj birdoj flugas kaj kantas en la kampo. 20. Freaj rozoj ajnas belaj. 21.
La folioj estas verdaj kaj ruaj.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The trees in the garden are tall and green. 2. The rooms in the house
are long. 3. The flowers on the table are red, yellow and white. 4. The
leaves are long and green. 5. The men are-sitting (sit) on chairs in the
garden. 6. In the garden are yellow roses. 7. The birds in the field are
doves. 8. The boys in the room in the house seem tall. 9. Fresh violets are
beautiful flowers. 10. The horses in the green fields seem strong. 11.
Doves are-singing (sing) in the garden. 12. The men in the large house
sleep. 13. The house is long and high, and the rooms in the house are
large. 14. Red and yellow apples lie on the big table. 15. Green leaves are
on the trees in the large garden.

18

Lesson 4
TRANSITIVE VERBS.
22. The verbs so far given have been intransitive verbs, expressing a
state or an action limited to the subject, and not immediately affecting
any other person or thing, as la knabo kuras, the boy runs. On the other
hand a transitive verb expresses an act of the subject upon some person
or thing; as, la knabo trovas , the boy finds .
THE ACCUSATIVE CASE.
23. The person or thing acted upon is called the direct object of a transitive verb, and is given the ending -n. This is called the accusative ending; and the word to which it is attached is said to be in the accusative
case:
La viro havas seon, the man has a chair.
La knabo trovas florojn, the boy finds flowers.
The ending -n follows the ending -j, if the word to be put in the accusative case is in the plural number.
24. An attributive adjective modifying a noun in the accusative case is
made to agree in case, by addition of the same accusative ending -n. This
prevents any doubt as to which of two or more nouns in a sentence is
modified by the adjective, and permits of variation in the order of the
words:
La knabo trovas belan floron, the boy finds a beautiful flower.
Florojn belajn la viro havas, the man has beautiful flowers.
La viro havas grandan seon, the man has a large chair.
Ruan rozon la knabo havas, the boy has a red rose.
25. A predicate adjective or noun (19) is never in the accusative case,
nor is the accusative ending ever attached to the article, which is invariable as stated in 18.
THE CONJUNCTION KAJ.

19

26. In the expression both and , the conjunction kaj is used for
both words, being merely repeated:
La viro kaj maras kaj kuras, the man both walks and runs.
La evalo estas kaj granda kaj forta, the horse is both large and strong.
La knabo havas kaj rozojn kaj violojn, the boy has both roses and
violets.
Kaj la knabo kaj la viro estas altaj, both the boy and the man are tall.
THE NEGATIVE NE.
27. The negative word meaning "not" when forming part of a sentence,
and "no" when used as an answer to a question, is ne. When used as a
sentence-negative, it usually immediately precedes the verb. For emphatic negation of some other word than the verb, ne may precede that word:
Violoj ne estas ruaj, violets are not red.
La viroj ne sidas sur seoj, the men are-not-sitting on chairs.
La kolombo kantas, ne flugas, the dove is-singing, not flying.
La domo estas blanka, ne verda, the house is white, not green.
Vocabulary.
apud, near, in the vicinity of.
benko, bench.
brano, branch.
diversa, various.
felia, happy.
frukto, fruit.
havas, have, has.
herbo, grass.
ili, they.
kolektas, gather, collect.
koloro, color.
lara, wide, broad.
manas, eat, eats.
mola, soft.
nigra, black.
ne, not, no.
rompas, break, breaks.

20

sed, but.
trovas, find, finds.
vidas, see, sees.
READING LESSON.
1. La knaboj ne estas en la ambro en la blanka domo. 2. Ili estas en la
granda ardeno. 3. La ardeno ajnas kaj longa kaj lara. 4. La feliaj
knaboj vidas la belan ardenon. 5. Ili vidas florojn apud alta arbo. 6. La
floroj havas diversajn kolorojn. 7. La knaboj kolektas kaj ruajn kaj flavajn florojn. 8. Sed ili ne trovas fruktojn en la ardeno. 9. Florojn blankajn
ili ne vidas. 10. La alta arbo havas verdajn foliojn sur la branoj. 11. La
knaboj rompas branon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. 12. Ili vidas florojn sur
la branoj, sed la florojn ili ne kolektas. 13. La knaboj ne sidas sur benkoj
en la ardeno, sed kuas sur la mola herbo. 14. La kolomboj sidas sur la
arboj, kaj ili estas feliaj. 15. La knaboj vidas la belajn birdojn. 16. Fortaj
nigraj evaloj manas la herbon en la kampo. 17. La knaboj vidas la
evalojn, sed la evaloj ne vidas la knabojn. 18. La evaloj ne dormas, ili
manas. 19. La frea herbo estas verda kaj mola. 20. Feliaj estas kaj la
knaboj kaj la evaloj. 21. La pomo estas bona frukto.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Green leaves are on the trees. 2. The boys break branches and gather
the apples. 3. They are near the tall tree in the garden. 4. They find leaves
on the tree, but they do not see the fruit. 5. The house is long, broad and
high. 6. The rooms in the house are both long and wide. 7. The men have
strong black horses. 8. The horses eat the fresh green grass in the field. 9.
The men sit on benches in the garden. 10. The boys do not sleep, but they
lie on the soft grass. 11. They see both the birds and the flowers, and they
seem happy. 12. The flowers have various colors, but the grass is green.
13. The doves are not sitting on the tree, they are flying near the trees. 14.
Beautiful red roses are lying on the table in the house. 15. The large red
apples are near the yellow roses.

21

Lesson 5
THE COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE.
28. The infinitive is a form of the verb which expresses merely the general idea of the action or condition indicated, and has some of the characteristics of a noun. The ending of the infinitive is -i, as kuri, to run, esti, to
be, havi, to have.
29. An infinitive used to complete the meaning of another verb,
serving as a direct object to a transitive verb, is called a complementary
infinitive. If the complementary infinitive is from a transitive verb, it
may itself have a direct object:
La knabo volas kuri, the boy wishes to run.
Birdoj atas kanti, birds like to sing.
La knabo volas havi evalon, the boy wishes to have a horse.
Ili volas trovi florojn, they wish to find flowers.
INTERROGATION.
30. An interrogative sentence is one which asks a question. Unless
some directly interrogative word (as "who," "when," "why," etc.) is used,
the sentence is rendered interrogative by use of the word u. This interrogative particle is placed at the beginning of a sentence, the words of
which are left in the same order as for a statement. Since there is no inversion of order, there is no necessity for a word like English "do" or
"does," to introduce the verb:
u la knabo estas bona? Is the boy good?
u ili havas florojn? Have they flowers?
u la kolomboj kantas? Do the doves sing? (Are the doves singing?)
THE CONJUNCTION NEK.
31. In the expression neither nor , the conjunction nek is used for
both words. Since an adjective modifier of two or more words connected
by nek must necessarily modify them separately, the adjective remains in
the singular number:

22

Ili nek maras nek kuras, they neither walk nor run.
La viro havas nek domon nek ardenon, the man has neither a house
nor a garden.
Nek la rozo nek la violo estas verda, neither the rose nor the violet is
green.
Vocabulary.
(Verbs will hereafter be quoted in the infinitive form.)
bruna, brown.
erizo, cherry.
u, (30).
dola, sweet.
gusto, taste.
i, it.
Gertrude, Gertrude.
knabino, girl.
matura, ripe.
Mario, Mary.
nek, neither, nor.
persiko, peach.
jes, yes.
preferi, to prefer.
ati, to like.
voli, to wish.
READING LESSON.
1. u persiko estas rua? 2. Jes, i estas kaj rua kaj dola. 3. u erizoj
estas brunaj? 4. Ne, ili estas nek brunaj nek nigraj, sed flavaj. 5. u la
pomo estas frukto? Jes, i estas bona frukto. 6. u la viro kaj la knabo
havas pomojn? 7. Ne, ili havas nek pomojn nek persikojn. 8. u Mario
havas la maturan frukton? 9. Mario kaj Gertrudo havas la frukton. 10. Ili
estas en la domo, kaj manas la maturan frukton. 11. La persikoj havas
dolan guston. 12. La knabinoj volas havi florojn, sed la knaboj preferas
kolekti diversajn fruktojn. 13. Ili volas trovi maturajn erizojn kaj flavajn
persikojn. 14. La erizoj havas belan ruan koloron. 15. La persikoj ajnas
molaj kaj bonaj. 16. Mario rompas branon, kaj vidas erizojn sur la
branoj. 17. Gertrudo estas felia, kaj volas havi la belan frukton. 18. Gertrudo estas alta, bela knabino. 19. Mario atas erizojn. 20. La knaboj kaj

23

knabinoj sidas sur la verda herbo, kaj manas la erizojn. 21. Ili ne volas
mani pomojn, ili preferas la dolajn erizojn. 22. La folioj apud la erizoj
estas nek laraj nek longaj.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Have the girls beautiful flowers? 2. No, they have fresh fruit. 3. The
boys do not wish to gather flowers. 4. They prefer to break the branches,
and find the sweet cherries. 5. Gertrude wishes to eat apples, but Mary
has neither apples nor peaches. 6. Do the girls like to sit in the house and
eat fruit? 7. Yes, they like to sit in the house, but they prefer to walk in
the field. 8. Are ripe peaches brown? 9. No, they are red and yellow. 10.
Has the peach a sweet taste? 11. Do the girls see the beautiful black
horses in the fields? 12. Yes, they see the horses, but the horses seem not
to see the girls. 13. Mary sits on the soft green grass, and eats ripe fruit.

24

Lesson 6
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
32. Words which stand in the place of nouns, as "you," "he," "who,"
"which," are called pronouns. Pronouns referring to the person speaking
(I, we), the person addressed (you, thou), or the person or thing spoken
of (he, she, it, they), are called personal pronouns. They are considered
singular or plural, according to whether they refer to one or more persons. Since the meaning of such pronouns indicates the number, no plural ending is ever attached to them. The personal pronouns are:
First person: mi, I (me). ni, we (us).
Second person: vi, you. vi, you.
Third person: li, he (him).
i, she (her).
i, it. ili, they (them).
There is another pronoun ci, thou, for the second person singular, used
in solemn style, as in the Bible, in poetry, and also for intimate or familiar address when desired, like German du, French tu, etc.
AGREEMENT WITH PRONOUNS.
33. Nouns in predicate relation with pronouns, or adjectives modifying such pronouns, are made to agree with them in number:
Ni estas bonaj kaj feliaj, we are good and happy.
Rozoj estas floroj, ill ne estas fruktoj, roses are flowers, they are not
fruits.
Gertrudo, vi estas bona, Gertrude, you are good.
Knabinoj, u vi estas feliaj? Girls, are you happy?
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.
34. Any pronoun may serve as the subject of a verb. The combination
of the verb with each of the personal pronouns in succession for its

25

subject, is called the conjugation of the verb. Following is the conjugation

of the present tense of esti, and of vidi:
mi estas, I am.
vi estas, you are.
li (i, i) estas, he (she, it) is.
ni estas, we are.
vi estas, you (plural) are.
ili estas, they are.
mi vidas, I see.
vi vidas, you see.
li (i, i) vidas, he (she, it) sees.
ni vidas, we see.
vi vidas, you (plural) see.
ili vidas, they see.
Vocabulary.
al, to, toward.
Arturo, Arthur.
a, or (a.. a.., either.. or..)
ar, because.
doni, to give.
fali, to fall.
fenestro, window.
hodia, today.
kudri, to sew.
Roberto, Robert.
skui, to shake.
stari, to stand.
sub, under, beneath.
virino, woman.
READING LESSON.
1. Knaboj, u vi volas sidi en la domo, a en la ardeno? 2. Ni preferas
sidi hodia en la ardeno, sub la granda arbo. 3. u vi havas pomojn, a
erizojn? 4. Ni havas nek pomojn nek erizojn, sed ni havas dolajn persikojn. 5. Arturo donas al vi la maturajn persikojn, ar li atas kolekti

26

frukton. 6. Arturo, u vi rompas la branojn? 7. Ne, sed mi skuas

branon, kaj la persikoj falas. 8. Mi staras sub la arbo, kaj kolektas la
dolan frukton. 9. La frukton mi donas al Mario kaj Gertrudo. 10. Mi
volas doni persikon al Heleno, sed hodia i estas en la domo. 11. i sidas apud la fenestro kaj kudras. 12. i preferas kudri, kaj volas nek mari
nek sidi en la ardeno. 13. Kaj i kaj la virino apud i volas kudri hodia.
14. Ili estas feliaj, ar ili vidas la birdojn en la arbo apud la fenestro. 15.
La birdoj estas kolomboj, kaj sidas sur la arbo. 16. Sub la arboj en la
kampo staras evaloj, kaj ili manas la verdan molan herbon. 17. Ni donas pomojn al ili, ar ili atas pomojn. 18. Ni estas feliaj, ar ni havas belajn persikojn maturajn kaj bonajn. 19. Roberto, vi estas alta, sed vi,
knabinoj, ne estas altaj.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Does Arthur break the branch and gather the apples? 2. No, he
shakes the branch, and the apples fall. 3. They are ripe and sweet. 4.
Robert, do you wish to stand beneath the tree? 5. No, I do not wish to
stand under it, but near it. 6. I wish to give both the peaches and the
apples to the woman. 7. She is sitting in the house, near the window. 8.
Mary is sitting in (on) a chair near her. 9. Both Mary and the woman are
sewing. 10. They prefer to sew, and do not wish to walk in the garden today. 11. They are happy because they like to sew. 12. They do not wish to
gather flowers, or walk, or see the birds. 13. They have neither apples
nor peaches, but they do not wish to eat. 14. They give the fruit to the
boys and girls.

27

Lesson 7
THE PAST TENSE.
35. The past tense of the verb expresses an action which took place in
past time, or a condition which existed in past time. The ending of this
tense is -is, as kuris, ran, flugis, flew, brilis, shone. The conjugation of esti
and also of vidi in the past tense is as follows:
mi estis, I was.
vi estis, you were.
li (i, i) estis, he (she, it) was.
ni estis, we were.
vi estis, you (plural) were.
ili estis, they were.
mi vidis, I saw.
vi vidis, you saw.
li (i, i) vidis, he (she, it) saw.
ni vidis, we saw.
vi vidis, you (plural) saw.
ili vidis, they saw.
PREPOSITIONS.
36. A preposition is a word like "in," "on," placed before a noun or pronoun to indicate some relation between this and another word. The preposition is said to govern the noun or pronoun, which is called its complement. In English, the complement of a preposition seems to be put in
the accusative case if it is a pronoun, but to remain unchanged in form if
it is a noun. In Esperanto the preposition does not affect the form of the
word governed, which remains in the nominative case:
La arbo estas en la ardeno, the tree is in the garden.
Bonaj pomoj estas sur i, good apples are on it.
Mi donis erizojn al li, I gave cherries to him.
La knabo estas apud mi, the boy is near me.
Sub la arbo staris evalo, under the tree stood a horse.
ACCUSATIVE CASE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

28

37. For use as the object of a verb, any pronoun may be put in the accusative case by addition of the accusative ending -n (23):
La viro vidis vin kaj min, the man saw you and me.
Li vidis ilin kaj nin, he saw them and us.
Mi vidis nek lin nek in, I saw neither him nor her.
Ni volas havi in, we wish to have it.
Vocabulary.
agrabla, pleasant, agreeable.
bildo, picture.
blua, blue.
danki, to thank.
de, from.
diri, to say.
infano, child.
interesa, interesting.
luma, light (not dark).
muro, wall.
nun, now.
planko, floor.
pordo, door.
rigardi, to look (at).
tapio, carpet.
tra, through.
READING LESSON.
1. Hodia la knaboj kaj knabinoj estas en la granda domo. 2. Ili staras
apud la tablo, en agrabla luma ambro. 3. i havas altajn larajn fenestrojn. 4. Sub la tablo kaj seoj, mola tapio kuas sur la planko. 5. La tapio havas belajn kolorojn, ruan, bluan, flavan, kaj verdan. 6. Virino
maris tra la pordo, kaj staris apud la tablo. 7. i havis interesajn bildojn,
kaj donis ilin al la knaboj kaj la knabinoj. 8. i diris "u vi volas rigardi la
bildojn?" 9. "Jes, ni dankas vin," diris la infanoj, kaj i donis al ili la bildojn. 10. Granda bildo falis de la tablo, sed Arturo nun havas in. 11. Li
donas in al Mario, i dankas lin, kaj donas in al Roberto. 12. Ili volis
doni in al Gertrudo, sed i diris "Ne, mi dankas vin, mi ne atas rigardi

29

bildojn." 13. i maris de la tablo al la fenestro kaj diris "Mi preferas

kudri." 14. i volis sidi en granda seo apud la fenestro. 15. La virino
rigardis in kaj diris "Mi donis la bildojn al vi, knaboj kaj knabinoj," ar ili
estas interesaj bildoj. 16. Gertrudo diris "Vi estas bona al ni, sed mi volas
sidi apud la pordo a la fenestro. 17. Mi kolektis dolajn violojn en la
ardeno, kaj nun mi volas rigardi la dolajn florojn, kaj kudri."
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Do the boys and girls wish to be good? 2. They gathered fresh
flowers and gave them to the woman. 3. The happy children were in the
garden, but now they are in the house. 4. The rooms in the house are
light, because they have large wide windows. 5. The doors in the room
are wide and high. 6. The carpets on the floor seem soft, and have various beautiful colors. 7. A large strong table stands near the door. 8. We
can sit near the table and look through the windows. 9. Gertrude islooking-at the various pictures. 10. She looks-at them, and seems to be
happy. 11. She gave a picture to me and I thanked her. 12. Helen walked
near the table and shook it. 13. Arthur did not see the pictures because
they were lying on the floor. 14. He looked-at the pictures on the wall,
but they are neither interesting nor beautiful. 15. Robert looked through
the window, and saw us in the pleasant garden.

30

Lesson 8
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
38. A pronoun which refers to the same person or thing as the subject
of the verb in the sentence, but is used in some other relation than subject
of that verb, is said to be used reflexively, or to be a reflexive pronoun.
39. The first and second personal pronouns, mi, ni, and vi, (ci) are used
for the reflexive pronouns of the first and second persons. There can be
no ambiguity, since words such as "me, myself, us, ourselves," can refer
to no one else than the person or persons speaking; while words such as
"you, yourself, yourselves (thee, thyself)," can refer to no one else than
the person or persons addressed:
Mi vidas min, I see myself.
Mi diris al mi, I said to myself.
Ni havas tapion sub ni, we have a carpet under us.
Ni amuzis nin, we amused ourselves.
(Ci trovas domon apud ci, thou findest a house near thee.)
Vi diras al vi, you say to yourself (yourselves).
Vi amuzas vin, you amuse yourself (yourselves).
40. When the verb is in the third person, a pronoun of the third person,
used otherwise than as the subject, might or might not refer to the subject of that verb. For example, "He sees a bird near him," may mean that
the subject sees a bird near himself, or near another person. If such a pronoun of the third person is intended to refer to the subject of the verb,
Esperanto uses a special reflexive pronoun si (accusative sin), which
means him(self), her(self), it(self), them(selves), according to the gender
and number of the verb:
Li amuzas sin, he amuses himself.
Arturo vidis birdon apud si, Arthur saw a bird near him(self).
i trovas floron apud si, she finds a flower near her(self).
Mario trovis sin sur blua tapio, Mary found herself on a blue carpet.
La tapio havas diversajn kolorojn en si, the carpet has various colors
in it(self).
La birdo kaas sin sub la folioj, the bird hides itself under the leaves.
Ili amuzas sin, they amuse themselves.

31

La viroj havas seojn apud si, the men have chairs near them(selves).
La virinoj trovas florojn apud si, the women find flowers near
them(selves).
La arboj havas erizojn sur si, the trees have cherries on them(selves).
Sub si la infanoj trovis molan tapion, under them(selves) the children
found a soft carpet.
From the very fact that si always refers to the subject of the verb, it is
evident that si can never itself be used as subject or part of the subject of
the verb.
REFLEXIVE VERBS.
41. A verb having a reflexive pronoun for its direct object is sometimes
called a reflexive verb, from the fact that some languages have had or
still have a special reflexive or middle form of the verb, to express an act
of the subject on or for itself, or they have certain verbs whose use is
chiefly or exclusively reflexive. The conjugation of a verb reflexively is
therefore as follows:
mi amuzas min (mi min amuzas), I amuse myself.
vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourself.
li (i, i) amuzas sin (sin amuzas), he (she, it) amuses him (her, it)self.
ni amuzas nin (ni nin amuzas), we amuse ourselves.
vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourselves.
ili amuzas sin (ili sin amuzas), they amuse themselves.
As Greek , they turned themselves; Latin exerceor, I exercise myself, vescor, I eat (I feed myself); German ich hte mich, I beware
(I guard myself); Spanish me alegro, or algrome, I rejoice (I gladden myself); French il s'arrte, he halts (he stops himself).
Vocabulary.
Alfredo, Alfred.
amuzi, to amuse.
anta, before, in front of.
aparteni, to belong.
griza, gray.
iri, to go.

32

Johano, John.
kai, to hide, to conceal.
komenci, to begin.
ladi, to praise.
legi, to read.
libro, book.
perdi, to lose.
skatolo, small box or case.
strato, street.
si, himself, etc. (40).
READING LESSON.
1. Johano kaj Alfredo amuzis sin en la ardeno. 2. Johano kais sin, kaj
Alfredo trovis Johanon. 3. Alfredo sin kais en alta arbo, kaj Johano
trovis Alberton. 4. Mario kaj Gertrudo sin kais apud la floroj, kaj la
knaboj trovis la knabinojn. 5. La knabinoj ne volas perdi sin en la agrabla
kampo. 6. Johano komencis amuzi sin en luma ambro en la domo. 7. La
muro havas interesajn bildojn sur si. 8. Tra la fenestro anta si Johano
rigardas la virojn kaj la virinojn sur la strato. 9. Li havas molan grizan
tapion sub si, kaj ne volas seon. 10. Li kaj Alfredo volis iri al la strato
kaj amuzi sin. 11. Ili maris al la pordo, kaj trovis ruan skatolon anta
si. 12. En la skatolo estis libro, kaj Johano diris al si "La libro ne apartenas
al mi." 13. Li diris al Alfredo "ar ni trovis in, mi volas legi la libron."
14. Virino anta pordo komencis rigardi la knabojn, kaj ili diris al i "u
la libro apartenas al vi? Ni trovis in en skatolo." 15. La virino diris "Jes,
ni perdis in, kaj mi dankas vin, ar vi donas al mi la skatolon kaj la libron." 16. i iris al la strato, kaj la knaboj iris al la domo.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The book in the gray box does not belong to me. 2. I found it in front
of me, near the door. 3. You began to praise yourselves, but I do not
praise myself. 4. They hid themselves, and I stood near them. 5. The
birds sit on the tree, because it has ripe cherries on it. 6. Alfred amused
himself on the street, but we like to amuse ourselves in the house. 7. The
trees have good fruit on them. 8. She found herself in a beautiful light
room. 9. The carpet on the floor had various colors in it, and the high
wall had pictures on it. 10. The pictures had boys and girls in them. 11.
The book belongs to her, but it fell from the box. 12. The table has red

33

and blue and yellow flowers on it. 13. Did you see the doves near the
flowers in front of (before) you? 14. The birds saw the fruit on the tree in
front of them, and flew to the branches. 15. I sat on the bench in the
garden, and began to read an interesting book. 16. They hid themselves
in the leaves and began to sing. 17. The child is in a pleasant room.

34

Lesson 9
LIMITATION OF THE THIRD PERSONAL PRONOUN.
42. Since there is a special reflexive pronoun of the third person, the
third personal pronouns, li, i, i, ili, when used otherwise than as subjects, never refer to the subject of the verb, but always to some other person or thing:
La knabo ladas lin, the boy praises him (another person).
i donas pomojn al i, she gives apples to her (to another person).
La birdo vidis in, the bird saw it (something else than the bird).
La knaboj kais ilin, the boys hid them (other persons or things).
Ili trovis ilin apud si, they found them (other persons or things) near
them(selves).
La birdoj flugis al ili, the birds flew to them.
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES.
43. Words like "my," "his," "your," which indicate ownership or some
possessive relation, are called possessive adjectives. Possessive adjectives
are formed from the personal pronouns by adding the adjective ending a, as mia, my, via, your (cia, thy), lia, his, ia, her, ia, its, nia, our, via,
your (plural), ilia, their. The limitation in the use of the third personal
pronouns (42) is also true of the adjectives derived from them:
Mia domo kaj miaj ardenoj estas grandaj, my house and my gardens
are large.
Johano sidas sur via seo, John is sitting in your chair.
Li havas lian evalon, he has his (another person's) horse.
u vi legis iajn librojn? Did you read her books?
Sometimes these words are called possessive pronouns, although
really they are not pronouns at all, but pronominal adjectives with a possessive meaning.
44. Reflexive possessive adjectives, like the reflexive pronoun, refer to
the subject of the verb in the sentence. For the first and second persons,
they are the same as the personal possessive adjectives. The reflexive

35

possessive adjective of the third person is sia, his, her, its, their, formed
by adding the ending -a to the reflexive pronoun si:
Mi havas miajn librojn sur mia tablo, I have my books on my table.
Johano perdis siajn librojn, John lost his (John's) books.
Mario estas en sia ambro, Mary is in her room.
La birdoj flugis al sia arbo, the birds flew to their tree.
PRONOMINAL USE OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES.
45. Possessive adjectives may be used predicatively, as "the book is
mine," or may modify some word or words not expressed, as "mine are
large." Instead of having special forms, like English mine, yours, hers,
etc., Esperanto uses the regular possessive adjectives preceded by the
article:
La granda libro estas la mia, the large book is mine.
La via estas granda, la miaj estas belaj, yours is large, mine are
beautiful.
Ili havas la sian, sed ne la lian, they have theirs, but not his.
La iliaj ajnas esti bonaj, theirs seem to be good.
Vocabulary.
diro, saying, remark.
is, as far as, up to, down to.
hiera, yesterday.
juna, young.
kapti, to catch, to seize.
kato, cat.
kolera, angry.
lavi, to wash.
mano, meal.
nesto, nest.
pasero, sparrow.
patro, father.
post, after, behind.
surprizi, to surprise.
teni, to hold, to keep.
vizao, face.

36

READING LESSON.
1. Hiera mi perdis mian grizan katon. 2. Ilia kato kaptis nian birdon.
3. Via kolera diro surprizis mian patron. 4. u la granda kampo apartenas al ia patro? 5. Ne, i ne estas la lia. 6. La lia estas bela, sed mi preferas
la mian. 7. u vi atas vian libron a la ilian? 8. Li havas nek siajn evalojn nek la iliajn. 9. La knabinoj ajnas esti koleraj. 10. Ili komencis legi siajn
librojn. 11. La viro kaptis kaj tenis siajn evalojn, sed li ne trovis iliajn
evalojn. 12. ia libro kuas sur la planko, post ia seo. 13. i ne trovis
ilian libron, sed la junaj infanoj trovis la nian.
LA KATO KAJ LA PASERO.
Griza kato iris de la domo is la strato. i vidis paseron anta si, kaj
volis mani in. La kato staris post granda arbo, kaj kaptis la paseron. La
pasero diris "Bona kato lavas sin anta sia mano, sed vi ne lavis vian
vizaon." La interesa diro surprizis la katon. La kato ne tenis la paseron,
sed komencis lavi sian vizaon. La pasero flugis de la kato is la arbo. La
kolera kato diris "Mi perdis mian manon, ar mi komencis lavi min anta la mano!" Nun la katoj ne lavas sin anta la manoj. Ili havas siajn
manojn, kaj post la manoj ili lavas la vizaojn. La paseroj ne surprizas
ilin nun, sed ili tenas la paserojn. La katoj estas feliaj, sed la paseroj ne
estas feliaj. La junaj paseroj volas flugi al la nestoj en la arboj.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The boys are not in their (own) house, but they are in his. 2 Is the
large beautiful house yours? 3. The woman walked through the door of
their house, as far as her room. 4. The room has interesting pictures on its
walls. 5. We praised their flowers yesterday, and they gave them to us. 6.
Their books are in their (the books') box. 7. They are on their (the boys')
table. 8. The gray cat was angry because it did not hold the bird. 9. The
sparrow surprised it, and it commenced to wash its face. 10. The sparrow
wished to fly as far as the tall tree, but the cat held it. 11. The sparrow
said "A good cat washes its face, but you are not a good cat." 12. The
sparrow was angry because the cat seized it and held it. 13. The bird did
not lose its meal, but the angry cat lost its meal. 14. Do you see his cat or
hers? 15. I see both his and hers, but ours is not in our garden. 16. My

37

father is a tall strong man. 17. I like to look at him. 18. The children saw
the young birds in the nest.

38

Lesson 10
THE ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECTION.
46. When the verb in a sentence expresses motion, the word indicating
the place, person or thing toward which the motion is directed is given
the accusative ending. This is also true if the word is the complement of
any preposition which does not itself sufficiently indicate motion in a
certain direction. (The prepositions al, to, toward, is, as far as, tra,
through, express motion in the direction of their complements, and could
not well be used except in a sentence whose verb expresses motion. Consequently the accusative is not used after any of these three):
Li iris ardenon, he went to the garden ("gardenward").
La viro iros Bostonon, the man will go to Boston ("Bostonward").
Cf. English "he went home," "he went homeward," etc.
Li estis en la ardeno, kaj kuris en la domon, he was in the garden and
ran into the house.
i ne estas sur la tablo, i falis sur la plankon, it is not on the table, it
fell upon the floor.
Ili falis sub la tablon is la planko, they fell under the table as far as the
floor (direction expressed by whole prepositional phrase).
Mi iris tra la domo en mian ambron, I went through the house into
my room.
THE ARTICLE FOR THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE.
47. In many sentences where the possessor is already sufficiently indicated, English nevertheless uses a possessive adjective, as in "I wash my
face," "he shakes his head," but on the other hand omits it entirely with
certain words indicating relationship, as in "Brother gave it to me," etc. In
both cases Esperanto uses the article instead of the possessive adjective,
unless the fact of possession is to be emphasized:
Mi lavas la vizaon, I wash my face.
Li skuas la kapon, he shakes his head.
La patro estas alta, Father is tall.
Mi donis in al la patro, I gave it to Father.

39

APPOSITION.
48. English often uses the preposition "of" between two words where
no idea of possession really exists, as "the city of Boston." Since nouns
used in apposition refer to the same thing, and are in the same grammatical construction, Esperanto does not use a preposition:
La urbo Bostono estas granda, the city (of) Boston is large.
Mia amiko Johano estas alta, my friend John is tall.
u vi ne konas min, vian amikon? do you not know me, your friend?
Vocabulary.
arabo, arab.
balda, soon.
Bostono, Boston.
frato, brother.
kamelo, camel.
kapo, head.
kolo, neck.
korpo, body.
meti, to put, to place.
nazo, nose.
nur, only, merely.
pui, to push.
trans, across.
tuta, whole, entire, all.
urbo, city.
varma, warm.
LA ARABO KAJ LA KAMELO.
Arabo sidis en sia domo en la urbo. Apud domo trans la strato li vidis
kamelon. La kamelo iris trans la straton is la pordo, kaj diris al la arabo,
"Frato, mi ne estas varma, mi volas meti nur la nazon en vian varman
domon." La arabo skuis la kapon, sed la kamelo metis la nazon tra la
pordo en la ambron. La kamelo komencis pui sian tutan vizaon en la
domon. Balda li havis la kapon is la kolo en la domo. Post la kapo iris
la kolo en in, kaj balda la tuta korpo estis en la domo. La arabo estis

40

kolera, ar li ne volis havi tutan kamelon en sia domo. Li kuris al la kamelo, kaptis lin, tenis lin, kaj diris, "Frato, vi volis meti nur la nazon en mian domon. La ambro ne estas granda sed i estas la mia, kaj mi preferas
sidi en i." "Via diro estas bona," diris la kamelo, "via domo ne estas
granda, sed i estas varma, kaj mi atas stari en i. Mi preferas stari kaj
kui en i, kaj mi donos al vi mian arbon trans la strato. u vi ne volas iri
sub la arbon?" Kaj la kamelo puis la arabon de lia domo en la straton de
la urbo. La kamelo nun trovis sin en varma ambro, sed la juna arabo
staris trans la strato kaj ne estis varma.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The cat ran across the street. 2. Across the street it found a sparrow.
3. It caught the bird, but began to wash its face, and the sparrow flew to
the nest. 4. I went into the garden as far as the large tree. 5. I did not hold
my book, and it fell upon the floor. 6. It began to fall under the table, but
I seized it. 7. My brother pushed the books into their box, and put it on
the table. 8. We went to the city of Boston yesterday and into a beautiful
house. 9. The arab shook his head and said, "No." 10. But the camel commenced to go through the door. 11. His remark did not seem to surprise
the camel. 12. The camel pushed its head and neck, and soon its whole
body into the warm house. 13. It wished to put merely its nose into it. 14.
The arab was angry, because it pushed itself into his house. 15. He said,
"Brother, the house is mine, and I do not wish to have you in it." 16. But
soon after the remark, the whole camel was in the house. 17. He pushed
the young arab into the street. 18. He went across the street and stood
upon the grass under a tree.

41

Lesson 11
POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS.
49. The preposition de is used to express possession or connection:
La muroj de la domo, the walls of the house.
La koloroj de la floroj, the colors of the flowers.
La libro de la knabo, the book of the boy (the boy's book).
Brano de la arbo, a branch of the tree.
La ardeno de la viroj, the garden of the men (the men's garden).
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
50. Verbs with an impersonal or indeterminate subject, as "it rains," "it
is snowing," are called impersonal, because there is no actual subject, the
word "it" serving merely as an introductory particle. No such particle is
used with impersonal verbs in Esperanto:
Pluvas, it rains, it is raining.
Neis hiera, it snowed yesterday.
VERBS PRECEDING THEIR SUBJECTS.
51. When the verb in a sentence precedes its subject, English often uses
an introductory particle, such as "there," "it." In Esperanto no such
particles are needed:
Estas floroj sur la tablo, there are flowers on the table.
Estis Johano, ne Alfredo, en la ardeno, it was John, not Alfred, in the
garden.
Estas domo en la kampo, there is a house in the field.
Estis mi, it was I.
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS.
52. Words like a, kaj, nek, sed, which join words, word-groups, or
sentences together are conjunctions. All the conjunctions given so far
connect words, phrases, or sentences of similar rank or kind. These are

42

called coordinating conjunctions, and the words, phrases, or sentences

connected by them are said to be coordinate:
u vi maras a kuras?
(A connects the verbs.)
i iris, kaj ni estis feliaj.
(Kaj connects the sentences.)
Nek vi nek mi vidis in.
(The second nek connects the pronouns, the first being introductory
and adverbial.)
A li a i perdis la libron.
(The second a connects the pronouns, the first being introductory and
adverbial.)
i falis sur la seon, sed ne sur la plankon.
(Sed connects the phrases.)
Li ne atis in. Tamen li tenis in.
(Tamen connects the sentences.)
A phrase is a word-group forming an expression, but not containing a
verb, as "through the house," "of the man," "before me," etc.
Coordinating conjunctions may be further classified according to their
meaning: A is disjunctive, connecting alternates, and expressing separation. Kaj is copulative, expressing union. Nek is disjunctive, expressing
separation and also negation. Sed is adversative, expressing opposition,
contrast, or modification of a previous statement. Tamen is adversative,
affirming something in spite of a previous objection or concession. Do,
so, then, consequently, is argumentative, expressing a logical inference
or result in a somewhat conversational manner.
Vocabulary.
akvo, water.
amiko, friend.
anka, also.

43

bezoni, to need.
dezerto, desert.
fidela, faithful.
mono, money.
nei, to snow.
pluvi, to rain.
porti, to carry.
ria, rich, wealthy.
sablo, sand.
sako, sack, bag.
seka, dry.
tamen, nevertheless.
trinki, to drink.
veni, to come.
vojo, road, way.
LA ARABO EN LA DEZERTO.
Arabo iris trans grandan sekan dezerton. Kamelo, lia fidela amiko,
portis lin. La kamelo anka portis belajn tapiojn, ar la arabo estis ria
viro. La arabo havis ne nur tapiojn, sed anka sakojn. En la sakoj estis
akvo, ar en la dezerto nek pluvas nek neas. La viro trinkis akvon, kaj
anka donis akvon al sia kamelo. La kamelo maris kaj maris, sed ne
venis al la domo de la arabo, ar ili perdis la vojon. La suno brilis, kaj la
sablo de la dezerto ajnis varma. La arabo ne trovis la vojon, kaj balda li
ne havis akvon. Tamen la kamelo maris kaj maris, kaj balda la arabo
vidis sakon anta si, sur la seka sablo. Li estis felia kaj diris al si "u estas akvo en i? Mi volas trinki, kaj volas doni akvon al mia fidela kamelo." Li anka volis lavi la tutan vizaon en la akvo, ar li estis varma.
Post sia diro li kaptis la sakon, kaj komencis rigardi en in. Li metis la
nazon en in, sed ne trovis akvon en la sako. Nek li nek lia fidela kamelo
havis akvon, ar estis nur mono en la sako. La arabo estis kolera, ar li ne
volis monon, li bezonis akvon. Li havis monon en sia domo en la urbo,
kaj volis trovi akvon. u li tamen metis la sakon trans la kolon de sia
kamelo? Ne, li ne volis meti in sur sian kamelon, ar li estis kolera. Li ne
tenis la sakon, sed i falis sur la sablon, kaj kuis apud li. La sako nun
kuas sur la sablo de la granda dezerto, kaj la mono estas en i.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

44

1. Today it is raining, but yesterday it was snowing. 2. Did your friend

John carry his chair into the house? 3. I saw your good friends on the
way to the city. 4. Is the large sack behind the door theirs? 5. Neither she
nor her brother saw the whole city. 6. They went to the city of Boston
and lost their way. 7. There are interesting houses across the street. 8.
The body of a camel is large, and its neck is long. 9. The camel pushed its
head into the house of the arab, and he was angry. 10. On the sand in the
desert there lies a sack. 11. In the sack there is money. 12. The arab was
warm, and wished to drink water. 13. He also wished to give water to
the faithful camel. 14. Nevertheless, he found only money in the sack. 15.
He was angry, and did not keep the sack. 16. Yesterday he wished to
find money, but today he prefers water. 17. Nevertheless there is only
sand in the desert. 18. He wished to come from the dry desert to the
house of a faithful friend. 19. Both he and his friends are rich. 20. They
went to his house yesterday, and came to theirs today. 21. They do not
need money.

45

Lesson 12
INDIRECT STATEMENTS.
53. A statement made indirectly by means of a clause dependent upon
a verb meaning "say," "think," "know," "believe," or a similar expression,
as in "I know that he came," "I hear that he is good," is called an indirect
statement. (The direct statement is "he came," "he is good.") An indirect
statement is joined to the main verb or sentence by the subordinating
conjunction ke, that.
Mi diras ke li estas bona, I say that he is good.
Johano diras ke vi venis hiera, John says that you came yesterday.
i opinias ke estas mono en la sako, she thinks that there is money in
the bag.
Ni vidas ke neas, we see that it is snowing.
A clause is a group of words including a verb, which is dependent
upon or subordinate to a main verb or sentence, as "that he came,"
"when he went," "that he is good," etc.
In English the subordinating conjunction may sometimes be omitted,
either "I think that he is good," or "I think he is good," being usually permissible. But in Esperanto there is no variation, and the conjunction ke is
never omitted.
THE INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUN ONI.
54. When an indefinite personal pronoun is desired, as in the expressions "one knows," "they say," "people say," "you can see," etc., the indefinite personal pronoun oni is used. This pronoun may also be used in
translating such expressions as "it is said," "I am told," etc.:
Oni diras ke li estas ria, they say (one says) that he is rich.
Oni vidas ke ili estas amikoj, one sees that they are friends.
Mi opinias ke oni atas lin, I think that people like him (that he is
liked).
Oni diris al mi ke estas sablo en la dezerto, I was told (people said to
me) that there is sand in the desert.
Oni opinias ke i estas felia, it is thought (one thinks) that she is
happy.

46

u oni vidis nin en la ardeno? Were we seen (did people see us) in
the garden?
Oni atas agrablajn infanojn, people like agreeable children (agreeable
children are liked).
THE FUTURE TENSE.
55. The future tense of the verb expresses an act or state as about to
take place, or as one that will take place in future time. The ending of this
tense is -os, as kuros, will run, flugos, will fly, brilos, will shine. The conjugation of esti and also of vidi in the future tense is as follows:
mi estos, I shall be.
vi estos, you will be.
li (i, i) estos, he (she, it) will be.
ni estos, we shall be.
vi estos, you (plural) will be.
ili estos, they will be.
mi vidos, I shall see.
vi vidos, you will see.
li (i, i) vidos, he (she, it) will see.
ni vidos, we shall see.
vi vidos, you (plural) will see.
ili vidos, they will see.
Vocabulary.
adi, to hear.
blovi, to blow.
greno, grain (wheat, corn, etc.).
ke, that (conjunction).
kontra, against.
montri, to show, to point out.
norda, north, northern.
nova, new.
okcidenta, west, western.
oni, (see 54).
opinii, to think, to opine.
orienta, east, eastern.

47

pluvo, rain.
suda, south, southern.
velki, to wilt, to wither.
vento, wind.
ventoflago, weathercock.
vetero, weather.
LA VENTOFLAGO.
Estis varma vetero, la suno brilis, kaj suda vento blovis. Tamen la nova
ventoflago sur la domo diris al si, "La sudan venton mi ne atas. Mi
preferas orientan venton." La vento orienta adis la diron kaj i venis
kontra la ventoflagon. Pluvis kaj pluvis, kaj oni estis kolera kontra la
ventoflago, ar i montras orientan venton. i diris, "Pluvas nun, sed la
greno en la kampoj bezonos sekan veteron. Oni estos kolera kontra mi,
ar mi montras orientan venton." La okcidenta vento adis la ventoflagon, kaj balda venis. i ne estis forta, sed i estis seka kaj agrabla
vento, kaj ne portis pluvon. La viroj, virinoj, kaj junaj infanoj volis trinki,
sed ili ne havis akvon. La greno kaj la floroj velkis, kaj la frukto anka
falis. La nova ventoflago diris, "Oni estos kolera kontra mi, ar ne
pluvas. Oni opinios ke, ar mi montras okcidentan venton, la frukto
falas, kaj la greno kaj floroj velkas. Mi atas montri nek okcidentan nek
orientan venton!" Norda vento adis kaj venis al la ventoflago. La vetero
ne estis agrabla, kaj la virinoj kaj la junaj infanoj ne estis varmaj. Neis,
kaj oni estis kolera. Oni diris "La greno kaj la frukto bezonas varman
veteron, sed hodia neas. Ni preferas la sudan venton. Ni havis in,
anta la orienta, la okcidenta, kaj la norda ventoj. La ventoflago ne estas
fidela amiko al ni. i ne montras bonajn ventojn, kaj ni volas rompi in!"
Oni kuris al la domo, kaptis la novan ventoflagon, kaj anka rompis in.
i falis, kaj kuis sur la vojo anta la domo.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. One can see that the weathercock points-out the winds. 2. They say
that the west wind will be a dry wind. 3. The weathercock now shows
that an agreeable south wind blows. 4. People will be angry with
(against) the weathercock, because it points-out a north wind. 5. A north
wind is not warm, and the grain and fruit will need a warm wind. 6. It
snowed, and the young children were not warm, because the north wind
blew. 7. People will like a south wind, but an east wind will carry rain. 8.

48

Can one find money in the desert? 9. Do you think (that) he is in the
house? 10. He is said to be (they say that he is) on the street. 11. It is
thought (people think) that the camel is a faithful friend. 12. I am told
(people tell me) that the camel has a large body, and a long neck. 13. One
can see that it is not beautiful. 14. People do not like to drink warm water. 15. Nevertheless we shall drink warm water in the city. 16. It was
beautiful weather yesterday, but today we shall have good weather also.
17. I think that a warm wind will blow soon. 18. My friend has a beautiful new house.

49

Lesson 13
THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN TIU.
56. The demonstrative pronoun tiu, that, is used to indicate a person or
a definitely specified thing. The plural is tiuj, those:
Tiu estas la via, kaj mi volas tiun, that is yours, and I wish that one.
Tiuj estos koleraj kontra vi, those will be angry with you.
Li adis tiujn, he heard those (persons, or things).
57. The demonstrative pronoun tiu is also used as a pronominal adjective, in agreement with a noun:
Tiu vento estos varma, that wind will be warm.
Mi vidas tiun ventoflagon, I see that weathercock.
Tiuj infanoj estas junaj, those children are young.
Mi trovos tiujn librojn, I shall find those books.
TENSES IN INDIRECT QUOTATIONS.
58. The verb in an indirect statement (53) or an indirect question remains in the same tense in which it would be if the statement or question
were direct. (In English this is true only if the introductory verb is
present or future, since after an introductory past tense the tense of the
indirect quotation is changed, and am, is, are, have, will become was,
were, had, would, etc.)
Mi diras ke li estas bona , I say that he is good.
" diris " " " " , I said that he was good.
" diros " " " " , I shall say that he is good.
Li miras u mi adas , he wonders whether I hear.
" miris " " " , he wondered whether I heard.
" miros " " " , he will wonder whether I hear.
Mi opiniis ke i estas bona, I thought that it was good (I thought "it is
good").
Oni miris u li venos, they wondered whether he would come (they
wondered "will he come?").

50

An indirect question is introduced by u, whether, after verbs meaning

"ask," "wonder," "know," etc.: Mi miras u li venis, I wonder whether he
came. Oni demandas u li estas ria, people ask whether he is rich.
FORMATION OF FEMININE NOUNS.
59. Feminine nouns corresponding to distinctly masculine nouns such
as frato, knabo, viro, may be formed from these by inserting the suffix in- just before the noun-ending -o:
fratino, sister (from frato, brother).
knabino, girl (from knabo, boy).
patrino, mother (from patro, father).
virino, woman (from viro, man).
Cf. English names similarly formed from masculine names, as Pauline,
Josephine, Ernestine, Geraldine, etc., also German Knigin, queen, from
Knig, king; Lwin, lioness, from Lwe, lion, etc.
Vocabulary.
almena, at least.
apelo, hat.
ielo, sky, heaven.
filo, son.
konstrui, to build.
miri, to wonder.
morga, tomorrow.
nubo, cloud.
ombrelo, umbrella.
paroli, to talk, to speak.
parko, park.
preska, almost.
pri, concerning, about.
promeni, to take a walk.
super, above.
timi, to fear, to be afraid (of).
tiu, that (56).
zorga, careful.
EN LA PARKO.

51

Miaj junaj amiko kaj amikino, kaj anka ilia patrino, iris hiera al la
parko. La infanoj diris al la patrino ke la parko estas agrabla, kaj ke ili
volas promeni en i. La knabino parolis al sia frato pri la belaj floroj. i
diris al li ke la floroj velkas, kaj ke la herbo en preska la tuta parko
bezonas pluvon. La knabo diris hodia al mi ke hiera li kaj lia fratino
adis la birdojn en la arboj super siaj kapoj. Li diris ke li miris pri tiuj
birdoj, tamen li opinias ke la birdoj balda konstruos siajn nestojn en tiuj
arboj. La infanoj promenis, kaj balda ili vidis ke grizaj nuboj venas sur
la ielon, kaj mia juna amikino timis ke pluvos. i parolis al la patrino pri
la nuboj kaj la pluvo, montris al i la grizajn nubojn, kaj diris ke si volas
iri al la domo. Ili komencis mari al la strato, kaj preska kuris, ar ili ne
havis ombrelon. Tra la fenestroj de la domoj oni rigardis ilin, kaj la knabo
miris u li kaj liaj patrino kaj fratino amuzas tiujn virojn kaj virinojn. Tamen la patrino diris ke i ne timas ke i amuzos tiujn, sed ke i timas la
pluvon. i kaj la filino volas esti zorgaj pri almena la novaj apeloj. La
filo diris al i ke li anka estas zorga, sed ke li opinias ke ne pluvos.
Balda la patro venis al ili, kaj portis ombrelojn, ar li anka timis la
pluvon. Li miris u la infanoj kaj ilia patrino havas ombrelojn. Balda
pluvis, sed ili estis sekaj, ar ili havis la ombrelojn. Morga ili ne promenos en la parko, sed iros al la urbo.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The east wind is dry and the south wind will be too warm. 2. A west
wind blew against the weathercock, but the grain needed a south wind. 3
A north wind is blowing and I think that it will soon snow. 4. It (51) will
be beautiful weather tomorrow, because a pleasant wind is now blowing. 5. The flowers will wither because those children gathered them. 6.
They are talking about that park, but I do not wish to take-a-walk, because there are clouds in (on) the sky. 7. At least we shall take an umbrella, and my brother will hold it over our heads. 8. My sister said
"Mother and I are-afraid that it will rain." 9. My young sister will be careful about that new umbrella. 10. I wonder whether she will take-a-walk
tomorrow. 11. That park is pleasant and the grass is soft and green. 12.
The birds are building their nests now, in those branches above our
heads. 13. The sky above us is blue, and a west wind is beginning to
blow. 14. I can see that weathercock, on that large house near the park.
15. Mother says that my sister will have a new hat tomorrow. 16. She will

52

be careful of (about) that hat. 17. My father's friend is very careful of his
son. 18. One sees that he is not a strong boy.

53

Lesson 14
THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN I TIU.
60. The demonstrative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) meaning
"this" is formed by using with tiu (56) the word i, which expresses the
general idea of nearness or proximity. (Consequently the literal meaning
of i tiu is that one nearby, that one here.) The word i may either precede or follow the pronoun:
i tiu estas la mia, this is mine.
Mi vidis i tiun, I saw this one.
u vi volas tiujn i? Do you wish these?
i tiu knabino estas mia fratino, this girl is my sister.
Mi vidis i tiujn apelojn, I saw these hats.
i tiuj amikoj promenos, these friends will take a walk.
61. The words tiu and i tiu may be used to distinguish between persons or things previously mentioned and just mentioned:
Gertrude kaj Mario estas en la parko. Tiu rigardas la florojn, i tiu
kolektas ilin.
Gertrude and Mary are in the park. The former (that one) looks at the
flowers, the latter (this one) gathers them.
POSSESSIVE FORM OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN.
62. To express possession, the demonstrative pronouns tiu and i tiu
have the special possessive or genitive forms ties, that one's, and i ties,
this one's. The use of ties and i ties to mean "the former" and "the latter"
is similar to the use of tiu and i tiu shown in 61:
Mi iris al ties domo, I went to that one's house.
i ties filoj estas junaj, this person's (this one's) sons are young.
Mi atas ties koloron, sed preferas i tiun floron, I like that one's color,
but prefer this flower.
La patro kaj lia amiko parolas pri siaj domoj. Ties estas nova, sed i ties
ajnas bela, Father and his friend are talking about their houses. The
former's is new, but the latter's seems beautiful.

54

THE SUFFIX -IL-.

63. Names of instruments, tools or utensils may be formed by adding
the suffix -il- (followed by the ending -o) to roots whose meaning
permits:
flugilo, wing (from flugi, to fly).
kaptilo, snare, trap (from kapti, to catch).
kudrilo, needle (from kudri, to sew).
montrilo, indicator, (clock) hand (from montri, to point out, show).
tenilo, handle (from teni, to hold).
The root of a word is that part of it which contains the essential meaning, and to which the verb endings -i, -as, -is, -os, the noun ending -o, the
adjective ending -a, etc., are attached, when no suffix intervenes. Thus,
vir- is the root of viro and of virino; kur- is the root of kuri, etc.
THE EXPRESSION OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENTALITY.
64. The means or instrumentality through which an act is accomplished is expressed by use of the preposition per:
Oni kudras per kudrilo, one sews by means of (with) a needle.
La birdoj flugas per flugiloj, the birds fly by (with) wings.
Li amuzas sin per tiuj bildoj, he amuses himself with (by) those
pictures.
Mi trovis in per via helpo, I found it by (through) your help.
Vocabulary.
buo, mouth.
dekstra, right (not left).
i (see 60).
forko, fork.
helpo, help.
kafo, coffee.
kulero, spoon.
mano, hand.
per, by means of (64).
supo, soup.

55

telero, plate.
terpomo, potato.
ties, that one's (62).
trani, to cut.
tre, very, exceedingly.
viando, meat.
LA MANO.
Hiera mi miris u mi havos bonan manon en la domo de mia amiko.
Sed mi opiniis ke mi havos tre bonan manon, ar mia amiko atas doni
bonajn manojn al siaj amikoj. Oni metis tre bonan supon anta mi, kaj
mi manis tiun per granda kulero. Post la supo mi havis viandon. i tiun
mi tenis per forko, kaj tranis per akra tranilo. La forko, tranilo kaj
kulero estas maniloj. Mi havis ne nur viandon, sed anka novajn terpomojn. Mi tranis tiujn i per la tranilo, sed mi metis ilin en la buon per
forko. Mi tenis la forkon en la dekstra mano, kaj metis la tranilon trans
mian teleron. Oni bezonas akran tranilon, sed oni ne bezonas tre akran
forkon. Post la viando kaj la terpomoj, oni donis al mi freajn maturajn
erizojn. Ili kuis sur granda telero, kaj havis belan koloron. Ilia gusto estis anka bona. Mi preska ne diris ke mi anka havis kafon. Mi parolos
morga al mia amiko pri lia kafo, kaj lados in. Post la mano, najbaro
de mia amiko venis en i ties domon, kaj ili parolis al mi pri siaj novaj
domoj. Per la helpo de sia patro, mia amiko konstruos grandan domon.
Lia najbaro volas konstrui belan sed ne tre grandan domon. Ties nova
domo estos bela, sed mi opinias ke mi preferos i ties domon. Mia amiko
volis doni almena kafon al sia najbaro, sed li diris ke li ne volas trinki
kafon. Tamen li volis persikon. Li tenis tiun en la mano, kaj manis tiun.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The birds have very strong wings on their bodies, but they do not
have hands. 2. They will build their nests, and sing about the young
birds. 3. Those children were talking to me yesterday about their cat. 4.
They said that it likes to catch and eat sparrows. 5. Tomorrow it will hide
(itself) behind a tree, and will catch a young sparrow. 6. The children will
gather peaches in that-person's garden, and will put them upon a plate.
7. They will shake the whole tree by means of a branch. 8. The sweet fruit
above them will fall upon the soft green grass. 9. The children wondered
whether the cherries were ripe. 10. They seem almost ripe, and

56

tomorrow the children will pick (gather) them, with the help of their
father. 11. It is said (54) that the grain in that-man's field very [much]
needs rain. 12. People also think that the flowers will wither, for
(because) it did not rain yesterday or today. 13. My careful young friend
will carry an umbrella in his hand tomorrow, because he fears the rain.
14. He sees those gray clouds in (on) the sky. 15. He holds the umbrella
by its handle. 16. The weathercock is an indicator concerning the weather. 17. One eats meat with a fork, and soup with a spoon. 18. One holds
the spoon in the right hand. 19. A knife is sharp, but one does not need a
sharp fork. 20. We shall have a very good meal, and also very good
coffee.

57

Lesson 15
THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE.
65. The demonstrative adjective related to the demonstrative pronoun
tiu (56) is tia, that kind of, that sort of, such:
Tia floro estas bela, that kind of a flower is beautiful.
Mi atas tian viandon, I like that sort of meat.
Tiaj najbaroj estas agrablaj, such (that kind of) neighbors are pleasant.
Mi volas adi tiajn birdojn, I wish to hear such birds.
ADVERBS DEFINED AND CLASSIFIED.
66. An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, another adverb, or phrase. It may express manner, time, degree, negation, etc. Adverbs are either primary, as "now," "almost," or derived, as
"glad-ly," "sweet-ly," The Esperanto primary adverbs given in this and in
preceding lessons may be classified as follows:
(a) Temporal Adverbs (expressing time).
balda, soon.
hiera, yesterday.
hodia, today.
morga, tomorrow.
nun, now.
tuj, immediately.
(b) Adverbs of Degree.
almena, at least.
nur, merely.
preska, almost.
tre, very, much.
(c) Adverbs Expressing Other Ideas.
addition: anka, also.
interrogation: u, (30).
proximity: i, (60).
emphasis: e, even.
affirmation: jes, yes.

58

negation: ne, not, no, (27).

a. An adverb usually precedes, but may also follow, the word or
words which it modifies. It must be so placed as to leave no doubt about
which of two words or word-groups it is intended to modify. Thus, mi
preska volis havi tiun clearly means I almost wished to have that; but
mi volis preska havi tiun might mean either "I almost wished to have
that," or more probably "I wished almost to have that." An example of
permissible variation in the position of adverbs is shown in questions to
which an affirmative answer is expected. Such questions may be put in
the form of a statement, followed by u ne (instead of having u introduce the sentence, with ne in its normal position):
Li venos, u ne? He will come, will he not?
La vetero estas bela, u ne? The weather is beautiful, is it not?
Vi adis tiun diron, u ne? You heard that remark, did you not?
FORMATION OF OPPOSITES.
67. If the meaning of a word is such that it can have a direct opposite,
such opposite may be formed from it by use of the prefix mal-:
malalta, low, short (from alta, high, tall).
malamiko, enemy (from amiko, friend).
maldekstra, left (from dekstra, right).
malhelpi, to hinder (from helpi, to help).
maljuna, aged, old (from juna, young).
malnova, old, not new (from nova, new).
Cf. English malcontent, "discontented," maladroit, "clumsy."
Vocabulary.
dum, during.
e, even.
gardi, to guard.
helpi, to help, to aid.
honti, to be ashamed.
kara, dear.
kontenta, satisfied.

59

kuraa, courageous.
nokto, night.
povi, to be able.
preni, to take.
propono, proposal.
respondi, to answer.
ruza, sly, cunning.
teli, to steal.
tia, that kind of (65).
tuj, immediately.
voo, voice.
LA RUZA JUNA VIRO.
Ruza juna viro kaj bona maljuna viro iris trans dezerton. Tiu havis
nigran evalon, i tiu havis blankan evalon. "Vi gardos niajn evalojn
dum la nokto, u ne?" diris la juna viro per dola voo al sia amiko, "ar
dum la nokto oni ne povos vidi mian nigran evalon, sed malamikoj
povos tuj vidi vian blankan evalon. Oni povos teli tian evalon, ar vi
estas maljuna kaj malforta, kaj ne povos malhelpi malamikojn." Tia propono ne ajnis agrabla al la maljuna viro. Li ne estis kontenta, tamen li ne
volis perdi sian evalon, ar li estis malria. Li diris al si ke li donos sian
blankan evalon al la juna viro, kaj prenos ties nigran evalon. Tuj li diris
al i tiu "Sed per via helpo mi ne perdos mian evalon: mi donos la mian
al vi, kaj prenos vian evalon. La via estas malbela, sed i estas almena
nigra; vi donos in al mi, u ne?" "Jes," respondis la ruza juna viro, kaj li
donis sian nigran evalon al tiu, kaj prenis la blankan evalon. "Nun," diris la maljuna viro, "Vi estas kuraa kaj forta, kaj vi gardos la evalojn, u
ne? Vi povos malhelpi malamikojn per tiu granda akra tranilo, kaj oni
ne povos teli vian blankan evalon." La ruza juna viro ne hontis. Li respondis "Mia kara amiko, mi nun dormos, ar oni ne telos blankan
evalon. Mi povos vidi tian evalon dum la nokto, kaj malhelpi
malamikojn. Sed tiu evalo via (that horse of yours) havas la koloron de
la nokto, kaj e nun oni povas teli in." La malkontenta maljuna viro diris per kolera voo "u vi ne hontas pri tia propono?" Tamen la ruza juna
viro tuj komencis dormi, kaj la maljuna viro gardis la evalojn dum la
tuta nokto.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

60

1. Does one eat potatoes and meat with a fork or a spoon? 2. One puts
soup into the mouth by means of a spoon. 3. One cuts fruit with a knife,
and puts the fruit upon a plate. 4. The coffee was cold, and I was much
dissatisfied. 5. My knife was dull, nevertheless I almost immediately cut
my (the) left hand. 6. I was ashamed, but I think that the handle of that
knife was very short. 7. The grass is wet today, and I fear that we shall
not be able to take a walk, even in that small park. 8. I dislike to go-walking upon the hard streets. 9. The courageous young man and his aged
friend talked about their enemies. 10. They wished to be careful about
their horses. 11. The young man was very sly, and wished to sleep during the night. 12. He said that one can steal a black horse during the dark
night. 13. He said that either (a) he or the old man would guard the
horses. 14. The old man answered that he would give to him his [own]
white horse. 15. He took that one's black horse. 16. He was ashamed, and
was very angry at his faithless friend. 17. But he stayed-awake, and
guarded the horses.

61

Lesson 16
THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.
68. The demonstrative adverbs of place related to the pronouns tiu and
i tiu are tie, there, in (at) that place, and i tie, here, in (at) this place:
La telero estas tie, the plate is there (in that place).
La libroj kuas i tie, the books lie here (in this place).
Mi trovis vin tie kaj lin tie i, I found you there and him here.
Tie la vetero ajnas tre agrabla, there the weather seems very pleasant.
69. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by tie or i tie, the ending -n is added to the adverb (46), forming
tien, thither, there, and i tien, hither, here:
Li iros tien, he will go there (thither).
Mi venis i tien, I came here (hither).
Ni estis tie, kaj venis i tien, we were there and came here (hither).
ACCOMPANIMENT.
70. Accompaniment or association is expressed by the preposition kun,
with, along with:
La viro venis kun sia amiko, the man came with his friend.
Mi promenos kun vi, I shall go walking with you.
La knabo kun tiu viro estas lia frato, the boy with that man is his
brother.
Kun must not be confused with per (64), which expresses instrumentality, although per may often be translated by English "with." The English preposition "with" may be said to have three rather clearly defined
different meanings. In the linguistic history of this word, the original
meaning was "against," still shown in fight with, strive with, contend
with, withstand, etc. (Cf. German widerstreiten, to strive with, widerhalten, to resist, etc.) Gradually this word "with" usurped the meaning of
the original preposition "mid," expressing association or accompaniment
(cf. German mit, "with", which it crowded out of the language except in
one unimportant compound). The word "by" was also encroaching upon

62

"mid" from another direction, and so "mid's" successor "with" came to be

interchangeable with "by" in expressing instrumentality. Thus, English
"with" indicates opposition, accompaniment, or instrumentality, for
which three senses Esperanto has the three prepositions kontra, kun,
and per, respectively.
THE ADVERB FOR.
71. The adverb for, away, may be used independently, as Li iris for de
mi, he went away from me, but it is more frequently used as a prefix to
give a sense of departure, loss or somewhat forcible removal:
foriri, to go away, to depart.
forkuri, to run away, to escape.
forlasi, to leave alone, to abandon, to desert.
formani, to eat away, to eat up.
forpreni, to take away, to remove.
fortrinki, to drink away, to drink up.
Cf. the prefix for- in English "forfend," to keep away, to avert, "forbid,"
to exclude from, to command against, "forbear," to refrain from, etc.
THE MEANING OF POVI.
72. The verb povi, to be able, is used to translate English can, which is
defective, that is, does not occur in all of the forms a verb may have:
Mi povas paroli, I am able to talk, I can talk.
Mi povis paroli, I was able to talk, I could talk.
Mi povos paroli, I shall be able to talk, .
Mi volas povi paroli, I wish to be able to talk, .
Vocabulary.
el, out of, out.
irka, around, roundabout.
for, away (71).
frua, early.
glavo, sword.
horo, hour.

