Cultural Understanding in Counterinsurgency:

Analysis of the Human Terrain System

A Monograph
by
MAJ Grant S. Fawcett
United States Army

School of Advanced Military Studies

United States Army Command and General Staff College
Fort Leavenworth, Kansas

AY 2009

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14. ABSTRACT
In the years following the invasion of Iraq, the United States military did not fully realize or understand the complexity of the
situation faced by soldiers operating at the tactical and operational level. Coupled with the presence of multiple insurgent networks
throughout the country, sectarian violence along ethnic and religious divides resulted in an escalation of violence. This violence
forced a realization that the conflict had entered a new phase, and the military looked to classic examples of counterinsurgency
(COIN). Consequently, theater strategy and doctrine development began to focus on identifying the population as the center of
gravity (COG) of the COIN effort. Along with this new strategy came the requirement for a deep understanding of the Iraqi culture
and the ability to conduct research and learn about the cultural aspects of the Iraqi society. This capability was found to be missing
in U.S. combat formations. To address this deficiency, the Human Terrain System (HTS) was created in 2006 as a means for units to
better understand and leverage culture at the operational and tactical level. Since the initiation of the program, the HTS has deployed
Human Terrain Teams (HTTs) to Iraq and Afghanistan to integrate with brigades and augment existing staff structures with social
science expertise. Initial reports from the field indicate the program to be largely successful. Despite reported success, the program
has been the subject of much controversy, and questions remain as to whether it is the right solution for integrating cultural
understanding into counterinsurgency operations. This monograph finds that although the HTS adequately fills the intended
requirement by providing social science expertise down to the tactical level, it is also necessary to increase the cultural competence
of the entire force. Additionally, the Army must bolster organic capabilities of tactical formations in order to be prepared for the
unexpected challenges of the future.

15. SUBJECT TERMS

Culture, Insurgency and Counterinsurgency, Human Terrain System, Anthropology

16. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF: 17. 18. NUMBER 19a. NAME OF RESPONSIBLE PERSON
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i
 SCHOOL OF ADVANCED MILITARY STUDIES
MONOGRAPH APPROVAL
MAJ Grant S. Fawcett

Title of Monograph: Cultural Understanding in Counterinsurgency: Analysis of the

Human Terrain System

Approved by:

__________________________________ Monograph Director

Daniel G. Cox, Ph. D.

___________________________________ Director,
Stefan J. Banach, COL, IN School of Advanced
Military Studies

___________________________________ Director,
Robert F. Baumann, Ph.D. Graduate Degree
Programs

ii
 Abstract
CULTURAL UNDERSTANDING IN COUNTERINSRUGENCY: ANALYSIS OF THE
HUMAN TERRAIN SYSTEM by MAJ Grant S. Fawcett, U.S. Army, 52 pages.
In the years following the invasion of Iraq, the United States military did not fully realize or
understand the complexity of the situation faced by soldiers operating at the tactical and
operational level. Coupled with the presence of multiple insurgent networks throughout the
country, sectarian violence along ethnic and religious divides resulted in an escalation of
violence. This violence forced a realization that the conflict had entered a new phase, and the
military looked to classic examples of counterinsurgency (COIN). Consequently, theater strategy
and doctrine development began to focus on identifying the population as the center of gravity
(COG) of the COIN effort. Along with this new strategy came the requirement for a deep
understanding of the Iraqi culture and the ability to conduct research and learn about the cultural
aspects of the Iraqi society. This capability was found to be missing in U.S. combat formations.
To address this deficiency, the Human Terrain System (HTS) was created in 2006 as a means for
units to better understand and leverage culture at the operational and tactical level. Since the
initiation of the program, the HTS has deployed Human Terrain Teams (HTTs) to Iraq and
Afghanistan to integrate with brigades and augment existing staff structures with social science
expertise. Initial reports from the field indicate the program to be largely successful. Despite
reported success, the program has been the subject of much controversy, and questions remain as
to whether it is the right solution for integrating cultural understanding into counterinsurgency
operations. This monograph finds that although the HTS adequately fills the intended requirement
by providing social science expertise down to the tactical level, it is also necessary to increase the
cultural competence of the entire force. Additionally, the Army must bolster organic capabilities
of tactical formations in order to be prepared for the unexpected challenges of the future.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Culture and Human Terrain Defined ........................................................................................... 1
Hypothesis and Methodology ...................................................................................................... 3
The Cultural Component of Counterinsurgency (COIN) ................................................................ 5
Cultural Understanding and COIN Theory ................................................................................. 6
Requirement for Cultural Understanding in COIN ................................................................... 11
Interaction between Anthropology and the Military ..................................................................... 12
Colonialism and the World Wars .............................................................................................. 13
The Vietnam and Cold Wars ..................................................................................................... 18
Operation Iraqi Freedom and the Current Controversy ............................................................. 21
Overview of the Human Terrain System ....................................................................................... 24
Mission and Capabilities ........................................................................................................... 25
Organization .............................................................................................................................. 27
Reports from the Field ............................................................................................................... 29
The Gap of Cultural Understanding .............................................................................................. 31
Military Culture and Doctrine ................................................................................................... 32
Cultural Force Multipliers ......................................................................................................... 36
Training Cultural Awareness ..................................................................................................... 38
Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................................................................... 40
Develop a Culturally Competent Force ..................................................................................... 42
Infuse Doctrine with Cultural Understanding ........................................................................... 43
Cultural Advisors at the Tactical Level ..................................................................................... 44
Ethnographic Research Capability at the Operational Level ..................................................... 45
In Conclusion............................................................................................................................. 46
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................. 48

iv
 Introduction
In the years following the invasion of Iraq, the United States military did not fully realize

or understand the complexity of the situation facing soldiers operating at the tactical and

operational level. Coupled with the presence of multiple insurgent networks throughout the

country, sectarian violence along ethnic and religious divides resulted in an escalation of

violence. After increasing violence forced the realization that the conflict had entered a new

phase, the military looked to classic examples of counterinsurgency (COIN). Consequently,

theater strategy and doctrine development focused on identifying the population as the center of

gravity (COG) of the COIN effort. Along with this new strategy came the requirement for a deep

understanding of the Iraqi culture and the ability to conduct research and learn about the cultural

aspects of the Iraqi society. This capability was found to be missing from existing military

organizations. To address this deficiency, the Human Terrain System (HTS) was initiated at Fort

Leavenworth in 2006, and was intended as a means for units to better understand and leverage

culture at the operational and tactical level. The cornerstone capability of the HTS are Human

Terrain Teams (HTTs) which deploy and integrate with combat forces to augment existing staff

structures with social science expertise. HTTs were first deployed and tested on the ground in

Iraq and Afghanistan in 2007, and initial reports from the field indicate the program to be largely

successful. Despite reported success, the program has been the subject of much controversy, and

questions remain as to whether it is the right solution for integrating cultural understanding into

counterinsurgency operations.

Culture and Human Terrain Defined

It is important to begin with a common understanding of culture and human terrain,

which will be discussed throughout this monograph. Both share similarities in definition but are

distinct from one another by the context of how they are used and who uses them. In general,

anthropologists define culture as the entire way of life of a society: its values, practices,

1
symbols, institutions and human relationships. 1 Huntington narrows the definition of culture to

the values, attitudes, beliefs, orientations and underlying assumptions prevalent among people in

a society in order to provide a useful definition for analyzing how culture influences societal

development. 2 The dictionary defines culture as the totality of socially transmitted behavior

patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and all other products of human work and thought

characteristic of a community or population. 3 Therefore, the academic concept of culture

includes the contextual history of a population or community and describes how that group

developed into the culture in the present. In contrast, the military defines culture as a feature of

the terrain that has been constructed by man...included are such items as roads, buildings, and

canals; boundary lines; and, in a broad sense, all names and legends on a map, 4 indicating a bias

towards viewing the population as a condition to consider when analyzing the battlefield.

If the anthropological definition of culture implies how social characteristics of a

population shift and transform over time, then human terrain is more focused on describing social

characteristics as they exist in the present and how those characteristics effect behavior of a

population. As a concept, the HTS defines human terrain as follows:

Information about the physical security, economic security, ideology and belief
systems, authority figures, and organizations relevant to the major social groups
in the area under study. This information comes from open source, unclassified
collection and is referenced geo-spatially, relationally, and temporally to enable
the creation of various maps of the human dynamics in areas where the U.S. has
committed forces or other U.S. government officials. 5

1
Huntington, Samuel P., "Cultures Count," In Culture Matters: How Values Shape Human
Progress, by Samuel P. Huntington and Lawrence E. Harrison, (New York: Basic Books, 2000), xiii-xvi.
2
Ibid., xiii-xvi.
3
The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition, (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 1985), 348.
4
Department of Defense, JP 1-02, Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated
Terms, (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, April 2001), 139.
5
Human Terrain System CONOP, Proof of Concept (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Human Terrain
System, 4 April 2007), 2.

2
More simply, human terrain is the human population and society in the operational environment

(area of operations) as defined and characterized by sociopolitical, anthropologic, and

ethnographic and other non-geophysical information about that human population and society. 6

The two most significant aspects of the definition are that the concept describes the sociological

aspects of a culture in the present, and that cultural characteristics must be relevant to the

operating environment where U.S. forces are deployed.

Hypothesis and Methodology

The purpose of this monograph is to study the cultural component of insurgency and

discuss the integration of cultural understanding into military counterinsurgency operations. To

begin the analysis, the hypothesis under which this research operates is that the Human Terrain

System (HTS) is the optimal solution for incorporating external social science expertise into U.S.

military units operating in a counterinsurgency environment. The primary research question is

whether the HTS provides combat units conducting counterinsurgency operations with the ability

to gain a deep cultural understanding of the population. Secondary research questions examine

the cultural component of COIN warfare and the nature of the relationship between the social

sciences and the national security apparatus. Finally, additional research includes defining the

requirements for cultural understanding in COIN and determining the existing military

capabilities available to combat units for gaining cultural understanding. A qualitative evaluation

will conclude the monograph and will discuss whether the HTS effectively integrates social

science expertise into tactical formations and what other solutions exist for integrating cultural

expertise into unit planning and execution of operations.

