Predators and Farmers Book

PREDATORS AND FARMERS
Whenever man engages in a practice which puts the lives or the livelihood of his fellow creatures
in jeopardy, he has a moral obligation to examine his motives carefully and to assess the methods
he proposes to employ.
- James A. Bateman, 1973
PREDATORS AND FARMERS
A publication of the Endangered Wildlife Trusts Wildlife Confict Prevention Group (WCPG), the
Carnivore Conservation Group (CCG) and the Birds of Prey Working Group (BoPWG).
COMPILED & EDITED BY:
Claudia Hodkinson; Harriet Davies-Mostert; Hayley Komen; Tim Snow
DESIGN & LAYOUT BY:
Cutting Edge Graphics
COVER PHOTOGRAPHS BY:
Claudia Hodkinson Human eye
Villiers Steyn -Leopard
PRINTED BY:
Print Caf
PUBLICATION SPONSOR:
Rand Merchant Bank
Published by the Endangered Wildlife Trust 2007
Johannesburg.
All rights reserved. The information in this booklet may be used freely but only for non-com-
mercial purposes.
PHOTO CREDITS:
Albert Froneman:
Alexander Sliwa:
Cape Nature
Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF)
Claudia Hodkinson:
Clive Walker:
Gerrie Comacho:
Prof. Graham Alexander:
Harriet Davies-Mostert:
Hayley Komen:
Lex Hes:
Marianne Golding:
Marna Herbst:
Martin Harvey:
Philip Daniel:
Rob Till:
Vicky Ahlmann:
Villiers Steyn:
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 00
FOREWORD 00
1INTRODUCTION 00
2THEROLEOFPREDATORSANDWILDLIFEINACHANGING
FARMINGENVIRONMENT 00
3PREDATORSINPOTENTIALCONFLICT 00
4WILDLIFECONFLICTMANAGEMENT 00
5WILDLIFECONFLICTPREVENTION:PRINCIPLESANDTECHNIQUES 00
6POSTPREDATION:IDENTIFYINGTHECAUSEOFDEATH 00
7WORKINGWITHTHELAW 00
8REFERENCESANDFURTHERREADING 00
9THEENDANGEREDWILDLIFETRUST 00
10THEEWT-CONFLICTPREVENTIONWORKINGGROUP 00
11THEEWT-CARNIVORECONSERVATIONGROUP 00
12THEEWT-BIRDSOFPREYWORKINGGROUP 00
13USEFULCONTACTS 00
2 3
This booklet is a revision of the previous PREDATORS AND FARMERS (ISBN 0 620 17097-2),
a publication of the Endangered Wildlife Trust by A E Bowland (Tony), M G L Mills (Gus) and
DLawson(David).
The work of these authors, as well as the contributors to that booklet, are acknowledged.
This book is dedicated to them and their foresight, to provide guidance towards resolution of
humanwildlifeconficts.
Wealsoacknowledgetheconservationists,farmers,landownersandvariousspecialistswhosework
andinputs,howeversmall,havemadethisbookletpossible.
WespecifcallythankAbrieMaritz,AdriBarkhuysen,AndreBotha,Prof.GrahamAlexander,Hannes
Stadler, Pat Fletcher, Yolan Friedmann and Dr. Nick King for their signifcant contribution and
editorialcomments.
CliveWalkerandStruikPublishersgenerouslyprovidedallthespoordiagrams.Distributionmaps
were provided by the Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG) Southern Africa and the
EndangeredWildlifeTrust.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
FOREWORD
The environment and seasonal patterns learnt over years are changing due to climate change
andothermajorenvironmentalphenomena.Accordingly,humanityhashadtomakeanumberof
adjustmentstothewaysinwhichweliveandwork.Manypeopleareresistanttochange,since
theyhavegrownuplearningfromandfollowingthewaysoftheirfathersandgrandfathersbefore
them.
Farmers in southern Africa ft this mould well since many farms have passed through
generations. Ancient myths about predators are passed from generation to generation, and old
trappingmethodsarepassedon,withoutdueconsiderationofnewtechnologyorcircumstances
that have changed over time. The livestock farmer who experiences problems with predators
frequently has to face the dilemma of whether to kill or to conserve. In his efforts to control,
the farmer often inadvertently kills the wrong culprit, unaware of the fact that many of these
creaturesarenotenemiesbutfriends;andinsodoing,heskewsthenaturalbalancesandforces
atplay.
We have entered a new era in environmental management, where there is a realisation and
awarenessthatthecenturiesofpersecutionofpredatorsinsouthernAfricahavehadmadelittle,
ifanydifferencetothepopulations.Thereisanewattitudegrowingamongstpeople,totrynew
andinnovativemethodstomanagewildlifeandlivestocktoavoidconfict.Andaswehaveseen
withtheprojecttoreduceconfictbetweenbadgersandbee-keepers,thereareinnovativeways
topreventconficts.
Thisbook,Predators and Farmers,isavaluablesourceofinformationthatturnsoldbeliefsupside
downandlooksattheissueofwildlifeconfictswithnewvision,highlightingthatpreventionis
thecure.Thebookwillassistthefarmerinrecognizingandmanagingwildlifeconfictandwillalso
illustratethevalueofallspeciesandtheirenvironmentalrolesonfarms.
TheEndangeredWildlifeTrustrecognisesthatfarmersaremajorrole-playersinconservationsince
theyownvasttractsofland.TheEWTiscommittedtoencouragingthemtopracticeenvironmental
conservationonfarmlands.Throughknowledgecomesunderstandingandthisunderstandingof
lifeandofourenvironmentisimportanttoall.Infact,itssoimportanttousthatitisenshrined
inourConstitution.
Marthinus van Schalkwyk
Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
FOREWORD
1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
4 5
In southern Africa, there are many species that have for a long time been labelled as problem
animals or vermin. In the past, hatred towards those species developed to such a point, that
allpredatorswerebelievedtobeaproblemtolivestockandhumansandneededtoberemoved.
This resulted in many predators, scavengers and other animals been irrationally and relentlessly
persecutedandexterminated,withdevastatingimpactsontheenvironmentanditsecology.Un-
fortunately,manyfarmerstodaystillholdthisprejudicedviewandcontinuetouseundesirable
methodswhendealingwithhuman-wildlifeconfict.
Times have changed, as has legislation; we have entered a new era of human-wildlife confict
managementwherean integrated or holistic approachtowardssolvingtheseproblemsneedsto
replaceold,outdated,prejudicedandunacceptablemethodsofdealingwithconficts.
THE UNDERSTANDING OF WILDLIFE
LIVESTOCK PREDATION IN OUR
SOCIETY IS CHANGING AND SO IS
PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF IT.
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
Gin traps are inhumane and cruel resulting
in many species suffering painful deaths.
They are no longer an acceptable method
when dealing with conflicts.
1 INTRODUCTION
A meeting of experts in this feld, held at Ganzekraal in the Western Cape in April 2006,
concursthatwildlifeandtheiractivitiesoftenseriouslyreducefarmingprofts,butthatproactive
preventionofconfictneedstobeforemost,withlegal,rationalandwell-consideredmanagement
ofpredationbeingtheonlypracticaloptionavailable.Theprinciplethatonlyspecifcindividuals
ofaspeciescanbedesignatedasproblematic,ratherthanpopulationsofspeciesasawholeas
wellasnolongerpromotingorutilisinglethaland/orinjurioustechniquestokillorcapturesuch
individuals,arekeystofuturehuman-wildlifeconfictmanagement.
Confictwithpredatorsisaninherentriskofanimalhusbandryandtheintentionofthisbooklet
is to empower farmers by providing reliable, objective and useful information to resolve these
confictsbyapplyingthebestpracticesavailableandwhere
PREVENTION IS THE CURE
Preventionofwildlifeconfictistheresponsibilityofeveryfarmerandtheoverallapproachshould
be to minimize human-wildlife confict situations, by employing an integrated or holistic
approach to address such confict situations.
GREEN LABELLING
A future incentive for farmers is being investigated, where premium prices may be paid for
agricultural produce if ecologically responsible management has been practiced on the
farm. This will apply to farmers who apply certain best practices to prevent stock losses due
to predators. For instance, accreditation will be given to stock farmers who produce wool
and meat in an environmentally responsible manner, by implementing measures to prevent or
minimise livestock predation and adapting their farming practices in line with a specific code
of conduct or protocol that is industry-driven and recognised.
Consumers are becoming increasingly aware and responsible regarding the products they
choose to purchase. Green labelling is not a new concept, and marketing and awareness
around green-labelled products to consumers, is a key component of this project.
More information on Green Labelling and the Best Practices Manual can be obtained from
the EWT-Wildlife Conflict Prevention Group (WCPG) and CapeNature.
7
Theirpositioningatthetopofthefoodchainmakescarnivoresecologicallyimportant.Theyplay
a vital role in controlling and managing prey populations by cropping sick, weak or otherwise
compromisedanimals.Inthiswaytheymayalsopreventareasfrombecomingover-utilised.Any
disturbanceintheecosystemwillflterthroughtotheanimalsatthetop,thusmakingcarnivores
more vulnerable than other species. It is not by coincidence that many carnivore species are
amongstthemostthreatened.
Mostpredatorsarelimitedbytheirfoodsupply,whichmeansthattheyareunlikelytoeliminate
preypopulations.Thebalancebetweenpredatorandpreyisadynamiconeandhashadamarked
effectontheevolutionofboth.Thestrong,thequickandtheeffcientsurvive,whiletheweak
andslowareeliminated.
Predatorsalsoaffectoneanotherthroughcompetition.Inthecaseofcloselyrelatedspecies,the
larger usually dominates the smaller species, keeping its numbers in check. For example, with
theseverepersecutionofwolvesinNorthAmericatheCoyotehasexpandeditsrange.Similarly,
there are strong indications that the Caracal has become the dominant predator following the
eradicationofLeopardfrommanypartsofsouthernAfrica.
Asnaturalhabitatsbecomealteredandfragmentedbyhumanactivity,predatorsareincreasingly
underpressuretomeettheirsurvivalneeds.Thishassignifcanteffectsontheecologyofthese
animals, and has resulted in people eliminating predators to protect their livelihoods. Blanket
control measures are often used, with devastating effects on populations. These however, have
beenproventobeineffective,aspredatorsareterritorial,andkillingandremovingterritorialadult
individualssimplyopensupthehabitatfornewnomadicindividuals.Thiscouldleadtoanincrease
inpredation,andinsteadofsolvingtheproblem,itmakesitworse.
Somefarmingpractices,suchasopenorfree-rangingextensivefarmingsystems,maymaintain
predatornumbersperceivedtobehigherthandesirable.Duringlatewinterandspringthenatural
prey available to predators is often low. It is at this time of the year that natural mechanisms
reducepredatornumberstolevelsprescribedbytheavailabilityofnaturalprey:old,weakandless
ftpredatorssimplyperishandfeweryoungsurvive.However,itisalsoatthistimeoftheyearthat
mostmajorsynchronisedlambingtakesplaceonsheepfarms.
Predators,hardpressedforsustenance,willreadilyusethisartifcialfoodsourceifthelivestock
remain unprotected, and this accounts for the seasonal nature of predation. Should a fock be
unprotectedduringthisvulnerableperiod,notonlywillthestock-ownersufferpotentiallosses,
but the artifcial food source may ensure that many more predators survive this naturally lean
period,therebycontributingtounnaturallyhighpredatornumbersinthefollowingseason.For
everyyearthatthefarmersuppliespredatorswiththisreadyfoodsourceinlatewinter,thestock
lossproblemiscompounded.Itstandstoreasonthenthatit is of vital importance to protect
focks at lambing time.
Cattle are generally too large to be attacked by any but the largest predators. Genetic
manipulationofcattlebyfarmers,byartifcialinseminationorputtingaheifertoabullthatistoo
large,oftenproducescalvesthataretoolargeforanaturalcalving,anditisinthesecaseswhere
acowexperiencescalvingdiffculty,thatshemaybeattackedbysmallerpredators.
Individualpredatorsthatarecontinuouslyexposedtounprotectedstockmaydevelopahabitof
takingadvantageofthisreadyfoodsource.Any farming operation needs to take precautions
to protect livestock from predators.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Understanding predator biology and behaviour enables farmers to adjust their farm manage-
ment and to plan their operations to enable conflict prevention. It also helps to improve the
efficiency and selectivity of management and reduce undesirable ecological consequences
of indiscriminate predator removal. The need to understand natural patterns and to define
predation problems is an important aspect of farm management.