63

kun, with (70).

lasi, to leave.
peli, to drive, to chase.
poo, pocket.
rajdi, to ride.
rapidi, to hasten.
resti, to remain, to stay.
saa, wise.
tie, there (68).
voki, to call.
MALAMIKOJ EN LA DEZERTO.
Juna viro kaj lia saa patro volis iri trans la dezerton, kun siaj amikoj.
La amikoj estis fortaj, kaj la juna viro estis tre kuraa. Ili restis en malgranda urbo dum la nokto, kaj forrajdis kun tiuj amikoj. La patro kaj la
filo opiniis ke la amikoj kun ili povos helpi per siaj akraj glavoj. Ili opiniis
ke ili povos forpeli la malamikojn. E en la dezerto oni trovas malamikojn. Tiaj malamikoj forprenas la monon de bonaj viroj. La juna viro estis
kontenta, ar li estis kun la amikoj. La maljuna viro estis kontenta ar li
estis kun sia filo. Balda la nokto venis. Estis tre malluma tie en la
dezerto, kaj ili preska ne povis vidi. Dum la fruaj horoj de la nokto la
patro adis voojn, kaj preska tuj li vidis la malamikojn. La ruzaj malbonaj viroj rapidis tien, kaj vokis la maljunan viron. La malkuraaj
amikoj de la patro kaj filo nek restis tie, nek helpis forpeli la malamikojn.
Ili tuj forkuris. La malamikoj staris irka la patro, kaj forpuis lin de lia
evalo. La filo volis malhelpi ilin, sed li ne povis. Li povis nur resti kun la
patro, kaj gardi lin tie kontra la glavoj de la malamikoj. Balda la
malamikoj komencis forpreni la monon el la pooj de la saa maljuna
viro. La kolera filo diris per maldola (bitter) voo "u vi ne hontas? u
vi lasos al ni nek la evalojn nek nian monon?" Sed la malamikoj respondis "Ne, ni lasos al vi nek la evalojn nek la monon. Ni ne estas
malsaaj." Post tiu diro ili tuj forrapidis, kaj prenis kun si la evalojn.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The foolish friends of the young man and his aged father did not
stay with them. 2. They did not help them with their swords, but ran
away at once (tuj), and were not ashamed. 3. The old man heard disagreeable voices behind him, and soon he saw the enemy. 4. The enemy

64

called them, and hastened there (69). 5. Those sly bad men took the
money out of the pockets of the courageous young man. 6. They stood
around him, and also around his father. 7. The father and son could not
even guard their horses. 8. The enemy did not leave (to) these their
horses, but took both the horses and the money. 9. Soon the enemy rode
away, during the late hours of the night. 10. The father and son were
angry and dissatisfied. 11. They said "We fear and dislike such men." 12.
The father said "By the help of our neighbors we can (povos) find those
bad men, and drive them away, out of the desert." 13. The son replied,
"Dear Father, such a proposal seems good, and I will help with my long
sharp sword. 14. But we are now in the desert, and the road to the city is
long. 15. We cannot ride thither, but we can walk thither. 16. Can you not
hasten, with (per) my help?" 17. The wise old man answered, "Yes, my
son, with such help I can walk thither."

65

Lesson 17
THE DEMONSTRATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.
73. The demonstrative temporal adverb related to the demonstrative
pronoun tiu is tiam, then, at that time:
Tiam li rajdos al la urbo, then he will ride to the city.
Nun ili estas saaj, sed tiam ili estis malsaaj, now they are wise, but at
that time they were foolish.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
74. An adjective may have three degrees, positive, comparative and superlative. English has various ways of forming the comparative and superlative degrees (as by the suffixes -er, -est, the adverbs more, most, and
irregular methods as in good, better, best, etc.). Esperanto has only one
method, using the adverbs pli, more, and plej, most:
bela, beautiful
pli bela, more beautiful
plej bela, most beautiful.
bona, good
pli bona, better
plej bona, best.
malbona, bad
pli malbona, worse
plej malbona, worst.
saa, wise
pli saa, wiser
plej saa, wisest.
75. The preposition el is used with words expressing the group or class
out of which a superlative is selected and mentioned:
Li estas la plej juna el tiuj, he is the youngest of (out of) those.
Vi estas la plej felia el ni, you are the happiest of us.

66

Tiu estis la plej ruza el la viroj, that one was the craftiest of the men.
MANNER AND CHARACTERISTIC.
76. The actions or feelings which accompany an act or state, or the
characteristic which permanently accompanies a person or thing, may be
expressed by a substantive with the preposition kun:
Li prenis in kun la plej granda zorgo, he took it with the greatest care.
Mi adis lin kun intereso kaj plezuro, I heard him with interest and
pleasure.
i estas virino kun bona gusto, she is a woman with (of) good taste.
Mi havas evalon kun forta korpo, I have a horse with a strong body.
Sometimes the manner of an action may be expressed by the instrument of it, expressed by the preposition per with a substantive modified
by an adjective: Li kantis per dola voo, he sang with (by means of) a
sweet voice. Vi puis min per forta mano, you pushed me with a strong
hand.
DIRI, PAROLI AND RAKONTI.
77. The verbs diri, to say, paroli, to talk, to speak, and rakonti, to relate,
having in common the general idea of speech or expression, must not be
confused in use:
Mi diris al vi ke pluvas, I said to (told) you that it was raining.
Mi diris in al vi, I said it to you (I told you).
Mi parolis al vi pri i, I talked (spoke) to you about it.
Mi rakontis in al vi, I related (told) it to you.
Vocabulary.
ami, to love.
ekster, outside (of).
Frederiko, Frederick.
gratuli, to congratulate.
intereso, interest.
letero, letter.
plej, most (74).

67

plezuro, pleasure.
pli, more (74).
plumo, pen.
rakonti, to relate (77).
reo, king.
servisto, servant.
skribi, to write.
tiam, then (73).
zorgo, care.
FREDERIKO GRANDA KAJ LA JUNA SERVISTO.
Hiera mi legis interesan libron pri Frederiko Granda (the Great). En
i oni rakontas ke la reo kun plezuro legis a skribis per sia plumo,
dum malfruaj horoj de la nokto. Agrabla juna knabo, la plej juna el la
servistoj, tiam restis ekster la pordo. ar la reo legis plej interesan
novan libron, li ne opiniis ke la horo estas malfrua. Li vokis sian malgrandan serviston, sed la knabo, nek venis nek respondis. La reo iris
tien, kaj trovis la knabon ekster la pordo. Li vidis ke la knabo dormas sur
malalta seo. Tiam Frederiko Granda ne estis kolera, sed hontis ar li vokis la infanon. La reo Frederiko vidis leteron en la poo de la knabo. Tuj
li prenis la leteron el lia poo, kaj rigardis in. i estis letero al la servisto, de lia patrino. i ne estis ria virino, i ajnis esti tre malria. En i
tiu letero la patrino diris per la plumo ke i amas la filon. i dankis lin ar
li skribis al i longan leteron. i anka dankis lin ar li donis al i monon.
La reo volis esti tre bona al tia filo. Kun la plej granda zorgo li metis
monon el sia poo kun la letero kaj tiam lasis la leteron en ties poo. Tiam
li formaris al sia ambro, kaj vokis la malgrandan serviston. La knabo
tuj adis, kaj rapidis tra la pordo. Li kuris trans la ambron, kaj staris
anta la reo. "u vi dormis?" diris Frederiko Granda. "Jes, mi timas ke
mi preska dormis," respondis la knabo, "kaj mi tre hontas." Tiam li metis la manon en la poon, kaj trovis la monon. Li ajnis pli malfelia kaj diris kun granda timo "Malamiko metis i tiun monon en mian poon! Oni
opinios ke mi telis in! Oni malamos min, kaj forpelos min!" Frederiko
respondis, "Ne, mi donis in al vi, ar mi amas bonajn knabojn. Mi gratulas vian patrinon, ar i havas tian filon."
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

68

1. An interesting story is related (54) about Frederick the Great. 2. His

youngest servant stayed outside of the door. 3. The king called him, and
he hastened thither and stood before him. 4. Yesterday he did not hear
the king. 5. The king called him, but he did not answer. 6. The king
thought that the boy had gone away with the older servants, and he was
angry. 7. He left his book on the table, and went to the door. 8. Then he
saw that the little boy was sleeping there. 9. He looked at him with greater interest, and saw a letter in his pocket. 10. The letter was from the
boy's mother. 11. He had written a letter to her, with his pen, and had
given (to) her money, because she was poor. 12. He wrote longer letters
with pleasure, because he was a most faithful son. 13. The king congratulated the mother of the boy, concerning such a son. 14. (The) king Frederick wished to be kinder (pli bona) to the boy. 15. He placed his book
upon the table, near his sword, and talked to the little servant. 16. Then
the older servants came, and stood around the king. 17. They walked
with great care, and the younger servant did not hear them. 18. They
loved the little boy, and wished to help him.

69

Lesson 18
THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON.
78. The demonstrative adverb of motive or reason, related to the
demonstrative pronoun tiu, is tial, therefore, for that reason, so:
Tial la servisto foriris, therefore the servant went away.
Tial mi gratulis lin, for that reason I congratulated him.
Tial oni forpelis lin, so they drove him away.
DERIVATION OF ADVERBS.
79. Adverbs may be derived from roots whose meaning permits, by
addition of the adverb-ending -e, as felie, happily, kolere, angrily. The
comparison of adverbs is similar to that of adjectives:
sae, wisely
pli sae, more wisely
plej sae, most wisely
bone, well
pli bone, better
plej bone, best
malbone, badly
pli malbone, worse
plej malbone, worst
ruze, slyly
pli ruze, more slyly
plej ruze, most slyly
MALPLI AND MALPLEJ.
80. The opposites (67) of pli and plej are malpli, less, and malplej, least.
Their use is similar to that of pli and plej. (These adverbs may also modify verbs):
Li estas malpli kuraa, he is less courageous.

70

Tiuj estis malplej akraj, those were least sharp.

La vento blovis malpli forte, the wind blew less strongly.
Li skribis malplej zorge, he wrote least carefully.
Mi malpli timas ilin, I fear them less.
Vi malplej bezonos helpon, you will need help least.
COMPARISON OF WORDS EXPRESSING QUANTITY.
81. Since in their precise sense the words pli, malpli, plej, malplej, express degree, a quantitative meaning is given by multe, much, in the desired degree of comparison:
multe, much
pli multe, more (in amount)
plej multe, most
malpli multe, less
malplej multe, least
malmulte, little
pli malmulte, less
plej malmulte, least
COMPARISONS CONTAINING OL.
82. In a comparison made by the use of pli or malpli, the case used
after ol, than, must indicate clearly the sense intended:
Mi amas ilin pli multe ol in, I love them more than (I love) her.
Mi amas ilin pli multe ol i, I love them more than she (loves them).
Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabo, you helped the man less
than the boy (helped him).
Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabon, you helped the man less
than (you helped) the boy.
CAUSAL CLAUSES.
83. A clause giving a cause or reason is introduced by ar, because, for,
or by the combination tial ke, for this reason that, because, for:
Mi venis frue, ar mi volis vidi vin, I came early, for I wished to see
you.

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La floroj velkis tial, ke ne pluvis, the flowers wilted for this reason,
that it did not rain.
Vocabulary.
anstata, instead of.
aprilo, April.
agusto, August.
jaro, year.
junio, June.
julio, July.
majo, May.
marto, March.
monato, month.
multa, much (multaj, many).
ofta, frequent (ofte, often).
ol, than (82).
printempo, spring (season).
tago, day.
sezono, season.
somero, summer.
tial, therefore (78).
vintro, winter.
PRI LA SEZONOJ.
La vintro estas la malplej agrabla sezono el la tuta jaro. Neas tre
multe, kaj tial oni nur malofte promenas, ar la stratoj estas tro malsekaj.
Oni maras kun granda zorgo, kaj malrapide (slowly), tial ke oni ne
volas fali kaj preska rompi la kolon. Oni zorge gardas sin tiam kontra
la malvarmaj nordaj ventoj. La manojn oni metas en la poojn, sed la vizaon oni ne povas bone gardi. Mi ne atas resti ekster la domo dum tia
vetero. Mi multe preferas sidi en varma luma ambro, kaj skribi leterojn
per bona plumo. La monatoj de la printempo estas marto, aprilo kaj
majo. La bela printempo ajnas pli agrabla ol la vintro. iaj tagoj estas pli
longaj kaj pli varmaj, iaj ventoj blovas malpli forte. En i tiu sezono la
kampoj kaj arboj frue komencas montri plej belajn kolorojn. La birdoj
konstruas siajn nestojn, kaj dole kantas. Oni povas promeni sur la mola
herbo, anstata sur malsekaj malagrablaj stratoj. Pluvas pli multe en
aprilo, tamen post la pluvo la herbo ajnas pli verda, kaj la nuboj balda

72

forflugas de la blua ielo. Dum majo oni trovas violojn, kaj en junio oni
vidas tre multajn rozojn. Sed la plej agrabla el la sezonoj estas la somero.
Anstata malvarmaj ventoj la somero havas la plej belan veteron, kun
suda a okcidenta ventoj. La longaj tagoj estas varmaj, sed la noktoj estas
tute agrablaj. Tiam oni havas pli bonajn fruktojn ol dum la printempo. La
monatoj de la somero estas junio, julio kaj agusto. Mi plej atas junion.
u vi atas in pli multe ol mi? u vi atas aguston pli multe ol julion?
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. I read a most interesting book about Frederick the Great. 2. It relates
that he often stayed-awake and read with great interest during the later
hours of the night. 3. His youngest servant was a small boy. 4. The king
loved this boy more than [he loved] the older servants. 5. The winter is a
less pleasant season than the spring, but the summer is more pleasant
than that [season]. 6. During March the east winds blow most strongly,
and shake the trees very much. 7. In April one needs his umbrella, for
(the reason that) there are often clouds in the sky and it rains a great deal
(very much). 8. The streets are very wet, but the water does not seem to
wash them. 9. In May one begins to find sweet violets, and the birds in
the trees above our heads sing very sweetly. 10. In June the most beautiful roses are seen (54). 11. July and August are the warmest months of
the whole year. 12. The days are longer than the nights, and the weathercock shows west and south winds, instead of those disagreeable north
and east winds. 13. One stays outside [of] the house then with greater
pleasure, and goes walking in the parks. 14. I think that I like the summer better than you [do]. 15. Therefore I praise the summer more than
you [do]. 16. However, I praise you more than [I praise] your younger
brother. 17. He is less wise than you.

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Lesson 19
JU AND DES IN COMPARISONS.
84. In clauses expressing a comparison between two objects, acts or
states, the adverbial use of English "the the " (meaning "by how
much by that much ") is rendered by the adverbs ju and des,
respectively:
Ju pli bona li estas, des pli felia li estos, the better he is, the happier he
will be.
Ju pli ofte mi rigardas, des pli mi volas rigardi, the oftener I look, the
more I wish to look.
Ju pli bele la luno brilas, des pli oni atas la nokton, the more beautifully the moon shines, the more one likes the night.
Ju malpli pluvas, des pli la floroj velkas, the less it rains, the more the
flowers wither.
Ju malpli multe vi helpas, des malpli multe mi lados vin, the less you
help, the less I shall praise you.
ar vi helpis, mi des pli multe lados vin, because you helped, I shall
praise you the (that much) more.
Cf. Shakespeare, As You Like It, V, II, 49, By so much the more shall I
tomorrow be at the height of heart-heaviness, by how much I shall think
my brother happy in having what he wishes for.
THE PREPOSITION INTER.
85. In English, the preposition "between" is used in reference to two
persons or things, and "among" in reference to three or more. As the difference in meaning is not essential, Esperanto has but the one preposition inter to express both between and among:
Li sidas inter vi kaj mi, he is sitting between you and me.
Li sidas inter siaj amikoj, he is sitting among his friends.
La monato majo estas inter aprilo kaj junio, the month of May is
between April and June.
Inter tiuj libroj estas tre interesa libro, among those books there is a
very interesting book.

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THE PREPOSITION PRO.

86. Cause or reason may be expressed not only by an adverb (78) or a
clause (83), but also by use of the preposition pro, because of, on account
of, for the sake of, for. It directs the thought away from the complement
toward the action, feeling or state caused by it, or done in its interest or
behalf:
La floroj velkas pro la seka vetero, the flowers wilt because of the dry
weather.
Mi skribis la leteron pro vi, I wrote the letter for you (for your sake).
Pro tiuj nuboj mi timas ke pluvos, on account of those clouds I fear
that it will rain.
Oni atas erizojn pro la dola gusto, people like cherries because of
the sweet taste.
PREPOSITIONS WITH ADVERBS AND OTHER PREPOSITIONS.
87. Prepositions may be used with adverbs or with prepositional
phrases when the meaning permits:
La kato kuris el sub la tablo, the cat ran out-from under the table.
Li venos el tie, he will come out of there.
De nun li estos zorga, from now he will be careful.
Li staris dekstre de la vojo, he stood on the right of the road.
Mi iros for de i tie, I shall go away from here.
Vocabulary.
atuno, autumn, fall.
decembro, December.
des, (see 84).
februaro, February.
glacio, ice.
inter, between, among (85).
januaro, January.
ju, (see 84).
kovri, to cover.
neo, snow.
novembro, November.

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nuda, bare, naked.

oktobro, October.
pro, because of (86).
rikolti, to harvest.
rivero, river.
septembro, September.
tero, ground, earth.
LA ATUNO KAJ LA VINTRO.
La sezonoj de la jaro estas la vintro, la printempo, la somero, kaj la atuno. La atuno estas inter la somero kaj la vintro. iaj monatoj estas
septembro, oktobro kaj novembro. En septembro oni povas kolekti maturajn fruktojn. Tiam anka oni rikoltas la flavan grenon de la kampoj.
Dum i tiu monato kaj dum oktobro la folioj sur la branoj komencas esti
ruaj kaj flavaj, anstata verdaj. La herbo velkas, kaj bruna tapio ajnas
kovri la teron. Balda la folioj falas al la tero, kaj en novembro la arboj
estas tute nudaj. Pli a malpli frue neas. La glacio ofte kovras la akvon
en la riveroj, kaj restas sur la stratoj kaj la vojoj. La mola blanka neo
kovras la teron, kaj kuas sur la branoj de la arboj. Tiam, pro la fortaj
ventoj, i falas de la branoj al la tero. La birdoj frue lasas tian veteron,
kaj flugas de i tie al pli sudaj kampoj kaj arboj. Ili ne povas resti, pro la
malvarmaj tagoj kaj noktoj. Ili malatas la neon kaj la glacion pli multe
ol ni. Ju pli multe neas; des pli malofte ni volas promeni. Ni preferas
resti en la domo, anstata ekster i. Ju pli ni rigardas la nudajn branojn
de la arboj, des pli malagrabla ajnas la vintro. Tamen la junaj infanoj tre
atas tian veteron, kaj ju pli neas, kaj ju pli forte la norda vento blovas,
des malpli ili estas kontentaj en la domo. Ili volas kuri sur la neo, irka
la arboj kaj inter ili, kun siaj junaj amikoj. Ili povas bone amuzi sin per la
neo. La monatoj de la vintro estas decembro, januaro kaj februaro. i
estas la plej malvarma sezono.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. September, October and November are the months of autumn. 2. In
these months, people harvest the yellow grain and gather various fruits.
3. The leaves on the trees around us begin to have red and yellow colors.
4. They begin to fall from the branches and lie upon the ground. 5. The
more strongly the cold north wind blows through the branches, the
sooner the leaves fall from there. 6. They lie under the bare trees, with

76

the brown grass. 7. The sooner it snows, the sooner the ground will seem
to have a white carpet. 8. The snow will completely (tute) cover the grass
during the months of the winter. 9. These months are December, January
and February. 10. From that time (de tiam) the ice and snow will cover
the roads, and altogether (tute) hide them. 11. There will often be ice on
the water of the river. 12. We like this season of the year more than
March, April and May. 13. We like it even more than the summer. 14.
The months of the latter (62) are June, July and August. 15. The summer
is the warmest season of the entire year. 16. Therefore we often say that
the summer is the pleasantest season. 17. Because of its many pleasures,
the summer is dear to me. 18. It is between the spring and the autumn.

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Lesson 20
THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE.
88. The demonstrative adverb of manner and degree, related to the
demonstrative pronoun tiu, is tiel, in that (this) manner, in such a way,
thus, so. Like English "thus," "so," tiel may modify adjectives and other
adverbs, by indicating degree:
u oni tiel helpas amikon? Does one help a friend in that (this) way?
Mi in skribis tiel, I wrote it thus (in such a way).
La vetero estas tiel bela, the weather is so beautiful.
Tiel mallonge li parolis, thus briefly he spoke.
Mi trovis tiel belan floron, I found such a beautiful flower.
Li prenis tiel multe, he took that much (so much).
PREPOSITIONS EXPRESSING TIME-RELATIONS.
89. The relations which prepositions express may be of various kinds.
As in English, a certain number of prepositions primarily expressing
place may also express time-relations. Such prepositions are anta,
irka, de, en, is, inter, post, and je (whose use in other than time-relations will be explained later):
Mi foriros irka junio, I shall depart about June.
De tiu horo mi estis via amiko, from that hour I was your friend.
Li ne parolis al mi de tiu semajno, he did not speak to me since from)
that week.
En la tuta monato ne neis, it did not snow in (at any time within) the
entire month.
Mi dormis is malfrua horo, I slept until (up to) a late hour.
is nun li ne vidis vin, until now he did not see you.
Inter marto kaj junio mi iros tien, between March and June I shall go
there.
Je malfrua horo li foriris, at a late hour he went away.
Mi iros tien je dimano, I shall go there on Sunday.
Je tiu horo li vokis min, at that hour he called me.
i ne restis tie post julio, she did not stay there after July.
Post ne longe mi vokos vin, soon (after not long) I shall call you.

78

90. When a definite date or point in time is expressed, anta means

"before." When used with an expression of an amount of time, it is to be
translated by "ago" following the expression (not by "before" preceding
it):
Anta dimano mi foriros, before Sunday I shall go away.
Mi vidis lin anta tiu horo, I saw him before that hour.
Li skribos in anta la nova jaro, he will write it before New Year.
Anta multaj jaroj mi trovis in, many years ago I found it.
Mi rompis in anta longa tempo, I broke it a long time ago.
Anta tre longe vi legis tiun libron, you read that book very long ago.
Li venis anta ne longe, he came recently (not long ago).
Anta malmultaj jaroj li forkuris, a few years ago he escaped.
As already shown, kun expresses accompaniment, per expresses instrumentality, pro expresses cause, kontra expresses opposition, anstata expresses substitution, sur, apud, sub, etc., express place, dum expresses time, etc.
Vocabulary.
dimano, Sunday.
energia, energetic.
frosto, frost.
je, at, on (89).
kota, muddy.
labori, to work, to labor.
laca, tired, weary.
lundo, Monday.
mardo, Tuesday.
mateno, morning.
promeno, walk, promenade.
rakonto, story, narrative.
ripozi, to rest, to repose.
semajno, week.
tempo, time.
tiel, thus, so (88)
tro, too, too much.
vespero, evening.

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EN SEPTEMBRO.
Anta multaj jaroj ni preferis resti en nia malgranda domo trans la
rivero, dum la tuta atuno. Sed nun ni restas tie nur is oktobro. De
agusto is oktobro la vetero estas tre agrabla tie, sed balda post tiu
monato la fortaj ventoj blovas, kaj la folioj komencas fali. La frosto kovras la teron, kaj balda neas tre ofte. Ju pli nudaj estas la arboj, des pli
malbelaj ili ajnas. La vetero anta novembro ne estas tro malvarma, sed
post tiu monato ni opinias ke la urbo estas pli agrabla ol domo inter
kampoj kaj arboj, trans lara rivero. La frosto, neo kaj glacio kovras la
teron en decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Sed la monato septembro ajnas
tre agrabla, pro siaj multaj plezuroj. La viroj laboras energie en la kampoj, de la mateno is la vespero. Ili rikoltas la flavan grenon, kaj kolektas
la fruktojn. Sed je dimano oni ne laboras tiel energie, sed dormas is
malfrua horo, tial ke je tiu tago oni ripozas. Je lundo oni komencas labori
tre frue, kaj je mardo oni anka laboras energie. En septembro la vojoj ne
estas tro kotaj, kaj longaj promenoj estas ofte agrablaj. Ju pli ofte mi
promenas kun miaj amikoj, des pli multe mi atas tiajn promenojn. Sed
hiera mi estis tre laca post la promeno, tial mi ripozis sur granda mola
seo. Anta ne longe la patro promenis kun mi, sed ni ne estis tiel lacaj je
tiu tago. ajnas ke ju pli ofte ni promenas, des malpli lacaj ni estas post la
promenoj. Post ne longe mi estos pli forta.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Many years ago we had a small house across the river. 2. We did not
remain there during the entire year, but only in the warmer months of
the summer. 3. Often we stayed until September or even until October. 4.
My younger brothers and sisters amused themselves very well there
from (the) morning until (the) evening. 5. They amused themselves
among the flowers and trees, or went from there into the large fields. 6.
Here the men work energetically, and harvest the ripe yellow grain. 7.
Only on Sunday do they rest, because on that day one does not work. 8.
Between August and November the men work more than in the winter.
9. In December and after that month they rest, for (83) from that time the
frost, ice and snow cover the ground. 10. Because of the snow on the
ground, long walks are not pleasant in the winter. 11. Recently (90) we
went walking in the park across the river, but we were so tired after that
walk! 12. The longer the walk is, the sooner one wishes to rest. 13. On
Monday it rained, so (78) we read stories and wrote letters, in a pleasant

80

light room in our house. 14. Before evening, however, the sun shone, and
the streets were not so muddy. 15. On Tuesday these streets were almost
dry, and soon the roads near the river and between the fields will also be
dry. 16. A few years ago those roads were very good.

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Lesson 21
THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME.
91. Duration of time and a date or point in time may be expressed not
only by use of the prepositions dum, during, and je, at, on, but also (as in
English) without the use of any preposition. When no preposition is
used, the word or words indicating time are put in the accusative case:
Li restis tie la tutan semajnon (dum la tuta semajno), he stayed there
the whole week (during the whole week).
i estis felia longan tempon (dum longa tempo), she was happy a
long time (during a long time; for a long time).
Ni rajdos tagon kaj nokton (dum tago kaj nokto), we shall ride a day
and a night (during a day and a night; for a day and a night).
Mi venis dimanon (je dimano), I came Sunday (on Sunday).
Tiun horon (je tiu horo), li forkuris, that hour (at that hour) he escaped.
92. Although generally preferable, an accusative construction must be
carefully placed, or avoided altogether, if confusion with other accusatives (expressing direction of motion, direct object, etc.) might result:
Mi volas iri Bostonon je lundo, I wish to go to Boston on Monday.
Mi volas iri al Bostono lundon, I wish to go to Boston Monday.
Lundon mi volas iri Bostonon, Monday I wish to go to Boston.
ADVERBS AND THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME.
93. An accusative of time, as well as a temporal adverb, may further
define or be defined by another expression of time:
Li venis longan tempon anta tiu horo, he came a long time before that
hour.
Jaron post jaro ili restis tie, year after year they stayed there.
hodia matene, this morning.
hodia vespere, this evening.
hodia nokte, tonight.
hiera vespere, last evening.
hiera nokte, last night.
dimanon matene, Sunday morning.

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lundon vespere, Monday evening.

mardon nokte, Tuesday night.
94. An accusative of time does not necessarily imply that the act or
state mentioned occurs oftener than the instance cited. An adverb from
the same root usually gives an idea of frequency or repetition:
Li iros al ilia domo dimanon, he will go to their house Sunday.
Li iras al ilia domo dimane, he goes to their house Sundays.
Li laboris tagon kaj nokton, he worked a day and a night.
Li laboras tage kaj nokte, he works day and night (by day and by
night).
THE PREPOSITION POR.
95. The object or purpose with reference to which an act is performed
or a condition exists is expressed by the preposition por, for. It directs
the thought toward its complement, contrasting thus with pro (86):
Mi havas libron por vi, I have a book for you.
Mi ne havas la tempon por tiel longa promeno, I have not the time for
so long a (such a long) walk.
Ili faris in por via plezuro, they did it for your pleasure.
Vocabulary.
brila, brilliant.
Dio, God.
dividi, to divide.
fari, to make.
forgesi, to forget.
ojo, joy.
konstanta, constant.
kvieta, quiet, calm.
lando, land, country.
merkredo, Wednesday.
mezo, middle.
mondo, world.
paci, to be at peace.
por, for (95).

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plori, to weep.
preta, ready.
ridi, to laugh.
riproi, to reproach.
LA SEZONOJ KAJ LA MONDO.
Anta tre longa tempo Dio faris la mondon. Li vidis ke la floroj havas
belajn kolorojn, ke la arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. Tiam li vokis la sezonojn
kaj diris "Belan mondon mi faris por vi. u vi gardos in tage kaj nokte,
kaj estos tre zorgaj pri i?" La sezonoj respondis "Jes," kaj ridis pro ojo.
Mallongan tempon ili ajnis esti tre feliaj inter la arboj kaj floroj de la
nova mondo. Sed ne multajn semajnojn ili tiel zorge gardis la mondon. Ili
komencis malpaci (quarrel) inter si, de la mateno is la vespero, kaj ofte
forgesis la arbojn kaj florojn. Ju pli ili malpacis, des malpli zorge ili gardis la mondon. La malkonstanta printempo ne atis la kvietan vintron, kaj
ploris pri la malvarma neo. La varma brila somero diris ke la atuno estas tro malbrila. La laca atuno volis ripozi, kaj riprois la malkonstantan
printempon pri i ties kota vetero. Pli kaj pli multe ili malpacis, kaj post
ne longe ili tute ne restis amikoj. Tiam la atuno diris "Mi ne povas pli
longan tempon labori kun vi pro la mondo. Niaj gustoj estas tro diversaj.
Tial hodia matene ni dividos la mondon inter ni." La vintro respondis
"Bone! Mi estas preta," kaj la somero kaj la printempo ridis pro ojo. Tiun
tagon ili dividis la mondon inter si. La vintro konstruis sian domon en la
plej nordaj kaj sudaj landoj. Tie la frosto, neo kaj glacio kovras la tutan
landon, dum la tuta jaro. La brila energia somero prenis por si la mezon
de la mondo. Tial la vetero tie estas plej varma kaj brila. La atuno kaj la
printempo prenis por si la landojn inter la vintro kaj la somero. Tial la
vetero estas nek tro varma nek tro malvarma en i tiuj landoj. Tiam la
sezonoj rakontis al Dio ke ili tiel dividis la mondon inter si.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Tuesday my brother heard an interesting story, and Wednesday
evening after a pleasant walk he related it to me. 2. The story is, that
many years ago God made the beautiful new world, and gave it to the
seasons. 3. They laughed for joy, and said that they would guard it well.
4. They were ready for pleasure, and also were willing (volis) to work
energetically for-the-sake-of the new young world. 5. Almost a year they
were happy, but these seasons were too diverse, and could not long

84

remain friends. 6. The brilliant summer wept and reproached the tired
autumn. 7. The autumn preferred to rest, and disliked the muddy weather of the inconstant spring. 8. The quiet winter concealed itself beneath
the frost and soft white snow, and wished to sleep. 9. The longer they
kept the world among them, the more they quarreled. 10. Soon the autumn made the proposition, "We will divide the world." 11. Immediately
that morning the seasons divided the world among themselves. 12. The
northern and southern lands now belong to the winter, and the middle
of the world belongs to the summer. 13. The spring and autumn took for
themselves those lands between the winter and summer.

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Lesson 22
CLAUSES EXPRESSING DURATION OF TIME.
96. The time during which an act takes place or a condition exists may
be expressed not only by an adverb or accusative of time (91), or by use
of the preposition dum, but also by a clause introduced by dum:
Li venis dum vi forestis, he came while (during-the-time-that) you
were away.
Dum la sezonoj malpacis, ili forgesis pri la mondo, while the seasons
quarreled, they forgot about the world.
Ni ridas pro ojo dum neas, we laugh for joy while it is snowing.
CLAUSES EXPRESSING ANTICIPATION.
97. A clause expressing an action or condition as preceding or anticipating that of the main verb is introduced by anta ol:
Mi foriros anta ol vi venos, I shall depart before you (will) come.
Anta ol vi riprois lin, li ne ploris, before you reproached him, he did
not weep.
Vi ploris anta ol vi ridis, you wept before (sooner than) you laughed.
THE INFINITIVE WITH ANSTATA, POR, ANTA OL.
98. An infinitive may be substantively used with anstata to express
substitution, with por to express purpose (Cf. Old English "But what
went ye out for to see," Matt. xi, 8), and with anta ol to express anticipation. It is usually translated by the English infinitive in -ing:
Anstata resti li foriris, instead of staying he went away.
Vi malhelpas anstata helpi min, you hinder instead of helping me.
Ni venis por helpi vin, we came to help (in order to help) you.
Mi estas preta por iri merkredon, I am ready to go (for going)
Wednesday.
Li havos tro multe por fari, he will have too much to do.
Mi laboros anta ol ripozi, I shall work before resting.
Anta ol foriri, li dankis min, before going away, he thanked me.

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Dio faris la mondon anta ol doni in al la sezonoj, God made the

world before giving it to the seasons.
Substantive is the general name for nouns and pronouns, that is, for
words which indicate persons, things, etc., and may be used as subject or
object of a verb, complement of a preposition, etc.
The infinitive may be used with anta ol if its subject is the same as the
subject of the main verb. Otherwise the construction explained in 97
must be used.
THE EXPRESSION OF A PART OF THE WHOLE.
99. After nouns indicating a quantity or portion of some indefinite
whole, the substantive expressing that indefinite whole is preceded by
the preposition da, of:
Estas skatolo da erizoj tie, there is a box of cherries there.
Mi trovis grandan sakon da mono, I found a large bag of money.
Li havas teleron da viando, he has a plate of meat.
Post horoj da ojo ofte venas horoj da malojo, after hours of joy there
often come hours of sorrow.
100. The preposition da must not be used if a quantity or portion of a
definite or limited whole is expressed. If the word indicating the whole is
limited by la, it is thereby made definite:
Telero de la maturaj pomoj, a plate of the ripe apples.
Sako de la bona kafo, a sack of the good coffee.
Vocabulary.
Aleksandro, Alexander.
barelo, barrel.
bruo, noise.
da, of (99).
demandi, to inquire, to ask.
Diogeno, Diogenes.
greka, Greek.
kelkaj, several, some.

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kvankam, although.
ifono, rag.
koni, to be acquainted with.
lata, loud.
lito, bed.
loi, to dwell, to reside.
nombro, number (quantity).
pura, clean.
sufia, sufficient, enough.
veki, to wake.
viziti, to visit.
vesto, garment, clothes.
DIOGENO KAJ ALEKSANDRO GRANDA.
Anta multaj jaroj saa greka viro, Diogeno, lois en granda urbo. Li
opiniis ke ju pli malmulte oni bezonas, des pli felia oni estas. Por montri
al la mondo ke li ne bezonas multe, kaj ke tial li havas sufie por esti felia, li lois en granda malnova barelo, anstata havi domon. Anstata
kui nokte sur lito a almena sur mola tapio, li e dormis en tiu barelo.
Oni multe parolis pri Diogeno en la urbo, ne nur ar li tiel lois, sed
anka pro liaj saaj diroj. Post kelke da tempo (some time) la reo
Aleksandro Granda venis tien por viziti la urbon. Dum li estis tie li adis
pri Diogeno, kaj demandis pri li. "u li loas en la urbo?" Aleksandro diris. "Kvankam vi ne konas lin, mi opinias ke mi volas vidi tian viron."
Oni respondis "Diogeno estas saa viro, sed anstata loi en domo, li
preferas sidi la tutan tempon en malnova barelo. Anstata porti
(wearing) purajn vestojn, li portas nur malpurajn ifonojn, ar li opinias
ke ju pli malmulte li bezonas, des pli felia li estos." Aleksandro diris
"Anta ol foriri de via lando mi vizitos tiun viron." Anta ol li foriris de
la urbo, Aleksandro iris kun nombro da amikoj por viziti Diogenon, kaj
trovis lin en lia barelo. "u tiu viro volas paroli al mi?" demandis Diogeno per lata voo. Aleksandro Granda respondis "Mi estas la reo
Aleksandro, kaj mi volas koni vin. Mi vidas ke kvankam vi estas saa vi
estas tre malria. u vi ne volas kelkajn novajn vestojn anstata tiuj
malpuraj ifonoj?" Diogeno tuj diris "Anta ol vi venis kaj staris inter mi
kaj la suno, i tiu tre varme brilis sur min. u vi venis por fari bruon kaj
por veki min?" Aleksandro ridis kaj diris "Mi vidas ke vi havas sufie por
esti felia. Tial mi estas preta por foriri."

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SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Diogenes was a wise man who dwelt in a Greek city, many years
ago. 2. In order to show to the inconstant world that one does not need
much in order to be happy, he did not have even a house or a bed. 3. He
stayed day and night in a big barrel, instead of residing in a house. 4. He
preferred to wear old rags, instead of good clean clothes. 5. He said "The
less one needs, the happier he will be." 6. While Alexander the Great was
visiting that city, people talked to him about Diogenes. 7. They asked
"Are you acquainted-with that wise man?" 8. Soon the king went with a
number of his friends to that-man's big barrel, in the middle of the city. 9.
Diogenes was asleep, but the noise of the loud voices waked him, and he
said angrily "You are standing between me and the sun! Will you not go
away at once?" 10. Although several of the men laughed, Alexander said
"We did not come to quarrel with you. 11. I see that you have enough to
be happy, so instead of talking and making a noise we shall leave (go
away from) you at once." 12. Before Diogenes could answer, Alexander
had quietly walked away.

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Lesson 23
ADVERBS EXPRESSING A PART OF THE WHOLE.
101. After adverbs used to indicate a quantity or portion of some indefinite whole, as well as after nouns of such meaning (99), the substantive expressing the indefinite whole is preceded by the preposition da:
Multe da bruo, much (a quantity of) noise.
Tiel malmulte da tempo, so little (such a small quantity of) time.
Kelke da pomoj, some (an indefinite number of) apples.
102. Verbs may be modified by an adverb and prepositional phrase
containing da:
Li trinkis malmulte da akvo, he drank little (not much) water.
Estas multe da sablo en la dezerto, there is much sand in the desert.
Ju pli neas, des pli multe da neo kuas sur la vojoj, the more it
snows, the more snow lies on the roads.
A prepositional phrase containing da, whether following a noun or an
adverb, is sometimes called a partitive construction.
103. It is evident from the above examples that an adverb followed by
da has a somewhat collective sense, indicating a general sum, mass, or
portion of the whole, without distinction of particulars. An adjective of
quantitative meaning, on the other hand, usually indicates consideration
of the individuals composing the sum or mass named:
En urbo oni havas multe da bruo, in a city one has much noise.
Ni adis multajn bruojn, we heard many (different) noises.
Tie oni havas multe da plezuro, there one has much pleasure.
Oni havas multajn plezurojn tie, people have many (different) pleasures there.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.
104. The demonstrative adverb of quantity related to the demonstrative pronoun tiu is tiom, that (this) much, that many, that quantity, so
much, etc.:

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Mi donis tiom da mono al vi, I gave that much (that amount of) money
to you.
Mi aetis tiom da viando, I bought that much meat.
Tiom de la libroj mi legis, that many of the books I read.
RESULT CLAUSES.
105. A clause of result (also called a consecutive clause) expresses an
action or condition as due to, or resulting from, something indicated in
the main sentence, as "he is so strong that he can do it," "I had so much
pleasure that I laughed heartily." In Esperanto a result clause is introduced by ke, preceded (directly or in the main sentence) by an adverb or
adjective of manner, degree, or quantity:
Diogeno estis tiel saa greka viro ke Aleksandro ladis lin, Diogenes
was such a wise Greek man that Alexander praised him.
Mi havis tiom da plezuro ke mi tre ridis, I had so much pleasure that I
laughed very much.
i estas tia vilao ke mi atas loi tie, it is such (that sort of) a village
that I like to live there.
Vocabulary.
aeti, to buy.
asparago, asparagus.
brasiko, cabbage.
butiko, store, shop.
frago, strawberry.
funto, pound.
glaso, glass, tumbler.
ado, Thursday.
kremo, cream.
kontuzo, bruise.
lakto, milk.
legomo, vegetable.
ovo, egg.
pizo, pea.
sabato, Saturday.
tiom, that much (104).

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vendredo, Friday.
vilao, village.
EN LA BUTIKO.
Hodia matene mi iris kun la patrino al la plej granda butiko en nia
vilao. Tie i aetis tiom da legomoj kaj fruktoj ke ni tute ne povis porti
ilin. Tial juna knabo venis kun ni, kaj portis kelke da ili por ni. La patrino
ne aetis tiel multe je vendredo, sed hodia estas sabato, kaj i volis aeti
legomojn por dimano, ar dimane oni ne povas iri en la butikojn. Tial
sabate oni kutime aetas sufie por la manoj de sabato kaj dimano.
Meze de la butiko staras multe da bareloj. En i tiuj oni trovas grandan
nombron da freaj puraj legomoj. La patrino aetis tiel multe da asparago
kaj novaj pizoj, kaj tiel grandan sakon da terpomoj, ke la tablo restis
preska nuda. Mi vidis brasikon tie, sed tiun legomon mi malatas,
kvankam oni diras ke i estas tre bona legomo. Anta ol foriri de la
butiko la patrino aetis kelke da ovoj, kaj rigardis la fruktojn en bareloj
apud la pordo. Ili ajnis tiel bonaj ke i aetis kelkajn maturajn pomojn
kaj skatolon da fragoj. Dum oni donis al i la fruktojn, mi aetis kelkajn
funtojn da sukero. Tiam ni estis pretaj por foriri el la butiko. Sur la vojo
ni adis tiel grandan bruon ke mi lasis la patrinon kaj kuris trans la straton. Mi trovis tie infanon,la filon de nia najbaro. Li faris la bruon, ar li
falis de la arbo anta sia domo, kaj tre late ploris. Li diris al mi ke li
havas multajn kontuzojn sur la kapo. ar mi bone konas la infanon, mi
demandis "u vi volas grandan ruan pomon? Mi havas tian pomon por
vi." Li tuj kaptis la pomon, kaj mi foriris. Tiam la patrino kaj mi iris al la
domo.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. I shall go to the village today with my younger sister. 2. We wish to
buy some eggs, vegetables and fruit for Mother. 3. Mother prefers to remain in the house, because it is raining. 4. It rained on Thursday and Friday, but today it is not raining very much. 5. The air is warm and pleasant, and we shall carry umbrellas with us. 6. We shall buy some new
peas, a box of strawberries and several pounds of sugar. 7. Thus we shall
have enough for the meals of Saturday and Sunday. 8. I wonder whether
we shall see such asparagus and such cabbage on the tables or in the barrels. 9. Although I do not often eat such vegetables, Father and Mother
are very fond of (multe atas) both cabbage and asparagus. 10. We shall

92

also buy enough milk for several glasses of milk, and we shall need
much cream for the strawberries. 11. It seems that we shall buy such a
number of vegetables that we cannot carry them. 12. While we were
standing near the door, ready to go toward the village (46), we heard a
loud voice. 13. A child was standing in the street, and crying. 14. He
wished to go with his mother to visit some friends. 15. I suppose that a
noise on the street waked him, and he did not wish to remain in his bed.

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Lesson 24
THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.
106. The interrogative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is kiu, who,
which. Since the use of this pronoun indicates a question, the sentence
containing it does not need the interrogative adverb u (30):
Kiu vokas vin? Who calls you?
Kiun vi vokas? Whom do you call?
Kiuj el vi vokis nin? Which (ones) of you called us?
Kiujn li helpis? Whom (which ones) did he help?
Kiun tagon vi venos? What day will you come?
Kiujn legomojn vi preferas? What vegetables do you prefer?
Mi miras kiun libron vi aetis, I wonder which book you bought?
107. The interrogative pronoun kiu has a possessive or genitive form
kies, whose:
En kies domo vi loas? In whose house do you reside?
Kies amikojn vi vizitis? Whose friends did you visit?
THE PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.
108. A participle is a verbal adjective, as in "a crying child." It agrees
like other adjectives with the word modified (19, 24). The participle from
a transitive verb (22) may take a direct object, and a participle expressing
motion may be followed by an accusative indicating direction of motion
(46). The present active participle, expressing what the word modified is
doing, ends in -anta, as vidanta, seeing, iranta, going:
La ploranta infano volas dormi, the crying child wishes to sleep.
Mi vidas la falantajn foliojn, I see the falling leaves.
Kiu estas la virino aetanta ovojn? Who is the woman buying eggs?
Mi parolis al la viroj irantaj vilaon, I talked to the men (who were) going toward the village.
COMPOUND TENSES.

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109. A participle may be used predicatively with a form of esti, as Mi

estas demandanta, I am asking, La viro estas aetanta, the man is buying.
Such combinations are called compound tenses, in contrast to the simple
or aoristic tenses.
An aoristic tense consists of but one word (ending in -as, -os, etc.) and
expresses an act or state as a whole, without specifying whether it is finished, still in progress, or yet begun.
Compound tenses occur less often in Esperanto than in English, and
an aoristic Esperanto tense may often be translated by an English compound tense, as La birdoj flugas, the birds are flying. When used to form
a compound tense, the verb esti is called the auxiliary verb. No other
verb is ever used as an auxiliary (a simpler method than in English,
which uses be, have, do, will, shall, would, etc.).
THE PROGRESSIVE PRESENT TENSE.
110. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle
with the present tense of esti is called the progressive present tense. It
differs from the aoristic present by expressing an action as definitely in
progress, or a condition as continuously existing, at the moment of
speaking. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:
mi estas vidanta, I am seeing.
vi estas vidanta, you are seeing.
li (i, i) estas vidanta, he (she, it) is seeing.
ni estas vidantaj, we are seeing.
vi estas vidantaj, you (plural) are seeing.
ili estas vidantaj, they are seeing.
THE SUFFIX -EJ-.
111. Words expressing the place where the action indicated by the root
occurs, or where the object indicated by the root may be found, are
formed by inserting the suffix -ej- before the noun-ending:
evalejo, stable (from evalo, horse).
dormejo, dormitory (from dormi, to sleep).
herbejo, meadow (from herbo, grass).

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loejo, lodging-place, dwelling (from loi, to dwell, to lodge).

Similar formations are made in English with the suffix -y, as bakery,
bindery, grocery, etc. This suffix is equivalent to the -ei in German
Bckerei, bakery, Druckerei, printing-office, etc., and to the -ie in French
patisserie, pastry-shop, imprimerie, printing-shop, etc.
Vocabulary.
alia, other, another.
baki, to bake.
dika, thick.
facila, easy.
familio, family.
kanapo, sofa.
kies, whose (107).
kiu, who (106).
kuiri, to cook.
kurteno, curtain.
kutimo, custom.
leciono, lesson.
lerni, to learn.
pano, bread.
persono, person.
salono, parlor.
EN NIA DOMO.
Oni ofte miras kies domo en nia vilao estas plej bela, kaj kiu domo estas la plej agrabla loejo. Nia domo ne estas tre granda, sed i estas nova
kaj ni multe atas in. ia salono estas granda, kun belaj puraj kurtenoj
kovrantaj la fenestrojn, kaj mola dika tapio kovranta la plankon. i tie
estas kelkaj seoj, malgranda tablo, kaj longa kanapo. Personoj vizitantaj
nin kutime sidas en i tiu ambro, kaj dum ni estas sidantaj tie ni nur parolas, anstata skribi a legi. Alia ambro en la domo estas tre luma kaj
agrabla, sed malpli granda. i tie staras tablo sufie granda por nia tuta
familio, kaj en tiu ambro oni manas. Ofte ni restas tie longan tempon
post la mano, ar la patro rakontas interesajn rakontojn al ni, kaj ni
multe ridas, kaj demandas pri tiuj rakontoj, kaj tiel bone amuzas nin ke
mi preska forgesas pri miaj lecionoj. Tamen mi havas multe da lecionoj

96

por lerni, kaj ili tute ne estas facilaj. Je tre frua horo matene mi iras al la
lernejo, kun miaj fratoj kaj fratinoj. Nur sabate kaj dimane ni ne iras
tien. La lernejo estas malnova kaj malgranda, sed oni estas nun konstruanta novan pli grandan lernejon apud nia domo. Dum la infanoj estas
lernantaj siajn lecionojn tie, la patrino kutime iras al la bakejon, por aeti
sufie da pano, por la manoj de la tago. Ofte i iras anka al aliaj
butikoj. adon i aetis kelke da novaj pizoj, kaj da asparago. Vendredon i aetis kelkajn funtojn da sukero, skatolon da fragoj, kaj sufie da
kremo kaj lakto. Hodia i estas aetanta brasikon kaj sakon da terpomoj.
i volas kuiri tre bonan manon, tamen i havas tro multe por fari en la
kuirejo, ar i ne havas servistinon.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Who is the woman sitting on the sofa in the parlor? 2. I can not easily see her, but I hear her voice. 3. I wonder whose voice that is. 4.
However, I think that it is the voice of a friend of Mother's. 5. Now I can
see her, although she does not see me. 6. I am well acquainted with her.
7. She is a friend of our whole family, and is visiting a neighbor of ours
(najbaron nian) in this city. 8. My sister is sitting on the sofa in another
room, and learning her lessons. 9. Soon she will go to school. 10. Whose
book is she reading? 11. That thick book is mine, but the other books on
the table near her are hers. 12. She prefers to sit in the sewing-room (111)
to read or write (98), because the curtains in front of the windows are not
too thick, and so (78) that room is very light and pleasant. 13. She also
likes to look at the falling snow, and the men and women walking on the
muddy streets. 14. On account of the cold weather, people are wearing
thick clothes. 15. The men and boys are keeping their hands in their
pockets while they walk. 16. The girls walking toward the school are
friends of my sister's. 17. In that school they learn to cook. Soon they will
be able to bake bread, and even to cook a whole meal. 18. I think such a
custom is very good. 19. Many persons can not cook well enough (sufie
bone).

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Lesson 25
THE INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE.
112. The interrogative adjective related to the interrogative pronoun
kiu, is kia, what kind of, what sort of:
Kiajn vestojn li portis? What sort of clothes did he wear?
Kian panon vi preferas? What kind of bread do you prefer?
Mi miras kia persono li estas, I wonder what sort of a person he is.
Kia vetero estas? What sort of weather is it?
Kia plezuro! What a pleasure!
THE IMPERFECT TENSE.
113. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle
with the past tense of esti represents an act or condition as in progress in
past time, but not perfected, and is called the imperfect tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:
mi estis vidanta, I was seeing.
vi estis vidanta, you were seeing.
li (i, i) estis vidanta, he (she, it) was seeing.
ni estis vidantaj, we were seeing.
vi estis vidantaj, you were seeing.
ili estis vidantaj, they were seeing.
THE PROGRESSIVE FUTURE TENSE.
114. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle
with the future tense of esti represents an act or condition as in progressor a condition as existing continuouslyat a future time, and is
called the progressive future tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense
is as follows:
mi estos vidanta, I shall be seeing.
vi estos vidanta, you will be seeing.
li (i, i) estos vidanta, he (she, it) will be seeing.
ni estos vidantaj, we shall be seeing.
vi estos vidantaj, you will be seeing.

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ili estos vidantaj, they will be seeing.

SALUTATIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS.
115. When the word or words expressing a salutation or exclamation
may be regarded as the direct object of a verb which is not expressed;
these words are put in the accusative case:
Bonan matenon! Good morning! (I wish you "good morning.")
Bonan nokton! Good night! (I wish you a "good night.")
Multajn salutojn al via patro! (I send) many greetings to your father!
Dankon! Thanks! (I give to you "thanks.")
ielon! Heavens! (I invoke the "heavens.")
WORD FORMATION.
116. The majority of roots have such a meaning that at least two kinds
of words, and often three or four, may be formed from them by use of
the general endings for verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs. (Each root
will hereafter be quoted but once in the vocabularies, with a hyphen separating it from the ending with which it appears first in the reading lesson, or with which it is most frequently used.) Following are examples of
word formation from roots already familiar:
brili, to shine
brilo, shine, brilliance
brila, shining, brilliant
brile, brilliantly
flori, to bloom
floro, flower, blossom
flora, floral
flore, florally
oji, to rejoice
ojo, joy, gladness
oja, joyful, glad
oje, gladly
kontuzi, to bruise

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kontuzo, bruise, contusion

tuto, whole
tuta, entire, whole, all
tute, entirely
KONI AND SCII.
117. The verb koni, which means "to know" in the sense of "to be acquainted with" is used in speaking of persons, languages, places, etc.
Koni always has a direct object. It is never followed by ke, u, kiu, or any
other interrogative word. Scii means "to know" in the sense of "to be
aware," "to have knowledge." It is not used in speaking of persons.
Koni is equivalent to German kennen, French connaitre, Spanish conocer, while scii is equivalent to German wissen, French savoir, Spanish
saber.
u vi konas tiun personon? Do you know that person?
Mi scias ke li estas nia najbaro, I know that he is our neighbor.
Mi bone konas Bostonon, I am well acquainted with Boston.
Mi ne scias u li konas ilin, I do not know whether he knows them.
Vocabulary.
av-o, grandfather.
buked-o, bouquet.
ekzamen-o, examination.
ferm-i, to close.
frap-i, to strike, to knock.
geometri-o, geometry.
german-a, German.
hejm-o, home.
kia, what kind of (112).
lingv-o, language.
nep-o, grandson.
nu! Well!
paper-o, paper.
salut-i, to greet.
sci-i, to know (117).

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stud-i, to study.
LA NEPO VIZITAS LA AVINON.
Hiera matene mi vizitis la avinon. ia hejmo estas apud la granda
nova bakejo. Mi vidis in tra la fenestro, ar la kurtenoj kovrantaj in estas tre maldikaj. i estis sidanta sur la kanapo, kaj skribanta per plumo
sur granda papero. Anta ol frapi sur la pordo mi vokis in kaj diris
"Bonan matenon, kara avino!" Tuj i demandis "Kiu estas tie? Kies voon
mi adas?" Mi respondis "Estas via nepo. u vi ne konas mian voon?"
Anta ol i povis veni al la pordo mi estis malfermanta in. Mi iris en la
salonon kaj donis al la avino bukedon da floroj. "La patrino donas i tiujn
al vi, kun siaj plej bonaj salutoj," mi diris. La avino respondis "Nu, kia
plezuro! Multan dankon al i pro la bela bukedo, kaj anka al vi, ar vi
portis in i tien por mi!" Dum i estis metanta la florojn en glason da akvo la avino diris "Nu, kiajn lecionojn vi havis hodia en la lernejo?" Mi
respondis ke mi bone konis la lecionojn, ar mi zorge studis ilin. "Ni estas lernantaj la germanan lingvon," mi diris, "kaj ju pli longe ni studas
in, des pli multe mi in atas, kvankam i estas tre malfacila." Mi
rakontis anka pri la lecionoj de geometrio, kaj aliaj lecionoj, sed diris ke
la ekzamenoj estos balda komencantaj. "Je tiu tempo," mi diris, "mi estos skribanta la respondojn al la ekzamenoj, preska la tutan semajnon."
La avino demandis kun intereso "u la demandoj de la ekzamenoj estos
malfacilaj?" Mi respondis "Mi ne scias, sed mi timas ke ni estos tre lacaj
post tiom da laboro." Post kelke da aliaj demandoj kaj respondoj, mi
opiniis ke estas la horo por foriri. Dum mi estis foriranta, la avino diris
"Multajn salutojn al la tuta familio!" Mi dankis in, diris "Bonan tagon!"
kaj tiam foriris.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. What sort of noise do I hear outside the door? 2. Are some of my
friends knocking? 3. We were talking yesterday about the examinations
in our school, and these boys came home to study with me. 4. I shall go
to the door to open it and to greet my friends. 5. Good morning! Did you
come to study geometry, or the German language? 6. Which of these is
usually more difficult, and in which will the examination be the longer?
7. Well, we brought our German books, because we prefer to study these.
8. We wish to know this language thoroughly. 9. We shall go into the
writing-room (111), for (83) some friends of my grandmother are in the

101

parlor. 10. We can hear their voices here, and we can not study very well
while they are talking. 11. They were carrying many flowers, and gave a
beautiful bouquet to my grandmother. 12. She said "Many thanks for (86)
the sweet violets! In whose garden did they bloom?" 13. Her friend's
granddaughter is a friend of my youngest sister. 14. Well, shall we begin
to study? Have you enough paper, and have you a good pen? 15. I shall
close this other door, because they are baking bread in the kitchen, and
cooking meat. 16. We shall be hearing the voices of so many persons that
I know that we can not study.

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Lesson 26
THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.
118. The interrogative adverb of place, related to the interrogative pronoun kiu is kie, where, in (at) what place. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by kie, the ending -n is added,
forming kien, whither (where):
Kie li estis kaj kien oni forpelis lin? Where was he and whither did
they drive him (away)?
Li miros kie lia nepo estas, he will wonder where his grandson is.
Mi ne scias kien li kuris, I do not know where (whither) he ran.
THE PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.
119. The past active participle, (for the characteristics of a participle see
108) expressing what the word modified did or has done, ends in -inta,
as vidinta, having seen, irinta, gone, having gone:
La falintaj folioj estas brunaj, the fallen leaves are brown.
Kiu estas la viro salutinta nin? who is the man having greeted (who
greeted) us?
Oni forgesas la foririntajn personojn, one forgets the departed persons
(the persons who have gone away).
ADVERB DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS.
120. Adverbs may be derived from prepositions whose sense permits,
by use of the adverb ending -e:
Antae li studis la geometrion, previously he studied geometry.
Poste li studis la germanan, afterwards he studied German.
Li maris antae, ne malantae, he walked in front, not behind.
Dume la viroj staris irkae, meanwhile the men stood roundabout.
Ili venis kune kaj sidis apude, they came together and sat near by.
ADVERBS EXPRESSING DIRECTION OF MOTION.

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121. An adverb expressing place or direction is given the ending -n

when used with a verb expressing motion toward that place or direction
(69, 118, etc.):
u li rajdis norden a suden? Did he ride north or south(ward)?
Ni kuris antaen, ne malantaen, we ran forward, not back.
La bukedo falis eksteren kaj suben, the bouquet fell out and
underneath.
Li estis maranta hejmen, he was walking home (homeward).
The adverb may precede the verb and be united with it by simple juxtaposition, if the resulting word is not too long: Li hejmeniris, he went
home (he "home-went"). Ni antaeniros, we shall advance (go forward).
La bukedo subenfalis, the bouquet fell underneath.
THE SUFFIX -EG-.
122. The suffix -eg- may be added to a root to augment or intensify its
meaning, thus forming an augmentative of the root:
barelego, hogshead (from barelo, barrel).
bonega, excellent (from bona, good).
malbonege, wickedly, wretchedly (from malbone, badly, poorly).
domego, mansion (from domo, house).
ploregi, to sob, to wail (from plori, to weep).
treege, exceedingly (from tre, very).
Vocabulary.
aer-o, air.
danc-i, to dance.
fulm-o, lightning.
gut-o, drop (of water, etc.).
kie, where (118).
okaz-i, to happen, to occur.
okul-o, eye.
pec-o, piece.
pez-a, heavy.
polv-o, dust.
sekv-i, to follow.

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ser-i, to hunt for, to search.

silent-a, still, silent.
subit-a, sudden.
tegment-o, roof.
tondr-o, thunder.
LA PLUVEGO.
Nu, kia pluvego okazis hiera vespere! Post kvieta varmega mateno,
subite multaj nuboj kovris la ielon. La aero ajnis peza, kaj estis tute silenta kelkan tempon. Tiam forte blovanta vento frapegis la arbojn, kaj
komencis fortege skui la branojn. Multege da polvo kaj malgrandaj
pecoj da papero dancis kaj flugis irkaen en la aero, kaj anka ielen.
Falis tiam kelkaj grandaj gutoj da pluvo, kaj ni sciis ke la pluvego estas
venanta. Ni malfermis niajn ombrelojn, kaj kuris antaen, por iri hejmen
anta ol falos multe da pluvo. La fulmo tiel ofte brilis ke ni fermis la okulojn pro i, kaj treege in timis. Preska tuj la tondro sekvis in. Tondris
tiom kaj tiel latege ke la bruo ajnis frapi kontra niajn kapojn. Tiam komencis subite pluvegi, sed je tiu tempo ni estis preska sub la tegmento
de nia domo. Dume la vento pli kaj pli blovegis, kaj ju pli forte i blovis,
des pli peze la gutoj da pluvo falis teren, kun multege da bruo. Mi opinias ke mi malofte antae vidis tian pluvegon. La sekvintan tagon mi promenis tre frue, kaj vidis ke la pordego al la ardeno de mia avo estas
kuanta sur la tero. Apude mi vidis ventoflagon falintan de la tegmento
de tiu granda evalejo. Velkintaj floroj kuis sur la tero irka mi, kaj
inter ili estis branoj falintaj de la arboj, ar la grandega forto de la vento
forrompis e i tiujn. Sur malgranda brano restis nesto, sed kie estis la
birdoj! Mi seris la junajn birdojn sed tute ne povis trovi ilin, tial mi
opinias ke ili forflugis anta ol la ventoj forrompis de la arbo ilian malgrandan hejmon. Mi ne scias kien ili flugis, sed mi opinias ke ili flugis
suden al la arboj en tiu granda kampo trans la rivero.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. While we were walking home (121) from school yesterday, it rained
very suddenly. 2. What a storm it was! 3. We were talking about the lessons in geometry, and were looking at these books about the German
language. 4. So we did not see the clouds in (on) the sky. 5. Well, we forgot about examinations and began to wonder where to go. 6. We did not
know whether we had enough time to run even to Grandfather's house

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before it would rain. 7. Many papers fell out of our books, and the wind
caught them. 8. The wind chased them away from us, and they seemed
to dance around in the air. 9. However, we easily caught and gathered
them, and then we ran forward. 10. Suddenly it thundered very loudly,
and we saw the brilliant lightning in the sky. 11. We almost closed our
eyes for the lightning. 12. Big drops of rain fell heavily and struck the
dust violently. 13. The air was heavy and still then, and the storm immediately followed the few drops of rain. 14. We hastened across the street,
and ran faster and faster. 15. We were exhausted (122) and our clothes
were exceedingly wet before we were in the house. 16. The rain was
dropping from the roof, but we ran through it, and knocked on the door.
17. We rested some time here, before going home.

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Lesson 27
THE INTERROGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB
123. The interrogative temporal adverb, related to the interrogative
pronoun kiu, is kiam, when, at what time?
Kiam li seros min? When will he look for me?
Oni miras kiam li venos, they wonder when he is coming (will come).
Kiam falis tiuj gutoj da pluvo? When did those drops of rain fall?
THE PERFECT TENSE.
124. The compound tense formed by using the past active participle
with the present tense of esti is called the perfect tense. It differs from the
aoristic past tense (35) and from the imperfect (113) by expressing an act
or condition as definitely completed or perfected. The conjugation of vidi
in the perfect tense is as follows:
mi estas vidinta, I have seen (I am having-seen).
vi estas vidinta, you have seen (you are having-seen).
li (i, i) estas vidinta, he (she, it) has seen (is having-seen).
ni estas vidintaj, we have seen (we are having-seen).
vi estas vidintaj, you have seen (you are having-seen).
ili estas vidintaj, they have seen (they are having-seen).
THE PREPOSITION E.
125. The general situation of a person, object or action is expressed by
the use of the preposition e, at, at the house of, in the region or land of,
among, with, etc.:
Li staris silente e la pordego, he stood silently at the gate.
Li loas e mia avo, he lives (dwells) at my grandfather's.
Ili estas e la lernejo, they are at the school.
Li restos e amikoj, he will stay with (at the house of) friends.
Li vizitos e ni morga, he will visit at-our-house tomorrow.
THE SUFFIX -AR-.