6
Jacob Kipp, Lester Grau, Karl Prinslow, and Don Smith. "The Human Terrain System: A
CORDS for the 21st Century," Military Review, (September-October 2006), 15.

3
 Although strategic implications are discussed, the focus will be on the tactical and

operational levels of war. At the tactical level, the soldier on the ground interacting on a daily

basis with the population must possess a deep understanding of the culture in order to be

effective. At the operational level, the planner developing and refining the lines of effort (LOE)

that provide synchronization throughout an area of operations must ensure the LOEs embrace a

cultural awareness specific to the region. Accepting that COIN requires a full-spectrum

operational approach and a blend of both lethal and non-lethal action across multiple LOEs, then

the importance of culture to the conduct of offensive, defensive and stability operations is critical.

Throughout the monograph, cases from Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) will be studied to provide

examples of how tactical units incorporated cultural understanding into operations.

As a primer, a review of COIN theory from leading historical authorities will provide a

better understanding of the cultural underpinnings of insurgency and counterinsurgency.

Throughout the past century, the social sciences and the US military have interacted during nearly

every conflict, and this relationship will be studied from colonialism through the conflicts today

in Iraq and Afghanistan. Characteristic of this relationship is a significant amount of suspicion

and tension, and the controversy surrounding the HTS is no different. The next step is to identify

whether, in fact, a gap exists between the tactical and operational requirements for cultural

understanding and the organic capabilities of the U.S. Army that are employed on the ground in

Iraq and Afghanistan. To accomplish this, it is necessary to define the requirements and then

make a comparison to both the tactical capabilities and the nature of the operational planning

during OIF. Analysis of existing U.S. Army capabilities dealing with cultural understanding will

focus on the U.S. military culture and doctrine, existing capabilities for cultural understanding,

and the training of soldiers in cross-cultural competence.

After gaining a better picture of the gap between battlefield requirements and existing

capabilities, a review of the HTS is necessary to understand the mission, intent, structure and

capabilities of the program. Despite the recent controversy surrounding HTS, this monograph will

4
attempt to provide an objective analysis of whether the programmatic concept is the right

solution, rather than focusing on problems of administration or execution. Interviews with

members of the HTS will outline strengths and weaknesses of the HTS and additional interviews

of recent practitioners of COIN in Iraq will provide insight into how soldiers on the ground view

HTTs and discuss other techniques that have been utilized to integrate cultural understanding into

operations. Finally, recommendations will be made as to whether the program is the right solution

and how best to integrate cultural understanding into military operations.

The Cultural Component of Counterinsurgency (COIN)

The people, and the people alone, are the motive force in the making of world
history.
Mao Tse-Tung, April 24, 1945 7

Mao Tse-Tung, as one of the most influential theorists on modern insurgency, based his

ideas on the primacy of the power of the people in waging insurgency. It is now generally

accepted that the population is the COG in a revolutionary struggle, and it is an aspect understood

equally well by the insurgent and the counterinsurgent. Acknowledging the population as the

COG requires a true understanding of the social and cultural characteristics of the population,

providing the insurgent with a distinct advantage. Since most insurgencies begin with a class or

group of people disenfranchised by the existing government, the insurgent generally shares the

same culture or ethnic background as the population. In the future, the U.S. will normally conduct

COIN in regions that do not share a common ethnicity, culture or historical context as Western

nations. Regions and countries with a high propensity for revolutionary action where the U.S.

7
Mao Zedong, Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-Tung, (Peking: Foreign Language Press,
1966), 118.

5
might find itself involved includes the African continent, the Middle East, and South East Asia,

all areas where Muslim countries exist or predominate. It is inevitable that in future COIN

environments the enemy will have a distinct advantage, making the ability to study, research and

gain a deep understanding of the population a critical capability. In Iraq, much of the insurgency

consisted of foreign fighters led by Al Qaeda, who although not Iraqi, share the Muslim identity

and Arab culture of the Iraqi people.

Cultural Understanding and COIN Theory

To understand counterinsurgency, it is important to understand the mind of the insurgent

and to recognize the similarities and differences in how the two opposing sides are able to wage

the conflict. After rising from a peasant upbringing to lead a successful revolution against the

Nationalist government, the theories and methods of insurgency introduced by Mao Tse-Tung

and used by the Red Army have been studied and adopted by insurgent forces around the globe.

Mao believed the richest source of power to wage war lies in the masses of the people and

referred to the power of the people as the real iron bastion which it is impossible, and absolutely

impossible, for any force on earth to smash. 8 He also knew that in order to mobilize the masses,

it is important for the insurgent force to adopt a cause that would help the masses to realize that

we represent their interests, that our lives are intimately bound up with theirs. 9 Along with these

principles of insurgency is the need to pay attention to the welfare and wishes of the people, an

important aspect to which Mao instructed the Red Army to respect. Mao also first introduced the

concept that the population is divided into segments, stating the masses are generally composed

of three parts, the relatively active, the intermediate and the relatively backward. 10 For the

8
Ibid., 88-89.
9
Ibid., 132-133.
10
Ibid., 131.

6
insurgent, the effort is then to unite those active in the revolution, and influence those who are

intermediate or backward to not support the existing government or turn to the revolution.

David Galula and Roger Trinquier were officers who served in the French Army during

the middle part of the 20th century, and continue to be recognized as two of the leading theorists

on counterinsurgency. Both were heavily influenced by insurgencies against French colonial rule

in Southeast Asia and North Africa, and were particularly influenced by the French-Algerian War

that ended with Algerian independence in 1962. Galula identifies the population as the center of

gravity and similar to Mao states that the insurgent requires a well-grounded cause with which to

attract supporters among the population. 11 Although he recognizes the power of a common

ideology and identity to the insurgent to mobilize the population, Galula indicates that the

population is influenced more by security and by who appears to be winning the conflict at any

given time. Like Mao, Galula also identifies the population as falling into one of three categories,

the active minority for the cause, the neutral majority, and an active minority against the

cause. 12 He takes an unemotional stance towards the minority supporting the insurgent and

accepts the fact that some of that faction must be eliminated, although he does acknowledge that

reconciliation is an acceptable solution. Identifying the tactical level as where the real battle

takes place for the population, Galula sees a need for constant and consistent contact with the

population in order to isolate them from the insurgent and establish trust. 13 This requires the

counterinsurgent to determine what political reforms are wanted and needed by the population,

and take measures at the tactical level to implement those reforms. Galula describes intelligence

as a critical capability of a counterinsurgent force, and advocates conducting a census using

11
David Galula, Counter-Insurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice, (Westport, CT: Praeger
Publishers, 1968), 13.
12
Ibid., 76.
13
Ibid., 116.

7
registration and identification cards. The overall goal of the census is to establish basic

knowledge about the composition of the population, which is similar to the ethnographic research

capability of the HTS. However, the goal of the census for Galula is for gathering information

about the enemy, controlling the population and identifying insurgent activists. For the HTS, the

goal of ethnographic research is to understand motivations, loyalties and other social inclinations

of the culture to assist the counterinsurgent in building trust and dealing with the population.

Roger Trinquier believed the French experience in Algeria had a much greater

significance than was recognized by most people of his time. Trinquier believed that the nature of

war had entered a new era he labeled modern warfare, and that conventional wars between nation

states were a relic of the past. In the new era, unconventional war would be the new paradigm and

that the sine qua non of victory in modern warfare is the unconditional support of the

population. 14 He criticizes the French Army for its failure to adapt to the new type of warfare it

was facing, citing insurgencies such as the Vietminh in Indochina and the FLN in Algeria. As did

Galula, Trinquier cites the need for conducting a census of the population, but also focuses on

controlling rather than understanding the population. Trinquier is probably known more for his

stance on the necessity for ruthless interrogation practices to gather intelligence from suspected

insurgents, rather than for the other counterinsurgent aspects of his theory. Perhaps most

meaningful to this monograph, Trinquier recognized that conventional militaries generally are not

prepared for the economic, social and political aspects of modern warfare either in terms of

mentality or equipment. To account for this, Trinquier advocates prior study in depth of the area

of operations to provide information on physical, economic, and human geography and the

14
Roger Trinquier, Modern Warfare: A French View of Counterinsurgency, (London, England:
Pall Mall Press, Ltd., 1964), 8.

8
current psychological climate which will allow the counterinsurgent to determine which areas

will be more responsive to our action. 15

The French experience fighting the insurgency in Algeria focused on maintaining control

over a colonized country, rather than providing effective governance to the population. Algeria

had previously been elevated to a status equal to a French state in the homeland, yet the

population was never granted the full benefits or protection that came along with being a French

citizen. As a result, the French military did little to understand the Algerians from an ethnic or

cultural standpoint. Both Galula and Trinquier allude to the importance of separating the

population from the insurgents, but neither theorist points to the need for a cultural understanding

or sensitivity towards the population. Both advocate a more heavy handed and harsh approach to

waging counterinsurgency. When the U.S. military began to recognize the extent of the

insurgencies in Iraq the natural inclination was to turn to the theories of Galula and Trinquier,

despite the fact that the situation in Iraq was fundamentally different from the situation faced by

the French in Algeria.

David Kilcullen is a leading contemporary theorist on counterinsurgency, and advises

political and military leaders from several western nations involved in COIN operations around

the world. He also gained experience as a practitioner of COIN in areas of Southeast Asia and the

Middle East while serving as an officer in the Australian Army. Kilcullen recognizes the Iraq war

as fundamentally different than the insurgencies studied by Galula and Trinquier, and states that

todays insurgencies differ significantlyat the level of policy, strategy, operational art and

tactical techniquefrom those of earlier eras. 16 Kilcullen challenges the classical

counterinsurgency theory that was written in the mid-20th century, citing several key differences.