BENEFITS OF PREDATORS AND WILDLIFE ON FARMLAND
The misguided concept that all predators are bad and should be killed wherever they are
found, has led to the widespread extermination of large predator populations, causing severe
secondaryconsequencessuchasincreasesinsmallercarnivores,anditisalarmingthatthisidea
is still prevalent in the minds of some farmers today. Predators have a valuable role to play on
farms.
Research on the different predators that naturally occur on farmlands has revealed that the
major prey items of some predators are rodents and insects. Predators thus perform a vital
THE ROLE OF PREDATORS AND WILDLIFE THE ROLE OF PREDATORS AND WILDLIFE
2 THE ROLE OF
PREDATORS AND WILDLIFE
IN A CHANGING FARMING ENVIRONMENT
8
role in regulating the numbers of these potentially harmful species. Without predators, rodent
numbersmayrisetolevelswhereseverecropdamagecanoccurandthiscancausesubstantially
greater fnancial loss than predator attacks on small stock. High numbers of rodents may also
adverselyaffectveldconditionandregenerationbytheconsumptionofvastquantitiesofgrassseeds.
Birdsofpreyalsotakesignifcantnumbersofrodents.Guineafowlandothergamebirdsprovide
a free insect control service. Vultures clean up carcasses from the veld, playing a key role in
preventing the spread of stock disease. Antelope and other small game provide a natural food
source for predators and reduce the likelihood of attacks by predators on domestic livestock.
Rodents,hares,dassiesandinsects,whichformthemajorpartofthedietofthepredatorsmost
oftenaccusedofstockkilling,canremoveagreatdealofgrazingthatwouldnormallybeused
by sheep. So, for example, if a jackal kills one sheep and the farmer responds by poisoning all
predatorsonhisfarm,hemayactuallybereducinghisincomemorebyallowingtherodents,hares,
dassies,andinsectstobuildup,soreducingavailablegrazingforagreaternumberofsheepthan
werekilledbythepredators.Byimplication,afarbroaderandholisticanalysisofwildlifedamage
isrequired,wheretheenvironmentandthespectrumofinter-specifcinteractionsareconsidered,
toachieveasustainablesolutionbasedondamageprevention.
Predators, in their position at the apex of the food pyramid, soon show the effects of
environmental degradation by declining in numbers. The presence of a variety of predators is
indicative of a balanced system resulting from wise land use management. The presence of
predators ensures that wildlife remains ft and healthy, by maintaining game numbers and
ensuringthattheweakandunhealthyindividualsdonotsurvivetoreproduce.Predatorstherefore
playavitalroleinmaintainingecosystemhealth.
Thispivotalrole,plustheaestheticvalueandtouristappealthatpredatorsoffermayinstilinthe
farmerthesatisfactionofknowinghisactivitiesareinharmonywithnatureandthereforemore
sustainableinthelong-term.
IMPACTS OF PREDATORS ON FARMERS
There is no doubt that certain predators will prey on unprotected stock such as sheep, goats
andcalves,andsometimesevenadultcattle.Substantiallossescanbeincurredbythefarmerif
preventative measures, such as proper farm management and deterrents, are not implemented
properly.Thiscanresultinrealfnanciallosses.
A certain level of stock loss due to predation, can be widespread: an opinion survey of sheep
farmersinNatalintheearly1980sshowedthat68%offarmersexperiencedsomesortofstock
loss to predators-although the veracity of these opinions is open to debate. A loss factor for
predation should therefore be incorporated into the farmers fnancial plan, as is the accepted
normfordisease,climate,theftandothercausesofloss.
The economic impact of predation on individual farmers comprises direct and indirect
costs. Direct costs are defned as the loss of the market value of the stock killed,veterinary
care for injured stock, replacement of breeding stock, and reduced profts. Indirect
costs relate to the costs of measures taken to protect stock from attacks such as lock-
ing up stock at night, disease spread in kraals, feece damage owing to animals being kept
closely confned and so on. These expenses are of course far wiser investments than spend-
ing money after predation on poisons, and other lethal and non-target specifc measures.
Wildlife confict prevention measures and techniques should be implemented to reduce both
directandindirectcosts.Beforeimplementinganymeasures,itisessentialthatthestock-owner
conductadetailedcost-beneftanalysistodeterminetherealeffectofpredationandthecostof
thesemeasurestohis/heroperation.Thecostofwildlifeconfictpreventionmeasuresshouldnot
exceedestimatedlossesthroughpredation.
Thefarmermaybeabletoacceptcertainlevelsofpredationbyimprovingproductivityandincome
inotherareasoftheoperation,forexample,lambingpercentages.However,itisusuallythecase
thatsomeformoffarmmanagement,livestockprotectionand/orpredatorexclusionisnecessary.
Thismaybeassimpleasestablishingsecurelambingareasonasheepfarm.
Further wildlife confict prevention principles and techniques are discussed in chapter 5.
THE ROLE OF PREDATORS AND WILDLIFE THE ROLE OF PREDATORS AND WILDLIFE
10 11
3 PREDATORS IN POTENTIAL CONFLICT
Thefollowingsectiondescribesvariouspredatorsandindicatestheirpotentialimpactstofarmers,
whatbeneftstheymayofferthefarmer,andwhattheirconservationstatusis,e.g.whetherthey
arethreatenedandinneedofspecialprotection.
The Conservation Status for each species has been extracted from the Red Data Book of the
MammalsofSouthAfrica.
HIGHER CONFLICT POTENTIAL
Referstothosespecieswhereboththeimpacttothefarmerandthefrequencyoftheconfict
arepotentiallyhigh.
PREDATORS IN POTENTIAL CONFLICT PREDATORS IN POTENTIAL CONFLICT
DOMESTIC DOG
Canis familiaris
Afrikaans:Hond.Zulu/Xhosa:Inja.
Conservation status:Notapplicable
Shoulder height: 300-750+ mm
Mass: 5-70kg
Key identifcation features:Occurinawidevarietyofbreeds,shapesandsizesbutusuallyunmistakeable.
Natural diet:Omnivorous.
Habits:Domesticdogscomeinawidevarietyofshapes,sizes,andtemperaments,butallarederivedfroma
singlewildgeneticsource.Thesedeep-seatedinstinctsreassertonoccasionanddogsbeginkillinglivestock.
Stockkillingisnotconfnedtostraydogs,veryoftenthewell-fedfamilypetwillventureintothepasturesat
nightonakillingspree.Dogsoftenincreasetheirdestructionbyoperatinginpacks.
Benefts and potential impacts:Watch-dogsandpets,butcanbecomeclandestinestock-killers.
CARACAL
Caracal caracal
Afrikaans:Rooikat.Zulu:Ndabushe.Xhosa:Nghawa.Tswana:Thwane.
Conservation status:LeastConcern
Shoulder height:450mm
Mass:Upto20kg
Key identifcation features: Short reddish-brown coat with a white
chin,throatandbelly.Hasanarrowblacklinerunningfromeacheyeto
thenose.Thebodyislongandslenderwithlonglegs,ashorttapering
tailandhighlytuftedears.
Natural diet: Small to medium-sized prey including the young of larger antelopes, young baboons, Vervet
Monkeys,smallcarnivores,dassies,hares,rodents,birdsandreptiles.
Habits:CaracalsarewidespreadandcommoninSouthAfrica.Thoughtheycantoleratearidconditionsthey
haveapreferenceforareaswheremoreadequatecoverisavailable.Theyarepredominantlynocturnalevenin
undisturbedareas.Averagehomerangesizeisapproximately24km.Nomadicindividualsmaydisperseover
130kmfromtheirbirthplace.Theyarenormallyterrestrialbutareadeptclimbersandscaletreeseasily.Caracal
aresolitaryanimals,malesandfemalesappeartoassociateforashortmatingperiodonly.Kittensarebornall
yearroundwithapeakinthesummermonths.Littersofbetweentwoandfourarebornindisusedaardvark
holes,hollowtrees,orsimilarcavities.
Benefts and potential impacts:Keepshare,dassieandrodentnumbersdown.Someindividualsmaydevelop
atastefordomesticstock. BLACK-BACKED JACKAL
Canis mesomelas
English:RedJackal.Afrikaans:Rooijakkals.
Zulu:Mpungutshe.Tswana:Phokojwe.
Shangaan:Impungutshe.
Mass:7-9kg
Key identifcation features: Grey to silver, or reddish-brown fur, with a distinctive black saddle and
black-tippedtail(thetailoftheSide-stripedJackaliswhite-tipped).
Natural diet:Opportunists.Mainlysmallanimals,carrion,occasionallysmalloryoungantelopes,insects,eggs,
fruit,reptiles.
Habits:Black-backedJackalshaveawidehabitattoleranceandcanbefoundthroughoutmostofsouthern
AfricafromaridzonesinNamibiatomontaneareasofNatal.Theyareverywaryandcunningandarenoteasily
trapped. They exhibit both diurnal and nocturnal activity. They rest in holes in the ground, rock crevices or
pilesofbouldersormaylieupinthickunderbushortallgrass.Home-rangesizeisabout18kmandnomadic
individualscanmovelongdistances(100km)whendispersing.Theymaybesolitary,occurinpairsorinfamily
groups.Matedpairsareterritorial,bothmalesandfemalesmarkanddefendtheterritory.Femaleshaveon
averagefvepupsfromJulytoOctober,inholes(dens)intheground.Bothmalesandfemalestakepartinrear-
ingandfeedingtheyoung.Atabout14weeksofagetheyoungleavethedenandforagewiththeirparents.
Benefts and potential impacts:Suppressrodentandinsectpopulations.Willpreyonsmall,younglivestock
especially sheep during the vulnerable lambing period. Such predation is easily combated by guard-dogs,
corralling,etc.
5cmlong
4.5-5cmlong
4.5-8.5cmlong
12 13 PREDATORS IN POTENTIAL CONFLICT PREDATORS IN POTENTIAL CONFLICT
LOWER CONFLICT POTENTIAL
Referstothosespecieswhereeithertheimpactorthefrequencyoftheconfictislikelytobe
low,butthatmayoccasionallycauselocaliseddamage.
LEOPARD
Panthera pardus
Afrikaans:Luiperd.Zulu,Shangaan,Xhosa:Ingwe.
Tswana:Inkwe.
Conservation status: LeastConcern
Mass:20-75kg
Key identifcation features: Elongated muscular body with relatively short legs. Colour varies from light
tawnytodeepyellow,withdarkspotsontheirface,head,throat,chestandlegs.Bodyiscoveredinrosettes
(theCheetahhasspots).TheheadislargerinproportiontothebodythantheCheetahandtheearsareshort
androunded.Lacksthefacialtear-dropmarkingsoftheCheetah.
Natural diet: Medium-sized and small animals. Tends to be more catholic than the Cheetah. Partial to
baboons.
Habits:Leopardshaveawidehabitattolerance,beingfoundinallhabitatsfromsemi-deserttoforest.They
are nocturnal and strictly solitary except when mating, or when females are supporting dependent young.
Theirsecretivebehaviourenablesthemtoinhabitareasclosetohumandevelopment.Territoriesvaryinsize
from20-200kmdependingonfoodavailability.Malesgenerallyhavelargerterritoriesthanfemales.Leopards
breedatanytimeoftheyear,withusuallytwotothreecubsinalitter.Thecubsbecomeindependentat15-18
monthsofage.
Benefts and potential impacts: Competes with Caracal, may prey on jackals and other smaller predators,
therebykeepingtheirnumbersincheck.Wherenaturalpopulationsremain,caracalandjackalnumbersare
signifcantlylower.Maypreyonstockinareaswithlowdensitiesofnaturalprey.Signifcanteconomicbenefts
fromecotourismandtrophyhunting.
CHEETAH
Acinonyx jubatus
Afrikaans:Jagluiperd.Zulu:Ihlosi.
Shangaan:Khankankha.Tswana:Lengau.
Conservation status:Vulnerable
Mass:50kg
Key identifcation features:Tallandslender
with evenly spaced, circular spots over a
tawny,creambackground.Thespotsaresolid,
unlike the leopard whose spots form a ring.
Small, rounded face, with black tear marks
running from the corner of the eye to the
cornerofthemouth.
Natural diet: Medium-sizedandsmall
mammals,groundlivingbirds.Exclusivelyfreshmeat.
Habits: Confned mainly to the larger reserves and protected areas in
southernAfrica,exceptforpartsofLimpopo,NorthernCapeandNamibia
wheretheyarewidespreadbutsparseinnumber.Preferopensavannahorplainshabitat,butcansurvivein
fairlydensewoodland.Theyaremainlydiurnal.Femalesaresolitary,raisingtheir1-6youngalone.Oncethey
havelefttheirmotherat15-18months,siblinggroupsremaintogetheruntilthefemalescomeonheat,when
theybecomesolitary.Malesmaybesolitaryorformcoalitionsofuptofourmembers.
