COMPUTER SYSTEM ORGANISATION Notes by: Ms Niti Arora

Computers are automatic electronic devices that can perform complex tasks by breaking them into simple calculations and doing them extremely quickly. They have the ability to store, manipulate , and communicate information . A computer performs basically five major operations or functions. These are: 1) It accepts data or instructions by way of input. 2) It stores data by way of storage devices. 3) It can process data as required by the user. 4) It gives results in the form of output. 5) It controls all operations inside a computer. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER (IPO CYCLE)
Process (Central Processing Unit or CPU) OUTPUT (output device)

INPUT (Input Device)

MEMORY

INPUT DEVICE Accepts data from the outside world Converts data into the computer understandable form i.e. Binary form Example of Input devices: Keyboard, Mouse, Microphone, etc. OUTPUT DEVICE Produces the output in user readable form. Converts Binary data to user readable form. Example of Output devices: Monitor, Printer, Speakers, Plotter MEMORY UNIT Memory devices are to store the data for later reference. Smallest measuring unit of memory is: Bit ( 0, 1 ) A memory cell may be defined as a device which can store a symbol selected from a set of symbols. The smallest unit is bit. Memory unit o 8 bits = 1 byte o 1024 bytes = 1 Kilo Bytes(KB) o 1024 KB = 1 Mega Byte(MB) o 1024 MB = 1 Giga Byte(GB) o 1024 GB = 1 Tera Byte(TB)

o 1024 TB = 1 Peta Byte(PB) o 1024 Peta Byte=1 Zetta Byte o 1024 Zetta Byte=1 Yotta Byte 1024 can be written as 210 CLASSIFICATION OF MEMORY Memory can Broadly classified into two : Primary Memory ( Main Memory ) Secondary Memory Primary memory is the memory internal to the computer. i.e. the memory generally placed on the Mother board of the computer. Secondary memory is the memory external to the computer. Generally for large storage of data Generally for permanent storage of data Semi Conductor Memory The term "memory" is often (but not always) associated with addressable semiconductor memory, i.e.integrated circuits consisting of silicon-based transistors, used for example as primary memory but also other purposes in computers and other digital electronic devices. There are two main types of semiconductor memory: volatile and non-volatile. Examples of non-volatile memory are flash memory (sometimes used as secondary, sometimes primary computer memory) and ROM/PROM/EPROM/EEPROM memory (used for firmware such as boot programs). Examples of volatile memory are primary memory (typically dynamic RAM, DRAM), and fast CPU cache memory (typically static RAM, SRAM, which is fast but energy-consuming and offer lower memory capacity per area unit than DRAM) . PRIMARY MEMORY It can be further divided into two parts: RAM ( Random Access Memory ) ROM ( Read Only Memory) Difference between RAM and ROM RAM ROM 1. Random Access memory. Ram is a Volatile memory ie A computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information. 2. Temporary memory 3. Volatile Memory i.e. contents are lost when power is switched Off. 4. Read and Write memory 5. Read Only Memory. Memory used to store the startup instructions i.e. Booting instructions. 6. Permanent Memory 7. Non-Volatile memory i.e. contents are not erased when the power is switched off. 8. Read only memory

Types of RAM SRAM (Static RAM) DRAM (Dynamic RAM) SRAM (Static RAM) 1. Consist of internal flip-flops. 2. Volatile but as long as supplied with power, they need no special regenerator circuits to retain the stored data. 3. Take more space for a given storage capacity. 4. Easier to use since it has shorter read and write cycles. 5. Used in specialized applications.

DRAM (Dynamic RAM) 6. Consist of a transistor and capacitor that is capable of storing an electric charge. 7. Requires regenerator circuits even when the power is On. 8. Takes less space as compared to SRAM. 9. Has longer read and write cycles. 10. Used in primary storage sections of computer.

