MORFOLOGIA

Chapter 1 & 2 Parts of speech:

Phonology how words sound Syntax sentence structure Semantics meaning in language Morphology the study of word-formation and word-structure WORD according to Bloomfield it is a minimum free form; the word is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit that can be used
on its own. Cannot be divided into smaller units.

Word-form the physical form which realises or represents a word in speech or writing. Ortographic words word-forms we find in writing Phonological words word-forms in spoken language Phonemic transcription transcription which shows the Phonemes sounds that contract word meaning in a particular
language

Content words Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs Contains REFERENTIAL [meaning or denotation] (or cognitive meaning) of a sentence.

Function words Prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, articles, demonstratives Predominantly grammatical role.

Received pronunciation (RP) the prestige accent of standard British English the variety popularly known as the Queens
English or BBC English

Phonotactic rules rules regulating the positions in which various sounds may occur in a word and the combinations of sounds
that are permissible

Allophones variants of a phoneme; in square brackets Lexemes a minimal unit as a word or stem in the lexicon of a language The relationship between a lexeme and the word-form belonging to it is one of REALISATION or PERPRESENTATION or MANIFESTATION.

Grammatical word a word, in the sense of a lexical item with a certain meaning plus certain syntactic and morphological
properties

Syncretism situations where the same word-form of a lexeme is used to realise two (or more) distinct grammatical words that
are represented separately in the grammatical representations of words belonging to some other comparable lexemes

Compound word sth + sth ex. Wheelbarrow Homonym used to denote word-forms belonging to distinct lexemes that are written and pronounced in the same way Homophones word-forms that may have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings Polysemy several closely related meanings that are realised by the same word-form Lexical ambiguity - the ambiguity of an individual word or phrase that can be used (in different contexts) to express two or
more different meanings

Minimal free form definition of the grammatical word Internal cohesion stability of the word as a grammatical unit

Word: FROG Phonological representation: /frg/ Ortographic representation: frog Grammatical representation: countable noun Meaning: any of various tailless stout-bodied amphibians with long hind limbs for leaping; semiaquatic and terrestrial species

Chapter 3
Morphology in linguistics the study of the formation and internal organisation of words Morpheme term is used to refer to the smallest unit that has meaning or serves a grammatical function in a language.
Morphemes are the atoms with which words are built

Morph any physical form that represents a morpheme (-ish, -less, -er, -ed, -s, re-, un-, ex-); sounds that can be related to a
particular meaning or grammatical function

Syllables chunks into which words can be divided for the purposes of pronunciation Phonemes morphemes are made up of them Allomorphs morphs which realise the same morpheme are referred to as allomorphs of that morpheme Complementary distribution allomorphs of the same morpheme are said to be in cd. It means that they do not occur in
identical contexts and therefore they cannot be used to distinguish meanings

Distribution is to do with establishing facts about the occurrence of allomorphs of a particular morpheme

Different morphemes contrast meanings but different allomorphs do not. If a difference in meaning is attributable to the fact that one minimal meaningful unit has been replaced by another, we identify the morphs involved as manifestations of distinct morphemes.

Free morphemes morphemes that are allowed to occur on their own in sentences as words Bound morphemes must occur in the company of some other morphemes Phonaesthemes - to label the systematic pairing of form and meaning in a language Onomatopoeia when a direct association is made between the sounds of a word-form and the meaning that is represents

Types of languages:

Isolating (or analytic) tiny words! the word is virtually indistinguishable from the morpheme, for every word
contains just one morpheme. Every morpheme is a free morpheme. There are no bound morphemes. The words are short and contain just one morpheme each. Almost every concept is expressed by a separate word. (Vietnamese) Agglutinating get the glue most words contain more than one morpheme and the morphemes are realised by morphs arranged in rows like corn on the cob. The morphs can be neatly picked off, one by one. The word is constructed by gluing together separable, discrete morphs. (Swahili) Inflecting (or synthetic) labyrinthine words a word normally contains more than one morpheme. The morphs of a synthetic language are to a considerable extent fused together and cannot be separated neatly one from the other. The morphemes themselves are not arranged in a row, rather all thrown together in a big pot like pot-pourri (a collection of mixed flower petals dried and preserved in a pot to scent the air). It is impossible to separate the different strands. (Latin) Portmanteau morphs morphs which simultaneously realise two or more morphemes Polysynthetic verbal juggernauts (any terrible force, esp. one that destroys or that demands complete self-sacrifice) have very complex words that are built not only by combining morphemes, but also by implanting words within words. (Eskimo)

English is not a perfect example of any one morphological type. English words can exemplify any of the four types of languages. English is a bit of everything. However, when large samples of text are examined, it becomes clear that it is basically an isolating language.