Benefts and potential impacts: Economicbeneftsfromeco-tourism.Maypreyonunprotectedsmallstock.
Aretimidandpresentnothreattohumans.
LION
Panthera leo
Afrikaans:Leeu.Zulu:Ngonyama.Shangaan:Nghala.
Tswana:Tau.
Conservation status: Vulnerable
Shoulder height:Upto1.25m
Mass:Upto235kg
Key identifcation features:ThelargestAfricancarnivore.Lighttawnybrowncoat,&maleshavemaneswhich
canbetawnytoblack.Unmistakablebutspoorissometimesconfusedwithsmallercatssuchascaracal.
Natural diet: Large and medium-sized mammals, but anything from mice to Cape Buffalo, even young
elephants.
Habits:MainlyconfnedtothelargernationalparksandgamereservesinsouthernAfrica.Nocturnal,social
carnivores,livinginpridesof2-10femalesandcubs,withorwithoutagroupof1-4males.Somegroupsare
nomadic.Birthsarenon-seasonal,usually2-4perlitter,althoughthefemalesofaprideoftenbreedatthe
sametime.Occupyaterritorybutdonotnecessarilywandertogether.
Benefts and potential impacts: Eco-tourism potential and trophy hunting. Generally incompatible with
stock farming in southern Africa. May prey on livestock if distribution overlap but distribution is generally
confned to larger conservation areas.
6.5-9cmlong
9cmlong
12cmlong
SERVAL
Leptailurus serval
Afrikaans:Tierboskat.Xhosa:Hlosi.Zulu:Ndlozi.
Tswana:Tadi.
Conservation status:NearThreatened
Shoulder height: 550mm
Mass:Male,11kg;female,9kg
Key identifcation features:Pale-yellowcoatwithsolidblackspotsandbands(variable).Thetailhasseveral
ringsandablacktip.Slenderandlong-leggedwithasmallheadandbroadears.Thefurislonganddense.
Natural diet:Rodents,especiallyvleirats(Otomysspecies).Alsobirds,insects,reptiles,fsh,duiker,vegetable
matter.
Habits: Found in grassland and savanna, especially near marshy areas. Usually nocturnal and solitary.
Sometimesseeninpairs,orfemalewith1-3young.Willreadilyhuntinswampyareaswhichareavoidedby
othercats.Pounceontheirpreywhichtheylocatebyhearing.Lieupinlonggrassorbushclumps,onlyclimb
treeswhenchased.Young,borninsummer,arerearedbythemother.
Benefts and potential impacts: Keeps rodent numbers down. Occasionally raids poultry but does not kill
smallfarmstock.
AFRICAN WILD CAT
Felis sylvestris
Afrikaans:Vaalboskat.Zulu:Mpaka.Tswana:Phage.
Shangaan:Mphaha.
Mass: Male,5kg;female,4kg
Key identifcation features:Widediversityofcolouration:typicallysandyorlightbrownwithoverlyingtabby
pattern.Distinctiveblackstripesonlegsandtail.
Natural diet:Mainlyrodents.Alsobirds,reptiles,insects,frogs,spiders,scorpions,hares,fruit.
Habits:Widehabitattolerance.Nocturnalandsolitary.Terrestrial,butcanclimbwellwhenchasedorhunting.
Takescoverinthickvegetation,holesorrockcrevices.2-5youngbornfromSeptembertoMarchinholesin
thegroundandraisedbythemother.Pure-bredAfricanWildCatsarethoughttobebecomingscarce,asthe
speciesreadilyinterbreedswithdomesticcats.
Benefts and potential impacts: Keepsrodentandharenumbersdown.Mayraidpoultrybutdoesnotprey
onstock.
SMALL-SPOTTED GENET
Genetta genetta
Afrikaans:Kleinkol-muskejaatkat.
Shangaan:Nsimba.Shona,Tswana:Tsimba.
Total length:0.95m
Mass:1,8kg
Key identifcation features: Long lean body on short legs. Yellowish fur with dark spots on body. Tail has
distinctiveblackandwhiterings.SmallerthanLarge-spottedGenet,withmoredistinctmarkings.
Natural diet:Insects,rodents,spiders,birds,reptiles,frogs,centipedes,fruit,scorpions.
Habits: Found in arid regions and dry savanna. Nocturnal, solitary or in family groups. Terrestrial, but very
goodtreeclimbers.Takerefugeinholesintheground,intreesorinhollowlogs.2-4youngarebornduring
summer.
Benefts and potential impacts: Regulates rodent and insect populations. May raid poultry and bush
kitchens.
LARGE-SPOTTED GENET
Genetta tigrina
Afrikaans:Rooikol-muskejaatkat.Tswana:Tshipa.
Total length: 1m
Mass: 1,8kg
Key identifcation features:Longleanbodyonshort
legs.Yellowishfurwithdarkspotsonbody.Tailhasdistinctiveblackandwhiterings.LargerthanSmall-spotted
Genetandcoatmarkingslessdistinct.
Natural diet: Mice,insects,reptiles,frogs,birds,invertebrates,wildfruit.
Habits:Foundinmoistregions,forestandwoodland.Strictlynocturnalandsolitary.Excellentclimbers.Shelter
inholesintheground,intrees,infarmoutbuildingsandrockcrevices.2-5youngareborninsummerand
remaininthenestuntilreadytoleavetheirmother.
Benefts and potential impacts:Keepsrodentnumberslow,especiallyarounddwellings.Mayraidpoultry.
4-4.5cmlong 3cmlong
3.4cmlong 3cmlong
AFRICAN CIVET
Civettictis civetta
Afrikaans:Siwetkat.Shona:Bvungo.
Shangaan:Fungwe.Tswana:Tshipalore.
Mass:11kg
Key identifcation features:Shortgreyfurwithblackspotsandstripesarrangedinrows.Faceisgreywith
whitemuzzleandblackmarkingsaroundtheeyes.
Natural diet:Insects,wildfruit,rodents,reptiles,birds,frogs,millipedes,carrion.
Habits: Found in moist savanna. Terrestrial, solitary, nocturnal. Litters of 2-4 are born during summer in
disusedAardvarkholesorrockshelters.Goodswimmers.Distinctivefacemasksmayhelpcivetstorecognize
theirownkindatcloserangeinthedark.Defecatesinmiddenscalledcivetries,neartheirfootpaths.
Benefts and potential impacts:Regulatesinsectandrodentpopulations.Mayraidpoultry&bushkitchens.
AFRICAN WILD DOG
Lycaon pictus
English:PaintedHuntingDog.Afrikaans:Wildehond.
Zulu:Nkentshane.Shangaan:Hlolwa.
Siswati:Budzatje.
Conservation status:Endangered
Mass:26kg
Key identifcation features:Slenderbuildwithlonglegs.Coatpatternsvarywidelybutusuallyacombination
oftan,whiteandblackpatches.Distinctivelargeroundears.Tailstypicallywhite-tipped.
Natural diet: Anything from Scrub Hare to Kudu and Blue Wildebeest, especially Impala and Springbok.
Almostexclusivelyeatfreshmeat.
Habits:Mainlyconfnedtoprotectedareas,butfree-rangingpacksarealsoknowntooccuratlowdensities
onfarmland.Widehabitattolerance.Crepuscular,highlysocialanimals,usuallylivinginpacksoffveto20.
Highlymobile,rarelyspendinglonginonearea,exceptforthreemonthsoftheyearduringthedenningperiod
(usuallylateMaytoearlySeptember).Usuallyonlythealphafemalehaspups.Littersaverageseventotwelve
pupsbutpupmortalityisusuallyhigh.
Benefts and potential impacts: Eco-tourism potential. May very occasionally prey on livestock, although
preferswildpreyandthissometimesleadstoconfictwithgamefarmers.Unlikelytocauseextensivedamage,
exceptduringthedenningseasonwhenlocalisedimpactsmightbehigh,howeverthisisonlytemporary.
CAPE FOX
Vulpes chama
Afrikaans:Silwervos.
Mass:2,8kg
Key identifcation features:Silvergreyback,light-
yellowfanksandunderside,andablacktiptothetail.
Natural diet:Smallmammals,birds,insects,scorpions,reptiles,wildfruits,eggs.
Habits: Found in open grassland or scrub. Nocturnal, solitary when foraging, lies up in holes or long grass.
YoungarebornfromAugusttoOctoberinlittersof2-5andarehiddeninburrows.Maleshelpprovisionthe
females soon after they give birth. Not dependent on water. Found singularly or in pairs but several may
congregatewherefoodisabundant.
Benefts and potential impacts:Keepsrodentandlocustnumbersdown.Canbeaproblemonsheepfarms,
butrestrictedtolambingperiods.Lossesofnewbornlambshavebeenreported.
SIDE-STRIPED JACKAL
Canis adustus
Afrikaans:Witkwasjakkals.Zulu:Mpungutshe.
Shangaan:Hlati.Ndebele:Ikhanka.
Conservation status: NearThreatened
Mass:9kg
Key identifcation features:Greyishbrownincolour,withpalestripesrunningalongthefanks,andadark
tailthathasawhitetip.
Natural diet:Wildfruitsandseeds,rodents,hares,carrion,insects,termites,birds,reptiles.
Habits:Occursinthicklywoodedsavanna,nocturnal,terrestrial,normallysolitaryandliesupinholesinthe
groundorintheshadeoftrees.Vocalisationconsistsofaseriesofmelancholyyaps.4-6youngarebornfrom
AugusttoJanuaryinholes.Bothmaleandfemalecarryfoodtothedenforthepups.Dependentonwater.
DroppingsandspoorverysimilartothatoftheBlack-backedJackalbutmaybedistinguishedbyitsstraighter
bottomedge.
Benefts and potential impacts:Keepsrodentandinsectnumbersdown.UnlikeitscloserelativetheBlack-
backedJackalitisnothreattodomesticstock.
5cmlong 5cmlong
5cmlong
9cmlong
SPOTTED HYAENA
Crocuta crocuta
Afrikaans:Zulu:Mpisi.Shangaan:Mhisi.Tswana:Phiri
Mass:50-70kg
Key identifcation features: Front legs longer than
backlegs.Shortlight-browncoatswithblackspotsthatmayfadewithage(BrownHyaenahasdarkshaggy
coat).Strongneckandjaws.LargerthanBrownHyaenaandearslesspointed.
Natural diet: Medium-sized to large mammals which are killed. Also carrion, bone, small mammals, birds,
reptiles,fruit,eggs,insects,garbage.
Habits: Mainly confned to the larger national parks and game reserves. Nocturnal, social animals, usually
livinginclansof10-50individualsdependingonfoodsupply.Femalesgivebirthtooneortwoyoung,often
atcommunaldens.Societiesaredominatedbyamatriarch.Theclanmakesuseofcommunaldungheapsin
theirterritory.
Benefts and potential impacts:Helpskeeptheveldcleanofdiseasedcarcasses.Maykilllivestockbutdistri-
butionisgenerallyconfnedtoconservationareas.
BROWN HYAENA
Hyaena brunnea
Afrikaans:Strandwolf.Tswana:Tlonkana.
Mass:40kg
Key identifcation features:Frontlegslonger
thanbacklegs.Longshaggybrown/blackcoat
with long pointed ears. Smaller in size than
SpottedHyaena.
Natural diet: Mainly carrion, seldom hunts.
Also wild fruits, insects, birds eggs, small
mammals.
Habits: The Brown Hyaena is mainly an
inhabitantofthedrierwesternregionsofthe
southern African subcontinent. Solitary foragers although they live in
clans. Almost exclusively nocturnal, resting in thick vegetation during
theday.Theycoverlargedistancesinsearchoffood,anythingupto60
kminanight.Malesmaybenomadic,withnofxedterritory.Femalesusuallygivebirthto2-4youngatany
timeoftheyear.Theyoungarekeptatadenforabout15monthsandtheadultsintheclanhelptofeedthem
bycarryingfoodtotheden.Fromaboutninemonthsofagethecubsalsobegintoforageforthemselves.They
usecommunaldungmiddensneartheboundariesoftheirterritories.
Benefts and potential impacts: Cleans up carcasses in the veld and, therefore, cuts down the spread of
disease. Competes with jackals for food. Rarely may an individual become a stock-killer. They are effcient
scavengersandareparticularlysusceptibletopoison.
HONEY BADGER
Mellivora capensis
Afrikaans:Ratel.Zulu,Siswati:Nsele.
Shangaan:Shidzidzi.Tswana:Matswani.
Mass:Males,9-14kg;females,5-10kg
Key identifcation features: Stocky robust elon-
gatedwithshortpowerfullegs.Strikinglongitudinal
silver-greybackstrap.
