Motor Control

Motor Control

Contents

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M E V & S O S L M IL K S

N E

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Movement Movement is a critical aspect of life. Life would not be possible without the capacity to move. WHAT IS MOVEMENT ??

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Types of Movements
Movements

Inherited or Self-Differentiated
Genetically defined Eg: Ones control over their limbs

Learned
Not inherited and mastering them requires long periods and experience. Eg: Operating a typewriter

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SKILLS Learned Movements are termed as Skill Movements. Guthrie: Skill consists in the ability to bring about some end result with maximum certainty and minimum outlay of energy, or time and energy. Classification of Skill:
Depending on size of musculature required Depending on specificity of where actions begin & end Depending on stability of the environment context

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Size of primary Musculature Required

Primary Gross Motor Skills MusculatureMotor Skills Fine required = Large & Small

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Specificity of where actions begin & end

1
Continuous Motor Skills

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Serial Motor Skills

3
Discrete Motor Skills

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Stability of Environment Context

Open Motor Skill

Closed Motor Skill

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Factors Constraining Movement

Mobility

T I
Cognition

Ma

E
Regulatory

ni p

ul a

tio n

Sta bi l ity

pti rce Pe on

Ac tio n

Non Regulatory

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U V F R O O O L L E T O O TR M N O C

IO T

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Evolution of Motor Control Emerged from two isolated bodies of knowledge:

Branch of Neurophysiology (neural processes associated with Movements but not movements itself) Branch of Psychology & related fields (Concerned with high level skills with little reference to neurological mechanisms)

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Evolution of Motor Control Around 1820: Bessel (Astronomer)

Process underlying differences among his colleagues in recording the transit times of the movements of stars.

1882: Bowditch & Southard

Studying hand movements in localizing targets

1892: Fullerton & Cattell

Examined force reproducibility

1899: Woodworth
Fundamental principles of rapid arm & hand movements

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Evolution of Motor Control During middle and late 1800s:

Memory for movements Speed-Accuracy Trade-Offs Phase Transitions in Bimanual Movements

1914: Thorndike
Processes underlying learning skills & other behaviors Law of Effect (Responses followed by reward tend to repeat) Differences among individuals over practice

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Evolution of Motor Control 1935 - 1940: Bayley, McGraw & others

Started studying the area now known as Motor Development

1892 1895: Blix and Weber

Identified Characteristics & Contractile properties of muscle tissue

1870s: Jackson
Investigations of neural control of movement

These contributions lead to evolution of Physiological or Neural bases of Movement

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Evolution of Motor Control 1870: Fritsch & Hitzig

Brain is electrically excitable and lead to development of electrophysiological techniques

1888: Ferrier
Investigated responses in the cortex to artificial movements

1887, 1890: Beevor & Horsely

Sensory & Motor areas of Brain

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Evolution of Motor Control Contribution by Sherrington

Studied & classified major responses to stimuli presented to extremities
Voluntary movements resulted from these fundamental reflexes

Reciprocal Innervation: When flexors of a joint are activated, the extensors tend to be automatically deactivated, and vice versa.
Golgi Tendon Organ: Signal changes in muscle tension Muscle Spindle: Perception of muscle length & hence joint position

Proprioception: Sense of body position & orientation thought to be signaled by various muscle & joint receptors together with receptors located in the inner ear.

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Evolution of Motor Control 1943: Hull

Theories of Learning How fatigue and recovery processes combined to determine learning of motor skills

1948: Craik
Brain works as a computer (Information is received, processed and then output to environment in the form of actions of limbs) Central Tendency: Humans responds in discrete bursts rather than continuous

1949: Wiener
Information Processing Theory

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Evolution of Motor Control 1954: Fitts

Fittss Law: Model of human movement which predicts the time required to rapidly move to a target area, as a function of the distance to the target and the size of the target

1970s:
North American Society for the Psychology of Sport & Physical Activity (NASPSPA) Canadian Society for Psycho-Motor Learning & Sport Psychology

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Motor Control Today 1967: Neisser

Stimulus-Response Theory:

1970 1989: Pew, Schmidt

Transition from Task Orientation to Process Orientation
Task orientation focuses primarily on the effects of variables on the performance of certain motor task Process orientation focuses on the underlying mental or neural events that support or produce movements

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Motor Control Today 1966: Adams & Dijkstra, Posner & Konick
Short-term Memory which explained processes underlying memory loss in simple movements over short period of time.