15
Ibid., 106.
16
David Kilcullen, Counter-Insurgency Redux, Survival. 48, no. 4, (2006), 111.

9
These include how the conflict was initiated, the effects of globalization and technology, and the

objectives of insurgent organizations. An example is Kilcullen challenging the claim of earlier

theorists that only the insurgent can initiate a revolution. In contemporary conflict insurgent

forces often seize the opportunity of a failed or occupied state such as in Iraq. Additionally, some

insurgent organizations in Iraq do not seek to gain political control over the population, but

instead desire to simply destabilize the coalition effort to bring democracy to the Middle East.

Although Kilcullen distinguishes modern from traditional counterinsurgency, he does state that

some aspects of classical counterinsurgency do remain constant. Specifically, that the

operational level counter-insurgency remains a competition among several sides, each seeking to

mobilise the population in its causethe people remain the prize. 17

At the tactical level, Kilcullen advocates techniques that are heavily reliant on cultural

understanding. He published an article on principles for conducting company-level

counterinsurgency in 2006, which established clear guidelines for tactical level COIN

practitioners. In it, the first principle is to know your turf, to know the people, the topography,

the economy, history, religion and culture. Subsequent principles inform practitioners to

understand what motivates the people and how to mobilize them and to find a political/cultural

advisor. He believes that practitioners must be fully aware of the political and cultural dimension

of counterinsurgency, but sees this as a different task from the advisor, who should be able to

speak the language and navigate the intricacies of local politics. 18 According to Kilcullen,

cultural understanding is also not the function of intelligence analysts, who seek to answer

questions about the environment to target the enemy. The cultural advisor seeks to gain an

17
Ibid., 117.
18
David Kilcullen, Twenty-Eight Articles: Fundamentals of Company-Level Counter-
insurgency, (Defense and the National Interest, 2006), www.d-n-i.net/fcs/pdf/kilcullen_28_articles.pdf,
(accessed January 7, 2009), 2.

10
understanding of the people in order to shape the environment. Kilcullen provides a theory of

counterinsurgency that is useful and relevant to the current operating environment.

Requirement for Cultural Understanding in COIN

Reviewing theory provides critical insight into what is required for cultural understanding

in the COIN environment. From these theorists comes the acknowledgment that the population is

a center of gravity to the establishment of a legitimate government. In order to influence the

people, the first requirement is for a counterinsurgent to gain a deep understanding of the

population. Some of this understanding, such as history and context, may be learned from

external sources. However, the most effective manner to learn the socio-cultural characteristics

that shape behavior in the local area is through firsthand experience. Second, although Kilcullen

recommends the counterinsurgent become immersed in the culture, he advocates obtaining a

cultural advisor. Next, Galula and Trinquier highlight the importance of intelligence, in particular

human intelligence. The gathering of information on the enemy must be differentiated from

ethnographic research that gathers relevant socio-cultural information about the population. Since

these two functions serve distinct purposes, a third requirement is for the counterinsurgent force

to have a staff function separated from intelligence to conduct ethnographic research. Fourth, it is

vitally important that the counterinsurgent force is competent in cross-cultural interaction and

trained in regionally specific cultural characteristics. Historically, U.S. forces have fallen prey to

the pitfalls of ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism involves a person focusing on the values and beliefs

of his or her own culture and ignoring the intricacies of the social groups that live in the operating

environment, and can be detrimental to achieving operational and tactical objectives. Cultural

relativism involves evaluating the behavior of a person within the context of his or her own

cultural beliefs and values, and is a better approach to interacting with the population in a COIN

environment. Finally, in an army that rotates forces on a periodic basis into a COIN environment,

it is critical that cultural information is gathered, maintained, and transferred during relief in place

11
operations to achieve continuity in dealing with the population. Failing to pass on cultural

knowledge to a follow-on force can place the bond of trust with local influential leaders and the

population at risk, destroying months of positive progress in a short amount of time.

Interaction between Anthropology and the Military

The point against which I wish to enter a vigorous debate is that a number of
men who follow science as their profession, men whom I refuse to designate any
longer as scientists, have prostituted science by using it as a cover for their
activities as spies.

Franz Boas, October 16, 1919 19

After World War I, Franz Boas challenged the ethics of using social scientists to assist in

the prosecution of war. In the quote above, he refers to four men who under the auspices of

scientific research gathered intelligence as agents of the US government. Although written a

century in the past, anthropologists continue to debate the ethics and morality of working with

national security, defense, and intelligence organizations. Members of the HTS continue to be the

subject of considerable controversy, despite the fact that their interaction is fundamentally

different from other wars. Social scientists are faced with an individual choice on whether to

support military operations that some claim places the ethics of the field in direct conflict with

obligations as a patriot. Within the anthropological community, discussion has increased over the

past decade as to the need for a more engaged role and greater relevance in addressing global

social problems and the structures that produce and maintain them. 20 With the emergence of

extremism in its many forms, the debate has increased in significance in the contemporary

19
Franz Boas, "Scientists as Spies (Reprint of Letter to The Nation dated December 20, 1919),"
Anthropology Today: 21, no. 3, (July 2005), 27.
20
Barbara Rylko-Bauer, Merrill Singer, and John Van Willigen, "Reclaiming Applied
Anthropology: Its Past, Present, and Future," American Anthropologist 108, no. 1, (2006),178.

12
security environment. Fundamentalist Islamic practices are not only a threat to Western society,

but also challenge the practice of social science research in the purest sense. Inherently, the

responsibility of a social scientist to the people being studied and their identity as a citizen of a

country often are in direct conflict. How an anthropologist deals with this conflict can be more a

question of personal choice rather than an ethical code established by a professional group. This

section will review the historical interactions between the social sciences and national security

organizations from the era of colonialism to the present in an effort to find clarity on the topic.

Colonialism and the World Wars

Many have made the case that the colonial era played a significant, perhaps even

defining, role in the creation of anthropology as a distinct academic discipline. Ethnology, as the

study of people, fed the colonial administrative governments of many countries with information

that directly resulted in policy decisions to maintain control of those countries. Academics were

employed extensively, primarily as staff researchers, to assist in ethnographic endeavors. During

the colonial era, these social scientists often blurred the line between the academic and applied

realms, and research was often used to both facilitate government rule of a colony as well as

published for academic knowledge and recognition. Reviewing the classic ethnographies that

made significant impact on Western views of indigenous populations around the world shows that

many of those works originated as government funded applied reports. Domestically, the U.S.

federal government established the Bureau of Ethnology (BAE) in 1879 that conducted

anthropological research on the American Indians, provided information directly to policy-

makers, and led directly to congressional decisions on Western expansion. 21 In 1973, the

respected social scientist Diane Lewis weighed in on the debate and implicated anthropology in

21
Ibid., 179-180.

13
the expansion of colonization. Lewis noted that anthropologists worked amid the profound

economic and political changes which accompanied the confrontation between the West and the

rest of the world and often provided information and advice to the West in its efforts to

manipulate and control the non-Western world. 22 Montgomery McFate, a modern day

anthropologist who both supports and fills a leadership role within the HTS, also sees the colonial

era as the birth of modern applied anthropology, citing that the discipline was an intellectual tool

to consolidate power at the margins of an empire. 23

During World War I (WWI), the primary role of anthropologists was in the field of

espionage, although many assisted in the war effort as propagandists, analysts, and even fighters

on the ground. Primarily, social scientists collected intelligence under the guise of scientific

research, which is considered a prostitution of science by many leaders in the anthropological

field. 24 It was not until World War II (WWII) that anthropology experienced widespread

application, and was employed by armies on both the Allied and the Axis side of the conflict.

Social scientists served as analysts, propagandists, soldiers, officers, and spies and directed efforts

at populations both inside and outside the boundaries of their nations. 25 For the U.S., social

scientists were sent to areas of conflict to gather intelligence for the Office of Strategic Services

(OSS), the predecessor to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). 26 The Ethnogeographic Board,

a think tank that generated cultural information of relevance to anticipated theaters of war, also

22
Diane Lewis, "Anthropology and Colonialism," Current Anthropology 14, no. 5 (December
1973), 582.
23
Montgomery McFate, "Anthropology and Counterinsurgency: The Strange Story of their
Curious Relationship," Military Review, (March-April 2005), 28.
24
David Price, "Anthropologists as Spies," The Nation, (November 2000), 24.
25
David Price, "Lessons from the Second World War Anthropology: Peripheral, Persuasive and
Ignored Contributions," Anthropology Today 18, no. 3 (June 2002), 14.
26
Ibid., 15.

14
employed many anthropologists, linguists and cultural geographers. 27 Social scientists were also

used in the Office of War Information, Office of Naval Intelligence, Office of Economic Warfare,

Army Intelligence Division, Army Special Training Program, Air Force Intelligence, and as

Presidential advisors. 28

After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor that brought America fully into World War II,

nationalism drove many anthropologists and social scientists to join the war effort. Motivation

was high to support the war since it constituted an existential threat to the nation. Although some

social scientists were involved in intelligence work and a few acted as spies, the vast majority

served as linguists, code-breakers, cultural brokers and military advisors. 29 Some estimates claim

that over one half of the professional anthropologists in the country were directly supporting

the war effort, but a minority remained vocal about the implications of the activities on the long-

term ethical standing of the profession. 30 The war effort was so extensive that the AAA passed a

resolution that placed itself and its resources and the specialized skill and knowledge of its

members the disposal of the country for the successful prosecution of the war and actually

created a Committee on Anthropology and the War Effort that coordinated anthropological

warfare efforts both at home and abroad. 31 Anthropologists were also used domestically to create

propaganda aimed at maintaining popular will and keeping the country on a war footing.

Although tensions remained, the relationship experienced a high point of cooperation during

WWII. An example of the conflict within the social sciences was the experience of Gregory

27
Ibid., 16.
28
Ibid., 16.
29
Murray L. Wax, "Wartime Dilemmas of an Ethical Anthropology," Anthropology Today 19, no.
3 (June 2003), 23.
30
Price, "Lessons from the Second World War Anthropology: Peripheral, Persuasive and Ignored
Contributions," 16.
31
Ibid., 16.