Natural diet: Scorpions, rodents, spiders, reptiles,
insects, centipedes, birds, snakes, honey, bees, larvae,
frogs,wildfruit.
Habits:Foundinallhabitattypes.Nocturnalinareasof
higherhumanactivity,diurnalinremoteareas.Solitary
butoftenhuntinpairs.Theyarepowerfuldiggerswith
long sharp claws and strong forelegs and their thick
loose skin protects them from bites and bee-stings.
Normallyterrestrial,butwillclimbtreestoreachbee-hives,lizardsandbirdsnests.Typicallyonecubinalitter,
whichmaybebornatanytimeofyear.
Benefts and potential impacts: Beehives are vulnerable to raiding unless simple, inexpensive protection
measuresaretaken,suchasraisinghivesofftheground.Maytakepoultry,andcaneasilytearthroughwire
nettingwithstrong,knife-likefrontclaws.
CAPE CLAWLESS OTTER
Aonyx capensis
Afrikaans:Groototter.Zulu:Ntini.Tswana:Nyedi.
Total length:1.3m
Mass:15kg
Key identifcation features: Generally dark brown
incolour,withlighterundersidesandsometimesawhitestreakonthethroat.
Natural diet:Mainlycrabsandfrogs,alsofsh,aquaticinsectsandmolluscs,veryrarelywaterbirds.
Habits:Foundinrivers,smallstreams,lakes,swamps,damsandthesea,theyarepredominantlyaquatic.Active
atdawnanddusk,especiallyattwilightandsometimesatfullmoon.Generallysolitary,butalsoseeninpairs
andfamilygroups,playwitheachotherandinanimateobjects.Wheneatingcrabstheyeattheentirecarapace,
unliketheWaterMongoosewhichusuallydiscardsthecarapace.Littersoftwoorthreehavebeenrecorded
throughouttheyearanditisunclearwhetherbreedingisseasonalorperennial.Diagnosticdroppingscontain
fragmentsofcrabsandhaveafshyodour.Flattenedsandandvegetationpatchesshowwhereanotterhas
rubbeditselfdry.
Benefts and potential impacts:Eco-tourismpotential.Presenceindicatesunpolluted,unsiltedwater,asign
ofgoodcatchmentmanagement.Maycauseproblemsinfshfarmsorwithcaptivewildfowl.
8.5-10cmlong
8cmlong
9-11cmlong
8cmlong
20 21
WHITE-TAILED MONGOOSE
Ichneumia albicauda
Afrikaans:Witstertmuishond.Zulu,Xhosa:Gqalashu.
Tswana:Tshagane.Shangaan:Tlolota.
Mass:4,3kg
Key identifcation features:Alargelong-hairedmongoosewithgreyappearance.Thebaseofthelargebushy
tailisbrown,theremainderiswhite.
Natural diet:Termites,beetles,grasshoppers,crickets,beetlelarvae,frogs,rodents,reptiles,birds,fruit.
Habits:Foundinsavannawoodland,grassland,andforestmargins.Dependantonwaterbutstrictlyterrestrial.
Nocturnal,solitaryorinfamilyparties.Usesholesforshelter.Gooddiggers,butdonotexcavatetheirown
burrows.
Benefts and potential impacts:Mayraidpoultry.Hasbeenaccusedofkillinglambs,butthereisnoevidence
forthis.
SLENDER MONGOOSE
Galerella sanguinea
English:Black-tippedMongoose.Afrikaans:Swartkwasmuishond.
Zulu:Chakide.Shangaan:Mangovo.Tswana:Kganwe.
Mass:Male640g;female460g
Key identifcation features: Very long thin body on short legs. Coat
yellowishtolightbrown.Tipoftailisblack.
Natural diet:Insects,lizards,rodents,birds,fruit,snakes,frogs.
Habits: Found in both dry and moist grassland and savannah, diurnal,
solitary,terrestrial.Shelterinholesintermitariaorrockcrevicesorhollowlogs.1-2youngarebornduring
summer.
Benefts and potential impacts:Curbsinsectandrodentnumbers.Mayraidpoultry.Willscavengeroadkills
whichoftenresultsinthembecomingroadkills.
LARGE GREY MONGOOSE
Herpestes ichneumon
Afrikaans:Grootgrysmuishond.Zulu:Nhlangala.
Tswana:Tshagane.
Total length:1.1m
Mass:3,2kg
Key identifcation features:Elongatedbodywithshortblacklegs.Bodycoveredwithlongdarkgreycoarse
hair.Tailendsinablacktasseloflonghair.
Natural diet:Smallmammals,birds,frogs,crabs,fsh,reptiles,insects,fruit.
Habits:Preferhumid-subhumidgrasslandassociatedwithreedbedsandswamps,althoughtheywanderwidely
in adjacent dry terrain. They are diurnal, terrestrial and solitary. Readily hunt in shallow water and muddy
areas,alsodigforprey.Litterof2-4probablyborninsummer.
Benefts and potential impacts:Curbsrodentnumbers.Hasbeenaccusedofkillinglambs,butthereisno
evidenceforthis.
SOUTHERN PALE CHANTING GOSHAWK
Melierax canorus
English:PaleChantingGoshawk.
Afrikaans:Bleeksingvalk.
Conservation status:Notthreatened
Key identifcation features:Alarge,palegreyhawk
withlong,redlegs.Thebaseofthebill,thecereand
partofthefacialskinisred,whilethebillisdarktowardsthefront.ItisbiggerthanthesimilarGabarGoshawk
andbiggerandpalerthantheDarkChantingGoshawk.
Natural diet: Small mammals, especially rodents, birds, reptiles and invertebrates. This species will also eat
carrion.
Habits:PaleChantingGoshawksarefoundmainlyintheKarooshrublandandKalahariwoodlandinthesouth
westernpartsofsouthernAfrica,astheyrequireopengroundwithafewhuntingperches.Theslightnestis
madeofstickslinedwithdung,wool,hair,feathersandothersimilarmaterialsandisusuallyplacedinathorny
Acaciatree.Oneortwoeggsarelaid,withthebreedingseasonreachingapeakinAugustandSeptember.Two
youngareoftenraisedsuccessfully.
Benefts and potential impacts:Animportantrodentcontroller.Notknowntoevertakestockanimals.
2.5cmlong 4cmlong
4cmlong
MARTIAL EAGLE
Polemaetus bellicosus
Afrikaans:Brekoparend.
Conservation status:Vulnerable
Key identifcation features:ThisisthelargesteagleinAfrica.Thedark
headandchestcontrastagainstthespotted,palebelly.Thespeciesdiffers
fromthesimilarBlack-chestedSnakeEagleinhavingadarkunderwing
andfeatheredlegs.
Natural diet: Hares,RockDassies,leguaansandgamebirdsarethemain
preyofthiseagle.
Habits:MartialEaglesarefoundinopencountryandbushveldthrough-
outAfrica.Nestsarelargestickstructures,builtunderthecanopyofatalltree.Onepairmayusethesamenest
formanyyears.Oneeggislaidinmid-winterandfedgesfvemonthslater.
Benefts and potential impacts:MartialEaglesoccupyterritoriesofbetween100and300km,soensuring
rogueeaglesdonotenterthearea.Roguesmayhaveagreaterimpactonlivestockthantheresidentpair.
VERREAUXS EAGLE
Aquila verreauxii
English:BlackEagle.Afrikaans:Witkruisarend.
Conservation status:Notthreatened
Key identifcation features:Thejet-blackplumage,
whiteVonthebackandwhiterumparediagnos-
tic.
Natural diet:TheRockDassiecomprises90%ofthediet.Itwillalsoreadilyeatcarrion.
Habits: The Verreauxs Eagle is found along mountain ranges and rocky outcrops throughout Africa. Nests
arebuiltoncliffledgesorbouldersandonepairmayusethesamenestformanyyears.Twoeggsarelaidin
mid-winter,butonlyonechicksurvives,theolderonekillingitsyoungersibling.
Benefts and potential impacts:ApairofVerreauxsEaglesareterritorialandwillkeepanyrogueeaglesout
ofthearea.Roguesmayhaveagreaterimpactonlivestock(onnewbornlambs),thantheresidentpair.
OTHER RAPTORS WITH VERY LOW CONFLICT POTENTIAL
TawnyEagles,AfricanHawkEagles,WahlbergsEagles,BootedEagles,VerreauxsEagles,BarnOwlsand
Spotted Eagle Owls occasionally prey on adult poultry, while Gabar Goshawks, Rock Kestrels, Greater
KestrelsandLannerFalconsmayinfrequentlypreyonpoultrychicksandpigeons.Juvenileorsub-adult
individuals of many eagle species are often accused of killing lambs, but this is unsubstantiated and
appearstobeopportunisticfeedingonstillbornordeadanimals.Lappetfaced,White-backedandCape
Vultures may sometimes kill newborn lambs, particularly if ewes leave these alone and exposed, and
CrownedEaglessometimescomeintoconfictwithstockfarmersintheEasternCape.Stockprotection
ensuresprevention.
Raptorsotherthanthosementionedabovedonotpredateonlivestockorpoultry.Insteadtheybeneft
farmersbycontrollingthenumbersoftheirnaturalpreyspeciessuchasrodentsandinsects.
SOUTHERN AFRICAN PYTHON
Python natalensis
Conservation status:
Length:Maximumlength~5m
Mass:Maximummass,60kg
Key identifcation features:Strong,muscularsnake
with a triangular head. Eyes are moderate in size
withverticalpupils.Theheadhasadarktriangularmarkingonthecrownandthereisadarklinefromthetip
ofthesnout,whichpassesthroughtheeyetothebackofthehead.Bodycolorationisusuallydarkbrownwith
grey-brownblotchesanddarkspecklingabovewithwidelyspaceddarkblotchesonthesides.
Natural diet: Awidevarietyofpreyistaken,butwarm-bloodedspecies(mammalsandbirds)appeartobe
favoured.Hasbeenrecordedfeedingonduckeggsandwilleventakecarriononoccasions
Habits: Occurs widely in bushveld, savannah and forest. Non-venomous and prey is killed by constriction.
Asinglemealcanexceedthepythonsownbodymass.
Benefts and potential impacts:Keepsrodentandharenumbersdown.Mayraidpoultry.Althoughverylarge
pythonshavebeenrecordedeatingantelope,youngcalvesandgoats,instancesoflivestockpredationarerare
andoftenproventobehighlyexaggerated.
24 25
BLACK-FOOTED CAT
Felis nigripes
Afrikaans:SwartpootWildekat.
Tswana:Sabalabolokwane.
Shoulder height: 250mm
Mass:Male,1.6kg;female,1.1kg
Key identifcation features: Yellowish brown fur, varying in shade between individuals, with black bars
extendingacrosstheshoulders,legs,andtail.
Natural diet:Rodents,spiders,reptiles,insects,birds,birdseggs.
Habits:Foundinaridopencountry.Nocturnal,solitaryandverysecretive.Liesupinholesorthickgrass.Litter
size1-3.Habitsarepoorlyknown.
Benefts and potential impacts:Curbsrodentpopulations.
BAT-EARED FOX
Otocyon megalotis
Afrikaans:Bakoorvos.NorthernSotho:Motlhose.
Tswana:Tlose.
Mass:4kg
Key identifcation features:Bat-earedFoxeshavelarge,wideears,ashortnarrowmouth,andlongjackal-like
legs.
Natural diet:Insects,especiallytermites.Alsoscorpions,rodents,reptiles,fruit,spiders,smallbirds.
Habits:Foundinopengrassland.Diurnalinwinterandnocturnalinsummer,forageinfamilygroups,resting
intheopenwhennotbreeding.Preyislocatedbyhearing.Breedinburrowswhichtheyexcavatethemselves.
Litters of 4-6 are born from October to December. Juveniles suffer heavy mortality from predation when
young.
Benefts and potential impacts:Insectivoredietmakesthemhighlyvulnerabletopoisoning.Norecordsof
stockkilling.
INNOCENT BYSTANDERS
Refers to those species that are often incorrectly accused and persecuted but cause no damage
whatsoever.
AARDWOLF
Proteles cristatus
Afrikaans:Aardwolf.Zulu:Nehi.Tswana:Thukwi.
Shona:Mwena.
Mass: 9kg
Key identifcation features:Frontlegsarelongerthanthehindlegs.Haveprominentcrest-likebackmane
whichcanbeerectediffrightenedoraggressive.Longyellow-whitefurwithverticalstripesrunningdown
thesidesofthebody.
Natural diet:Termites,especiallysnoutedharvestertermites.Sometimesfeedsonspiders,moths,centipedes
andantsbutteetharetoosmalltochewonmeat.