1971: Adams
Feedback-based theory for motor learning

1974: Pew
Movement Schema: Abstract hypothetical structures responsible for movement control & evaluation

1975: Schmidt
Presented the Schema Theory for learning simple

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Motor Control Today After 1970s:

Merger between Neural Control & Motor Behavior Neural Mechanisms studies by experiments on animals Association between movement behaviors and neurological processes which provided more complete understanding of how movements where controlled Development of advanced techniques
Electrophysiological recordings Cinematographic & 3-D analysis Measurements of kinematics of movement Advanced methods examining involvement of brain structures in learning

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Motor Control Today Understanding of Degrees of Freedom Problem

How system with many independent parts could be controlled without need for an executive decision marker Laws and principles for coordination and degrees of freedom

1995: Kelso
Dynamic Pattern Perspective suggested that coordinated movements evolves over time as a function of interaction between body parts, and between the body parts and physical world.

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Motor Control Today

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Motor Control Today

INPUTS FROM DR. CAURAUGH

CURRE NT INSIGH TS

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O E F R H O O L T T O O TR M N O C

I R

S E

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Theories of Motor Control Theory: Is a set of concepts, propositions, or definitions that are interrelated in some ways. They are used to specify relationship among different variables so that we can obtain a systematic view of specific types of phenomena.

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Applications of Motor Control Theories

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Motor Control Theories

Most of the Motor Control Theories incorporate two basic systems of control.
Open-Loop Control System Closed- Loop Control System

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Open-Loop Motor Control System

SENSORY FEEDBACK
IN P UT

Movement Commands

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Open-Loop Motor Control System

A set of muscle commands that are structured before a movement begins that specifies a sequence to be carried out that is uninfluenced by peripheral feedback. Advantages:
The production of very fast movements in absence of feedback Feedback does not have to be processed during movements

Disadvantages:
Not effective when environmental situations are constantly changing Not good for very precise movements

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Closed-Loop Motor Control System

SENSORY FEEDBACK
IN P UT

Movement Commands

Updated Movement Commands

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Closed-Loop Motor Control System

Feedback can be used not only to plan and initiate movements but also to adjust progress in an ongoing movement. Advantages:
Allows for a great deal of movement flexibility Can be used to produce very accurate movements

Disadvantages:
Execution of corrections tends to be attention demanding Very time demanding so not applicable to open, reactive sport situations.

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Application of Open & Closed Loop Systems

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Motor Control Theories Reflex Theory Ecological Theory Hierarchical Theory Motor Programming Theories System Theory Dynamical Action Theory

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Reflex Theory Charles Sherrington (Neurophysiologist) Reflexes are the building blocks (fundamental units) of Motor Control. Reflexes worked together or in sequence to achieve a common purpose. Physical events occurring in the environment served as the STIMULUS for action, triggering chain of individual reflex circuits that were responsible for producing a movement RESPONSE.

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Reflex Theory Reflex requires three basic structures:

Receptor
Sensory receptors in skin, muscles & joints and other sensory systems

Conducting nervous pathway

Afferent Nervous Pathway
Carries impulses from receptors towards the CNS

Efferent Nervous Pathway

Carries impulses away from CNS to effector organs

Effector Organs
Muscles

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Reflex Theory

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Reflex Theory Sherrington concluded that with the whole nervous system intact, the reaction of the various parts of that system, the simple reflexes, are combined into greater actions that constitute the behavior of the individual as a whole.
Stimulus Response Response

Reflex Chaining:
A stimulus leads to a response, which becomes the stimulus for the next response, which becomes the stimulus for the next response.