15
Bateson, a noted anthropologist who in 1943 enlisted into the OSS. During the war he not only

handled the writing of intelligence reports and the creation of black propaganda radio

campaigns, but also took part in ground operations with OSS forward intelligence units in the

Burmese Arakan Mountains. 32 Following the war, Bateson increasingly became disillusioned

with the work he did for the government, feeling more and more that he had violated ethical

standards and that because of his successes native peoples were ill treated, manipulated and

disempowered. 33

In 1942, George E. Taylor became the Deputy Director for Far East in the Office of War

Information (OWI), and he believed culture was a critical aspect of his mission. With this

mindset, he employed dozens of anthropologists, and set about a determined study of the nature

of Japanese national character, and to analyze the likely impact of various military strategies

against the Japanese. 34 After joining the OSS, Bateson recognized a significant insensitivity in

the leaflets and attempts at propaganda directed towards the Japanese and believed that the

infusion of cultural awareness would lead to an increase in effectiveness. Using the knowledge

and experiences of anthropologists and the Nisei, second-generation Japanese Americans, new

messages were crafted and delivery methods utilized which significantly raised the surrender rate

of Japanese soldiers than had previously been experienced. Despite the success that resulted from

the integration of culture into psychological warfare operations, Taylor was unable to influence

the political and military leadership of the significance of the cultural component of warfare. 35

Towards the end of WWII, the Allies were considering options to bring a decisive end to the war

32
David Price, "Past Wars, Present Dangers, Future Anthropologies," Anthropology Today 18, no.
1 (February 2002), 3.
33
Ibid., 3.
34
Price, "Lessons from the Second World War Anthropology: Peripheral, Persuasive and Ignored
Contributions," 18.
35
Ibid., 18-19.

16
on the Pacific front. Bateson and his team believed the Japanese were nearing the point of

surrender, but could not convince national leadership that this was the case. Instead, national

leadership had already determined that the Japanese were incapable of surrender and were

developing plans to exercise a nuclear option. 36 Since nuclear bombs were dropped on both

Nagasaki and Hiroshima and the Japanese surrendered soon thereafter, it will never be

determined whether Taylor and his team were correct. Although marginalized, the influence of

social scientists in the Far East Division of OWI did play a role in separating the abdication of the

Japanese Emperor from the final terms of surrender. Cultural research found that the Emperor

was believed to embody the soul of the country, and allowing him to remain in power was critical

to a mutually acceptable surrender. 37

Throughout the colonial period and the world wars, social scientists readily provided

services to the national security apparatus. Effects achieved by social scientists during this time

primarily influenced the national and military strategic level of war. Anthropologists were

employed at the tactical level in intelligence roles, but information gathered during these

operations met the needs of strategic purposes. Although examples during this timeframe

generally relate to the strategic level, the application of a cultural understanding to decision-

making is relevant at all levels. Debate about the ethical use of social science to assist in the

conduct of war and national security objectives began during this time, in particular after WWI

and the letter from Franz Boas denouncing its use during that war. Many justified the use of

anthropology during WWI and WWII as ethical since the consequence of losing was considered

so great, and most believed that only the full effort the United States would prevent the triumph

36
Price, "Lessons from the Second World War Anthropology: Peripheral, Persuasive and Ignored
Contributions," 19.
37
George Packer, "Knowing the Enemy: Can Social Scientists Redefine the 'War on Terror'?" The
New Yorker. December 18, 2006. http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/12/18/061218fa_fact2
(accessed January 7, 2009).

17
of German expansionism. After WWII the stage was set for the debate to develop during the latter

half of the 20th century.

The Vietnam and Cold Wars

During Vietnam and the Cold War, the divide between the social sciences and the

military deepened as covert intelligence and counterinsurgency operations carried out in the name

of science led to continued discord. A noticeable split appeared in the anthropological community

after WWII, with some scientists continuing to work with the security apparatus and some

denouncing the US and the perceived imperialistic approach to foreign policy. 38 The military

often viewed social scientists as pacifists, and anthropological efforts were often discounted in

favor of means that were more lethal. One program enacted in Vietnam was the Civil Operations

and Revolutionary Development Support (CORDS) program, initiated in 1967. Alhtough the CIA

began working revolutionary development in 1965 and civil operations occurred throughout the

country, it was not until CORDS in 1967 that all civilian and military pacification efforts were

unified under the Military Assistance Command-Vietnam (MAC-V). 39 The premise behind

CORDS was to match focused intelligence collection with direct action and integrated

synchronized activities aimed at winning the hearts and minds of the South Vietnamese. 40

Evidence shows that CORDS drastically reduced violence and enemy activity in areas of Vietnam

where effectively implemented. One of the key components of the CORDS program was an

information collection and reporting system that focused on factors related to security, economic

development, and governance, and information was validated through a variety of cultural,

38
Wax, "Wartime Dilemmas of an Ethical Anthropology," 23.
39
John A. Nagl, Counterinsurgency Lessons from Malaya and Vietnam: Learning to Eat Soup
with a Knife. (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, 2002), 165.
40
Jacob Kipp, Lester Grau, Karl Prinslow, and Don Smith. "The Human Terrain System: A
CORDS for the 21st Century," Military Review, (September-October 2006), 10.

18
economic, and ethnographic reports. 41 Cooperation between the civil and military personnel of

the CORDS program was vital to gaining an understanding of the important meaning behind

those factors.

In 1964, the Special Operations Research Office (SORO) initiated a program named

Project Camelot that had anthropologists and social scientists researching the human dimension

of counterinsurgency around the globe. Overall objectives of Camelot were to determine the

feasibility of developing a general social systems model which would make it possible to predict

and influence politically significant aspects of social change, and specific objectives included

assessing the potential for internal war within national societies and identifying those actions

which a government might take to relieve conditions which are assessed as giving rise to a

potential for internal war. 42 SORO also sought to build a computerized repository using a

systems analytic approach that would compile hard data of social-scientific information on

indigenous populations and regions of the world. 43 One of the first studies for Project Camelot

was the country of Chile, where Hugo Nuttini, an anthropology professor from the University of

Pittsburgh, accepted the assignment to begin social research. Although he attempted to conceal

the military backing of his research, the program was quickly exposed. Defense Secretary Robert

McNamara canceled the program less than a year after inception after severe outcry from targeted

countries, including Chile. 44

Another scandal surfaced in 1970 involving covert research in Thai villages. Social

scientists acted under the guise of preventing harm to villages from insurgents, while in truth they

41
Ibid., 11.
42
Irving L. Horowitz, ed., The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot: Studies in the Relationship
between Social Sciences and Practical Politics. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1974), 4-5.
43
Wax, "Wartime Dilemmas of an Ethical Anthropology," 24.
44
McFate, "Anthropology and Counterinsurgency: The Strange Story of their Curious
Relationship," 35-36.

19
were gathering intelligence for the Department of Defense and the Royal Thai Government.

Documents developed out of this program were stolen from the files of a university professor, and

eventually were published in an activist student newspaper. Following the controversy

surrounding Project Camelot and the Thai scandal, the professional anthropological community

regarded government funds that sponsor sociological research with heavy skepticism. In 1971, the

American Anthropological Association issued official Principles of Professional Responsibility

in response to the use of social scientists along with military and intelligence services. The

principles state that, in research, an anthropologists paramount responsibility is to those they

study, placing the obligations of an anthropologist to the subjects of study in direct conflict with

patriotic obligations to their country. 45

During this period, the relationship between the social sciences and national security

organizations experienced increasing conflict. Social scientists began to denounce providing

assistance in matters of national defense in favor of protecting the integrity of the anthropological

discipline. The extreme unpopularity of the Vietnam War allowed anti-military sentiment to

dominate the national atmosphere, particularly in higher educational institutions and in the

academic community. Throughout the Cold War, examples of the interaction between the social

sciences and national security organizations generally resulted in international controversy where

sovereign, developing nations felt they were nothing more than pawns in the struggle between

Western democracy and communism. The relationship continued in this manner until the U.S.

military in the aftermath of the invasion of Iraq realized a new demand for cultural understanding

at the operational and tactical level of war. An interesting side note is that prior to OIF, there is

little precedence for placing academics directly alongside the soldier on the front lines. No cases

45
Hugh Gusterson, "Anthropology and the Military: 1968, 2003, and Beyond?" Anthropology
Today 19, no. 3 (June 2003), 25.

20
were found where the support of social scientists was primarily intended to lead to a better

cultural understanding for combat units to more effectively interact with the population.

Operation Iraqi Freedom and the Current Controversy

During the early years after the fall of Saddam Hussein, the U.S. military generally

operated with a disregard for the cultural characteristics of the Iraqi population. Without a clearly

defined national or theater strategy or a published counterinsurgency doctrine to provide unity of

effort, the approach to handling the post-conflict environment was haphazard at best. Some

commanders intuitively understood classic counterinsurgency theory and truly understood the

population as a center of gravity, and therefore looked for ways to influence the population to

support coalition efforts and development of the Iraqi National Government. Strategic policies of

disbanding the military and de-Baathification ostracized a large portion of the Iraqi population,

and led to a Sunni tribal insurgency supported by Sheiks across the country. At the operational

level, units did not understand that information in Iraq is passed through word of mouth and

focused more on broadcast and print media to transmit messages, missing crucial opportunities to

influence the public early in the war. 46 In general, few attempted to fully understand the culture

and leverage cross-cultural interactions to increase effectiveness in influencing the population.

The result was an incoherent approach to the conflict at all levels of war. Some commanders

emphasized wielding a heavy hand and focusing on lethal operations, while others, often

separated by only a few city blocks, emphasized a more non-lethal approach to gaining the

support and trust of the population. Beginning in 2005, with violence increasing at a dramatic rate

46
Montgomery McFate, "The Military Utility of Understanding Adversary Culture," Joint Forces
Quarterly, no. 38 (3rd Quarter 2005), 44.

21
and as Iraqi public opinion of coalition efforts was declining, military leadership at all levels

recognized that a change was necessary.