Habits:Foundinallhabitats,excludingdesertandforest,butdependantonpresenceofcertaintermitespecies
whichtheylocatebyscentandhearing.Nocturnal,solitaryforagersexceptwhenaccompaniedbyyoung.Den
in burrows either from other species or excavated themselves. Mated pairs and their most recent offspring
occupyanddefendterritories.2-4youngarebornbetweenOctoberandFebruary.Youngemergefromtheden
atonemonth,butonlyforagefaratfourmonthsandleavetheirparentsterritoriesafteroneyear.
Benefts and potential impacts: Curbs termite numbers. They have fairly long canine teeth which are so
poorlydevelopedthatitismostdoubtfulwhethertheycouldevencopewithcarrion.Noevidenceexiststo
suggestthattheypreyonlivestock.Mayvisitcarcassestofeedonmaggotsandhidebeetlesandtherefore
wronglyaccusedofpredation.
SPOTTED-NECKED OTTER
Lutra maculicollis
Afrikaans:Kleinotter.Zulu:Ntini.
Total length:1m
Mass:4.5kg
Key identifcation features: Body is deep brown
exceptforthethroatwhichisalighttancolourand
mottledwithbrownspots.(CapeClawlessOtterslack
thesespots).
Natural diet:Almostequalquantitiesofcrabandsmall
fsh,frogs.Occasionallyaquaticinsectsandbirds.
Habits: Found in rivers, lakes and swamps with
extensiveareasofopenwater,neverfarfromtheshore.
Crepuscular.Clearwaterisimportantastheyhuntby
sight.Usuallysolitaryorinfamilygroupsofadultsand
young.Theylieupandbreedinrockycrevicesorholesinriverbanksorreedbeds.1-3youngperlitter.
Benefts and potential impacts: Eco-tourism potential. Reliant on clear, unpolluted water therefore its
presenceindicatesgoodcatchmentmanagement.Preventsoverpopulationoffshindamstherebyincreasing
catch-size.Donotusuallytakefshlargerthan20cm,arethusnothreattofsheries.Adultswilldefendtheir
youngagainsthumans.
2.1cmlong
4-4.5cmlong
3.5-4cmlong
5cmlong
2 27
Strategically,anintegratedorholisticwildlifeconfictmanagementprogramshouldconsistofthe
followingsteps:
Problem defnition refers to evaluation of the actual cause of damage and correct
diagnosis; the species and individuals responsible, the extent of loss and the nature of the
confict;andotherbiologicalandsocialfactorsrelatedtotheproblem.
Ecology of the problem species refers to understanding the natural history of the
species,especiallyinrelationtotheconfict.
Control method applicationreferstotakingtheinformationgainedfrompoint1and2to

develop an appropriate management programme to prevent, alleviate or reduce the
confict.
Evaluation of controlallowsanassessmentofthereductionindamageinrelationtocosts
and impact of the control on target and non-target animal populations and the
environment.
Implementation of an integrated or holistic management approach should frstly involve the
long-term implementation of preventative measures, accompanied with an adaptation of farm
managementpractices.Shouldpredationtakeplace,meticulousstepsshouldbetakentoidentify
theindividual animalcausingthedamageandacontrolmethod,suchascagetrapping,decided
onthatisapproved and legal, ecologically acceptable, cost-effective, ethical and humane.
Itisimportantthatanintegrated or holistic management approachtohuman-wildlifeconfict
situations be taken, whereby several prevention and management methods are combined and
coordinated.
There are no quick fxes and no easy answers in

human-wildlifeconfictmanagement.Itiscriticalto
avoidirrationalover-reactiontoconfictsituations,
justtosolvetheproblemquickly.Inthepast,many
farmers resorted to indiscriminate use of poison as
a quick solution, which resulted in a painful death
formanyindividualsofmanydifferentspecies,most
of whom are simple carrion-feeders only. This has
causedlong-termecologicalimbalancesandgener-
allyexacerbatedthepredationproblem.Thispractice
isnolongerlegalandisethicallyunacceptable.
Wildlifeconfictmanagementiscomplexandrequires
meticulousattentiontothefnestdetailsifsuccess
istobeachieved.Farmersandlandmanagersshould
therefore,alwaysviewthesituationholistically,with
long-term solutions as the key to success. A full
rangeofpreventionmeasuresshouldbeestablished
andcloselymonitored.
Prevention techniques are not all equally effective, and therefore, their effectiveness and eff-
ciencyshouldbeevaluatedforselectivity,skillandlabourrequirements,cost,availabilityandtime.
Implementingpreventativemethodstoprotectlivestockis a necessityforsuccessfulfarming.This
willbringaboutachangeinmanagement,anadjustmentofcircumstances,orareductionofrisk
andexposureoflivestockthatpreventsfuturepredation.
WILDLIFE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT WILDLIFE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
Success must be measured by reduced losses and increased profits, not by the numbers of
predator skins in the shed. When individual predators are removed, but the stock remains
unprotected, it simply opens the niche for the next predator.
4 WILDLIFE
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
The use of poison causes painful
deaths to many species and long-term
ecological imbalances.
28 2
KEY TERMS
Approved or legal means a method which is applied in accordance with the provisions
of any Act or Provincial Ordinance, or any regulations promulgated there under, and in
accordance with any instructions and guidelines applicable to any registered remedy or
substance which forms part thereof.
Ecologically acceptable means the method will have minimal detrimental effect on
species and the environment; in particular it must not create imbalances which further
exacerbate the problems.
Cost effective means that the cost of control does not exceed the value of the potential
losses incurred by the farmer.
Ethical and humane means that the method is fair and decent and will cause no suffering
to the target animal when applied as directed.
Only methods that meet all these criteria are considered
desirable methods.
There are many human-wildlife confict prevention methods to choose from with a clear
distinction between those that are preventative and non-lethal i.e. those that control by
prevention,protectionandaversionandwhichareencouraged;asopposedtothosethatarelethal
andthatarenot supported any longer.
Prevention is the cure for predation problems, not persecution of preda-
tors after the fact. A combination of proper farm management techniques, prevention of
access to stock and deterrents is the only long-term solution to predation problems.
There are many methods that can be applied over time to prevent and minimise confict with
predators,anditisextremelyimportantthatfarmersimplementpro-activepreventionmeasures
to protect their livestock. Predation is likely at some point unless proactive steps are taken to
preventaccesstostock.Themanagementofwildlifeconfictshouldbefexible.Farmersshould
be encouraged to use a combination of farm management techniques and deterrents, work
at improving and adapting them to optimise their effectiveness and be constantly open to
developingnewwaysofprotectinglivestock.
LIVESTOCK CARE AND MANAGEMENT
It seems obvious that farmers should care for their livestock, yet it often happens that stock
is left far from the homestead on remote parts of the farm and at risk to theft and predators.
Understandably,itisnotalwayspossibletoenclosestockallthetime,butthereareperiodsofthe
year,suchaslambingandcalvingseasons,whenlivestockareatagreaterriskthannormaland
whereextracaremustbetaken.Inareasofhigherrisk,thedevelopmentofsecurelambingcamps
andnightenclosurescanreduceriskinthelongerterm.
WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT ON THE FARM
Care for the land, by practicing sustainable farming and by conserving the wildlife and their
habitatsthatoccurthere,canreducepredatorconficts.Smallgameandgamebirdsprovidethe
foodbaseforpredators.Theshootingofsmallgameunnecessarilyisfoolish,becausepredators
instinctively select natural prey and when that is not available, they may resort to predation
on the farmers livestock. Predators are territorial and killing and removing territorial adult
individualssimplyopensupthehabitatfornewnomadicindividuals.Thiscouldleadtoanincreasein
predation,anddoesntsolvetheproblem,butmakesitworse.
By adhering to the recommended stocking rates and carrying capacities of the farm, the
farmercreatesahealthynaturalenvironment,whichwillbenaturallypopulatedbywildlifewhich
WILDLIFE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT WILDLIFE CONFLICT PREVENTION
5 WILDLIFE
CONFLICT
PREVENTION:
PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES
30 31
Fencing (this includes camps, kraals and night
enclosures)
Although expensive, this is a long-term solution. It
is however, only as good as the maintenance and as
secureastheweakestpoint.Predatorsoftendigunder
meshfences,soitisimportanttosecurethebaseof
themesh,oreventoattachabasemeshat90degrees
tothefencei.e.fatontheground,topreventpreda-
torsfromdiggingunderneath.Adequateandeffective
overhangs or electrifcation should be considered, if
there are species present which climb over fences.
Gatesthatareleftopenmakethebestfenceuseless.
Similarly,gatesthatarebadlyhungservenopurpose
at all, since the function of the gate is to close the
entrance/exit.Rivercrossingsandstreamsarediffcult
tofenceandaredamagedafterrain,soregularfence
maintenanceisessential.Goodfencesareaneffective
methodofkeepingpredatorsout.
Bybuildingpredator-prooffences,thepredatorsarekept
apartfromlivestock.Inthelongterm,fencingischeaperthanpotentialcontinuedlosses.Whilst
shepherding or labour costs are incurred, with a need to combat diseases when livestock are
confned,thereducedlossesbalancethesecosts.Onthedownside,insecureenclosuresmayallow
predator access, which can result in livestock being trapped and more than one animal being
killed. Fencing is also expensive in the short term and needs to be budgeted for correctly, with
depreciationcostsovertime.
Frightening devices
These may include lights and noises, such as FM radios and VHF radio alarm systems, used to
frightenandconfusepredatorsawayfromkraalsatnight.Aswithbellandscentcollars,itmustbe
stressedthatiffrighteningdevicesareusedfrequently,predatorswillbecomeaccustomedtoall
thebellsandwhistlesandbecomeunafraid.Frighteningdevicescanbeusedeffectivelyaround
calforlambcampsatnightandifusedinconsistentlyandonlyforshortperiodsoftime.Lights
andnoisesmaynotworkfordomesticdogs,astheytendtobeusedtothem.Unfortunately,such
devicesmayalsoattractthieveswhosteallights,radiosandlivestock.
Guard animals
Several forms of guard animals have been tried with varying degrees of success. These include
horses, donkeys, zebras, ostriches, Anatolian guard dogs and others. The principle is that the
guardanimalisdefensivetowardsthestock,naturallyaggressivetowardsthepredators,orboth.
The use of Anatolian shepherd dogs is effective in many applications, both locally and
compete for the best habitats. Absence of wildlife and birds of prey can indicate a history of
badveldmanagementorevenpoisonabuseresultinginstockbeingtheonlypreyavailablefor
nomadicpredators.
DETERRENTS
Someavailablemethodsaredescribedbelow.
Bell collars and scent collars
These collars are quick and easy to ft and can
confuse and deter predators because of the
unnatural noise or the human associated scent
theyexude,providedtheyareusedinconsistently,
inconjunctionwithothermethodsandattimes
when the risk of predation to livestock is at its
highest,particularlyatlambingtimes.Itmustbe
stressedthatthispreventiontechniqueshouldbe
used inconsistently otherwise predators become
used to them and hence unafraid. The critical
point is that management involvement is re-
quiredtomanipulatethesituationinresponseto
predationbyeithermovingsomeofthelivestock
tosaferareasorconfusingthepredator,orboth.
Once again, these collars are inexpensive, low
maintenance, very easy to ft, readily available
and developed by farmers for local conditions.
However, if used too frequently, they may
becomeanattractantdinnerbellwhichindicate
wherethefockareratherthatbeingasuspicious
deterrent.
Cell phone Veldwagter collars
Thistechnologyemploysatransmitterwithmotionsensingability.Whenstockaredisturbedand
madetorun,thesensoractivatesandplacesacellphonecalltothefarmerfromcampten.This
enablesafarmertorespondtothethreatfromapredatororstockthief,asandwhenthestock
aredisturbed.
Thesecollarsarenotexpensivewhencomparedwithpotentiallosses.Theyallowarapidresponse
by farmers and can provide protection from stock theft. Their use is unfortunately limited to
areaswithcellularphonereceptionandtheyrelysolelyonthefarmersabilitytorespondtothe
threat.
WILDLIFE CONFLICT PREVENTION
Bell collars are effective in deterring predators if used
inconsistently and for short periods of time.
Fences are only as good as the
maintenance and as secure as the
weakest point.
P-A-L Bell collars.
32 33
TheDeadStopCollarisamorerobustmeshwire
collar that protects the fock against attacks by
caracal, which because of their jaw and skull
structure,maybitethroughKingCollars.
These collars are inexpensive, low maintenance,
veryeasytoftandadjust,readilyavailableand
developed by farmers for local conditions. King
Collarsmaycauseskinproblemsifusedcontinu-
allyinwetterclimatesandnotmonitored.Ithas
beensuggestedthattheuseofthesecollarsmay
leadtounusualorunconventionalpredationbehaviour,butthereisnorecordedevidenceofthis.