Some other memory CACHE Special high-speed storage mechanism Can be a reserved section of CPU or An independent high-speed storage device. Two types of Cache: Level 1 ( L1 Cache ): built inside the CPU package, Works at half the CPU clock speed, that means faster access. Level 2 ( L2 Cache ): external to the CPU and resides on the motherboard, Works at motherboard bus speed. SECONDARY MEMORY Most common storage devices are: Hard Disk- The hard disk memories stores information on one or maore circular platter which are continuous spinning. Floppy Disk The floppy disk is one of the oldest portable storage devicestill in use. Zip Drive - A zip disk is a removable magnetic disk which fits into a special zip drive. The surface is coated with a special scratch resistant material which makes a zip disk a very robust storage device. It comes in a number of capacities: 100, 250 and 750 Mb. The speed of a zip drive is faster than all but the very fastest of CD drives. Its robustness and speed make it an excellent backup device. However, its capacity is much less than that of hard drives and tape drives which limits its use for very large amounts of data. Points to remember:1. Concentric circles on the magnetized surface of the magnetic disks are known as Tracks, and same track no on each platter of a hard disk is called cylinder. 2. The tracks on the disk surface are divided into invisible segments known as Sectors

CD- ROMs (can store up to 700 MB). Types of CDs

CD-ROM (Compact Disc- Read Only Memory), only recorded once by manufacturer to record graphics, audio, games etc like encyclopedia CDs CR-R (Compact Disk Recordable), User can record data once and CR-Rs also allow to record data one one part once and other part later but, once recorded cannot be erased. CR-RW (Compact Disk Rewritable), user can record and erase data randomly and multiple times. DVDs (can store 15 times as much information and 20 times as fast as a CD-ROM). Varieties of DVDs DVD- ROM (Digital Video Disk- Read Only Memory), high capacity optical disk capable of storing 4.7 GB to 17 GB. DVD-R (DVD- Recordable)- DVD-R is similar to CD-R i.e. allow user to write once but read many times. DVR-RW (DVD- Rewritable)Most writable DVD are DVR-RW allow user to red and write many times. Because of enormous capacities, they are replacing CD New Age Memories Pen Drive / Thumb Drive Also called Flash memory, USB memory, Key memory,. Flash is a solid-state memory i.e. it has no moving part unlike magenetic storage device nor does it make use of laser like optical devices. Instead it works in a similar way to RAM but it is a non-volatile memory. Blu-ray Disc is a next-generation, optical disc format that enables the ultimate highdef entertainment experience. The name Blu-ray Disc is derived from the blue-violet laser used to read and write this type of disc. Because of its shorter wavelength (405 nm), substantially more data can be stored on a Blu-ray Disc than on the DVD format, which uses a red (650 nm) laser. Blu-ray Disc provides these key features and advantages: Largest capacity available anywhere (25 GB single layer/50 GB dual layer). Blu-ray Disc offers up to 5X the capacity of todays DVDs. Maximum picture resolution. Blu-ray Disc delivers full 1080p* video resolution to provide pristine picture quality. Best audio possible. Blu-ray Disc provides as many as 7.1 channels of native, uncompressed surround sound for crystal-clear audio entertainment. Enhanced interactivity. Enjoy such capabilities as seamless menu navigation, exciting, new bonus features, and network/Internet connectivity. Backward compatibility. Blu-ray Disc players enable you to continue to view and enjoy your existing DVD libraries. Disc robustness. Breakthroughs in hard-coating technologies enable Blu-ray Disc to offer the strongest resistance to scratches and fingerprints. Hierarchy of memory according to speed by which it can be processed by CPU CPU register Cache RAM from faster to slowest Secondary Memory

