Manual de Instalacion de Motores Marinos Cat
Manual de Instalacion de Motores Marinos Cat
Manual de Instalacion de Motores Marinos Cat
LEKM7142 Engine Performance & Boat Performance LEKM7143 Driveline/Mounting/Alignment/Auxiliary LEKM7144 Control Systems/Instrumentation and Monitoring Systems/Starting Systems/ Start-up Systems/Serviceability LEKM7145 Cooling Systems LEKM7146 Ventilation & Exhaust System LEKM7147 Lubrication Systems & Fuel Systems LEKM7148 Dredge Engines
Engine Performance
Application Guidelines Rates Performance Curve Format Engine Configuration Effects on Ratings Auxiliary Engine Ratings
Application Guidelines
Knowledge of the engines operating requirements is essential to establish a proper match of engine rating to boat operating requirements. To help determine the acceptability of a rating for a particular boats application, the following parameters should be considered: 1. Time at full throttle 2. Annual operating hours 3. Propeller match
Intermittent C Rating
For use in yachts with displacement hulls as well as ferries with trips of less than one hour, fishing boats moving at higher speed out and back (e.g. lobster, crayfish, and tuna), and short trip coastal freighters where engine load and speed are cyclical. Full power operation to be limited to 50% of operation time. Expected usage should be from 2000 to 4000 hours per year.
Propeller Match
The propeller must be sized to allow the engine to operate slightly above rated rpm under the boats most severe load conditions: full fuel and water tanks, stores aboard for extended voyaging, and adverse sea conditions.
Ratings
Ratings are statements of the engines power and speed capability under specified load conditions. The Caterpillar rating system simply matches engines to particular applications. It consists of the following standard ratings.
Rating Conditions
Ratings are based on SAE J1128/ISO 8665 standard ambient conditions of 100 kPa (29.61 in. of Hg) and 25C (77F). Ratings also apply at AS1501, BS5514, DIN6271 and ISO 3046/1 standard conditions of 100 kPa (29.61 in. of Hg), 27C (81F) and 60% relative humidity.
*Clock hours are the same as Service Meter Units on all Caterpillar Engines using electric service meters. Some Caterpillar Engines (D399, D398, D379 and earlier engines) used service meters which counted engine revolutions. One service meter unit on those engines, corresponds to a clock hour only when the engine is operating at rated speed (rpm). The ratio between clock hours and service meter units is proportional to engine speed.
Continuous A Rating
For heavy-duty service in ocean-going displacement hulls such as freighters, tugboats, bottom-drag trawlers, and deep river towboats when the engine is operated at rated load and speed up to 100% of the time without interruption or load cycling. Expected usage should be from 5000 to 8000 hours per year.
Power is based on a 35 API [16C (60F)] fuel having a LHV of 42,780 kJ/kg (18,390 B/lb) used at 29C (85F) with a density of 838.9 g/L (7.001 lb/U.S. gal). Ratings are gross output ratings: i.e., total output capability of the engine equipped with standard accessories: lube oil, fuel oil and jacket water pumps. Power to drive auxiliaries must be deducted from the gross output to arrive at the net power available for the external (flywheel) load. Typical auxiliaries include cooling fans, air compressors, charging alternators, marine gears, and sea water pumps.
Output B
Output B is defined as the maximum useful output that the engine can deliver for a definite time limit corresponding to the engine application. The fuel setting is pre-set such that output B cannot be exceeded, so no overload capability need be demonstrated. On the basis of this definition, we can offer two output B ratings with kW values corresponding to Caterpillars Medium Duty B Rating or Caterpillars Intermittent C Rating. In each case, it is mandatory that reference be made to the applicable rating definitions.
General Comments
DIN 6270 conditions are slightly different from the SAE conditions used in the U.S. We believe that they are virtually equivalent for all practical purposes. No correction to ratings should be made to account for the slightly different reference conditions. Useful output as described under DIN 6270 is defined as the output available to drive the load after suitable deductions are made for engine driven accessories. This is equivalent to the net rating. Caterpillar ratings indicate gross output. At the kW requirement to drive such accessories as charging alternator and sea water pump are low and well within our rating tolerance, no deductions for main propulsion engine driven accessory loads need to be made.
Continuous Output A
This is the published Caterpillar Continuous A Rating rating in kW units. No additional reference is necessary*.
* A condition in the Continuous Output A definition is that the output limiting device must be set to provide a margin of extra capacity. This overload capability can be demonstrated, if required, by increasing the fuel setting from the factory-set continuous output value to the value corresponding to our B rating level. With a few exceptions, this increased fuel setting will correspond to an overload capability of approximately 10%. The propeller should be sized for the continuous rating with the appropriate safety margins the Technical Marketing Information File (TMI). The fuel setting must be readjusted to the name-plate value upon completion of the demonstration test.