Scent marking
Althougharatherunconventionaltechnique,predatorshavebeendeterredbyterritorialmarking
usingotherscents,suchashumanurine,whichcanbecollectedbeforethelambingseasonand
thensprayedwithagardensprayapplicatorontofencepostsandatgates.
Stock selection and type
Althoughnaturallivestockraces,likeDamaraSheeporNguniCattle,arehardyandsurvivewith
lessmanagement,theydonotproduceasrapidlyasmanyfarmersdesire.Thereisatendencyto
breedlivestockforgreaterwoolormeatproduction,attheexpenseofotherbehaviouraltraits.
Farmers should take note of ewes or cows that consistently lose their young and these poor
mothering characteristics should not form part of the genetic inheritance of a fock or herd.
Similarly,hand-rearedlambs (hanslammers)canbecomevictimsofpredatorssincetheydonot
learnfearandfightfrommothersfrombirthage.
Synchronised lambing and lambing enclosures
Innaturalsystems,wildanimalsproduceyounginsynchronisedseasonslinkedtorainfall,seasons
andnutrition,andthiscreatesasurplusfoodsupplyforpredatorsatthattime.Predatorsundergo
nutritionalstressduringwinterandtheoldandweakperish.Obviously,whenfoodisconstantly
availablethisdoesnothappen.Byapplyingsystemsofsynchronisedbreedingandlambing,the
farmerreducestheperiodofvulnerability,especiallywhensmalllambs,whicharenormallythe
highest risk age class, can be managed with their mothers in the highest security area on the
farm.
There are new, innovative conflict prevention techniques being developed all the
time, and we appeal to all readers to please share these with us. They can then be included
in revisions of this booklet, further helping farmers to manage wildlife conflict in new and
interesting ways that promote a healthy coexistence between humans and predators.
internationally.Guarddogsarethemselvespredatorsthatterritoriallymarkoutanddefendtheir
ownareas,andthereforeareeffectiveindeterringpredatorsandfndingsickordeadstockinthe
veld.Ideally,guarddogsshouldberaisedwiththelivestocktheywillprotect,sothattheyform
a bond with them. Where suitable dogs are chosen and properly managed, this method is very
effective.Forfurtherinformationonguarddogs,refertothecontactlistattheback.
Otherguardanimals,suchasdonkeys,chaseorintimidatepredatorsandareformidableopponents
against predators. Guard animals are always on duty and therefore are alert to the presence of
predatorsnearaherd.
Herdsman
Adiligentandwell-trainedherdercanprovetobe
invaluable in detecting and preventing potential
problemsbeforetheytakeplace.Onlargefarms,
where livestock roam over large distances unat-
tended,aherdercanaccompanylivestockandbe
on the look-out for any predators. In addition,
guard dogs are most effective when they are
supervised and managed and therefore herders
canmanageandprovideabackuptoaguarddog
inproblemsituations.Thesystemofshepherding
and guard dogs is widely used internationally,
andthecombinationofthetwoisveryeffective.
Unemployedyouthfromworkersfamiliesorlocal
communities may often be readily available for
suchemployment.
King Collars and Dead Stop Collars
Thesecollarsweredevelopedbyfarmersforfarmers.
TheKingCollarisawide,adjustablePVCcollarthatisfttedtothenecksoftheentirefockand
adjustedonceortwiceaseason.Theymakeitdiffcult,ifnotimpossibleforajackaltokillasheep
byathroatbite,thusconditioningterritorialanimalsnottoattacksheep.
A well-trained herder can prove invaluable
in detecting and preventing potential
problems.
An Anatolian guard dog with the herd. Donkeys make formidable opponents. King collars fitted to the necks of livestock
make it difficult for predators to kill by a
throat bite.
34 35
Ifallavailablepreventativetechniqueshavebeentriedandtestedandthefarmerstillexperiences
stocklosses,thenthecorrectproblemneedstobeidentifed.Fortheappropriatemanagementor
controlmeasurestobeinitiated,thefarmershouldalwaysclearlydeterminethecauseofdeath,
tobecertainthatthestockwasinfactpredatedanddidnotdiefromanothercause.Predation,
poorfarmorstockmanagement,humaninterventionorevendiseasemaybethecauseofdeath,
andafewsmallchangesinasystemcouldsignifcantlyreducelosses.
Itiscriticalatthisstagetoavoidbiasedviewsaboutwhathappenedandtofollowlogicalsteps
to obtain accurate and correct information to assist the farmer in choosing the best course of
action
HOW PREDATORS HUNT AND KILL
Preyiskilledinvariousways.Civets,mongoosesandskunksbiteintothebackoftheheadand
crushtheirvictimsskull.Catskillsmallpreybysinkingtheircaninesintotheneckandforcing
apartthevertebrae,orlargeprey,bystranglingorsuffocatingthevictimwithabitedirectedat
thethroatoroverthemouthandnose.HyaenasandWildDogsusuallyattackfromtherearand
killbydisembowelling.Predatorskilloutofnecessitytoeat,notoutofanger,forsportortobe
vindictive.Theyhunttokillaspartoftheirdailysurvivalandnormalexistence.
Carnivores vary greatly in size, have a wide range of diets and hunting methods, and differ in
theirsocialbehaviour.AtoneextremeisthesolitaryLeopardorCaracal,attheotherthehighly
socialAfricanWildDog.Evenmembersofthesamespeciesareabletovarytheirbehaviourtosuit
differentecologicalconditions.ForexampleSpottedHyaenasinthefood-richNgorongoroCrater
in Tanzania live in clans containing up to 80 individuals, which inhabit a territory of 40 km,
whereasintheKalahariwhereresourcesarethinlyspread,aclanoffvemayinhabitaterritoryof
1500km.Assuch,itisillogicaltolabelortargetgroupsorwholetaxaasproblematic.
POST-PREDATION
6 POST-PREDATION: IDENTIFYING
THE CAUSE OF DEATH
The Bat-eared Fox has small mo-
lars designed for eating food such
as insects and are not adapted to
eating meat. They may be seen
at a carcass feeding on insects
and maggots, but Unfortunately
they are often killed as innocent
bystanders.
POST-PREDATION
The Raptors Hunting Tools
Thelengthofthehalluxorbackward-facingtoe,andtheoveralldimensionsofaraptorstalons,
determines its prey size. Only the very large eagles are equipped to tackle bigger prey such as
Steenbok, Bushbuck and Rock Hyrax. Medium-sized eagles and owls usually catch smaller prey,
howevertheymaystilltrytohuntlargerprey,especiallyduringtimesoffamine.Allraptorsare
opportunisticfeedersandwillattackpreythatisobviouslycrippledorill.
Vultures rely on their powerful beaks for feeding. The Lappet-faced, White-backed and Cape
Vulturemayattackdomesticatedmammalsifveryyounglambs,calvesorkidsareabandoned,or
where ewes are weakened through diffcult labour. Starving vultures, especially immature birds
understress,aremostlikelytoberesponsiblefortherecordedattacksbyvulturesonsmallstock.
EXAMINING THE CARCASS
A number of clues can be used to identify the cause of death. A combination of clues and
observations should be used to narrow fndings down to a particular species, and further steps
taken to identify the individual that was responsible. Clues and observations will include track
identifcation (this needs to be looked at before approaching the carcass), prey size killed and
skinningouttheneck.
RefertothePredator Identifcation Table(pgrefer)forobservationsandclues.
Scavenged versus killed
Variouspredatorspeciesco-existinmanyareasanditispossiblethatmorethanonespeciesmay
beseenatacarcass.The fact that a carnivore fed on a carcass does not mean it killed the
animal.SpeciessuchastheAardwolfandBat-earedFoxmayoftenbeseenatcarcasseswhere
theyfeedoninsectsandmaggots.Theirdentitionisnotsuitedtoacarnivorousdietandtheydont
possessthetoothstructureorjawtokilllivestock.Hence,theyarealltoooftenkilledasinnocent
bystanders.Todetermineifthecarcasswasscavengedorkilled,furtherexaminationofthecarcass
isneeded.
3 37 POST-PREDATION POST-PREDATION
Figure 2 The width between the upper canines
differs between predators.
Skinning Out
The first and most important step is to determine whether the prey animal was killed
by a predator, died of other causes or was just fed upon by a scavenger. This is
normally quick and easily done by skinning out the throat
Always begin skinning on the side of the neck, slightly behind the ear,
moving around the throat using the jawline and base of the neck as
markers.
Reflect the skin flap (Figure 1 & 2) and look for bruising and puncture
marks on the reverse side of the skin (Figure 1 & 2). Inspect the throat and
jaw for bruising and lacerations.
Skinning the whole carcass is also useful as bites elsewhere on the body
are revealed. Take note of where other bite marks are located on the carcass
i.e. randomly all over, throat, back of neck. Compare your bite/fang location
findings to the predator identification table (pg ) to assist you in working out which
predator could have been responsible for the kill.
Measure the distance between the upper canines (Figure 2) on the
inside skin flap. The distance between the lower canines will be slightly smaller.
Compare your bite width findings to the predator identification
table (pg ) to assist you in working out which predator could have been
responsible for the kill.
Other clues
Openthelarynxandtracheaforevidenceoffoamwhichindicatesthattheanimalwasaliveand
breathing when injuries occurred. Check inside the mouth for regurgitated rumen contents. To
determine if newly born lambs and calves were alive at birth, check whether the hooves show
signsofhavingbeenwalkedon,andwhetherthestomachcontainsfood.Extensivebruisingand
bleeding around wounds indicates that the animal was killed with cardiovascular systems fully
functional.Alternatively,lackofbruisingandbleedingindicatesthattheanimalmayhavebeen
fedonafteritwasalreadydeadorstillborn.
Ifpresent,thesecluesindicatethatthepreywasactuallykilledandnotjustfedupon.Thestock-
ownerneedstoknowthisinformationbecauseitwillinfuencethedecisiononwhatactionto
take.Preythatwasfedupon,orinotherwordsscavengedbutnotkilled,warrantsamanagement
reactionotherthanpredationpreventionorcontrol.
Lookatwhichpartsofthecarcasshavebeeneaten(Figure4)andifthereisanyotherevidencesuch
aspluckedfurorwool,tornoreatenfaceandears,intactstomachandintestinesetc.Different
predatorshavedifferentfeedingpatterns.Compareyourfndingstothepredatoridentifcation
table(pg)toassistyouinworkingoutwhichpredatorcouldhavebeenresponsibleforthekill.
Inspection and autopsy of raptor kills
Again,anautopsywillrevealthestateofthecarcass.Bloodaroundpuncturewoundsindicates
thattheanimalmayhavebeenthevictimofapredatorandwaskilledbypenetratingcanineteeth
ortalons.Withaneaglethereareseldommorethantwopuncturemarks.Thepositionofthese
mayrevealmore,aseaglestendtograbtheirvictimsontheupperneckandhead,orontheback,
inthevicinityofthekidneys.Whenimpactisthecauseofdeath,thereismuchbruisingandblood
undertheskin.Puncturemarkswithnobloodindicatethattheanimalwasalreadydeadwhenthe
woundswereinfictedandthepredatorwasmostlikelyscavenging.Diurnalraptorsandsomeowls
usuallyplucktheirpreybeforefeeding.
Knowingthetimeofdeatheliminatescertainpotentialpredators,asdiurnalraptorsdonothuntat
night.Aneagle,evenalargeMartialorVerreauxsEagle,isincapableoffyingoffwithanintact,
day-old lamb, unless it was born prematurely and is very small. Almost all eagles, some of the
goshawkandbuzzardspeciesandcertainowlsaresecondaryscavengers.Thus, a raptor feeding
on a carcass is not necessarily the original predator, but simply an opportunistic scavenger.
Size of prey
Thesizeoftheprey/carcass,whethersmall,mediumorlarge,canprovidecluesastowhatpredator
wasresponsibleforthekilling.Predatorfeedingpatternscandifferaccordingtopreysize,andas
aruleofthumb,thelargerthepreysizekilled,thelargerthepredatorthatkilledit.However,this
isnotalwaysthecaseandthesizeofthecarcassfoundshouldbeusedinconjunctionwithother
clues.Compareyourprey sizefndingstothepredatoridentifcationtable(pg)toassistyouin
workingoutwhichpredatorcouldhavebeenresponsibleforthekill.
Specifc predator behaviour
Only six predators are responsible for the vast majority of livestock confict in southern Africa.
Humanthievesshouldnotbeoverlooked.StockpredationbyLeopard,Cheetah,andBrownHyaena
islimited,highlylocalisedandrestrictedtocertainwell-defnedareas.