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126. Words expressing a collection, group or assemblage of similar

persons or things, as forest (collection of trees), army (assemblage of soldiers), etc., may be formed by the use of the suffix -ar-. This suffix may itself be used as a root to form aro, group, flock, etc., are, in a group, by
throngs, etc. Words formed with the suffix -ar- are called collectives:
arbaro, forest (from arbo, tree).
evalaro, herd of horses (from evalo, horse).
kamparo, country (from kampo, field).
libraro, collection of books, library (from libro, book).
amikaro, circle of friends (from amiko, friend).
TEMPO AND FOJO.
127. The general word for "time" in the sense of duration, or suitability
(as "the proper time"), is tempo. The word fojo, time, occasion, refers to
the performance or occurrence of an act or event, in repetition or series:
Mi ne havas multe da tempo, I have not much time.
Li venis multajn fojojn, kaj la lastan fojon li restis longan tempon, he
came many times, and the last time he remained a long time.
Kelkajn fojojn late tondris, several times it thundered loudly.
Multe da fojoj ni fermis la okulojn pro la fulmo, many times we closed
our eyes on account of the lightning.
THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF PROPER NOUNS.
128. Proper nouns, that is, nouns which are names of persons, cities,
countries, etc., are given Esperanto spelling if they are names of continents, countries, large or very well-known cities, or if they are first
(Christian) names of persons, as Azio, Asia, Skotlando, Scotland, Bostono, Boston, Johano, John, Mario, Mary. Surnames and names of places
which are small or not well known are more often quoted in the national
spelling. The pronunciation may be indicated in parentheses, as Mt.
Vernon (Mant Vernon), Roberto Bruce (Brus), Martinique (Martinik'),
etc.
Vocabulary.
arane-o, spider.

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Azi-o, Asia.
e, at (125).
fin-o, end, ending.
foj-o, time, instance (127).
kiam, when (123).
pacienc-o, patience.
pied-o, foot.
plafon-o, ceiling.
ramp-i, to crawl.
rekt-a, direct, straight.
rimark-i, to notice.
send-i, to send.
Skotland-o, Scotland.
soldat-o, soldier.
sukces-i, to succeed.
supr-e, above.
venk-i, to conquer.
ROBERTO BRUCE KAJ LA ARANEO.
Oni rakontas la sekvantan interesan rakonton pri Roberto Bruce, reo
anta multaj jaroj en Skotlando. Okazis ke li estis rigardanta la
soldataron de siaj malamikoj, de la fenestro de granda evalejo. Por povi
rigardi plej facile, kaj anka por sin kai, li forsendis siajn soldatojn kaj
restis la tutan tagon sub tiu tegmento. Kvankam la evalejo estis granda
i estis malnova, kaj li opiniis ke la malamikoj ne seros lin tie. Je la fino
de la tago li subite rimarkis araneon sur la muro apud si. La araneo estis
rampanta supren, sed balda i falis en la polvon e liaj piedoj. Tuj la falinta araneo komencis alian fojon supren rampi. Alian fojon i falis teren,
sed post ne longe i komencis rampi alian fojon. "Kia pacienco!" diris la
reo al si. "Mi ne sciis ke la araneo havas tiel multe da pacienco! Sed kien
i nun estas falinta?" Li rigardis irkaen kaj fine (finally) li vidis la falintan araneon. Kun granda surprizo li rimarkis ke i estas komencanta
supren rampi. Multajn fojojn i supren rampis, kaj tiom da fojoj i falis
malsupren. Fine, tamen, i sukcese rampis is la plafono. La reo malfermis la buon pro surprizo, kaj diris al si "Kiam antae mi vidis tiom da
pacienco! Mi opinias ke la fina sukceso de tiu malgranda araneo donas al
mi bonegan lecionon. Mi estas ofte malsukcesinta, sed malpli ofte ol tiu
araneo sur la muro. Mi estas perdinta multe da soldatoj, kaj la malamikoj
estas venkintaj multajn fojojn, ar ili havas multe pli grandan nombron

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da soldatoj. Tamen, mi estos pacienca, ar oni ne scias kiam li fine sukcesos." La sekvintan tagon, la reo Roberto Bruce komencis treege labori
kontra siaj malamikoj. Post mallonga tempo li bone sukcesis, kaj tute
venkis la malamikoj en granda venko e Bannockburn (Banokb'rn).
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Although the enemies of Robert Bruce conquered him many times,
he finally conquered them in Scotland, because he was patient and very
courageous. 2. He was sitting in a large stable, to hide (himself), and also
in order to (98) look directly from its roof (at) the soldiery (126) of the enemy. 3. At the end of the day he noticed a spider crawling up (ward) on
the wall. 4. The spider fell suddenly into the dust and lay at the king's
feet, but soon began to crawl up. 5. "Where does it wish to go?" said the
king to himself. 6. "What patience it shows! It has crawled up and fallen
down a great many times." 7. Finally however the spider succeeded, and
crawled up to the ceiling. 8. The king said that he had learned a lesson
from the patient spider. 9. He said "Although the enemy have conquered
many times, because they have a larger number of soldiers, I shall finally
succeed against them." 10. Soon it happened that the wind blew violently, and a rainstorm occurred. 11. The blast shook the foliage (126) on
the trees, and broke away many small branches. 12. A group of soldiers
ran right (rekte) toward the stable, and Robert Bruce was much afraid
that they would find him. 13. But they merely stole the horses there, and
rode away.

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Lesson 28
THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON.
129. The interrogative adverb of motive or reason related to the interrogative pronoun kiu is kial, why, wherefore, for what reason:
Kial la araneo supren rampis? why did the spider crawl up?
Mi demandos kial li rimarkis in, I will ask why he noticed it.
THE INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT.
130. The infinitive may be used as the subject of a verb.
Cf. the complementary infinitive (28), equivalent to the object of a
verb, and the use of the infinitive after the prepositions por, anstata,
anta ol (98).
Any modifier of the infinitive is necessarily adverbial. An indefinite
personal object (or pronominal complement of a preposition) after an infinitive used as subject is expressed by the reflexive pronoun si:
Promeni estas granda plezuro, to go walking is a great pleasure.
Promeni estas agrable, to go walking is pleasant.
u estas facile rigardi la plafonon? Is it easy to look at the ceiling?
Estas bone sin helpi, it is well to help oneself.
Paroli al si estas malsae, to talk to oneself is silly.
PRESENT ACTION WITH PAST INCEPTION.
131. A present act or state which began in the past is expressed by the
present tense (instead of by the past as in English):
Mi estas i tie de lundo, I have been (I am) here since Monday.
De Marto mi studas tiun lingvon, since March I have been (I am)
studying that language.
Ili estas amikoj de tiu tago, they have been (they are) friends from that
day.
Ni loas tie de anta kelkaj monatoj, we have been living (we are living) here since some months ago.

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Cf. German er ist schon lange hier, he has already been here a long
time, French je suis ici depuis deux ans, I have been here two years, etc.
THE SUFFIX -UL-.
132. The suffix -ul- is used to form nouns indicating a person characterized by or possessing the distinguishing trait, character or quality in
the root:
junulo, a youth, a young man (from juna, young).
belulino, a beauty, a belle (from bela, beautiful).
maljunulo, an old man (from maljuna, old).
saulo, a sage, a wise man (from saga, wise).
malriulino, a poor woman (from malria, poor).
Cf. the English adjectives quer-ul-ous, cred-ul-ous, garr-ul-ous, etc.,
and the Latin nouns fam-ul-us, a servant, fig-ul-us, a potter, and leg-ulus, a gatherer.
LOI AND VIVI.
133. The verb loi, to reside, to dwell, to lodge, must not be confused
with vivi, which means to live in the sense of "to be alive:"
Li loas apude, he lives near by.
Li vivis longan tempon, he lived a long time.
Vivi felie estas pli bone ol loi rie, to live happily is better than to
live (lodge) richly.
Vocabulary.
afabl-a, amiable, affable.
afer-o, thing, matter, affair.
balanc-i, to balance, to nod.
barb-o, beard.
batal-o, battle.
brov-o, eyebrow.
bukl-o, curl (of hair).
har-o, hair.

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kial, why (129).

mejl-o, mile.
okulhar-o, eyelash.
okulvitr-oj, spectacles.
pens-i, to think, to ponder.
vang-o, cheek.
verand-o, porch, veranda.
viv-i, to live (133).
PRI LA AVO KAJ LA AVINO.
Mia avo estas tre afabla persono. Li estas maljunulo kun blankaj haroj
kaj blanka barbo. Li havas bluajn okulojn, kaj la brovoj super ili estas e
pli blankaj ol liaj haroj. Kvankam li loas en nia vilao de anta kelkaj
jaroj, li antae lois en Skotlando. Anta multaj jaroj li estis soldato, kaj li
ofte parolas al mi pri la bataloj kaj venkoj de tiu tempo. Sidi kviete sur la
verando kaj rakonti tiajn rakontojn al la nepo ajne donas al li multe da
plezuro. Multajn fojojn je la fino de la tago li sidas tie, kaj parolas pri tiaj
aferoj is malfrua horo de la vespero. Sidi e liaj piedoj kaj adi liajn
rakontojn estas tre interese al mi. Komence, dum mi estas e li, mi kutime demandas "u oni sukcesis en tiu batalo?" Tuj li balancas la kapon
kaj komencas pacience rakonti pri la venkoj kaj malvenkoj (defeats). Li
malofte respondas "Mi ne scias," al miaj demandoj "Kiam," kaj "Kial."
Kelkajn fojojn li diras "Mi havas tiun opinion, sed mi ne bone scias pri la
tuta afero, kaj mi miras u aliaj personoj scias pli bone." ar li estas multe
studinta kaj pensinta, liaj opinioj estas treege interesaj. Li ojas tial ke mi
demandas pri aferoj okazintaj (things that have happened), ar tiaj demandoj montras ke mi anka pensas pri ili. Mia avino estas malgranda,
kun belaj bukloj da tute blankaj haroj. i havas belajn brunajn okulojn,
kun longaj nigraj okulharoj. Oni diras ke anta multaj jaroj i estis belulino. E nun estas plezure rigardi in, kaj vidi iajn ruajn vangojn. De
anta kelkaj jaroj i portas okulvitrojn por legi a skribi a kudri, kaj i
bezonas ripozon post malmulte da laboro. Promeno de e mejlo estas tro
longa nun por la avino. Oni diras ke i ne vivos tre longan tempon, kaj
tia penso donas malojon al ni, ar ni treege amas la afablan paciencan
avinon.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

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1. Our grandfather is an old man, and they say that he will not live
much longer. 2. He is not very strong, and can not take (fari) long walks.
3. The mile between his house and ours now seems long to him. 4. He
prefers to sit quietly in the house or on the veranda, and think, nearly all
day long (the whole day). 5. He is very amiable, and can tell exceedingly
interesting stories, about the victories and defeats which happened (119)
many years ago. 6. Such things are wicked I think, and I am very glad
that (83) such battles do not happen now. 7. Grandfather has a long
white beard and much white hair. 8. It is very interesting to hear his stories, and also to look directly at him while he is telling them. 9. He tells
such stories with great pleasure. 10. Although he has lived with (125) us
since February (131), he does not know (117) a great many of the neighbors, or of the other persons living (133) near. 11. Grandmother has blue
eyes, red cheeks, and soft white curls. 12. She speaks slowly, with a
sweet voice, and is very patient. 13. Today she said to me "Good morning, my dear (132), I have lost my spectacles. Will you look-for them for
me?" I nodded (the head) and soon found the spectacles.

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Lesson 29
THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE.
134. The interrogative adverb of manner or degree, related to the interrogative pronoun kiu, is kiel, how, in what way, to what degree:
Kiel oni vivas en tia aero? How do people live in such air?
Kiel afabla i estas! How amiable she is!
Mi miras kiel la batalo okazis, I wonder how the battle happened.
Kiel longe li pensis pri i? How long did he think about it?
THE PLUPERFECT TENSE.
135. The compound tense formed by combining the past active participle with the past tense of esti represents an act or condition as having
been completed at some time in the past, and is called the pluperfect
tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:
mi estis vidinta, I had seen (I was having-seen).
vi estis vidinta, you had seen (you were having-seen).
li (i, i) estis vidinta, he (she, it) had seen (was having-seen).
ni estis vidintaj, we had seen (we were having-seen).
vi estis vidintaj, you had seen (you were having-seen).
ili estis vidintaj, they had seen (they were having-seen).
CARDINAL NUMERALS.
136. Cardinals are numeral adjectives which answer the question
"How many?" The cardinals from one to twelve are as follows:
unu, one.
du, two.
tri, three.
kvar, four.
kvin, five.
ses, six.
sep, seven.
ok, eight.
na, nine.
dek, ten.

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dek unu, eleven.

dek du, twelve.
137. With the exception of unu, none of the cardinals may receive the
plural ending -j or the accusative ending -n. That is, they are invariable in
form. Unuj may be used to mean some in contrast to aliaj, others:
Unuj maris, aliaj kuris, some walked, others ran.
Mi prenis unujn kaj lasis la aliajn, I took some and left the others.
138. The preposition el is used after numeral adjectives expressing a
number out of some larger number or quantity:
Ses el la knaboj venis, six of the boys came.
Ok el tiuj libroj estas la miaj, eight of those books are mine.
El tiuj apeloj mi atas nur unu, of those hats I like only one.
The cardinal unu must not be used in the sense of the English pronominal "one," as in I am searching for a book, but not the one on the table,
which should be translated Mi seras libron, sed ne tiun sur la tablo.
THE ACCUSATIVE OF MEASURE.
139. A substantive in the accusative case may be used, instead of a prepositional phrase or an adverb, not only to express measure (duration) of
time (91), but also to express measure of weight, price, length, etc.:
Li maris dek unu mejlojn, he walked eleven miles.
La parko estas lara tri mejlojn, kaj longa kvar mejlojn, the park is
three miles wide and four miles long.
La tablo pezas dek du funtojn, the table weighs (is heavy) twelve
pounds.
NIA FAMILIO.
Mi rakontos al vi kian familion ni havas. Ni estas ses personoj kaj ni
loas en i tiu domo de anta preska kvar jaroj. Anta ol veni i tien al
la urbo, ni estis lointaj tri jarojn en kvieta vilao en la kamparo. Mia
patro estas alta, kun grizaj haroj kaj griza barbo. Kvankam li ne estas
riulo, li tamen havas sufie da mono por vivi kontente kaj felie. Li atas

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mari, kaj ofte li estas marinta kvin a ses mejlojn por unu promeno.
Unu fojon mi demandis "Kiel vi povas mari tiel multe?" Li respondis
"Dum mi estis junulo mi estis soldato, kaj tiam mi estis tre multe
maranta. Tial mi ne forgesas la plezurojn de longaj promenoj." La patrino estas malpli alta ol mi, kaj kiel bluajn okulojn i havas, sub nigraj okulharoj kaj nigraj brovoj! iaj haroj estas nigraj kaj buklaj, kaj iaj vangoj
estas ruaj. i havas dolan voon, kaj estas plezuro adi iajn kantojn.
Por legi a skribi i kutime portas okulvitrojn. Mi havas du fratojn kaj
unu fratinon. La fratino havas dek unu jarojn.
Like French and some other languages, Esperanto commonly uses the
verb to have rather than the verb to be, in expressing age: Li havas sep
jarojn, he is seven years old (he has seven years). Mi havis dek jarojn
tiam, I was ten years old (I had ten years) then.
Unu el la fratoj havas ok jarojn, la alia havas dek du jarojn. Ili povas
bonege kuri, rajdi, kaj fari aliajn interesajn aferojn. Ili lernis siajn lecionojn en la lernejo tiel bone ke ses fojojn en unu monato oni ladis ilin. Ni
multe ojis pri tiom da lado por la fratoj. La fratino estas malpli forta,
tamen i ofte promenas kun ni e du a tri mejlojn. La avino anka loas
e ni de anta sep a ok jaroj. Unu el ni kutime restas e la hejmo kun i,
dum la aliaj promenas, ar i ne estas sufie forta por mari e unu mejlon. Mi ofte miras kial i preferas sidi sur la verando, kaj mi demandas al
i "u vi estas tro laca por mari?" i kutime balancas la kapon kaj diras
"Jes, mia nepo, mi estas tro laca."
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Three and four make seven. 2. Two and six make eight. Five and six
make eleven. 3. Seven and five make twelve. 4. I have been studying geometry since five months ago, and German since January. 5. I have read
three German books, but I shall not be able to talk in this language until
after August. 6. To learn how to speak such a language is a difficult matter. 7. Nine of the children in our school are now studying German with
me. 8. Some learn it easily, others do not like it. 9. Three of the boys and
two of the girls in that school are German. 10. They had resided four
years in a large city, but I think (that) they live more contentedly in our
quiet village. 11. They can not talk with us very well, but merely nod
their heads when we talk to them. 12. I had not seen them before they
came to school, although they are neighbors of ours. 13. They are

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amiable children, with blue eyes, red cheeks, and yellow hair. 14. They
can ride very well, and often ride eight or ten miles in one day. 15. They
usually ride in a park three miles wide and four miles long, where there
is but little (nur malmulte da) dust.

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Lesson 30
THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.
140. The interrogative adverb of quantity related to the interrogative
pronoun kiu is kiom, how much, how many:
Kiom da tempo vi ripozis? How much time did you rest?
Kiom da sukero kaj kiom da fragoj vi aetis? How much sugar and
how many strawberries did you buy?
Ni miras kiom da mono li havos, we wonder how much money he will
have.
Kiom de la leciono vi lernis? How much of the lesson did you learn?
MODIFIERS OF IMPERSONALLY USED VERBS.
141. Any modifier of an impersonal verb (50) or of a verb used impersonally, that is, with an infinitive or clause for its subject, or without any
definitely expressed or personal subject (as in "it is cold," "it seems too
early"), must necessarily be adverbial:
Estas varme en la domo, it is warm in the house.
Estos malvarme morga, it will be cold tomorrow.
Estas bone ke li venis, it is well that he came.
Estas amuze ke ni forgesis lin, it is amusing that we forgot him.
Ke vi venis estis tre sae, that you came was very wise.
Estos pli agrable en la salono, it will be pleasanter in the parlor.
FORMATION OF CARDINAL NUMERALS.
142. The cardinal numerals for the tens, hundreds and thousands are
formed by prefixing du, tri, kvar, etc., to dek, ten, cent, hundred, and
mil, thousand, respectively.
Tens.
dudek, twenty.
tridek, thirty.
kvardek, forty.
kvindek, fifty. sesdek, sixty.
sepdek, seventy.

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okdek, eighty.
nadek, ninety.
Hundreds.
ducent, two hundred.
kvincent, five hundred.
sepcent, seven hundred, etc.
Thousands
trimil, three thousand.
kvarmil, four thousand.
sesmil, six thousand, etc.
143. The cardinals between ten and twenty, twenty and thirty, etc., are
formed by placing unu, du, tri, etc., after dek, dudek, tridek, etc. (Cf. dek
unu, eleven, dek du, twelve, 136):
dek kvar, fourteen.
dek na, nineteen.
dudek tri, twenty-three.
tridek kvin, thirty-five.
sepdek ok, seventy-eight.
nadek ses, ninety-six, etc.
144. Cardinals containing more than two figures begin with the largest
number and descend regularly, as in English:
cent tridek kvin, one hundred and thirty-five.
kvarcent nadek sep, four hundred and ninety-seven.
sescent du, six hundred and two.
mil okdek, one thousand and eighty.
mil naucent dek du, one thousand nine hundred and twelve (nineteen
hundred and twelve).
THE SUFFIX -AN-.
145. The suffix -an- is used to form words indicating an inhabitant or
resident of the place denoted by the root, or a member or adherent of the
party, organization, etc., denoted by the root. The suffix -an- may itself
be used as a root, forming ano, member, etc.
bostonano, Bostonian.

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kamparano, countryman, peasant.

domano, inmate of a house.
vilaano, villager.
Cf. English urb-an, suburb-an, Rom-an, republic-an, Mohammed-an,
etc.
Vocabulary.
aritmetik-o, arithmetic.
cent, hundred (142).
erar-o, error, mistake.
grad-o, grade, degree.
kalkul-i, to calculate, to reckon.
kiom, how much (140).
memor-i, to remember.
mil, thousand (142).
minut-o, minute.
ricev-i, to receive.
sekund-o, second.
superjar-o, leap-year.
LECIONO PRI ARITMETIKO.
Estas malvarme hodia, kaj tute ne agrable ekster la domo. La urbanoj
ne estas promenantaj en la parko, ar ili preferas resti en la domoj. Mi
anka restis en la domo, kaj parolis al mia juna frato. Mi helpis lin pri la
leciono en aritmetiko, tial ke li balda havos ekzamenojn, kaj li volas esti
preta por skribi tre bonajn respondojn. Mi demandis al li "Kiom faras
dek tri kaj dek kvar?" Li respondis ke tiuj faras dudek sep. Tiam mi demandis kiom faras dudek unu kaj tridek kvar. Li kalkulis kvin a ses
sekundojn, per mallata voo, kaj diris "Ili faras kvindek kvin." Mi demandis kiom faras ducent tri kaj sepcent ok, kaj li respondis ke ili faras
nacent dek unu. Li tute ne faris erarojn al mi, kaj fine mi diris al li ke li
povas bonege kalkuli. Mi opinias ke li ricevos bonan gradon en la ekzamenoj. Post kelkaj minutoj ni komencis paroli pri aliaj aferoj. Mi demandis "Kiom da tagoj en la monato septembro?" La frato respondis
"Septembro, novembro, aprilo kaj junio havas tridek tagojn. Kvankam
tiuj monatoj havas tiom da tagoj, la aliaj monatoj havas tridek unu tagojn. Sed la monato februaro havas nur dudek ok tagojn." Estas interese

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lerni pri i tiu monato februaro. Dum tri jaroj i havas dudek ok tagojn,
sed en la sekvanta jaro i havas dudek na tagojn. La jaro havanta tian
februaron estas la "superjaro." Mi rakontis tiun interesan aferon al la
frato, kaj li diris ke li bone memoros in. Li diris ke li ne antae sciis pri
la superjaro. Li ne sciis ke la superjaro havas tricent sesdek ses tagojn,
kvankam la aliaj jaroj havas nur tricent sesdek kvin tagojn. Li diris ke li
anka memoros pri la nombro da tagoj en la superjaro, kaj ke li rakontos
la aferon al la aliaj knaboj.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. (To be written out in full): 14, 18, 42, 86, 79, 236, 431, 687, 788, 1240,
1885, 9872, 4500, 1912. 2. There are twelve months in a year, and in most
of the months of the year there are thirty-one days. 3. There are only
thirty days in the months April, June, September and November. 4.
There are seven days in a week, and twenty-four hours in a day. 5.
Twelve of these hours make the day, and the others make the night. 6.
There are sixty minutes in one hour, and sixty seconds in one minute. 7.
There are four weeks and also two or three days in one month. 8. In the
year there are fifty-two weeks. 9. How many weeks are there in ten
years? 10. At least one year in ten years is a leap-year. 11. In a leap-year
there are three hundred and sixty-six days, instead of three hundred and
sixty-five. 12. Wise men calculated about this matter, many years ago. 13.
It is well for us that they liked to study arithmetic. 15. I have often received good grades in this study. 16. I remember it easily, and seldom
make mistakes.

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Lesson 31
THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.
146. A connecting pronoun referring to something which precedes (or
follows) is called a relative pronoun. The person or thing to which it
refers is called its antecedent. The relative pronoun, identical in form
with the interrogative pronoun (106), as in English, is kiu, which, who.
Sometimes English uses "that" for a relative pronoun, as "I saw the
book that you have." This must always be translated by kiu. Likewise,
English sometimes omits the relative pronoun, as "I saw the book you
have." The relative pronoun is never thus omitted in Esperanto.
The relative pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. Whether it
is in the accusative case or not depends upon its relation to its own verb
or to other words in its own clause (called the relative clause):
La junuloj, kiuj venis, estas afablaj, the youths who came are amiable.
La personoj, kiujn li vidos, estas amikoj miaj, the persons (whom) he
will see are friends of mine.
Mi kalkulis la gradon, kiun li ricevos, I calculated the grade (which) he
will receive.
Mi memoras tiun aferon, pri kiu vi parolas, I remember that matter
about which you speak.
147. Like English "whose" the genitive form kies of the interrogative
pronoun (107) is also used as a relative, referring to a substantive
(singular or plural) for its antecedent:
Li estas la viro, kies libron vi trovis, he is the man whose book you
found.
Mi konas la infanojn, kies patro estas amiko via, I know the children
whose father is a friend of yours.
THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
148. The compound tense formed by combining the past participle
with the future tense of the auxiliary verb esti represents an act or condition as having been already completed or perfected at a future time, and

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is called the future perfect tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is
as follows:
mi estos vidinta, I shall have seen (I shall be having-seen).
vi estos vidinta, you will have seen (you will be having-seen).
li (i, i) estos vidinta, he (she, it) will have seen (will be having-seen).
ni estos vidintaj, we shall have seen (shall be having-seen).
vi estos vidintaj, you will have seen (will be having-seen).
ili estos vidintaj, they will have seen (will be having-seen).
ORDINAL NUMERALS.
149. Ordinal numerals are adjectives which answer the question
"Which in order?" as "first", "third", etc. They are formed by adding the
adjectival suffix -a to the cardinals. The various parts of an ordinal must
be connected by hyphens, since it is to the entire cardinal, and not any
part of it, that the adjective ending -a is attached:
unua, first.
dua, second.
tria, third.
oka, eighth.
dek-unua, eleventh.
dek-naa, nineteenth.
dudek-sepa, twenty-seventh.
kvardek-sesa, forty-sixth.
cent-okdek-kvina, hundred and eighty-fifth.
mil-okcent-kvara, one thousand eight hundred and fourth.
sesmil-sepa, six thousand and seventh.
Ordinal numerals may be abbreviated thus: la, 1st, 2a, 2nd, 3a, 3rd, 5a,
5th, 1912a, 1912th, 233a, 233rd, etc. If the ordinal number is used in an
accusative construction, the abbreviation is given the accusative ending,
as lan, 2an, 3an, 1912an, etc.
Vocabulary.
angl-a, English.
dezir-i, to desire.
dolar-o, dollar.
gajn-i, to win, to gain.

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kost-i, to cost.
last-a, last.
latin-a, Latin.
mar-o, sea.
neces-a, necessary.
paf-i, to shoot.
pafark-o, bow (for shooting).
part-o, part, share.
pen-i, to strive, to try.
traduk-i, to translate.
sag-o, arrow.
sam-a, same.
ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA LIBRO.
Anta pli multe ol mil jaroj vivis Alfredo Granda, unu el la plej interesaj personoj pri kiuj ni estas adintaj. Li estis la unua angla reo, kiu
deziris legi librojn. Li estis anka la lasta, kiu povis legi ilin, is post
multaj jaroj. Unu tagon, dum li estis malgranda knabo kun flavaj buklaj
haroj, lia patrino, tre saa reino, montris al li kaj al liaj fratoj belegan libron. i diris ke la libro kostis multe da mono en lando trans la maro, kaj
ke i nun apartenas al i. Si diris "Miaj filoj, mi donos i tiun libron al tiu
el vi, kiu lernos legi in. Kiu el vi estos la unua, kiu povos legi? Tiu ricevos la libron." Nu, Alfredo komencis studi, kaj post ne longe li gajnis la
belegan libron. Liaj fratoj e ne penis gajni in. Tiam oni tre malmulte
pensis pri libroj. La reoj kaj iliaj filoj nur malofte povis legi, kaj treege
malofte povis skribi. Oni ladis nur personojn, kiuj bone rajdis kaj batalis
per sagoj kaj pafarkoj. Sed oni opiniis ke tute ne estis necese scii pri la
aferoj, kiujn la libroj rakontas. Tial Alfredo ne ricevis ladon pro sia
deziro por legi. La sesan a sepan jaron post sia ricevo de la libro, Alfredo volis lerni la latinan lingvon, ar tiam oni skribis latine (in Latin) la
librojn, kiuj estis plej bonaj. Oni seris is la finoj de la lando, kaj iris
multajn mejlojn, sed preska ne povis trovi personon, kiu e estis adinta pri tia lingvo. Fine oni trovis personon por helpi Alfredon, kiu tiam
lernis la latinan lingvon. Tiu sama Alfredo estis reo multajn jarojn, kaj
estis unu el la plej bonaj reoj, kiujn la angla lando estas havinta. Alfredo
skribis librojn en la latina lingvo, kaj anka tradukis latinajn librojn en la
anglan lingvon.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

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1. (To be written out in full): 37th, 59th, 73rd, 92nd, 846th, 119th,
1274th, 1910th, 14235th. 2. Before my friend will have finished that mansion (122), it will have cost twenty thousand dollars. 3. Before coming to
visit you, I shall have ridden twelve miles on my horse. 4. The grade
which you will have received in arithmetic soon after the first of March
will be excellent. 5. You do not make mistakes very often in the lessons.
6. I shall try after a few minutes to translate that Latin book, for (ar) it
seems interesting. 7. It is necessary to study Latin, for I desire to read the
stories which are in my Latin book. 8. The one thousand nine hundred
and fourth year was a leap-year. 9. The fourth year after that year was
also a leap-year. 10. The 1912th year will be a leap-year. There are three
hundred and sixty-six days in such a year. 12. Alfred won the book
which his mother had bought. 13. Such a book now costs four or five
hundred dollars. 14. Alfred the Great was the last king until many years
afterward (until after many years) who could read or write. 15. He was
the first king in that land who even wished to be able to read books. 16.
We often talk about this same King Alfred, and say that he was the father
of the English language. 17. People say so (diras tiel) because he translated Latin books into the language of his land, and because he also
wrote books in that language.

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Lesson 32
KIA AS A RELATIVE ADJECTIVE.
150. The interrogative adjective kia (112) is also used as a relative adjective, referring back to tia, or to some equivalent phrase or word indicating quality, such as sama, etc. In this use it may often be translated
"as", or "which":
Mi havas tian libron, kian mi volas, I have such a (that kind of) book as
(which kind) I wish.
Tiaj amikoj, kiajn vi havas, estas afablaj, such friends as (of which
kind) you have are amiable.
Li deziras tian apelon, kia kostas ses dolarojn, he desires that kind of
hat which (kind) costs six dollars.
Mi havas la saman deziron, kian vi, I have the same desire as you
(same kind which you have).
KIE AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.
151. The interrogative adverb kie, kien (118) is also used as a relative
adverb of place with tie, tien, or some other expression of place for its
antecedent.
Any interrogative adverb may also be used to introduce an indirect
question, thus serving as a subordinating conjunction (cf. u).
Kien is used when the verb in the relative clause expresses motion toward the place indicated, whether or not its antecedent has this ending.
Similarly, kie may refer to tie or to tien:
Mi iros tien, kie vi estas, I shall go there where you are.
Mi estis tie, kien vi iros, I was there (at that place) where you will go.
Mi iros tien, kien vi iris, I shall go to that place to which you went (I
shall go where you went).
Mi trovis lin en la urbo, kie li loas, I found him in the city where he
lives.
u vi venos i tien, kie ni estas? Are you coming here where we are?
THE FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.

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152. The future active participle, expressing what the word modified
will do or is about to do, ends in -onta, as vidonta, about to see, ironta,
about to go:
La forironta viro vokis sian serviston, the man going to depart (the
about-to-depart man) called his servant.
La virino salutonta vin estas tre afabla, the woman about to greet you
is very affable.
La venonta monato estas marto, the coming month is March.
La venontan semajnon mi foriros, the coming (next) week I shall
depart.
THE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES.
153. The compound tenses formed by combining the future active participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of esti represent an act or
state as about to occur in the present, past, or future, respectively, and
are called periphrastic future tenses. Except when great accuracy is desired, these tenses are not often used. A synopsis of vidi in the first person singular and plural of these tenses is as follows:
Present Periphrastic Future.
mi estas vidonta,
I am about to (going to) see.
ni estas vidontaj,
we are about to (going to) see.
Past Periphrastic Future.
mi estis vidonta,
I was about to (going to) see.
ni estis vidontaj,
we were about to (going to) see.
Future Periphrastic Future.
mi estos vidonta,
I shall be about to (going to) see.
ni estos vidontaj,
we shall be about to (going to) see.

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THE SUFFIX -IND-.

154. The suffix -ind- is used to form words expressing worthy of, deserving of, that which is indicated in the root. It may also be used as a
root, to form inda, worthy, malinda, unworthy, indo, worth, merit, etc.:
dezirinda, desirable.
ladinda, praiseworthy.
malladinda, blameworthy.
rimarkinda, noteworthy, remarkable.
ridinde, ridiculously, laughably.
tradukinda, worth translating.
Vocabulary.
ankora, still, yet.
atak-i, to attack.
bat-i, to beat.
cert-a, sure, certain.
defend-i, to defend.
difekt-i, to spoil.
edz-o, husband.
fajr-o, fire.
flar-i, to smell.
gast-o, guest.
ho! Oh!
kri-i, to exclaim, to cry.
kruel-a, cruel.
kuk-o, cake.
lign-o, wood.
suspekt-i, to suspect.
The adverb ankora expresses the ideas "until and during the present
time", "in the future as now and before", "in constant or uniform succession", "in an increasing or additional degree", given sometimes by English yet, sometimes by still: Mi estas ankora sidanta i tie, I am still sitting here. Li ankora ne venis, still he has not come (he has not come
yet). Li ankora restos tie, he will still stay there. Ankora ili venas, still
they come. Li estos ankora pli ruza, he will be still (yet) more crafty.
ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA KUKOJ.

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Unu fojon anta pli multe ol mil jaroj, soldatoj venis de trans la maro
por ataki la anglan reon Alfredon Grandan. Ili nek konis nek malamis
lin, sed ili sciis ke li estas persono kies landon ili deziras gajni. i tiuj
malamikoj estis venintaj tiel subite ke Alfredo ne estis preta por defendi
sian landon kontra ili. Tial li forkuris kelkajn mejlojn de la urbo, kaj sin
kais en granda arbaro malanta vilao. Anstata porti reajn vestojn li
aetis tiajn ifonojn kiajn kamparanoj kaj malriuloj portas. Li lois e
malria sed ladinda kamparano, kiu ne konis la reon, kaj tute ne suspektis kia persono lia gasto estas. Unu memorindan tagon Alfredo estis
sidanta apud la fajro, kaj estis rigardanta siajn sagojn kaj pafarkon dum li
pensis maloje pri sia lando. La edzino de la arbarano demandis "u vi
ankora sidos tie dekkvin a dudek minutojn?" "Jes," respondis la reo.
i diris "Nu, estos necese fari pli varmegan fajron por tiaj kukoj kiajn mi
nun estas bakonta. u vi gardos tiujn kukojn kiuj nun estas super la
fajro, dum mi kolektos pli multe da ligno?" Alfredo respondis "Certe mi
gardos ilin kontra la fajro." La virino seronta lignon foriris en alian
parton de la arbaro, kie estis multe da ligno, kaj la reo penis zorgi pri la
kukoj. Sed balda li forgesis ilin, kaj la fajro ilin difektis. Kiam la virino
venis kaj flaris la kukojn i kriis "ho, vi riproinda viro! Kvankam vi
ankora sidas tie, vi ne pensas pri la kukoj, kaj la fajro estas difektinta
ilin!" i estis kruele batonta la reon, kiam li diris al i kiu li estas, kaj kial
li forgesis la kukojn. Tiam i tre hontis, kaj anstata malladi lin i volis
esti ankora pli bona al li.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Alfred the Great was a praiseworthy king who lived more than a
thousand years ago. 2. People still talk about him because he not only
translated many Latin books into the English language, but also wrote in
English. 3. He wished to help the peasants still more. 4. But enemies often attacked him, and finally they conquered his soldiers. 5. Then they
hastened to where (151) Alfred was. 6. They were about to attack him,
when he rode away secretly (kae) into a large forest. 7. There he dwelt
some time in the house of a poor forester. 8. He wore such rags as a peasant usually wears, and did not tell the forester who he was. 9. One day
he was sitting near the fire and wondering, "Will the enemy have
conquered my soldiers next week?" 10. The forester's wife said, "Will you
sit there yet a while and take-care of those cakes? I am about to gather
more wood." 11. He replied, "Certainly, I will try to help you." 12. But

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when after a few minutes the woman smelled the cakes, she knew that
the fire had spoiled them. 13. She exclaimed "Oh, what a blame-worthy
man!" 14. She commenced to beat the king cruelly, but he did not defend
himself. 15. Instead (120), he told her who he was.

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Lesson 33
KIAM AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.
155. The interrogative temporal adverb kiam (123) is also used as a relative temporal adverb, with tiam or an equivalent word or phrase for its
antecedent. (It may not be omitted as in English "at the time he came"):
Mi suspektis lin je la tempo kiam li venis, I suspected him at the time
when he came (the time that he came).
Li defendis sin tiam, kiam oni atakis lin, he defended himself then,
when he was attacked.
Mi ankora sidos tie is kiam vi venos, I shall still sit there until when
you come (until you come).
Post kiam li tiel late kriis, li komencis plori, after he shouted so
loudly, he began to cry.
KIEL AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.
156. The interrogative adverb kiel (134) is also used as a relative adverb of manner and degree, with tiel, or same, or an equivalent adverb or
phrase for its antecedent. It may often be translated "as:"
Mi defendis min tiel, kiel li defendis sin, I defended myself in that way
in which (way) he defended himself.
Vi ne estas tiel kruela kiel li, you are not so cruel as he (is).
Ili batis lin same kiel vi, they beat him in the same way as you (did).
Ili batis lin same kiel vin, they beat him the same as (they did) you.
Kiel mi diris al li, mi estas felia, as I told him, I am happy (antecedent
not expressed).
Li parolis tiel mallate kiel antae, he spoke as softly as before.
i estas tiel bona kiel i estas bela, she is as good as she is fair.
NUMERAL NOUNS AND ADVERBS.
157. Nouns may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the
ending -o. After such nouns the preposition da or de is used:
dekduo, a dozen.
dudeko, a score.
deko, a ten, half a score.

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cento, a hundred.
milo, a thousand.
unuo, a unit.
kvaro, a four, a quartette.
trio, a three, a trio.
The prepositions da and de follow nouns (99, 100) or adverbs (101),
while el follows adjectives in the superlative degree (75), cardinal numerals (138), and the pronouns tiu, kiu (106), etc.: dekduo da ovoj, a dozen
(of) eggs. dekduo de la ovoj, a dozen of the eggs. dek du el tiuj ovoj,
twelve of those eggs. kiu el la ovoj? which one of the eggs? tiu el la ovoj,
that one of the eggs. la plej frea el la ovoj, the freshest of the eggs.
158. Adverbs may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the
ending -e:
unue, firstly, at first.
due, secondly, in the second place.
kvine, fifthly, in the fifth place.
deke, tenthly.
sesdeke, sixtiethly.
okdek-kvare, eighty-fourthly.
WORD DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS.
159. Adjectives, verbs and nouns, as well as adverbs (120), may be derived from prepositions by addition of the formative endings (116), with
sometimes a special suffix also:
anstatai, to replace, to take the place of.
anstataulo, a substitute.
antaa, previous, preceding.
apuda, near, contiguous, adjacent.
irkai, to surround, to encircle.
irkao, a circuit, a circumference.
kontraa, adverse, opposite, contrary.
kontraulo, adversary, opponent.
kunulo, comrade, companion.
superi, to surpass, to exceed, to be above.
superege, surpassingly, exceedingly.

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Vocabulary.
adia, farewell, goodbye.
akcept-i, to accept, to receive.
elekt-i, to choose, to select.
fest-i, to celebrate, to entertain.
gant-o, glove.
entil-a, courteous.
invit-i, to invite.
us, just, at the moment.
kuz-o, cousin.
malgra, notwithstanding.
par-o, pair.
pend-i, to hang.
prez-o, price.
renkont-i, to meet.
u-o, shoe.
uz-i, to use.
The adverb us indicates the elapsing of the least possible time since
the act or condition indicated, or between the two acts or conditions indicated. Ni us venis, we just came (we came but a moment ago). Mi
havas la saman opinion kian vi us diris, I have the same opinion as you
just gave (said). Mi vidis lin us kiam li estis forironta, I saw him just
when he was about to depart. us kiam vi venis li foriris, just as you
came he went away.
LA INVITO.
Hiera matene mia kuzo vizitis e ni, kaj invitis min al malgranda
festo kiu okazos morga vespere. Tiam li festos la lastan tagon de la jaro.
Li diris ke la gastoj sidos irka la fajrejo kaj rakontos rakontojn is malfrua horo. Mi akceptis lian entilan inviton, kaj diris ke mi certe venos.
Mia kuzo loas en la sama urbo kie nia familio loas, sed en alia parto.
Lia hejmo estas preska du mejlojn de la nia. Tamen, ni estas bonaj
kunuloj, kaj ofte promenas kune. us kiam li estis elironta el la pordo
hiera, mi uzis la okazon (opportunity) por proponi mallongan promenon. Li respondis ke li oje promenos kun mi, malgra la nea vetero. Tial
ni formaris tien, kie la stratoj estis malplej kotaj. La kuzo havas dek ok
jarojn, sed mi estas preska tiel alta kiel li. Mi estas certa ke mi estas

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anka tiel forta kiel li. Ni parolis pri multaj interesaj aferoj, kaj bonege
nin amuzis, is kiam estis necese hejmen iri. La kuzo diris "adia," kaj
iris rekte hejmen, sed mi iris al granda butiko. Unue, mi volis aeti paron
da novaj gantoj, por anstatai la malnovajn gantojn kiujn mi ankora estis portanta, kvankam mi aetis ilin anta tri monatoj. Due, mi bezonis
paron da novaj uoj. Mi iris en la butikon kie pendis tiaj gantoj, kiajn mi
atas, kaj oni tuj venis por renkonti min, kaj demandis "Kiajn vestojn vi
volas aeti?" Oni montris al mi preska dudekon da paroj da gantoj. Mi
elektis tre bonan paron, kaj estis us aetonta ilin, malgra la tro granda
prezo, kiam mi vidis alian pli belan paron. Tial mi aetis i tiun, kaj poste
mi rigardis la uojn. Mi trovis rimarkinde bonan paron, ar estas centoj
da uoj en tiu butiko. Mi tuj aetis tiun paron, kaj tiam hejmen iris.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. My friend likes to live in the city, but his wife prefers to live in their
little wooden house in the country. 2. There she can see and smell the
flowers, and can take (fari) long walks in the adjacent fields and forest. 3.
There are often hundreds of persons in a village, but there are thousands
of persons in a city. 4. The larger a city is, the larger and better its stores
are. 5. In the second place, one can buy better bread, vegetables and cake
in the city. 6. Thirdly, one can also find better gloves, hats and shoes
there, and the price is often less. 7. Therefore I make use of the opportunity when I go to the city, and usually buy a pair of new gloves. 8. I am
still wearing a pair of gloves which the rain spoiled. 9. Notwithstanding
their ugly color, they are still thick and good. 10. But soon I shall buy
such a pair as (150) is hanging in the window of that store. 11. The price
is low, and I need a new pair now, for my cousin has invited me to a
small party (festo) at his house. 12. I accepted his invitation courteously,
and said that I would gladly be his guest. 13. We are good comrades, although he is younger than I am. 14. My (girl) cousin, his sister, is older
than he is, but he is as tall as she. 15. I was just about to send a letter to
him at the minute that (155) he knocked on our door. 16. His visit will
take the place of (159) my letter. 17. Just as (just when) he was going
away, I said goodbye to him, and said that I would meet him in the park
tomorrow. 18. I think that we shall have a pleasant walk, although the
weather is still remarkably cold, the same as (156) it was two or three
months ago.

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Lesson 34
PREPOSITIONS AS PREFIXES.
160. Any preposition may be used as a prefix to a verb, provided the
resulting compound is intelligible. A few prepositional compounds are
given below, only verbs being shown, although nouns, adjectives and
adverbs may be formed from these (116):
alveni, to arrive.
aldoni, to add.
antadiri, to predict.
irkapreni, to embrace.
eesti, to be present.
dependi, to hang from, to depend.
demeti, to lay aside.
depreni, to subtract.
enhavi, to contain.
eliri, to go out.
interparoli, to converse.
kontradiri, to contradict.
kunlabori, to collaborate.
kunveni, to assemble.
priskribi, to describe.
subteni, to support.
surmeti, to put on.
traguti, to percolate.
travidi, to see through
transiri, to cross.
Like English "out" the preposition el often develops in composition a
secondary sense of "thoroughly" or "completely" (cf. "I am tired out"): eltrovi, to find out, to discover. elpensi, to think out, to invent. ellabori, to
work out, to elaborate. ellerni, to learn thoroughly, to master. eluzi, to
use completely, to wear out (transitive).
THE SUFFIX -EBL-.

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161. The suffix -ebl- is used to form adjectives, adverbs, etc., expressing the likelihood or possibility of that which is indicated by the root. It
may be used as a root, to form ebla, possible, etc.
eltrovebla, discoverable.
legebla, legible.
manebla, edible.
rompebla, breakable.
videbla, visible.
travidebla, transparent.
The suffix -ebl- is often equivalent to the English suffixes -able, -ible,
but these suffixes have other meanings also, as in "readable," worth reading (leginda), "lovable," deserving of love (aminda), etc.
EXPRESSION OF THE HIGHEST DEGREE POSSIBLE.
162. The adverb plej, most (74), modified by kiel eble (as possible), is
used to express the highest degree possible:
i estas kiel eble plej bona, it is the best possible.
Ni estos kiel eble plej saaj, we shall be as wise as possible.
Li uzis kiel eble plej malmulte, he used the least possible.
Mi skribis kiel eble plej legeble, I wrote as legibly as possible.
TITLES AND TERMS OF ADDRESS.
163. The words sinjoro, gentleman, sinjorino, lady, fralino, miss, are
used like English Mr., Mrs., Miss, before proper names, and are also used
as terms of address, without being followed by the name: Adia, Sinjoro.
Adia, Sinjorino, Goodbye (Sir). Goodbye, Madam.
Fralino B, u vi konas tiun sinjoron kun Sinjorino C? Miss
B, do you know that gentleman with Mrs. C?
Mi ne konas tiun fralinon, I do not know that young lady.
Kien vi volas iri, Fralino? Where do you wish to go (Miss)?
Sinjoro A estas tre afabla, Mr. A is very amiable.
Cf. English Doctor, Professor, Madam, as terms of address, and also
German Mein Herr, gndige Frau, gndiges Frulein, French Monsieur,
Mademoiselle, Spanish, Seor, Seora, Italian Signore, etc.

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Vocabulary.
atent-a, attentive.
askult-i, to listen.
babil-i, to chatter.
doktor-o, doctor.
fral-o, bachelor.
gaj-a, merry, gay.
grup-o, group.
onkl-o, uncle.
san-a, in good health.
sent-i, to feel.
sinjor-o, gentleman.
tup-o, step (of stairs).
tas-o, cup.
voja-o, voyage, journey.
E LA FESTO.
Hiera vespere mi iris al la hejmo de mia kuzo, kiu estis invitinta min
al malgranda festo e li. ar mi deziris alveni kiel eble plej frue, mi foriris
de mia loejo kiel eble plej balda, malgra la nea vetero. Mi estis surmetinta paron da dikaj gantoj, kaj mi portis dikajn uojn. Mi anka havis
mian ombrelon, kvankam pro la vento mi ne povis uzi tiun. Tuj kiam mi
supreniris la tuparon e la hejmo de la kuzo, li adis min, kaj venis por
malfermi la pordon kaj akcepti min. "Bonan vesperon, kia estas via
sano?" li diris. Mi respondis "Mi sanas bonege, dankon," kaj eniris la domon kun li. Ni supren iris per granda tuparo al ambro kie mi lasis la
apelon, gantojn kaj ombrelon, tiam ni malsupren venis kaj eniris la
salonon. Mi salutis la onklinon, kiu afable parolis al mi, kaj anka la du
kuzinojn. Unu kuzino estis us priskribonta interesan libron, kiun i anta ne longe tralegis, kiam la aliaj gastoj komencis alveni. Sinjoro B
eestis, kaj Doktoro C, kun sia filino Fralino Mario, kaj multe da
aliaj sinjoroj kaj sinjorinoj. La gastoj sidis a staris en malgrandaj grupoj,
kaj interparolis kun videbla plezuro. Unu rakontis pri vojao, kaj tiam
oni komencis priparoli la prezojn de aferoj en aliaj landoj. Mi atente
askultis kelkajn minutojn, kaj tiam foriris al alia grupo, kie oni gaje babilis pri estontaj (future) promenoj kaj festoj. Post unu a du horoj, la servistinoj alportis al ni bonan malgrandan manon, kune kun tasoj da

138

bonega kafo. Fine, je malfrua horo ni entile dankis la familion de mia

kuzo, kaj diris adia. Tiam ni foriris hejmen, kun sentoj da granda
plezuro pro la agrabla festo.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. There are dozens of edible fruits, but the fruits of hundreds of trees
are not at all (tute ne estas) edible. 2. The transparent cup and plate upon
the table are very breakable. 3. I predict that you will break them as soon
as you seize them. 4. That letter is worth reading. 5. But it is difficult to
read it, for it is not very legible. 6. It is from my uncle, who wishes to
arrive at-our-house as early as possible. 7. He is still in the city, but soon
he will be here, and will go up the steps (tuparon) of our porch and
knock on the door. 8. There are very few persons who contradict his
opinions. 9. His opinions, however, are worthy of attention (154) and
usually I listen courteously while he is talking. 10. Now, however, I
prefer to listen to the group of ladies in the adjacent room. 11. They are
chattering gaily, and listening to the young lady who is about to sing. 12.
Madam, do you feel the wind? I notice that it is blowing the curtains
which hang before that window. 13. I will close the window, because I
am not very well (sana) today. 14. Is that gentleman across the room a
bachelor? 15. Yes. He is describing a voyage and the people whom he
met.

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Lesson 35
KIOM AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.
164. The interrogative adverb kiom (140) is used as a relative adverb of
quantity, with tiom or some equivalent word or phrase for its antecedent. In this use it is commonly translated "as":
La taso enhavis tiom da kafo, kiom mi povis trinki, the cup contained
as much coffee as I could drink.
Mi havos tiom da tempo, kiom mi bezonos, I shall have as much time
as I shall need.
Li sendis tiom, kiom vi volis, he sent as much as you wished.
THE PRESENT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.
165. The present passive participle (for the present active participle see
108), expressing that which is undergone by the person or thing indicated by the word modified, ends in -ata, as vidata, being seen:
The verb iri, to go, used to illustrate the active participles (108, 119,
152), cannot be used to illustrate a passive participle, since passive participles can be made from transitive verbs (22) only.
La ladata knabo estas felia, the boy being praised is happy.
Mi seros la deziratan libron, I shall look for the desired book.
La vestoj farataj por vi estas belaj, the clothes being made for you are
beautiful.
FRACTIONS.
166. Fractions are formed from the cardinals by the use of the suffix on- followed by the ending -o. Adjectives and adverbs may be derived
from these by use of the endings -a or -e:
La duono de ses estas tri, the half of six is three.
Li estis nur duone atenta, he was only half attentive.
La triona parto de ses estas du, the third part of six is two.
Dek unu dekduonoj, eleven twelfths.
Mi dudekone finis la laboron, I one-twentieth finished the work.

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DESCRIPTIVE COMPOUNDS.
167. A compound word whose first element modifies the second in an
adjectival or adverbial relation is called a descriptive compound. The
final -a or -e of the first element may be omitted, unless the resulting
combination would be ambiguous or harsh-sounding.
a. When the first element is adverbial (an adverb or preposition), the
second element may be either an adverb or adjective:
multekosta, expensive.
duonkolere, half angrily.
nevidebla, invisible.
nevole, involuntarily.
ruflava (rueflava), reddish yellow.
survoje, on the way, en route.
antahiera, day before yesterday.
postmorga, day after tomorrow.
b. An adjective may be used for the first element, if the second is an
adverb or adjective derived from a noun-root:
samtempa, contemporaneous.
unufoje, once, one time.
trifoje, thrice, three times.
unutaga, one day's, of one day.
unuataga, the first day's.
frutempe, at an early time.
c. A noun may be used for the second element, if the resulting word
has not merely unity of form, but also unity of meaning with a slightly
different sense from that expressed by the noun and adjective
uncombined:
In national languages a change of accent often accompanies such
change in meaning, as bla'ckberry (not black be'rry), blu'ebird (not blue
bi'rd), swee'theart (not sweet hea'rt), German ju'ngfrau, virgin (not jung
frau', young woman), etc.

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bonveno, a welcome (not "bona veno", a good coming).

libertempo, a vacation, leisure (not "libera tempo", free time).
superjaro, leap-year (not "super jaro", above a year).
bondeziroj, good wishes, felicitations (not "bonaj deziroj", good
desires).
plimulto, a majority (adverb and noun combined).
Vocabulary.
in-o, Chinaman.
jam, already.
kler-a, enlightened, learned.
komerc-o, trade, commerce.
lanc-o, spear, lance.
liber-a, free.
metod-o, method, way.
naci-o, nation.
pa-o, page.
pres-i, to print.
pulv-o, gunpowder.
an-i, to change.
te-o, tea.
ted-a, tiresome, tedious.
The adverb jam indicates a change from some preceding action or state
to the different one expressed in the sentence, clause or phrase containing jam. It may often be translated "yet," "now," etc. Mi jam vidis lin, I
already saw (have already seen) him. u vi jam trovis in? Ne, mi ankora ne trovis in. Have you yet (have you already) found it? No, I have
not yet (still not) found it. Li jam ne vivas, he no longer lives (he already
is-not-alive). Jam ne neas, it is not snowing now (already not snowing).
LA INOJ.
Anta miloj da jaroj la inoj estis la plej klera nacio en la mondo. Dum
aliaj nacioj ankora ne konis metodojn por presi librojn, kaj ankora faris
ilin skribe, la samtempaj inoj jam estis forlasintaj tiun multekostan kaj
tedan metodon. Ili jam estis presantaj la paojn de miloj da libroj. Aliaj
nacioj tiam estis batalantaj kiel eble plej kruele, per sago kaj pafarko, kaj
per lanco. Sed ili ankora ne havis pafilojn, ar pulvo estis tute nekonata

142

al ili. Tamen la inoj jam bone konis metodojn por fari kaj por uzi
pulvon, kaj faris tiajn amuzajn flavruajn fajrojn, kiajn ni ankora hodia
aetas de ili, por uzi je festaj tagoj. Sed la inoj ne multe atis la komercon, kaj ne deziris aeti a lerni de aliaj nacioj. Ili ankora nun havas la
samajn metodojn por presi librojn kaj por fari pulvon, kiajn ili havis anta mil jaroj. Ili malofte anas siajn kutimojn. Tial la aliaj nacioj, kiuj antae ne estis tiel kleraj, antaeniras pli rapide ol la inoj. La lando de la
inoj enhavas tiom da personoj, kiom tri a kvar aliaj nacioj. Granda
parto de tiu lando estas ankora nekonata al okcidentaj nacioj, kvankam
plej multe da nia teo elvenas el la ina lando. Oni diras ke la parolata
lingvo kaj la skribata lingvo de la inoj estas du tre malsamaj aferoj. La
lingvo estas almena treege malfacila, kaj post kiam oni estas longe studinta in, oni tamen estas nur duone lerninta in. Mi ojas tial ke la lingvoj studataj en la lernejoj de nia lando ne estas tiel malfacilaj kiel la ina
lingvo. La latina kaj germana lingvoj estas sufie malfacilaj, kvankam ili
estas tre interesaj kaj anka konataj de la kleruloj en multaj landoj. La latina lingvo jam ne estas parolata lingvo.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Why are the persons in that merry group laughing and chattering
instead of listening to Mr. B? 2. I think that the doctor is telling stories about a bachelor who was once a good friend of his. 3. The gentleman
being talked about (160, 165) will visit us this evening, possibly. 4. My
aunt and cousin will come down stairs and converse with him. 5. We
shall drink as many cups of tea or of coffee as we wish. 6. He will say
"How is your health, Madam?" My aunt will reply half-angrily that she is
seldom ill. 7. We shall sit on the veranda, for the sun is still shining, although it is already setting. 8. That young lady who came with Mrs.
C relates the best possible stories. 9. She says that the Chinese were
already an enlightened nation hundreds of years ago, while other nations were still cruelly fighting. 10. A method for printing the pages of
books, instead of writing them, was a discovery of the Chinese. They
printed books in their printing-shops, a thousand years ago. 12. They
also were-acquainted-with gunpowder, which they made and used for
such fires as we use on national days of-celebration, when we have leisure and wish to enjoy (to amuse) ourselves. 13. But the Chinese have not
changed these methods. 14. Their ways of commerce, work and pleasure
are the same as they were long ago. 15. Such a nation does not progress
rapidly, even though its life is very long.

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Lesson 36
THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN.
173. The distributive pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is iu, each
(one), every (one). Sometimes it is equivalent to English any, as in "Any
one who studies can learn," etc. The plural is iuj, every, all. The article is
never interposed between iuj and the noun modified (as in English "all
the men"), and is used only if iuj is pronominal and followed by el:
The use of iu and iuj must be distinguished from that of the adjective
tuta, which means "all" in the sense of "entire": iuj viroj laboras la tutan
tagon, all men work all (the whole) day. Mi vidis iun vizaon, sed mi ne
vidis la tutan vizaon de iu viro, I saw every face, but I did not see all
the face of each man.
iu, kiu studos, lernos, every one who studies will learn.
Mi vidis iun el ili, kaj parolis al iu knabo, I saw each of them, and
talked to every boy.
Mi dankas vin iujn, I thank you all (I thank all of you).
Ni iuj estas reprezentataj, we are all (all of us are) represented.
iuj el la maristoj alvenis, all (every one) of the sailors arrived.
174. The distributive pronoun has a possessive or genitive form ies,
every-one's, every-body's:
Li konas ies nomon, he knows every-one's name.
ies opinio estis diversa, every-body's opinion was different.
Kies voojn mi adas? ies, whose voices do I hear? Everybody's.
THE PREPOSITION PO.
175. The preposition po, at the rate of, at, is used chiefly before cardinals and has a distributive sense:
Li maras po kvar mejloj iutage, he walks at the rate of four miles
daily (every-day).
Mi aetis kafon po malalta prezo, I bought coffee at a low price.
Mi aetis viandon po kvarono da dolaro por funto, I bought meat at a
quarter of a dollar for (per) pound.

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La apelisto aetas apelojn pogrande, the hatter buys hats wholesale.

DEPENDENT COMPOUNDS.
176. A compound word whose first element is a substantive, dependent upon the second element in some prepositional relation, is called a
dependent compound. (If the two words were not united into one, the
first element would be preceded by a preposition, or would be in the accusative case.) The ending -o may be omitted from the first element of a
dependent compound:
A personal pronoun serving as the first element of a dependent compound may keep the accusative ending, to indicate its construction:
sinlado, self-praise. sinekzameno, self-examination. sindefendo, self-defence. sinkontradira, self-contradictory.
jarcento, century (cento da jaroj).
manoambro, dining-room (ambro por manoj).
noktomezo, midnight (mezo de la nokto).
paperfaristo, papermaker (faristo de papero).
sunbrilo, sunshine (brilo de la suno).
tagmezo, noon (mezo de la tago).
vespermano, supper (mano je la vespero).
ventoflago, weathercock (flago por la vento).
Vocabulary.
ies, every body's (174).
iu, every-body (173).
decid-i, to decide.
dev-o, duty.
fleks-i, to bend.
genu-o, knee.
intenc-i, to intend.
ju-i, to judge.
lag-o, lake.
po, at the rate of (175).
sever-a, severe.
stang-o, pole.
svis-o, Swiss.

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vend-i, to sell.
Vilhelm-o, William.
vort-o, word.
LA APELO SUR LA STANGO.
Anta ol Svislando estis tiel libera kiel la nuna svisa respubliko, iaj
aferoj estis administrataj de personoj kiuj reprezentis aliajn naciojn. Ofte
tiuj personoj estis kiel eble plej severaj juistoj al la svisoj. Unufoje plej
kruela tirano estis administranta aferojn svisajn. Li elpensis rimarkindan
metodon por montri sian povon (power), kaj por esti malagrabla al la
svisoj. Li decidis meti sian apelon sur altan stangon en la vendejo
(market-place), en malgranda vilao apud bela lago inter la altaj montoj.
Li diris ke de nun tiu apelo reprezentas lin, kaj portos lian nomon.
Saluti la apelon estos la grava devo de iu persono en la vilao. Estos
ies devo ne nur saluti la apelon, sed anka genufleksi (kneel) anta la
stango. La tirano diris ke li forprenos la domon, la kampojn kaj tiom da
mono, kiom li povos, de iu vilaano a kamparano kiu forgesos genufleksi. "Mi intencas sendi gardistojn," li diris, "kiuj rimarkos u vi iuj
genufleksos kiam vi estas proksimaj de la stango." Je tagmezo alvenis
gardistoj, por rimarki u la necesaj salutoj estos farataj de iuj, kaj por
kapti iujn svisojn kiuj ne genufleksis. Balda la kamparanoj komencis
eniri la vendejon, por vendi legomojn po kiel eble altaj prezoj, kaj por
aeti vestojn kaj aliajn aferojn po treege plej malaltaj prezoj. iu, kiu iris
proksimen de la stango, zorge genufleksis anta la apelo de la malamata tirano, pro timo pri la hejmoj kaj la familioj. Fine, kamparano, kies
nomo estis Vilhelmo Tell, eniris la vendejon, kaj staris du a tri minutojn
proksime de la stango, dum li diris kelkajn vortojn al amiko. Sed anstata fari tujan saluton, a genufleksi, li tute ne rigardis la stangon.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The day before yesterday my youngest cousin was sitting on my
knee, and I told him that a rainbow (ielarko) is made by the sunshine
and the rain. 2. My cousin goes to school every day, after he has breakfast in the dining-room. 3. A new school is being built, not far from the
home of the judge. 4. It is my cousin's duty to study those books at the
rate of ten pages a day. 5. My cousin and I decided last night (93) to buy
new hats for ourselves. 6. We intend to go to the hatter's early tomorrow
morning. 7. I think that all clothes are being sold at a low price at-the-

146

present-time. 8. During a visit at a friend's, I read an interesting book

about ancient Europe. 9. It relates that several centuries ago a severe and
cruel tyrant was managing affairs in Switzerland. 10. Once he put his hat
on a pole in the market-place, and said that it was the duty of-every-one
to kneel before it. 11. This serious affair happened in a village one or two
miles square, on (e) the lake not far from the mountains through which
one goes on the way (167, a) to the Italian land. 12. William Tell did not
kneel or even look at the hat representing the tyrant.

147

Lesson 37
THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN.
173. The distributive pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is iu, each
(one), every (one). Sometimes it is equivalent to English any, as in "Any
one who studies can learn," etc. The plural is iuj, every, all. The article is
never interposed between iuj and the noun modified (as in English "all
the men"), and is used only if iuj is pronominal and followed by el:
The use of iu and iuj must be distinguished from that of the adjective
tuta, which means "all" in the sense of "entire": iuj viroj laboras la tutan
tagon, all men work all (the whole) day. Mi vidis iun vizaon, sed mi ne
vidis la tutan vizaon de iu viro, I saw every face, but I did not see all
the face of each man.
iu, kiu studos, lernos, every one who studies will learn.
Mi vidis iun el ili, kaj parolis al iu knabo, I saw each of them, and
talked to every boy.
Mi dankas vin iujn, I thank you all (I thank all of you).
Ni iuj estas reprezentataj, we are all (all of us are) represented.
iuj el la maristoj alvenis, all (every one) of the sailors arrived.
174. The distributive pronoun has a possessive or genitive form ies,
every-one's, every-body's:
Li konas ies nomon, he knows every-one's name.
ies opinio estis diversa, every-body's opinion was different.
Kies voojn mi adas? ies, whose voices do I hear? Everybody's.
THE PREPOSITION PO.
175. The preposition po, at the rate of, at, is used chiefly before cardinals and has a distributive sense:
Li maras po kvar mejloj iutage, he walks at the rate of four miles
daily (every-day).
Mi aetis kafon po malalta prezo, I bought coffee at a low price.
Mi aetis viandon po kvarono da dolaro por funto, I bought meat at a
quarter of a dollar for (per) pound.