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Clinical Implications of Reflex Theory If chained or compounded reflexes are the basis for the functional movement, clinical strategies designed to test reflexes should allow therapists to predict function. Patients movement behaviors would be interpreted in terms of presence or absence of controlling reflexes. Retraining motor control for functional skills would focus on enhancing or reducing the effect of various reflexes during motor tasks.

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Limitations of Reflex Theory

Reflex must be activated by an outside agent, theory cannot explain voluntary or spontaneous movement. Cannot explain movement that occurs in the absence of a sensory stimulus. Cannot explain movements that occur too rapidly. Fails to explain that a single stimulus can result in varying responses depending on context and descending commands. Does not explain the ability to produce novel movements.

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Ecological Theory James Gibson (1966 - Psychologist) How motor systems allow us to interact most effectively with the environment to perform goal-directed behavior Motor Control evolved so that animals could cope with the environment around them, moving in it effectively to find food, run away from predators, build shelter, and even play.

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Ecological Theory
ENVIRONMENT

ENVIRONMENT

ENVIRONMENT

INDIVIDUAL

ENVIRONMENT

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Ecological Theory Actions require perceptual information that is specific to desired goal-directed action performed within a specific environment. The organization of action is specific to the task and the environment in which the task is being performed.

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Ecological Theory
Sensations

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Ecological Theory Perception focuses on detecting information in the environment that will support the actions necessary to achieve the goal. From ecological perspective, it is important to determine how an organism detects information in the environment that is relevant to action, what form this information takes, and how this information is used to modify and control movement.

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Clinical Implications Ecological Theory Describes individual as an active explorer of the environment which allows individual to develop multiple ways to accomplish a task. This may help patients to explore more and find different options to execute particular task and then analyze the most suitable and efficient way.

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Limitations of Ecological Theory Inability of the theory to explain the organization and function of the nervous system, which led to this interaction between the individual and the environment.

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Hierarchical Theory
Hughlings Jackson (Physician)
Organizational control which is TOP DOWN The Nervous System is controlled so that the higher centers control and influence lower centers on a strictly hierarchical basis.

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Hierarchical Theory Rudolf Magnus

Reflexes are part of hierarchy of motor control, in which higher centers inhibit these lower reflex centers.

Georg Schaltenbrand
Described development of mobility in terms of appearance and disappearance of a progression of hierarchically organized reflexes. Pathology of brain may result in persistence of primitive lower level reflexes. Understanding of reflexes would allow, determination of neural age of a child or a patient with motor control dysfunction.

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Hierarchical Theory Stephan Weisz Hierarchically organized reflex reactions (basis for equilibrium in humans) Explained the relationship between the maturation of equilibrium reflexes and the childs ability to sit, stand and walk.

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Hierarchical Theory Arnold Gesell & Myrtle McGraw Neuromaturational Theory

Attributes normal motor development to increasing corticalization of the CNS Assumes that CNS maturation is the primary agent for the change in development.

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Hierarchical Theory Example: Reaching

The component parts of the stored movement program in the brain are activated; These exert either a facilitatory or inhibitory influence on spinal neurons & interneuron's via corticospinal pathways Neuromuscular activity is initiated to complete the task Once the movement has been learnt it can be performed without the need for peripheral feedback.

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Clinical Implication of Hierarchical Theory

Reflex assessment profiles are used to estimate the level of neural maturation and predict functional ability.
When influence of higher centres is temporarily or permanently interfered with, normal reflexes become exaggerated and so called pathological reflexes appear. (Brunnstrom) Release of motor responses integrated at lower levels from restraining influences of higher centres, especially that of the cortex, leads to abnormal postural reflex activity. (Bobath)

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Limitation of Hierarchical Theory

Cannot explain dominance of reflex behavior in certain situations in adults.