Although the situation faced by the U.S. military on the ground in Iraq was extremely

complex, it did not take long for the operational headquarters in theater and units on the ground at

the tactical level to recognize the challenges and adapt. In particular, this included elevating

cultural understanding as vitally important to the daily interactions with the population of the

officers and soldiers on the ground. In 2005 after a tour as a brigade commander, BG Benjamin

Freakley recognized that the U.S. military struggled to understand the significance of culture to

military operations and acknowledged the complexity of the contemporary operating

environment (COE) demands that we provide our tactical commanders a robust analytical tool

for cultural awareness. 47 MG Peter Chiarelli commanded the 1st Cavalry Division (1CD) in

Baghdad from 2004 to 2005, and one of the significant lessons he noted was a requirement for a

keen understanding of demographics as well as the cultural intricacies of the Iraqi population.

When conducting operational planning, the 1CD also ensured that the impact of Western actions

on a Middle East society were constantly at the forefront. 48 Principles of counterinsurgency had

been implemented in certain areas around Iraq under several forward thinking commanders, but it

was not until 2007 that those principles were applied theater-wide. Primarily, the two influences

that initiated this change in theater strategy were the publishing of the Counterinsurgency Field

Manual (FM 3-24) in December 2006 and the implementation of the surge strategy in 2007.

In response to the continued call for an additional asset geared towards cultural

understanding, the first Human Terrain Teams (HTTs) deployed to Iraq in 2007, marking the first

47
BG Benjamin Freakley, "Cultural Awareness and Combat Power," Infantry 94, no. 2 (March-
April 2005), 1.
48
MG Peter W. Chiarelli and MAJ Patrick R. Michaelis, "Winning the Peace: The Requirement
for Full-Spectrum Operations," Military Review (July-August 2005), 5.

22
time anthropologists were employed on the ground to conduct localized study of Iraqi culture.

Initially, the Human Terrain System (HTS) was a proof-of-concept program designed to meet

requirements defined by military field commanders returning from Iraq. The intent of the

program was for cultural anthropologists to advise brigade commanders on the local socio-

cultural environment, capture the information to minimize impact of unit rotation, and for reach-

back support to cultural expertise. 49 Since inception, the program has been the subject of

significant criticism. Most notably, the social science community and the American

Anthropological Association (AAA) have revived arguments about the ethical use of

anthropology in the prosecution war. In a statement on HTS in 2007, the AAA opposed the

program based on the conflict between the responsibilities of the anthropologists to the people

they study and the responsibilities to the U.S. military. 50 Anthropologist Hugh Gusterson voiced

concerns with the program based on professional obligations to other anthropologists and the

field of anthropology, to not damage the ability to conduct future research, to obligations to

informants or subjects they study, and to rules for informed consent. 51

The ethical conflict over whether to support a war in any capacity is ultimately an

individual decision, although most in the anthropological community believe the decision must be

guided by the most basic responsibility of the anthropologists to serve, rather than oppress or

fight. 52 This internal struggle between the responsibility of an anthropologist towards the

subjects of study and as a citizen of a nation is as relevant today as it has been throughout the

49
Human Terrain System. http://humanterrainsystem.army.mil (accessed February 15, 2009).
50
AAA Executive Board, "Statement on the Human Terrain System Project." American
Anthroplogical Association, October 31, 2007. www.aaanet.org/pdf/EB_Resolution_110807.pdf (accessed
January 7, 2009).
51
Gusterson, "Anthropology and the Military: 1968, 2003, and Beyond?" 25-26.
52
Price, "Lessons from the Second World War Anthropology: Peripheral, Persuasive and Ignored
Contributions," 20.

23
entire relationship between the social sciences and the military. Another dilemma is the potential

that if national security professionals do not receive support from a professional body of

anthropologists, they will inevitably look elsewhere for that cultural knowledge. If this were to

happen, then the DOD would turn to individuals who do not adhere to the same ethical codes and

rules that members of organizations such as the AAA follow. Throughout the history of the

involvement of the social sciences in national security issues, at best the relationship can be

described as contentious cooperation. For most of the academic anthropological community,

applying social science techniques alongside military forces is an unacceptable practice, and the

HTS will continue to be controversial as long as it remains a viable program.

Overview of the Human Terrain System

The Human Terrain System (HTS) was developed to meet an operational need for social

science support to units operating at the tactical and operational level in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Commanders at the division level and below returning from deployment consistently expressed a

requirement for operationally relevant human terrain knowledge and social science expertise to

collect, record, and analyze information for use in planning. To meet this demand, the Joint

Chiefs of Staff J3 Science Advisor initiated a program known as Cultural Preparation of the

Environment (CPE) in December 2004, which was designed to capture socio-cultural information

and provide limited reach-back research capability. Military commanders continued to express an

operational need for a cultural advisor on the ground as well as a database collection requirement,

and in early 2006 the Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) Deputy Chief of Staff for

Intelligence developed the initial concept for HTS. The Joint Improvised Explosive Device

Defeat Organization (JIEDDO) approved and funded the concept in June 2006. By the end of the

24
year, five HTTs were deployed to Iraq in support of brigade combat teams throughout the

country. 53 Specifically, the HTS was envisioned as a capability that would provide a commander

and staff with an understanding of the population and the impact of the culture on operational

decisions, as well as a system to ensure socio-cultural knowledge and expertise of an area is

properly transferred during relief in place operations with follow-on forces. 54

Mission and Capabilities

From the beginning, the intent of the program was to integrate a social science

perspective into military operations during the conduct of counterinsurgency. The mission and

capabilities of the HTS are focused on incorporating human terrain information into the

planning, preparation, execution and assessment of operations. The mission statement of the

Human Terrain Team follows:

Conduct operationally-relevant, open-source social science research, and provide

commanders and staffs at the BCT/RCT and Division levels with an embedded
knowledge capability, to establish a coherent, analytical cultural framework for
operational planning, decision-making, and assessment. 55

To accomplish this mission, the HTS provides three primary capabilities. First, the HTS imbeds

expert human terrain & social science advice into brigade and division staffs in order to

address the needs for cultural understanding at the tip of the spear. This expert advice

involves applying classic anthropological research and sociological methods to gather and

analyze ethnographic data for the counterinsurgent. Second, the HTS provides focused study

on the local area of operations that is tailored to the specific concerns of the commander.

53
Human Terrain System, http://humanterrainsystem.army.mil/htstimeline.html, (accessed
February 15, 2009).
54
Human Terrain System CONOP, Proof of Concept, 2-3.
55
CPT Nathan Finney, Employing a Human Terrain Team, Commanders Handbook, (Fort
Leavenworth, KS: Human Terrain System, 4 April 2007), 5.

25
Third, the HTS maintains a tactical overwatch reach-back link that provides access to a

subject-matter expert (SME) network and learning institutions throughout the world. 56

On the ground at the tactical and operational level, an HTT is required to accomplish

five key tasks. Similar to traditional Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield (IPB), the

HTT conducts Cultural Preparation of the Environment (CPE). CPE is a continuous process

that focuses on analyzing the socio-cultural information of the area of operations, and follows

a similar process as IPB: 57

Steps of Cultural Preparation of the Battlefield

1) ID physical and human terrain
2) Describe civil considerations (ASCOPE, PMESII)
3) ID social and political patterns
4) ID key friction points or misconceptions.

Second, the HTS integrates human terrain information into the unit planning. This task

occurs before specific operations are being planned, by incorporating the CPE into mission

analysis, proposing non-lethal courses of action, identifying the second and third order effects

of possible courses of action, and taking part in war-gaming from the population perspective.

The third task is to support current operations by monitoring events, making on the ground

assessments, and assisting the commander and staff with understanding cultural impacts on

decision-making. Fourth, the HTT evaluates effects of the human terrain on the unit

operations, as well as the effect of unit operations on the human terrain. During continuous

full-spectrum operations, the HTT is continually assessing the effect of friendly and enemy

operations on the local population, as well as the second and third order effects of those

operations. Finally, the HTT provides training on socio-cultural issues relevant to the area of

56
Ibid., 20.
57
Ibid., 50.

26
operations. This training is effective for brigade and division leadership, but is most effective

at battalion-level and below where soldiers have the primary responsibility in the operational

area and have the most contact with the local population. 58 An important capability of the HTT

is the Rapid Ethnographic Assessment Protocol (REAP), which was developed from a need for

immediate information requested by supported BCTs. Initially, BCTs questioned the utility of a

team of social science experts who required an extensive amount of time to conduct a detailed

study prior to providing analysis. The REAP provides information on current local attitudes and

perspectives, organization and leadership of tribal structures, preliminary assessment of social

networks, and local economic data in a relatively short amount of time. 59 In addition to the

REAP, the HTT provides a variety of assessments and reports to the commander and staff on the

cultural characteristics of the local population.

Organization

Since the intent of the HTS is to provide social science expertise at the operational and

tactical level, the program is structured around the HTT. The HTT is a five- to nine-man team

that provides a mix of military specialists and academics. At a minimum, the team consists of

a team leader, a social scientist, a research manager and two human terrain analysts. The role

of the Team Leader (TL) is to integrate the HTT into the unit in an effective manner, and to

be an advisor to the commander in cultural issues. Social Scientists (SS) are academically

qualified cultural anthropologists or other similar experts who advise the commander and

staff in all human terrain matters, including specific anthropological research and analysis

methods. Cultural Research Managers (CRM) are responsible for knowledge management,

58
Ibid., 16-18.
59
CPT Nathan Finney, Human Terrain Team Handbook, (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Human Terrain
System, September 2008), 97.