148

La apelisto aetas apelojn pogrande, the hatter buys hats wholesale.

DEPENDENT COMPOUNDS.
176. A compound word whose first element is a substantive, dependent upon the second element in some prepositional relation, is called a
dependent compound. (If the two words were not united into one, the
first element would be preceded by a preposition, or would be in the accusative case.) The ending -o may be omitted from the first element of a
dependent compound:
A personal pronoun serving as the first element of a dependent compound may keep the accusative ending, to indicate its construction:
sinlado, self-praise. sinekzameno, self-examination. sindefendo, self-defence. sinkontradira, self-contradictory.
jarcento, century (cento da jaroj).
manoambro, dining-room (ambro por manoj).
noktomezo, midnight (mezo de la nokto).
paperfaristo, papermaker (faristo de papero).
sunbrilo, sunshine (brilo de la suno).
tagmezo, noon (mezo de la tago).
vespermano, supper (mano je la vespero).
ventoflago, weathercock (flago por la vento).
Vocabulary.
ies, every body's (174).
iu, every-body (173).
decid-i, to decide.
dev-o, duty.
fleks-i, to bend.
genu-o, knee.
intenc-i, to intend.
ju-i, to judge.
lag-o, lake.
po, at the rate of (175).
sever-a, severe.
stang-o, pole.
svis-o, Swiss.

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vend-i, to sell.
Vilhelm-o, William.
vort-o, word.
LA APELO SUR LA STANGO.
Anta ol Svislando estis tiel libera kiel la nuna svisa respubliko, iaj
aferoj estis administrataj de personoj kiuj reprezentis aliajn naciojn. Ofte
tiuj personoj estis kiel eble plej severaj juistoj al la svisoj. Unufoje plej
kruela tirano estis administranta aferojn svisajn. Li elpensis rimarkindan
metodon por montri sian povon (power), kaj por esti malagrabla al la
svisoj. Li decidis meti sian apelon sur altan stangon en la vendejo
(market-place), en malgranda vilao apud bela lago inter la altaj montoj.
Li diris ke de nun tiu apelo reprezentas lin, kaj portos lian nomon.
Saluti la apelon estos la grava devo de iu persono en la vilao. Estos
ies devo ne nur saluti la apelon, sed anka genufleksi (kneel) anta la
stango. La tirano diris ke li forprenos la domon, la kampojn kaj tiom da
mono, kiom li povos, de iu vilaano a kamparano kiu forgesos genufleksi. "Mi intencas sendi gardistojn," li diris, "kiuj rimarkos u vi iuj
genufleksos kiam vi estas proksimaj de la stango." Je tagmezo alvenis
gardistoj, por rimarki u la necesaj salutoj estos farataj de iuj, kaj por
kapti iujn svisojn kiuj ne genufleksis. Balda la kamparanoj komencis
eniri la vendejon, por vendi legomojn po kiel eble altaj prezoj, kaj por
aeti vestojn kaj aliajn aferojn po treege plej malaltaj prezoj. iu, kiu iris
proksimen de la stango, zorge genufleksis anta la apelo de la malamata tirano, pro timo pri la hejmoj kaj la familioj. Fine, kamparano, kies
nomo estis Vilhelmo Tell, eniris la vendejon, kaj staris du a tri minutojn
proksime de la stango, dum li diris kelkajn vortojn al amiko. Sed anstata fari tujan saluton, a genufleksi, li tute ne rigardis la stangon.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The day before yesterday my youngest cousin was sitting on my
knee, and I told him that a rainbow (ielarko) is made by the sunshine
and the rain. 2. My cousin goes to school every day, after he has breakfast in the dining-room. 3. A new school is being built, not far from the
home of the judge. 4. It is my cousin's duty to study those books at the
rate of ten pages a day. 5. My cousin and I decided last night (93) to buy
new hats for ourselves. 6. We intend to go to the hatter's early tomorrow
morning. 7. I think that all clothes are being sold at a low price at-the-

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present-time. 8. During a visit at a friend's, I read an interesting book

about ancient Europe. 9. It relates that several centuries ago a severe and
cruel tyrant was managing affairs in Switzerland. 10. Once he put his hat
on a pole in the market-place, and said that it was the duty of-every-one
to kneel before it. 11. This serious affair happened in a village one or two
miles square, on (e) the lake not far from the mountains through which
one goes on the way (167, a) to the Italian land. 12. William Tell did not
kneel or even look at the hat representing the tyrant.

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Lesson 38
THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE.
177. The distributive adjective related to the distributive pronoun iu,
giving a comprehensive idea of the quality of some person or thing, is
ia, every kind of, every sort of:
Oni vendas iajn fruktojn tie, they sell every sort of fruit there.
Estas iaj personoj en la mondo, there are all sorts of persons in the
world.
THE IMPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.
178. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive
participle with the past tense of the auxiliary verb esti expresses an act or
condition as being undergone by the subject of the verb at some time in
the past. It is called the imperfect passive tense. The conjugation of vidi
in this tense is as follows:
mi estis vidata, I was (being) seen.
vi estis vidata, you were (being) seen.
li (i, i) estis vidata, he (she, it) was (being) seen.
ni estis vidataj, we were (being) seen.
vi estis vidataj, you were (being) seen.
ili estis vidataj, they were (being) seen.
COMPOUND TENSES OF IMPERSONAL VERBS.
179. When impersonal verbs, or other verbs used impersonally, are in
compound tenses, the participial element is given the ending -e, like other modifiers of impersonally used verbs (141):
Estis pluvante anta unu minuto, it was raining a minute ago.
Estis multe neinte, it had snowed a great deal.
Estis vidate ke iu ploras, it was seen that every one wept.
RECIPROCAL EXPRESSIONS.

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180. To give a reciprocal sense, when there are two or more subjects
and the action goes from one to the other (expressed in English by "each
other," "one another," "mutually," "reciprocally"), the phrases unu la alian, unu al la alia, etc., or the adverb reciproke, is used:
Estas nia devo helpi unu la alian, it is our duty to help one another.
Ili parolas unu al la alia, they are talking to each other.
La viroj reciproke uzis siajn pafilojn, the men used each other's guns.
Ili falis unu sur la alian, they fell upon each other.
THE SUFFIX -UJ-.
181. The suffix -uj- may be used to form words indicating that which
contains, bears, or is a receptacle for, some number or quantity of that
which is expressed by the root. It may be used instead of -lando to form
the name of a region containing any one race or tribe, and instead of arbo to form the names of fruit trees:
ujo, a receptacle.
monujo, purse.
supujo, soup-tureen.
leterujo, letter-case.
patrujo (patrolando), fatherland.
sukerujo, sugar-bowl.
pomujo (pomarbo), apple-tree.
sagujo, quiver.
Vocabulary.
ag-i, to act.
ceter-a, remaining.
ia, of every kind (177).
fier-a, proud.
imag-i, to imagine.
konduk-i, to lead.
kor-o, heart. mort-i, to die.
pet-i, to plead, to request.
prepar-i, to prepare.
pun-i, to punish.
reciprok-a, reciprocal, mutual.

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simil-a, like, similar.

tu-i, to touch.
VILHELMO TELL KAJ LA POMO.
Tuj kiam la gardistoj rimarkis ke la apelo sur la stango ne estis salutata de Vilhelmo Tell, ili kaptis lin, kaj kondukis lin al la tirano, por esti
juata. La tirano demandis de Tell kial li ne genufleksis anta la apelo,
simile al la aliaj vilaanoj. Tell respondis fiere ke li ne sciis pri la iutagaj
genufleksoj de la aliaj personoj. Li diris ke li tute ne intencis agi kontra
la deziroj de la juistoj. Sed la tirano malamis la altan fortan svison, tial li
decidis puni lin per severa puno, kaj demandis "Kiun el viaj infanoj vi
plej amas?" Vilhelmo Tell ne povis imagi kial la demando estas farata al
li, kaj respondis "Mi amas iujn el ili, sinjoro." La tirano diris "Nu, estas
rakontate inter la vilaanoj ke vi estas rimarkinda arkpafisto (archer). Ni
eltrovos kia arkpafisto vi estas. Ni vidos u vi povos forpafi pomon de
sur la kapo de via plej juna filo. Aldone (in addition), estos via devo
forpafi la pomon per la unua sago, alie (otherwise) mi punos vin kaj vian
filon per tuja morto." Tell diris ke li estas preta por ricevi ian alian punon, anstata tia puno, sed malgra ies petoj la tirano estis jam elektanta
pomon de apuda pomarbo. Li kondukis la knabon malproksimen de la
ceteraj personoj, kaj metis la pomon sur lian kapon. Tell kaj la filo reciproke rigardis sin, dum la patro diris ke li ne tuos haron de lia kapo.
Tiam li elprenis sagon el la sagujo, faris la necesajn preparojn, kaj rapide
pafis. Tuj la pomo forfalis de la kapo de la infano, kaj iu havis felian
koron. Dum Tell irkaprenis la filon, la tirano demandis "Kial vi havas
tiun ceteran sagon en la mano." Tell late respondis "Por mortpafi vin,
tuj post la infano, ar mi treege timis pro la vivo de mia kara filo."
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. William Tell had a strong flexible (161) bow. 2. He could shoot-witha-bow (arkpafi) excellently, therefore he was a well-known archer. 3. He
put six or eight arrows into his quiver, and went with his sons to the village. 4. Possibly he saw the hat upon the pole, but he did not kneel before it. 5. It was being noticed already in the village that Tell hated the
tyrant very much. 6. When the guards seized him for that act, and led
him before the tyrant, who was also the judge, Tell said "I did not know
about this new duty, and could not imagine why the hat was on the pole
there." 7. The tyrant replied with (per) angry words, for he hated the

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proud Swiss whom every one else loved. 8. He said severely "It is said
that you are a praiseworthy archer. 9. Therefore I was wondering whether you could shoot an apple from your son's head. 10. Now we shall see
whether you can shoot off the apple, or whether you will touch the
child's head." 11. Amid the pleadings of all, Tell successfully shot off the
apple. 12. A similar second arrow was ready in his hand. 13. The tyrant
saw the remaining arrow, and prepared to punish Tell by death. 14. But
he escaped, and the Swiss congratulated each other heartily (kore). 15.
After some time they followed him, at the rate of six miles an hour.

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Lesson 39
THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.
182. The distributive adverb of place, related to the distributive pronoun iu, is ie, everywhere. The ending -n may be added to ie to show
direction of motion (121):
Oni trovas tiajn virojn ie, such men are found everywhere.
Li iris ien, kie mi estis estinta, he went everywhere where I had been.
Mi vidas lin ie, kien mi iras, I see him everywhere I go.
THE FUTURE PASSIVE TENSE.
183. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive
participle with the future tense of esti indicates that an act or condition
will be undergone by the subject of the verb. It is called the future passive tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:
mi estos vidata, I shall be seen.
vi estos vidata, you will be seen.
li (i, i) estos vidata, he (she, it) will be seen.
ni estos vidataj, we shall be seen.
vi estos vidataj, you will be seen.
ili estos vidataj, they will be seen.
POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS.
184. Compound adjectives may be formed with an adjectival root for
the first element, and a noun-root for the second element. Such adjectives
have the meaning "possessed of" that which is indicated in the compound. (Similar adjectives are formed in English, with -ed as the final
syllable):
belbrova, beautiful-browed.
bonintenca, good-intentioned.
dumana, two-handed.
longnaza, long-nosed.
kvarpieda, four-footed.
ruhara, red-haired.

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THE TIME OF DAY.

185. The ordinals are used in expressing the hour of the day, with horo
expressed or understood. The minutes are expressed by the cardinals. In
questions the adjective kioma (from kiom, how much) is used:
Kioma horo estas? What hour (what o'clock, what time) is it?
Je kioma horo vi venos? At what time (what o'clock) will you come?
Estas la dua horo, it is two o'clock (it is the second hour).
Estas la tria kaj kvin minutoj, it is five minutes past three.
Ni iris je la sesa kaj duono, we went at half past six.
Estas la oka kaj kvardek kvin (or: estas unu kvarono anta la naa), it
is eight forty-five (a quarter of nine).
THE SUFFIX -OBL-.
186. The suffix -obl- is used to form multiples indicating how many
fold, as "two fold," "double," "triple," etc.:
duoblo, a double.
duobla, double.
duoble, doubly.
kvarobla, quadruple.
kvindekobla, fifty-fold.
multobla, manifold.
Trioble du estas ses, three times two is six.
Vocabulary.
bilet-o, ticket.
cend-o, cent.
ie, everywhere (182).
esprim-o, expression.
giet-o, wicket, ticket-window.
horlo-o, clock.
pag-i, to pay.
preter, beyond, past.
staci-o, station.
telefon-i, to telephone.
vagon-o, car.

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valiz-o, valise.
The preposition preter indicates the movement of something alongside
of and passing beyond something else. Since it does not express motion
toward its complement, it cannot be followed by the accusative.
EN LA STACIDOMO.
Du bonkoraj (184) amikoj miaj loas en la urbo B. Ni reciproke konas nin de anta ses jaroj. Mi estis duoble oja hiera kiam mi ricevis
leteron de ili, ar en tiu ili petis de mi baldaan viziton. Tial mi telefonis
hiera posttagmeze al la stacidomo, por demandi je kioma horo foriros
la vagonaro (train) al B. Oni respondis per la telefono ke la vagonaro
foriros je la tria kaj tridek kvin. Tuj poste mi enmetis kelkajn vestojn en
mian jam preska eluzitan valizon, kaj faris iujn preparojn por la mallonga vojao. Je la dua horo, tuj post la tagmano (midday meal), mi
maris stacidomon. Survoje mi eniris butikon kaj aetis paron da novaj
gantoj. Kiam mi eniris la stacidomon, mi kuris preter la aliaj personoj al
la gieto kie biletoj estas vendataj. Mi diris al la sinjoro e la gieto "Mi
deziras bileton al B. Kiom estos necese pagi?" La brunokula sinjoro
respondis "Tia bileto kostos dolaron dudek cendojn." Mi puis tiom da
mono tra la gieto, kaj tuj ricevis la bileton, kiun la sinjoro jam havis en la
mano. Tiam mi iris proksimen de la pordego tra kiu oni estos enlasata al
la vagonaro. "Kiom da tempo anta la foriro de la vagonaro al B?"
mi demandis al la gardisto. Li latvoe respondis "Nur sep minutojn. u
vi ne vidas tiun horloon?" Mi ne estis rimarkinta la horloon, tial mi almetis la montrilojn de mia pohorloo (watch) por montri la saman
horon. Mi estis multe tuata de iaj bonintencaj personoj kurantaj ien
preter mi, kaj puantaj unu la alian. Fine oni malfermis la pordegon. Mi
kaj la ceteraj personoj rapidis al la vagonaro kaj kiel eble plej balda
eniris in.
Posttagmezo, afternoon, is a descriptive compound (167, a) whose
second element tagmezo is a dependent compound (176).
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Because of the request of my friend whose brother died recently, I
went last (la antaan) week to visit him. 2. The remaining persons of his
family were not at home. 3. I telephoned to find out at what time the

158

train would depart. 4. I was told (54) that it would leave at four twentyseven. 5. I put enough money into my purse, and carried along
(kunportis) a valise into which I had put some clothes. 6. When I entered
the station, I hurried past the other people to the wicket, and asked for
(petis) a ticket to B. 7. The ticket seller said "Two dollars and forty
cents." 8. I could not imagine why it was necessary to pay so much, but I
at once pushed that much money through the window, and received the
ticket. 9. Then I looked at my watch and went near the gate, but the yellowhaired guard who conducts persons to the trains said "Persons who
go through that gate before the train arrives will be severely punished."
10. So all of us stood near the double gate. 11. The trains are much like
each other, and it is better to act as the guards request, and not express
impatience.

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Lesson 40
THE DISTRIBUTIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.
187. The distributive adverb of time, related to the distributive pronoun iu, is iam, always, at all times:
Vi iam pagas tro multe, you always pay too much.
Mi estas iam preta por helpi vin, I am always ready to help you.
THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB IAL.
188. The distributive adverb of motive or reason, related to the pronoun iu, is ial, for every reason, for all reasons:
ial li estas felia hodia, for every reason he is happy today.
La mia ial estas la plej bona, mine is for all reasons the best.
THE PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.
189. The past passive participle expresses an act or condition as having
been undergone by the person or thing indicated by the word modified.
This participle ends in -ita, as vidita, having been seen:
La prezo pagita de vi estis tro granda, the price paid by you was too
great.
La punita infano ploras, the (having-been) punished child is crying.
Mi aetos bonefaritajn gantojn, I shall buy well-made gloves.
Li seris la forgesitan bileton, he looked for the forgotten ticket.
THE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.
190. The compound tense formed by combining the past passive participle with the present tense of the verb esti expresses an act or condition
which has been undergone by the subject of the verb. It is called the perfect passive tense. The conjugation of the verb vidi in this tense is as
follows:
mi estas vidita, I have been seen (I am having-been-seen).
vi estas vidita, you have been seen.

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li (i, i) estas vidita, he (she, it) has been seen.

ni estas viditaj, we have been seen.
vi estas viditaj, you have been seen.
ili estas viditaj, they have been seen.
THE PREPOSITION LA.
191. In expressing that in accordance with which something is done,
takes place, moves, etc., the preposition la is used:
Li agis la sia opinio, he acted in accordance with his own opinion.
Mi faros in la bona metodo, I shall do it according to a good
method.
La kia maniero li agis? In what manner did he act?
Mi maris la la strato, I walked down (or up) the street.
Li iris la la rivero per tiu vojo, he went along the river by that road.
Nuboj nigraj kuris la la ielo, black clouds raced along the sky.
i kuas lalonge de la domo, it lies lengthwise of the house.
THE SUFFIX -EM-.
192. The suffix -em- indicates a tendency or inclination toward that
which is expressed in the root:
agema, active.
mallaborema, lazy.
pacema, peaceful, pacific.
pensema, pensive, thoughtful.
Vocabulary.
atend-i, to wait (for), to expect.
ial, for every reason (188).
iam, always (187).
gazet-o, magazine, gazette.
urnal-o, journal, paper.
kompat-i, to pity.
larm-o, tear. la, according to (191).
manier-o, manner, way.
mov-i, to move (transitive)

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okup-i, to occupy.
pal-a, pale.
polic-o, police.
trankvil-a, calm, tranquil.
LA PERDITA INFANO.
Dum mi estis atendanta hiera posttagmeze en la stacidomo, mi subite
rimarkis palan sinjorinon kun larmoj en iaj okuloj. i rigardis ien kun
esprimo de nekaebla timo, kaj estis videble maltrankvila. i seris du a
tri minutojn inter la personoj irka si, kaj fine i vidis bluevestitan policanon, kiu estis parolanta al unu el la gardistoj. i rapide diris kelkajn
vortojn al li, kaj tuj li anka komencis seri cie. Mi tre kompatis la ploreman sinjorinon, kaj kiam la policano preteriris, mi demandis u mi ne
povas helpi. Mi diris ke mi ne estos okupata (busy) is la alveno de la
vagonaro. Li respondis ke la filo de tiu virino estas perdita, kaj li donis al
mi la sekvantan priskribon de la infano, la la vortoj de la patrino: la
knabo estas agema brunhara sesjarulo, kun bluaj okuloj, kaj li estas rue
vestita (dressed in red). Lia patrino estis us aetinta sian bileton e la
gieto, kaj post kiam i pagis la nadek cendojn por i, subite i rimarkis
ke la infano ne estis kun i. Kvankam i jam seris ie, la filo ajnas
ankora netrovebla. i multe timas pro li, kvankam li iam estas bona
knabo. Mi tuj komencis mari ien inter la personoj irka mi, kaj fine
eniris malgrandan ambron apud la horloo e la fino de la stacidomo,
kie estas vendataj tagurnaloj (newspapers), gazetoj kaj libroj. Tie anta
nemovebla tablo kovrita de brile koloritaj urnaloj staris malgranda
ruevestita knabo. Mi diris al li "Mia studema juna amiko, oni ne vojaas
la tiu metodo. Via patrino jam de longe atendas vin. Mi montros al vi
kie i estas." Li venis kun mi, kaj proksime de la pordo kie mi estis lasinta
mian valizon staris la sinjorino. i estis ial oja kiam i vidis nin, kaj
dankeme irkaprenis la infanon.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The poor (to-be-pitied) lady whose little boy (son) was lost in the
station yesterday afternoon was very uneasy about him for every reason.
2. She was pale and tearful (plorema) when I saw her, and looked in
every direction in a most impatient manner. 3. There was an expression
of fear upon her face and she went as quickly as possible to a nearby policeman, and said a few (kelkajn) words to him. 4. I heard the last words,

162

and at once said to myself "It is now only ten minutes past two. 5. My
train will leave (foriros) at half-past two, so I have time to help." 6. I said
to the blue-garbed policeman "During the next (sekvontajn) twenty
minutes I shall not be busy. Do you desire my help?" 7. He answered
"Yes, you are very kind (entila). The son of that lady has been lost. 8.
According to her description, he is a yellow-haired blue-eyed five-yearold, and apparently (ajne) too restless (movema). 9. I shall find him as
soon as possible, nevertheless I shall gladly accept your help. 10. The
child is dressed in white and wears a red hat." 11. As (ar) I am not at all
lazy (mallaborema), I went along the stationary (nemoveblaj) tables asfar-as the end of the station, and there I saw that-sort-of child, looking at
the magazines and newspapers. 12. I led him to the lady, who with tears
in her eyes was just going to telephone to her husband.

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Lesson 41
THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB IEL.
193. The distributive adverb of manner, related to the distributive pronoun iu, is iel, in every way, in every manner:
Li povas iel prepari in, he can prepare it in every manner.
Li estos iel helpata, he will be helped in every way.
THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB IOM.
194. The distributive adverb of quantity, related to the distributive
pronoun iu, is iom, every quantity, the whole, all:
Li prenis multe da sukero, sed ne iom da i, he took a great deal of
sugar, but not all of it.
Li elprenis iom de la teo el la teujo, he took all of the tea out of the tea
caddy.
THE PLUPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.
195. The compound tense made by combining the past passive participle with the past tense of the verb esti expresses an act or condition
which had been undergone by the subject of the verb at some point in
past time. It is called the pluperfect passive tense. The conjugation of vidi
in this tense is as follows:
mi estis vidita, I had been seen (I was having-been-seen).
vi estis vidita, you had been seen.
li (i, i) estis vidita, he (she, it) had been seen.
ni estis viditaj, we had been seen.
vi estis viditaj, you had been seen.
ili estis viditaj, they had been seen.
THE FUTURE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.
196. The compound tense made by combining the past passive participle with the future tense of the verb esti expresses an act or condition
which will have been undergone by the subject of the verb at some point

164

in future time. It is called the future perfect passive tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:
mi estos vidita, I shall have been seen (shall be having-been-seen).
vi estos vidita, you will have been seen.
li (i, i) estos vidita, he (she, it) will have been seen.
ni estos viditaj, we shall have been seen.
vi estos viditaj, you will have been seen.
ili estos viditaj, they will have been seen.
THE EXPRESSION OF MATERIAL.
197. The material out of which something is made or constructed is expressed by use of the preposition el. As in English, an adjective may be
used instead of the prepositional phrase unless a verb or participle lays
stress upon the fact of construction:
La tablo estas farita el ligno, the table is made out of wood.
La tablo estas ligna (el ligno), the table is wooden (of wood).
La infanoj konstruis domon el neo, the children built a house of (out
of) snow.
Oni faras supon el asparago, they make soup out of asparagus.
THE SUFFIX -ET-.
198. The suffix -et- indicates diminution of degree in that which is expressed by the root. It is thus in contrast to the augmentative suffix -eg(122). Sometimes an affectionate significance is given:
beleta, pretty.
dormeti, to doze.
floreto, floweret, floret.
lageto, pond, small lake.
libreto, booklet.
monteto, hill.
rideti, to smile.
vojeto, path.
Vocabulary.

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best-o, animal.
iel, in every way (193).
iom, the whole, all (194).
donac-o, gift, present.
drap-o, cloth.
hund-o, dog.
konsist-i, to consist.
leon-o, lion.
lud-i, to play.
material-o, material.
posed-i, to own, to possess.
pup-o, doll.
rost-i, to roast.
ver-i, to pour.
LA DONACO.
Mi volas doni beletan donacon al mia plej juna fratino morga, sed ju
pli mi pensas pri i, des pli malfacile estas decidi pri la afero. Estas
duoble malfacile, ar i jam posedas iun ludilon (toy) kiun oni povas
imagi. iu el iaj amikoj oje donacas (make presents) al tiel afabla
knabino. Tamen mi iris hiera matene al ludilobutiko, kaj rigardis la
ludilojn tie. Multaj konsistis el diversaj pupoj, grandaj kaj malgrandaj,
kaj belege vestitaj. Sed mi estas certa ke la fratineto jam posedas sufie da
pupojtial mi ne aetis tian ludilon, kvankam ili estas iam interesaj al
knabinetoj. Sur unu tablo kuis iaj malgrandaj bestoj, faritaj el ligno,
drapo, kaj diversaj materialoj. Estis evaletoj, hundetoj, katetoj, kaj flavaj
leonetoj. Proksime de tiuj staris malgrandaj brile koloritaj vagonaroj, kiujn oni povis rapide movi, la la maniero de grandaj vagonaroj. Etaj policanoj staris apude, kaj estis ial malfacile elekti la plej interesan el tiom
da interesaj ludiloj. Balda mi rimarkis knabineton apud mi. iel i tre
similis al mia fratino, kaj tial mi decidis elekti tian ludilon, kia estos
elektita plej frue de la nekonata knabineto. Mi atendis trankvile, kaj e legis unu a du paojn de miaj us aetitaj gazetoj kaj tagurnaloj. Fine la
beleta infano estis rigardinta preska iom de la ludiloj kiuj okupis la
tablojn, dum la kompatinda servistino lace in sekvis. Tiam la knabineto
kriis "Ho, kiel beleta pupodomo! Estas litoj en la dormoambroj; legomoj
kaj rostita viando, faritaj el papero, kuas sur la tablo en la mano-ambro; kaj mi vidas tie pupon, kiu certe us faris la teon, kaj estas elveronta

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in en tiujn tasetojn!" Tuj mi faris decidon la la plezuro de la knabineto,

kaj balda la pupodomo estis aetita por mia fratineto.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. My pale delicate (malsanema) little sister is always happy when she
has a new toy. 2. Her dolls were made out of cloth when she was a very
little girl, because otherwise she could too easily break them. 3. But yesterday my grandmother made a present of a doll (presented a doll) to
her, and since that moment she has been as happy as possible. 4. I have
not seen tears in her eyes, or heard a cross (koleretan) word. 5. This new
doll is made out of cloth, and its dress consists of very pretty material. 6.
My sister decided that she likes it better than her other playthings, and I
think that those poor (kompatindaj) other dolls will soon have been forgotten. 7. The doll seems in every way more interesting than the little animals made out of cloth or wood, which are on the table with her dolls. 8.
She possesses a little dog and a little cat, and a little lion, and until yesterday she had a wooden pony. 9. The pony is already broken, and has
been given away to a poor (malria) child, the daughter of our laundress
(lavistino). 10. My sister possesses a small train of cars which she can
move everywhere, and she is very fond of (ametas) this toy. 11. There are
small sacks of sand in the cars, and usually she is happy when she is
pouring the sand out of one of these into another, or putting all of the
sand into a box, by means of a small spoon. 12. For every reason I am
doubly glad today that she is busied in this manner (tiamaniere). 13. I
wish to take a walk along that pleasant path toward the hill, instead of
waiting for my little sister. 14. I must buy the meat to roast for supper,
before I come home from my walk.

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Lesson 42
THE FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.
199. The future passive participle, expressing that which will be or is
about to be undergone by the person or thing indicated by the word
modified, ends in -ota, as vidota, about to be seen:
La punota infano mallate ploretas, the child about to be punished
whimpers softly.
La formovota tablo estas peza, the table about to be moved away is
heavy.
La domo konstruota de li estos bela, the house going to be built by him
will be beautiful.
THE PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES.
200. The compound tenses formed by combining the future passive
participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of esti represent an act or
condition as about to be undergone in the present, past, or future, respectively. These are called passive periphrastic future tenses. Except
when great accuracy is desired, these tenses, like those of the active voice
(153) are not often used. A synopsis of vidi in the first person singular of
these tenses is as follows:
Present Periphrastic Future.
mi estas vidota, I am about to be (going to be) seen.
Past Periphrastic Future.
mi estis vidota, I was about to be (going to be) seen.
Future Periphrastic Future.
mi estos vidota, I shall be about to be (going to be) seen.
THE GENERIC ARTICLE.
201. The article is placed before nouns used in a comprehensive or universal sense, indicating a whole class, kind, substance, or abstract quality. In such use it is called the generic article:

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La pacienco estas ladinda, patience is praiseworthy.

La vivo surtera estas nur parto de la vivo iama, life on earth is merely
a part of the life eternal.
La viro estas pli forta ol la virino, man is stronger than woman.
Cf. French La patience est amre, mais son fruit est doux, patience is
bitter, but its fruit is sweet, German Das Leben ist kurtz, life is short,
Italian La speranza il pan de miseri, hope is the poor man's bread,
Spanish Las riquezas son bagajes de la fortuna, riches are the baggage of
fortune, etc. In English the generic article (as in "the life eternal" above)
may often be replaced by omission of both "a" and "the."
THE SUFFIX -EC-.
202. The suffix -ec- is used to form words indicating the abstract quality of that which is expressed in the root, or formation, to which it is
attached:
amikeco, friendship.
ofteco, frequency.
indeco, worthiness.
dankemeco, thankfulness.
fleksebleco, flexibility.
patreco, fatherhood.
patrineco, motherhood.
maltrankvileco, uneasiness.
Vocabulary.
bord-o, bank, shore.
brak-o, arm.
fabrik-i, to manufacture.
krut-a, steep.
lan-o, wool.
mebl-o, piece of furniture.
pas-i, to pass (intrans.).
pitoresk-a, picturesque.
pont-o, bridge.
sonor-i, to ring (intrans.).
surtut-o, overcoat.

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sving-i, to swing, to brandish.

ip-o, ship.
ton-o, stone.
vapor-o, steam.
vetur-i, to travel (in a vehicle).
SUR LA VAPORIPO.
Unu el la plezuroj de la kampara vivo konsistas el la multenombraj
(numerous) okazoj por veturi ien, kien oni volas iri, per kvietaj
pitoreskaj vojoj. Ni havas ankora unu (still one, yet another) okazon por
plezuro en nia vilao, ar ni povas veturi per vaporipo sur la bela lago
e kies bordo kuas la vilao. Hiera du kuzinoj venis por viziti e ni, kaj
tuj post la tagmano ni decidis promeni la tiu pitoreska vojeto al la
lago. Kiam ni alvenis al la lago, ni rimarkis ke beleta vaporipeto estis us
forironta. Tial mi aetis tri biletojn, kaj kiel eble plej rapide ni suriris la ipeton. La sonoriloj (bells) estis jam sonorintaj, kaj tuj post kiam ni transmaris la ponteton, de la tero al la planko de la ipeto, oni forprenis la
ponteton. Kelkaj personoj kiuj estis ankora sur la tero kuris kun granda
rapideco al la ponteto. Ili svingis la brakojn kaj la ombrelojn tre energie,
sed la ipeto ne atendis e unu minuton. La personoj ajnis tre koleraj pro
sia malfrueco, kaj ankora pli koleraj pro la trankvila foriro de la ipeto.
iu sur la ipeto ridetis, ar la koleremo (irascibility) estas iam amuza.
Tiam iu komencis sin amuzi tiel, kiel li deziris. Mi estis kunportinta dikan lanan surtuton, sed pro la varmeco de la vetero mi ne bezonis in, kaj
lasis in sur apuda seo. Ni atendis kun plezuro por vidi la krutajn montetojn kiuj estos videblaj tuj kiam la ipeto estos pasinta preter malgranda arbaro. La pitoreskeco de la belaj montetoj estas difektota, ar
grandaj fabrikejoj estas jam konstruataj e la montpiedoj. La tonoj por la
muroj jam kuas pretaj apude, kune kun grandaj stangoj kaj aliaj pecoj da
ligno. Tie oni fabrikos tablojn, seojn, kaj aliajn meblojn el zorge elektita
ligno.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. It is difficult in every way to select a present for a child who already
possesses enough toys. 2. In a toy-shop yesterday I examined the dolls
made out of woolen cloth and other material, and also looked at the various little animals. 3. There were ponies, little dogs and little lions and
camels. 4. There were also little sets of furniture (126), which consisted of

170

tables, sofas and chairs. 5. On the tables were small plates containing vegetables, fruits and roast (189) meat, entirely made out of colored paper.
6. There were also little cups and tumblers of thin glass, into which one
could pour water or milk. 7. As (ar) one dollar was all (194) of the
money which I had in my purse, I left the shop. 8. I walked along a stony
picturesque path toward the lake, swinging my overcoat on my arm,
while I thought over (pripensis) the difficulty, and tried to decide what
sort of present to choose. 9. The steamboat to B was just leaving, so I
went across the footbridge (ponteto) on to the pretty little ship, while its
bells were ringing, and rode an hour in the open (libera) air. 10. The
shore which we passed is very picturesque, but its beauty is about to be
spoiled, for a large furniture factory is going to be built between that
steep hill and the lake. 11. Its proximity to the water is necessary, for
water-power (akvoforto) will be used.

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Lesson 43
THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN.
203. The indefinite pronoun (and pronominal adjective) iu, any one, a
certain one, presents the idea of some person or thing, without definitely
characterizing it:
Mi parolas pri iu, kiun vi konas, I am talking about a certain one
whom you know.
Mi vizitis iujn el viaj amikoj, I visited some of your friends.
Mi havas kelkajn pomojn, sed iuj ne estas bonaj, I have several apples,
but certain ones are not good.
Iuj pontoj estas bone faritaj, some bridges are well made.
204. The indefinite pronoun iu has a possessive or genitive form ies,
somebody's, someone's, a certain one's:
Mi tuis ies brakon, I touched someone's arm.
u ies surtuto kuas sur la tablo? Is anybody's overcoat lying on the
table?
Ies ludiloj estas rompitaj, someone's playthings are broken.
PARTICIPIAL NOUNS.
205. Nouns may be formed from participles, by substituting the noun
ending -o for the adjectival ending -a. Such participial nouns indicate
persons temporarily or non-professionally performing or undergoing
that which is expressed by the root:
helpanto, one who is helping, an assistant.
elpensinto, one who has thought out something, an inventor.
legonto, one who is about to read.
vidato, one (being) seen.
sendito, one (having been) sent, an envoy.
la juoto, the one about to be judged, the accused.
Participial nouns must not be confused with nouns formed by the
suffix -ist- (172) expressing professional or permanent occupation: rajdanto, a rider, rajdisto, jockey, horseman, juanto, a judge (of something),

172

juisto, judge (professional), laboranto, a person working, laboristo,

laborer.
THE PREFIX EK-.
206. Sudden or momentary action, or the beginning of an action or
state, is indicated by the prefix ek-:
ekdormi, to fall asleep.
ekkanti, to burst into song.
ekiri, to set out, to start.
ekridi, to burst into a laugh
ekrigardi, to glance at.
THE SUFFIX -ID-.
207. Words indicating the young of, the child of, the descendant of, are
formed by use of the suffix -id-:
evalido, colt (from evalo, horse).
hundido, puppy (from hundo, dog).
katido, kitten (from kato, cat).
leonido, a lion's whelp (from leono, lion).
reidino, a king's daughter, a princess (from reo, king).
Vocabulary.
amas-o, heap, throng.
dar-i, to continue.
hirund-o, swallow. (bird).
hom-o, human being.
humor-o, temper, humor.
ies, some one's (204).
iu, some one (203).
kugl-o, bullet.
milit-i, to fight, to make war.
ost-o, bone.
renvers-i, to upset, to overturn.
sign-o, sign, mark.
tend-o, tent.

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tru-o, hole.
Cf. the difference between viro, man (in contrast to virino, woman),
and homo, man in the generic sense, including both men and women.
LA NESTO SUR LA TENDO.
Unufoje iu reo estis farinta militon kontra la homoj de lando e la
bordo de pitoreska rivero. La soldatoj ne venis tien per vaporipoj, sed
estis konstruintaj ponton trans la rivero, por la veturiloj (vehicles). Estis
necese resti kelkan tempon apud urbo kiun la reo volis ekataki, kaj li
havis grandan tendaron (encampment) anta tiu urbo. Unu tagon en la
daro (course) de la milito, iuj el la soldatoj pasis preter la tendo de la
reo, la la tona vojeto la kiu ili iutage maris por gardi la tendaron.
Unu el i tiuj ekrimarkis ke hirundo estas konstruinta sian neston sur la
rea tendo. Sur la nesto, kiu estis bone konstruita el koto, sidis trankvile
la hirundo. Dum la soldatoj svingis la brakojn kaj ekridis unu post la alia,
pri la kuraa birdo, la reo adis ies voon. Li elvenis el sia tendo por eltrovi kial la parolantoj faras tiom da bruo, kaj kial ili tiel ekkriis kaj ekridis. Kiam la viroj montris al li la birdon, li diris kun bonhumora rideto,
"Tiu hirundo estos mia gasto. iuj el la militistoj certe zorgos de nun pri
la hirundo kaj la hirundidoj." Tial la nesto restis netuata en la daro de
iu batalo. Kelkaj kugloj pasis preter i, sed la trankvileco de la birdo
daris same kiel antae. Fine la reo venkis, per kruelega batalo. Tuj la
venkintoj forportis la tendojn, kune kun multaj militkaptitoj (prisoners of
war). Nur la tendon de la reo oni lasis tie, ar la reo diris ke i nun
apartenas al la hirundo. i jam estis malnova kaj eluzita, tra kiu la pluvo
eniris per multe da truoj. Sed i ankora staris, is iu tago somera kiam
la hirundidoj povis jam bone flugi. Tiam la vento subite renversis in, kaj
i ekfalis, kaj kuis, amaso da ifonoj, inter multe da kugloj, homaj ostoj,
kaj la ceteraj malgajaj postsignoj (traces) de ies venko sur la batalejo.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. There is a pretty story about a swallow which built its nest for its
young (idoj) on the king's tent. 2. The soldiers who were walking along
the steep path past the tent glanced at it, and caught sight of (206) the
bird. 3. Some of them burst into a laugh, and gestured (svingis la brakon)
toward the bird, to point it out to their comrades. 4. The good-humored
king put on a thick woolen overcoat, and came out of his tent, to inquire

174

why his soldiers were conversing so noisily there. 5. The tent was an expensive one, and contained handsome furniture, as well as (kaj ankau) a
bell which always rang as soon as (tuj kiam) one touched it. 6. The king
immediately noticed the swallow's nest, and said with an amiable smile
"Surely such a courageous bird is a worthy (154) guest for a king." 7. The
warriors (172) cared for the swallow as much as possible during the
course of the war. 8. When the victors departed, they left that tent there.
9. Finally the wind upset it, and it fell to the ground. 10. The young swallows already could fly, by (je) that time. 11. The battleground is covered
with bullets, piles of human bones, and similar melancholy signs of war.
12. War (201) is wicked and shameful (154). 13. Why do kings and
princes wish to make war upon each other (180)? 14. When their sons
have gone away to (make) war, the mothers of the soldiers are very uneasy. 15. Perhaps those sons will be prisoners of war.

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Lesson 44
THE INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE.
208. The indefinite adjective, related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is ia,
of any kind, some kind of, a certain kind of, expressing indefinitely the
quality of a person or thing:
Estas ia birdo sur tiu arbo, there is a bird of some sort on that tree.
Mi vidis iajn ostojn sur la tero, I saw some kind of bones on the
ground.
Estas ia homo en tiu tendo, there is some sort of human being in that
tent.
THE INDEFINITE ADVERB OF PLACE.
209. The indefinite adverb of place, related to the indefinite pronoun
iu, is ie, anywhere, somewhere, in (at) a certain place. If the verb in the
sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by ie, the ending n is added (121):
Ie en tiu arbaro estas leono, somewhere in that forest is a lion.
Ie malanta la soldatoj vi trovos amason da kugloj, somewhere behind
the soldiers you will find a heap of bullets.
La hirundo flugis ien, the swallow flew somewhere (in some
direction).
Mi iros ien, sed mi ankora ne scias kien, I am going somewhere, but I
do not yet know where.
PREDICATE NOMINATIVES.
210. An adjective may stand in predicate relation to the direct object of
a transitive verb, as well as to the subject of an intransitive verb (19).
Such a predicate adjective, agreeing in number (21) with the object of the
verb, but remaining in the nominative case, indicates the result produced
by the verb upon the object, or the condition, quality or temporary state
in which this object is found:
Li faris la mondon felia, he made the world happy (made-happy the
world).

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Mi lasis la knabon trankvila, I left the boy calm (undisturbed).

Mi trovis la truon jam farita, I found the hole already made.
Mi lasis ilin bone punitaj, I left them well punished.
Cf. the difference between the examples given and sentences with the
same words in an attributive (13) use:
Dio faris la mondon felian, God made the happy world.
Mi lasis la knabon trankvilan, I left the calm boy.
Mi trovis la jam faritan truon, I found the already made hole.
Mi lasis ilin bone punitajn, I left those who had been well punished.
211. A noun may be used similarly in predicate relation after a transitive verb, as well as after an intransitive verb (20):
i nomis sian filinon Mario, she named her daughter Mary.
Oni elektis tiun reprezentanto, they elected that one representative.
Mi vidos lin venkinto, I shall see him a conqueror.
Mi trovis lin telisto, I found him a thief.
Cf. the examples given and the following sentences using the same
words in apposition (48) or attributive relation (13):
i nomis sian filinon Marion, she named (mentioned) her daughter
Mary.
Oni elektis tiun reprezentanton, they elected that representative.
Vocabulary.
anonc-i, to announce.
ia, some kind of (208).
ie, somewhere (209).
just-a, upright, just.
klar-a, distinct, clear.
kresk-i, to grow.
oportun-a, convenient.
pat-i, to feed (flocks, etc.).
plend-i, to complain.
proces-o, legal process.
rajt-o, right, privilege.

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ripar-i, to mend, to repair.

sufer-i, to suffer.
nur-o, string.
LA EVALO KAJ LA SONORILO.
Unufoje en malgranda urbeto (town) en Italujo, la reo, kiun oni estis
nominta Johano, metis grandan sonorilon en la vendejon. Li anoncis ke
iu plendanto pri maljusteco havos la rajton alvoki (to summon) juiston
per tiu sonorilo. Tiam la juisto faros proceson en la juejo pro tiaj plendantoj. Oni multe uzis la sonorilon, la la anonco de la reo, kaj multe da
plendantoj ricevis justecon. Sammaniere, granda nombro da maljustuloj
estis punata per ia helpo. Kiam okazis ke iu homo montris sin maljusta
al alia, i tiu anoncis la aferon per la oportuna sonorilo. Kiam iu faris la
edzinon malfelia, la sonorilo tuj sonoris por anonci iajn suferojn, kaj
por alvoki la juiston. Fine, oni tiom uzis la sonorilon justecan, ke la
nurego (rope) estis tute eluzita, kaj ia lasta uzinto okaze forrompis in.
Sed iu preterpasinto vidis la duonon de la nurego kuanta sur la tero,
kaj riparis in per kelkaj branetoj de apuda arbo. Li pensis en si "Iu
plendonto nun trovos in preta por esti uzata." Rimarkinde, la branetoj
ne velkis, sed restis verdaj, kaj kreskis kiel antae.
En la sama urbo lois riulo kiu estis forvendinta preska iom de siaj
domoj, evaloj, evaletoj, evalidoj, hundoj kaj multekostaj vestoj, ar en
sia maljuneco li amis nur la monon, kaj tiun li amegis. Li ankora
posedis nur unu maljunan evalon, kaj fine li forsendis e tiun, por sin
pati la la vojo. En la daro de la tago, la evalo ekrimarkis la branetojn kreskantajn sur la nurego de la sonorilo. Tuj i kaptis la branetojn,
por mani ilin, kaj tuj la juisto adis la sonorilon klare sonoranta. Li
rapidis al la vendejo, kaj late ekridis kiam li vidis ies evalon tie. Li decidis puni la riulon ar tiu i ne donis sufie por mani al la maljuna
militevalo.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The horse caught sight of the twigs with which a passer-by had
mended the bellrope. 2. Because it wished to eat the green leaves, it
seized the rope, and the bell immediately rang loudly and clearly. 3. The
horse almost upset the poles which supported (160) the roof over the bell
of-justice. 4. Any one (173) had the right to use this bell, to announce any

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kind of injustice. 5. The judge burst into a laugh as soon as he saw that
sort of plaintiff standing there. 6. More often he saw human beings as
plaintiffs, instead of animals. 7. When a laborer showed himself unkind
to his wife and children, they could announce their sufferings by means
of the convenient bell. 8. People called it the bell of justice. 9. According
to everyone's opinion, it is the duty of a just judge to punish evildoers
and unjust persons. 10. He decided that he would institute proceedings
(faros proceson) against the owner (205) of the horse. 11. The man had
driven away the horse, and it was grazing (sin patanta) along the road.
12. It was some one's duty to give some sort of home to his horse. 13. The
judge said, "I will find out whose horse that poor beast is, and will put a
mark opposite the name of that man. I will not leave him alone
(trankvila), but will show myself very severe."

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Lesson 45
THE INDEFINITE TEMPORAL ADVERB.
212. The indefinite temporal adverb, related to the indefinite pronoun
iu, is iam, sometime, any time, ever, once upon a time:
Iam mi rakontos la aferon al vi, sometime I will tell you the affair.
Reo iam lois tie, a king once (upon a time) dwelt there.
u vi iam faris proceson kontra li? Did you ever go to law against
him?
THE INDEFINITE ADVERB IAL.
213. The indefinite adverb of motive or reason, related to the indefinite
pronoun iu, is ial, for any reason, for some reason, for certain reasons:
Ial li ne riparis la tendon, for some reason he did not repair the tent.
u vi opinias ke ial li maljuste suferas? Do you think that for any reason he is suffering unjustly?
CAUSATIVE VERBS.
214. The suffix -ig- is used to form verbs indicating the causing, rendering or bringing about of that which is expressed in the root or formation to which it is attached. Verbs containing the suffix -ig- are called
causative verbs and are always transitive (22).
a. Causative verbs from adjectival roots indicate that the quality or
condition expressed in the root is produced in the object of the verb:
doligi, to sweeten, to assuage (from dola, sweet).
moligi, to soften (from mola, soft).
plilongigi, to lengthen, to make longer (from pli longa, longer).
faciligi, to facilitate (from facila, easy).
beligi, to beautify (from bela, beautiful).
The meaning often resembles that of the predicate nominative (210),
as:

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Li faris la mondon oja, he made the world glad.

Li ojigis la mondon, he gladdened the world.
b. Causative verbs from verbal roots indicate that the action expressed
in the root is made to take place:
dormigi, to put to sleep (from dormi, to sleep).
konigi, to make acquainted with (from koni, to know).
mirigi, to astonish (from miri, to wonder).
mortigi, to kill (from morti, to die).
c. Causative verbs may be formed from noun-roots, prepositions, adverbs, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits:
amasigi, to amass, to heap up (from amaso, pile).
kunigi, to unite, to bring together (from kun, with).
forigi, to do away with (from for, away).
ebligi, to render possible (-ebl-, 161).
EMPHASIS BY MEANS OF JA.
215. The emphatic form of the verb, expressed in English by "do",
"did", as in "I do study", "I did find it", "Do tell me", and by adverbs such
as "certainly", "indeed", etc., is expressed in Esperanto by placing the adverb ja, indeed, before the verb:
Vi ja mirigas min! You do astonish me!
Li ja estas justa juisto, he is indeed an upright judge.
Li ja havis tiun rajton, he did have that right.
Vocabulary.
akompan-i, to accompany.
daner-o, danger.
gvid-i, to guide.
ial, for some reason (213).
iam, sometimes (212).
indiferent-a, indifferent.
ja, indeed (215).
kred-i, to believe.

181

salt-i, to leap, to jump.

tir-i, to draw, to pull.
Cf. the difference in meaning and use between esti indiferenta, to be
indifferent, and ne esti zorga, not to be careful, both of which may be
translated "not to care for":
Li estas indiferenta al la libro, he does not care about (is indifferent to)
the book.
Li ne zorgas pri la libro, he does not care for (take care of) the book.
Estas indiferente al mi u li venos, a ne, I do not care whether he is
coming or not.
E LA MALNOVA PONTO.
Iam lois en nia urbeto junulo kiu havis afablan pli junan fratinon.
Unu tagon en la daro de la bela printempa vetero la junulo invitis la
fratinon veturi ien en veturilo tirata de du evaloj. La invito ojigis la
knabinon, kaj i respondis ke i kun plezuro akompanos la fraton. Tuj i
pretigis sin por iri, kaj ili ekveturis. Ili pasis preter pitoreskaj kampoj kaj
arbaretoj, kaj fine alvenis al ponto trans la rivero. Ili kredis in malnova
kaj ne tre forta, kaj ial la junulino estis treege timigita (frightened). "Ho,
kara frato," i ekkriis, kun eksalteto pro timo, "tiu ponto ja estas danera!
Mi deziras mari trans in, ar iam la pezeco de unu persono estos tiom
tro multe por veturilo sur malforta ponto!" Sed la timemaj petoj de lia
fratino ajne kolerigis la junulon, kaj li respondis malafable, "Nu, vi ja
mirigas min! Vi montras vin tre malsaa, ar la konstruintoj de tiu ponto
certe faris in sufie forta por tia veturilo kia la nia. Ne estos necese eksalti de i, kaj piede transiri la ponton." Tiamaniere li penis trankviligi la
kompatindan knabinon, sed tiaj vortoj nur silentigis in, kaj i komencis
mallate ploreti. Tamen la frato montris sin indiferenta al iaj timemaj
sentoj, kaj tute malatentis iajn larmojn. Li gvidis la evalojn rekte trans
la ponton, dum la fratino atendis la bruegon de rompigita ligno, kaj imagis ke i estas tuj mortigota. Tamen, la ponto estis tiel forta kiel la junulo
estis klariginta, kaj tute ne estis danera. Sed pro la malafableco de la
frato al la fratino, ili tute ne agrable pasigis la ceterajn horojn de la
posttagmezo, malgra la beleco de la vetero kaj de la kamparo.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

182

1. Somewhere in that same town, there lived another youth, who also
had an amiable sister. 2. One convenient day, she accompanied him for a
ride in a vehicle drawn by a fast horse. 3. When they reached (alvenis al)
the bridge, this girl also was frightened for some reason, the same as the
girl in the other story. 4. She said "I do not intend to complain, but the
carriage will certainly be too heavy while we are in it. I am afraid that
that bridge is dangerous, so I will jump out and walk. I will also pick
(kolektos) some sort of flowers, among the flowers growing there, near
where someone's horses are grazing. I will not delay (atendigi) you
long." He replied, "That bridge is entirely safe (nedanera) but instead of
explaining (making-clear) to you about it, I will lead the horse across the
bridge, while you walk across, for I am not indifferent to your fear."
Then he helped his sister get out (eliri) of the carriage, and guided the
horse across. Then he said with a pleasant smile, "It was not necessary to
cross on foot." She replied, "No, but you showed yourself a courteous
brother, and were very patient." Then they rode on (antaen), and talked
to each other very amiably.

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Lesson 46
THE INDEFINITE ADVERB IEL.
216. The indefinite adverb of manner, related to the indefinite pronoun
iu, is iel, somehow, in any way, in some (any) manner:
Mi penis vin iel gvidi tien, I tried somehow to guide you thither.
Iel ni anoncos la decidon, we shall announce the decision in some way.
THE INDEFINITE ADVERB IOM.
217. The indefinite adverb of quantity, related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is iom, some, any quantity, a certain amount:
u vi havas iom da tempo? Have you some time?
i varmigos iom da akvo, she will heat some water.
Tiu metodo estas iomete danera, that way is a little dangerous (198).
La nuro estas iom tro longa, the string is somewhat too long.
THE SUFFIX -AD-.
218. The suffix -ad- is used to form words indicating that the action expressed in the root is continuous, habitual or repeated.
a. Verbs formed with the suffix -ad- are called frequentative verbs, and
may often be translated by the root meaning, preceded by "keep (on)",
"used to", etc.:
frapadi, to keep knocking, to knock repeatedly.
rigardadi, to keep on looking, to gaze.
vizitadi, to keep visiting, visit repeatedly, frequent, haunt.
Anta du jaroj i tre dole kantadis, two years ago she used to sing
very sweetly.
b. Nouns formed with the suffix -ad- are often equivalent to English
verbal nouns ending in -ing, and (with the generic article, 201) may replace the infinitive as subject (130) and sometimes as object (29):
kriado, crying, shouting (from krio, cry, shout).

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movado, motion, movement in general (from movo, a movement).

pafado, shooting, fusillade (from pafo, a shot).
parolado, a speech, address (from parolo, a word spoken).
pensado, thought, contemplation (from penso, a thought).
La promenado donas plezuron, the taking of walks gives pleasure.
Mi preferas la legadon de tiaj libroj, I prefer the reading of (to read)
such books.
THE USE OF MEM.
219. The invariable pronoun mem, self, selves, is intensive, and lays
stress upon the substantive which immediately precedes it, or which it
obviously modifies. (The combination of mem with personal pronouns
must not be confused with reflexive pronouns, 39, 40):
Mi mem akompanos vin, I myself shall accompany you.
La gvidisto mem perdis la vojon, the guide himself lost the way.
Mi kredos al la viro mem, I shall give credence to the man himself.
La viroj mem defendis sin, the men themselves defended themselves.
i pendas sur la muro mem, it hangs on the very wall (the wall itself).
i venis mem por vidi vin, she came herself to see you.
Mi ekvidis la teliston mem, I caught a glimpse of the thief himself.
Vocabulary.
Arimed-o, Archimedes.
ban-i, to bathe (trans.).
fals-i, to debase, to forge.
Hieron-o, Hiero.
honest-a, honest.
ide-o, idea.
iel, somehow (216).
iom, some (217).
et-i, to throw, to cast.
kompren-i, to understand.
kron-o, crown.
lev-i, to lift, to raise.
lok-o, place.
mem, self, selves (219).
or-o, gold.

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Sikeli-o, Sicily.
ARIMEDO KAJ LA KRONOJ.
Iam bonekonata reo, nomita Hierono, vivadis en granda urbo en
Sikelio, kiu estas sudokcidenta de Italujo. Li suspektis ke iam la kronfaristoj, kiuj fabrikadis kronojn por li, ne uzis iom de la oro donita al ili de
la reo, sed falsadis in per la uzado de iu alia materialo. Tamen, Hierono ne povis per si mem eltrovi u oni falsadas la oron. Tial li venigis
grekan klerulon, kies nomo estis Arimedo, kaj rakontis al li sian timon
pri la falsita oro. Arimedo certigis lin ke iel li ja eltrovos pri la falsado,
kaj helpos la reon kontra la falsintoj, kiuj estis tiel indiferentaj al la
honesteco. iutage li multe pensadis pri la afero, sed ju pli longe li
pensadis, des malpli sukcesaj estis liaj penoj, is iu tago, kiam li okaze
faris interesan eltrovon. Li estis us baninta sin, kaj subite ekrimarkis ke
dum li mem restis en la akvo, ial ajnis esti iomete pli multe da akvo en
la banujo ol antae. Tuj li komprenis ke lia korpo estas forpuinta iom de
la akvo el ia loko. Li komprenis ke tiom da akvo estas elpuita, kiom
antae estis en tiu loko kie li mem estas. Tia levado de la akvo per lia
korpo donis al li saan ideon, kaj li prenis en la mano du a tri orajn
kronojn. Li etis ilin unu post la alia en la banujon, kaj zorge rimarkis al
kiu alteco iu el ili levis la akvon. Tiam li eltiris ilin, kaj enmetis la
kronon pri kiu Hierono estis plej suspektema. Li rimarkis ke i tiu ne tiel
alten levis la akvon, tial li estis certa ke la oro en i estas multe falsita.
Oni diras ke kiam li eltrovis i tiun metodon por montri la falsadon de la
malhonestaj kronfaristoj, li eksaltetis pro ojo kaj ekkriis "ereka," kiu estas la greka vorto por "mi estas trovinta." Tiun saman vorton oni ankora
nun uzadas en la angla lingvo.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Several centuries ago, a rich and powerful (multepova) king, named
Hiero, lived in Sicily. 2. Sometimes he was suspicious about the crownmakers who wrought (faris) crowns for him, out of the gold which he
himself gave them. 3. He wondered whether these men were honest. 4.
He suspected that perhaps (eble) they did not use all of the gold which
was given them, but kept some of it for themselves. 5. He could not of
himself (per si mem) discover whether they were debasing the gold in
his crowns, so he summoned a wise man from (el) Greece. 6. To this
well-informed man, whose name was Archimedes, he made clear his

186

fears. 7. Archimedes assured the king that he would find out somehow
about the matter. 8. He meditated several hours every day, and tried to
discover a satisfactory (kontentiga) method, but for some reason he did
not succeed. 9. One day, however, when he was bathing (himself), he noticed that there seemed to be a little more water in the bathtub when he
himself was in it, than before. 10. The rising of the water gave him an
idea. 11. He threw the crowns one after another into the water, and noticed how much water each displaced. 12. In this manner (tiamaniere) he
understood how much each had been alloyed by the local (lokaj) crownmakers, whom Hiero soon threw into prison (la malliberejon).

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Lesson 47
THE NEGATIVE PRONOUN.
220. The negative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is neniu, no
one, nobody, no (formed of ne and iu, with a medial n inserted for the
sake of euphony):
Neniu el vi komprenas min, no one of you understands me.
Mi trovis neniun preta por iri, I found nobody ready to go.
Li havis neniun honestan serviston, he had no honest servant.
221. The negative pronoun neniu has a possessive or genitive form,
nenies, nobody's, no one's:
ies afero estas nenies afero, everybody's affair is nobody's affair.
Li lados nenies ideojn, he will praise no one's ideas.
THE ADVERBIAL PARTICIPLE.
222. A participle may be equivalent not only to a clause describing or
determining the substantive modified, as in la parolanta viro, the man
who-is-talking, la sendota knabo, the boy who-will-be-sent, but also to
an adverbial clause.
An adverbial clause modifies a verb, as in dum vi atendis, li foriris,
while you waited, he went away; ar mi ojis, mi ridis, because I was
happy, I laughed.
Such a participle has for its subject the subject of the verb in the sentence (though not in attributive or predicate relation with it), and indicates some relation of time, cause, manner, situation, etc., between the action of the participle and that of the main verb in the sentence. An adverbial participle is given the ending -e:
ojante, mi ridis, rejoicing, I laughed.
Forironte, ni adiais lin, being about to depart, we bade him farewell.
Baninte la infaneton, i dormigis in, after bathing (having bathed) the
baby, she put it to sleep.
Estante ruzaj, ili falsis la oron, being sly, they debased the gold.

188

Tiel helpate de vi, mi sukcesos, thus helped by you, I shall succeed.

Silentigite de li, ili ne plendis, (having been) silenced by him, they did
not complain.
Punote, li ekkriis, being about to be punished, he gave a cry.
Ne parolinte, li foriris, without speaking (not having spoken), he left.
Li venis, ne vokite, he came without being (came not-having-been)
called.
The adverbial participle must not be used in rendering the English
"nominative absolute" construction of a participial clause referring to
something else than the subject. In such a sentence a clause must be
used: The youth being young, everyone watched him, ar la junulo estis
juna, iu rigardadis lin; the work being finished, he went away, kiam la
lahoro estis finita, li foriris.
THE PREFIX RE-.
223. The prefix re- indicates the repetition of an action or state, or the
return of a person or thing to its original place or state. (Cf. English prefix re-; meaning either "again" or "back.")
rekapti, to recapture.
renovigi, to renew.
rekoni, to recognize.
is la revido, au revoir.
ree, again, anew.
rebrili, to shine back, to reflect.
reteni, to hold back, to retain.
reveni, to come back, to return.
reiri, to go back, to return.
reeti, to throw back, to reject.
Vocabulary.
brul-i, to be in flames, to burn.
cilindr-o, cylinder.
detru-i, to destroy.
fam-a, famous.
filozof-o, philosopher.
fizik-o, physics.

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insul-o, island.
main-o, machine.
nenies, nobody's (221).
neniu, no one (220).
problem-o, problem.
Sirakuz-o, Syracuse.
spegul-o, mirror.
rab-o, screw.
LA FILOZOFO ARIMEDO.
Eble neniu greka klerulo estis pli fama ol la filozofo Arimedo. Longe
studadinte la problemojn de la geometrio kaj de la fiziko, li faris multe
da eltrovoj. Li tiel multe komprenis pri la uzado de la levilo (lever) ke oni
rakontas la sekvantan rakonteton pri li: Li diris al la reo Hierono "Kiam
oni donos al mi lokon sur kiu mi povos stari, mi mem ekmovos la mondon per mia levilo!" Zorge ekzameninte la ecojn (202) de la rabo kaj de
la cilindro, li elpensis diversajn mainojn en kiuj raboj kaj cilindroj estas iamaniere kunigitaj. Uzante unu el tiuj mainoj, oni povis facile pui
al la akvo la ipojn (necese konstruitajn sur la tero); kiujn antae la viroj
mem enpuis en la akvon, kun multe da laboro, a tiris tien per evaloj.
Uzante alian mainon elpensitan de tiu greko, oni povis levi akvon de
unu loko al alia. Ankora nun oni nomas tian mainon la "rabo de
Arimedo." En la daro de granda militado kontra la urbo Sirakuzo,
sur la insulo Sikelio, Arimedo elpensis diversajn mainojn por helpi la
Sirakuzanojn. Vidinte ke la sunlumo rebrilas de spegulo, li faris el speguloj mainon per kiu li ekbruligis (set on fire) la ipojn de la malamikoj. i
tiuj, ne komprenante kiamaniere la ipoj ekbrulis, estis multe timigitaj.
Sed e helpite de Arimedo la Sirakuzanoj ne venkis. Post iom da tempo,
la malamikoj kaptis kaj tute detruis la urbon Sirakuzon. Nenies domo
restis netuita, kaj centoj da personoj estis mortigataj. Oni ne scias per kia
morto Arimedo mortis, sed eble la malamikoj, iel rekoninte la elpensinton de la spegulmaino, etis lin en la maron a alimaniere lin mortigis.
The use of kiamaniere, in what manner, how, is preferable to that of
kiel in indirect questions, as the latter might be confused with the use of
kiel, meaning "as" (156).
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

190

1. The Greek philosopher Archimedes was not only famous long ago,
among his contemporaries (167, b, 132), but even today his name is well
known everywhere. 2. No one's knowledge about the problems of geometry and physics was greater. 3. No one understood better the properties of the cylinder and the screw. 4. Having studied these properties a
long time, and having meditated a great deal about them, he understood
them a little (217) better than any one else (iu alia). 5. The story about the
debasing of the gold crowns has already been told. 6. There is another
anecdote, namely (nome), that he remarked to Hiero, king of Syracuse,
that with a lever he would move the world, as soon as he had a place on
which he himself could stand. 7. Having discovered how (kiamaniere)
the sunlight is reflected by a mirror, and heats the wood upon which it
shines, he invented a machine made out of mirrors. 8. Aided by this machine, the Syracusans were able to set on fire the wooden ships of the enemy. 9. The enemy, however, were not repulsed from the island, but at
once rebuilt and repaired their ships, and sent them back to attack the
city again. 10. Finally, having captured the city, they destroyed it, and
killed a large number of the inhabitants (loantoj), also Archimedes
himself.