Eg: Stepping on pins results in immediate withdrawal of the leg. Reflex within the lowest level of the hierarchy dominating motor function. (BOTTOM UP CONTROL) All low-level behaviors are primitive, immature and non-adaptive. Higher level (cortical) behaviors are mature, adaptive and appropriate.

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Motor Programming Theories Wilson, Grillner, Taub Can have patterned motor response with or without sensory stimulus Explanation based on Physiology of Actions rather than Physiology of Reactions

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Motor Programming Theories

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Motor Programming Theories Experimental Evidences in support for these theories

Grasshopper or Locust experiment
Wing beat in flight depended on rhythmic pattern generator Absence of sensory nerves nervous system by itself generated the movements but were slowed Hence, sensory inputs are not essential in driving the movements but has important function in modulating the actions.

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Motor Programming Theories Experimental Evidences in support for these theories

Locomotion in cats experiment
Without sensory inputs or descending patterns from brain also rhythmic locomotor actions can be produced by the spinal neural networks Reflexes do not drive the action, but the central pattern generators (spinally mediated motor programs) by themselves can generate complex movements.

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Motor Programming Theories Motor Program two meanings

Central pattern generator (CPG)- specific neural circuit in spinal cord
Neural networks that can endogenously (i.e. without rhythmic sensory or central input) produce rhythmic patterned outputs or as neural circuits that generate periodic motor commands for rhythmic movements such as locomotion

Motor program stored rules for generating movements so that we can perform the tasks with a variety of effector systems; prestructured set of motor commands

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Motor Programming Theories Central pattern generator (CPG)

To be classified as a rhythmic generator, a CPG requires:
Two or more processes that interact such that each process sequentially increases and decreases As a result of this interaction, the system repeatedly returns to its starting condition.

Three roles of modulation have been found for CPG circuits:

Modulation in CPG as Part of Normal Activity Modulation Changes the Functional Configuration of CPGs to Produce Different Motor Outputs Modulation Alters CPG Neuron Complement by Switching Neurons Between Networks and Fusing Formerly Separate Networks into Larger Entities

Functions in vertebrate animals:

Movement Breathing Rhythm Generation and other Oscillatory Functions

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Motor Programming Theories Central Pattern Generator (CPG)

Grillner, 1975 - inherited system for patterned movements
e.g. locomotion, chewing Initiated by a triggering stimulus Centrally organized No need for sensory input Primarily dealing with alternating repetitive movements

Central pattern generator (CPG) vs. motor program:

CPG = genetically predetermined activities Motor program = learned activities

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Clinical Implications of Motor Programming Theories

If higher levels of motor programming are not affected, can use alternate effectors. If cortex is damaged, you have to reteach the rules.
Intervention should focus on retraining movements important to a functional task, not just on reeducating specific muscles in isolation

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Limitations of Motor Programming Theories

CPG- expansion of knowledge of flexibility of the nervous system in creating movements, does not explain sensory input importance Motor program concept does not take into account musculoskeletal system and environmental variables.

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Systems Theory Nicolai Bernstein (Russian Scientist) Output of Nervous System as filtered through a mechanical system, the body.
Taken into account different factors like, mass, forces such as gravity and internal forces including both inertial & Movement-dependent forces.

Same central commands could result in quite different movements because of the interplay between external forces and variations in the initial conditions.

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Systems Theory Control of integrated movement is probably distributed throughout many interacting systems working cooperatively to achieve movement. (Distributed Model of Motor Control) Coordination of movement is a process of mastering the redundant degrees of freedom.

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Systems Theory

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Clinical Implications of Systems Theory Need to assess CNS deficits as well as Musculoskeletal System Examination and intervention must focus not only on the impairments within individual systems contributing to motor control, but the effect of interacting impairments among multiple systems.