27
and ensure all human terrain information gathered by the team is properly analyzed, archived

and distributed throughout the organization. The CRM integrates the human terrain research

plan with the unit activities, participates in de-briefings, and interacts with other key

organizations and agencies also operating in the area. Finally, Human Terrain Analysts

(HTAs) are the primary researchers and data collectors for the HTT. The HTAs take the

research requirements of the team and the supported unit and conduct both field and open-

source research. Recognizing that a five-man team is not sufficient to support a brigade,

teams deployed in theater generally are increased in size to a nine-man team consisting of a

team leader, two social scientists, two research managers and four human terrain analysts. 60

At the division level, the HTS integrates a Human Terrain Analysis Team (HTAT) that

provides the division commander and staff with many of the same functions the HTT provides to

a brigade. However, the HTAT is primarily focused on integration of cultural understanding into

the division operational planning processes and supporting the subordinate brigade HTTs with an

additional analysis capability. At the corps level, a Human Terrain Research and Analysis-Corps

(HTRAC) team provides cultural understanding to the Corps commander and staff, and has

additional research capabilities not present at the lower levels. Above the corps, two capabilities

provide additional research capabilities for the HTS. At the theater level, a Social Science

Research and Analysis (SSRA) team conducts operationally relevant qualitative and

quantitative research within the area of operations to provide empirical data and analysis of

the population. Back in the continental United States, military and civilian analysts staff the

Reachback Research Center (RRC) and provide regionally focused research and rapid

analysis on human terrain issues. The RRC is manned and available at all times and has

60
Ibid., 11-16.

28
access to a Subject Matter Expert (SME) network from a larger academic community from

which to draw information and analysis. In addition to the higher-level research capabilities,

a software package was developed to support operations of the HTT. The Map-HT Tool Kit

compiles a database that facilitates assembling, archiving, and analyzing the human terrain

knowledge harvested by the HTT, and provides the ability to map human terrain, create

linkage charts, view changes in human terrain over time, and assist in the visualization of

human terrain. 61

Reports from the Field

Success of the HTS during the first few years of employment in Iraq and Afghanistan is

subjective and difficult to measure. Since the inception of the program in Iraq largely coincided

with the wide scale application of FM 3-24, the Sunni awakening, a drastic increase in the price

of global oil, and the addition of U.S. combat troops during the surge, determining causality for

the decrease in violence is an impossible task. However, there are numerous success stories from

HTTs serving on the ground with brigades. MAJ Philip Carlson deployed as a research manager

for an HTT attached to 1st Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division (1/1 CAV) from August 2007 to May

2008. Initially, the team underwent a growing period with the brigade before finally settling into a

role as a special staff element reporting directly to the brigade leadership. The ideal situation is

for an HTT to have an assigned social scientist who is an expert on the culture within the area of

operations prior to deployment, and this was true for the HTT attached to 1/1 CAV. One of the

social scientists on the team was an Iraqi-American medical doctor, who grew up in Baghdad and

left Iraq for the U.S. in the late 1980s after the Iran-Iraq war. He was a cultural and linguistic

expert on the area of operations, and proved to be a tremendous asset to the brigade. An example

61
Ibid., 34.

29
of a situation where the HTT provided relevant advice to the commander is the reconciliation of

the leadership of the Jaysh al Mujahedeen Army (MA). Analysis from the brigade intelligence

section considered the fighters as non-reconcilable and predicted they would fight to the death

rather than work with coalition forces. In contrast, the HTT believed that most members of the

MA were tired of fighting, and although they wanted coalition forces out of Iraq they supported

the increased legitimacy of the Iraqi government and security forces. As a result, the leadership of

the MA faced the decision between continuing the fight and losing the support of the MA.

Through a series of meetings with local sheiks, the HTT was able to coordinate the reconciliation

of 10 to 12 mid-level leaders of the MA, along with obtaining a written declaration that fighters

would lay down arms and support the local government. 62 Without the advice and assessment

from the HTT, it is likely that U.S. forces would have remained in conflict with the MA for a

significantly longer period.

Examples also exist from OIF of units understanding the approach to COIN outlined in

FM 3-24 and taking steps to analyze the human terrain without the benefit of an HTT. LTC Jack

Marr commanded 1-15 Infantry (IN) in southeast Baghdad from 2007-2008, and knew that

before the counter-insurgent can win the people over, he must take the necessary steps to really

understand and know them. 63 With the understanding that the insurgent holds the upper hand in

cultural understanding when the counterinsurgent comes from a foreign country, the battalion

established a systematic collection and collation process of ethnographic information. This

system led not only to a detailed understanding of the population, but also to the development of

consequential relationships with significant power brokers in the local community. 1-15 IN

62
MAJ Phillip Carlson, interview by author. Experiences on an HTT (January 16, 2009).
63
LTC Jack Marr, MAJ John Cushing, MAJ Brandon Garner, and CPT Richard Thompson,
"Human Terrain Mapping: A Critical First Step to Winning the COIN Fight," (Military Review, March-
April 2008), 18.

30
labeled the process Human Terrain Mapping (HTM), and utilized the Command Post of the

Future (CPOF) battle command system to collect, analyze and disseminate the information. Initial

information requirements included tribal boundaries, political and religious leaders, location of

mosques, schools and markets, daily routines of the population, economic information,

demographics, and a variety of other socio-cultural data. In the end, LTC Marr concluded that the

physical process of creating the human terrain map was at least as beneficial as the actual map

once complete. Information collected by another unit can be transferred during a relief in place,

but relationships and true understanding take time and require extensive experience. 64

The Gap of Cultural Understanding

The strategy strives for balancebetween retaining those cultural traits that
have made the U.S. armed forces successful and shedding those that hamper their
ability to do what needs to be done.

Secretary of Defense Robert M. Gates 65

As the civilian in charge of the Department of Defense (DOD), Secretary Gates provides

strategic direction for the U.S. armed forces and indicates the need to shift focus to meet the

needs of the future security environment. After 9/11, it became readily apparent that U.S. force

structure, doctrine and even the culture within the military focused heavily on conventional war

between two opposing nation-states. Despite this predisposition, the adaptation displayed on the

ground in Iraq and Afghanistan to counterinsurgency warfare is remarkable. However, with the

irregular and unconventional conflicts in which the U.S. will likely be engaged in the future, it is

worth analyzing whether a gap in capabilities for cultural understanding exists. Three areas limit

64
Ibid., 18-24.
65
Robert M. Gates, "A Balanced Strategy: Reprogramming the Pentagon for a New Age," Foreign
Affairs 88, no. 1 (January / February 2009): 28.

31
the capability of the military to achieve cultural understanding in the operating environment.

First, as Secretary Gates alludes to above, doctrine and the enemy-oriented culture within the

armed forces are significant factors limiting the ability of combat formations to gain cultural

understanding. Second, organic capability is lacking for conducting ethnographic research,

despite the existence of multiple organizations focused on interacting with the population.

Finally, military training and the professional education system do not adequately prepare

soldiers or leaders at all levels to understand how cultural differences affect interactions with

other people.

Military Culture and Doctrine

Before 9/11, technology, training and doctrine focused on the Cold War and the idea of

achieving victory through the application of overwhelming, decisive force. Since there is little

interaction with the population in a maneuver war between two symmetric opponents, cultural

understanding was never integrated into the doctrine or training of the military. Additionally, no

element of national power explicitly addresses the culture of the adversary in the formation of

policy, leading to a lack of cultural awareness in the planning and execution of operational and

tactical action. 66 Another influence that reinforces the culture within the military is the social

view of culture within the United States. Traditionally, the domestic approach to culture includes

blurring cultural differences and finding common ground among disparate peoples to break

down barriers in an effort to assimilate foreigners into the American way of life. 67 This attitude is

characteristic of contemporary U.S. grand strategy, and leads to challenges of ethnocentrism and

cultural relativism for military forces operating abroad. This has resulted in a lack of cultural

66
McFate, "Anthropology and Counterinsurgency: The Strange Story of their Curious
Relationship," 24.
67
Andrew W. Stewart, Friction in U.S. Foreign Policy: Cultural Difficulties with the World,
Thesis, (Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, June 2006), 6.

32
competence in both the military culture and doctrinal manuals. After eight years of war, the

military has undergone a significant pattern of heuristic learning, and is experiencing a shift away

from the traditional mindset. This change is evident in the recent evolution of doctrinal manuals

to increase inclusion of cultural understanding.

In general, references to cultural understanding in current doctrine remain cursory, with a

few notable exceptions in recently published manuals. FM 3-0, the capstone doctrine on

operations, requires a broad understanding of the strategic and operational environment and their

relevance to each mission and includes the culture of the local population as a significant

factor in achieving that understanding. Lacking sufficient depth to communicate the importance

of culture in military operations, the manual defines culture as the shared beliefs, values,

customs, behaviors, and artifacts that society members use to cope with their world and with one

another. 68 No further reference throughout the remainder of the manual explains how to

integrate culture into planning or execution of operations. This level of detail may be appropriate

for a capstone operational doctrine. However, until 2006 no other manual included any detailed

guidance for integrating cultural understanding into operations. FM 3-07, Stability Operations,

describes the need for fair treatment of the local populace and that military policies will vary

based on several factors, to include attitude toward governing forces, socioeconomic conditions,

the political system, and local history and culture. 69 FM 5-0, Army Planning and Orders

Production, assigns the civil military operations (CMO) officer the task of feedback in how the

68
Department of the Army, FM 3-0, Operations, (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office,
February 2008), 1-11-7.
69
Department of the Army, FM 3-07, Stability Operations, (Washington, D.C.: Government
Printing Office, October 2008), 5-6.

33
culture in the AO affects each course of action. 70 None of these manuals provides any

substantive guidance on integrating culture into planning or execution of military operations.

The intelligence war fighting function (WFF) is charged with understanding the enemy

and the physical environment within a given area of operations, but a review of the primary

intelligence manuals reveals a lack of focus regarding cultural understanding. In all of FM 2-0,

Intelligence, only one sentence mentions culture, describing the social aspect of PMESII-PT as

the cultural, religious, and ethnic makeup within an operational environment. 71 FM 34-130,

Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield, only requires intelligence analysts to identify the

effect of local culture on collection but does not discuss understanding the effects the local

culture will have on unit operations. 72 One example of the how the Army has adapted to

counterinsurgency is the tactical intelligence field manual, FM 2-91.6, Soldier Surveillance and

Reconnaissance: Fundamentals of Tactical Information Collection, published in 2007. This

manual outlines the concept of every soldier as a sensor and has a section dedicated to regional

cultural awareness as part of pre-deployment training. The section contains a series of questions

designed to assist a unit or individual in conducting research to gain a more in depth awareness of

the culture of a region, and is an excellent resource at the tactical level. 73

Two recent manuals that make great strides towards describing the interaction between

military operations and the culture of a population are FM 3-24, Counterinsurgency, and FM 3-

05.130, Army Special Operations Forces Unconventional Warfare. Infused throughout FM 3-24

70
Department of the Army, FM 5-0, Army Planning and Orders Production, (Washington, D.C.:
Government Printing Office, October 2008), 3-44.
71
Department of the Army, FM 2-0, Intelligence, (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office,
May 2004), 1-20.
72
Department of the Army, FM 34-130, Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield, (Washington,
DC: Government Printing Office, July 1994), 4-7.
73
Department of the Army, FM 2-91.6, Soldier Surveillance and Reconnaissance: Fundamentals
of Tactical Information Collection, (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, October 2007), 4-7.