191

Lesson 48
THE NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE.
224. The negative adjective, related to the negative pronoun neniu, is
nenia, no kind of, no sort of, expressing a negative idea concerning the
quality of a person or thing:
Mi havas nenian spegulon, I have no sort of mirror.
Nenia problemo estas tro malfacila por li, no sort of problem is too difficult for him.
THE NEGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.
225. The negative adverb of place is nenie, nowhere. The ending -n
may be added, as to other adverbs (121), to indicate direction:
Nenie estas pli bona maino, nowhere is there a better machine.
Mi iros nenien morga, I shall go nowhere tomorrow.
THE NEGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.
226. The negative adverb of time is neniam, never, at no time:
Neniam vivis pli fama filozofo, there never lived a more famous
philosopher.
Vi neniam trovos tiajn rabojn a cilindrojn, you will never find that
kind of screws or cylinders.
THE SUFFIX -A-.
227. The suffix -a- is used to form concrete words. It is thus in contrast
to the abstract-forming suffix -ec- (202).
a. A word formed from a verbal root by means of the suffix -a- expresses a concrete example of a thing which undergoes (or, in the case of
intransitives, results from) the action indicated in the root:
konstruao, a building.
sendao, consignment, thing sent.

192

manao, food.
kreskao, a plant, a growth.
rebrilao, a reflection.
restao, remainder.
b. A word formed from an adjectival root or formation by means of the
suffix -a- indicates a thing characterized by or possessing the quality expressed in the root or formation to which it is attached:
belao, a thing of beauty.
maljustao, an injustice.
mirindao, a marvel.
okazintao, an occurrence.
c. A word formed from a noun-root by means of the suffix -a- indicates a thing made or derived from that which is expressed in the root:
sukerao, a sweet, confection.
ovao, an omelet.
orao, a gold object.
araneao, a spider-web.
THE ADVERB JEN.
228. The adverb jen, behold, here, there, is used to point out or call attention to something:
Jen estas la problemo! There is the problem!
Jen la filozofo! Behold the philosopher!
Jen i ludas, jen i studas, now she plays, now she studies.
Mi faris in jene, I did it as follows.
Mi agis la la jena metodo, I acted in the following way.
Li diris la jenajn vortojn, he spoke the following words.
Vocabulary.
aran-i, to arrange.
art-o, art.
ber-o, berry.
jen, there, behold (228).
aluz-a, jealous.
konkurs-o, competition.

193

lert-a, skilled, clever.

nenia, no kind of (224).
neniam, never (226).
nenie, nowhere (225).
pentr-i, to paint.
postul-i, to demand.
precip-a, principal, chief.
regul-o, rule.
tromp-i, to deceive.
vin-o, wine.
DU ARTKONKURSOJ.
Vivadis en Grekujo anta multaj jarcentoj du lertaj famaj pentristoj. Ili
estis reciproke aluzaj, kaj neniam povis interparoli paceme. Ne povinte
decidi la problemon, kaj eltrovi kiu el ili estas la plej lerta, ili fine aranis
konkurson pri la pentrado. La iaj reguloj, iu el ili pentris pentraon,
por montri sian lertecon. Unu pentris teleron da vinberoj (grapes). i estis tiel mirinde kolorigita ke e la birdoj venis kaj penis in mani,
pensinte in ne nur pentrao, sed la vinberoj mem. "Nenia pentrao povos
superi la mian," ojege ekkriis la pentristo, "jen, la birdoj mem rekonas
mian lertecon!" Tiam li diris al la alia artisto, "Nu, kial vi ne fortiras tiun
kurtenon? Mi volas rigardi vian pentraon." La dua pentristo respondis
kun rideto, "Jen estas mia pentrao. Nenie apud vi estas kurteno, sed vi
vidas nur pentraon de kurteno anta tiu konstruao." Tre mirigite, la
pentrinto de la vinberoj diris "Vi ja superas min en la pentrado. Mi
trompis la birdojn per mia pentrao, sed vi trompas e aliajn artistojn! Tia
lerteco estas ja mirindao!"
Oni rakontas similan okazintaon pri fama artisto kiu pentris multe da
pentraoj por Aleksandro Granda. Malgajninte en konkurso kontra iuj
aliaj artistoj, li opiniis ke la juintoj estas maljustaj al li, precipe pro la
aluzeco. Li ekkriis "ar niaj pentraoj estas bildoj de evaloj, ili certe postulas evalajn juantojn!" Tial oni enkondukis du a tri evalojn. La
evaloj, tute ne rigardinte la pentraojn de la aliaj artistoj, kuris rekte al
tiu de la plendinta artisto, kaj klare montris sian rekonadon de la tie
pentritaj evaloj. Surprizite, oni diris "Jen estas justaj juantoj!" Tuj oni
ladis la pentriston kaj severe punis la malhonestajn homajn juintojn.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION

194

1. Syracuse was the largest city on the island of Sicily. 2. The famous
philosopher and physicist Archimedes lost his life when that city was
destroyed and entirely burned. 3. At least, no sort of trace of him seems
to have been found after that occurrence. 4. Never, perhaps, was there a
more learned man in Syracuse. 5. Greece was also famous for its skilled
painters, and there are many anecdotes about them. 6. A painter who
failed in a certain competition believed that none of the judges had been
just to him. 7. He exclaimed "Behold this iniquity (injustice)! Nowhere
can I find a human being who is not jealous. 8. Since the paintings are
chiefly of horses, do they not require horses for judges?" 9. His proposal
was accepted (54), and some horses were led in. 10. Without noticing
(222) the other paintings, the horses walked at once to the picture of the
unsuccessful artist, and showed immediate recognition of the horses
painted there. 11. This act showed which competitor (konkursinto) was
the most skilful. 12. The painter, having deceived the horses, as another
artist had once deceived birds by a picture of grapes, said "Animals decide not by rules, but by feelings."

195

Lesson 49
THE NEGATIVE ADVERBS NENIAL, NENIEL, NENIOM.
229. The negative adverb of motive or reason, related to the negative
pronoun neniu, is nenial, for no reason:
Li estas nenial aluza, he is jealous for no reason.
Nenial li trompis vin, for no reason he deceived you.
230. The negative adverb of manner is neniel, in no way.
Mi povos neniel arani konkurson, I can in no way arrange a
competition.
Tiu ago estas neniel laregula, That act is in no way regular.
231. The negative adverb of quantity is neniom, no amount of, not any,
none, no:
Tiu pentrao postulas neniom da lerteco, such a painting requires no
skill.
Estas neniom da vino en lia glaso, there is no wine in his glass.
THE SUFFIX -I-.
232. The suffix -i- is used to form intransitive verbs of an inchoative
nature.
a. Inchoative verbs from the roots of intransitive verbs indicate the beginning or coming into existence of the act or condition expressed in the
root:
sidii, to become sitting, to sit down, to take a seat.
starii, to become standing, to stand up.
b. Intransitive verbs may be similarly formed from the roots of transitive verbs, and indicate an action of the verb not immediately due to the
subject's acting upon itself (as in the case of reflexive verbs, 41) and not
caused by any direct agency (as in the case of the passive voice, 169):

196

La pordo fermias, the door closes (goes shut).

La veturilo movias, the vehicle moves.
La brano rompias, the branch breaks.
Grupo da personoj kolektiis, a group of persons gathered.
Cf. the examples given and the following sentences in which the same
verbal roots are used in the simple form and in the passive voice:
Ni fermas la pordon, we close the door. La pordo estas fermita, the
door is (has been) closed.
Oni movas la veturilon, they move the vehicle. La veturilo estas
movata, the vehicle is being moved.
Mi rompas la branon, I break the branch. La brano estas rompita, the
branch is (has been) broken.
Li kolektis florojn, he gathered flowers. Floroj estas kolektitaj, flowers
have been gathered.
c. Intransitive verbs may similarly be formed from adjectival roots,
and indicate the acquiring of the characteristic or quality expressed in
the root:
lacii, to become tired, to get tired.
varmii, to become warm, to get warm.
maljunii, to become old, to age.
d. Verbs may similarly be formed from noun-roots, adverbs, prepositions, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits:
amikii, to become a friend.
forii, to go away, to disappear.
kunii, to become joined.
eblii, to become possible.
Vocabulary.
apena, hardly, scarcely.
atmosfer-o, atmosphere.
dub-i, to doubt.
efektiv-a, effective, real.
hel-a, clear, bright.

197

horizont-o, horizon.
krepusk-o, twilight.
nenial, for no reason (229).
neniel, in no way (230).
neniom, none, no (231).
ombr-o, shadow.
pejza-o, landscape.
radi-o, ray.
tropik-a, tropical.
LA KREPUSKO.
Estas tre agrable sidii sur la herbon, kaj rigardi la plilongiantajn ombrojn, en la daro de bela somera vespero. La suno grade mallevias
post la montetoj, la nuboj farias (become) bele kolorigitaj, kaj la tuta pejzao pli kaj pli belias. Malrapide la krepusko anstataas la helan sunlumon, kaj fine ie noktias. La krepusko estas la rebrilado de la sunlumo tra la atmosfero, post la mallevio de la suno mem, la la jena
maniero: la radioj suprenbriladas, en la aeron super niaj kapoj, en la okcidenta parto de la ielo. De tie ili rebriladas tiamaniere ke la ielo lumias. Kiam estas iom da nuboj sur la ielo okcidenta, la sunradioj briladas rekte kontra ilin, belege kolorigante tiujn nubojn. En tropikaj landoj
la krepuskio okazas tre rapide. i ne nur komencias subite, sed anka
daras tre mallongan tempon. La noktio preska tuj sekvas la taglumon, kun rimarkinda subiteco. Apena komencias la krepusko,
kiam la subiranta suno ajnas fali preter la horizonto. Tute male (quite on
the contrary), en landoj treege nordaj, krepuskias tre frue en la tago, kaj
la krepusko daras longan tempon anta ol la nokto venas. Efektive
(really), en tiuj landoj la krepusko tute anstataas la nokton, dum ses
monatoj de la jaro. Tie oni havas krepuskon dum la unua duonjaro, kaj la
taglumon dum la sekvinta duonjaro. Krepusko daranta tiom da tempo
estas tiel rimarkinda kiel tago de tia sama longeco. Mi dubas u tia dividado de la tempo inter tago kaj malhela nokto estas agrabla, sed oni povas
neniel malhelpi in. iu tre norda lando havas la saman travivaon
(experience), iujare, kaj efektive oni apena rimarkas in. Pri iu plendanto oni nur diras "Li estas nenial malkontenta."
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

198

1. Nowhere have I read a more amusing story than that of (pri) the two
painters who, being mutually (180) jealous, arranged a competition. 2.
One painted a cluster (126) of grapes, so excellently that the birds flew to
it. 3. The other deceived his rival (competitor) himself, by a painting of a
curtain. 4. The most famous artists, however, often show their skill by
painting (222) pictures of the sunset, chiefly, I think, because of the brilliant colors. 5. In fact (efektive), I doubt whether there is a more beautiful
sight (227, b) than the sunset. 6. It is made by the bright rays of the sun,
which shine back through the atmosphere, long after the sun itself has
passed below the horizon. 7. The more moisture (malsekao) there is in
the air, the more brilliant the colors are, and the more beautiful the entire
landscape becomes. 8. In tropical lands, night falls very suddenly, and
there is almost no sort of twilight. 9. In fact, a twilight scarcely occurs
there. 10. In the lands far north, on the contrary, the twilight lasts six
months, and the remainder of the year is the day. 11. To dwell in such a
land is surely a remarkable experience. 12. It can in no way be understood by persons who have never lived there. 13. Such things increase
(make greater) my desire to visit those northern lands. 14. For no reason,
however, do I wish to reside in the tropical countries.

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Lesson 50
THE PRONOUNS ENDING IN -O.
233. In contrast to the pronouns ending in -u (tiu, kiu, iu, iu, neniu), a
similar series ending in -o refers to an object, fact or action not definitely
specified (but never to a person), like English what, anything, something,
nothing, etc. Because of their somewhat vague meaning, these pronouns
do not occur in the plural, nor are they ever used as pronominal
adjectives:
Demonstrative:
tio, that (thing, fact or action).
i tio, this (thing, fact or action).
Interrogative and Relative:
kio, what.
Distributive:
io, everything.
io i, all this.
Indefinite:
io, anything, something.
Negative:
nenio, nothing.
234. A pronoun (not personal) in predicate or relative relation to a pronoun ending in -o must itself be of the same series:
Kio estas i tio, kion vi diras? What is this, which you say?
i vidis tion, kio us okazis, she saw that which just occurred.
io i, kion vi vidas, estas farita de ili, everything here (all this), which
you see, was done by them.
Li havas ion por vi, sed nenion por mi, he has something for you, but
nothing for me.
CORRELATIVE WORDS.

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235. Pronouns, adjectives and adverbs, which are related to each other
as corresponding demonstratives, interrogatives, relatives, etc., are called
correlatives. In Esperanto the correlative system is more complete than in
any other language, and may be summarized as follows:
tio (233) that (thing)
kio (233) what, which
io (233) everything
io (233) anything
nenio (233) nothing
tiu (56) that (one)
kiu (146) who, which
iu (173) every, each
iu (203) any (one)
neniu (220) no (one)
ties (62) that one's
kies (147) whose
ies (174) every one's
ies (204) any one's
nenies (221)
no one's
tia (65) that kind of
kia (150) what kind of
ia (177) every kind
ia (208) any kind
nenia (224) no kind of
tie (68) there
kie (151) where
ie (182) everywhere
ie (209) anywhere
nenie (225) nowhere
tiam (73) then
kiam (155) when
iam (187) always
iam (212) any time

201

neniam (226) never

tial (78) therefore, so
kial (129) wherefore, why
ial (188) for every reason
ial (213) for any reason
nenial (229) for no reason
tiel (88), (156), thus, so
kiel (156) how, as
iel (193) every way
iel (216) any way
neniel (230) in no way
tiom (104) that much, so much
kiom (164) how much, as
iom (194) all, the whole of
iom (217) some, any amount
neniom (231) none, no quantity
THE USE OF AJN.
236. The word ajn may be placed after any interrogative-relative or indefinite correlative word, to give a generalizing sense. In order to avoid
confusion with the accusative plural ending, ajn is never attached to the
correlative which it follows:
kio ajn, whatever.
kies ajn, whosesoever.
kie ajn, wherever.
kiam ajn, whenever.
kiom ajn, however much.
ia ajn, any kind whatever.
THE SUFFIX -ING-.
237. The suffix -ing- is used to form words indicating that which holds
one specimen of what is expressed in the root:
glavingo, scabbard.

202

lumingo, torch-holder.
plumingo, pen-holder.
ingo, sheath, case, socket.
Vocabulary.
io, everything (233).
Gordio, Gordius.
io, anything (233).
jug-o, yoke.
klin-i, to bend, incline (trans).
kio, what (233).
lig-i, to tie, to bind.
nenio, nothing (233).
ofer-o, offering.
reg-i, to rule, to govern.
sankt-a, sacred, holy.
templ-o, temple.
tio, that (thing) (233).
util-a, useful.
LA GORDIA LIGAO.
Unufoje en antikva tempo la regatoj de iu reolando en Azio ne havis
reon. Ne sciante kion fari, ili demandis de la dioj. La dioj respondis,
"Kiu ajn venos unue en nian sanktan templon hodia, por fari oferojn,
estos via reo." Okaze kamparano nomita Gordio venis al la templo, us
post la tagio. La regatoj tuj rekonis la estontan reon, kvankam li veturis sur peza malbela veturilo. Salutinte la surprizitan kamparanon, oni
nomis lin reo. Decidinte fari dankoferon al la dioj, Gordio metis en la
templon la veturilon mem sur kiu li tien veturis, anta ol li komencis regi
kiel la nova reo. La jugo estis alligita (tied fast) per granda ligao el
nurego. Post la morto de Gordio oni grade komencis kredi ion tre interesan pri tio. Oni diris ke tiu, kiu povos iel ajn malligi tiun ligaon,
farios reganto super iuj reoj de Azio.
Post kelkaj jaroj Aleksandro Granda decidis fari grandan militadon
kontra Azio, kaj alproksimiis al la lando kie estis reginta Gordio. Kiam
li demandis, "Kio estas i tie la plej interesa vidindao?" oni rakontis al li
tion, kion oni diras pri la nurega ligao sur la veturilo de Gordio.

203

Kompreneble (of course) Aleksandro deziris fari ion ajn utilan por venki
Azion, tial li tuj venigis gvidiston por konduki lin al la templo. Alveninte
tien, li zorge rigardadis la ligaon, kaj ekzamenis la nuregon el kiu i estis farita. Tiam, elpreninte sian glavon el la glavingo, subite kliniante li
rekte tratranis la tutan ligaon. "Nenio estas pli facila ol tio," li diris, "kaj
nun mi ne dubas u mi certe regos super iuj reoj de Azio." Pro tio, kion
faris Aleksandro Granda, oni ankora nuntempe diras, kiam iu ajn superas malfacilaon per kia ajn subita metodo, "Li tranis la gordian
ligaon."
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. One often hears the remark "I will cut the Gordian knot." 2. There is
an interesting story about this. 3. A wagon whose yoke was tied to the
pole by a large knot had been put in the middle of the temple. 4. It was a
thank-offering to the sacred gods, by whose help Gordius had in olden
time become king. 5. It was said that whoever would be able to untie that
rope would no doubt become ruler over the whole of Asia. 6. Alexander
the Great, having begun a campaign against Asia, approached the city
where this temple was. 7. Having heard the story, he at once had a guide
come, and went thither, guided by him. 8. He desired to do everything
which was useful to the conquering of Asia. 9. Having examined the
knot carefully, he bent over and tried for a few minutes to untie it. 10.
Then he chose another method. 11. He seized his sword, and suddenly
cut through the whole knot. 12. Having done this, he put the sword back
into the scabbard. 13. This he did, instead of continuing (darigi) his efforts to untie the knot. 14. In fact, having no patience, he had become
tired. 15. Perhaps the conquering of Asia did not in any way become possible on account of this, but at least the story is interesting, whatever actually (efektive) happened. 16. Nothing is impossible, whenever one tries
enough. 17. In a tropical country, such as part of Asia is, the landscapes
are beautiful. 18. A tropical twilight is very short, however, and the
shadows have scarcely become long when the sun seems to sink suddenly below the horizon, although the last bright rays continue to shine
back through the atmosphere for a few minutes.

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Lesson 51
THE PRONOUN AMBA.
238. The pronoun (and pronominal adjective) amba, both, indicates
two persons or things considered together. It is invariable in form:
Ili amba venis al la templo, they both came to the temple.
Amba faris oferojn al la dioj, both made offerings to the gods.
Vidante kaj la plumon kaj la plumingon, mi prenis la amba, seeing
both the pen and the penholder, I took both.
This pronoun must not be confused with the use of kaj, translated both
in the combination kaj kaj , both and (26).
FORMATIONS WITH -IG- AND -I-.
239. Some verbs may be used in the simple form, and also with both
the suffix -ig- and the suffix -i-. Thus from one verb-root three verbs of
distinct meaning may be made, and the formation with -ig-, being transitive, may also be used in the passive:
sidi, to sit, to be sitting.
sidii, to become sitting, to take a seat.
sidigi, to cause to sit, to seat.
esti sidigata, to be caused to sit.
silenti, to be silent.
silentii, to become silent.
silentigi, to cause to be silent, to silence.
esti silentigita, to be silenced.
kui, to lie, to be lying.
kuii, to lie down, to go to bed.
kuigi, to cause to lie, to lay.
esti kuigita, to be laid.
stari, to stand, to be standing.
starii, to rise, to stand up, to become erect.
starigi, to raise, to cause to stand up, to erect.

205

esti starigita, to be raised, to be erected.

FACTUAL CONDITIONS.
240. A conditional sentence consists of two parts, an assumption and a
conclusion. The assumption is a clause (introduced usually by the conjunction se, if) which assumes something as true or realized. The conclusion is a statement whose truth or realization depends upon the truth or
realization of the assumption. Factual conditions (conditions of fact) may
deal with the present, past or future time:
Se li vidas tion, li ploras, if he sees that, he weeps (is weeping).
Se li vidis tion, li ploris, if he saw that, he wept.
Li ploros, se li vidos tion, he will weep, if he sees that.
Se li venis hiera, li foriros morga, if he came yesterday, he will go
away tomorrow.
Se li estas vidinta tion, li nun ploras, if he has seen that, he now is
weeping.
Se tio estas vidota, li estas punota, if that is going to be seen, he is going to be punished.
Se li estas kaptita, li estos jam punita, if he has been captured, he will
already have been punished.
Vocabulary.
amba, both (238).
azen-o, ass, donkey.
ben-i, to bless.
dors-o, back.
form-o, form.
halt-i, to stop (intrans.).
mona-o, monk.
mut-a, dumb, mute.
orel-o, ear.
petol-a, mischievous.
propr-a, own, one's own.
se, if.
spir-i, to breathe.
turment-i, to torment.

206

LA MONAOJ KAJ LA AZENO.

Iam du monaoj reiris tra la arbaro al la monaejo, dum grade krepuskiis. Amba portis pezajn sakojn da terpomoj, kaj balda laciis,
sed ne sciis kion fari. Okaze ili ekvidis azenon ligitan al arbo, kaj unu
monao, haltinte, diris petole al la alia "Se vi anstataos la beston, mi
havos portanton por miaj propraj sakoj, kaj anka por la viaj." Lia
kunulo respondis "Nu, se la azeno portos miajn sakojn, mi mem oje restos en ia loko." us dirite, tuj farite (no sooner said than done). Malliginte la ligaojn kiuj tenis la azenon, ili etis la sakojn trans la dorson de la
utila besto. Unu monao tuj forkondukis la azenon, dum amba viroj
late ridis. Post tio, la dua monao sin ligis per la sama nurego kiu antae tenis la azenon. Kiam revenis la kamparano, kies azeno estis us telita, li ekhaltis, multe mirigite, vidante homon tie ligita. La monao anoncis al li, "ar mi estis tro manema, Dio faris azenon el mi, anta du jaroj.
Mi us rericevis mian propran formon." Tuj la kredema kamparano invitis la petolan monaon al sia hejmo. La monao restis tiun nokton e la
kamparano, kaj la sekvintan tagon li foriris, beninte la kamparanon, sed
kae ridante pri la afero. Tiam la kamparano iris vendejon, por aeti alian
azenon. Li ekvidis sian propran azenon, kiun la unua monao estis sendinta tien, post sia reveno al la monaejo. La malsaa kamparano, kliniinte al la besto, diris "Ho, bona monao, mi vidas ke duan fojon vi jam
estis tro manema!" La muta besto forte svingis la orelojn kaj skuis la kapon, pro la varma elspirao apud sia orelo. Tio ajne estis respondo al la
us diritaj vortoj, tial la malsaa kamparano ree aetis sian propran azenon. iam poste li nek turmentis nek e laborigis in, kredante la azenon
la sankta monao mem.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. If the subjects of any kingdom whatever did not have a king, in ancient times, they usually asked the sacred gods about it. 2. If the gods informed (sciigis) them that whatever man would come to the temple first
would become their king, they immediately chose the first comer (la unuan veninton) king. 3. Whoever was chosen king made the blessed gods
a thank-offering, which consisted of something out of his own possessions (227, a). 4. Gordius did not offer to the gods merely the yoke of his
wagon, but the whole wagon. 5. A knot of rope was tied between the
yoke and the pole. 6. People soon began to say, "If any one soever can
untie that knot, he will become ruler of Asia." 7. If any other men tried to

207

untie that rope, they failed. 8. Alexander, though (tamen), had scarcely
arrived when he drew (out) his sword from the scabbard, and cut the
knot. 9. If you will take-a-seat, I will tell you about the two mischievous
monks, returning to the monastery. 10. Both were breathing with difficulty, and stopped to rest. 11. Having noticed a donkey near by, they untied it. 12. One led the long-eared dumb animal away, while the other
tied himself in its own place. 13. The credulous (192) peasant believed
everything which was told (54) him, even that the monk had formerly
had the form of an ass.

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Lesson 52
THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.
241. That indication of the speaker's frame of mind which is given by
the form of the verb is called the mood of the verb. All verbs given so far
have been in the indicative mood, which represents an act or state as a
reality or fact, or in the infinitive mood, which expresses the verbal idea
in a general way, resembling that of a substantive. The conditional mood
does not indicate whether or not the act or state mentioned is a fact, but
merely expresses the speaker's idea of its likelihood or certainty, or is
used in an assumption or conclusion dealing with suppositions, not with
actual facts. The ending of the conditional mood is -us. The conjugation
of vidi in the aoristic tense of the conditional mood is as follows:
mi vidus, I should see.
vi vidus, you would see.
li (i, i) vidus, he (she, it) would see.
ni vidus, we should see.
vi vidus, you would see.
ili vidus, they would see.
COMPOUND TENSES OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.
242. In addition to the aoristic tense, the conditional mood has three
active and three passive compound tenses, formed by combining the
participles with the aoristic tense of esti in the conditional mood. A synopsis of vidi in these compound tenses is as follows:
Active Voice.
Present: mi estus vidanta, I should be seeing.
Past: mi estus vidinta, I should have seen.
Future: mi estus vidonta, I should be about to see.
Passive Voice.
Present: mi estus vidata, I should be seen.
Past: mi estus vidita, I should have been seen.
Future: mi estus vidota, I should be about to be seen.
LESS VIVID CONDITIONS.

209

243. A conditional sentence dealing with suppositions concerning

events in present or future time is called a less vivid condition (Less
vivid, in contrast to factual conditions (240), which are vivid, because
they deal with facts.), and the conditional mood is used in both the assumption and the conclusion:
Se li vidus tion, li plorus, if he should see that, he would weep.
Mi oje helpus vin, se mi povus, I would gladly help you, if I could.
Se vi metus ilin sur la dorson de la azeno, i portus ilin, if you should
put them on the donkey's back, it would carry them.
La petola junulo turmentus la monaon, se li revenus, the mischievous
youth would torment the monk, if he should return.
Se li estus kaptata, li estus punata, if he should be caught, he would be
punished.
INDEPENDENT USE OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.
244. The conditional mood may be used in a conclusion whose assumption is merely implied, serving thus to soften or make vague the
statement or question in which it is used:
Mi oje helpus vin, I would gladly help you.
u vi bonvole dirus al mi? Would you kindly tell me?
Kiu volus enspiri tian aeron? Who would wish to inhale such air?
Estus bone reteni vian propran, it would be well to keep your own.
La ielo vin benus pro tio, Heaven would bless you for that.
THE PREFIX DIS-.
245. The prefix dis- indicates separation or movement in several different directions at once:
disdoni, to distribute.
dispeli, to dispel.
disigi, to separate (trans.).
disii, to separate (intrans.).
disio, separation, schism.
dissendi, to send around.
Cf. the English prefix dis- in disperse, disseminate, distribute, etc.

210

Vocabulary.
es-i, to cease, to leave off.
dens-a, dense.
difin-i, to define.
ekzist-i, to exist.
flu-i, to flow.
gravit-i, to gravitate.
kaz-i, to cause.
le-o, law.
natur-o, nature.
objekt-o, object.
plu, further, more.
turn-i, to turn (trans.).
The adverb plu gives an idea of continuance to the word which it
modifies. When used with ne, the two together give an idea of cessation
concerning a previous continuous act or state: Amba parolos plu morga, both will talk further tomorrow. Mi ne plu haltos, I shall not stop
(any) more. Li ne plu ajnis muta, he no longer seemed mute.
PRI LA GRAVITADO.
1. Ofte oni parolas pri la pezeco de diversaj objektoj. Tia pezeco estas
kazata de la forto kiun oni nomas la gravitado. Pro tiu forto ne nur objektoj sur la tero, sed anka la tero mem, havas konatan pezecon, kiun la
kleruloj jam anta longe kalkulis. La suno kaj la luno simile havas pezecon, ar ili amba, same kiel la tero, movias la tiu sama gravitado kiu
efektive regas iujn el la ielaj korpoj. Se la gravitado esus ekzisti, la
riveroj ne plu fluus antaen en siaj fluejoj (beds). Ne fluante de altaj is
malaltaj lokoj, la akvo disfluus, a restus tie, kie ajn i okaze estus.
Neniom da pluvo falus; kontrae, la malsekao en la aero ankora restus
tie, en la formo de densaj mallumaj iamaj nuboj. iuj vivaj estaoj
(beings), iuj konstruaoj, efektive io, balda disflugus de la rapide
turnianta mondo. iuj i (all these) nun devas resti sur la tero, tial ke la
gravitado restigas ilin i tie. Se la gravitado ne plu ekzistus, nenio restus
plu sur la tero. La aero mem ne plu irkaus nin, sed i anka forlasus la
mondon, tuj maldensiinte (having become rarefied). La fama angla filozofo Newton estis la unua, kiu studadis la kialon (reason) de la falado de

211

objektoj. Li komencis, la la rakonto, per okaza ekrigardo al falantaj pomoj en sia propra pomarbejo. Anta tri jarcentoj, li eltrovis ke estas tia
forto kia la gravitado, kaj difinis la naturajn leojn la kiuj la gravitado
sin montras. i tiu forto, kiu restigas ion sur la tero, estas tamen la
kazo de nia laciado, kiam ni maras a kuras, ar i faras nin pezaj, kaj
tial ni ofte deziras halti kaj ripozi. Estas anka la malfacileco en la superado de tiu sama forto, kiu faras tiel malfacila la konstruadon de utilaj
aeripoj.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Newton was an Englishman who lived three centuries ago. 2. One
day he was walking in his orchard, and, noticing the falling apples, he
stood still (ekhaltis) and began to wonder why they fall. 3. He studied
the cause of their falling, wishing to discover whatever laws of nature he
could. 4. He watched various falling objects, and tried to calculate their
velocity (rapideco). 5. Finally he recognized that force which is called
gravitation. 6. Of course (kompreneble) gravitation had always existed,
but its laws were not noticed or clearly defined until Newton studied the
matter. 7. If gravitation should not exist any more, no rain would fall, but
instead of condensing, the moisture would remain above our heads in
eternal clouds. 8. But gradually the moisture and the air itself, becoming
rarefied, would fly away from the earth, being held no longer by the
force of gravitation. 9. The water in the rivers would leave off flowing
(cease to flow) on toward the sea, because now the water flows from
high to low places only on account of gravitation. 10. Instead of gravitating toward the sea, in fact, the water would flow in every direction (245)
out of the riverbeds, or would remain there, without moving at all (tute
ne movante). 11. Nothing on earth would remain here very long, but
everything would fly off the quickly moving world, and leave it entirely
bare. Soon, also, the earth itself would break-into-pieces (245).

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Lesson 53
CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT.
246. A condition contrary to fact indicates that the opposite of what is
mentioned has really taken place or is taking place. It expresses the
speaker's certainty that an act or state would have been realized, if some
other act or state were also realized. Such conditions cannot refer to the
future, but only to present or past time. The conditional mood is used:
Se vi estus turninta vin, vi estus vidinta tion, if you had turned, you
would have seen that.
Se la malsekao ne estus densiinta, ne estus pluvinte, if the moisture
had not condensed, it would not have rained.
Se li estus kaptita, li estus punita, if he had been caught, he would
have been punished.
Se li estus sidanta tie, mi vidus lin, if he were (if he should be) sitting
there, I should see him.
Se la gravitado ne ekzistus, tiu pluvo ne estus falanta, if gravitation
did not (should not) exist, that rain would not be falling.
THE VERB DEVI.
247. The verb devi (cf. devo, duty) is equivalent to the verb must
(which in English has no future, past, infinitive, etc.), and to to have to,
to be obliged to, etc., carrying the idea of must into all tenses and moods.
In the conditional mood its meaning is softened into a vaguer sense (of
moral obligation), and carries the idea of ought:
Objektoj en la aero devas fali, objects in the air have to fall.
Ni devis agi la la leoj, we had to act according to the laws.
Vi devos iri, you must (will have to) go.
i ne volas devi fari tion, she does not wish to have to do that.
Ili devigis min iri, they compelled me to go.
Vi devus iri, you should go (you ought to go).
Oni devus pensi anta ol paroli, one ought to think before speaking.
Li estus devinta veni, he ought to have come.
Tio devus esti farita, that ought to have been done.
THE PREPOSITION SEN.

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248. The preposition sen, without, indicates the omission, absence or

exclusion of that which is expressed by its complement. It may be used
as a prefix (160), giving a sense of deprivation or exclusion (like that given by the English suffix -less):
Li difinis la vorton sen eraro, he defined the word without an error.
La rivero senese fluas, the river flows without ceasing.
Tio estas ne nur senutila sed e malutila, that is not only useless but
even harmful.
Li ne plu estas senmona, he is no longer penniless.
Li sentime alproksimiis al i, he fearlessly approached it.
English phrases containing "without" as in "without reading," must be
changed to phrases clearly containing verbal nouns, as "without the
reading of," before translating into an Esperanto phrase with sen. Otherwise a participle with ne should replace the phrase (222): Sen la legado
de tio, mi ne komprenus, without (the) reading (of) that, I should not understand. Ne leginte tion, mi ne komprenus, without reading (not having
read) that, I should not understand.
Vocabulary.
akuz-i, to accuse.
instru-i, to teach.
kondamn-i, to condemn.
konfes-i, to confess, to admit.
konscienc-o, conscience.
kulp-o, guilt.
merit-i, to deserve. nobl-a, noble.
pardon-i, to pardon.
pek-i, to sin.
prav-a, right, correct.
sen, without (248).
So-krato, Socrates.
venen-o, poison.
LA FILOZOFO SOKRATO.

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Unu el la plej famaj grekaj filozofoj estis nomita Sokrato. Li estis malbela malalta persono, kun senhara kapo kaj dika korpo, sed malgra tio
li estis treege bona, nobla kaj saa. Li instruadis per interparolado kun la
lernantoj. Kutime li komencis per demando pri io ajn, pri kio la askultanto respondos. Fine, la lernanto grade komprenis u liaj propraj opinioj
pri la afero estas pravaj. Ankora nun oni nomas tiun metodon de instruado per la interparolado "la Sokrata metodo." Sokrato diradis tute
sen timo ion, kion li pensis, e pri la dioj kaj pri la nekredeblaj rakontoj
pri la dioj. Se li ne estus tiel multe klariginta, eble li estus vivinta pli
longan tempon. Sed multaj personoj malamis lin, precipe ar li donis
novajn ideojn al la junuloj, kiuj sekve komencis pensi por si mem, anstata fari tion kion faras iu alia. Tial oni akuzis Sokraton en la juejo,
nomante lin pekanto kaj malbonfaranto, unue, ar li ne disdonas oferojn
al la dioj, due, ar li enkondukas novajn diojn (ar li diris ke supernatura
voo, kiu sendube estis lia nomo por la konscienco, parolis mallate e
lia orelo), trie, ar li malbonigas la junularon de la urbo. Se li estus konfesinte la kulpon kaj petinte pardonon, tiam la juistoj eble estus punintaj lin per nura (mere) monpago (fine). Sed li fiere respondis ke efektive li multe plibonigas la junularon, kaj anstata esti malutila, a e neutila, li treege utilas al la urbo. Li diris ke oni havas nenian rajton puni lin,
sed ke, kaze de sia bonfarado al la urbo, li efektive meritas iutagan
manon senpagan. Tamen, tute ne kompreninte kiel prava Sokrato estas,
la juistoj mortkondamnis lin. Oni devigis lin trinki la venenon. Iom
poste, en la malliberejo, li trankvile adiais siajn plorantajn amikojn, kaj
akceptinte la venenan trinkaon, sentime in trinkis.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Socrates believed that if one knows about good and evil (201) he will
do good, but will not do evil. 2. Therefore he wished to help mankind (la
homaron), teaching them what the good is. 3. He also wished to discover
for himself what is right and what is wrong. 4. So he asked every one
whom he met (about) his opinions, and the one-talking-with [him]
would also notice whether his own ideas were right or not. 5. But the
fellow-citizens of Socrates were jealous, and hated him, because they did
not understand him. 6. Therefore they accused him, called him a sinner,
and sent around (245) false reports (falsajn sciigojn) about him. 7. Because he said that conscience guided him (in the form of a soft voice at
his ear), they accused him of (pri) introducing (218, b) new gods. 8. They
also said that he was corrupting the youth of the city. 9. If Socrates had

215

pleaded guilty, and begged for a fine instead of the death-punishment,

without doubt he would have been pardoned and fined (monpunita). 10.
But he said "I have never in my life sinned in any way, and I do not deserve any sort of punishment." So the judges condemned him to death by
the drinking of poison.

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Lesson 54
SUMMARY OF CONDITIONS
249. The three kinds of conditional sentences, together with the moods
and tenses used in them, may be tabulated as follows:
Name:
Factual , Less Vivid, Contrary to Fact
Subject Matter
facts, suppositions, opposite of facts
Time:
any, (usually) future, present or past
Mood:
indicative, conditional, conditional
Tense:
any, (usually) aoristic, (usually) compound
CLAUSES OF IMAGINATIVE COMPARISON.
250. Clauses of imaginative comparison are introduced by the conjunction kvaza, as though, as if. Sometimes the verb in the comparison may
be left unexpressed or merely implied:
Li trinkas la venenon kvaza i estus vino, he drinks the poison as
though it were wine.
La kondamnito maris kvaza kun malfacileco, the condemned man
walked as if with difficulty.
Li konfesis kvaza kulpulo, he confessed like a culprit.
THE USE OF AL TO EXPRESS REFERENCE.
251. Personal pronouns, and less frequently nouns, may be used with
the preposition al to express concern or interest on the part of the person
indicated by the complement of this preposition:
Li bruligis al si la manon, he burned his hand.
Hi tranis al li la barbon, they cut his beard (the beard for him).
i preparas al ni bonan manon, she is preparing us a good meal.
u vi faros servon al mi? Will you do me a service?

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The use of al in this sense, approaching that of por but less purposeful
and definite, resembles the "dative of reference" and "ethical dative" of
other languages, as in French je me suis brul la langue, I have burned
my tongue, German ich wasche mir die Hnde, I wash my hands, Latin
sese Caesari ad pedes proicerunt, they threw themselves at the feet of
Csar, Greek , what am I to learn for you? etc.
252. By an extension of its use in expressing reference, al may often be
used in the place of de expressing separation (170), when the use of de
might seem to indicate agency (169) or possession (49):
La luno estas kaata al ni de la nuboj, the moon is hidden from us (to
us) by the clouds.
i estas stelita al mi de li, it has been stolen from me by him.
This use resembles the "dative of separation" of other languages, as in
German es stahl mir das Leben, it stole the life from me, French il me
prend la vie, it takes my life, Latin hunc mihi timorem eripe, remove this
fear from me, Greek , he took his sceptre from
him, etc.
THE SUFFIX -ESTR-.
253. The suffix -estr- is used to indicate the chief, head, or one in control of that which is expressed in the root:
lernejestro, (school) principal.
monaestro, abbot.
policestro, chief of police.
urbestro, mayor.
estraro, governing body.
ipestro, ship-captain.
Vocabulary.
Aristejd-o, Aristeides.
ekzil-i, to exile.
enu-i, to be wearied, bored.
ust-a, exact.
kvaza, as though, as if (250).

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ostr-o, oyster.
ostracism-o, ostracism.
popol-o, a people.
pot-o, pot.
senc-o, meaning, sense.
signif-i, to signify.
son-i, to sound.
strang-a, strange.
el-o, shell, bark, peel.
Care must be taken to distinguish usta, exact, uste, exactly, just,
from justa, upright, just, juste, justly, and also from the adverb us just.
LA OSTRACISMO DE ARISTEJDO.
La vorto ostracismo havas interesan devenon (origin). En ia komenco
oni rekonas la grekan vorton kiu signifas "elon de la ostro." En ia fino
oni vidas la saman "-ismon " kiu, deveninte de la greka, ankora estas
uzata kiel vortfino en multaj diversaj lingvoj. La nuna senco de la vorto,
facile trovebla en anglaj vortaroj (dictionaries), devenas de la jena greka
kutimo:
Sepdek jarojn anta ol vivadis Sokrato, oni faris strangan leon en lia
urbo. La tiu, oni povis ekzili iun ajn estron kies ideoj pri la administrado de la urbo ne ajnis pravaj. i tion oni povis fari, tute sen juado
a e akuzado, ar oni havis la jenan metodon: se e popola kunveno ses
mil urbanoj vodonis (vote) kontra iun ajn, tiu estis devigata foriri de la
urbo, kaj forresti dek jarojn. Li povis neniel havigi (get) al si pardonon,
sed devis tuj foriri kvaza konfesinta kulpulo. Por vodonoj, oni skribis
la nomon de la kondamnoto sur peco da potao (pottery), a pli ofte sur
ostroelo. uste tial oni nomas la kutimon ostracismo. Unufoje, kelkaj
malamikoj proponis vodonadon pri la ostracismo de tre bona kaj nobla
viro, nomita Aristejdo, kiu tute ne meritis tian punadon.
Anta ol la kunveno disiis, kamparano alproksimiis al Aristejdo
(kiu mem eestis), petante lian helpon, ar la neinstruita kamparano ne
povis skribi. La saulo diris "Kion vi volas skribi sur la elo?" La kamparano, ne sciante ke li parolas al la viro mem, respondis "Aristejdon."
Skribinte in, Aristejdo demandis kun trankvila konscienco "Pro uste
kiaj pekoj vi malamas Aristejdon?" La kamparano respondis, "Ho, mi ne

219

kaos al vi ke mi e ne konas lin! Sed mi deziras ekzili lin nur ar min

enuigas la sono de lia nomo. Mi tre enuas iam adante lin nomata
Aristejdo la justa!"
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Aristeides had just arrived at the popular assembly when a peasant
approached him. 2. If Aristeides had not had a pleasant countenance and
musical (belsonan) voice, doubtless the peasant would not have asked
his help. 3. Ought Aristeides to have written his own name on the oystershell or piece of pottery which was going to be used as a vote against
him? 4. Without just (exactly) this help, the peasant could not have
voted. 5. Doing him the service requested, Aristeides said, as if (250) he
himself were not the man under-discussion (205), "Why do you hate
Aristeides? 6. Could you tell me how he has sinned against the city?" 7.
The silly-creature (132) replied, "Oh, I know nothing about him, but I am
weary [of] always hearing him called the just." 8. Ought such persons as
that ignorant peasant have-the-right to vote about important affairs? 9.
The ancient law about ostracism was a strange [one]. 10. The name of the
person to-be-exiled (199) was usually written upon an oyster-shell, and
the meaning of the word signifying the custom comes from that. 11.
Through (per) ostracism, any leader could be banished, justly or unjustly, without trial of any kind, or explanation of the reasons.

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Lesson 55
THE IMPERATIVE MOOD.
254. For expressions of command, exhortation, entreaty, etc., there is
an imperative mood, as in English. The ending of the imperative mood is
-u. Beside the aoristic tense, six compound tenses are formed by combining the participles with the imperative mood estu of the auxiliary verb,
but these tenses are seldom used. The conjugation of vidi in the aoristic
tense of this mood, together with a synopsis in the compound tenses, is
as follows:
Aoristic Tense.
mi vidu! let me see!
ni vidu! let us see!
vidu! (you) see!
(vi) vidu! (you) see!
li (i, i) vidu! let him (her, it) see!
ili vidu! let them see!
Compound Tenses.
Active. Passive.
Present: mi estu vidanta,
Present: mi estu vidata,
Past: mi estu vidinta, Past: mi estu vidita,
Future: mi estu vidonta. Future: mi estu vidota.
RESOLVE AND EXHORTATION.
255. The first person singular of the imperative mood is used to express the speaker's resolve concerning his own action, or an exhortation
to himself concerning such action. The first person plural is used to express resolve or exhortation concerning the joint action of the speaker
and the person or persons addressed:
Mi pensu pri tio! Let me think about that!
Mi ne forgesu tion! I must not (do not let me) forget that!
Ni ekzilu lin! Let us exile him!
Ni ne sidiu tie! Let us not sit down there!
Ni estu grize vestitaj! Let us be dressed in gray!

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This force is usually expressed in English by "let" with an accusative

and infinitive construction.
COMMANDS AND PROHIBITIONS.
256. The second and third persons of the imperative are used to express peremptory commands and prohibitions.
a. In the second person the pronoun is usually omitted, as in English,
unless special emphasis is placed upon it:
Estu trankvila! Be calm! (One person is addressed.)
Estu pretaj por akompani min! Be ready to accompany me! (Two or
more persons are addressed.)
Parolu kvaza vi komprenus! Talk as though you understood!
Ne fermu tiun pordon! Do not shut that door!
Ne estu vidata tie! Do not be seen there!
b. In the third person a circumlocution in English is necessary in translation (as let, must, are to, is to, etc.):
Li estu zorga! Let him be careful (he must be careful)!
i ne faru tion! Do not let her do that (she is not to do that)!
io estu pardonata! Let everything be forgiven!
Oni lasu min trankvila! People are to let me alone!
Ili neniam revenu! Let them never (do not let them ever) return!
La kulpuloj estu punataj! Let the culprits be punished!
LESS PEREMPTORY USES OF THE IMPERATIVE.
257. By an extension of its use in resolve, exhortation, command and
prohibition, the imperative mood may be employed for less peremptory
expressions, such as request, wish, advice, etc., and in questions of deliberation or perplexity, or requests for instruction:
Request:
esu tiun bruon, mi petas! Stop that noise, I beg!
Bonvolu fari tion! Please do that!
Pardonu al ni niajn pekojn! Forgive us our sins!

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Wish:
Ili estu feliaj! May they be happy!
Dio vin benu! God bless you!
Vivu la reo! (Long) live the king!
Advice:
Pensu anta ol agi! Think before acting!
Foriru, se vi ne estas kontenta! Go away, if you are not satisfied!
Consent:
Nu, parolu, sed mi ne askultos! Well, talk, but I shall not listen!
Iru tuj, se vi volas. Go at once, if you like.
Question:
u mi faru tion a ne? Am I to do that or not?
u ni disdonu la librojn? Shall we distribute the books?
u li estu kondamnita? Shall he be condemned?
u ili venu i tien? Are they to (shall they) come here?
THE USE OF MOTO.
258. The word moto may be used alone, or after a title, to denote respect. When used after a title, the title becomes an adjective:
Lia rea moto, his majesty.
Lia juista moto, his honor the judge.
ia reina moto, her majesty.
Lia urbestra moto, his honor the mayor.
u via moto lin adis? Did your honor (excellency, etc.) hear him?
Vocabulary.
Afrik-o, Africa.
barbar-o, barbarian.
Damokl-o, Damocles.
flank-o, side.
imperi-o, empire.
konsent-i, to consent.
konsil-i, to advise.

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mot-o, a title (see 258).

ordon-i, to order, to bid.
permes-i, to permit.
pla-i, to please.
sklav-o, slave.
sol-a, sole, only.
volont-e, willingly.
LA GLAVO DE DAMOKLO.
Anta pli multe ol dumil jaroj vivis en Sirakuzo, sur la insulo Sikelio,
tre kruela tirano. Li diris al si "Mi estu iopova (all-powerful)!" Tial li
faris multe da militadoj, kaj venkis ne nur barbarajn popolojn, sed anka
multajn urbojn en Italujo kaj norda Afriko. Detruinte ion sen kompato,
li ordonis "La loantoj estu vendataj por sklavoj!" Li deziris fari por si, el
la venkitaj kaj sklavigitaj popoloj, unu grandan imperion. Sed la urboj
ie, e en Grekujo, ne kais al li sian grandan malamon al tia tirano. Tial
li iam timis pri sia vivo, timante ke iu subite mortigos lin. Unufoje
Damoklo, amiko de la tirano, diris al li, "Se mi estus tiel ria kaj pova kiel
via rea moto, mi estus treege felia!" La tirano respondis, "Venu al
festo e mi, se tio plaas al vi, kaj eltrovu u mi devus esti felia a ne."
"Mi venos tre volonte," ekkriis Damoklo, "kaj mi dankas vian moton pro
tia afableco!" La tirano entile respondis "Ho, estas nenio (=you are welcome)! Nur ne forgesu la deciditan horon!" Je la usta horo Damoklo iris
al la festo, kie oni donis al li seon flanke de la tirano mem. "Manu kaj
trinku kiom ajn vi volas," konsilis la tirano, "kaj poste ni parolos pri la felieco." Damoklo tuj konsentis al tia propono, kaj agis la la permeso tiel
afable donita al li. Manante bonegan manaon, kaj trinkante dolan
vinon, li tute ne enuis e la festo. Balda la tirano diris "Rigardu supren,
kaj vidu uste kian feliecon mi havas!" Supren rigardinte, Damoklo ekvidis akran glavon, antae kaitan al li de kurteno. Subtenate de unu sola
haro, la glavo ajnis kvaza tuj falonta sur la kapon de Damoklo. "La dioj
min helpu!" li ekkriis, forsaltinte de la tablo. Pro la us dirita stranga
rakonto, oni ankora nun nomas la atendadon por io timeginda, kio ajnas iam okazonta sed efektive ne okazas, "la glavo de Damoklo."
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The word ostracism comes from the Greek word signifying "oystershell." 2. It has its present meaning because oyster-shells or pieces of

224

pottery were used for the voting. 3. The story about Aristeides is interesting, but that about the sword of Damocles is also interesting. 4. His
friend, the Syracusan tyrant, had permitted all sorts of injustices, against
not only barbarians but even Greeks. 5. His only bidding usually was
"Let every inhabitant be sold as a slave!" 6. He thought "Let me make one
sole empire out of Africa, Italy and Sicily!" 7. Damocles said to him "Your
royal highness ought to be very happy!" 8. The tyrant answered, "Come
to a feast tomorrow, and find out. I will give you a seat (214, b) beside
me." 9. Damocles willingly consented, and went thither. 10. The tyrant
advised "Let us eat and drink until midnight, if that would be-pleasing
to you. Then let us discuss the problem about happiness." 11. After a few
hours Damocles heard a slight sound over his head, and the tyrant said
to him, "Look up and you will see what kind of happiness mine is." 12.
"Heaven defend me!" exclaimed Damocles, catching sight of a sharp
sword hanging by a single (sole) hair.

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Lesson 56
THE IMPERATIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.
259. The imperative mood is used in a subordinate clause, with a
meaning similar to that in its independent use, after a main verb expressing command, exhortation, resolve, consent, wish, etc., or after any word
or general expression of command, intention, necessity, expedience, etc.
Such clauses are introduced by the conjunction ke:
Command and Prohibition.
Li diras ke vi iru, he says that you are to go.
i skribis al li ke li venu, she wrote him to come.
Mi malpermesas ke vi restu, I forbid you to remain.
Ni ordonos ke li estu punata, we shall order that he be punished.
Request and Wish.
Mi petas ke vi ne lasu min, I beg that you do not leave me.
Mi petegas ke vi estu trankvilaj, I implore you to be calm.
Li deziras ke ili estu sklavigitaj, he desires that they be enslaved.
Ni volis ke li ne forgesu tion, we wished him not to forget that.
Advice, Consent, Permission.
Mi konsilis al li ke li iru, I advised him to go.
Mi konsentis ke li restu, I consented that he remain.
Ili permesos ke la barbaroj forkuru, they will permit the barbarians to
escape (that the barbarians escape).
Questions.
Li demandas u ili foriru, he inquires whether they are to go away.
Oni demandis u lia moto eniru, they asked whether his honor was to
enter.
Mi miras u mi faru tion, I wonder whether I am to do that.
Intention, Expedience, Necessity, etc.

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Ni intencas ke vi estu helpata, we intend that you shall be helped.

Lia propono estas ke ni ricevu la duonon, his proposal is, that we receive the half.
Lia lasta ordono estis, ke vi venu, his last order was that you come.
Estos bone ke vi ne plu nomu lin, it will be well for you not to (that
you do not) mention him any more.
Estas dezirinde ke ni havu bonan imperiestron, it is desirable that we
have a good emperor.
Estis necese ke iu stariu, it was necessary for everyone to rise.
Plaos al li ke vi iru, he will be pleased to have you go.
In English and some other languages an imperative idea may often be
expressed by the infinitive, as "I wish you to go," but in Esperanto this
must be expressed by the equivalent of "I wish that you go." The infinitive may not be used except when it can itself be the subject of the verb in
such general statements as "it is necessary to go."
THE PREPOSITION JE.
260. Since prepositional uses are not exactly alike in any two languages, it is not always possible to translate a preposition of one language by what is its equivalent in some senses in another. In order to insure some means of translating correctly into Esperanto any prepositional phrase of the national languages, the preposition je is regarded as of
rather indefinite meaning. In addition to its use in dates and allusions to
time (89, 185), it may be employed when no other preposition gives the
exact sense required, especially in protestations and exclamations, expressions of measure (see also 139), and of indefinite connection:
Je la nomo de ielo! In the name of Heaven!
Je mia honoro mi ja elfaros tion! On my honor I will accomplish that!
i estas longa je du mejloj, it is two miles long (long by two miles).
Ili venis je grandaj nombroj, they came in great numbers.
Li estas tenata de la policano, je la brako, per forta nurego, he is held
by the policemen, by the arm, with (by) a strong rope.
The preposition je is used to express indefinite connection after the following words (other prepositions sometimes used are given in
parentheses):

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ekkrii je (pro), to cry out at.

enui je, to be bored with.
fiera je (pri), proud of.
fidi je (al), to rely upon.
oji je (pri), to rejoice at.
gratuli je (pri), congratulate on.
honti je (pri), to be ashamed of.
inda je, worthy of.
interesii je, to take interest in.
kapti je, to seize by.
kontenta je (kun), content with.
kredi je, to believe in.
(sin) okupi je, to busy (oneself) at.
plena je (de), full of.
preni je, to take by.
provizi je (per), to provide with.
riigi je (per), to enrich with.
ridi je, to laugh at.
satii je, to be sated with.
senigi je, to deprive of.
simila je (al), similar to.
sopiri je (al), to yearn for.
ari je, to load with.
teni je, to hold by.
The translation given for a preposition in any dictionary is the general
one which serves in the majority of cases. The finer shades of meaning
and real or apparent exceptions can merely be touched upon if mentioned at all.
THE SUFFIX -OP-.
261. The suffix -op- is used to form collective numerals:
duope, by twos, in pairs.
kvarope, by fours.
milope, by thousands.
sesopigi, to form into groups of six.
Vocabulary.

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cel-i, to aim.
Cirus-o, Cyrus.
fidi, to rely.
u-i, to enjoy.
honor-o, honor.
krom, beside, save, but.
plen-a, full. prokrast-i, to delay (trans.).
proviz-i, to provide.
rezult-i, to result.
sopir-i, to yearn, to sigh.
spac-o, space.
terur-a, terrible.
ver-o, truth.
LA MARADO DE LA DEKMIL GREKOJ.
Iam Ciruso, nepo de Ciruso Granda, sopiris je la imperio de sia pli
maljunafrato, kiu sekvis la patron de amba fratoj kiel reo, a pli uste
imperiestro. Decidinte forigi de la reeco (to dethrone) sian fraton,
Ciruso petis la grekojn ke ili partoprenu (take part) en kelkaj negravaj
militadoj. Multaj tiamaj grekoj tre volonte sin okupis je la batalado, pro la
granda pago ricevata. La venditaj sklavoj kaj la detruitaj konstruaoj iam
provizis ilin je multe da riao, kaj krom tio la militistoj ajnis ui e la
militadon mem. Estis tute indiferente al ili u la kazo de la militado estas prava kaj justa a ne. Unue Ciruso nur petis ke ili helpu liajn proprajn soldatojn kontra iuj najbaroj. Li kais al ili sian veran celon, ar se la
grekoj estus suspektintaj tion, kion li intencis fari, ili neniam estus akompanintaj lin tiel malproksimen de sia patrolando. Grade li kondukis ilin
trans tutan Azion, kaj fine la dekmil grekoj komprenis ion, kaj treege
koleriis. Paroladante al ili, Ciruso tuj diris "Mi ne permesas ke vi reiru,
kaj mi petegas ke vi antaen maradu kun mi, sen plua (further)
prokrasto! Se mi sukcesos kontra mia frato, mi certigas vin je mia
honoro ke iu el vi revenos havante sakojn plenajn je riao! Estas nur necese ke vi fidu je mi, kaj io estos bona!" Tiam la soldatoj hontis je sia antaa timo, kaj kurae antaen maradis. Fine, apud granda urbo, la frato
de Ciruso elvenis havante okcentmil soldatojn, por batali kontra la centmil de Ciruso. Per la helpo de siaj grekoj, Ciruso estis preska venkinta
en terura batalo, kiam subite li ekvidis sian fraton, je malgranda interspaco. Ekkriante "Mi vidas la viron!" li rajdis rekte al la reo, etante sian

229

pezan lancon al li. La sola rezulto estis la morto de Ciruso mem, ar la

amikoj de la reo, kvinope kaj sesope atakinte Ciruson, lin tuj mortigis.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Cyrus did not desire that his brother should remain king. 2. He decided, "Let me myself become (farii) king! I should much enjoy that!" 3.
So he asked the Greeks to help him in some battles against nearby enemies. 4. Gradually an army (126) of a hundred thousand men, ten thousand of whom were Greeks, gathered (232, b) around him. 5. He led
them farther and farther, into the middle of Asia, until finally the Greeks
suspected his true aim. 6. They said to each other in terror, "He did not at
first propose that we fight against the Great King. Let us return home
without delay!" 7. Cyrus addressed (218) them as follows: "Must I permit
you to go back? I implore you to be courageous, and I do advise you not
to forget your longing for (260) honor! 8. Only be worthy of your leader,
and rely upon me! Do you not wish to return home provided with
wealth, beside the money which I shall pay to you?" 9. Immediately the
soldiers were ashamed of their fear, and advanced by hundreds, full of
courage. 10. Soon the brother of Cyrus approached, with (havante) eight
hundred thousand men. 11. By the aid of the Greeks, Cyrus won the
battle, but he himself lost his life. 12. So neither he nor the Greeks could
enjoy the result of their efforts.

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Lesson 57
CLAUSES EXPRESSING PURPOSE.
262. Purpose may be expressed by a subordinate imperative clause, introduced by por ke:
Mi faras in por ke li helpu vin, I do it in order that he may help you.
Mi ekkriis por ke vi adu, I cried out in order that you should hear.
Li venos por ke ni estu feliaj, he will come that we may be happy.
Mi studas por ke mi lernu, I study that I may learn.
Ili restu por ke ni punu ilin, let them stay for us to punish them.
Cf. the expression of purpose by the infinitive with por (98), which
however cannot be used except when the subject of the main verb is the
subject of the subordinate verb, or when the object of the main verb is the
subject of the subordinate verb.
FURTHER USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE.
Cf. the accusative of direct object (23), direction of motion (46, 121),
time (91), and measure (139).
263. The accusative of direction of motion is used after nouns from
roots expressing motion:
Lia eniro en la urbon estis subita, his entrance into the city was
sudden.
La irado tien estos plezuro, (the) going thither will be a pleasure.
ia falado teren timigis min, its falling earthward terrified me.
264. a. An intransitive verb may be followed by a noun in the accusative case, if the meaning of the noun is related to that of the verb:
Li vivas agrablan vivon, he lives an agreeable life.
i dancis belan dancon, she danced a beautiful dance.
Ili ploris maldolajn larmojn, they wept bitter tears.
b. Verbs of motion (iri, veni, pasi, mari, veturi, etc.) compounded with
prepositions or adverbs (121) indicating direction, also compounds of

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such verbs as esti and stari with prepositions expressing situation, may
be followed by the accusative, instead of by a prepositional phrase in
which the preposition is repeated:
La viro preterpasis la domon, the man passed (by) the house.
Lin antavenis du sklavoj, there preceded (came before) him two
slaves.
Ni supreniru la tuparon, let us go up the stairs.
Mi eestis la feston, I attended (was present at) the entertainment.
Mi kontrastaras vian opinion, I oppose (withstand) your opinion.
c. The slight change in meaning given by pri used as a prefix may
render intransitive verbs transitive. The same is true of el prefixed to intransitive verbs not expressing motion:
i priploris la mortintan birdon, she mourned the dead bird.
Mi pripensos la aferon, I shall consider (think over) the matter.
Ni in priparolos, we shall talk it over.
Li klare elparolas la vortojn, he pronounces the words clearly.
In this use pri resembles the English and German inseparable prefix
be-, as in English bemoan, bewail, bethink, bespeak, German beklagen,
besprechen, sich , etc.
265. The accusative may be used after verbs of such meaning that
either a prepositional phrase or an accusative would seem correct:
Mi pardonas lin (al li), I pardon (grant pardon to) him.
Mi helpis lin (al li), I helped (gave aid to) him.
i plaas min (al mi), it pleases (is pleasing to) me.
Li obeis nin (al ni), he obeyed (was obedient to) us.
i ridis mian timon (je mia timo), she ridiculed (laughed at) my fear.
When ambiguity would be caused, as by the presence of another accusative, this construction may not be employed. One may say pardonu
nin, but must say pardonu al ni niajn pekojn.
266. The accusative may be used after certain adverbs which are normally followed by a prepositional phrase:

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Rilate tion (rilate al tio), in regard to that.

Escepte tion (escepte de tio), with the exception of that.
Koncerne la aferon (koncerne je la afero), concerning the affair.
Kompare la alian (kompare kun la alia), in comparison with the other.
Konforme la leon (konforme al la leo), in conformity to the law.
SYNOPSIS OF THE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.
267. vidi, to see.
Present.
(Aoristic) mi vidas
(Progressive) mi estas vidanta
mi estas vidata
Past.
(Aoristic) mi vidis
(Imperfect) mi estis vidanta
mi estis vidata
Future.
(Aoristic) mi vidos
(Progressive) mi estos vidanta
mi estos vidata
Perfect.
mi estas vidinta
mi estas vidita
Pluperfect.
mi estis vidinta
mi estis vidita
Future Perfect.
mi estos vidinta
mi estos vidita
Periphrastic Futures.
(Present).
mi estas vidonta

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mi estas vidota
(Past).
mi estis vidonta
mi estis vidota
(Future).
mi estos vidonta
mi estos vidota
CONDITIONAL.
Present.
(Aoristic) mi vidus
(Progressive) mi estus vidanta
mi estus vidata
Past.
mi estus vidinta
mi estus vidita
Future.
mi estus vidonta
mi estus vidota
IMPERATIVE.
Present.
(Aoristic) mi vidu
(Progressive) mi estu vidanta
mi estu vidata
Past.
mi estu vidinta
mi estu vidita
Future.
mi estu vidonta
mi estu vidota

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INFINITIVE.
Present.
(Aoristic) vidi
(Progressive) esti vidanta
esti vidata
Perfect.
esti vidinta
esti vidita
Future.
esti vidonta
esti vidota
THE SUFFIX -UM-.
268. The indefinite suffix -um- serves the same general purpose in
word formation which je serves as an indefinite preposition (260):
aerumi, to air.
buumo, muzzle.
gustumi, to taste.
kolumo, collar.
plenumi, to fulfil.
proksimume, approximately.
Vocabulary.
eben-a, level, even.
escept-o, exception.
esper-i, to hope.
fremd-a, foreign.
histori-o, history.
kompar-i, to compare.
koncern-i, to concern.
konform-i, to conform.
nepr-e, inevitably, certainly.