Central Processing Unit Brain of the computer Consists of ALU ( Arithmetic and Logic Unit ): responsible for performing Arithmetic and Logical Operations. Consists of CU ( Control Unit ) : tells the ALU what to do or controls the processing of computer. Consists of Registers: Internal memory of CPU to store temporary data. Also referred as Microprocessor CPU Speed The amount of data that can flow at a time determines whether the CPU is 8-bit, 16-bit or 64 bit processor. 64 bit CPU means that it can handle 64 bit word at one go. The total speed of the CPU is determined by the word length and the clock speed. Some Examples of processor and their Speed 16 bit processor- P-8086,P-8088, P1-8186,P1-8286 32 bit Processor-Intel iAPX 432, P1-80386, P1-80486, P-II, Celeron, P-III, P-IV (1.4GHz) 64 bit Processor P-IV, Intel core2, Pentium Dual Core, Core i3, Core i5, Play station 2, Xbox of Xeron 128 bit processor- Play station 3, AMD, Xbox 360 Clock Speed There are two units for measuring Clock speed. Megahertz/Gigahertz CPU is driven by pulses from a piezoelectric quartz crystal oscillator. Frequency of clock pulses is expressed in MHz or GHz Higher the clock speed larger will be the number of cycles per second and smaller the cycle time.
MIPS

( Millions of Instructions Per Second ) Single cycle is the smallest time for the processor Every instruction requires at least one or usually multiple cycles Number of cycles required to execute an instruction varies from processor to processor MIPS tell how many instructions are carried out by the CPU in one second.

CISC Architecture 1. Complex Instruction Set Computer 2. Includes multi-clock complex instructions. e.g. MULT 2:3, 5:2 3. Small code size but more clock cycles required for single instruction. 4. Memory to Memory: LOAD and STORE incorporated in instructions 5. Requires more transistors of hardware space RISC Architecture 1. Reduced Instruction Set Computer

2. Single-clock reduced instruction only. e.g. LOAD A, 2:3 LOAD B, 5:2 PROD A, B STORE 2:3, A 3. Large code sizes but each instruction requires only one clock cycle. 4. Register to Register: LOAD and STORE are independent instructions 5. Requires less transistors of hardware space. EPIC Architecture 1. multiple instructions are packed together and issued in parallel to an equal number of execution units and the task of checking that there are no unwanted dependencies between instructions that are executed in parallel belongs to the compiler rather than the processor. 2. programmer or compiler should be able to indicate the inherent parallelism of programs explicitly in the instruction sequence, rather than obliging the processor to reconstruct it from a particular sequence of serial operations 3. to move the complexity of instruction scheduling from the CPU hardware to the software compiler 4. Each group of multiple software instructions is called a bundle. Each of the bundles has a stop bit indicating if this set of operations is depended upon by the subsequent bundle. With this capability, future implementations can be built to issue multiple bundles in parallel. The dependency information is calculated by the compiler, so the hardware does not have to perform operand dependency checking. 5. The Itanium processor provided hardware manufacturers and software writers with a first development vehicle to improve performance of the system. 6. complex instructions cn run in parallel x = y + 1; z = y + x; w = u + v; as none of the instruction is dependent on each other. INPUT OUTPUT PORTS AND CONNECTORS Ports are used to connect external devices to the computer Connectors are the cables used to connect the external device to the computer through the port. Different types of Ports 1. Serial Port Transfers data serially a bit at a time. Needs only wire to transmit 8 bits. Takes longer time. Necessary to send a start bit before each byte of data and stop bit after each byte of data. Often known as communication (COM) port or RS232C port. Come in the form of 9-pin or 25-pin male connector Generally used to connect devices like keyboard and modem.

2. Parallel Port Can send or receive 8-bits at a time. Transmits data in parallel format Comes in form of 25 pin female connector Generally used to connect printers, CD writer, Hard Disk

3. USB Port It is a standardized , easy to use way to connect a variety of device Generally used for flash drives, scanners, digital cameras Now a days even used for mouse, keyboard and flash drives 4..PS/2 Port Introduced by IBM in 1987. Widely used in Personal computers Normally used for keyboard 5. Infrared Port (IR Port) Port which sends and receives infrared signals from other devices. Sends rays measured in Terahertz Involves a transceiver ( a combination of transmitter and receiver ) in both the communicating devices. Important role in wireless communications Suitable for short distance. IR is line-of-sight light transmission, sensitive to fog and atmospheric conditions E.g. used in remote controls for TV, music system, etc. 6.Bluetooth Bluetooth is a wireless protocol for exchanging data over short distances from fixed and mobile devices Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency-hopping spread spectrum Technology got its name in the honor of Harold Bluetooth, King of Denmark in the mid-tenth century.