34
is the belief that cultural understanding and the integration of all elements of national power is

necessary for a successful counterinsurgency. Negative effects of cultural relativism and

ethnocentrism are also recognized:

Cultural knowledge is essential to waging a successful counterinsurgency.

American ideals of what is normal or what is rational are not universal...For
this reason, counterinsurgenciesespecially commanders, planners, and small-
unit leadersshould strive to avoid imposing their ideals of normalcy on a
foreign cultural problem. 74

Chapter 3 discusses intelligence, and instructs that commanders and staffs should identify and

analyze the culture of a society as a whole and of each major group and describes culture as the

identity, beliefs, values, attitudes and perceptions, belief systems, and cultural forms of the

society or group, adding substance to the definition found in FM 3-0 and JP 1-02. 75 Following

theory from Kilcullen, the manual recommends finding a political and cultural advisor in order to

provide a staff member whose function is to assist the commander in shaping the environment,

rather than merely understanding the environment. The great success of the implementation of

FM 3-24 in Iraq is a testament to a foundation built on sound counterinsurgency theory and

principles of cultural understanding.

The second manual is FM 3-05.130, which focuses on indirect methods for compelling an

enemy during unconventional warfare. As the manual that describes how U.S. Special Forces

work through surrogates to influence the outcome of a struggle for power, it is vitally important

that cultural knowledge play an important role in this mission. Annex H, The Role of History and

Culture, is an excellent reference for a tactical or operational level commander or planner to gain

an understanding of how culture is developed and how it affects the operating environment. The

annex outlines culture, society, civilization, state, nation, race, ethnic group, tribe, clan, band,

74
Department of the Army, FM 3-24, Counterinsurgency, (Washington, DC: Government Printing
Office, December 2006), 1-15.
75
Ibid., 3-73-8.

35
tradition, mythology, folklore, and religion as the facets of human terrain, and briefly surveys

each concept. 76 Although not comprehensive, the concepts discussed in this annex provide a

broad understanding of the sociological characteristics that define a population. Cultural

understanding is increasingly having an impact on the writing of doctrinal manuals. However, the

integration of culture into planning processes and procedures for analyzing culture to provide a

comprehensive understanding of the operating environment remains a deficiency overcome only

by the ability of units learning on the ground.

Cultural Force Multipliers

Civil Affairs and Psychological Operations are the two branches of the Army most

relevant to a discussion about the interface between military forces and the population. Civil-

Military Operations (CMO) are those activities of a commander that are focused on interaction

with the civilian populace in order to facilitate military operations and to consolidate and achieve

U.S. objectives. The overarching intent of CMO is to reduce friction between the civilian

population and the military force. 77 Civil Affairs Teams (CATs) attached to brigades are charged

with providing an interface between military leaders and the local governance structure of the

indigenous population. CATs assist a unit in accomplishing CMO and execute the following core

tasks:

Populace and resources control (PRC)

Foreign humanitarian assistance (FHA)
Civil information management (CIM)
Nation assistance (NA)
Support to civil administration (SCA)

76
Department of the Army, FM 3-05.130, Army Special Operations Forces Unconventional
Warfare, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, September 2008), Annex H.
77
Department of the Army, FM 3-05.40, Civil Affairs Operations, (Washington, D.C.:
Government Printing Office, September 2006), 1-1.

36
Appendix D of FM 3-05.40 outlines the Civil Affairs Area Study and Assessment. Significant

portions of the survey require a study of the culture and social structure of the area, as well as

languages and religious aspects. Although the primary function of civil affairs is to interact with

the population, they do not possess a cultural expert as a member of the team or any true ability to

conduct ethnographic research. However, the function of civil affairs and the training and

experience in the civil affairs branch produce cultural generalists that are significantly attuned to

observing, understanding, and interacting with other cultures.

Psychological Operations (PSYOP) are designed to inform and influence a foreign target

audience (TA), with the purpose of supporting national objectives. PSYOP accomplish this

mission through conveying a message that influences the emotions, motives, objective

reasoning, and ultimately the behavior of foreign audiences. 78 Five traditional roles of PSYOP

forces are: 79

Influence foreign populations

Advise the commander
Provide public information
Serve as the supported commanders voice
Counter enemy propaganda, misinformation, disinformation, and opposing
information

Similar to civil affairs, PSYOPS forces are often directed to communicate with the population

through direct and indirect means, but do not have a function dedicated to understanding the

culture organic to the organization.

78
Department of the Army, FM 3-05.30, Psychological Operations, (Washington, D.C.:
Government Printing Office, April 2005), 1-2.
79
Ibid., 1-3.

37
Training Cultural Awareness

Although the military is often viewed as progressive in regards to integrating diversity, a

dichotomy exists between training for cultural awareness in the everyday workplace as opposed

to training soldiers to interact with the population during war. To meet the needs of the

contemporary security environment, the military must shift the paradigm on cultural training

from one which restrains Americans to one that empowers. 80 Cultural awareness training and

cross-cultural competence are two distinct concepts. Cross-cultural competence is defined as the

ability to quickly and accurately comprehend, then appropriately and effectively engage

individuals from distinct cultural backgrounds to achieve the desired effect. 81 This type of

cultural training has generally been marginalized or non-existent in curriculums of the

professional military education (PME) system. Additionally, cultural training is often delegated to

lower units and conducted by well-intentioned leaders who do not have the requisite expertise in

culture. Training with any level of a regional focus only occurs pre-deployment, and often

involves information simply being disseminated down to the lowest level to be digested and

taught. Progress is being made in transforming the curriculum of PME, and on 4 December 2008,

the TRADOC Commander directed the initial implementation of the Army Culture and Foreign

Language Strategy (ACFLS). The directive to begin implementing the ACFLS recognizes that

cultural and foreign language skills are an imperative to meet future requirements in an era of

persistent conflict in which operations will be frequently conducted among local populations. 82

Two initial steps being implemented immediately are the addition of a cultural research

80
Stewart, Friction in U.S. Foreign Policy: Cultural Difficulties with the World, 18.
81
Brian R. Selmeski, Military Cross-Cultural Competencies: Core Concepts and Individual
Development, AFCLC Contract Report 2007-01, (Royal Military College of Canada: US Air Force Culture
and Language Center, 2007), 12.
82
GEN William S. Wallace, "Culture and Foreign Language Initial Guidance," Memorandum for
See Distribution, (Fort Monroe, VA: TRADOC, December 4, 2008), 1.

38
assignment for all officers attending Basic Officer Leaders Course (BOLC) III and the Captains

Career Course, and the hiring of culture and foreign language advisors at subordinate TRADOC

organizations. This TRADOC strategy eventually will integrate cultural training into the

curriculum at all levels of PME, beginning with BOLC I for officers and initial entry training for

enlisted.

In February 2006, the TRADOC Culture Center (TCC) opened at the Military

Intelligence Institute at Fort Huachuca. The initial vision of the center was to provide TRADOC

with a capability for cross-cultural training, education and research and increase collaboration

among military and civilian scholars. Under the preliminary charter, the center was to develop

Middle Eastern and South East Asian cultural products, develop, refine and assess training

standards within TRADOC, produce proficient cultural trainers, expand cyberspace initiatives

dealing with cultural understanding, and to build partnerships with civilian and military

institutions. 83 Although this organization has extensive research capabilities to focus on cultural

matters, it does not possess the ability to conduct research on the human terrain in a local area of

operations. The TCC developed a Professional Military Education (PME) Training Support

Package (TSP) designed to integrate training of cross-cultural competence throughout the

curriculum of military schooling beginning with initial entry training. The cultural TSP offers

lessons in defining culture, discussions of American and personal culture that facilitates

individuals identifying areas of conflict or bias, specific courses on Iraqi and Afghani culture, and

the impact of culture on military operations. 84

83
MAJ Remi Hajjar, "The Army's new TRADOC Culture Center," Military Review, (November-
December 2006), 90-91.
84
TRADOC Culture Center, http://www.universityofmilitaryintelligence.us/tcc/cultural/default.asp
(accessed March 1, 2009).

39
 Conclusion and Recommendations
Several conclusions are drawn from the analysis conducted in this monograph.

As the program currently exists, the HTS is having a significant impact at the operational level.

However, at the tactical level the true impact is questionable, since teams are too small to support

an entire brigade. They operate at the direction of the brigade commander, yet the true tactical

requirement for cultural understanding is at the level where soldiers and officers interact daily

with the population. In addition to the HTS lacking assets that support the tactical level, organic

cultural capabilities of tactical formations are inadequate. It would be negligent to deploy a unit to

a COIN environment that does not possess the ability to meet these requirements with assets

organic to the unit. With conflict in every region and the complexity of the global security

environment, it is extremely challenging to determine exactly when and where U.S. forces will

deploy. This fact makes it questionable that a HTT with a regionally specific cultural expertise

will always be available when units receive orders and deploy. Therefore, the solution for

integrating cultural understanding at the tactical and operational level must be comprehensive,

and focus on strengthening the capabilities organic to tactical units as well as providing external

expertise from outside the organization.

The HTS does have weaknesses that must be addressed. More than any other function of

the HTS, providing a social scientist who is an expert on the local culture is the most important

asset provided to a brigade. However, recruitment of qualified social scientists with expertise on

the areas where U.S. forces are deployed is a significant challenge that has plagued the program

from inception. This results in social scientists learning right along with the soldiers, and needing

a considerable amount of time to understand the population in order to be in a position to advise

the commander. This situation is not helpful to the unit, and generates ill feelings towards the

program from combat units. Next, the integration of anthropologists with military units inherently

inhibits the normal way they conduct research. Generally, anthropologists seek to live amongst

subjects and conduct study over an extended period, in an attempt to gain the trust of the subjects.