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obe-i, to obey.
obstin-a, obstinate.
promes-i, to promise.
rilat-o, relation.
sat-a, satiated.
sav-i, to save.
verk-i, to compose (books or music).
LA REIRADO DE LA DEKMILO.
La grekaj militistoj sentis grandan teruron kiam Ciruso ne plu vivis. La
celo de la longa marado ne povis esti plenumata, pro la morto de la obstina trokuraa militestro mem. Kvankam la grekoj estis venkintoj, ili estis tute solaj en fremda lando, irkaitaj de barbaroj kiuj, per trompemaj
proponoj kaj falsaj promesoj pri amikaj interrilatoj, tuj okazigis la morton
de la grekaj estroj. Senigite je siaj estroj, la kompatindaj viroj tute malesperis. Sed kelkaj subestroj, rapide kunveniginte la soldatojn, diris, "Ni
mem kondukos vin per kiel eble plej rekta vojo hejmen! Ni faros nian
eblon (utmost) por ke ni iuj estu savitaj!" ar restis nenio alia por fari, la
malfacila malgaja reirado de la grekoj komenciis sen prokrasto. Ili
transiris varmegajn ebenaojn (plains), supreniris kaj malsupreniris
krutajn nekovritajn montojn, meze de la vintro, kaj sen pontoj transiris
larajn riverojn. ie la malfidindaj barbaroj atakis ilin, kvaza por ke
neniu greko restu viva. Krom tio, la grekoj mortis dekope kaj dudekope
iutage, pro varmegeco, malvarmegeco, laceco kaj malsateco (hunger).
Fine, post nekredeblaj suferoj, la restao de la dekmil soldatoj alvenis sur
monton, kaj ekvidis la maron. Lata ekkriego "La maro! La maro!" eksonis inter la lacaj viroj, el kiuj multaj ploris larmojn de ojo. De infaneco
ili alkutimis al la vojaado per akvo, kaj post iom da ripozo ili sin provizis je ipoj, por transiri la maron al la patrujo je kiu ili estis tiel longe
sopirintaj. Treege interesa historio koncerne la tutan aferon estas verkita
de fama greka verkisto (writer), kiu estis akompaninta Ciruson por ke li
povu ui kaj studi ion interesan sur la vojo. Tiu azia militado de Ciruso
nepre estas unu el la plej rimarkindaj okazintaoj iam priskribitaj, e sen
escepto de la posta irado tien de Aleksandro Granda.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. After the death of Cyrus, the leaders of the Greek warriors did not
know what to do. 2. In the course of the following day, one of the leaders

236

of the enemy sent a messenger (205) with deceitful promises about help.
2. He said "Assemble in our leader's tent, in order that you may all discuss the matter." 3. The Greek leaders went, although they suspected
danger, because they did not know how else to save their men. 4. But
they never returned, and soon the Greeks understood that the barbarians
had killed them. 5. They wept tears of despair, and said "The barbarians
will inevitably destroy us, for we are in a foreign land, where we know
neither the languages nor the roads, and the peoples are without exception hostile to us." 6. But the leaders-of-lesser-rank said "Obey us and follow us, and we shall do our best to save you!" 7. Their return, across hot
plains and snow-covered mountains, made-more-difficult by hunger and
by the unceasing attacks of the barbarians, is related in the history written by a famous Greek historian. 8. One can still read this interesting narrative, in Greek or in a translation.

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Lesson 58
PERMISSION AND POSSIBILITY.
269. Permission is usually expressed by the use of permesi, lasi, or the
imperative mood:
u vi permesas ke mi restu? May I (do you permit me to) stay?
Jes, mi permesas (jes, restu), yes, you may (yes, stay).
Ne estas permesate eniri tien, it is not allowed to enter there.
Lasu lin veni, let him come.
270. The idea of possibility or probability is given by the use of some
such adverb as eble, kredeble, verajne, etc.:
Eble li obeos al vi, he may (perhaps he will) obey you.
Kredeble li sukcesos, probably he will succeed.
Verajne vi estas prava, you are probably right.
Eble oni lin savus, they might (possibly they would) save him.
Ili nepre ne batis lin, they could not have (surely did not) beat him.
Tio estas neebla! That can not be (that is impossible)!
THE PREFIX GE-.
271. Words formed with the prefix ge- indicate the two sexes together:
gepatroj, parents.
geavoj, grandparents.
genepoj, grandchildren.
gefiloj, son(s) and daughter(s).
gefratoj, brother(s) and sister(s).
geedzoj, husband(s) and wife (wives).
gesinjoroj, Mr. and Mrs., lady (ladies) and gentleman (gentlemen).
THE SUFFIX -A-.
272. The suffix -a- has a disparaging significance:
domao, a hovel.
hundao, a cur.
obstinaa, obstinate.
pentrai, to daub.

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popolao, rabble, mob.

ridai, to guffaw.
INTERJECTIONS.
273. Interjections are words used to express feeling or call attention.
Among the more common interjections are:
Adia! Farewell! (171).
Fi! Fie!
Ho! Oh! Ho!
Hura! Hurrah!
Nu! Well!
Ve! Woe! (Ho ve! Alas!).
Verbs in the imperative, and adverbs, are frequently used as interjections, as Atentu! Look out! Askultu! Hark! Bonvenu! Welcome!
Antaen! Forward! Bone! Good! For! Away! Ja! Indeed! Jen! There!
Behold!
The interjection fi is sometimes used as a disparaging prefix, like -a(272), as fibirdo, ugly bird, fievalo, a sorry nag.
Vocabulary.
Aleksandri-o, Alexandria.
Amerik-o, America.
Aristotel-o, Aristotle.
Astrali-o, Australia.
bibliotek-o, library.
eduk-i, to bring up, educate.
Egipt-o, Egypt.
estim-i, to esteem.
firm-a, firm.
fond-i, to found, establish.
hispan-o, Spaniard.
kapabl-a, capable.
komun-a, common, mutual.
kontinent-o, continent.
Krist-o, Christ.
milion-o, million.

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spite, in spite of.

vast-a, vast, extensive.
ALEKSANDRO GRANDA.
Permesu ke mi diru kelkajn vortojn pri la vivo de Aleksandro Granda,
kiu ne estis matura viro sed havis nur dudek jarojn kiam li fariis reo.
Liaj gepatroj estis tre zorge edukintaj lin, kaj la filozofo Aristotelo, kiun li
tre alte estimis, estis unu el liaj instruistoj. Aleksandro firme tenadis sian
propran reolandon, kaj anka Grekujon, kiun lia patro estis venkinta;
krom tio, li faris militadojn kontra diversaj fremdaj landoj, unue en
Azio, tiam en Afriko, kie li fondis urbon, kaj in nomis Aleksandrio.
Aleksandrio nepre estis belega ria urbo. Tie troviis poste la fama
Aleksandria biblioteko. Se i ne estus detruita de fajro, en la daro de iuj
militadoj, ni sendube konus multe pli bone la sciadon de la antikvaj
grekoj, kiuj verajne estis la plej klera popolo iam vivinta en Eropo.
Venkinte Egipton, Aleksandro reiris en Azion, is tre orienta kaj suda
partoj, venkante iujn ie, kvaza ili estus la plej malkuraaj popolaoj
en la mondo. Sed spite ies petoj li estis obstinae nezorgema pri sia
sano, kaj subite, ho ve, li mortis pro febro, tricent dektri jarojn anta
Kristo. Se li ne estus tiel frue mortinta, kiel multe li estus eble elfarinta! Li
esperis venki Hispanujon, Italujon, kaj, mallongavorte, tiom de la okcidenta mondo kiom li jam posedis de la orienta. Tiam li celis kunigi ion
en unu vastan imperion, kvaza por fari el la mondo unu grandan familion. Li intencis ke la milionoj da enloantoj akceptu komunajn leojn
kaj kutimojn, e komunan lingvon, kredeble la grekan. Eble li ja havis
la kapablecon por fari ion i. Estas pro tio ke oni ofte adas la diron
"Aleksandro sopiris je aliaj mondoj por venki." Tamen, kiel malgranda
estis tiu mondo kiun li konis! La tiamuloj konis nur malgrandan parton
de Afriko, de Azio, e de Eropo. Ili sciis nenion pri Anglujo, a pri la
vastaj kontinentoj Astralio, norda kaj suda Amerikoj.
The use of trovii, and also of sin trovi, kui, stari and sidi, in a sense
not greatly differing from that of esti, avoids the monotonous repetition
of forms of esti, just as English uses lie, sit, perch, etc., in narration for
similar reasons:
Multaj vilaoj trovias tie, many villages are (situated) there.
Egipto trovias en la nordorienta parto de Afriko, Egypt is (found) in
the northeastern part of Africa.

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Li sin trovis sola en la dezerto, he found himself (he was) alone in the
desert.
La urbo kuis inter du lagoj, the city lay between two lakes.
Sur la montflanko sidis vilaeto, on the mountainside perched a tiny
village.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Alexander the Great wished to unite the whole world into one vast
empire. 2. He intended that all the different peoples should conform to
common laws and that their sons-and-daughters should speak one common language, and in spite of their love for their national languages,
should leave-off speaking them. 3. Possibly he might have accomplished
his object to some extent (217), if he had not died suddenly when he was
only thirty-two years old. 4. His soldiers marched weeping past his tent,
to bid farewell to their dying leader. 5. They must have esteemed him
very highly! 6. It was Alexander who founded the city of Alexandria, in
Egypt, where approximately three hundred years before Christ the famous Alexandrian library was located. 7. It contained an enormous
collection-of-books almost seven hundred thousand. 8. Alas, this extensive library was destroyed by fire! 9. Alexander, who "sighed for other worlds to conquer," did not even know of the existence of North and
South America, Australia, or even of England and Northern Europe. 10.
Beside his Asiatic empire, he knew very little of Asia, even of China,
with its millions of inhabitants. 11. How small the world was in those
days!

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Lesson 59
THE POSITION OF UNEMPHATIC PRONOUNS.
274. An unemphatic personal, indefinite or demonstrative pronoun
very frequently precedes the verb of which it is the object. This is especially true if the verb in question is an infinitive:
Mi volas lin vidi, I wish to see him.
Li povos tion fari, he will be able to do that.
Vi devus ion mani, you ought to eat something.
u vi in kredis? Did you believe it?
Se li min vidus, li min savus, if he should see me, he would save me.
Cf. in other languages, as in German ich mchte ihn sehen, French je
veux le voir, Latin se alunt, me defendi, etc. That such pronouns are unemphatic can be seen from English let her come (= let'er come), make
him stop (= make'im stop), etc., in which the unemphatic forms er, im,
replace him, her, in pronunciation (cf. the Greek enclitic pronouns ,
, , , , , , , , the Sanskrit enclitic forms m, me, tv,
te, nas, vas, enam, enat, enm, also sm, and the Avestan , m). The same
phenomenon is indicated in prithee (= pray thee), and in the spellings
gimme (= give me), lemme (= let me), in dialect stories.
SOME INTRANSITIVE VERBS.
275. Some intransitive verbs have English meanings which do not differ in form from the transitive English verbs to which they are related. In
Esperanto the suffix -ig- (214) must be used when the transitive meaning
is desired. Some examples are given in the following table:
Boli
La akvo bolas
The water boils
Li boligas la akvon
He boils the water
Bruli
La fajro brulas
The fire burns

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Li bruligis la paperon
He burned the paper
esi
La bruo esas
The noise stops
Li esigas la bruon
He stops the noise
Dari
La bruo daras
The noise continues
Li darigas la bruon
He continues the noise
Degeli
La glacio degelas
The ice thaws
Li in degeligas per fajro
He thaws it with fire
Droni
La knabino dronis
The girl drowned
La viro in dronigis
The man drowned her
Eksplodi
Pulvo eksplodas
Gunpowder explodes
Li in eksplodigos
He will explode it
Halti
Li haltis timigite
He halted in alarm
Li haltigis la soldatojn
He halted the soldiers
Lumi

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La suno lumas
The sun shines
Li lumigis la lampon
He lighted the lamp
Pasi La tempo pasas
Time passes Tiel li pasigis la tagon
Thus he passed the day
Pendi
i pendas de brano
It hangs on a branch
Li in pendigis de brano
He hung it on a branch
Soni
La saluta pafo sonis
The salute sounded
Oni sonigis la salutan pafon
They sounded the salute
Sonori
La sonorilo sonoris
The bell rang
Oni sonorigis la sonorilon
They rang the bell
A transitive use of such intransitive verbs would be like using the English intransitive verb "learn" for the transitive verb "teach," as in the "I'll
learn you" (for "I'll teach you") of illiterate speech.
THE SUFFIX -ER-.
276. The suffix -er- is used to form words expressing units or component parts of that which is indicated in the root:
fajrero, spark (of fire).
monero, coin. neero, snowflake.
sablero, grain of sand.
THE PREFIXES BO- AND DUON-.

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277. The prefix bo- indicates relationship by marriage. To indicate halfblood relationship, or step-relationship, duon- (166) is used:
bopatro, father-in-law.
bofratino, sister-in-law.
duonpatro, stepfather.
duonfrato, half-brother.
CORRESPONDENCE.
278. a. Letters should be dated as indicated in the following:
Bostono, je la 24a de decembro, 1912a.
Nov-Jorko, la 24an decembro, 1912a.
Sirakuzo, 24/XII/1912.
b. The usual methods of address are (to strangers and in business letters): Sinjoro, Sinjorino, Estimata Sinjoro, Karaj Sinjoroj, Tre estimata
Fralino, etc.; (to friends and relatives) Kara Fralino, Karaj Gefratoj,
Kara Amiko, Kara Mario, Patrino mia, (placing the possessive adjective
after the noun in this way gives an affectionate sense, as in English
"Mother mine," etc) etc.; (to persons whose opinions on some subject are
known to agree with those of the writer) Estimata (Kara) Samideano
(follower of the same idea).
c. Among the more usual forms of conclusion are (to strangers and in
business letters): Tre fidele la via, Tre vere, Kun granda estimo, Kun plej
alta estimo, etc., (to friends): Kun amika saluto, Kun iuj bondeziroj, Kun
samideanaj salutoj, Frate la via, etc.
Vocabulary.
adres-o, address.
apart-a, separate.
bedaur-i, to regret.
ef-a, chief.
do, so, then.
fontan-o, fountain.
hotel-o, hotel.
ink-o, ink.

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konven-a, suitable.
kovert-o, envelope (for letters).
krajon-o, pencil.
mend-i, to order (of stores, etc).
Nov-Jorko, New York.
numer-o, number (numeral).
ofic-o, office, employment.
pot-o, post (letters, etc.).
respekt-o, respect.
special-a, special.
stat-o, state (political body)
tram-o, tram.
ef- is often used in descriptive compounds (167, b), as efkuiristo,
chief (head) cook, chef, efurbo, chief city, capital, efanelo, archangel.
KELKAJ LETEROJ.
Sirakuzo, la 2an de marto, 1911.
Kara Amiko,
Sendube vin surprizos ricevi leteron skribitan de mi e hotelo en i tiu
urbo, ne tre malproksime de via propra oficejo! Via bofrato, kiun mi
okaze renkontis hiera en la potoficejo, donis al mi vian adreson. is
nun, mi estas tiel okupata ke mi ne havis la tempon e por telefoni al vi.
Sed nun mi havas du a tri minutojn da libera tempo, kaj mi tuj ekkaptas
la okazon por skribi letereton, petante ke vi vespermanu kun mi hodia
vespere, e la hotelo kie, kiel vi vidas, mi loas de anta unu tago.
(Pardonu, mi petas, ke mi finas i tiun leteron per krajono, sed mi us eltrovis ke restas neniom plu da inko en mia fontanplumo.) Venu je la
sesa, se tiu horo estas konvena. Bedarinde (unfortunately), mi devos
forresti de la hotelo la tutan posttagmezon, pri komercaj aferoj, alie mi
vin renkontus e la tramvojo, kie haltas la tramveturiloj (streetcars). Estos plej bone, mi opinias, ke vi iru rekte al mia ambro, numero 26, kie
mi senprokraste vin renkontos, se mi ne estos efektive jam vin atendanta.
Ni esperu ke la efkuiristo preparos al ni bonan manon! Mi esperas ke
vi malatentos la falantajn neerojn, kaj nepre venos, responde al mia
iomete subita invito, ar ni ja havos multe da komunaj travivaoj por priparoli. Do is la baldaa revido je la vespermano!

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Kun plej amikaj salutoj,

Roberto.
The word tial may be omitted from the combination tial ke (83), if the
meaning is obvious.
Boston, 13/VII/1911.
Wilson kaj Jones,
Nov-Jorko.
Estimataj Sinjoroj:
Bonvolu sendi al mi per revenanta poto vian plej novan prezaron
(price-list). Ni balda bezonos iujn novajn meblojn por niaj oficejoj, precipe skribtablojn, tablojn konvenajn por skribmainoj (typewriters), kaj
specialajn librujojn, farotajn la niaj bezonoj. Se viaj prezoj estas konvenaj, ni sendube volos mendi de vi tian meblaron.
Kun respekto,
J. F. Smith,
e Brown kaj Brown.
Nov-Jorko, 17/VII/1911.
Sinjoro J. F. Smith,
e Brown kaj Brown,
Nov-Jorko.
Estimata Sinjoro:
Ni havas la honoron sendi al vi en aparta koverto nian plej novan
prezaron, al kiu ni petas ke vi donu vian atenton, precipe al paoj 15-29.
Tie vi trovos priskribitaj niajn plej bonajn oficejajn meblarojn. Ni senpage
metos iujn aetitajn meblojn sur la vagonaron, sed kompreneble ni ne
pagos la koston de la sendado.
Ni plezure fabrikos specialajn librujojn la viaj bezonoj, kaj volonte
ricevos viajn ordonojn pri tio. Niaj prezoj estos kiel eble plej malaltaj.
Esperante ke la meblaroj priskribitaj en nia prezaro, kune kun la tiepresitaj prezoj, estos plene kontentigaj, kaj certigante al vi ke ni zorge
plenumos iun mendon, ni restas,
Tre respekte la viaj,
Wilson kaj Jones.
Bostono, la 27an Majo.

247

Sinjoro B. F. Brown,
Sirakuzo, Nov-Jorka tato.
Kara Sinjoro:
Vian adreson ni dankas al niaj komunaj amikoj Sinjoroj Miller kaj
White, kaj per i tio ni permesas al ni proponi al vi niajn servojn por la
vendado de tiaj infanludiloj, kiajn vi fabrikas. Ni havas bonegajn montrajn fenestrojn (show-windows), en nia butiko, preska meze de la efstrato en la urbo, kaj en nia butiko trovias sufie da grandaj vitramebloj
(show-cases). Tial ni povus tre oportune administri tian aferon. Ni multe
ojos se vi respondos kiel eble plej balda, sciigante al ni kiom da procento vi donos, kaj kiajn aranojn vi volus fari. Ni certigas al vi ke en iu
okazo ni penos fari nian eblon por via plej bona intereso.
Kun alta estimo,
D. Rose.

248

Lesson 60
SOME TRANSITIVE VERBS.
279. Some transitive verbs have English meanings which do not differ
in form from the intransitive English verbs to which they are related
(conversely to the use explained in 275). In Esperanto the suffix -i- (232),
or a different root, must be used when an intransitive meaning is desired. Following are the more common verbs of this character, together
with examples of the intransitive use of several of them:
balanci, to balance.
etendi, to extend, to expand.
fermi, to close, to shut.
fini, to end, to finish.
fleksi, to bend, to flex.
hejti, to heat.
klini, to incline, to bend.
kolekti, to gather, to collect.
komenci, to begin, to commence.
mezuri, to measure.
montri, to show.
movi, to move.
pati, to pasture, to feed.
renversi, to upset, to overturn.
rompi, to break.
ruli, to roll, (a wheel, ball, etc.).
skui, to shake.
strei, to stretch.
svingi, to swing.
anceli, to cause to vacillate.
ani, to change.
iri, to tear.
turni, to turn.
veki, to wake.
veri, to pour.
volvi, to roll (around something).
La laboro nun finias, the work is now coming to an end.
La glavo fleksiis, the sword bent.

249

La folioj disvolvias, the leaves unroll (develop).

iu kutimo anios, every custom will change.
La vintro jam komencias, the winter is already beginning.
Mi vekios je la sesa, I shall awake at six (o'clock).
La montrilo anceliis, the indicator trembled (vacillated).
Vasta ebenao etendiis anta li, a vast plain extended before him.
ELISION.
280. Elision is not common, and its use in writing as well as in speaking is best avoided. It occurs most frequently in poetry.
a. The -a of the article may be elided before a word beginning with a
vowel, or after a preposition ending in a vowel:
"L' espero, l' obstino kaj la pacienco."
"De l' montoj riveretoj fluas."
"Kaj kantas tra l' pura aero."
b. The final -o of a noun may be elided in poetry. The original accent of
the noun remains unchanged:
"Ho, mia kor', ne batu maltrankvile."
"Sur la kampo la rozet'."
c. The final -e of an adverb is very rarely elided (except in the expression dank' al, which occurs in prose as well as in poetry):
"Ke povu mi foj' je eterno ekdormi!"
Dank' al vi, mi sukcesis, thanks to you, I succeeded.
THE PREFIX EKS-.
281. The prefix eks- is used to form words expressing a previous incumbent of a position, or removal from such position:
eksprezidanto, ex-president.
eksreo, ex-king.
eksigi, to put out of office, to discharge.
eksii, to withdraw from one's office, to resign.

250

THE PREFIX PRA-.

282. The prefix pra- is used to form words expressing precedence in
the line of descent, or general remoteness in past time:
praavo, great grandfather.
pranepo, great grandson.
prapatroj, forefathers, ancestors.
pratempa, primeval.
THE SUFFIXES -J- AND -NJ-.
283. The suffix -j- is used to form affectionate diminutives, from the
first syllable or syllables of masculine names or terms of address. The
suffix -nj- forms similar feminine diminutives:
Jojo, Johnnie, Joe.
Pajo, Papa.
Manjo, May, Mamie.
Panjo, Mamma.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
284. National systems of weights and measures translated into international form (as mejlo, mile, funto, pound) cannot convey a very definite
meaning to one not familiar with the particular system used. Consequently the metric system (already used by scientists everywhere and
by the general public in many countries) is adopted for the international
system of weights and measures:
Length and Surface.
milimetro, millimeter (.0394 inch).
centimetro, centimeter (.3937 inch).
decimetro, decimeter (3.937 inches).
metro, meter (39.37 inches).
dekametro, dekameter (393.7 inches).
hektometro, hektometer (328 feet 1 inch).
kilometro, kilometer (3280 feet 10 inches; .62137 mile).
kvadrata metro, square meter (1550 square inches).
hektaro, hektare (2.471 acres).

251

Weight.
gramo, gram (15.432 grains avoirdupois).
dekagramo, dekagram (.3527 ounce avoirdupois).
hektogramo, hektogram (3.5274 ounce avoirdupois).
kilogramo, kilogram (2.2046 pounds avoirdupois).
Capacity.
decilitro, deciliter (6.1022 cubic inches; .845 gill).
litro, liter (.908 quart, dry measure; 1.0567 quart, liquid).
dekalitro, dekaliter (9.08 quart, dry measure; 2.6417 gallons).
hektolitro, hektoliter (2 bushels 3.35 pecks; 26.417 gallons).
kilolitro, kiloliter (1.308 cubic yards; 264.17 gallons).
THE INTERNATIONAL MONEY SYSTEM.
285. Names of national coins translated into international form (as
dolaro, dollar, cendo, cent) cannot convey a very definite meaning to
persons not familiar with these coins. Consequently the system devised
for international use (not for actual coins, but for calculation and price
quotations) is based upon a unit called the speso. The multiples of this
unit are the spesdeko (10 spesoj), spescento (100 spesoj), and spesmilo
(1000 spesoj). Ten spesmiloj have approximately the value of a five-dollar gold piece, twenty marks, twenty-five francs, one pound sterling, etc.
The spesmilo, equivalent to about $0.4875 in the money of the United
States and Canada, is the unit commonly used. (To reduce dollars to spesmiloj, multiply by 2.051.)
ABBREVIATIONS.
286. The following abbreviations are often used (for those of the metric
system see any English dictionary):
Dro., Doktoro, Dr.
Fino., Fralino, Miss.
Pro., Profesoro, Prof.
Sro., Sinjoro, Mr.
Sino., Sinjorino, Mrs.
Ko., K-io., Kompanio, Co.
No., N-ro., Numero, No.
&, kaj, &.

252

Sm., spesmilo(j).
Sd., spesdeko(j).
k. t. p., kaj tiel plu, and so forth.
k. c., kaj ceteraj, etc.
k. sim., kaj simila(j), et. sim.
t. e., tio estas, i.e.
e., ekzemple, e.g.
p.s., postskribao, P.S.
Vocabulary.
abon-i, to subscribe to, take.
aparat-o, apparatus.
atomat-a, automatic.
bov-o, ox.
dimensi-o, dimension.
ekzempl-o, example.
fokus-o, focus.
fotograf-i, to photograph.
funkci-i, to function, work.
kamer-o, camera.
led-o, leather.
metal-o, metal.
moment-o, moment.
negativ-o, negative.
objektiv-o, lens, objective.
original-o, original.
plat-o, plate (photographic, etc)
prov-i, to try.
reklam-i, to advertise.
stre-i, to stretch (trans.).
Cf. the difference between provi, to try in the sense of testing, making
an essay or endeavor, peni, to try in the sense of taking pains or making
an effort, and jui, to try in a judicial sense.
PRI LA KAMERO.
Bostono, 12/XI/1910.
Brown kaj Ko.,

253

Nov-Jorko.
Sinjoroj:
Vidinte vian reklamon en gazeto al kiu mi abonas, mi skribas por peti
ke vi sendu al mi priskribaon de via kamero nomita "La Infaneto," kiun
eble mi deziros provi.
Bonvolu anka sendi dekduonon da platoj, 6 x 9 centimetrojn, por kiu
mi i kune sendas spesmilon kaj duonon.
Kun respekto,
J. C. Smith.
The particle i (used with tiu, tio, ties, iu, io) may also be used with
certain adverbs, as i sube, here below, i supre, here above, i kune,
herewith, etc.
Nov-Jorko, 18an novembro, 1910.
Kara Sinjoro:
Respondante al via estimata letero de la 12a, ni donas i sube mallongan priskribaon de nia bonega fotografilo nomita "La Infaneto."
"La Infaneto" kamero havis neesperitan sukceson, kaj estas vendita po
miloj da ekzempleroj. ie oni unuvoe ladas ian malgrandan kaj
tamen bonegan konstruon, kaj anka ian firman samtempe facilan
funkciadon. i ne estas pli granda ol monujo, tial i ne bezonas pli multe
da spaco ol tiu, kaj povas esti portata kaj uzata treege konvene.
La dimensioj de la fermita kamero estas 8 x 5 x 6.5 centimetroj. La
pezo, kun objektivo, tri platingoj, kaj malbrila (ground) vitro, estas 365
gramoj. "La Infaneto" estas konstruita tute el metalo, kaj kovrita de
bonega bovledo. Kiam oni malfermas la aparaton, la objektivo samtempe
enfokusias, tiamaniere ke la kamero estas preta por uzado post unu
sekundo, ar la objektivfermilo (shutter) estas iam streita. Sekve: neniaj
preparadoj, nenia prokrasto je la ekfotografado.
La negativoj estas klaraj is la bordo, kaj tial konvenaj por pligrandigo.
Cetere, oni scias ke bona pligrandigo ofte pli kontentigas ol malgranda
originalo. Precipe e promenoj kaj vojaoj oni tial volonte preferas la
malgrandan "Infaneton," por poste pligrandigi la negativojn.
Por la pligrandigo ni fabrikas specialajn taglum-pligrandigajn aparatojn, kies prezoj estas malaltaj (vidu en nia prezaro).
Ni ne anis la konstruon de "La Infaneto" de post 1909, ar is nun i
estas iurilate kontentiga. Sole la rapideca reguligo de la momenta
(instantaneous) fermilo estas plibonigita, ar ni in fabrikas kun speciala

254

atomata fermilo, kiu estas aranita por malfermoj daraj (time exposures), kaj momentaj, je unu sekundo is unu centono da sekundo.
Esperante ke ni balda ricevos mendon de vi, kaj certigante al vi ke ni
tre zorge plenumos iun ajn mendon, ni restas.
Tre respekte la viaj,
Brown & Ko.
Per C.

255

Esperanto-English Vocabulary
A-E
The following vocabulary includes all roots used in the preceding
Lessons, all primary words of the language, and a large number of additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt has been
made, however, to include all of the roots in the language, for which an
Esperanto-English Dictionary should be consulted.
References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. For other parts
of speech than those indicated under each root or primary word, see
Word Formation, 116, 120, 159, 171. See also the references given under
each prefix and suffix. For formation of compound words, see 160, 167,
176, 184. The following abbreviations are used: adj. = adjective; adv. =
adverb; conj. = conjunction; intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition;
trans. = transitive; = repetition of the word.
A.
abel-o, bee.
abi-o, fir.
abiturient-o, bachelor of arts (A.B.).
abomen-a, abominable.
abon-i, to subscribe to, take (magazine, etc.).
abrikot-o, apricot.
acer-o, maple (tree).
acid-a, acid, sour.
-a-, derogatory suffix (272).
aet-i, to buy.
-ad-, suffix indicating duration (218).
adia, (adv. and interjection), farewell, good-bye (171, 273).
adjektiv-o, adjective.
administr-i, to administer, to manage.
admir-i, to admire.
admon-i, to exhort, admonish.
ador-i, to worship, adore.
adres-o, address (on letters, etc.).
adverb-o, adverb.
advokat-o, lawyer, barrister.
aer-o, air.

256

afabl-a, affable, amiable.

afer-o, affair, matter, thing, cause.
afi-o, handbill, placard, poster.
afrank-i, to frank (letters), prepay; ite, post-paid.
Afrik-o, Africa.
ag-i, to act, perform action.
agac-i, to set on edge (of teeth).
agent-o, agent.
agit-i, to agitate.
agl-o, eagle.
agoni-o, agony.
agrabl-a, agreeable, pleasant.
a-o, age.
ajn (adv.), ever (236).
-a-, suffix forming concrete words (227).
akademi-o, academy.
akcel-i (trans.), to accelerate, hasten.
akcent-o, accent, stress.
akcept-i, to accept, receive, welcome.
akcident-o, accident.
akir-i, to acquire.
akompan-i, to accompany.
akr-a, sharp, acute, shrill.
akrid-o, grasshopper.
aks-o, axis, axle.
akt-o, act (of a play).
aktiv-a, active (grammatical).
aktor-o, actor (player).
akurat-a, accurate, exact.
akuz-i, to accuse.
akuzativ-o, accusative.
akv-o, water.
akvarel-o, water-color painting.
akvari-o, aquarium.
al (prep.), to, toward (46, 160, 251, 252).
alad-o, lark (bird).
ale-o, avenue, walk, path (of garden, park, etc.).
Aleksandri-o, Alexandria.
Aleksandr-o, Alexander.
alfabet-o, alphabet.

257

Alfred-o, Alfred.
algebr-o, algebra.
ali-a, other.
alk-o, elk.
alkohol-o, alcohol.
alkov-o, alcove, recess.
almanak-o, almanac.
almena, (adv.), at least (66).
almoz-o, alms; ulo, beggar.
alt-a, high, tall.
altar-o, altar.
alud-i, to allude to.
alumet-o, match (for fire).
am-i, to love.
amas-o, crowd, throng, mass.
amba (pronoun), both (of two objects naturally in pairs, or of persons
or things assumed or already known to be thus grouped) (238).
ambos-o, anvil.
amel-o, starch.
Amerik-o, America.
amfibi-a, amphibious.
amfiteatr-o, amphitheatre.
amik-o, friend.
amindum-i, to woo, make love.
ampleks-o, extent, dimension.
amuz-i, to amuse.
-an-, suffix denoting membership, etc. (145).
analiz-i, to analyse.
ananas-o, pineapple.
anas-o, duck.
anekdot-o, anecdote.
Angl-o, Englishman.
angul-o, angle, corner.
anel-o, angel.
anim-o, soul.
anka (adv.), also.
ankora (adv), still, yet.
ankr-o, anchor.
anonc-i, to announce.
ans-o, latch, door-handle.

258

anser-o, goose.
anstata (prep.), instead of (98, 159).
anta (prep.), before (89, 90, 120, 159, 160), anta ol (conj.), 97, 98.
antikv-a, ancient, antique.
antilop-o, antelope.
antipati-o, antipathy.
aparat-o, apparatus.
apart-a, separate.
apartament-o, apartment, suite (of rooms).
aparten-i, to belong.
apati-o, apathy.
apena (adv.), scarcely, hardly.
aper-i, to appear.
apetit-o, appetite.
aplad-i, to applaud.
aplomb-o, assurance, self-command.
apog-i, to lean, to rest (upon).
apologi-o, apology, vindication.
apotek-o, pharmacy, drugstore, chemist's shop.
april-o, April.
aprob-i, to approve.
apud (prep.), near to, close by (120, 159).
-ar-, suffix forming collectives (126).
Arab-o, Arab.
arane-o, spider.
aran-i, to arrange.
arb-o, tree.
arbitraci-i, to arbitrate.
ardez-o, slate (stone).
aren-o, arena.
arest-i, to arrest.
argil-o, clay.
argument-i, to argue.
arent-o, silver (metal).
aritektur-o, architecture.
Arimed-o, Archimedes.
ari-o, tune, air (music).
Aristejd-o, Aristeides.
aristokrat-o, aristocrat.
Aristotel-o, Aristotle.

259

aritmetik-o, arithmetic.
ark-o, arc.
arkad-o, arcade.
arm-i, to arm.
arme-o, army.
armoraci-o, horse-radish.
arogant-a, arrogant.
arom-o, aroma, fragrance.
art-o, art.
artik-o, joint.
artikol-o, article (grammatical or literary).
Artur-o, Arthur.
asekur-i, to insure (with a company).
asoci-o, association (organization).
asparag-o, asparagus.
aspekt-o, aspect, appearance.
astr-o, heavenly body, star.
atak-i, to attack.
atend-i, to wait, wait for, expect.
atent-a, attentive.
atest-i, to attest, give witness, certify.
ating-i, to attain, reach.
atlas-o, satin.
atlet-o, athlete.
atmosfer-o, atmosphere.
atribut-o, attribute.
a (conj.), or, either.
ad-i, to hear.
agust-o, August.
askult-i, to listen.
Astrali-o, Australia.
atomat-a, automatic.
ator-o, author.
atun-o, autumn.
av-o, grandfather.
avar-a, avaricious, miserly.
avel-o, hazel-nut.
aven-o, oats.
avert-i, to warn, caution.
avid-a, eager.

260

aviz-i, to give notice.

azen-o, ass, donkey.
Azi-o, Asia.
azot-o, nitrogen.
B.
babil-i, to chatter, babble.
bagatel-o, trifle, bagatelle.
bal-o, ball (dance).
bak-i, to bake.
bala-i, to sweep (a floor, etc.).
balanc-i (trans.), to balance, poise; i la kapon, to nod the head.
balda (adv.), soon.
balen-o, whale.
ban-i (trans.), to bathe.
banan-o, banana.
banda-i, to bandage.
bank-o, bank (financial).
bankrot-i, to become bankrupt, fail.
bant-o, bow (of ribbon).
bar-i (trans.), to bar, to obstruct.
barakt-i, to wrestle, struggle.
barb-o, beard.
barbar-o, barbarian.
barel-o, barrel.
bariton-o, barytone.
bas-o, bass (voice).
baston-o, stick.
bat-i, to beat.
batal-i, to fight, battle.
batat-o, sweet potato.
bedar-i, to regret.
bek-o, beak, bill.
bel-a, beautiful, handsome.
belg-o, Belgian.
ben-i, to bless.
benk-o, bench.
ber-o, berry.
best-o, animal, beast.
bet-o, beet.

261

bezon-i, to need, want.

bibliotek-o, library.
bicikl-o, bicycle.
bien-o, land, property, estate.
bier-o, beer.
bifstek-o, beefsteak.
bild-o, picture, image.
bilet-o, ticket, note; bank, bank-note, bill.
bird-o, bird.
bis (adv.), once more, a second time, encore.
biskvit-o, biscuit.
blank-a, white.
blek-i, to neigh, bleat, give its cry (of any animal).
blind-a, blind.
blov-i, to blow.
blu-a, blue (color).
bluz-o, blouse.
bo-, prefix expressing relationship by marriage (277).
boat-o, boat.
boj-i, to bark (of dogs).
bol-i (intrans.), to boil.
bombon-o, bonbon, sweet.
bon-a, good; veni, to welcome.
bor-i, to bore (holes).
bord-o, shore, bank, edge (of rivers, etc.).
Boston-o, Boston.
bot-o, boot.
botel-o, bottle.
bov-o, ox; ao, beef; idao, veal; viro, bull.
brak-o, arm (of the body).
bran-o, branch, bough.
brand-o, brandy.
brasik-o, cabbage; florbrasiko, cauliflower.
brav-a, brave.
bret-o, shelf, bracket.
brid-o, bridle (of harness).
brik-o, brick, tile.
bril-i, to shine (116).
Brit-o, Briton.
brod-i, to embroider.

262

bronz-o, bronze.
bros-i, to brush.
brour-o, pamphlet, brochure.
brov-o, eyebrow.
bru-o, noise.
brul-i (intrans.), to burn (275).
brun-a, brown.
brut-o, cattle, dumb animal.
bub-o, street arab, gamin.
bu-i, to slaughter, butcher.
buf-o, toad.
buk-o, buckle (metal).
buked-o, bouquet.
bukl-o, curl, ringlet (of hair).
bulb-o, onion, bulb.
bulgar-o, Bulgarian.
bulk-o, roll (bread).
bulvard-o, boulevard.
buron-o, bud, young shoot.
bu-o, mouth.
buter-o, butter.
butik-o, shop, store.
buton-o, button.
C.
cel-i, to aim, have as purpose or goal.
celeri-o, celery.
cend-o, cent (coin).
cent, hundred (142).
centigram-o, centigram (284).
centilitr-o, centiliter (284).
centimetr-o, centimeter (284).
centr-o, center.
cerb-o, brain.
cert-a, certain, sure.
cerv-o, stag, deer.
ceter-a, remaining.
ci (pronoun), thou (40).
cidoni-o, quince.
cifer-o, cipher.

263

cigar-o, cigar.
cigared-o, cigarette.
cign-o, swan.
cilindr-o, cylinder.
cinam-o, cinnamon.
cindr-o, ashes.
cir-o, blacking (for shoes).
cirkonstanc-o, circumstance.
cirkuler-o, circular (letter).
Cirus-o, Cyrus.
cit-i, to quote.
citron-o, lemon.
civiliz-i, to civilize.
col-o, inch (measure).
.
agren-i (trans.), to grieve, vex, annoy.
ambr-o, room.
ap-o, cap.
apel-o, hat.
apitr-o, chapter (of book).
ar (conj.), because, since (83).
arm-a, charming, delightful.
arnir-o, hinge.
as-i, to hunt (game or wild animals).
e (prep.), at, in the house or presence of (125, 160).
ef-a, chief, principal, head.
ek-o, cheque.
emiz-o, shirt, chemise.
en-o, chain (for watch, etc.).
eriz-o, cherry.
es-i (intrans.), to cease, leave off (275).
eval-o, horse; viro, stallion.
i (adv.), expresses proximity (60, 66).
ia, of every kind (177).
ial (adv.), for every reason (188).
iam (adv.), always (187).
ie (adv.), everywhere (182).
iel (adv.), in every way (193).
iel-o, heaven, sky.

264

ies (pronoun, possessive), everybody's (174).

ifon-o, rag.
io (pronoun), everything, all (233).
iom (adv.), all (194).
irka (prep.), around, roundabout (89, 120, 159, 160).
iu (pronoun and adj.), every one, each (173).
-j-, suffix forming affectionate diminutives (283).
okolad-o, chocolate.
u (adv.), whether (when translated) (30, 66).
D.
da (prep.), of (after quantitative noun or adv.) (99, 101, 103).
daktil-o, date (fruit).
Damokl-o, Damocles.
dan-o, Dane.
danc-i, to dance.
daner-o, danger.
dank-i, to thank.
dat-o, date (chronological).
dar-i (intrans.), to continue, last.
de (prep.), of, from, by (49, 89, l00, 160, 169, 170).
dec-i, to be proper, decent; ne decas ke vi iru, it is not proper for you to
go.
decembr-o, December.
decid-i, to decide.
decigram-o, decigram (284).
decilitr-o, deciliter (284).
decimetr-o, decimeter (284).
defend-i, to defend.
degel-i (intrans.), to thaw (275).
deor-i, to be on duty (of officer, attendant, etc.).
dek (adj.), ten (136).
dekagram-o, dekagram (284).
dekalitr-o, dekaliter (284).
dekametr-o, dekameter (284).
deklam-i, to declaim, recite.
dekstr-a, right (not left).
deleg-i, to delegate.
delikat-a, delicate, dainty, nice.
demand-i, to ask, inquire.

265

dens-a, dense, thick, close.

dent-o, tooth.
depe-o, a dispatch.
des (adv.), the more (used with pli, 84).
desert-o, dessert.
detal-o, detail.
detru-i, to destroy.
dev-i, to have to, must (247).
dezert-o, desert, waste.
dezir-i, to desire.
Di-o, God.
diamant-o, diamond.
difekt-i, to damage, spoil.
diferenc-a, different.
difin-i, to define, to destine.
dik-a, thick, corpulent.
dikt-i, to dictate (letters, etc.)
diligent-a, diligent.
diman-o, Sunday.
dimensi-o, dimension.
Diogen-o, Diogenes.
diplom-o, diploma.
diplomat-o, diplomat.
dir-i, to say (77).
direkt-i, to direct, guide, manage.
dis-, prefix expressing separation (245).
diskut-i, to discuss.
distanc-o, distance.
disting-i, to distinguish.
distr-i, to distract, take away the attention.
diven-i, to guess.
divers-a, varied, diverse, different.
divid-i (trans.), to divide.
do, consequently, then, so.
doktor-o, doctor.
dolar-o, dollar.
dol-a, sweet, pleasant.
dolor-o, pain, ache.
dom-o, house.
doma-o, pity, regrettable affair.

266

don-i, to give.
donac-i, to make a gift, present.
dorlot-i, to caress, fondle, pet.
dorm-i, to sleep.
dorn-o, thorn.
dors-o, back (of the body).
dot-i, to endow.
drap-o, cloth.
drog-o, drug.
dron-i (intrans.), to drown (275).
du (adj.), two (136)
dub-i, to doubt.
dum (prep and conj.), during, while (96, 120, 159).
dung-i (trans.), to hire (persons).
E.
eben-a, even, flat, level.
-ebl-, suffix expressing possibility (161, 162).
ebri-a, inebriate, intoxicated.
-ec-, suffix forming abstracts (202).
e (adv.), even.
eduk-i, to bring up, educate.
edz-o, husband, married man.
efekt-o, effect.
efektiv-a, real, actual.
efik-i, to be efficacious, act (on), produce a result.
-eg-, suffix forming augmentatives (122).
egal-a, equal.
Egipt-o, Egypt.
e-o, echo.
-ej-, suffix forming words indicating place (III).
ek-, prefix expressing suddenness or beginning (206).
eks-, prefix expressing former incumbency (281).
ekscit-i, to excite.
eksperiment-i, to experiment.
eksplod-i (intrans.), to explode.
ekster (prep.), outside of (120, 121).
ekzamen-i, to examine, test.
ekzempl-o, example.
ekzempler-o, copy (of book or magazine).

267

ekzerc-i (trans.), to exercise.

ekzil-i, to exile, banish
ekzist-i, to exist.
el (prep.), out of, of, out (75, 106, 138, 197, 264, c).
elekt-i, to choose.
elektr-a, electric.
elokvent-a, eloquent.
-em-, suffix expressing propensity or inclination (192).
eminent-a, eminent.
en (prep.), in (89,160), into (46).
energi-o, energy.
entrepren-i, to undertake.
entuziasm-o, enthusiasm.
enu-i, to be wearied, be bored.
envi-i, to envy.
epok-o, epoch, period, time.
-er-, suffix expressing a component part (276).
erar-i, to err, make a mistake.
escept-i, to except (266).
esper-i, to hope.
esplor-i, to investigate, explore.
esprim-i, to express.
est-i, to be (109).
establ-i, to establish.
estim-i, to esteem.
esting-i, to extinguish.
-estr-, suffix expressing leadership or authority (253).
-et-, suffix forming diminutives (198).
eta-o, story (of a house); teretao, ground floor; unua etao, second
story.
etend-i (trans.), to extend, lengthen, widen.
etern-a, eternal.
Erop-o, Europe.
evangeli-o, gospel, evangel.
evit-i, to avoid, shun.
evoluci-o, evolution.

268

F-K
F.
fab-o, bean (leguminous fruit).
fabel-o, story, tale.
fabl-o, fable.
fabrik-i, to manufacture.
facil-a, easy.
faden-o, thread.
fajf-i, to whistle.
fajr-o, fire.
fak-o, department, specialty.
fakt-o, fact.
fal-i, to fall.
fald-i, to fold.
fals-i, to falsify, forge, debase.
fam-o, fame, renown, rumor.
famili-o, family.
familiar-a, familiar, accustomed.
fand-i (trans.), to smelt, fuse (metals, etc.).
fanfaron-i, to boast, vaunt oneself, brag.
fantom-o, phantom, ghost.
far-i, to make, do, render.
faraon-o, pharaoh (Egyptian ruler).
farm-i, to farm (as a tenant).
farmaci-o, pharmacy (knowledge of the use of drugs).
fart-i, to be in (good or bad) health.
farun-o, flour.
fask-o, bundle, bunch.
fason-o, cut, mode, fashion.
fatal-a, fatal, predestined.
fak-o, jaw (literal and figurative).
favor-a, favorable.
fazeol-o, bean (garden bean).
fe-o, fairy, fay; ino, fairy.
febr-o, fever.
februar-o, February.
fel-o, skin, hide (of animals).
feli-a, happy.
femur-o, thigh.

269

fend-i (trans.), to split.

fenestr-o, window.
fer-o, iron; vojo, railway.
ferdek-o, deck (of ship).
ferm-i (trans.), to close, shut.
fervor-o, zeal, fervor.
fest-i, to celebrate.
festen-o, banquet.
fi (interjection), fie! (273).
fiakr-o, cab.
fian-o, betrothed man, fiance.
fid-i, to rely upon, trust.
fidel-a, faithful, loyal.
fier-a, proud, haughty.
fil-o, son.
filozof-o, philosopher.
fin-i (trans.), to finish, end.
fingr-o, finger; dika fingro, thumb; montra fingro, index finger; longa
fingro, middle finger; ringa fingro, ring-finger; malgranda fingro, little
finger.
firm-a, firm, steady.
fi-o, fish.
fizik-o, physics, physical science.
flag-o, flag, banner, small standard.
flank-o, side.
flar-i (trans.), to smell, scent.
flav-a, yellow.
fleks-i (trans.), to bend, flex.
flik-i, to patch.
flor-o, flower (116).
flu-i, to flow.
flug-i, to fly.
fluid-a, fluid, liquid.
foj-o, time, occasion (127).
fojn-o, hay.
fokus-o, focus.
foli-o, leaf.
fond-i, to found, establish.
font-o, spring (of water), fount.
fontan-o, fountain (artificial).

270

for (adv.), away (71).

forges-i, to forget.
fork-o, fork.
form-o, shape, form.
formik-o, ant.
forn-o, stove.
fort-a, strong.
fos-i, to dig.
fotograf-i, to photograph
frag-o, strawberry.
frak-o, evening dress (for men).
frakas-i, to shatter, break to pieces.
framb-o, raspberry.
franc-o, Frenchman.
frand-i, to be fond of sweets, be an epicure.
fran-o, fringe.
frap-i, to knock, strike.
frat-o, brother.
fral-o, bachelor, unmarried man.
fraz-o, sentence, phrase.
Frederik-o, Frederick.
fremd-a, foreign.
frenez-a, crazy, mad.
fre-a, fresh, new.
fripon-o, rogue, rascal, knave.
frit-i (trans.), to fry.
froma-o, cheese.
frost-o, frost.
frot-i, to rub.
fru-a, early.
frukt-o, fruit.
frunt-o, forehead.
fulm-o, lightning.
fum-i, to smoke.
fund-o, bottom.
fundament-o, foundation, base.
funebr-o, mourning.
fung-o, mushroom.
funkci-i, to function, work.
funt-o, pound.

271

furioz-a, furious, raging.

fu-i, to bungle.
fut-o, foot (measure).
G.
gaj-a, gay, merry.
gajn-i, to gain.
galeri-o, gallery.
galop-i, to gallop.
gant-o, glove.
gard-i, to guard, watch over.
gas-o, gas.
gast-o, guest.
gazet-o, gazette, magazine.
ge-, prefix indicating both sexes together (271).
general-o, general (military).
genu-o, knee; fleksi, to kneel.
geometri-o, geometry.
german-o, German.
Gertrud-o, Gertrude.
giet-o, wicket, ticket-window, turnstile.
girland-o, garland, wreath.
glaci-o, ice; ao, an ice (food).
glad-i, to iron (linen, etc.).
glas-o, tumbler, glass.
glat-a, smooth, polished, flat.
glav-o, sword.
glit-i, to glide, slide.
glob-o, globe.
glor-o, glory.
glu-o, glue.
glut-i, to swallow.
gor-o, throat.
graci-a, graceful.
grad-o, grade, degree.
graf-o, count; lando, county.
gram-o, gram (284).
gramatik-o, grammar.
grand-a, great, large, big.
gras-o, fat.

272

gratul-i, to congratulate.
grav-a, important, serious, grave.
gravit-i, to gravitate.
grek-o, Greek.
gren-o, grain (wheat, corn, etc.).
grimp-i, to climb up, creep up.
grinc-i, to grind, gnash.
griz-a, gray.
grup-o, group.
gurd-o, hurdy-gurdy, barrel organ.
gust-o, taste.
gut-i, to drip.
gvid-i, to guide.
.
arden-o, garden.
em-i, to groan.
en-i, to disturb, incommode.
eneral-a, general, common.
entil-a, courteous, polite.
i (pronoun), it (32, 37, 42, 274).
is (prep.), as far as, until (46, 89).
oj-i, to rejoice, be glad (116).
u-i, to enjoy, find pleasure in.
ust-a, exact, just.
H.
hajl-o, hail (frozen rain).
hak-i, to chop, hack; ilo, axe.
halt-i (intrans.), to halt, stop.
har-o, a hair.
hat-o, skin (human).
hav-i, to have.
haven-o, harbor, port.
hazard-o, chance, hazard.
hebre-o, Hebrew.
hejm-o, home.
hejt-i (trans.), to heat (a place).
hektar-o, hektare (284).
hektogram-o, hektogram (284).

273

hektolitr-o, hektoliter (284).

hektometr-o, hektometer (284).
hel-a, bright, clear.
help-i, to help, aid, assist.
herb-o, grass, herb.
hero-o, hero.
hezit-i, to hesitate.
hiera (adv.), yesterday (93, 171).
Hieron-o, Hiero.
hipokrit-i, to play the hypocrite.
hirund-o, swallow (bird).
hispan-o, Spaniard.
histori-o, history.
ho (interjection), ho, oh (273).
hodia (adv.), today (93, 171).
Holand-o, Holland.
hom-o, human being.
honest-a, honest.
honor-i, to honor.
hont-i, to be ashamed.
hor-o, hour (185).
horizont-o, horizon.
horizontal-a, horizontal.
horlo-o, clock; pohorloo, watch.
hotel-o, hotel.
humil-a, humble.
humor-o, humor, temper.
hund-o, dog.
hura! (interjection), hurrah!
.
emi-o, chemistry.
in-o, Chinaman.
or-o, choir.
I.
ia, any kind of (208).
ial (adv.), for any reason (213).
iam (adv.), ever, at any time, once (212).
-id-, suffix indicating descendant or young of (207).

274

ide-o, idea.
ideal-o, ideal.
ident-a, identical.
idiom-o, idiom.
idiot-o, idiot.
ie (adv.), somewhere (209).
iel (adv.), somehow (216).
ies (pronoun, possessive), somebody's (204).
-ig-, suffix forming causative verbs (214, 239, 275).
ignor-i, to ignore.
-i-, suffix forming inchoative and intransitive verbs (232, 239, 279).
-il-, suffix forming names of instruments (63).
ili (pronoun), they (32, 37, 42).
ilustr-i, to illustrate.
iluzi-o, illusion, delusion.
imag-i, to imagine, fancy.
imit-i, to imitate.
imperi-o, empire.
implik-i, to implicate.
impost-o, tax, impost.
impres-i, to impress.
impuls-o, impulse.
-in-, suffix forming feminines (59).
incit-i, to incite, arouse, provoke.
-ind-, suffix expressing worth or merit (154).
indian-o, Indian (American).
indiferent-a, indifferent, unconcerned, unimportant.
industri-o, industry (trade, business).
infan-o, child.
infekt-i, to infect, contaminate.
influ-i, to influence.
inform-i, to give information.
-ing-, suffix expressing a holder or container (237).
inenier-o, engineer.
ink-o, ink.
insekt-o, insect.
insist-i, to insist.
inspir-i, to inspire.
instru-i, to instruct, teach.
insul-o, island.

275

insult-i, to insult.
inteligent-a, intelligent.
intend-i, to intend.
inter (prep.), between, among (85, 89, 160).
interes-i (trans.), to interest.
intermit-i, to be intermittent.
intern-a, internal; e, inside.
interpret-i, to interpret.
intim-a, intimate.
invit-i, to invite.
io (pronoun), something (233).
iom (adv.), some, a certain amount; iom post iom, little by little (217).
ir-i, to go.
-ist-, suffix indicating profession, etc. (172).
ital-o, Italian.
iu (pronoun), some one, a certain (one) (203).
J.
ja (adv.), indeed, in fact (215).
jak-o, jacket, short coat.
jam (adv.), already.
januar-o, January.
jar-o, year.
je, prep. of indefinite meaning (89, 185, 260).
jen (adv.), there, behold (228).
jes (adv.), yes (171).
Jesu-o, Jesus.
Johano, John.
ju (adv.), the more (used with pli, 84).
jug-o, yoke.
ju-i, to judge.
juli-o, July.
jun-a, young.
jung-i, to harness.
juni-o, June.
jup-o, skirt.
jurist-o, jurist.
just-a, just, upright.
juvel-o, jewel.

276

.
aluz-a, jealous.
ad-o, Thursday.
et-i, to throw, cast, hurl.
ongl-i, to juggle.
ur-i, to take oath, swear.
urnal-o, newspaper, journal.
us (adv.), a moment before, just.
K.
kadavr-o, corpse.
kadr-o, frame (of pictures).
kaduk-a, decaying, in ruin.
kaf-o, coffee.
ka-o, cage.
kahel-o, tile (for paving).
kaj (conj.), and; kaj..kaj.., both..and.. (26).
kajer-o, notebook.
kaldron-o, caldron.
kalendar-o, calendar.
kale-o, carriage.
kalkan-o, heel (of the foot); umo, heel of a shoe.
kalkul-i, to calculate, reckon.
kamel-o, camel.
kamen-o, chimney.
kamer-o, camera.
kamp-o, field.
kanajl-o, scoundrel, rascal.
kanap-o, sofa.
kand-o, candy.
kandel-o, candle.
kanot-o, canoe.
kant-i, to sing.
kap-o, head.
kapabl-a, capable.
kapel-o, chapel (for prayer).
kapital-o, capital (money).
kapitol-o, capitol.
kapt-i, to catch, seize.
kar-a, dear, prized.

277

karakter-o, character.
karb-o, coal.
karcer-o, jail.
kares-i, to caress.
karn-o, flesh.
karot-o, carrot.
kart-o, card; potkarto, postcard; vizitkarto, visiting card.
karton-o, pasteboard.
karusel-o, merry-go-round.
kas-o, money-box, treasury; isto, cashier, treasurer.
kaskad-o, waterfall, cascade.
kastel-o, castle.
ka-i, to hide, conceal (252).
katan-o, chestnut.
kat-o, cat.
katen-o, fetter, chain.
kaz-o, cause.
kav-o, cavity, hole.
kaz-o, case (grammatical).
ke (conj.), that (53, 83, 105, 259, 262).
kel-o, cellar.
kelk-a, some; aj, several, more than one or two.
kelner-o, waiter (in hotel or restaurant).
kest-o, chest; tirkesto, drawer.
kia, what kind of (112, 150); kiamanier-e, how.
kial (adv.), why (129).
kiam (adv.), when (123, 155).
kie (adv.), where (118, 151).
kiel (adv.), how, in which way, as (134, 156).
kies (pronoun, possessive), whose (107, 147).
kilogram-o, kilogram (284).
kilolitr-o, kiloliter (284).
kilometr-o, kilometer (284).
kio (pronoun), what (233).
kiom (adv.), how much (140, 164, 185).
kis-i, to kiss.
kiu (pronoun), who (106, 146).
klak-i (trans.), to clap, clatter.
klar-a, clear, distinct.
klav-o, key (of piano, etc.).

278

klas-o, class.
kler-a, enlightened, well-in-formed.
klimat-o, climate.
klin-i (trans.), to incline, bend.
kling-o, blade (of knife, etc.).
klopod-i, to undertake initiative work, take steps toward, labor for the
success or completion of something.
klub-o, club (organization)
knab-o, boy.
kobold-o, sprite, kobold, brownie.
kofr-o, trunk, chest with a lid.
kok-o, cock (domestic fowl).
koket-a, coquettish.
koks-o, hip.
kol-o, neck.
kolbas-o, sausage.
kolegi-o, college.
kolekt-i (trans.), to collect, gather.
koler-i, to be angry, lose the temper.
kolomb-o, pigeon, dove.
kolon-o, column, pillar.
kolonel-o, colonel.
kolor-o, color.
kolport-i, to peddle.
komand-i, to command (military and naval).
komb-i, to comb.
komedi-o, comedy.
komenc-i (trans.), to begin, commence.
komerc-i, to trade, engage in commerce.
komfort-o, comfort (freedom from pain, want, etc.).
komisi-i, to entrust with, put in charge of, give the agency for.
komitat-o, committee.
komiz-o, clerk, employee, assistant.
kompani-o, company (commercial organization).
kompar-i, (trans.) to compare, (266).
kompat-i, to pity, have compassion for.
komplet-o, suit (of clothes).
komplez-o, kindness, courtesy, disposition to oblige.
komplik-i, to complicate.
kompost-i, to compose, set (type); isto, compositor.

279

kompot-o, jam, preserve,

kompren-i, to understand.
komun-a, common, mutual.
komunik-i, to communicate.
kon-i, to be acquainted with, know; atii kun, to become acquainted
with (117).
koncern-i, to concern (266).
koncert-o, concert (musical).
kondamn-i, to condemn.
kondi-o, terms specified, stipulation, condition.
konduk-i, to conduct, lead.
konduktor-o, conductor (of car, train, etc.).
kondut-i, to behave, conduct oneself.
konfes-i, to confess, admit.
konfid-i, to trust, have confidence in.
konfit-i, to preserve, pickle (fruits, etc.).
konform-i, to be in conformity with (266).
konfuz-i, to confuse, confound.
kongres-o, congress (assembly).
konk-o, shell (of mollusk, etc.).
konkur-i, to vie, compete.
konkurenc-o, competition (in business, etc.).
konkurs-o, prearranged trial of skill, formal competition (for prizes,
etc.).
konsci-i, to be conscious.
konscienc-o, conscience.
konsent-i, to consent, agree.
konserv-i, to keep, preserve, save.
konservativ-a, conservative.
konsil-i, to advise, counsel.
konsist-i, to consist.
konsol-i, to console, comfort.
konsonant-o, consonant.
konspir-i, to conspire, plot.
konstant-a, constant.
konstat-i, to verify, ascertain the truth of, certify.
konstituci-o, constitution.
konstru-i, to build.
konsul-o, consul.
konsult-i, to seek advice of, consult.

280

kont-o, account (book-keeping, commercial).

kontent-a, content, satisfied.
kontinent-o, continent (geographical).
kontrakt-i, to contract, agree.
kontralt-o, contralto.
kontra (prep.), against, opposite, opposed to (159, 160).
kontrol-i, to control, inspect, examine and check.
kontur-o, outline, contour.
kontuz-i, to bruise.
konven-i, to be suitable, be fitting or convenient.
konvink-i, to convince, persuade.
kopi-i, to copy.
kor-o, heart (of the body).
korb-o, basket.
korekt-i, to correct.
korespond-i, to exchange letters, correspond.
koridor-o, corridor, passage.
kork-o, cork (bark).
korn-o, horn.
korp-o, body, a, corporeal.
korpus-o, corps (military).
kort-o, courtyard, court.
kortego, court (royal, etc.).
korv-o, raven.
kost-i, to cost.
kostum-o, costume.
kot-o, mud.
kotiz-i, to pay dues, pay one's share of an assessment.
kotlet-o, cutlet, chop.
koton-o, cotton.
kov-i, to brood (of birds).
kovert-o, envelope
kovr-i, to cover.
krab-o, crab.
krad-o, grating, grate, lattice.
krajon-o, pencil.
krak-i, to clack, crackle.
kran-o, faucet, tap.
kravat-o, cravat.
kre-i, to create.

281

kred-i, to believe (265).

krem-o, cream.
krepusk-o, twilight, half-light of dawn or evening.
kresk-i, to grow.
krestomati-o, chrestomathy, collection of selected passages.
kret-o, chalk.
krev-i (intrans.), to burst, crack open (suddenly and with noise).
kri-i, to cry out.
kribr-i, to sift (with a sieve).
krim-o, crime.
kring-o, ring-shaped biscuit.
kripl-a, crippled.
Krist-o, Christ.
kritik-i, to criticise.
kro-i, to hook.
krom (prep.), beside, aside from, except, save, but.
kron-o, crown.
kruc-o, cross; umi, to crucify.
kru-o, pitcher, jug; tekruo, tea-pot.
kruel-a, cruel.
krur-o, leg.
krust-o, crust.
krut-a, steep.
kubut-o, elbow.
kudr-i, to sew.
kugl-o, bullet.
kuir-i, to cook.
kuk-o, cake; ao, pastry.
kukum-o, cucumber.
kukurb-o, pumpkin.
kuler-o, spoon.
kulp-a, guilty.
kultur-i, to cultivate; terkulturi, to till the soil, farm.
kun (prep.), with (70, 76, 120, 160, 159).
kunikl-o, rabbit.
kupon-o, coupon.
kupr-o, copper (metal).
kur-i, to run.
kurac-i, to treat for illness, cure; ato, a patient; isto, a physician,
medical man.

282

kura-o, courage.
kurb-o, curve.
kurioz-a, uncommon, curious.
kurs-o, course (of lessons).
kurten-o, curtain.
kusen-o, cushion.
ku-i, to lie, recline (239).
kutim-o, custom, habit.
kuv-o, tub, large basin.
kuz-o, cousin.
kvadrat-o, square (equilateral rectangle).
kvalit-o, quality, texture.
kvankam (conj.), though, although, while (concessive).
kvant-o, quantity, amount.
kvar, (adj.), four (136).
kvartal-o, quarter (of a city).
kvaza (conj.), as though, as if (250).
kverk-o, oak.
kviet-a, calm, quiet.
kvin, (adj.), five (136).
kvitanc-o, receipt (for payment).

283

L-P
L.
la (article), the (II, 47, 201, 280, a).
labor-i, to work, labor.
lac-a, tired, weary.
la-o, string, lace (of shoe, etc.).
lad-o, tin plate (sheet iron covered with tin).
lag-o, lake.
lakt-o, milk.
laktuk-o, lettuce.
lam-a, lame.
lamp-o, lamp.
lan-o, wool.
lanc-o, lance, spear.
land-o, land, country.
lang-o, tongue (of the body).
lantern-o, lantern.
lanug-o, down (hairs, feathers).
lard-o, bacon.
lar-a, wide, broad.
larm-o, tear (of the eye).
las-i, (trans.), to leave, let, permit.
last-a, last (in a series).
latin-a, Latin.
la (prep.), in accordance with, along, by (191).
lab-o, arbor, summer-house.
lad-i, to praise.
lat-a, loud.
lav-i, to wash.
lecion-o, lesson.
led-o, leather.
leg-i, to read.
legom-o, vegetable.
le-o, law.
lek-i, to lick.
leon-o, lion.
lepor-o, hare.
lern-i, to learn.
lert-a, clever, skilful.