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Limitations of Systems Theory Systems theory does not focus on the interaction of the organism with the environment. Difficult to relate theoretical components to neuro-anatomy. Model is abstract.

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Information Processing Theory Information processing theorists proposed that like the computer, the human mind is a system that processes information through the application of logical rules and strategies. Like the computer, the mind has a limited capacity for the amount and nature of the information it can process.

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Information Processing Theory Computer can be made into a better information processor by changes
in its hardware (e.g., circuit boards and microchips) its software (programming)

Humans become more sophisticated thinkers through changes

in their brains and sensory systems (hardware) in the rules and strategies (software) that they learn.

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Information Processing Theory

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Information Processing Theory

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Information Processing Theory Sensory Register

Capacity
Very large

Duration
0.5 to 3 seconds

Contents
Information perceived by the sensory receptors (encoded as perceived)

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Information Processing Theory

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Information Processing Theory Sensory Register & its Control Processes

Recognition
Noting key features of a stimulus and relating them to already stored information

Attention
Selective focusing on a portion of the information currently stored in the sensory register

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Information Processing Theory

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Information Processing Theory Short Term Memory

Capacity
7 +/- 2 chunks of information

Duration
20 to 30 seconds

Contents
What you are currently thinking about (information from the sensory register and information from long term memory)

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Information Processing Theory

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Information Processing Theory Short Term Memory & its Control Processes
Rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal
Repeating information over and over again; no effect on long-term memory storage

Elaborative rehearsal
Relating new information to knowledge already stored in long-term memory

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Information Processing Theory

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Information Processing Theory Long Term Memory

Capacity
Unlimited

Duration
Permanent, long-term

Contents
Schemata
In general is a specific, well-documented, and consistent plan. In psychology and cognitive science, is a mental structure that represents some aspect of the world. People use schemata to organize current knowledge and provide a framework for future understanding.

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Information Processing Theory

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Information Processing Theory

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Information Processing Theory

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Information Processing Theory

Information / Data

S E N S O R Y R E G I S T E R S

eyes, ears, nose, mouth, skin

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Information Processing Theory

Information / Data

S E N S O R Y R E G I S T E R S

Short-term store Infinite data are briefly maintained (0.5 3.0 seconds) for preliminary analysis.

some info is selected for short term memory

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Information Processing Theory

Information / Data

S E N S O R Y R E G I S T E R S

Short-term store Infinite data are briefly maintained (0.5 2.0 seconds) for preliminary analysis.

Short-term (working) memory (A limited amount of data is maintained for approximately 20 seconds.

some info is transferred to working memory

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Information Processing Theory

even less passes on to long term memory to storage
S E N S O R Y R E G I S T E R S

Information / Data

Short-term store Infinite data are briefly maintained (0.5 2.0 seconds) for preliminary analysis.

Short-term (working) memory (A limited amount of data is maintained for approximately 20 seconds.

Long-Term memory. Transformed or coded data become part of the knowledge system.

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Information Processing Theory

some info is lost
S E N S O R Y R E G I S T E R S

Information / Data

Short-term store Infinite data are briefly maintained (0.5 2.0 seconds) for preliminary analysis.

Short-term (working) memory (A limited amount of data is maintained for approximately 20 seconds.

Long-Term memory. Transformed or coded data become part of the knowledge system.

Datalostfromthesystem

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Information Processing Theory

metacognitive processes control the whole process EX EC UT IV E CON TR OL PR OCESSE S
S E N S O R Y R E G I S T E R S

Information / Data

Short-term store Infinite data are briefly maintained (0.5 2.0 seconds) for preliminary analysis.

Short-term (working) memory (A limited amount of data is maintained for approximately 20 seconds.

Long-Term memory. Transformed or coded data become part of the knowledge system.

Datalostfromthesystem

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QUESTIONS!!!

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