Individualpredators,whichchangetheirnaturalbehaviourandadoptatasteforlivestock,may
become a problem. This may be as a result of advanced age, injury, eviction from a territory,
starvationofanevictedindividual,orbecausestockareeasiertokillthanwild,naturalprey.To
resolvethisconfictitisimportanttolookatanyunderlyingfarmmanagementproblemsorweak
pointsinpreventativeorexclusionarydevicesthatmightberesultinginpredationoflivestock.
Domestic dogs
Lackofcontrolofadomesticdogbyownerscancausehugestocklosses.Dogsownedbyfarm
labourers are often used to hunt game on the farm for the pot and this is exacerbated by the
failurebymanylandownerstoaddressthis.
Cluesthatthecarcasswaskilledbydomesticdogsinclude:
Verysmalllambsareoftenbittenonthechest,backorhead.
Largelambsorsheeparebittenanywhereonthebody.
Bitesmaybeseenonthehamstrings,head,ears,neckorfanks.
Thekillisgenerallyuntidy,seldomaclean,neatkilllikethatofnaturalpredators.
Thecarcassmaybedraggedtoandfro.
Usuallymorethanonesheepiskilledormaimed,butoccasionallyonlyone.
The distance between upper canine teeth for dogs in the size range up to fox terrier and
spanielis30to40mm;33to36mmforbordercolliesand36to60mmforlargerdogsinthe
greyhoundtomastiffsizerange.
Avariableamountofmeatiseaten,fromnothingtolargeamounts,usuallymorethanthat
takenbyjackalorCaracal.
Feedingisoftenfromtherear,butlargepiecesmayberippedfromthecarcass.
Largebonesarechewedoreaten.
Chunksofwoolmaybestrewnabout(notaneatpluckingliketheCaracal).
Control measures: Farmdogsshouldbeenclosedatnightandnotallowedtowander.Theyshould
besupervisedandcorrectlyfedtopreventthembecomingaproblem.
Black-Backed Jackal (Red Jackal, Witrug)
Theyareopportunisticfeeders,normallyfeedingonsmallanimalsoftheregion.Inaridareasinsect
preypredominates;inhigherrainfallgrasslandareasrodentsformthebulkoftheirdiet.Carrionis
takenreadily,exceptinareaswhereaversiontopoisonedmeathasoccurred,andthereforebeneft
thefarmerincleaninguptheveldofcarcasses.
Figure 4
CluesthatthecarcasswaskilledbyBlack-backedJackalinclude:
Usuallyonlyonevictimkilled.
Throatbitewithdistancebetweenuppercanineteeth23to29mmapart.
Feedingisusuallyonthefankbetweenthehipandbottomribs.
Usuallyonlyasmallamounteaten,butthisvarieswithbreedingcycle.
Eatssoftinternalorgansandmaypuncturethestomachofprey.
Carcassisnotmovedfromthekillsite.
Killmainlylambs.
PupsleavethedenfromlateAugusttomidFebruarymaycoincide
withspringlambing.
Control measures: Black-backed Jackals seldom enter cage-traps, and management measures
shouldthereforeemployappropriateexclusionsystems,suchasbells,smellorprotectioncollars
andguardiananimals.
Caracal (Rooikat)
Normalpreyissmalltomediumsizedanimals,includinglambsoflargerantelope,youngbaboons,
monkeys,dassies,hares,rodents,smallcarnivores,reptilesandbirds.Caracalbeneftthefarmerby
playingavaluableroleintheenvironmentbycontrollingrodent,dassieandharenumbers.
CluesthatthecarcasswaskilledbyCaracalinclude:
Lambsorsheepmaybekilled.
It is seldom that more than one victim is killed at a time, but this may occur when kittens
leavethedenwiththefemale(midsummertoearlyspring).Occasionallywhenpreyaretrapped
inakraalanddonotfee,manymaybekilled.
Thevictimiskilledeitherbyabitetothethroatorthebackoftheneck.Toothmarksmaybe
foundineitherorbothpositions.Distancebetweenuppercaninesis24to30mm.
Clawmarksaresometimesvisible.
Ifthevictimhasbeendisembowelled,thenalthoughsoftorgansmayhavebeeneaten,the
stomachisleftun-puncturedandplacedaside.
Thehindlegsandinnerhindlegsarethemostfrequentlychosenmeat,butbrisketandshouder
mayalsobetaken.Theshoulderissometimesneatlyremoved.
Wool,furorfeathersmaybepluckedfromtheprey.
Theribendsmaybechewed.Largebonesarenevereaten,averycleardifferentiationfrom
domesticdogkills.
Preymaybepartlycoveredwithvegetationdebrisorsoil.
Control measures:Caracalcandevelopatasteforstock,butthiscanbeavoidedifthecorrect
preventative methods to protect stock, such as fencing and kraaling, have been implemented.
Caracal readily enter cage traps which have been properly set and problem individuals can
thereforebereadilycapturedandrelocated.
RAPTORS
Eagle Predation
ThelargereaglespeciesofrelevanceareMartialEaglesandVerreauxsEagles.MartialEaglesare
mostly found in the areas away from mountains, while Verreauxs Eagles are associated with
mountainousareas.Bothspeciesoccasionallypredatesmallstocklambsandkids.
Preysizeissmall,usuallyanimalsyoungerthanfourdaysoldandweighinglessthan5kg.The
followingmarkingsonthepreycarcassareindicativeofeaglepredation:
Head:Asinglepuncturemarkonthetopoftheheadandbelowonthethroat.
Neck: A single puncture mark on either side of the neck, or puncture marks on the neck and
throat.
Shoulders:Puncturemarksonorjustbehindtheshoulderbladesonbothsidesofthebody,ortop
andbottomentrancemarks.
Back:Asinglepuncturemarkoneithersideofvertebrae,inthekidneyarea.
Raptors sometimes hide their prey under a bush or tree. Also look for the following signs of
feeding:
Eaglespluckhairorwoolfromthefeedingentrancearea;
theymostlybeginfeedingonthecarcassfromjustbehindthefrontlimbs,workingtheirway
towardsthehead;
theysometimesopenthecarcassthroughthesmallopeningjustbehindthelastribboneand
belowthespinalcolumn;
they eat the lungs, heart and other organs through the cavity, and sometimes pull the
intestinesthroughthecavity;
theyexcavatemeatfromundertheskinandfrombetweentheribsofthecarcass;
theysometimesbreakaribboneortwo,nearthepointwheretheribsareconnectedtothe
spinalcolumn(sharppointedends);and
eaglesnevertearthestomachwall.
Just as not all humans are thieves, similarly not all individuals of a species cause damage on
farmland. Proactive management, prevention measures and damage controls should aim at an
individual.Controleffortsandpreventativetechniquesshouldbeastargetselectiveaspossible,
becauseindiscriminatetechniques,suchastheuseofpoisonsandothermethods,canrapidlylead
toshynessandavoidancetowardthemethodsapplied.Mostanimalsarefarmoreintelligentthan
webelievethemtobe,andneedtobesotosurvive.Theylearnveryfastfromfarmersmistakes,
asisborneoutbythefailureofcontrolmeasuresinthepast.
Killing a predator in order to reduce the loss of livestock, is not a long-term solution to any
wildlifeconfictproblem.Thelossoflivestockoftenincreasesoncetheculprithasbeenremoved
fromthesystem,asavacuumiscreatedandthenflledbynewanimalsthatmoveintothearea.
Itisagainrecommendedthatpreventativetechniquestopreventandreducewildlifeconfictsbe
implemented.PleaserefertoChapter5.
42 43
for which a farmer would need to apply, via the relevant authority. This places a responsibility
onconservationauthoritiestoassesstheneedsoftheapplicantandtoissueapermitwithina
reasonabletimeperiod,toavoidcontinueddamageorlossbeingincurredbytheapplicant.Itis
assumedthatatthisstage,theinspectorwouldrequirephysicalevidenceofpreventativemeasures
toavoidwildlifeconficts.
The message is clear. Farmers need to put measures in place to prevent or minimise exposure
oftheirlivestocktotheriskofpredation.Thelegislationindicatesaparadigmshiftfromlethal
controls, or killing of predators, to a standpoint of fock and herd protection and thus confict
avoidance.Farmingisabusiness,soafarmerhastoprotecthispropertyandstockifheintendsto
stayinbusiness;andthatisthecruxofthematter.
Methodspreviouslypracticedwhicharenowprohibitedintermsofthelegislationare:
Houndordogpackswhichpursueandkillpredators.
Gin traps or leg hold traps. These traps are extremely hazardous to non-target animals and
their use is prohibited under provincial conservation ordinances as well as new, national
legislation.
Coyote getter devices. These are trigger devices which fre a toxin into the mouth of a
predatorwhenpulled.IntermsofnewFirearmsControlAct(Act60,2000),thesearenowseen
tobeafre-armandthismakesitillegaltosetthesedeviceswithoutalicenseandtrainers
must be accredited. If not used correctly, getters are very un-selective and only 10% of
animalskilledaretarget-animals.NB.Fire-armsmayalsonotbeleftunattendedsoitwill
beimpossibleandimpracticalforanylandownertousethesedevicesLEGALLY!
Poisonbaits.
LivestockProtectionCollars(Poisoncollars).LivestockProtectioncollarsresembleahalterwith
sachetscontainingatoxin.TheiruseiscontrolledbytheHazardousSubstancesAct(Act15,
1973)whichspecifesconditionsofsaleanduse,aswell,asbywhomtheymaybeused.
WORKING WITH THE LAW
It is alarming how many lethal devices are still freely and readily available.
Many of these are brutal and violent and are considered
inhumane and unacceptable.
Inorderthathuman-wildlifeconfictsareresolvedwithinlegalparameters,itisimportanttobe
aware of current legislation. Under this legislation various species, formally known as problem
animals,arenowprotectedspecies.Tofacilitateunderstanding,thefollowingisextractedfrom
theNATIONALENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENT:BIODIVERSITYACT(ACT10,2004)
Chapter 7
87. Purpose of Chapter
The purpose of this Chapter is to provide for the regulation of the issuing of permits
authorising-
(a) restricted activities involving specimens of-
(i) listed threatened or protected species in terms of section 57(1);
57. Restricted activities involving listed threatened or protected species
(1) A person may not carry out a restricted activity involving a specimen of a listed threatened
or protected species without a permit issued in terms of Chapter 7.
restricted activity-
(a) in relation to a specimen of a listed threatened or protected species, means-
(i) hunting, catching, capturing or killing any living specimen of a listed threatened or
protected species by any means, method or device whatsoever, including searching,
pursuing, driving, lying in wait, luring, alluring, discharging a missile or injuring with
intent to hunt, catch, capture or kill any such specimen;
Fromthislegislationitisclearthattohunt,killortrapanyprotectedspeciesrequiresapermit
7 WORKING
WITH
THE LAW
44 45 WORKING WITH THE LAW
CAGE TRAPS
The practice of trapping is defned as
a restricted activity in legislation and
permitsarethereforerequired.
Cage traps themselves are not lethal
to the predator; in fact they merely
containorrestrainananimaluntilthe
farmer gets to the cage. The farmer
thendecideswhetherhehashistarget
animalornotandtheneitherreleases
the non-target visitor, or transports
thecapturedindividualtothenearest
protectedarea.
Cage traps are particularly successful for capturing caracal, dogs and various other small
carnivores, but not jackals, which very seldom enter these traps. Non-target animals captured
shouldbereleasedunharmed.Whenstraydogsarethetargetproblemanimal,muchlessattention
to detail is required, because being domestic animals which are accustomed to humans, they
arenotsuspiciousandreadilyenterthesetraps.Smallertrapsofsimilardesigncanalsobeused
for small carnivores such as genets, which may cause problems if fowl runs are not adequately
secure.
Cagetrapplansandpermitsareavailablefrommostconservationoffces.Legislativecontrolof
cage traps was initiated so that the potential for inhumane treatment of captured animals, by
tortureormistreatment,couldbeprevented,asthisisdefnitelynotaccepted.
RAPTORS
Itisrelativelyeasytorehabilitatearaptorthathastakentohuntinglivestock,usingabal-chatri
trap.Abal-chatriisawirecagecontaininglivebait,usedtotrapbirdsofprey.Thisshouldbeset
upintheareawherethelivestockisbeingpredated.Theraptoriscaughtandreleasedatthesame
place.Theraptorthenassociatesthebait,inthiscaselivestock,withtheunpleasantexperience
ofbeingcaughtandhandled,andwillinfutureavoidlivestockpredation.Itisimportantthatthe
baitusedisthetargetspeciesforwhichasolutiontothepredationissought.Also,nevermovea
caughtraptorawayfromwhereitwascaught,asraptors,especiallybreedingpairs,settlewithin
fxed territories. The entire ecosystem is disrupted when the pair bond is broken, and a gap is
createdthatcouldbeflledbyrogueeagles,soworseningtheproblem.