284

leter-o, letter (epistle).

lev-i, to raise, lift.
li (pronoun), he, him (32, 37, 42).
liber-a, free.
libr-o, book.
lig-i, to tie, bind, fasten; ilo, bond; that which ties or fastens; ao,
knot; o, league, alliance.
lign-o, wood.
lim-o, limit, boundary.
limonad-o, lemonade.
lingv-o, language.
lini-o, line; ilo, ruler.
lip-o, lip; haroj, moustache.
lit-o, bed (for sleeping).
liter-o, letter of the alphabet; lalitera, literal.
literatur-o, literature.
litr-o, liter (284).
liver-i, to deliver, supply, furnish.
log-i, to allure.
lo-i, to dwell, reside (133).
lok-o, place; a, local.
lokomotiv-o, locomotive.
long-a, long.
lonicer-o, honeysuckle.
lorn-o, telescope, spyglass; eto, opera-glasses.
lu-i, to hire, rent (engage and pay rent for).
lud-i, to play.
luks-o, luxury.
lul-i, to lull to sleep; ilo, cradle.
lum-i, to shine (275).
lun-o, moon.
lunatik-o, lunatic.
lund-o, Monday.
lup-o, wolf.
M.
ma-i, to chew, masticate.
magazen-o, warehouse.
magi-o, magic.
magistr-o, master of arts (A.M.).

285

maiz-o, maize, Indian corn.

maj-o, May.
majest-a, majestic.
majones-a, mayonnaise.
majstr-o, master (of his art or profession).
makaroni-o, macaroni.
maksimum-o, maximum.
makul-o, spot, stain.
makzel-o, jaw; osto, jawbone.
mal-, prefix forming opposites (67).
maleol-o, ankle.
malgra (prep.), notwithstanding.
malic-a, malicious.
man-o, hand.
mandat-o, money-order.
man-i, to eat.
manier-o, manner, way.
manik-o, sleeve.
mank-i (intrans.), to be lacking, wanting.
mantel-o, cloak, mantle.
manuskript-o, manuscript.
mar-o, sea.
mar-o, swamp, marsh.
mard-o, Tuesday.
Mari-o, Mary.
mark-o, mark.
marmelad-o, marmalade.
marmor-o, marble (stone),
mar-i, to walk.
mart-o, March.
martel-o, hammer.
mastr-o, master (of a house, etc.)
main-o, machine.
maten-o, morning (93).
material-o, material.
matur-a, ripe, mature.
mebl-o, piece of furniture.
medicin-o, medicine (the science).
meanik-o, mechanics.
mejl-o, mile.

286

meleagr-o, turkey.
melk-i, to milk.
melodi-o, melody.
melon-o, melon.
mem (pronoun), self, selves (219).
membr-o, limb, member.
memor-i, to remember, keep in mind; rememori, to recall to memory.
mend-i, to order (of a store, etc.).
mensog-i, to lie, tell lies.
menton-o, chin.
menu-o, menu.
merit-i, to deserve, merit.
merkred-o, Wednesday.
merl-o, blackbird.
met-i, to put, place.
metal-o, metal.
meti-o, trade, handicraft.
metod-o, method, way.
metr-o, meter (284).
mez-o, middle.
mezur-i, to measure.
mi (pronoun), I, me (32, 37).
miel-o, honey.
mien-o, appearance, mien.
miks-i (trans.), to mix.
mil (adj.), thousand (142).
mild-a, mild.
milimetr-o, millimeter (284).
milion-o, million.
milit-i, to fight, wage war.
min-o, mine (of coal, silver, etc.).
minac-i, to threaten.
mineral-o, mineral.
minimum-o, minimum.
ministr-o, minister (political).
minut-o, minute.
miop-a, shortsighted.
mir-i, to wonder.
mister-o, mystery.
mizer-o, misery.

287

mod-o, mode, fashion.

model-o, model.
moder-a, moderate.
modest-a, modest.
mok-i, to mock.
mol-a, soft.
moment-o, moment; a, momentary, instantaneous.
mon-o, money.
mona-o, monk.
monari-o, monarch.
monat-o, month.
mond-o, world.
mont-o, mountain.
montr-i (trans.), to show.
mor-o, conduct (in regard to right or wrong); oj, morals.
moral-a, moral; eco, morality.
mord-i, to bite.
morga (adv.), tomorrow (171).
mort-i, to die; igi, to kill.
mot-o, title of respect (258).
mov-i (trans.), to move, put in motion.
muel-o, mill (for grinding).
mu-i, to roar, bellow.
mult-a, much (81).
mur-o, wall.
murmur-i, to murmur.
mus-o, mouse.
mustard-o, mustard.
mu-o, fly.
mut-a, dumb, mute.
muze-o, museum.
muzik-o, music.
N.
naci-o, nation.
na-i, to swim.
naiv-a, artless, naive, ingenuous.
najbar-o, neighbor.
najl-o, nail (of metal).
nap-o, turnip.

288

nask-i, to produce, bring forth, give birth to.

natur-o, nature.
na (adj.), nine (136).
naz-o, nose.
ne (adv.), no, not (27, 66, a, 171).
nebul-o, fog, mist.
neces-a, necessary.
negativ-o, negative (photographic).
ne-o, snow.
nek (negative conj.), neither, nor (31).
nenia, no kind of (224).
nenial (adv.), for no reason (229).
neniam (adv.), never (226).
nenie (adv.), nowhere (225).
neniel (adv.), in no way (230).
nenies (pronoun, possessive), nobody's (221).
nenio (pronoun), nothing (233).
neniom (adv.), none, not any (231).
neniu (pronoun), no one, nobody, no (220).
nep-o, grandson.
nepr-e, inevitably, certainly, unfailingly.
nerv-o, nerve.
nest-o, nest.
netral-a, neutral, non-partisan.
nev-o, nephew.
ni (pronoun), we, us (32, 37).
nigr-a, black.
nivel-o, level.
-nj-, suffix forming affectionate diminutives (283).
nobel-o, nobleman.
nobl-a, noble (in character).
nokt-o, night.
nom-o, name; i, to name, mention.
nombr-o, number (quantity).
nord-o, north.
norveg-o, Norwegian.
nostalgi-o, homesickness.
not-o, note.
nov-a, new, recent, novel; denove, anew, again.
novembr-o, November.

289

nu (interjection), well! (273).

nuanc-o, shade, tint, hue.
nub-o, cloud.
nud-a, bare, naked, nude.
nuks-o, nut.
nul-o, zero, naught.
numer-o, number, numeral (No.).
nun (adv.), now (171).
nur (adv.), merely, only.
nutr-i, to nourish, to feed.
O.
obe-i, to obey (265).
objekt-o, object, thing.
objektiv-o, lens, objective.
-obl-, suffix forming multiples (186).
oblikv-a, oblique, slanting.
observ-i, to observe, take note of.
obstin-a, obstinate.
ocean-o, ocean.
odor-i, to smell (good or bad).
ofend-i, to offend.
ofer-i, to sacrifice, offer.
ofic-o, office, employment; isto, officer (of firm or organization);
ejo, office (the place).
oficial-a, official.
oficir-o, officer (military or naval).
oft-a, frequent.
ok (adj.), eight (136).
okaz-i, to happen, occur, take place.
okcident-o, west.
oktobr-o, October.
okul-o, eye.
okup-i, to occupy.
ol (conj.), than (82, 97, 98).
ole-o, oil.
oliv-o, olive.
ombr-o, shadow, shade.
ombrel-o, umbrella.
-on-, suffix forming fractions (166).

290

ond-o, wave.
oni (pronoun), one, they (54).
onkl-o, uncle.
-op-, suffix forming collective numerals (261).
oper-o, opera.
opini-i, to have the opinion, think.
oportun-a, handy, convenient, opportune.
or-o, gold.
oran-o, orange (fruit).
ord-o, order (methodical or proper arrangement).
ordinar-a, ordinary; eksterordinara, extraordinary.
ordon-i, to order, bid, command.
orel-o, ear (of the body).
orf-o, orphan.
organ-o, organ (physical).
organiz-i, to organize.
orgen-o, organ, (musical instrument).
orient-o, east.
original-o, original.
orkestr-o, orchestra.
ornam-i, to ornament, adorn.
ort-a, right-angled.
osced-i, to gape, yawn.
ost-o, bone.
ostr-o, oyster.
ostracism-o, ostracism.
ov-o, egg.
P.
pac-o, peace.
pacienc-o, patience.
padel-i, to paddle.
paf-i, to shoot (with gun, etc.).
pag-i, to pay.
pa-o, page (of a book, etc.).
pajl-o, straw.
pak-i, to pack.
pal-a, pale.
palac-o, palace.
palis-o, stake; aro, palisade.

291

palp-i, to feel (with the fingers, etc.); ado, touch (the sense).
palpebr-o, eyelid.
pan-o, bread.
pantalon-o, trousers.
pantofl-o, slipper.
paper-o, paper (material).
papili-o, butterfly.
par-o, pair.
paradiz-o, paradise.
paragraf-o, paragraph.
paralel-a, parallel.
pardon-i, to forgive, pardon (265).
parenc-o, relative (person).
parfum-o, perfume.
park-o, park.
parker-e, by rote, by heart, from memory.
parol-i, to speak (77).
part-o, part, share.
particip-o, participle.
pas-i, (intrans.), to pass.
pasaer-o, passenger.
paser-o, sparrow.
pasi-o, passion.
pasiv-a, passive.
Pask-o, Easter.
paste-o, patty, small pie.
pastinak-o, parsnip.
pastr-o, pastor, clergyman, priest.
pa-i, to step.
pat-i (trans.), to pasture, feed; isto, shepherd.
pat-o, pan, frying-pan.
patr-o, father.
paz-o, pause.
pavim-o, pavement.
pec-o, piece, morsel.
pejza-o, landscape.
pek-i, to sin.
pekl-i, to pickle (meat, etc.).
pel-i, to chase away, drive off.
pelt-o, coat or wrap of fur.

292

pen-i, to strive, try.

pend-i (intrans.), to hang.
penetr-i, to penetrate.
penik-o, paintbrush, hair pencil.
pens-i, to think.
pent-i, to repent.
pentr-i, to paint.
pep-i, to chirp, twitter.
per (prep.), by means of, with, by (64).
perd-i, to lose.
pere-i, to perish.
perfekt-a, perfect.
perfid-i, to betray; a, perfidious, treacherous.
period-a, periodic.
perl-o, pearl.
permes-i, to permit, allow, let.
peron-o, platform (railway), stoop (entrance porch).
persekut-i, to persecute, prosecute.
persik-o, peach.
persist-i, to persist, persevere.
person-o, person.
peruk-o, wig.
pes-i (trans.), to ascertain the weight of; ilo, scales, balance.
pet-i, to request, beg, ask.
petol-i, to be mischievous, saucy, roguish.
petrol-o, petroleum, kerosene.
petrosel-o, parsley.
pez-i (intrans.), to be heavy, weigh.
pi-a, pious.
pice-o, spruce (tree).
pied-o, foot; iranto, pedestrian.
piedestal-o, pedestal.
pik-i, to prick, sting.
pilgrim-i, to go on a pilgrimage.
pilk-o, ball (to play with).
pin-o, pine (tree).
pinakotek-o, picture gallery.
pin-i, to pinch.
pingl-o, pin.
pint-o, point, pinnacle, summit.

293

pionir-o, pioneer.
pip-o, pipe (for smoking).
pipr-o, pepper.
pir-o, pear.
pist-i, to crush, mash; ao, pure.
pitoresk-a, picturesque.
piz-o, pea.
plac-o, public square, place (broad, short street or open space).
pla-i, to please, to be pleasing (265).
plad-o, flat dish.
plafon-o, ceiling.
plan-o, plan, scheme.
pland-o, sole (of the foot).
planed-o, planet.
plank-o, floor.
plant-i, to plant.
plat-a, flat, plane.
plad-i (trans.), to splash, dabble (a liquid).
plej (adv.), most (74, 79, 81, 162); malplej, least (80).
plekt-i, to weave, plait, braid.
plen-a, full; plenum-i, to fulfil.
plend-i, to complain.
plet-o, tray.
plezur-o, pleasure.
pli (adv.), more (74, 79, 81); malpli, less (80).
plor-i, to weep, cry.
plu (adv.), further, more, any more.
plug-i, to plow.
plum-o, pen, feather.
plumb-o, lead (metal); isto, plumber.
pluv-o, rain.
pnematik-o, pneumatic tire.
po (prep.), at the rate of (175).
poem-o, poem.
poet-o, poet.
poezi-o, poetry, poesy.
pokal-o, goblet, cup.
pol-o, Pole.
polic-o, police (force).
politik-o, politics.

294

polm-o, palm (of the hand).

polur-i, to polish, make smooth and glossy.
polus-o, pole (geographical).
polv-o, dust.
pom-o, apple.
pomp-o, pomp, splendor.
pont-o, bridge.
popol-o, a people, folk.
popular-a, popular.
por (prep.), for (95, 98, 262).
porcelan-o, porcelain, china.
porci-o, portion, share.
pord-o, door.
pork-o, swine, pig, hog.
port-i, to carry, bear.
portret-o, portrait.
posed-i, to possess, own.
post (prep.), after, behind (89, 120).
postul-i, to require, demand.
po-o, pocket.
pot-o, post (mail); kesto, mailbox; marko, postage stamp;
mandato, postal money order.
pot-o, pot.
potenc-a, powerful, mighty.
pov-i, to be able, can (72).
pra-, prefix indicating remoteness in line of descent (282).
praktik-o, practice.
prav-a, right, in the right.
precip-a, principal, chief.
preciz-a, precise.
predik-i, to preach.
prefer-i, to prefer.
prefiks-o, prefix.
pre-i, to pray; ejo, church.
prem-i, to press.
premi-o, premium, prize.
pren-i, to take.
prepar-i, to prepare.
pres-i, to print.
preska (adv.), almost.

295

pret-a, ready.
pretekst-i, to make pretext of, pretend, sham.
pretend-i, to make pretension to, lay claim to.
preter (prep.), beyond, past, by.
prez-o, price.
prezent-i, to present, offer.
prezid-i, to preside; anto, presiding officer, president, chairman.
pri (prep.), concerning, about, of (160, 264, c).
princ-o, prince.
princip-o, principle.
printemp-o, spring (season).
pro (prep.), on account of, because of, for (86).
problem-o, problem.
procent-o, interest, percentage.
proces-o, lawsuit, legal process.
produkt-i, to produce.
profesi-o, profession, occupation, calling.
profesor-o, professor.
profil-o, profile.
profit-o, profit; i, to profit (by).
profund-a, deep, profound.
progres-i, to progress.
projekt-o, project.
proklam-i, to proclaim.
prokrast-i, to delay, procrastinate.
proksim-a, near.
promen-i, to go walking, promenade.
promes-i, to promise.
propon-i, to propose, offer.
proporci-o, proportion.
propr-a, own (one's own); malpropra, other people's; igi al si, to appropriate, make one's own.
prosper-i, to have success, prosper.
protekt-i, to protect.
protest-i, to protest.
protokol-o, minutes (of a meeting).
prov-i, to try, attempt, test.
proviz-i, to provide.
proz-o, prose; ao, prose composition, piece of prose.
prudent-a, reasonable, sensible, rational.

296

prujn-o, hoar frost.

prun-o, plum.
prunt-o, loan; i, (e doni), to lend; e preni, to borrow.
pruv-i, to prove, give proof of.
psalm-o, psalm.
publik-o, public (the); igi, to publish.
puding-o, pudding.
pudr-i, to powder.
pugn-o, fist.
pulm-o, lung.
pulv-o, gunpowder.
pump-i, to pump.
pun-i, to punish.
punt-o, lace (point, etc.).
pup-o, doll.
pupitr-o, desk.
pur-a, clean, pure.
purpur-a, purple.
pu-i, to push; repui, to repulse.
put-o, well (for water).

297

R-Z
R.
rabarb-o, rhubarb.
rab-i, to pillage, plunder; isto, robber.
rabat-i, to rebate, give a reduction, discount or rebate.
rad-o, wheel.
radi-o, ray (of light), spoke (of wheel), radius.
radik-o, root.
rafan-o, radish.
rafin-i, to refine; ejo, refinery.
rajd-i, to ride (horse, etc.).
rajt-o, right (to something).
rakont-i, to relate, narrate (77).
ramp-i, to creep, crawl, clamber.
ran-o, frog.
rand-o, edge, border.
rang-o, rank, grade, dignity.
rapid-a, rapid, quick; o, speed; emo, haste.
raport-i, to report, give a report.
ras-o, race (tribe, people, nation).
rasp-i, to rasp, grate; ilo, grater.
rat-o, rat.
rak-a, hoarse, raucous.
rav-i, to enchant.
raz-i, to shave.
re-, prefix indicating repetition or return (223).
real-a, real.
reciprok-a, reciprocal, mutual (180).
redakci-o, editorial department.
redakt-i, to edit.
redaktor-o, editor.
redingot-o, frock coat.
refut-i, to refute.
reg-i, to rule, govern, reign.
regal-i (trans.), to regale, treat (to food or drink).
region-o, region.
registr-i (trans.), to register, enroll.
regn-o, state, governed body; ano, citizen, subject.
regul-o, rule, regulation.

298

re-o, king.
reklam-i, to advertise.
rekomend-i, to recommend, register (a letter).
rekompenc-i, to recompense, reward.
rekt-a, straight, undeviating, direct.
rel-o, rail.
religi-o, religion.
rem-i, to row.
rembur-i, to upholster, stuff, pad.
renkont-i (trans.), to meet.
renvers-i (trans.), to upset.
reprezent-i, to represent.
respekt-i, to respect.
respond-i, to answer.
respublik-o, republic.
rest-i, to remain, stay.
restoraci-o, restaurant.
resum-i, to summarize, give in resum.
ret-o, net, netting.
rev-i, to indulge in revery, dream, fancy.
revu-o, journal, review, magazine.
rezon-i, to reason (exert the power of reasoning).
rezult-i, to result.
ricev-i, to receive.
ri-a, rich.
rid-i, to laugh (265).
rifuz-i, to refuse.
rigard-i, to look.
rigl-i, to bolt (fasten).
rikolt-i, to harvest, reap.
rilat-i, to have relation (to) (266).
rimark-i, to notice, note.
rimed-o, means, way; vivrimedoj, means of livelihood.
rimen-o, thong, strap.
ring-o, ring.
rip-o, rib.
ripar-i, to mend, repair.
ripet-i, to repeat.
ripoz-i, to repose, rest.
ripro-i, to reproach.

299

river-o, river.
riz-o, rice.
rob-o, dress, robe.
Robert-o, Robert.
romp-i (trans.), to break.
rond-o, circle, ring, round.
ros-o, dew.
rost-i, to roast.
roz-o, rose (flower).
ruband-o, ribbon.
rubus-o, blackberry.
ru-a, red.
ruin-o, ruin.
rul-i (trans.), to roll (ball, etc.).
rus-o, Russian.
rust-i, to rust.
rutin-o, routine.
ruz-a, crafty, cunning, sly.
S.
sabat-o, Saturday.
sabl-o, sand.
sag-o, arrow.
sa-a, wise.
sak-o, sack, bag.
sal-o, salt.
salajr-o, salary, wages.
salat-o, salad.
salon-o, parlor, drawing-room.
salt-i, to jump, leap.
salut-i, to salute, greet.
sam-a, same.
san-a, healthy, well.
sang-o, blood.
sankt-a, sacred, holy.
sap-o, soap.
sarden-o, sardine.
sat-a, sated; malsata, hungry.
sac-o, sauce, gravy, dressing.
sav-i, to save; rescue.

300

sci-i, to know (117).

scienc-o, science.
se (conj.), if (240).
sed (conj.), but.
seg-i, to saw.
se-o, chair.
sek-a, dry.
sekret-o, secret.
sekretari-o, secretary.
sekund-o, second (of time).
sekv-i, to follow.
sel-o, saddle.
sem-o, seed; i, to sow.
semajn-o, week.
sen (prep.), without (248).
senat-o, senate; ano, senator.
senc-o, sense, meaning.
send-i, to send.
sent-i, to feel, perceive.
sep (adj.), seven (136).
septembr-o, September.
ser-i, to seek, hunt, look for.
serur-o, lock.
serv-i, to serve.
servic-o, course (of a meal).
ses (adj.), six (136).
sever-a, severe, stern.
sezon-o, season.
si (pronoun, reflexive), himself, herself, etc. (40, 44, 274).
sibl-i, to hiss, whistle (wind, etc.).
sid-i, to sit (239).
sigel-i, to seal.
sign-o, sign, trace, mark.
signif-i, to signify, mean.
silab-o, syllable.
silent-i, to be silent (239).
silk-o, silk.
simi-o, monkey.
simil-a, like, similar.
simpl-a, simple.

301

sinjor-o, gentleman, Mr. (163).

Sirakuz-o, Syracuse.
sitel-o, pail, bucket.
skatol-o, small box or case.
skiz-i, to sketch.
sklav-o, slave.
skot-o, Scot, Scotchman.
skrap-i, to scrape.
skrib-i, to write.
sku-i (trans.), to shake.
skulpt-i, to carve, sculpture.
societ-o, society.
soif-i, to be thirsty.
sojl-o, threshold.
Sokrat-o, Socrates.
sol-a, alone, sole, only.
soldat-o, soldier.
solen-a, formal, solemn.
somer-o, summer.
son-i (intrans.), to sound.
son-i, to dream (in sleep).
sonor-i (intrans.), to ring, sound; ilo, bell.
sopir-i, to yearn, long, sigh.
sorb-i, to absorb; papero, blotting-paper.
sor-o, witchcraft; ensori, to bewitch; isto, sorcerer.
sort-o, destiny, fate, lot.
sova-a, wild, savage.
spac-o, space.
spec-o, kind, sort, species.
special-a, special.
specimen-o, specimen, sample.
spegul-o, mirror.
spert-a, experienced, expert.
spes-o, speso (international unit of money, 284).
spez-o, clearing (financial); elspezi, to disburse, expend, spend; enspezi, to take in, receive (funds).
spinac-o, spinach.
spir-i, to breathe; elspiri, to exhale.
spite (prep.), in spite of.
sprit-a, witty.

302

staci-o, station (railway, boat, etc.).

stamp-i, to mark officially, stamp.
standard-o, standard, flag.
stan-o, tin (metal).
stang-o, pole.
star-i, to stand (239).
stat-o, state (of being), condition.
stel-o, star.
stenografi-o, shorthand, stenography.
stil-o, style.
stimul-i, to stimulate.
stomak-o, stomach.
strang-a, strange, peculiar.
strat-o, street.
stre-i (trans.), to stretch.
strek-i, to make a streak, or line; substreki, to underline; surstreki,
trastreki, to cross off, strike out.
stri-o, streak, stripe, band.
strik-o, strike (of labor).
stud-i, to study.
student-o, student (college, etc.).
stuf-i (trans.), to stew.
stump-o, stump (of tree, etc.).
sub (prep.), under, beneath (121, 160).
subit-a, sudden, abrupt.
substanc-o, substance.
sud-o, south.
sufer-i, to suffer, endure.
sufi-i, to suffice; ega, abundant.
sufiks-o, suffix.
sufok-i (trans.), to suffocate.
sugesti-i, to suggest.
suk-o, sap, juice (of plants, etc.); a, succulent.
sukces-i, to succeed.
suker-o, sugar.
sulfur-o, sulphur.
sulk-o, furrow, wrinkle.
sum-o, sum, amount.
sun-o, sun.
sup-o, soup.

303

super (prep.), above, over (159); a, superior.

supersti-o, superstition.
supoz-i, to suppose.
supr-e (adv.), above; a, upper, above; ao, surface.
sur (prep.), on, upon (160).
surd-a, deaf.
surpriz-i, to surprise.
surtut-o, overcoat.
suspekt-i, to suspect.
sved-o, Swede.
sven-i, to faint, swoon.
sving-i (trans.), swing, brandish.
svis-o, Swiss.
.
af-o, sheep; ao, mutton; ido, lamb; idao, lamb (meat); viro,
ram.
ajn-i, to seem, appear.
al-o, shawl.
anc-o, luck, chance; bonance, luckily.
ancel-i (trans.), to oscillate, vacillate, make tremble.
an-i (trans.), to change, alter.
ar-i, to burden, load.
at-i, to like, prize.
am-o, foam, froth.
el-o, shell, peeling, bark.
elk-o, suspender, supporter.
erc-i, to joke, jest.
i (pronoun), she, her (32, 37, 42).
ild-o, shield.
ink-o, ham.
ip-o, ship.
ir-i, to tear.
irm-i, to shelter, shield; ilo, screen.
lim-o, slime.
los-i, to lock; ilo, key.
mir-i, to anoint, smear.
nur-o, string.
ose-o, broad roadway, drive.
ov-i, to shove, push.

304

ovel-i, to shovel.
par-i, to spare, be economical of.
pin-i, to spin.
pruc-i, to gush, spout, spurt (of liquids).
rank-o, cupboard, wardrobe.
rab-o, screw.
tal-o, steel.
tat-o, state (political).
tel-i, to steal (252).
tip-o, log, block of wood.
tof-o, cloth, stuff.
ton-o, stone.
top-i, to stop up, cork; ilo, stopper.
trump-o, stocking.
tup-o, step, round; aro, stair-case.
u-o, shoe; superuo, overshoe.
uld-i, to owe, be indebted.
ultr-o, shoulder.
ut-o, chute; i, to pour (as in a chute).
vel-i, to swell, become swollen.
vit-i, to perspire.
T.
tabak-o, tobacco.
tabel-o, table, index, tabulation.
tabl-o, table (furniture).
tabul-o, board, plank.
tag-o, day; io, dawn; mezo, noon.
tajlor-o, tailor.
taks-i, to estimate, value, rate.
talent-o, talent.
tali-o, waist; beltalia, shapely, having a good figure.
tambur-o, drum.
tamen (conj.), nevertheless, however, yet, still.
tantiem-o, percentage of profit, royalty.
tapi-o, carpet.
tarif-o, tariff, schedule of rates.
tas-o, cup; subtaso, saucer.
task-o, task.
tag-i, to be fit for, good for.

305

tavol-o, layer.
te-o, tea.
teatr-o, theatre; ao, play.
ted-i, to be tedious.
teg-i, to cover, put a covering upon.
tegment-o, roof.
teks-i, to weave.
telefon-i, to telephone.
telegraf-i, to telegraph.
teler-o, plate; meblo, sideboard.
tem-o, theme, subject.
temp-o, time.
tempi-o, temple (of the head).
templ-o, temple (building).
ten-i, to hold, keep.
tend-o, tent.
tenor-o, tenor (voice).
tent-i, to tempt.
teori-o, theory.
ter-o, earth, soil; enterigi, to inter.
teras-o, terrace.
teritori-o, territory.
termin-o, term, definition (word).
tern-i, to sneeze.
terpom-o, potato.
terur-o, terror.
tia, that kind of, such (65).
tial (adv.), therefore (78, 83).
tiam (adv.), then, at that time (73).
tibi-o, shin bone, tibia; karno, calf (of the leg).
tie (adv.), there (68).
tiel (adv.), thus, so (88, 156).
tigr-o, tiger.
tikl-i, to tickle.
tili-o, linden.
tim-i, to fear, be afraid of.
timon-o, pole, tongue, shaft.
tint-i, to jingle, tinkle.
tio (pronoun), that (233, 234).
tiom (adv.), that much, so much (104, 164).

306

tir-i, to pull, draw.

tiran-o, tyrant.
titol-o, title.
tiu (pronoun), that one, that (56); tiu i, this one, this (60).
tost-o, toast (sentiment).
tol-o, linen.
toler-i, to tolerate.
tomat-o, tomato.
tomb-o, tomb, grave.
ton-o, tone.
tond-i, to shear; ilo, shears, scissors.
tondr-i, to thunder.
tord-i, to twist; a, crooked, winding.
tra (prep.), through (46, 160).
trab-o, beam (wooden).
traduk-i, to translate.
traf-i, to reach, attain (that which was aimed at or sought); maltrafi, to
miss.
trajt-o, feature.
trakt-i, to treat of (in essay, speech, etc.); ato, treatise.
tram-o, tram; vojo, tramway, street-car line; veturilo, street-car.
tran-i, to cut, sever.
trankvil-a, serene, tranquil, calm.
trans (prep.), across, the other side of (160).
tre (adv.), very, very much.
trem-i, to tremble.
tremp-i, to drench, dip.
tren-i, to drag, haul, draw; ao, train (of a dress).
trezor-o, treasure.
tri (adj.), three (136).
trik-i, to knit.
trink-i, to drink.
tritik-o, wheat.
triumf-o, triumph.
tro (adv.), too, too much.
tromp-i, to deceive.
tron-o, throne.
tropik-o, tropic.
trot-i, to trot.
trotuar-o, sidewalk, pavement.

307

trov-i, to find.
tru-o, hole.
trud-i, to force upon, impose; altrudema, importunate.
trunk-o, trunk (of tree or body).
tualet-o, toilet.
tub-o, tube, pipe.
tuber-o, bulb, knot, tuber.
tuj (adv.), at once, immediately
tuk-o, piece of cloth.
tur-o, tower.
turk-o, Turk.
turment-i, to torment.
turn-i (trans.), to turn.
tus-i, to cough.
tu-i, to touch; kortui, to touch (the heart of).
tut-a, entire, whole, all.
U.
-uj-, suffix indicating receptacle, that which bears or contains (181).
-ul-, suffix indicating person characterized by that in the root (132).
ulm-o, elm.
-um-, indefinite suffix (268).
ung-o, nail (of finger); ego, claw, talon.
univers-o, universe.
universitat-o, university.
unu (adj.), one (136, 137, 180); unuio, union.
uragan-o, hurricane.
urb-o, city; efurbo, capital.
ur-i, to be urgent or pressing.
urs-o, bear.
Uson-o, United States of America.
util-a, useful.
uz-i, to use; trouzi, to abuse.
V.
vad-i, to wade.
vafl-o, waffle.
vag-i, to wander, to roam; isto, vagabond.
vagon-o, car, railway carriage.
vak-i, to be vacant.

308

vaks-o, wax.
val-o, valley.
valiz-o, valise, satchel, bag.
valor-i, to be worth.
vals-i, to waltz.
van-a, vain, fruitless.
vang-o, cheek.
vant-a, vain, conceited.
vapor-o, steam, vapor.
varb-i (trans.), to enlist, recruit.
varm-a, warm.
vast-a, vast, spacious, extensive.
vaz-o, vase, basin.
ve! (interjection), woe! ho ve! alas! (273).
veget-i, to vegetate, grow (as plants).
vegetar-a, vegetarian.
vejn-o, vein.
vek-i (trans.), to wake, awake.
vel-o, sail.
velk-i, to fade, wither, wilt.
velur-o, velvet.
ven-i, to come.
vend-i, to sell.
vendred-o, Friday.
venen-o, poison.
ven-i, to avenge.
venk-i, to conquer, vanquish.
vent-o, wind.
ver-o, truth.
verand-o, veranda, porch.
verd-a, green.
verk-i, to compose (music or literature).
verm-o, worm.
vermiel-o, vermicelli.
vers-o, verse.
ver-i, to pour (a liquid).
vertikal-a, vertical.
vesper-o, evening (93).
vest-i, to clothe, dress.
vet-o, vest, waistcoat.

309

vet-i, to wager, bet.

veter-o, weather.
vetur-i, to ride, go (in vehicle, boat, etc.).
vi (pronoun), you (32, 37, 274).
viand-o, meat.
vibr-i, to vibrate.
vic-o, turn, place in a series; lavice, in turn; siavice, in his (her, its,
their) turn; vicprezidanto, vice-president.
vid-i, to see.
vidv-o, widower; ino, widow.
vigl-a, alert, brisk.
vila-o, village.
vin-o, wine.
vinagr-o, vinegar.
vinber-o, grape; sekvinbero, raisin.
vintr-o, winter.
viol-o, violet.
violon-o, violin.
vip-i, to whip.
vir-o, man
virt-o, virtue.
vi-i, to wipe.
vitr-o, glass (material).
viv-i, to live (133).
viza-o, face, visage.
vizit-i, to visit.
vo-o, voice; doni, to vote.
voj-o, road, way.
voja-i, to journey, travel, voyage.
vok-i, to call.
vokal-o, vowel.
vol-i, to be willing, will, wish.
volont-e, willingly.
volum-o, volume (book).
volumen-o, volume (of a body).
volv-i, to roll (something around something).
vort-o, word; aro, dictionary.
vost-o, tail.
vual-o, veil.
vulgar-a, common, vulgar.

310

vulp-o, fox.
vund-i, to wound.
Z.
zenit-o, zenith.
zigzag-o, zigzag.
zingibr-o, ginger.
zink-o, zinc.
zon-o, girdle, belt, zone.
zoologi-o, zoology.
zorg-i, to care (for), be anxious (about).
zum-i, to hum, buzz.

311

English-Esperanto Vocabulary
A-C
The following vocabulary includes all Esperanto roots used in the preceding lessons, all primary words of the language, and a large number of
additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt has been
made, however, to include all of the roots of the language, or their various English meanings, for which an English-Esperanto Dictionary
should be consulted.
References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. For other parts
of speech than those indicated, see Word Formation, 116, 120, 159, 171,
also the references under Prefixes and Suffixes in the Index. For formation of compound words other than those given, see 160, 167, 176, 184.
The following abbreviations are used: adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb;
conj. = conjunction; intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. =
transitive; = repetition of the English word.
A.
abandon, forlas-i.
abash, hontig-i.
(be) able, pov-i (72).
abominable, abomen-a.
about (prep.), irka; (concerning) pri; (adv.), (approximately,
proksimum-e.
above (prep.), super (159); (adv.), supr-e; i supre.
abrupt, subit-a.
absorb, sorb-i.
abundant, sufieg-a.
academy, akademi-o.
accelerate (trans.), akcel-i.
accent, akcent-o.
accept, akcept-i.
accident, akcident-o; (chance) okaz-o.
accompany, akompan-i.
(in) accordance with (prep.), la (191).
account, kont-o; (bill) kalkul-o; (story) rakont-o.
(on) account of (prep.), pro (86).
accurate, akurat-a.

312

accusative, akuzativ-o.
accuse, akuz-i, kulpig-i.
accustomed, familiar-a, kutimit-a.
ache, dolor-o.
acid, acid-o.
(be) acquainted with, kon-i (117); become , konati-i. acquire, akir-i.
across (prep.), trans.
act, ag-i; on, efik-i; (behave) kondut-i; (of play) akt-o.
active, agema; (grammatical), aktiv-a.
actor, aktor-o.
actual, efektiv-a, ver-a.
acute, akr-a.
add, aldon-i (160).
address (on letters, etc.) adres-o; (lecture) parolad-o.
adequate, sufi-a.
adjacent, apud-a (159).
adjective, adjektiv-o.
administer (manage), administr-i.
admire, admir-i.
admit, konfes-i; (let in) allas-i.
admonish, admon-i.
adore, ador-i.
adorn, ornam-i.
adverb, adverb-o.
advantage, util-o, profit-o.
advertise, reklam-i.
advise, konsil-i.
affable, afabl-a.
affair, afer-o; regrettable , doma-o.
affirmative, jes-a (171).
(be) afraid, tim-i.
Africa, Afrik-o.
after (prep.), post (89).
afternoon, posttagmez-o.
again, denov-e, re-e (223).
against (prep.), kontra.
age, a-o; of , plena-a; old , maljunec-o.
(give an) agency, komisi-i.
agent, agent-o.
agitate, agit-i.

313

agony, agoni-o.
agree, konsent-i; (contract) kontrakt-i.
agreeable, agrabl-a.
aid, help-i.
aim at, cel-i.
air, aer-o; to , aerum-i; (music) ari-o.
alas!, ho ve (273).
alcohol, alkohol-o.
alcove, alkov-o.
alert, vigl-a.
Alexander, Aleksandr-o.
Alexandria, Aleksandri-o.
Alfred, Alfred-o.
algebra, algebr-o.
alive, viv-a.
all (pronoun and adj.), iuj (173); (indefinite pronoun) io (233); (adv.
of quantity) iom (194); (whole, entire) tut-a.
alliance, lig-o.
allow, permes-i.
allude, alud-i.
allure, log-i.
almanac, almanak-o.
almost (adv.), preska.
alms, almoz-o.
alone, sol-a.
along (prep.), la (191); with, kune kun.
aloud, lat-e.
alphabet, alfabet-o.
already (adv.), jam.
also (adv.), anka.
altar, altar-o.
alter (trans.), an-i, aliig-i.
although (conj.), kvankam.
always (adv.), iam (187).
America, Amerik-o.
amiable, afabl-a, amind-a.
amid, meze de, inter (85).
among (prep.), inter (85).
amount, sum-o, kvant-o; a certain , iom (217).
amphibious, amfibi-a.

314

amphitheatre, amfiteatr-o.
amuse, amuz-i.
analyse, analiz-i.
ancestor, prapatr-o (282).
anchor, ankr-o.
ancient, antikv-a.
and (conj.), kaj (26).
anecdote, anekdot-o.
anew, denov-e.
angel, anel-o.
angle, angul-o.
angry, koler-a.
animal, best-o.
ankle, maleol-o.
announce, anonc-i.
annoy, agren-i.
anoint, mir-i.
answer, respond-i.
ant, formik-o.
antelope, antilop-o.
antipathy, antipati-o.
antique, antikv-a.
anvil, ambos-o.
anxious, maltrankvil-a.
any (pronoun and adj.), iu (203); (adv. of quantity) iom (217); kind,
time, thing, etc., see table, 235.
any more (adv.), plu.
apartment, apartament-o.
apathy, apati-o.
apologise, pardonon pet-i.
apology (defence), apologi-o.
apparatus, aparat-o.
appear (come in sight), aper-i; (seem) ajn-i.
appearance (aspect), aspekt-o, mien-o, vidi-o.
appetite, apetit-o.
applaud, aplad-i.
apple, pom-o.
apply (put on), almet-i; to (for information, etc.), sin turni al.
approach, alproksimi-i al.
appropriate, proprigi al si; (suitable), konven-a, dec-a.

315

approve, aprob-i.
approximate, proksimum-a.
apricot, abrikot-o.
April, april-o.
apron, antatuk-o.
aquarium, akvari-o.
Arab, arab-o; street , bub-o.
arbitrate, arbitraci-i.
arbor, lab-o.
arc, ark-o.
arcade, arkad-o.
archer, pafarkist-o.
Archimedes, Arimed-o.
architecture, aritektur-o.
arena, aren-o.
argue, argument-i.
Aristeides, Aristejd-o.
aristocrat, aristokrat-o.
Aristotle, Aristotel-o.
arithmetic, aritmetik-o.
arm (of the body), brak-o; (weapon) armil-o.
army, arme-o.
aroma, arom-o.
around (prep.), irka (89, 160).
arouse, incit-i, vek-i.
arrange, aran-i.
arrest, arest-i.
arrive, alven-i.
arrogant, arogant-a.
arrow, sag-o.
art, art-o.
Arthur, Artur-o.
article (grammatical, literary) artikol-o.
artificial, artefarit-a.
artless, naiv-a.
as (adv.) kiel; as as tiel kiel (156); if, though, kvaza
(250); far as, is (prep., 46); much as , tiom kiom (164).
ascertain, certi-i; the truth of, konstat-i.
(be) ashamed, hont-i.
ashes, cindr-o.

316

Asia, Azi-o.
aside from (prep.), krom.
ask (inquire), demand-i; (request), pet-i.
asparagus, asparag-o.
aspect, aspekt-o, mien-o.
ass, azen-o.
assemble, kunven-i, kunvok-i.
assist, help-i.
association (organization), asoci-o.
assurance, aplomb-o, certigo.
at (prep.), e (125, 160), je (260); the rate of, po (175).
athlete, atlet-o.
atmosphere, atmosfer-o.
attack, atak-i.
attain, ating-i, traf-i.
attempt, prov-i.
attentive, atent-a.
attest, atest-i.
attribute, atribut-o.
August, agust-o.
Australia, Astrali-o.
author, ator-o, verkist-o.
automatic, atomat-a.
autumn, atun-o.
avaricious, avar-a.
avenge, ven-i.
avenue, ale-o, bulvard-o.
avoid, evit-i.
awake (trans.), vek-i.
away (adv.), for (71); (distant), malproksim-e (170).
axe, hakil-o.
axis (axle), aks-o.
B.
babble, babil-i.
baby, infanet-o.
bachelor, fral-o; of arts (A.B.), abiturient-o.
back (of the body), dors-o; to the rear (adv.), malantaen (121).
bacon, lard-o.
bag, sak-o, valiz-o.

317

bagatelle, bagatel-o.
bake (trans.), bak-i.
balance (trans.), balanc-i; (scales), pesil-o.
ball (to play with), pilk-o; (dance), bal-o; (globe), glob-o.
banana, banan-o.
band (stripe), stri-o; (music), orkestr-o; (group), ar-o (126).
bandage, banda-i.
banish, ekzil-i.
bank (financial), bank-o; (shore), bord-o.
(become) bankrupt, bankrot-i
banner, flag-o, standard-o.
banquet, festen-o.
bar, bar-i.
barbarian, barbar-o.
bare, nud-a.
bark (of trees), el-o; (of dogs), boj-i.
barrel, barel-o; organ, gurd-o.
barren, senfrukt-a.
barrister, advokat-o.
barytone, bariton-o.
base (foundation), fundament-o, baz-o; (ignoble), malnobl-a.
basin, vaz-o, kuv-o.
basket, korb-o.
bass (voice), bas-o.
bathe (trans.), ban-i.
battle, batal-i.
be, est-i (109).
beak, bek-o.
beam (wooden), trab-o; (light), radi-o.
bean (leguminous fruit), fab-o; (garden bean), fazeol-o.
bear (animal), urs-o; (carry), port-i; (endure), elport-i, sufer-i; (produce,
give birth to), nask-i.
beard, barb-o.
beast, best-o.
beat, bat-i; (surpass), super-i, venk-i.
beautiful, bel-a.
because (conj.), ar (83), tial ke (83); of (prep.), pro (86).
become, i-i, fari-i (232); (be suitable), konven-i, dec-i.
bed, lit-o.
bee, abel-o.

318

beef, bova-o (227, c).

beefsteak, bifstek-o.
beet, bet-o.
before (prep.), anta (89, 90, 120, 159, 160); (conj.), anta ol (97, 98);
(adv.), antae, us antae.
beg (request), pet-i; (ask alms), almozon pet-i.
beggar, almozul-o.
begin (trans.), komenc-i (see also prefix ek-, 206).
behave, kondut-i.
behind (prep.), post.
behold, rigard-i, vid-i; (adv.), jen (228).
Belgian, belg-o.
believe, kred-i (265).
bell, sonoril-o.
belong, aparten-i.
below (prep.), sub; (adv.), sub-e, malsupr-e.
belt, zon-o.
bench, benk-o.
bend (trans.), klin-i, fleks-i.
benevolence, bonfar-o.
berry, ber-o.
beside (prep.), krom; (near), apud; (at the side of), flanke de.
bet, vet-i.
betray, perfid-i.
betrothed (man), fian-o.
between (prep.), inter (85, 89).
bewitch, ensor-i.
beyond (prep.), preter.
bicycle, bicikl-o.
bid (order), ordon-i; farewell, adia-i.
big, grand-a.
bill (of bird), bek-o; bank , bankbilet-o; hand, afi-o; (reckoning),
kalkul-o.
bind (fasten), lig-i; (wounds), banda-i.
bird, bird-o.
biscuit, biskvit-o; (ring-shaped), kring-o.
bit (piece), pec-o; (adv.), iom (217).
bite, mord-i.
black, nigr-a; to (shoes, etc.), cir-i.
blackberry, rubus-o.

319

blackbird, merl-o.
blacking, cir-o.
blade (of knife, etc.), kling-o.
bleat, blek-i.
bless, ben-i.
blind, blind-a.
block (of wood), stip-o.
blood, sang-o.
bloom, flor-i (116).
blot (spot), makul-o.
blotter, sorbil-o, sorbpaper-o.
blouse, bluz-o, kitel-o.
blow, blov-i; (stroke), bat-o.
blue, blu-a; ish, dubeblu-a.
blush, rui-i.
board (plank), tabul-o; (food), nutrad-o.
boast, fanfaron-i.
boat, boat-o, ipet-o.
body, korp-o.
boil (intrans.), bol-i (275).
bolt (fasten), rigl-i.
bonbon, bombon-o.
bond (fastening), ligil-o.
bone, ost-o.
book, libr-o; note, copy, kajer-o.
boot, bot-o.
border (edge), rand-o.
bore (holes), bor-i; (weary), enuig-i.
(be) born, naski-i.
borrow, pruntepren-i.
Boston, Boston-o.
both (pronoun and adj.), amba (238); (adv.), kaj (26).
bottle, botel-o.
bottom, fund-o, malsupr-o.
bough, bran-o.
boulevard, bulvard-o.
boundary, lim-o.
bouquet, buked-o.
bow (of ribbon), bant-o; (for shooting), pafark-o.
bow (bend), klini-i, salut-i.

320

box, kest-o; small , skatol-o.

boy, knab-o.
bracket (shelf), bret-o.
brag, fanfaron-i.
braid, plekt-i.
brain, cerb-o.
branch (of tree), bran-o; (of work or study), fak-o.
brandish, sving-i.
brandy, brand-o.
brave, brav-o.
bread, pan-o.
break (trans)., romp-i; to pieces, frakas-i.
breakfast, matenman-o.
breathe, spir-i.
brick, brik-o.
bridge, pont-o.
bridle, brid-o.
bright (clear), hel-a.
bring, alport-i; forth (produce), nask-i; up (educate), eduk-i.
brisk, vigl-a.
Briton, Brit-o.
broad, lar-a.
brochure, brour-o.
bronze, bronz-o.
brood (birds), kov-i.
brother, frat-o.
brown, brun-a.
brownie, kobold-o.
bruise, kontuz-i.
brush, bros-i.
brute, brut-o.
bucket, sitel-o.
buckle, buk-o.
bud, buron-o.
build, konstru-i.
bulb, tuber-o, bulb-o.
Bulgarian, Bulgar-o.
bull, bovvir-o.
bullet, kugl-o.
bunch, fask-o.

321

bundle, fask-o, paka-o.

bungle, fu-i.
burden, ar-i.
burn (intrans.), brul-i (275).
burst (intrans.), krev-i.
bury, enterig-i.
but (conj.), sed; (prep.), krom.
butcher, bu-i.
butter, buter-o.
butterfly, papili-o.
button, buton-o; to , butonum-i.
buy, aet-i.
buzz, zum-i.
by (prep.), per (64); de (169, 170); (past), preter; (according to), la
(191).
C.
cab, fiakr-o.
cabbage, brasik-o.
cage, ka-o.
cake, kuk-o.
calculate, kalkul-i.
caldron, kaldron-o.
calendar, kalendar-o.
calf, bovid-o; (of the leg), tibikarn-o.
call, vok-i; (visit), vizit-i.
calling (profession), profesi-o.
calm, kviet-a, trankvil-a.
camel, kamel-o.
camera, kamer-o.
can (be able), pov-i (72); (preserve fruit, etc.), konfit-i.
candle, kandel-o.
candy, kand-o.
canoe, kanot-o.
cap, ap-o.
capable, kapabl-a.
capital (money), kapital-o; (excellent), boneg-a; (city), efurb-o.
capitol, kapitol-o.
car, vagon-o.
card, kart-o; visiting , vizitkart-o.

322

care (for), zorg-i (pri).

caress, dorlot-i, kares-i.
carpet, tapi-o.
carriage, kale-o, veturil-o.
carrot, karot-o.
carry, port-i.
carve, skulpt-i.
case (small box), skatol-o; (chest), kest-o; (legal), proces-o; (holder), ujo (181), ing-o (237); (occasion), okaz-o; (grammatical), kaz-o.
cashier, kasist-o.
cascade, kaskad-o.
cast, et-i.
castle, kastel-o.
cat, kat-o.
catch, kapt-i.
cattle, brut-o, brutar-o.
cauliflower, florbrasik-o.
cause, ig-i (214); (produce a result), kaz-i; (motive), kial-o; tial-o;
(espoused or advocated), afer-o; (legal), proces-o.
caution, avert-i.
cavity, kav-o.
cease (intrans.), es-i.
ceiling, plafon-o.
celebrate, fest-i, solenig-i; ed, fama.
celery, celeri-o.
cellar, kel-o.
cent, cend-o.
center, centr-o.
centigram, centigram-o (284).
centiliter, centilitr-o (284).
centimeter, centimetr-o (284).
certain, cert-a; a (one), iu (pronoun and adj., 203); amount, etc.,
see table, 235.
certainly, nepr-e, cert-e, ja (215).
certify, atest-i, certig-i, konstat-i.
chain, en-o; (fetter), katen-o; (of mountains), montar-o.
chair, se-o.
(be) chairman, prezid-i.
chalk, kret-o.
chance, anc-o; (hazard), hazard-o; (opportunity), okazo.

323

change (trans.), an-i; (coins), moner-oj.

chapel, kapel-o.
chapter, apitr-o.
character, karakter-o.
charge (commission), komisi-o; (burden), ar-o; (price, cost), prez-o,
kost-o.
charm, arm-i.
chase (game, etc.), as-i; (drive off), forpel-i.
chatter, babil-i.
check (on bank), ek-o.
cheek, vang-o.
cheese, froma-o.
chemise, emiz-o.
chemistry, emi-o.
chemist's shop, apotek-o.
cheque, ek-o.
cherry, eriz-o.
chest (box), kest-o; (with a lid), kofr-o.
chestnut, katan-o.
chew, ma-i.
chief, ef-a, precip-a; (leader), estr-o (253).
child, infan-o, id-o (207).
chimney, kamen-o.
chin, menton-o.
china (porcelain), porcelan-o; (country), inuj-o.
Chinaman, in-o.
chirp, pep-i.
chocolate, okolad-o.
choir, or-o.
choose, elekt-i.
chop, hak-i; (cutlet), kotlet-o.
chrestomathy, krestomati-o.
Christ, Krist-o.
church (building), preej-o.
chute, ut-o.
cigar, cigar-o.
cigarette, cigared-o.
cinnamon, cinam-o.
cipher, cifer-o.
circle, cirkl-o, rond-o.

324

circular (letter, etc.), cirkuler-o.

circumstance, okaz-o, detal-o, cirkonstanc-o.
citizen, regnan-o, urban-o.
city, urb-o.
civilise, civiliz-i.
clack, krak-i.
claim, pretend-i.
clamber, ramp-i.
clap (trans.), klak-i.
class, klas-o.
clatter, (trans.), klak-i.
claw, ungeg-o.
clay, argil-o.
clean, pur-a.
clear (bright), hela; (distinct), klar-a.
clearing (financial), spez-o.
clergyman, pastr-o.
clerk, komiz-o.
clever, lert-a.
climate, klimat-o.
climb up, grimp-i, supren ramp-i.
cloak, mantel-o.
clock, horlo-o.
close (trans.), ferm-i; (dense), dens-a; to (prep.), apud; proksim-e de
(170).
cloth (in general), tof-o; (woollen, etc.), drap-o; (piece of), tuk-o;
table, tablotuk-o.
clothe, vest-i.
cloud, nub-o.
club (organization), klub-o; (weapon), bastoneg-o.
coal, karb-o.
coat, vest-o; (short), jak-o; (frock), redingot-o; over, surtut-o.
cock (fowl), kok-o.
coffee, kaf-o.
collect (trans.), kolekt-i.
college, kolegi-o.
colonel, kolonel-o.
color, kolor-o.
column, kolon-o.
comb, komb-i.

325

come, ven-i.
comedy, komedi-o.
comfort (console), konsol-i; (freedom from pain, etc.), komfort-o.
command, ordon-i; (military and naval), komand-i.
commerce, komerc-o.
commission (entrusted), komisi-o; (percentage of profit), tantiem-o,
komisipag-o.
committee, komitat-o.
common (general), eneral-a; (mutual), komun-a; (vulgar), vulgar-a.
communicate, komunik-i.
company (commercial), kompanio; (guests), gastar-o; (presence), eesto.
compare (trans.), kompar-i (266).
compassion, kompat-o.
compete, konkur-i.
competition, konkurad-o; (for prizes), konkurs-o; (in business),
konkurenc-o.
complain, plend-i.
complicate, komplik-i.
compose (music or literature), verk-i.
compositor (of type), kompostist-o.
conceal, ka-i (252).
concern, koncern-i (266); (anxiety), maltrankvilec-o.
concerning (prep.), pri. (264, c).
concert (musical), koncert-o.
condemn, kondamn-i.
condition, cirkonstanc-o; (stipulation), kondi-o; (state), stat-o.
conduct (lead), konduk-i; oneself (behave), kondut-i.
conduct (behavior), kondut-o; (in regard to right or wrong), mor-o.
conductor (of car, etc.), konduktor-o.
confess, konfes-i.
confide, konfid-i.
conform, konform-i (266).
confound (confuse), konfuz-i.
congratulate, gratul-i.
congress, kongres-o.
conquer, venk-i.
conscience, konscienc-o.
(be) conscious, konsci-i.
consent, konsent-i.

326

consequently, sekv-e, do; tial (78).

(be) conservative, konservativ-a.
consist, konsist-i.
console, konsol-i.
consonant (letter), konsonant-o.
conspire, konspir-i.
constant, konstant-a.
constitution, konstituci-o.
consul, konsul-o.
consult, konsult-i, pet-i konsilon de.
contaminate, infekt-i.
content, kontent-a.
continent (land), kontinent-o.
continue, dar-i, darig-i.
contour, kontur-o.
contract (commercial and legal), kontrakt-i.
contralto, kontralt-o.
contrary, mal-o (67); kontrastarem-a.
control, kontrol-i; (govern), reg-i.
convenient, konven-a, oportun-a.
convince, konvink-i.
cook, kuir-i.
copper, kupr-o.
copy, kopi-i; (of a book, etc.), ekzempler-o.
coquettish, koket-a.
cork, top-i; (bark of cork tree), kork-o.
corner, angul-o.
corporal, corporeal, korp-a.
corps (military), korpus-o.
corpse, kadavr-o.
correct, korekt-i; (right), prav-a.
correspond, korespond-i.
corridor, koridor-o.
cost, kost-i.
costume, kostum-o.
cotton, koton-o.
cough, tus-i.
counsel, konsil-i.
count, kalkul-i, sum-i, nombr-i; (person), graf-o.
county, grafland-o.

327

country, land-o; (as opposed to city), kampar-o.

coupon, kupon-o.
(be) courageous, kura-i.
course (of lessons), kurs-o; (of a meal), servic-o; of , kompreneble; in
the of, en la daro de.
court, kort-o, korteg-o, juej-o.
courteous, entil-a.
courtesy, entilec-o; (kindness), komplez-o.
cousin, kuz-o.
cover, kovr-i; (put covering upon), teg-i.
crab, krab-o.
crack (split) (trans.), fend-i; (crackle), krak-i; (burst open) (intrans.),
krev-i.
cradle, lulil-o.
crafty, ruz-a.
cravat, kravat-o.
crawl, ramp-i.
crazy, frenez-a.
cream, krem-o.
create, kre-i.
creep, ramp-i; up, grimp-i.
crime, krim-o.
crippled, kripl-a.
criticise, kritik-i.
crooked, tord-a, malrekt-a, kurb-a.
cross, kruc-o; (angry), koler-a; off, trastrek-i.
crowd, amas-o, anar-o (145, 126).
crown, kron-o.
crucify, krucum-i.
cruel, kruel-a.
crush, pist-i, premeg-i.
crust, krust-o.
cry (weep), plor-i; (shout), kri-i; (of animals), blek-i.
cucumber, kukum-o.
cultivate, kultur-i; the soil, terkultur-i.
cunning, ruz-a.
cup, tas-o; (goblet), pokal-o.
cupboard, rank-o.
curious (odd), kurioz-a; (inquisitive), scivol-a.
curl (of hair), bukl-o.

328

curtain, kurten-o.
curve, kurb-o.
cushion, kusen-o.
custom, kutim-o; (tax), impost-o.
cut, tran-i; (of a garment), fason-o.
cutlet, kotlet-o.
cylinder, cilindr-o.
Cyrus, Cirus-o.

329

D-L
D.
dabble (a liquid), plad-i.
dainty, delikat-a.
damage, difekt-i.
Damocles, Damokl-o.
Dane, dan-o.
danger, daner-o.
dance, danc-i.
date (fruit), daktil-o; (time), dat-o.
dawn, tagi-o.
day, tag-o.
deaf, surd-a.
dear (prized), kar-a; (expensive), multekost-a.
debase (adulterate), fals-i; (make bad), malbonig-i.
decay (mould), im-o; (in health), kaduk-i.
deceive, tromp-i.
December, decembr-o.
decide, decid-i.
decigram, decigram-o (284).
deciliter, decilitr-o (284).
decimeter, decimetr-o (284).
deck (of ship), ferdek-o; (adorn), ornam-i.
declaim, deklam-i.
deep, profund-a.
deer, cerv-o.
defend, defend-i.
define, defin-i, priskrib-i.
degree, grad-o.
dekagram, dekagram-o (284).
dekaliter, dekalitr-o (284).
dekameter, dekametr-o (284).
delay, prokrast-i.
delegate, deleg-i.
delicate, delikat-a.
delightful, arm-a, plaeg-a.
deliver (supply), liver-i; (set free), liberig-i.
delusion, iluzi-o.
demand, postul-i.

330

dense, dens-a.
deny, ne-i (171).
department (of work, etc.), fak-o.
desert, dezert-o; (just reward), merit-o.
deserve, merit-i.
desire, dezir-i.
desk, pupitr-o, skribtabl-o.
dessert, desert-o.
destine, destin-i; difin-i.
destiny, destin-o; (lot), sort-o.
destroy, detru-i, neniig-i.
detail, detal-o.
dew, ros-o.
diamond, diamant-o.
dictionary, vortar-o.
dictate (letters), dikt-i.
die, mort-i.
different, divers-a, malsam-a, diferenc-a.
differentiate, diferencig-i.
dig, fos-i.
dignity (rank), rang-o.
diligent, diligent-a.
dimension, dimensio; (size), ampleks-o.
Diogenes, Diogen-o.
dip (in liquid), tremp-i.
diploma, diplom-o; holder of , diplomit-o.
diplomat, diplomat-o.
direct (guide), direkt-i; (undeviating), rekt-a.
disburse, elspez-i, elpag-i.
discount, rabat-i.
discuss, diskut-i, priparol-i.
disdain, malat-i, malestim-i.
dish (flat), plad-o.
dispatch (letter), depe-o.
distance, distanc-o.
distinct, klar-a.
distinguish, disting-i.
distract (the attention), distr-i; (confuse), konfuz-i.
disturb, en-i, maltrankvilig-i.
diverse, divers-a.

331

divide (trans.), divid-i.

do, far-i; (suffice), sufi-i.
doctor, doktor-o; (medical), kuracist-o.
dog, hund-o.
doll, pup-o.
dollar, dolar-o.
donkey, azen-o.
door, pord-o; handle, ans-o.
doubt, dub-i.
down (hair or feathers), lanug-o; (downward) (adv.), malsupren.
dove, kolomb-o.
drag (trans.), tren-i.
draw (pull), tir-i; (sketch), skiz-i.
drawer, tirkest-o.
drawing-room, salon-o.
dream (in sleep), son-i; (fancy), rev-i.
drench, tremp-i.
dress, vest-i (sin); (frock), rob-o; suit, frak-o.
dressing (sauce), sac-o.
drink, trink-i.
drip, gut-i.
drive (off), pel-i; (vehicle), veturig-i; (roadway), ose-o.
drown (intrans.), dron-i.
drug, drog-o; store, apotek-o.
drum, tambur-o.
dry, sek-a.
duck, anas-o.
dues, kotiza-o; pay , kotiz-i.
dumb, mut-a; animal, brut-o.
during (prep.), dum (96); en la daro de-.
dusk, krepusk-o.
dust, polv-o; remove the , senpolvig-i.
duty, dev-o; be on , deor-i.
dwell, lo-i.
E.
each (adj. and pronoun), iu (173).
eager, avid-a.
eagle, agl-o.
ear (of the body), orel-o.

332

early, fru-a.
earth, ter-o; (the planet), terglob-o.
east, orient-o.
Easter, Pask-o.
easy, facil-a.
eat, man-i.
echo, e-o.
economical, parem-a.
edge, rand-o; (of rivers, etc.), bord-o.
edit, redakt-i.
editor, redaktor-o.
editorial body, redakci-o.
educate, (rear), eduk-i; (teach), instru-i.
effect, efekt-o.
effective, efektiv-a.
(be) efficacious, efik-i.
egg, ov-o.
Egypt, Egipt-o.
eight (adj.), ok (136).
either (pronoun and adj.), iu (203); iu (173); unu a la alia; (adv.), a;
on side (adv.), ambaflanke (238).
elbow, kubut-o.
electric, elektr-a.
elk, alk-o.
elm, ulm-o.
eloquent, elokvent-a.
embroider, brod-i.
eminent, eminent-a.
empire, imperi-o.
employ (hire), dung-i; oneself, sin okupi; (use), uz-i.
employee, komiz-o, dungit-o, oficist-o.
employment, ofic-o, okupad-o.
enchant, ensor-i, rav-i.
encore (adv.), bis.
end (trans.), fin-i.
endow, dot-i.
endure, sufer-i, elport-i.
engineer, inenier-o.
Englishman, angl-o.
enjoy, u-i; oneself, sin amuz-i.

333

enlightened, kler-a.
enlist (trans.), varb-i.
enroll (trans.), registr-i, varb-i.
enthusiasm, entuziasm-o.
entire, tut-a.
entrust, komisii, alkonfid-i.
envelope (of letter), kovert-o.
envy, envi-i.
(be an) epicure, frand-i.
epoch, epok-o.
equal, egal-a.
err, erar-i.
establish, establ-i, fond-i; (prove, etc.), konstat-i.
estate, bien-o.
esteem, estim-i.
estimate, taks-i.
eternal, etern-a, iam-a.
Europe, Erop-o.
evangel, evangeli-o.
even (level), eben-a; number, parnombro; (actually) (adv.), e.
evening, vesper-o (93); dress (of man), frak-o.
ever (adv.), iam (212); (indefinite adv.), ajn (236); (always), iam (187).
every (one), (pronoun and adv.), iu (173); thing, way, etc., see
table, 235.
evolution, evoluci-o.
exact, akurat-a, ust-a; (demand), postul-i.
examine, ekzamen-i; and check, kontrol-i.
example, ekzempl-o; (model), model-o.
Excellency (title), mot-o (258).
except, escept-i (266); (prep.), krom.
excite, ekscit-i.
exercise (trans.), ekzerc-i.
exhale, elspir-i.
exhort, admon-i.
exile, ekzil-i.
exist, ekzist-i.
expect, atend-i.
expend (money), elspez-i; (energy, etc.), uz-i, eluz-i.
experienced, spert-a.
experiment, eksperiment-i.

334

expert, spert-a, lert-a.

explode (intrans.), eksplod-i (275).
explore, esplor-i.
express, esprim-i; (train), rapida vagonaro.
extend (trans.), etend-i, pligrandig-i, plilongig-i.
extensive, vast-a, vastampleks-a.
extent (size), ampleks-o.
extinguish, esting-i.
extraordinary, eksterordinar-a.
eye, okul-o; brow, brov-o; lid, palpebr-o.
F.
fable, fabel-o.
face, viza-o.
fact, fakt-o; in , fakt-e, efektiv-e, ja (215).
fade, velk-i.
fair (just), just-a; (beautiful), bel-a.
fairy, fe-o, fein-o.
faint, sven-i.
faithful, fidel-a.
fall, fal-i; (autumn), atun-o.
false, fals-a; (treacherous), perfid-a.
fame, fam-o.
familiar, familiar-a, kutim-a.
family, famili-o.
fancy, imag-i, rev-i.
far, malproksim-e; as as (prep.), is (46).
farm (as a tenant), farm-i; (till the soil), terkultur-i.
farewell (adv. and interjection), adia (171, 273).
fashion, fason-o, mod-o.
fasten, lig-i.
fat, gras-o; (corpulent), dik-a.
fatal, fatal-a.
fate, sort-o, fatal-o, destin-o.
father, patr-o.
faucet, kran-o.
favor, favor-i; a , komplezo.
favorable, favor-a.
fay, fe-o, fein-o.
fear, tim-i.