40
Military operations are conducted under extreme time-constraints, and trust of subjects is difficult

to achieve under these conditions and when the social scientist is carrying a weapon and wearing

a uniform similar to the military. Another problematic area is the relationship of the HTT to the

brigade. From the perspective of the brigade, the HTT is another combat multiplier on a long list

of attachments that they accept responsibility for upon deployment. As a new program, each HTT

has had a unique command and control relationship with the brigade headquarters, most probably

depending on the competence of the team leader and the personality of the brigade commander. A

commanders guide to the HTS was published in an attempt to inform combat units on the

function and organization of the HTS to alleviate this issue.

As described earlier, effective integration of cultural understanding in the planning and

execution of counterinsurgency operations requires several capabilities assigned or attached to

units at the tactical and operational level. These capabilities include having a cultural advisor,

possessing the ability to conduct ethnographic research, having a data repository for maintaining

and analyzing ethnographic information, and ensuring the force is culturally competent. Although

the Human Terrain System does fulfill these requirements, several areas for improvement can be

identified. To ensure the military is prepared for future contingencies, this monograph makes

several recommendations to continue developing the military into a force adept at cultural

interaction and ensuring the appropriate assets for cultural awareness are available when a unit is

notified for deployment. First and most importantly, it is vital for every soldier to be proficient in

cross-cultural skills and receive adequate regionally specific cultural training prior to any

deployment. Second, although current Army publications increasingly recognize the role of

culture in conflict, the military will not embrace cultural awareness until capstone doctrine does

more to address culture. Third, cultural advisors must be assigned at the level where officers and

soldiers interact with the population on a daily basis. Fourth, ethnographic research must be an

organic capability of a brigade combat team in the event that a unit deploys without the benefits

41
of an HTT, and repository for collection of ethnographic data must be integrated with an existing

battle command system.

Develop a Culturally Competent Force

Building a culturally competent force is an absolute imperative for the military and is the

first area that must be addressed. It is certain that future conflict will involve considerable

interaction with the indigenous population, and very likely that success will be directly dependent

on the ability of the soldier on the ground to influence the population. Even with an HTT attached

to a brigade a new lieutenant or sergeant will rarely have direct support from the team social

scientist, and will often find themselves in situations where they must rely on their own ability to

influence a member of the population. More than simply training a soldier in cultural

understanding, cross-cultural competence manages expectations for situations encountered when

operating in a culture with values and beliefs different from their own. Professional Military

Education (PME) for both officers and enlisted members must include a progressive curriculum

for cultural competence that progresses from entry level throughout the entirety of a career in the

military. Numerous models for cross-cultural competence exist, and the Army needs to select one

and begin implementation throughout every military school. One model recommends training the

military through four levels of cross-cultural competence. At initial entry into the military officers

and soldiers receive novice level training, and learn about cultural self-identity. Intermediate

training focuses on developing company grade leadership into intra-cultural facilitators and

teaches key domains of culture. Advanced training provides field grade officers with a broader

context to cultural interaction, developing them further into pluri-cultural leaders. The final level

42
is to develop senior leaders of the Army into cross-cultural ambassadors, where adept interaction

with national level figures is required. 85

Upon notification of deployment, units must also receive an intense block of training on

the local population from experts on cultures within the expected area of operations. This training

will build on the cultural skills that soldiers and officers gain during PME courses, and provide

them with specific knowledge about the population. Although it will not apply directly to every

tribe, village or religious entity encountered during deployment, it will establish a baseline upon

which to build knowledge that is more focused to the area after arrival in theater. Training needs

to be conducted by social scientists that have direct knowledge of the population and can be from

the HTS. If an HTT that will be working with a brigade is identified early enough, this pre-

deployment training is an ideal opportunity to get to know and interact with the leadership and the

soldiers in the brigade prior to deployment. In the end, the most important recommendation to

integrate cultural understanding at the tactical level is for the military to continue to resource

training that will produce a culturally competent force.

Infuse Doctrine with Cultural Understanding

After experiencing insurgency in several French colonies, Galula recognized the need to

adapt the military to the new mission. He noted that it is important that the minds of the leaders

and menand this includes civilian as well as militarybe adapted also to the special demands

of counterinsurgency warfare. 86 The U.S. military has adapted well after the first eight years of

sustained conflict, but must take steps to ensure cultural understanding is systemically integrated

throughout our understanding of operational art and is an enduring aspect of our military culture.

85
Selmeski, Military Cross-Cultural Competencies: Core Concepts and Individual Development,
AFCLC Contract Report 2007-01, 19.
86
Galula, Counter-Insurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice, 94-95.

43
Doctrinal development is the method to ensure that lessons from the past eight years of battling

insurgency are not lost. Currently, doctrine lacks a useful definition of culture and lacks sufficient

guidance for inserting cultural understanding into deliberate planning processes. Along with a

definition of culture, it is important that a methodology for planning ethnographic research be

outlined for use by a battalion and brigade staffs to gather relevant data on the population.

Deliberate planning processes also must emphasize culture. In the military decision-making

process (MDMP) cultural considerations already have a location during mission analysis (MA),

but are rarely emphasized to the point where they play a significant role in development and

selection of a course of action (COA). Operational doctrine must more explicitly describe cultural

considerations and explain how to integrate those considerations into planning processes. When

dealing with the complexity of social interactions, the emerging concept of campaign design is a

superb method for gaining situational understanding. At its core, the concept of design is about

iterative learning, and when operating within a culture with different values and beliefs this

iterative learning is a critical skill.

Cultural Advisors at the Tactical Level

As an asset assigned to a brigade, the HTT is having minimal impact at the tactical level.

In COIN it is a reasonable argument that brigades conduct operational planning, and therefore the

HTT is invaluable as an advisor to the brigade commander and staff. However, the team of

researchers and analysts is too small and has very little interaction with company commanders

and platoon leaders who have the most contact with the population. A social scientist is required

at the battalion level to advise the commander and staff, along with a research manager to assist

in collection and analysis of ethnographic data for the battalion. At a minimum, a competent

cultural generalist must be assigned at the company level to advise the company commander

about how to interact with and gain understanding of the population. A critical requirement for

the social scientists assigned to an HTT is a regionally specific expertise on the local area of

44
operations. Unfortunately, there is generally a shortage of qualified anthropologists who are

experts in the regions where U.S. forces are deployed and who are willing to work alongside the

military. HTS began in 2006 and employed teams to Iraq in 2007. This time constraint resulted in

recruiting problems, and the program has been unable to fill the social science positions with

actual experts on the Iraqi society. Consequently, the right people have not been hired in every

case to fill the positions and some HTTs have been forced to learn right alongside the unit on the

ground. This is an unacceptable situation that is in direct conflict with the intent of the program.

Linguists often serve as the cultural expert for battalion and company commanders in lieu of any

other viable option. This is problematic for several reasons, including the fact that linguists lack

sufficient training in cross-cultural competence and have the potential for conflicts of interest

when hired from the local population. If having a cultural advisor is a true requirement in COIN,

then all leaders at the tactical level deserve to deploy with a cultural advisor.

Ethnographic Research Capability at the Operational Level

The next recommendation is for an ethnographic research capability to be integrated into

the division and brigade staffs. This function can be incorporated into the civil military operations

center or as another function of the operations section. However, it should not be handled directly

by either the intelligence section that focuses on targeting enemy combatants or by the civil

affairs team that focuses on engagement of local government and community influential leaders.

Collection of ethnographic data can be conducted through a multitude of methods, including on

the ground collection by subordinate units. In fact, this might be the most effective method since

it requires tactical units to comprehensively learn about the environment during collection efforts.

If done correctly, the inevitable outcome of the process is relationships with local community

leaders, respect of the population, visibility within the area of operations, and a true

understanding of the population. After collection, a computerized system is required within an

existing battle command system to store and analyze the data. Map-HT Toolkit was developed by

45
the HTS and facilitates the analysis of ethnographic information through reports and graphical

representation of the data. The issue with Map-HT Toolkit is that it is only available to members

of the HTT, and in order to gain and share understanding the information must be available on a

system accessible to the entire unit. CPOF is the battle command system the Army is adopting,

and examples have proved that CPOF can be used to collect and share ethnographic data.

In Conclusion

Since future wars are extremely difficult to predict in terms of the nature and location of

conflict, basing the ability to gain cultural understanding on an asset that is not organic within

tactical formations is an unacceptable risk. This statement does not mean that HTS as a program

should be eliminated, but that units must be prepared to go without in the event that either an

HTT is unavailable or the assigned HTT does not have the locally specific expertise required.

Even Civil Affairs forces are dealing with critical shortages, and units are not guaranteed those

forces are always available. Having the advice of a social scientist is an invaluable asset to a

commander, and although still in the early stages of development the HTS provides this expertise.

A positive trend is that through ingenuity and creativity units on the ground in Iraq have proved

that gaining cultural understanding can be achieved without external augmentation. The true

benefit of the HTS is in immature theaters where units are still learning the intricacies of the

population. In Iraq, most of the leadership above the rank of sergeant have already deployed at

least once previously. Looking beyond Iraq to prepare for U.S. engagements in theaters that

cannot be predicted, it is critical that concrete steps are taken to ensure the force becomes

competent in cultural matters and are provided with the necessary resources to be successful in

complex counterinsurgency environments. This includes continuing to improve and resource the

HTS. Like all new ideas, the HTS has faced challenges during the initial years after inception.

The operational requirement in Iraq demanded the HTS integrate social scientists with tactical

units before the concept had been fully developed, exacerbating the challenges. This turmoil

46
should not result in the program being prematurely cancelled, since the concept of integrating the

social sciences at the tactical and operational level remains sound. The need for cultural

understanding in counterinsurgency is critical to success, and HTTs that have deployed with the

capabilities intended by the program have proved to be an invaluable asset to tactical and

operational commanders.

47
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