Software
Software represents the set of program that governs the operation of computer System and the hardware run. Software can be classified as: 1. System Software a. Operating System b. Language processor or translator c. Utilities 2. Application Software a. Generalized b. Customized

Operating System :- An Operating System is a program ewich act as an interface between user and the hardware. The function of OS are:1. Memory Management: - manages the memory 2. Process Management:- manages all the processes 3. File or storage management manages file system of computer 4. Input-Output deice management- manages the input and output devices. In other words 1 OS provides the instructions to prepare user interface i.e. the way to interact with user using command (CUI character user interface) or graphic symbols (GUI- Graphic user interface). 2. OS Loads necessary programs in computer memory which are required for proper functioning 3. Coordinates how programs (into computer memory) work with input and output devices as well as other software. 4. Manage the way information is stored on and retrieved from disks. The various types of Os are:1. Single user- One user program can be supported and executed by the user at any point of time. 2. Multi-user OS- It supports multi programs by multiple users 3. Time Sharing OS- Each user is given fair share of user time. 4. Real Time OS - The job has a fixed deadline and the jobs have to be completed within the deadline and avoid deadline overrun( when job is not finished in specified time). 5. Multiprocessing OS capable of handling more than one processor as jobs have to be executed on more than one processor. 6. Batch Processing OS Jobs are done in batch or together. 7. Interactive OS GUI interface to facilitate move and easy interaction to the user. Language Processor The programs written in High Level Language (HLL) must be converted to computer understandable language i.e. Binary or Machine or Low Level Language for execution therefore, software which translates HLL to LLL is called Language Processor. Types of Language processor:1. Assembler- The language processor which converts assembly Language program to machine language. 2. Interpreter - The language processor which converts HLL program to machine language. It converts line by line and simultaneously executes it. If there is an error it reports the error and program execution stops, after rectifying the error execution starts from the beginning. Interpreter is required in memory for execution of the program. It is easy debugging tool but, once all the errors are removed it unnecessary uses the memory. The interpreted version or converted version to LLL is not stored anywhere. 3. Compiler - The language processor which converts HLL program to machine language. It checks the entire program in one go, rports ll the errors and after rectifying them it converts and store the program in machine understandable language (Object code). The program will not convert till all the errors are removed. Complier is

not required in memory for execution of the program. It is reports the errors with line no but not a easy debugging tool but, once all the errors are removed it will not unnecessarily use the memory. Application Software An Application Software is the set of program necessary to carry out operations for a specified application. Types of Application Software: 1. Customized Application Software a Tailor made software according to the users requirement. The software developed to meet the users requirement. Like a. Payroll to keep record of employees leave and generate salary slips b. Inventory control to keep record of inventory available in the factory or store, how much is issued , how much we need to procure c. Hotel Management- to keep records to rooms and guest, which room is allocated, room rent, facilities availed etc generate bill d. Banking to keep records of account holders, their transaction like deposit and withdraw, generate monthly slip, and other reports. e. Financial Management- Managing financial statement of organization and generate reports like trial and balance sheet, ledger etc. f. Reservation to keep records of passengers and flight/ train, generate reports like ticket, cancellation slip, travel sheet etc. g. Weather Forecasting System- to forecast and predict weather as well generate various weather related report. 2. Generalized software Software designed and developed keeping in mind the general requirement for carring out a specific task. Many user can use them to cater their needs. It is of 2 types:a. Packagesb. Utilities