335

feather, plum-o.
feature, trajt-o.
feed, nutr-i; flocks, pat-i.
feel, sent-i; (with fingers, etc.), palp-i.
female, in-o (59).
fervor, fervor-o.
fetter (chain, etc.), katen-o.
fever, febr-o.
fianc, fian-o.
fie (interjection), fi (273).
field, kamp-o.
fight, batal-i, milit-i.
fill, plenig-i.
find, trov-i.
fine, bel-a, delikat-a; (of money), monpun-o.
finger, fingr-o; index , montra fingro; little , malgranda fingro;
middle , longa fingro; ring , ringa fingro.
finish (trans.), fin-i.
fir, abi-o.
fire, fajr-o; set to, ekbrulig-i.
firm, firm-a.
fish, fi-o; (catch fish), fikapt-i.
fist, pugn-o.
fit, almezur-i; (be) , tag-i.
(be) fitting, konven-i; (decent), dec-i.
five (adj.), kvin (136).
flag, flag-o; standard-o.
flat, glat-a, eben-a; plat-a.
flesh, karn-o.
flex (trans.), fleks-i.
floor, plank-o.
flour, farun-o.
flow, flu-i.
flower, flor-o (116).
fluid, fluid-a.
fly, flug-i; (insect), mu-o.
foam, am-o.
focus, fokus-o.
fog, nebul-o.
fold, fald-i.

336

folk, popol-o.
follow, sekv-i, postven-i, postir-i.
(be) fond of sweets, frand-i.
fondle, dorlot-i.
foot (of the body), pied-o; (measure), fut-o.
for (prep.), por (95, 98, 262); pro (86); (conj.), ar (83).
force, fort-o; (compel), devig-i; (upon), altrud-i (al).
fore-, pra- (282).
forehead, frunt-o.
foreign, fremd-a.
forge (falsify), fals-i.
forget, forges-i.
forgive, pardon-i.
fork, fork-o.
form, form-i, alform-i, model-i.
formal, solen-a.
found, fond-i.
foundation, fundament-o.
four (adj.), kvar (136).
fount, font-o.
fountain, fontan-o.
fox, vulp-o.
fragrance, arom-o, bonodor-o.
frame (of picture), kadr-o.
frank, afrank-i.
Frederick, Frederik-o.
free, liber-a.
Frenchman, franc-o.
frequent, oft-a; (visit often), vizitad-i.
fresh, fre-a, nov-a.
Friday, vendred-o.
friend, amik-o.
fringe, fran-o.
frivolous, malserioz-a.
frock coat, redingot-o.
frog, ran-o.
from (prep.), de (89, 170); el; (cause), pro (86).
frost, frost-o; (hoar), prujn-o.
froth, am-o.
fruit, frukt-o.

337

fruitless (vain), van-a.

fry (trans.), frit-i.
function (of machinery, etc.), funkci-i.
funereal, funebr-a.
fulfil, plenum-i.
full, plen-a.
fur, fel-o; (coat or wrap), pelt-o.
furious, furioz-a.
furnish (supply), liver-i; (provide), proviz-i; (a house), mebl-i.
furniture (piece of), mebl-o.
furrow, sulk-o.
further (adv.), plu.
fuse (trans.), fand-i.
futile, van-a.
future, estontec-o; (grammatical), estont-o; (adj.), estont-a.
G.
gain, gajn-i, obten-i.
gallery, galeri-o; (for pictures), pinakotek-o.
gallop, galop-i.
gamin, bub-o.
gape (yawn), osced-i.
garden, arden-o.
garland, girland-o.
gas, gas-o.
gather (trans.), kolekt-i.
gay, gaj-a.
gaze, fikse rigard-i.
gazette, gazet-o.
general, eneral-a, komun-a; (military), general-o.
gentleman, sinjor-o.
geometry, geometri-o.
German, german-o.
Gertrude, Gertrud-o.
ghost, fantom-o.
gift, donac-o.
ginger, zingibr-o.
girdle, zon-o.
give, don-i; (as a gift), donac-i; information, inform-i; notice,
aviz-i; witness, atest-i; birth to, nask-i.

338

(be) glad, oj-i (116).

glass (material), vitr-o; (tumbler), glas-o.
glide, glit-i.
globe, glob-o.
glory, glor-o.
glossy (polished), polurit-a.
glove, gant-o.
glue, glu-i.
gnash, grinc-i.
go, ir-i; (in vehicle, boat, etc.), vetur-i; on a pilgrimage, pilgrim-i.
goal, cel-o.
goblet, pokal-o.
God, Di-o.
good, bon-a; be for, tag-i por.
good-bye (adv. and interjection), adia (171, 273).
goose, anser-o.
gospel, evangeli-o.
govern, reg-i.
graceful, graci-a.
grade, grad-o; (rank), rang-o.
grain (wheat, etc.), gren-o; (unit) er-o (276).
gram, gram-o (284).
grammar, gramatik-o.
grandfather, av-o.
grandson, nep-o.
grape, vinber-o.
grass, herb-o.
grasshopper, akrid-o.
grate, rasp-i; grater, raspil-o.
grating (bar or lattice), krad-o.
grave, tomb-o; (serious), grav-a.
gravitate, gravit-i.
gravy, sac-o.
gray, griz-a.
grieve (trans.), agren-i, malojig-i; (intrans.) maloj-i.
grind, grinc-i.
great, grand-a; (remote in ancestry), pra- (282).
Greek, grek-o.
green, verd-a; ish, dubeverd-a.
greet, salut-i.

339

groan, em-i.
group, grup-o, ar-o (126).
ground, ter-o; floor, tereta-o.
grow, kresk-i, veget-i.
guard, gard-i.
guess, diven-i.
guest, gast-o.
guide, gvid-i, direkt-i.
guilty, kulp-a.
gunpowder, pulv-o.
gush (of liquids), pruc-i.
H.
habit, kutim-o.
hack, hak-i; (carriage), fiakr-o.
hail (frozen rain), hajl-o.
(a) hair, har-o; pencil, penik-o.
half, duon-o (166, 277).
halt (intrans.), halt-i.
ham, ink-o.
hammer, martel-o.
hand, man-o; (of clock), montril-o.
handbill, afi-o.
handicraft, meti-o.
handsome, bel-a.
hang (intrans.), pend-i.
handy, oportun-a.
happen, okaz-i.
happy, feli-a.
harbor, haven-o.
hardly (adv.), apena.
hare, lepor-o.
haricot (bean), fazeol-o.
harness, jung-i.
harvest, rikolt-i.
hasten (trans.), akcel-i; (intrans.) rapid-i.
hat, apel-o.
haughty, fier-a.
haul, tren-i.
have, hav-i; to, dev-i.

340

hay, fojn-o.
hazard, hazard-o.
hazel-nut, avel-o.
he (pronoun), li (32, 37, 42).
head, kap-o; (adj.), ef-a.
health, san-o; state of (good or bad) , fart-o.
hear, ad-i.
heart, kor-o; by , (by rote), parker-e.
heat (trans.), hejt-i, varmig-i.
heaven, iel-o; heavenly body, astr-o.
heavy, pez-a.
Hebrew, hebre-o.
heel (of foot), kalkan-o; (of shoe), kalkanum-o.
hektare, hektar-o (284).
hektogram, hektogram-o (284).
hektoliter, hektolitr-o (284).
hektometer, hektometr-o (284).
help, help-i (265).
hen, kokin-o.
herb, herb-o.
hero, hero-o.
hesitate, hezit-i.
hide, ka-i (252); (skin of animals), fel-o.
Hiero, Hieron-o.
high, alt-a.
hinge, arnir-o.
hip, koks-o.
hire (persons), dung-i; (houses, etc.), lu-i.
hiss, sibl-i.
history, histori-o.
ho (interjection), ho (273).
hoar (frost), prujn-o.
hoarse, rak-a.
hog, pork-o.
hold, ten-i.
holder (handle), tenil-o, ans-o; (receptacle), uj-o (181); ing-o (237).
hole, tru-o; (cavity), kav-o.
Holland, Holand-o.
holy, sankt-a.
home, hejm-o; at , ehejme.

341

homesickness, nostalgi-o.
honest, honest-a.
honey, miel-o.
honeysuckle, lonicer-o.
honor, honor-i; (as term of address), mot-o (258).
hook, kro-i.
hope, esper-i.
horizon, horizont-o.
horizontal, horizontal-a.
horn, korn-o.
horse, eval-o.
horse-radish, armoraci-o.
hose, trump-oj; supporter, elk-o.
hotel, hotel-o.
hour, hor-o (185).
house, dom-o; at the of (prep.), e (125, 160).
how (adv.), kiel (134); kiamanier-e; much, kiom (140, 185).
however (conj.), tamen; (adv.), ajn (236).
hue, nuanc-o.
hum, zum-i.
human being, hom-o.
humble, humil-a.
humor, humor-o.
hundred (adj.), cent (142).
hungry, malsat-a.
hunt, ser-i; (game or wild animals), as-i.
hurdy-gurdy, gurd-o.
hurl, et-i.
hurrah (interjection), hura (273).
hurricane, uragan-o.
hurry, rapid-i.
husband, edz-o.
hypocrite, hipokrit-o.
I.
I (pronoun), mi (32, 37, 274).
ice, glaci-o; (food), glacia-o.
idea, ide-o.
ideal, ideal-o.
identical, ident-a.

342

idiom, idiom-o.
idiot, idiot-o.
if (conj.), se (240); as , kvaza (250); (whether), u.
ignore, ignor-i.
illusion, iluzi-o.
illustrate, ilustr-i.
image, bild-o.
imagine, imag-i.
imitate, imit-i.
immediate, tuj-a (171).
implicate, implik-i.
important, grav-a, serioz-a.
importunate, altrudem-a.
impose, trud-i.
impost, impost-o.
impress, impres-i.
impulse, impuls-o.
in (prep.), en (46, 89, 160); the presence of, e (125, 160).
inch, col-o.
incite, incit-i.
incline (trans.), klin-i.
incommode, en-i.
(be) indebted, uld-i.
indeed (adv.), ja (215); do; efektiv-e.
index, tabel-o.
Indian (American), indian-o, ruhatul-o; corn, maiz-o.
indifferent, indiferent-a.
industry (trade), industri-o.
inebriate, ebri-a.
inevitable, nepr-a, neevitebl-a.
infect, infekt-i.
influence, influ-i.
inform, inform-i, sciig-i.
ingenuous, naiv-a.
inhabitant, loant-o, an-o (145).
inhale, enspir-i.
ink, ink-o.
inquire, demand-i.
insect, insekt-o.
inside (adv.), intern-e; (prep.), en.

343

insist, insist-i.
inspect, inspekt-i, ekzamen-i, rigard-i, kontrol-i.
inspire, inspir-i.
instantaneous, moment-a.
instead of (prep.), anstata (98, 159).
instruct, instru-i; (order), ordon-i.
insult, insult-i.
insure (with a company), asekur-i; (make certain), certig-i.
intelligent, inteligent-a.
intend, intenc-i.
interest, interes-i; (of money), procent-o.
(be) intermittent, intermit-i.
internal, intern-a.
interpret, interpret-i.
intimate, intim-a.
intoxicated, ebri-a.
investigate, esplor-i, ekzamen-i, elser-i.
invite, invit-i.
iron (metal), fer-o; (linen), glad-i.
island, insul-o.
it (pronoun), i (32, 37, 42, 274); see also 50, 51.
Italian, ital-o.
J.
jacket, jak-o.
jail, karcer-o.
jam, kompot-o, frukta-o.
January, januar-o.
jaw (orifice, opening), fak-o; (of the skull), makzel-o; bone,
makzelost-o.
jealous, aluz-a.
jest, erc-i.
Jesus, Jesu-o.
Jew, hebre-o.
jewel, juvel-o.
jingle (intrans.), tint-i.
John, Johan-o.
joint, artik-o.
joke, erc-i.
journal, urnal-o, revu-o.

344

journey, voja-i.
judge, ju-i.
jug, kru-o.
juggle, ongl-i.
July, juli-o.
jump, salt-i.
June, juni-o.
jurist, jurist-o.
just (upright), just-a; (exact), ust-a; (adv.), ust-e, us.
K.
keep, ten-i, gard-i; (preserve), konserv-i; in mind, memor-i.
kerosene, petrol-o.
key, losil-o; (of piano, etc.), klav-o.
kill, mortig-i.
kilogram, kilogram-o (284).
kiloliter, kilolitr-o (284).
kilometer, kilometr-o (284).
kind (species), spec-o; (good), bon-a, bonkor-a; that , what , etc.,
see table, 235.
kindness, komplez-o, bonkorec-o.
king, re-o; dom, reolando.
kiss, kis-i.
knave, fripon-o.
knee, genu-o.
kneel, genufleks-i.
knit, trik-i.
knock, frap-i.
knot, tuber-o; (tied), liga-o; (of ribbon), bant-o.
know, sci-i; (be acquainted with), kon-i (117).
kobold, kobold-o.
L.
labor, labor-i; for the success or completion of something, klopod-i.
lace, punt-o; (of a shoe), la-o.
(be) lacking (intrans.) mank-i.
lake, lag-o.
lamb, afid-o; (meat), afida-o.
lame, lam-a.
lamp, lamp-o.

345

lance, lanc-o.
land, land-o; (estate), bien-o; (soil), ter-o.
landscape, pejza-o.
language, lingv-o.
lantern, lantern-o.
large, grand-a.
lark (bird), alad-o.
last (intrans.), dar-i; (in a series), last-a; (previous) pasint-a, anta-a.
latch, ans-o.
late, malfru-a.
Latin, latin-a.
latter, i-tiu (61, 62).
lattice, krad-o.
laugh, rid-i (265).
law, le-o; suit, proces-o; (rule), regul-o.
lawyer, advokat-o, leist-o.
lay, meti, kuig-i; aside, demet-i; claim, pretend-i.
layer, tavol-o.
lead, konduk-i.
lead (metal), plumb-o.
leaf, foli-o.
league (alliance), lig-o.
lean (trans.), apog-i, klin-i; (not fat), malgras-a.
leap, salt-i; year, superjar-o.
learn, lern-i; (news, etc.), scii-i.
learned, kler-a.
least (adv.), malplej (80), malpli multe (81); at , almena.
leather, led-o.
leave (trans.), las-i; off (intrans.), es-i.
leg, krur-o.
legal, le-a; process, proces-o.
lemon, citron-o.
lemonade, citrona-o, limonad-o.
lend, prunt-i, pruntedon-i.
lens, objektiv-o.
lengthen (trans.), etend-i, plilongig-i.
less (adv.), malpli (80); malpli multe (81).
lesson, lecion-o.
let (trans.), las-i; (rent), luig-i; (permit), permes-i.
letter (epistle), leter-o; (of the alphabet), liter-o.

346

lettuce, laktuk-o.
level, nivel-o; (flat), eben-a.
library, bibliotek-o; (collection of books), librar-o.
lick, lek-i.
lie (recline), ku-i (239); (tell falsehoods), mensog-i.
lift, lev-i.
light, lum-a, hel-a; (not heavy), malpez-a.
lightning, fulm-o.
like, at-i; (similar), simil-a; see also 250.
limb, membro; (of a tree), bran-o.
limit, lim-i.
linden, tili-o.
line, lini-o, vic-o, strek-o.
linen, tol-o.
lion, leon-o.
lip, lip-o.
liquid, fluid-a.
listen, askult-i.
liter, litr-o (284).
literal, laliter-a.
literature, literatur-o.
little, malgrand-a; (with slightly affectionate sense), et-a (198); (adv.),
malmulte, iom (217); by , iom post iom.
live, viv-i; (dwell), lo-i (133).
load, ar-i.
loan, prunt-i, pruntedon-i.
local, lok-a.
lock, los-i; (fastening), serur-o.
locomotive, lokomotiv-o.
lodge, lo-i.
log, tip-o.
long, long-a; for, sopir-i je.
look, rigard-i; for, ser-i.
lose, perd-i; (fail to profit), malgajn-i; time, malfru-i.
lot (fate), sort-o.
loud, lat-a.
love, am-i; make , amindum-i.
loyal, fidel-a, lojal-a.
luck, anc-o; lucky, bonanc-a.
lull, kvietig-i; (to sleep), lul-i.

347

lunatic, lunatik-o.
lung, pulm-o.
luxury, luks-o.

348

M-R
M.
macaroni, makaroni-o.
machine, main-o.
mad, frenez-a.
magazine, gazet-o, urnal-o, revu-o.
magic, magi-o.
mail, pot-o, enpotig-i; box, potkest-o.
maize, maiz-o.
majestic, majest-a.
majesty (term of address), mot-o (258).
make, far-i (see also 214); mistakes, erar-i; love, amindum-i.
malicious, malic-a.
man, vir-o.
manage, administr-i, direkt-i; (a household), mastrum-i.
manner, manier-o; (right or wrong), mor-o; in that , in every , etc.,
see table, 235.
mantle, mantel-o.
manufacture, fabrik-i.
manuscript, manuskript-o.
maple, acer-o.
marble (stone), marmor-o.
march, marad-i.
March, mart-o.
mark, mark-o, sign-o; (official), stamp-o.
marmalade, marmelad-o.
marry (become married), edzi-i.
master, mastr-o; (of his profession or art), majstr-o; of Arts (A.M.),
magistr-o.
match (for fire), alumet-o.
material, material-o; (cloth), tof-o.
matter, afer-o.
mature, matur-a.
maximum, maksimum-o.
May, maj-o; (auxiliary verb), see 269, 270.
mayonnaise, majones-a.
mean, signif-i, intenc-i, malnobl-a.
meaning, senc-o.
means, rimed-o; by of (prep.), per (64).

349

measure (trans.), mezur-i.

meat, viand-o.
mechanics, meanik-o.
medical, medicin-a, kuracist-a.
medicine (drug, etc.), kuracil-o; (science), medicin-o, kuracart-o.
meet (trans.), renkont-i, traf-i; (assemble), kunven-i.
melody, melodi-o.
melon, melon-o.
melt, fluidig-i, fluidi-i, degel-i.
member, membr-o, an-o (145).
memory, memor-o; by , parker-e, memor-e.
mend, ripar-i; (patch), flik-i.
mention, nom-i; cit-i.
menu, menu-o.
merely (adv.), nur.
merit, merit-i.
merry, gaj-a; make , festen-i.
merry-go-round, karusel-o.
metal, metal-o.
meter, metr-o (284).
method, metod-o.
middle, mez-o, centr-o.
mien, mien-o.
mild, mild-a.
mile, mejl-o.
milk, lakt-o; (draw the milk of), melk-i.
mill, muel-o.
millimeter, milimetr-o (284).
million, milion-o.
mine (coal, etc), min-o; (possessive adj.), mi-a (43).
mineral, mineral-o.
minimum, minimum-o.
minister (political), ministr-o; (clergyman), pastr-o.
minute (time), minut-o; (adj.), detal-a, malgrand-a.
minutes (of a meeting), protokol-o.
mirror, spegul-o.
miserly, avar-a.
misery, mizer-o.
miss (fail to reach), maltraf-i; (be missing), mank-i; (notice the absence
of), senti la foreston de; (young lady), fralin-o (163).

350

mist, nebul-o.
mistake, erar-o.
Mister, Sinjor-o (163, 286).
mix (trans.), miks-i.
mock, mok-i.
mode, fason-o, mod-o.
model, model-o.
moderate, moder-a.
modest, modest-a.
moment, moment-o; a ago, (adv.), us.
monarch, monar-o.
Monday, lund-o.
money, mon-o; box, kas-o; order, mandat-o.
monk, mona-o.
monkey, simi-o.
month, monat-o.
moon, lun-o.
moral, moral-a, bonmor-a; morals, moroj.
more (adv.), pli (74, 79); (quantity), pli multe (81); (further), plu; the ,
ju pli, des pli (84).
morning, maten-o (93).
morsel, pec-o.
most (adv.), plej (74, 79); (quantity), plej multe (81).
mould, im-o.
mountain, mont-o.
mourning, funebr-o.
mouse, mus-o.
moustache, lipharoj.
mouth, bu-o; (of river), enflu-o, elflu-o.
move (trans.), mov-i; (change residence) translo-i.
much, mult-a (81); (very), tre.
mud, kot-o.
murmur, murmur-i.
museum, muze-o.
mushroom, fung-o.
music, muzik-o.
must, dev-i (247).
mute, mut-a.
mutton, afa-o.
mutual, reciprok-a (180), komun-a.

351

myopic, miop-a.
mystery, mister-o.
N.
nail (metal), najl-o; (of the finger or toe), ung-o.
naive, naiv-a.
naked, nud-a.
name, nom-o.
narrate, rakont-i.
nation, naci-o.
nature, natur-o.
naught, nul-o; (none), neniom (231).
near, proksim-a (170); (prep.), apud (120, 159).
necessary, neces-a.
neck, kol-o.
need, bezon-i.
needle, kudril-o.
negative, ne-a (171); (photographic), negativ-o.
neighbor, najbar-o.
neither (conj.), nek (31); (pronoun and adj.), neniu (220).
nephew, nev-o.
nerve, nerv-o.
nest, nest-o.
net, ret-o.
neutral, netral-a.
never (adv.), neniam (226).
nevertheless (conj.), tamen.
new, nov-a, fre-a; news, nova-o.
newspaper, urnal-o, tagurnal-o.
nice, delikat-a.
night, nokt-o.
nine (adj.), na (136).
nitrogen, azot-o.
no (adv.), ne (27, 66, a); (adj.), neniu (220); one, where, etc., see
table, 235.
noble, nobl-a,
nobleman, nobel-o.
nobody (pronoun), neniu (220).
nod (the head), balanc-i (la kapon).
noise, bru-o.

352

none (adj. and pronoun), neniu (220); (adv.), neniom (231).

non-partisan, netral-a.
noon, tagmez-o.
nor (conj.), nek (31).
north, nord-o.
Norwegian, norveg-o.
not (adv.), ne (27, 66, a).
note, not-o, bilet-o; book, kajer-o; (notice), rimark-i, not-i.
nothing, nenio (233).
notice, rimark-i; not-i; give , aviz-i.
notwithstanding (prep.), malgra; (conj.), tamen.
nourish, nutr-i.
novel, nov-a; (book), roman-o.
November, novembr-o.
now (adv.), nun.
nude, nud-a.
nullify, nulig-i, neniig-i.
number (quantity), nombr-o; (numeral), numer-o.
nut, nuks-o.
O.
oak, kverk-o.
(make) oath, ur-i.
oats, aven-o.
obey, obe-i (265).
object, objekt-o; (aim), cel-o; (oppose), kontraparol-i, kontrastar-i,
protest-i.
objective, objektiv-o.
obligation (financial), uld-o; (moral), dev-o.
oblige (compel), devig-i; (render service), far-i komplezon, serv-i.
oblique, oblikv-a.
observe, observ-i, rimark-i, not-i.
obstinate, obstin-a.
obstruct, bar-i.
occasion, foj-o (127); okaz-o.
occupation, profesi-o, okup-o, meti-o.
occupy, okup-i.
occur, okaz-i.
ocean, ocean-o.
October, oktobr-o.

353

odor, odor-o.
of (prep.), de (49, 100, 160, 170); da (99, 101, 103); el; (concerning), pri
(160, 264, c).
offend, ofend-i.
offer, propon-i, prezent-i, ofer-i.
office, ofic-o; (place), oficej-o.
officer (of organization or firm), oficist-o; (military or naval), oficir-o.
official, oficial-a.
often (adv.), oft-e, multfoj-e.
oh (interjection), ho (273).
oil, ole-o.
olive, oliv-o.
on (prep.), sur; account of, pro (86).
once (adv.), unufoj-e; on a time, iam (212); at , tuj; more, bis.
one (adj.), unu (136, 137, 180); (pronoun), oni (54). See 235.
onion, bulb-o.
only, sol-a; (mere), nur-a.
opera, oper-o; glasses, lornet-o.
opinion, opini-o.
opportune, oportun-a.
opposed to (prep.), kontra.
opposite (converse), mal-o (67); (prep.), kontra.
or (conj.), a.
orange (fruit), oran-o.
orchestra, orkestr-o.
order, ordon-i; (of store, etc.), mend-i; (methodical or proper
arrangement), ord-o; money , mandat-o.
ordinary, ordinar-a.
organ (physical), organ-o; (musical), orgen-o.
organize, organiz-i.
original, original-o.
ornament, ornam-i.
orphan, orf-o.
oscillate (intrans.), balanci-i.
ostracism, ostracism-o.
other, ali-a; (remaining), ceter-a; people's, malpropr-a; wise, ali-e.
out of, el.
outline, kontur-o; (profile), profil-o; (sketch), skiz-o.
outside (prep.), ekster (120, 121).

354

over (prep.), super; (across), trans; (concerning), pri; coat, surtut-o;

shoe, superu-o; (adv.), (too), tro.
owe, uld-i.
own, posed-i, propr-a.
ox, bov-o.
oyster, ostr-o.
P.
pack, pak-i.
pad, rembur-i.
paddle, padel-i.
page (of book, etc.), pa-o.
pail, sitel-o.
pain, dolor-o; (effort), pen-o; take pains, pen-i.
paint, pentr-i; (material), kolorigil-o; brush, penik-o.
pair, par-o.
palace, palac-o.
pale, pal-a.
palisade, palisar-o.
palm (of the hand), polm-o.
pamphlet, brour-o.
pan, pat-o.
paper (material), paper-o; news, urnal-o.
paradise, paradiz-o.
paragraph, paragraf-o.
pardon, pardon-i (265).
parallel, paralel-a.
park, park-o.
parlor, salon-o.
parsley, petrosel-o.
parsnip, pastinak-o.
part, part-o; of a work or book, kajer-o; separate (trans.), disir-i,
apartig-i, disdivid-i.
participle, particip-o.
pass (intrans.), pas-i.
passage, koridor-o.
passenger, pasaer-o.
passion, pasi-o.
passive, pasiv-a.

355

past (prep.), preter; (time), estintec-o; (grammatical), estint-o; (bygone),

estint-a.
paste (glue), glu-i.
pasteboard, karton-o.
pastor, pastr-o.
pastry, kuka-o.
pasture (trans.), pat-i.
patch, flik-i.
path, vojet-o.
patience, pacienc-o.
patient (ill person), kuracat-o.
patty, paste-o.
pause, paz-i.
pavement, pavim-o; (sidewalk), trotuar-o.
pay, pag-i; dues, kotiz-i.
pea, piz-o.
peace, pac-o.
peach, persik-o.
pear, pir-o.
pearl, perl-o.
peculiar, strang-a, kurioz-a.
peddle, kolport-i.
pedestal, piedestal-o.
pedestrian, piedirant-o.
peeling, el-o.
pen, plum-o; (enclosure), ej-o (III).
pencil, krajon-o; hair, penik-o.
penetrate, penetr-i.
people, popol-o; (indefinite pronoun), oni (54).
pepper, pipr-o.
perceive, sent-i; (see), vid-i.
percentage, procent-o; (of profit), tantiem-o.
perfect, perfekt-a.
perfidious, perfid-a.
perform (act), ag-i; (fulfil), plenum-i; (do), far-i.
perfume, parfum-o; (odor), bonodor-o.
period, period-o; (of time), epok-o; (punctuation), punkt-o.
perish, pere-i.
permit, permes-i.
persecute, persekut-i; (worry), turment-i, en-i.

356

persevere, persist-i.
person, person-o.
perspire, vit-i.
persuade, konvink-i.
pet, dorlot-i.
petroleum, petrol-o.
phantom, fantom-o.
Pharaoh, faraon-o.
pharmacy, farmaci-o; (shop), apotek-o.
philosopher, filozof-o.
photograph, fotograf-i.
phrase, fraz-o.
physician, kuracist-o.
physics, fizik-o.
pick (choose), elekt-i; (gather), kolekt-i.
pickle, pekl-i.
picture, bild-o; (portrait), portret-o; gallery, pinakotek-o.
picturesque, pitoresk-a, pentrind-a.
pie, kuka-o; (patty), paste-o.
piece, pec-o.
pig, pork-o.
pigeon, kolomb-o.
(be a) pilgrim, pilgrim-i.
pillage, rab-i.
pillar, kolon-o.
pin, pingl-o.
pinch, pin-i.
pine (tree), pin-o; for, sopir-i je.
pineapple, ananas-o.
pinnacle, pint-o.
pioneer, pionir-o.
pious, pi-a.
pipe, tub-o; (for smoking), pip-o.
pitcher, kru-o.
pity, kompat-i; (regrettable affair), doma-o.
placard, afi-o.
place, lok-o; (for something), -ej-o (111); (broad, short street or open
space), plac-o; (put), met-i.
plait, plekt-i.
plan, plan-o, projekt-o, skiz-o.

357

plane, plat-a.
planet, planed-o.
plank, tabul-o.
plant, plant-i; (vegetable growth), kreska-o, vegeta-o.
plate, plat-o; (dish) teler-o.
platform (railway), peron-o.
play, lud-i; (music), muzik-i; (theatrical), teatra-o.
player (theatrical), aktor-o.
pleasant, agrabl-a, dol-a, afabl-a.
please, pla-i (265); kontentig-i, far-i plezuron al; (in requests), bonvolu, mi petas.
pleasure, plezur-o; take in, u-i.
plot, konspir-i.
plow, plug-i.
plum, prun-o.
plumber, plumbist-o.
plunder, rab-i.
plural, multenombr-o.
pneumatic, pneumatik-a.
pocket, po-o.
poem, poem-o.
poet, poet-o.
poetry, poezi-o.
point, punkt-o; (sharp), pint-o; out, montr-i.
poise (trans.), balanc-i; (of manner), aplomb-o.
poison, venen-o.
pole, stang-o; (shaft of vehicle), timon-o; (geographical), polus-o.
Pole, pol-o.
police, polic-o.
polite, entil-a.
politics, politik-o.
polish, polur-i; polished, polurit-a, glat-a.
pomp, pomp-o.
popular, popular-o, popol-a.
porcelain, porcelan-o.
porch, verand-o; (stoop), peron-o; (balcony), balkon-o.
pork, porka-o.
port, haven-o.
portion, porci-o, part-o.
portrait, portret-o.

358

possess, posed-i.
possible, ebl-a (161, 162); kredebl-a (270).
post (pole), stang-o; (mail), pot-o; card, potkart-o; paid, afrankite.
postage (cost), potelspezo; stamp, potmark-o.
poster, afi-o.
pot, pot-o.
potato, terpom-o; sweet , batat-o.
pound, pist-i; (measure), funt-o.
pour (liquids), ver-i; (as in a chute), ut-i.
powder, pudr-o.
power, pov-o, potenc-o.
practice, praktik-i.
praise, lad-i.
pray, pre-i.
preach, predik-i.
precise, preciz-a, ust-a.
predestined, fatal-a.
prefer, prefer-i.
prefix, prefiks-o.
premium, premi-o.
prepare, prepar-i.
prepay, afrank-i.
presence, eest-o, apudest-o; in the of (prep.), e (125), anta.
present (gift), donac-o; (time), estantec-o, estant-a, nun-a (171); (in
attendance), eestant-a.
present, prezent-i, donac-i, don-i.
preserve (keep), ten-i; (keep safe), konserv-i; (food), kompot-o,
konfita-o.
preside, prezid-i.
president, prezidant-o.
press, prem-i; (print), pres-i; (wardrobe), rank-o; (be urgent), ur-i.
pretend (make pretext of), pretekst-i; (feign), ajnig-i; (lay claim),
pretend-i.
price, prez-o, kost-o.
prick, pik-i.
priest, pastr-o.
prince, princ-o, reid-o.
principal, precip-a, ef-a.
print, pres-i.

359

prize, at-i; (premium), premi-o.

prized, kar-a, altetaksat-a, atat-a.
problem, problem-o.
process, metod-o; (legal), proces-o.
proclaim, proklam-i.
procrastinate, prokrast-i.
produce, produkt-i; a result, efik-i; (give birth to), nask-i.
profession, profesi-o.
professor, profesor-o.
profile, profil-o.
profit, profit-i; (percentage), tantiem-o.
profound, profund-a.
progress, progres-i.
project, projekt-o.
promenade, promen-i.
promise, promes-i.
propensity, inklin-o, em-o (192).
(be) proper, dec-i.
property, propra-o, poseda-o; (land), bien-o; (characteristic), ec-o
(202).
proportional, proporci-a.
propose, propon-i, sugesti-i.
prose, prozo; piece of , prozao.
prosecute, persekut-i.
prosper, prosper-i.
protect, protekt-i, gard-i.
protest, protest-i.
proud, fier-a
prove, pruv-i; (test), prov-i.
provoke, incit-i, ekscit-i, kaz-i, nask-i, kolerig-i.
psalm, psalm-o.
public, publik-o.
publish, publikig-i, eldon-i.
pudding, puding-o.
pull, tir-i.
pump, pump-i.
pumpkin, kukurb-o.
punish, pun-i.
pure, pur-a.
puree, pista-o.

360

purple, purpur-a.
purpose, cel-i, intenc-i.
push, pu-i; (shove), ov-i.
put, met-i; off, prokrast-i.
Q.
quality, ec-o (202); (texture, etc.), kvalito.
quantity, kvant-o; any , a certain , iom (217); see table, 235.
quarter (of a city), kvartal-o; (fourth), kvaron-o; ly, trimonat-a.
question, demand-o; (problem), problem-o; (doubt), dub-o.
quick, rapid-a; (lively), viv-a.
quiet, kviet-a, trankvil-a, silent-a.
quince, cidoni-o.
quite (adv.), tut-e.
quote, cit-i.
R.
rabbit, kunikl-o.
race (people), ras-o.
radish, rafan-o; horse, armoraci-o.
radius, radi-o.
rag, ifon-o.
raging, furioz-a.
rail, rel-o; way, fervoj-o; way carriage, vagon-o; way station,
stacidom-o.
rain, pluv-o; bow, ielark-o.
raise, lev-i.
raisin, sekvinber-o.
rank, rang-o; (grade), grad-o.
rap, frapet-i.
rapid, rapid-a.
rascal, fripon-o, kanajl-o.
rasp, rasp-i.
raspberry, framb-o.
rat, rat-o.
rate, taks-i; (schedule of prices), tarif-o, prezar-o; (percentage),
procent-o; at the of (prep.), po (175).
rational, prudent-a, racional-a.
raucous, rak-a.
raven, korv-o.

361

ravishing, rav-a.
raw, nekuirit-a.
ray (of light), radi-o.
reach, ating-i; (a goal), traf-i.
read, leg-i.
ready, pret-a.
real, efektiv-a, real-a; ver-a.
reap, rikolt-i.
reason (exert the power of reasoning), rezon-i; (cause), kaz-o;
(motive), kial-o; for what , for any , etc., see table, 235.
reasonable, prudent-a.
rebate, rabat-i.
recall, revok-i; (to memory), rememor-i; (to another's memory),
rememorig-i.
receive, ricev-i; (accept), akcept-i; (money), enspez-i.
receipt (for payment), kvitanc-o.
reckon, kalkul-i.
recent, nov-a, antanelong-a (90).
receptacle, uj-o (237); (for one object), ing-o (181).
recess (alcove), alkov-o; (vacation), libertemp-o.
reciprocal, reciprok-a (180).
recite, deklam-i.
recline, ku-i (239).
recommend, rekomend-i.
recompense, rekompen-i.
recover (find), retrov-i; (get well), resani-i.
red, ru-a; reddish, duberu-a.
reduction (of price), rabat-o.
refine, rafin-i.
refuse, rifuz-i, malpermes-i.
refute, refut-i.
regale, regal-i.
region, region-o.
register (trans.), registr-i; (letters), rekomend-i.
regret, bedar-i; (be penitent for), pent-i.
regrettable, bedarind-a; affair (pity), doma-o.
regulation, regul-o, le-o.
reign, reg-i.
rejoice, oj-i (116).
relate, rilat-i (266); (tell), rakont-i.

362

relative (person), parenc-o.

religion, religi-o.
rely, konfid-i; fid-i.
remain, rest-i; remaining (other), ceter-a.
remember, memor-i; (recall to memory), rememor-i.
render, far-i, ig-i (214); (an account), don-i, prezent-i, liver-i.
renown, fam-o, glor-o.
rent, lu-i; (let), luig-i; (farm out), farm-i; (price), luprez-o.
repair, ripar-i; (patch), flik-i.
repeat, ripet-i.
repent, pent-i.
report, raport-i.
repose, ripoz-i.
represent, reprezent-i.
reproach, ripro-i.
republic, respublik-o.
repulse, repu-i, repel-i.
request, pet-i.
require, postul-i; (need), bezon-i.
rescue, sav-i.
reside, lo-i.
respect, respekt-i.
rest (repose), ripoz-i; (remain), rest-i; ( upon), apog-i sur.
restaurant, restoraci-o.
result, rezult-i.
resume, resum-o.
return (go back), reir-i; (come back), reven-i; (give back), redon-i.
revery, rev-o.
review (magazine), revu-o.
reward, rekompenc-i.
rhubarb, rabarb-o.
rib, rip-o.
ribbon, ruband-o.
rice, riz-o.
rich, ri-a.
ride, rajd-i; (in vehicle, boat, etc.), vetur-i.
ridicule, mok-i; worthy of (ridiculous), ridind-a.
right, prav-a; (to something), rajt-o; (not left), dekstr-a.
right-angled, ort-a.
ring (intrans.), sonor-i; (circlet), ring-o.

363

ringlet (of hair), bukl-o.

ripe, matur-a.
river, river-o.
road, voj-o; (broad roadway), ose-o.
roam, vag-i.
roar, mu-i.
roast, rost-i.
rob, rab-i, tel-i.
robber, rabist-o.
robe, rob-o.
Robert, Robert-o.
roguish, petol-a; (rascally), fripon-a.
roll (trans.), rul-i; (something around something else), volv-i; (bread),
bulk-o; (list), list-o, registr-o.
roof, tegment-o.
room, ambr-o; (space), spac-o.
root, radik-o.
rose, roz-o.
(by) rote, parker-e.
round, rond-o; (of ladder), tupet-o; (roundabout) (prep.) irka (89,
120, 159, 160).
routine, rutin-o.
row (boats), rem-i.
royalty, reec-o; (share of profit) tantiem-o.
rub, frot-i.
ruin, ruin-o.
rule, reg-i; (draw lines), lini-i; (regulation), regul-o.
rumor, fam-o; rumored, ladir-a.
run, kur-i; (of fluids), flu-i.
Russian, rus-o.
rust, rust-i.

364

S-Z
S.
sack, sak-o; (plunder), rab-i.
sacred, sankt-a.
sacrifice, ofer-i, oferdon-i.
saddle, sel-o.
safe, sendaner-a, senrisk-a; (chest), monkest-o.
sail, vel-o.
salad, salat-o.
salary, salajr-o.
salt, sal-o.
salute, salut-i.
same, sam-a.
sample, specimen-o.
sand, sabl-o.
sap, suk-o.
sardine, sarden-o.
satchel, valiz-o.
sated, sat-a.
satin, atlas-o.
satisfied, kontent-a; (of hunger), sat-a.
Saturday, sabat-o.
sausage, kolbas-o.
sauce, sac-o.
saucer, subtas-o, teleret-o.
saucy, petol-a, malentil-a, insultem-a.
savage, sova-a.
save, sav-i; (keep), konserv-i; (economize), par-i; (prep.), krom, escepte
de.
saw, seg-i.
say, dir-i (77).
scales (for weighing), pesil-o.
scarcely (adv.), apena.
scent (trans.), flar-i.
schedule (of rates), tarif-o.
science, scienc-o.
scissors, tondil-o.
Scot (Scotchman), skot-o.
scoundrel, kanajl-o, fripon-o.

365

scrape, skrap-i.
screen, irm-i.
screw, rab-o; driver, rabturnil-o.
sculpture, skulpt-i.
sea, mar-o.
seal, sigel-i.
season (of the year), sezon-o.
second (of time), sekund-o; (in order), dua; a time (adv.), duafoje, bis.
secret, sekret-o.
secretary, sekretari-o.
section, sekci-o, part-o, er-o (276).
see, vid-i; to, zorg-i pri.
seed, sem-o.
seek, ser-i; advice of, konsult-i.
seem, ajn-i; ing, ajn-a, kvaza-a.
seize, kapt-i.
select, elekt-i.
self (reflexive), see 39, 40, 44; (intensive), mem (219).
self-command, aplomb-o.
sell, vend-i.
senate, senat-o.
send, send-i.
sense, prudent-o, sa-o; (meaning), senc-o; (feeling), sent-o.
sentence, fraz-o; (legal), ju-o, kondamn-o.
separate (intrans.), disi-i, disir-i; (distinct), apart-a.
September, septembr-o.
serene, trankvil-a.
series, seri-o, vic-o.
serious, serioz-a, grav-a.
serve, serv-i; (be good for), tag-i por.
set, met-i; (of the sun), subir-i; (type), kompost-i; free, liberig-i; out
(start), forir-i, ekir-i.
seven (adj.), sep (136).
several, kelk-aj, kelk-e.
severe, sever-a.
sew, kudr-i.
shade (shadow), ombr-o; (tint) nuanc-o; (screen), irmil-o.
shaft (of vehicle), timon-o.
shake (trans.), sku-i; (oscillate), ancel-i; hands, manprem-i.
sham, pretekst-i.

366

shape, form-o; ly, beltali-a.

share, partopren-i, divid-i, part-o, porci-o.
sharp, akr-a; (pointed), pint-a.
shatter, frakas-i.
shave, raz-i.
shawl, al-o.
she (pronoun), i (32, 37, 42).
shear, tond-i.
sheep, af-o.
shelf, bret-o.
shell, el-o; (of mollusk), konk-o; to remove the , senelig-i.
shelter, irm-i.
shepherd, patist-o.
shield, ild-o; (protect), irm-i.
shin-bone, tibi-o.
shine, bril-i, lum-i.
ship, ip-o.
shirt, emiz-o.
shoe, u-o.
shoot (with gun, etc.), paf-i.
shop, butik-o.
shore, bord-o, marbord-o.
short, mallong-a; sighted, miop-a; hand, stenografi-o.
shoulder, ultr-o.
shove, ov-i.
shovel, ovel-i.
show (trans.), montr-i.
shrill, akr-a, akrason-a.
shun, evit-i.
shut (trans.), ferm-i.
side, flank-o; board, telermebl-o; walk, trotuar-o; wise, oblikv-a.
sift, kribr-i.
sigh, sopir-i.
sign, sign-o; the name, subskrib-i.
signify, signif-i.
silent, silent-a (239).
silk, silk-o.
silver, arent-o.
similar, simil-a.
simple, simpl-a.

367

sin, pek-i.
since (conj.), ar, tial ke (83); (prep.), de, depost (89); (adv.), de tiam.
sing, kant-i.
single, sol-a, unuop-a; man (unmarried man), fral-o.
sit, sid-i (239).
six (adj.), ses (136).
sketch, skiz-i.
skill, lertec-o; trial of , konkurs-o.
skin (human), hat-o; (of animals), fel-o.
skirt, jup-o.
sky, iel-o.
slanting, oblikv-a, klin-a.
slate (stone), ardez-o.
slaughter, bu-i.
slave, sklav-o.
sleep, dorm-i; lull to , lul-i.
sleeve, manik-o.
slide, glit-i.
slime, lim-o.
slipper, pantofl-o.
sly, ruz-a.
smear, mir-i.
smell (trans.), flar-i; (intrans.), odor-i.
smile, ridet-i.
smoke, fum-i.
smooth, glat-a; (polished), polurit-a.
sneeze, tern-i.
snow, ne-i.
so (conj.), do; (adv.), (thus), tiel (88, 156); (therefore), tial (78); much,
tiom (104, 164).
society, societ-o.
Socrates, Sokrat-o.
sofa, kanap-o.
soft, mol-a.
soil, ter-o; soiled, malpur-a.
soldier, soldat-o; (professional), militist-o.
sole, sol-a; (of foot), pland-o; (of shoe), ledpland-o.
solemn, solen-a.
some, kelk-a, kelk-e, iom (217); one, how, etc., see table, 235.
son, fil-o.

368

soon (adv.), balda.

sorcerer, sorist-o.
sort, spec-o, klas-o; (put in order), ordig-i, enfakig-i.
soul, anim-o.
sound (intrans.), son-i; (of bells), sonor-i; (in good condition), bonstat-a.
soup, sup-o.
sour, acid-a, maldol-a.
south, sud-o.
sow, sem-i.
space, spac-o.
spacious, vast-a, grandspac-a, grandampleks-a.
Spaniard, hispan-o.
spare (save), par-i; (pardon), pardon-i.
sparrow, paser-o.
speak, parol-i (77).
spear, lanc-o.
special, special-a, apart-a.
specialty, fak-o.
species, spec-o.
specimen, specimen-o, model-o.
spectre, fantom-o.
speed, rapid-o, rapidec-o.
spell, silab-i; (witchcraft), sora-o.
spend (money), elspez-i; (time), pasig-i.
speso, spes-o (285).
spider, arane-o.
spin, pin-i.
spinach, spinac-o.
spite, malic-o; in of, (prep.), malgra, spite.
splash (trans.), plad-i.
splendor, pomp-o, bril-o, belegec-o.
split (trans.), fend-i.
spoil (trans.), difekt-i.
spoke (of wheel), radi-o.
spoon, kuler-o.
spot, makul-i.
spout (liquids), pruc-i.
spring (season), printemp-o; (of water), font-o.
sprite, kobold-o, fe-o.
spruce (tree), pice-o.

369

spurt (of liquids), pruc-i.

spy, spion-o; (catch sight of), ekvid-i; glass, lorn-o.
square, kvadrat-o; (public), plac-o.
stain, makul-i.
stair (staircase), tupar-o.
stag, cerv-o.
stake (of palisade), palis-o.
stamp (officially), stamp-i; (with foot), piedfrap-i; postage , potmarko.
stand, star-i (239); (endure), sufer-i, elport-i.
standard (model), model-o; (flag), standard-o.
star, stel-o; (any heavenly body), astr-o.
starch, amel-o.
state (condition), stat-o; (political), tat-o; (governed body), regn-o.
station (state), stat-o; (railway, etc.), staci-o, stacidom-o.
stay, rest-i.
steady, firm-a, konstant-a, nemovebl-a.
steal, tel-i, rab-i (252).
steam, vapor-o.
steel, tal-o.
steep, krut-a.
step, pa-i; (of stairs), tup-o.
stern, sever-a.
stew (trans.), stuf-i.
stick, baston-o; (adhere), alglui-i.
still (silent), silent-a; (adv.), ankora; jam; (conj.), tamen.
stimulate, stimul-i, incit-i.
sting, pik-i.
stipulate, kondi-o.
stocking, trump-o.
stomach, stomak-o.
stone, ton-o.
stoop, klini-i; (entrance porch), peron-o.
stop (intrans.), halt-i; (leave off), es-i; up, top-i.
stopper, topil-o.
store (shop), butik-o; (warehouse), magazen-o, konservej-o, tenej-o.
story (tale), fabel-o, rakont-o; (of house), eta-o.
stove, forn-o.
straight, rekt-a.
strange, strang-a, kurioz-a; (foreign), fremd-a.

370

strap, rimen-o.
straw, pajl-o.
strawberry, frag-o.
streak, stri-o; make a , strek-i.
street, strat-o; arab, bub-o.
street-car, tramveturil-o; line, tramvoj-o.
stress, akcent-o; (force), fort-o.
stretch (trans.), etend-i; (forcibly), stre-i.
string, nur-o; (shoelace), la-o; bean, fazeol-o.
strike, frap-i, bat-i; (of laborers), strik-o; out, trastrek-i.
strip (of paper, cloth, etc.), banderol-o; off, senig-i.
stripe, stri-o.
strive, pen-i.
strong, fort-a.
struggle, barakt-i.
student, student-o; (person studying), studant-o.
study, stud-i.
stuff, tof-o; (furniture, etc.), rembur-i.
stump, stump-o.
style, stil-o, mod-o, fason-o.
subject (theme), tem-o; (grammatical), subjekt-o; (ruled), regat-o.
subscribe, subskrib-i; (to magazine, etc.), abon-i.
substance, substanc-o.
succeed, sukces-i; (fare well), prosper-i; (follow), sekv-i, postven-i.
succulent, suk-a, sukplen-a.
such, tia (65); (adv.), tiel (88).
sudden, subit-a, neatendit-a.
suffer, sufer-i, toler-i; (permit), permes-i.
suffice, sufi-i.
suffix, sufiks-o.
suffocate (trans.), sufok-i.
sugar, suker-o.
suggest, sugesti-i, propon-i.
suit (of clothes), vest-oj, komplet-o; (at law), proces-o.
suitable, konven-a, konform-a, tag-a, dec-a.
suite (of rooms), apartament-o.
sulphur, sulfur-o.
sum, sum-o; (total), tut-o.
summarize, resum-i.
summer, somer-o; house, lab-o.

371

summit, pint-o, supr-o.

sun, sun-o.
Sunday, diman-o.
superior, super-a; (person), superul-o.
superstition, supersti-o.
supply, liver-i, proviz-i.
suppose, supoz-i; opini-i.
sure, cert-a.
surface, supra-o.
surprise, surpriz-i.
suspect, suspekt-i.
suspend, pendig-i.
suspenders, elk-o.
swallow, glut-i; (bird), hirund-o.
swamp, mar-o.
swan, cign-o.
swear, ur-i.
Swede, sved-o.
sweep (floors, etc.), bala-i.
sweet, dol-a; potato, batat-o.
sweetmeat, bombon-o, sukera-o, konfita-o; be fond of , frand-i.
swim, na-i.
swine, pork-o.
swing (trans.), sving-i; (balance), balanc-i (279).
Swiss, svis-o.
swoon, sven-i.
sword, glav-o.
syllable, silab-o.
Syracuse, Sirakuz-o.
T.
table (furniture), tabl-o; (tabulation), tabel-o.
tail, vost-o.
tailor, tajlor-o.
take, pren-i; (magazines, etc.), abon-i; in (money), enspez-i; place,
okaz-i; note of, observ-i, rimark-i; oath, ur-i; steps toward
accomplishing, klopod-i; pleasure in, u-i; the attention of, distr-i.
tale, fabel-o.
talent, talent-o.
tall, alt-a, altkresk-a, grand-a.

372

talon, ungeg-o.
tap (rap), frapet-i; (faucet), kran-o.
tariff, tarif-o.
task, task-o.
taste, gust-o, gustum-i.
tax, impost-o.
tea, te-o; caddy, teuj-o (181); pot, tekru-o.
teach, instru-i.
tear, ir-i; (of the eye), larm-o.
tease, turmentet-i, agren-i.
tedious, ted-a, enuig-a, lacig-a.
telegraph, telegraf-i.
telephone, telefon-i.
telescope, teleskop-o.
tell, dir-i, rakont-i (77); lies, mensog-i.
temper, humor-o; lose the , koler-i.
temple (of the head), tempi-o; (building), templ-o.
tempt, tent-i.
ten (adj.), dek (136).
tender, delikat-a, mol-a, kares-a.
tenor (voice), tenor-o; (course), dar-o.
tent, tend-o.
term (word), termin-o; (condition), kondi-o; (time), templim-o.
terrace, teras-o.
territory, teritori-o.
terror, terur-o.
test, prov-i, ekzamen-i.
texture, kvalit-o; (thing woven), teksa-o.
than (conj.), ol (82, 97, 98).
thank, dank-i (265).
that (conj.), ke (53, 83, 105, 259, 262); (pronoun), tiu (56); tio (233, 234);
kind, tia (65); (adv.), tiel (88, 156); way, tiamanier-e, tiel (88); much,
tiel mult-e, tiom (104, 164); (when) (adv.), kiam (155).
thaw (intrans.), degel-i.
the (article), la (11, 47, 201, 280, a); (adv.), ju, des (84).
theatre, teatr-o.
theme, tem-o.
then (conj.), do; (adv.), tiam (73); (afterwards), post-e.
theory, teori-o.
there (adv.), tie (68); (adv. calling attention), jen (228); see also 51.

373

therefore (adv.), tial (78); pro tio, sekv-e.

they (pronoun), ili (32, 37, 42); (indefinite), oni (54).
thick, dik-a, dens-a.
thigh, femur-o.
thing, afer-o, objekt-o, a-o (227); any, what , etc., see table, 235.
think, pens-i; (have the opinion), opini-i.
(be) thirsty, soif-i.
this (pronoun), tio i (233, 234); (pronoun and adj.), tiu i (60); all , io
i. See table, 235.
thong, rimen-o.
thorn, dorn-o.
thou (pronoun), ci (40).
though (conj.), kvankam; as , kvaza (250).
thousand (adj.), mil (142).
thread, faden-o; a needle, enkudrilig-i fadenon.
threaten, minac-i.
three (adj.), tri (136).
threshold, sojl-o.
thrifty, parem-a.
throat, gor-o.
throne, tron-o.
throng, amas-o, ar-o (126).
through (prep.), tra (46, 160); (by means of), per (64); (because of), pro
(86), de (170).
throw, et-i.
thumb, dika fingr-o.
thunder, tondr-i.
Thursday, ad-o.
thus (adv.), tiel (88, 156), tiamanier-e.
ticket, bilet-o; window, giet-o.
tickle, tikl-i.
tie, lig-i; (shoes, etc.), la-i.
tiger, tigr-o.
tile, kahel-o; (brick), brik-o.
till (money box), kas-o; (prep.), is (46, 89); the soil, terkultur-i.
time (in general), temp-o; (occasion), foj-o (127); (epoch), epok-o; (of
day), hor-o.
tin (metal), stan-o; plate (sheet iron covered with tin), lad-o.
tinkle, tint-i.
tint, nuanc-o, kolor-o.

374

tire (trans.), lacig-i, enuig-i; (pneumatic), pnematik-o.

to (prep.), al (46, 160, 251, 252); is (46, 89).
toad, buf-o.
toast (bread), panrosta-o; (sentiment), tost-o.
tobacco, tabak-o.
today (adv.), hodia (93, 171).
toe, piedfingr-o.
toilet, tualet-o.
tolerate, toler-i, sufer-i.
tomato, tomat-o.
tomb, tomb-o.
tomorrow (adv.), morga (93, 171).
tone, ton-o.
tongue (of the body), lang-o; (of vehicle), timon-o; (language), lingv-o.
too (adv.), tro; (too much), tro multe, tro.
tool, il-o (63).
tooth, dent-o.
top, supr-o.
torment, turment-i.
total, tut-o.
touch, tu-i; (feel with the fingers, etc.), palp-i; sense of , palpad-o;
the heart of, kortu-i.
toward (prep.), al (46, 160, 251, 252).
tower, tur-o; above, superstar-i.
trace, sign-o, postsign-o.
trade (occupation), meti-o; (commerce), komerc-o; (exchange), interani.
train (of cars), vagonar-o; (of dress), trena-o.
tram, tram-o; way, tramvoj-o; car, tramveturil-o.
tranquil, trankvil-a; kviet-a.
translate, traduk-i.
travel, voja-i; (by vehicle), vetur-i.
tray, plet-o.
treacherous, perfid-a.
treasure, trezor-o.
treasurer, kasist-o.
treasury, kas-o.
treat (in speech or writing), trakt-i; (for illness), kurac-i; (act towards),
kondut-i kontra; (regale), regal-i.
treatise, traktat-o.

375

tree, arb-o.
tremble, trem-i; (vacillate), anceli-i.
trial, jua askultado, esplorad-o; (of skill), konkurs-o; (affliction),
maloj-o, sufer-o; (test), prov-o, ekzamen-o; (attempt), prov-o.
trifle, bagatel-o.
triumph, triumf-o.
tropic, tropik-o.
trot, trot-i.
trousers, pantalon-o.
trunk (chest with lid), kofr-o; (of tree), trunk-o.
trust, fid-i, konfid-i; (financial), trust-o.
truth, ver-o.
try (legally), ju-i; (strive), pen-i; (attempt, test), prov-i.
tub, kuv-o.
tube, tub-o.
tuber, tuber-o.
Tuesday, mard-o.
tumbler (for drinking), glas-o; (juggler), onglist-o.
tune, ari-o, melodi-o.
Turk, turk-o.
turkey, meleagr-o.
turn (trans.), turn-i; (in a series), vic-o.
turnip, nap-o.
turnstile, giet-o.
twilight, krepusk-o.
twist (trans.), tord-i.
twitter, pep-i.
two (adj.), du (136).
tyrant, tiran-o.
U.
umbrella, ombrel-o.
uncle, onkl-o.
unanimous, unuvo-a, unuanim-a.
uncommon, kurioz-a, nekomun-a.
unconcerned, indiferent-a; nezorgem-a.
under (prep.), sub (121, 160).
underline, substrek-i.
understand, kompren-i.
undertake, entrepren-i; initiative work, klopod-i.

376

undeviating, rekt-a.
unfailing (adv.), nepr-e, cert-e.
unimportant, indiferent-a, negrav-a.
union, unuig-o, unui-o, kunig-o, kuni-o.
universe, univers-o.
university, universitat-o.
until (prep.), is (89)
up (adv.), supre, supren (121); to, is (46).
upholster, rembur-i.
upper, supr-a.
upon (prep.), sur (160).
upright, just-a; (vertical), vertikal-a.
urge, ur-i, insiste pet-i.
upset (trans.), renvers-i.
utmost, ekstrem-a, ebl-o (161, see also 162).
V.
(be) vacant, vak-i, esti neokupata.
vacillate, anceli-i.
vagabond, vagist-o.
vain (futile), van-a; senutil-a, senfrukt-a; (proud), vant-a, fier-a; in ,
vane.
valise, valiz-o.
valley, val-o.
value (appraise), taks-i; (like), at-i; have the of, valor-i.
vanquish, venk-i.
vapor, vapor-o.
varied, divers-a, malsimil-a.
vase, vaz-o.
vast, vast-a, grand-a.
vaunt, fanfaron-i, vantparol-i.
veal, bovida-o (207, c).
vegetable (edible), legom-o; (plant growth), vegeta-o, kreska-o (227, a).
vegetarian, vegetar-a.
vegetate, veget-i.
veil, vual-o.
vein, vejn-o.
velvet, velur-o.
veranda, verand-o.
verify, konstat-i, kontrol-i.

377

vermicelli, vermiel-o.
verse, vers-o; (poesy), poezi-o.
vertical, vertikal-a.
very (very much) (adv.), tre, tre multe; (adj.), sam-a, ident-a, (intensive)
mem (219).
vex, agren-i.
vibrate (intrans.), vibr-i.
vice (wickedness), malvirt-o; (prefix), vic-.
vie, konkur-i.
village, vila-o.
vindication, apologi-o.
vinegar, vinagr-o.
violet, viol-o.
violin, violon-o.
virtue, virt-o.
visage, viza-o.
visit, vizit-i.
vivid, hel-a.
voice, vo-o.
volume (book), volum-o; (of a body), volumen-o.
vote, vodon-i, balot-i.
vowel, vokal-o.
voyage, voja-i.
W.
wade, vad-i.
waffle, vafl-o.
wager, vet-i.
wages, salajr-o.
wait (wait for), atend-i; on, serv-i.
waiter (in restaurant, etc.), kelner-o.
waist, tali-o; coat, vet-o
wake (trans.), vek-i.
walk, mar-i; (for pleasure), promen-i; (of park, etc.), ale-o; side,
trotuar-o.
wall, mur-o.
waltz, vals-i.
wander, vag-i.
want (need), bezon-i; (desire), dezir-i, vol-i; (be lacking), mank-i;
(extremity), mizereg-o.

378

war, milit-i.
wardrobe (garments), vestar-o; (furniture), rank-o, vestorank-o.
warehouse, magazen-o.
warm, varm-a; make , varmig-i, hejt-i.
warn, avert-i; (give notice), aviz-i, antasciig-i.
wash, lav-i.
waste (prodigality), malpar-o; (refuse), foreta-o; (desert), dezert-o.
watch (look at), rigardad-i; (timepiece), pohorlo-o; over, gard-i.
water, akv-o; color, akvarel-o; fall, kaskad-o.
wave, ond-o; (flutter, brandish), flirt-i, sving-i.
wax, vaks-o.
way (manner), manier-o; (custom), kutim-o; (method), metod-o; (means),
rimed-o; (road), voj-o; in, enirejo; this , any, etc., see table, 235.
we (pronoun), ni (32, 37).
wear, port-i; out, eluz-i.
(be) wearied, enu-i.
weather, veter-o; cock, ventoflag-o.
weave, teks-i; (plait), plekt-i.
Wednesday, merkred-o.
week, semajn-o.
weep, plor-i.
weigh (trans.), pes-i; (intrans.), (be heavy), pez-i; (meditate upon),
pripens-i (264, c).
welcome, bonven-i; bone akcept-i; you are , ("no thanks needed"), estas
nenio, volonte farite.
well (healthy), san-a; (for water), put-o; (adv.), bon-e; (interjection), nu
(273), bon-e; informed, kler-a; nigh (adv.), preska.
west, okcident-o.
wet, malsekig-i, tremp-i.
whale, balen-o.
what (pronoun), kio (233, 234); (pronominal adj.), kiu (106, 146); kind,
way, time, etc., see table, 235.
wheat, tritik-o.
wheel, rad-o.
when (adv.), kiam (125, 155); (while), dum (96).
where (adv.), kie (118, 151); fore, kial (129), tial (78).
whether (conj.), u (30, 66, a).
which (pronoun), kio (233, 234); (pronoun and adj.), kiu (106, 146);
way, kind, etc. see table, 235.
while (prep.), dum (120, 159); (conj.), dum (96); (concessive), kvankam; a

379

, iom da tempo.
whip, vip-i.
whistle, fajf-i; (hiss), sibl-i.
white, blank-a; whitish, dubeblank-a.
who (pronoun), kiu (106, 143); whose, kies (107, 147).
whole (entire), tut-a.
why (adv.), kial (129), pro kio.
wicket, giet-o.
wide, lar-a; make , plilarig-i, etend-i.
widow, vidvin-o; widower, vidv-o.
wig, peruk-o.
wild, sova-a.
(be) willing, vol-i.
willingly, volont-e.
wilt, velk-i.
wind, vent-o, survolv-i; (twist), tord-i; (a watch), stre-i.
winding, tord-a.
window, fenestr-o; ticket , giet-o.
wine, vin-o.
winter, vintr-o.
wipe, vi-i.
wise, sa-a.
wish, vol-i, dezir-i.
witch, soristin-o; craft, sor-o.
with (prep.), kun (70, 76, 120, 159, 160); (by means of), per (64); (agent of
the passive), de (169); je (260); regard to, rilate (266); draw, elir-i,
forir-i; (= having), havante (222).
wither, velk-i.
without (prep.), sen (248).
(give) witness, atest-i.
witty, sprit-a.
woe, maloj-o; (interjection), ve (273).
wolf, lup-o.
wonder, mir-i.
woo, amindum-i.
wood, lign-o.
wool, lan-o.
word, vort-o; (spoken), parol-o.
work, labor-i; (of machinery), funkci-i; (literary composition), verk-o.
world, mond-o.

380

worm, verm-o.
worship, ador-i; (divine service), Diserv-o.
(be) worth, valor-i.
worthy, ind-a (154).
wound, vund-i.
wreath, girland-o.
wrestle, barakt-i.
wretch, fripon-o, kanajl-o; ed, mizer-a, a-a (272).
wrinkle, sulket-o, faldet-o.
write, skrib-i; (books, articles, music), verk-i.
wrong, malprav-a, erar-a, maljust-a.
Y.
yawn, osced-i; (open), fendi-i.
year, jar-o.
yearn, sopir-i; dezireg-i.
yellow, flav-a; ish, dubeflav-a.
yes (adv.), jes (171).
yesterday (adv.), hiera (93, 171); day before , anta-hiera.
yet (adv.), ankora; jam; (conj.), tamen.
yoke, jug-o.
you (pronoun), vi (32, 37, 39); see also oni (54).
young, jun-a; (offspring), id-o (207).
Z.
zeal, fervor-o.
zenith, zenit-o.
zero, nul-o.
zigzag, zigzag-o.
zinc, zink-o.
zone, zon-o.
zoology, zoologi-o.

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