A permit must be obtained from the conservation authorities before a bal-chatri trap may be
set (Sec 57 applies). It is advisable to engage the services of a licensed bird ringer, to ensure a
successfulcaptureandrelease.Thebirdcanthenalsoberingedforlateridentifcation.
Cage traps can be used to trap
target species for relocation.
Secondary Poisoning
The use of poison to control predators is prohibited. Not only does it cause
damage to the environment, but many animals, including scavengers, are poisoned.
Species such as Bat-eared Fox, Serval, Aardwolf and vultures are often killed in
this way, causing devastating long-term impacts to the environment. Vultures are one
example of a valuable species that the farmer would want to see on his/her farm.
They clean up carcasses and meat from the veld that would otherwise be potential
hosts for many diseases. Being scavengers of the veld, they are often the first to arrive
at a carcass or bait. If poison baits or carcasses are placed out in the veld to control
predators, a whole host of valuable species, including vultures, will be targeted and
unethically killed.
Vultures are a valuable species to the farmer
as they clean up the veld of carcasses.
Farmers must familiarise themselves with legislation to avoid undertaking illegal activities and
takeprecautionstoprotecttheirlivestock.
4 47
CONCLUSION
This short booklet should be seen as an overview and guideline. Much more information is
available. There is no substitute for experience and profciency in these methods and principles
canonlybeattainedbyexperience.Attendcourses,readtheliteratureandspendtimeinthefeld
gainingpracticalexperienceandlearningfromexperiencedworkers.
RememberthatPREVENTION IS THE CURE.
Other Helplines available:
EWT-PWG Human-Wildlife Conflict Helpline: +27 (0)82 802 6223
EWT-PWG Wildlife Poisoning Report Line: +27 (0)11 486 1102
SA Eagle National Eagle Helpline: +27 (0)11 646 4629
CapeNature (Western Cape Province) Helpline:
Technical Advice: +27 (0)22 931 2900
Scientific Advice: +27 (0)21 866 8000
FURTHER CONTACTS ON BACK PAGE
DISCLAIMER
THE ENDANGERED WILDLIFE TRUST WILL NOT BE HELD RESPONSIBLE FOR ANY CONDITION/S THAT MAY ARISE FROM ANY
ACTIONORFROMANYWILDLIFEPREDATORMANAGEMENTSYSTEMORMETHODDISCUSSEDINTHISGUIDE.ITREMAINSTHE
SOLERESPONSIBILITYOFTHESTOCKFARMERTOUSEPRODUCTSLEGALLYANDSTRICTLYACCORDINGTOTHEINSTRUCTIONS
PROVIDEDWITHSUCHPRODUCTS.
WORKING WITH THE LAW REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
8 REFERENCES AND
FURTHER READING
Bekker,F.,Bowland,T.,Brand,D.,Davies,R.,Steyn,P.,Verreynne,E.Innocent Until Proven
Guilty/Onskuldig tot Skuldig Bewys.
Boshoff,A.,Brown,C.J.,Davies,R.,VanJaarsveld,J.,2006.Eagles and Farmers/Arende en
Boere EndangeredWildlifeTrustandSAEagle.Revisedversion.
Butchart,D.,1994.Vultures and Farmers/Aasvols en Boere.VultureStudyGroup,
Johannesburg.
Friedmann,Y.&Daly,B.(editors)2004.Red Data Book of the Mammals of South Africa:
A conservation assessment.CBSGSouthAfrica,ConservationBreedingSpecialistGroup
(SSC/IUCN),EndangeredWildlifeTrust,SouthAfrica.
Hockey,P.A.R.,Dean,W.R.J.andRyan,P.G.(eds),2005.Robert s Birds of Southern Africa,
7th ed.TheTrusteesoftheJohnVoelckerBirdBookFund,CapeTown.
Schumann,M.,2004.Integrated Livestock and Predation Management: A Farmers
Guide.CheetahConservationFund,Namibia.
Smithers,R.H.N.1983.Mammals of the Southern African Subregion.Universityof
Pretoria,Pretoria.
Walker,Clive.1996.Signs of the Wild.StruikPublishers,CapeTown.
48 4 THE EWT-WILDLIFE CONFLICT PREVENTION GROUP (WCPG)
9 THE ENDANGERED
WILDLIFE TRUST
(EWT)
Asaleadinghigh-profleplayeramongstthelargenumberandvarietyofconservationorganisations
inSouthAfrica(governmentalandcivilsociety),theEWTfllsthekeynicheofconservationaction,
through applied feld-work, research and direct engagement with stakeholders. With specialist
WorkingGroupsandalargeteamofskilledfeldstaffdeployedthroughoutsouthernAfrica,the
EWTsworksupportstheconservationofthreatenedspeciesandecosystems.Priorityinterventions
focusonidentifyingthekeyfactorsthreateningbiodiversityanddevelopingmitigatingmeasures
toreduceriskandreversethedriversofspeciesextinctionandecosystemdegradation.Througha
broadspectrumofpartnershipsandnetworks,theEWTrespondstothekeythreatsdrivingspecies
and ecosystem loss by developing innovative methodologies and best practice guidelines which
supportreducedimpact,harmoniousco-existenceandsustainablelivingforall.
OUR VISION STATEMENT
Ahealthyplanetandanequitableworldthatvaluesandsustainsthediversityofalllife
OUR MISSION
TheEndangeredWildlifeTrustisdedicatedtoconservingthreatenedspeciesandecosystemsin
southernAfricatothebeneftofallpeople.
The Trust aims to increase awareness among all the people of southern Africa. Our unique
magazine,VISION,providesnewsandarticlesontheTrustsactivities,andaperspectiveonAfrican
conservationissues.TheEWThasproducedseveralinformationbookletsincludingPredators and
Farmers, Eagles and Farmers, Cranes and Farmers and Vultures and Farmers.Pleasecontactthe
EWTifyourequirefurtherinformationaboutobtainingtheseproducts.
TheEndangeredWildlifeTrust
PrivateBagX11,PARKVIEW,2122
Tel:(011)486-1102Fax:(011)486-1506
Website:www.ewt.org.za
E-mail:[email protected]
THE ENDANGERED WILDLIFE TRUST (EWT)
10 THE EWT-WILDLIFE CONFLICT
PREVENTION
GROUP (WCPG)
The Endangered Wildlife Trusts Wildlife Confict Prevention Group focuses on mitigating and
resolving human-wildlife confict situations by assisting with and promoting responsible and
holisticmanagementinareassuchasvegetation,animalhealth,pesticides,urbanandwildlifeand
human-wildlifeconficts.
Wildlife confict prevention is a major concern and the production of this revised edition of
Predators and Farmers aims to assist farmers and landowners in the correct identifcation of
predatory animals and the adoption of responsible holistic human-wildlife confict methods
to prevent the indiscriminate and unethical persecution of animals causing economic losses in
agro-ecosystems.
The aim of this Working Group is therefore to protect all elements of wildlife in southern
Africa through mitigating and resolving human-wildlife confict situations by assisting farmers,
landowners,communitiesandthepublicintakingproactiveandresponsiblemeasurestoavoidor
reduceconfict.
Inaddition,thegroupkeepsadatabaseofpoisonincidentsandproducesamonthlynewsletter
calledAnitdote.TheWildlifeConfictPreventionGroupenjoyscloseco-operationwithresearch
centres, universities, and the chemical industry, and any individuals with specifc queries or
problemsarewelcometocallformoreinformationandadvice.
TheWildlifeConfictPreventionGroup
PrivateBagX11
PARKVIEW
2122
Tel:(011)486-1102
Fax:(011)486-1506
50 51 THE EWT-BIRDS OF PREY WORKING GROUP (BoPWG)
11 THE EWT-CARNIVORE
CONSERVATION
GROUP (CCG)
TheCarnivoreConservationGroupwasformedin1995,withthevisiontomakesouthernAfricaa
regionwherecarnivoresaremanagedinanecologicallyandeconomicallysustainablemanner,free
fromirrationalandunnecessarypersecution.Thisisachievedbyconductingresearchoncarnivores
with special emphasis on those aspects that will improve their conservation status through the
implementationofsoundmanagementstrategies.Pastandpresentprojectshavefocussedona
wide variety of carnivore species including Brown Hyaena, African Wild Dog, Black-footed Cat,
Cheetah,HoneyBadger,Lion,andAfricanWildCat.
The CCG has played a pivotal role in a number of national stakeholder bodies concerned with
carnivoreconservationinSouthAfricaincludingtheWildDogAdvisoryGroup(WAG),theSouth
AfricanNationalLeopardForum(SALF)andtheNationalCheetahConservationForum(NCCF).
FormoreinformationabouttheactivitiesoftheCCGpleasecontact:
TheCarnivoreConservationGroup
PrivateBagX11
PARKVIEW
2122
Telephone:(011)486-1102
Fax:(011)486-1506
THE EWT-CARNIVORE CONSERVATION GROUP (CCG)
12 THE EWT-BIRDS OF PREY
WORKING GROUP
(BoPWG)
TheEndangeredWildlifeTrustsBirdsofPreyWorkingGroupfocusesontheconservationofdiurnal
andnocturnalraptors,vultures,andtheirhabitats.
OUR MISSION
Toaction,supportandcoordinateconservationprojectsfornocturnalanddiurnalraptorsand
vulturesinsouthernAfricaandtoachievemeasurableresultsthroughconsideredandinformed
implementationstrategies.
OUR OBJECTIVES
Tocombinetheeffortsofallindividualsandorganisationsinterestedinorassociated
withraptorandvultureconservationinsouthernAfricainordertostrengthenconservation
efforts.
Toidentifygapsintheconservationofbirdsofpreyandtheirhabitats,andtoimplement
relevantprojectsinordertofllthesegaps.
Tosetachievableandmeasurablegoalsforeachprojectundertaken,andtomanagethe
achievementofthesegoals,keepinginmindthebiggerconservationpicture.
TheBirdsofPreyWorkingGroup
PrivateBagX11
PARKVIEW
Tel:(011)486-1102
Fax:(011)486-1506
52 53
13 USEFUL CONTACTS
SOLUTIONS
Anatolian Herd Dogs
CyrilStannard
Tel:(049)8421113
Dead Stop Collar
KlaasLouw
Cell:0724247752
King Collar
GrayKing
Tel:(046)6859645
Protect-A-Lamb
EddieSteenkamp
Tel:(022)7231842
SMS Warning System
PhillipLotter
Tel:(028)2123346
FORUMS/TRUSTS
Cape Leopard Trust
QuintonMartins
Tel:(027)4822785
National Cheetah Conservation Forum
c/oKellyMarnewick
Rare and Endangered Species Trust (REST)
P.O.Box178,Otjiwarongo,Namibia,9000
Tel:(0026467)306226
Website:www.restafrica.org
South African Leopard Forum
c/oEndangeredWildlifeTrust
Tel:(011)4861102
Wild Dog Advisory Group (SA)
c/oEndangeredWildlifeTrust
Tel:(011)4861102
Website:www.ewt.org.za/wag/
GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS
CapeNature
P.OBox26,Porterville,6810
Tel:(022)9312900
Fax:(022)9312913
Website:www.capenature.org.za
Department of Agriculture
PrivateBagx250,Pretoria,0001
Tel:(012)3196000
Website:www.nda.agric.za
Department of Environmental Affairs
and Tourism (DEAT)
PrivateBagx447,Pretoria,0001
Tel:(012)3103911
CallCentre:0861112468
Website:www.environment.gov.za
Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife
Tel:(033)8451999
Website:www.kznwildlife.com
Free State Department of Tourism,
Environment and Economic Affairs
PrivateBagx20801,Bloemfontein,9300
CallCentre:0861102185
Fax:(051)4009593
Website:www.dteea.fs.gov.za
Gauteng Department of Agriculture,
Conservation and Environment (GDACE)
P.O.Box8769,Johannesburg,2000
Tel:(011)3551900
Fax:(011)3551000
Website:www.gdace.gpg.gov.za
KZN Department of Agriculture and
Environmental Affairs
PrivateBagx9059,Pietermaritzburg,3200
Tel:(033)3559100
Fax:(033)3559122
Website:http://agriculture.kzntl.gov.za
Limpopo Department of Economic
Development, Environment and Tourism
PrivateBagx9484,Polokwane,0700
Tel:(015)2937190
Website:www.limpopo.gov.za
USEFUL CONTACTS

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PREDATORS AND FARMERS

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