Chapter 4
Root it is a morpheme which forms the core of a word. It is the unit to which other morphemes may be added, or looked at from another angle, it is what remains when all the affixes are peeled away. All roots belong to one of the lexical categories, i.e. they
belong to the word classed of: o noun o verb o adverb o adjective

Affixes any morphemes that are appended to the root. It can be attached before or after the base. There can be: o Suffix an affix appended after the base (-ness, -ly) o Prefix an affix that goes before the base (im-) o Infix an affix that is inserted inside (Minnebloodysota), but English has no bound infix morphemes Clitics a class of bound morphemes which are attached at the margins of words but which are not affixes, they co-habit with a
word without getting into a deeper relationship with it. They can easily move from one word to another within a phrase if the syntactic conditions are right. (Good example: genitive s: The professors car. The professor of ancient historys car.)

Formatives morphological forms that do not represent any meaning that are used in word-building

Word-building process falls into two broad categories: Inflection typically inflection contributes a morpheme that is required in order to ensure that the word has a form that is
appropriate for the grammatical context in which it is used. For instance, if we have a third person subject, a present tense verb agreeing with it must take the s ending; anything else is forbidden.

Derivation is motivated by the desire to create new lexical item using pre-existing morphemes and words. It enables us to add
new lexical items to the open word-classes of noun, adjective, verb and adverb. When you need a new word (in the sense of vocabulary item), you do not usually need to make it up from scratch. It is possible to create new lexical items by recycling preexisting material.

Derivation takes one of three forms: o Affixation most common method of forming words (in the sense of lexical terms). Inflectional suffixes - an inflection that is added at the end of a root word (-s, -ing, -ed, -er, -est). Stem a base to which inflectional affixes are
added

Conversion (zero derivation) creating lexical items without any alteration being made to the shape of the input
base. The word-form remains the same, but it realises a different lexical item. Usually the same word-form can be used as verb or a noun, adjectives can undergo conversion too. We know how to distinguish them from the context.

Compounding formed by combining two bases, which may be words in their own right. Most compounds are
headed this means that one of the words that make up the compound is syntactically dominant. The syntactic properties
of the head are passed on to the entire compound. Endocentric compound one that contains a semantic head. A minority of compounds have no semantic head. Deverbal compound nouns noun compounds formed from verbs. Their structure is like that of a sentence fragment where the verb is in construction with a noun (noun phrase) which has a very intimate syntactic and semantic relation with it.

Inflection and derivation are not mutually exclusive. Both inflectional and derivational morphemes may be found in the same word. In that event, derivational morphemes are attached first and any inflectional morphemes are added later.

Chapter 5
What is chapter 5 about: How do speakers select the right allomorph to use in a given situation? Factors: phonological, grammatical, lexical. Allomorphs morphs which realise the same morpheme. For example, the phonetic (s) of cats (k ts), (z) of pigs (p gz), and (
z) horses (hr s z) are allomorphs of the English plural morpheme.

Many morphemes have several allomorphs. In the vast majority of cases, the distribution of these allomorphs is determined by phonological factors. Phonologically conditioned choice of allomorphs is the regular plural of English nouns. The plural morpheme is
represented by s or es in the orthography but has three different phonetic manifestations in the spoken language: /s/, /z/, /iz/.

Morphophonemic rules the rules whose job it is to account for the alternations in the representation of morphemes Underlying representation (Underlying form or Base form) the allomorph with the widest distribution Surface representation (Phonetic representation) when morpheme may be realised by different forms, depending on
the context where it occurs

Assimilation the name given to this kind of agreement which has the effect of making one sound become more like another
sound in its neighbourhood. So, voiceless final consonants in the stem require the voiceless fricative allomorph /s/ while voiced final consonants go with the voiced fricative /z/.

Schwa epenthesis the phenomenon of vowel insertion Allophonic rules have the job of specifying the phonetic realisation of phonemes Derivation phonological representations of morphemes may go through a metaphorical journey involving modifications at
various stages. Derivation we call that journey. A derivation entails applying phonological rules which, step by step or, more likely, simultaneously, alter the underlying representation and bring it closer and closer to the ultimate surface representation.

Grammatical conditioning is a case of the selection allomorph of the root being solely conditioned by grammatical factors
(irregular verbs)

Lexical conditioning when the selection of inflectional affixes may be determined by the presence of a particular lexical root
morpheme (singular: ox; plural: oxen)

Zero suffix plural of sheep is form by adding zero suffix Suppletion when the choice of the allomorphs of a root morpheme that serve in different grammatical contexts is
phonologically arbitrary: the allomorphs in question bear no phonological resemblance to each other. (go, went, gone)