3406 DITA
600
DM6120-00
29 26
500
24 21
18 16 M 3,4 200 2 1 13
300
11
100 50 P 30 20 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 P 8 5 2300 2500
2100 448 208 111.1 201.3 40.9 344 88.3 1900 331 203 80.1 115.7 26.9 370 60.9 1700 237 208 58.7 63.3 18.3 399 43.4 1500 163 215 41.9 29.8 13.0 397 30.5 1300 106 221 27.9 12.0 9.7 332 20.5 1100 64 228 17.5 3.3 7.5 258 13.8 Brake Mean Effective Pressure ............................................................. 239 kPa Heat Rejection to Coolant (total) .......................................................... 1746 kW
2100 599 .342 29.4 59.6 1446 648 3121 1900 443 .334 21.2 34.2 951 697 2152 1700 317 .342 15.5 18.7 647 752 1534 1500 218 .354 11.1 8.8 459 748 1078 1300 142 .364 7.4 3.6 343 625 725 1100 86 .375 4.6 1.0 265 486 488 Brake Mean Effective Pressure ............................................................... 35 kPa Heat Rejection to Coolant (total) ........................................................ 99293 kW
400
Features of the Performance Curve: Vertical Axis [left side] . . . Graduated in units of Power [Brake kW or Brake Horsepower] Horizontal Axis . . . Graduated in units of Engine Speed [Revolutions per Minute] Curve P . . . Propeller Demand Curve, describes the power demanded by a fixed pitch propeller used in a displacement hull. Semi-displacement and planing hulls will have higher load demand than shown in the "P" curve. Each semi-displacement and planing hull has different demand, which makes it impossible to show the load demand for each hull. Semi-displacement and planing hulls will need to be sea trialed with fuel measurements taken at different engine speeds to determine actual fuel and load demand. Curve 1 . . . Continuous Limit Line, describes the upper limit of continuous operation, without interruption or load cycling. Zone 1-2 . . . Zone 1-2 is located between Curve 1 and Curve 2. It is the zone within which operation is permitted for periods up to 4 hours, followed by a one hour period at combination of power and speed on or under Line 1. Zone 2-3 . . . Zone 2-3 is located between Curve 2 and Curve 3. It is the zone within which operation is permitted for periods up to 1 hour, followed by a one hour period at combinations of power and speed on or under Line 1. Zone 3-4 . . . Zone 3-4 is located between Curve 3 and Curve 4. It is the zone within which operation is permitted for periods up to five (5) minutes, followed by a one hour period at combinations of power and speed on or under Line 1. Curve 4Maximum Limit Curve, the maximum power available within the rating development limits (cylinder pressure, turbo speed, exhaust temperature). Curve MMaximum Power Data, the maximum power capability of the engine without regard to the rating development limits.
Fuel Rate Lines . . . Parallel, slightly curving, dotted lines, with graduations on their right ends, are lines of constant fuel rate. [L/hr or gal/hr] The most efficient engine rpm to generate any given amount of power will be found directly under the high point of the fuel rate line nearest the required power. This will be most useful in those applications which can vary the engine speed at which power is extracted, such as controllable pitch propellers. The graphical representation of the engine performance is accompanied by a full set of tabular information. Included is intake manifold pressure, exhaust stack temperature, combustion air flow, exhaust gas flow, fuel rate, engine power and engine speed, and fuel efficiency for all the curves shown. Each standard rating of the engines will have its performance documented as shown above. There can be a delay of the formal version of the data in the case of new ratings or engine configurations.
Naturally Aspirated
In a naturally aspirated engine, the volume of air drawn into each cylinder is moderate, since only atmospheric pressure is forcing air through the cylinders intake valve. There is no pressurization of the engines intake manifold by an external device and engine intake manifold pressure is always a partial vacuum.
Turbocharged
Greater amounts of air can be forced into an engines cylinders by installing a turbocharger. Turbochargers are turbine-like devices which use exhaust energy (which naturally aspirated engines waste) to compress outside air and force it into the intake manifold. The increased amount of air flowing through turbocharged engines does two good things: 1. The greater flow of air cools the valves, piston crowns and cylinder walls, making them better able to resist the firing forces. 2. Fuel can be burned more efficiently, due to the increased amount of air for combustion. This makes the engine more powerful. Compression does increase the temperature of the intake air, however. It is very useful to remove the heat-of-compression from the intake air, upstream of the combustion chambers. Cooling the air before it enters the combustion chambers makes the air more dense and increases cooling of the combustion chamber components.
cools the cylinder head and block) is used in the aftercooler, then the air can only be cooled to approximately 93C (200F). Jacket water temperature is thermostatically controlled at approximately 82C (180F). Even cooler air can be obtained by cooling the aftercooler with water from a separate circuit, such as sea water or some other circuit, with colder water than the engine jacket water. Lower aftercooler water temperatures permit higher engine ratings because cooler, denser air permits burning more fuel.
Turbocharged/Aftercooled
An air-cooling heat exchanger (aftercooler) is installed between the turbocharger and the combustion chamber on Turbocharged/ Aftercooled engines. The aftercooler cools the incoming air, carrying the heat away with a flow of water. The water can come from two sources. If jacket water (the same water that
Boat Performance
Tolerances on Hull, Propeller and Engine Propeller Sizing Ducted Propellers (Kort Nozzles) Hull Types Rules of Thumb
The performance of the boat is the result of a complex interaction of all three aspects of the installation; the engine, the hull, and the propeller.
Propeller Sizing
The propeller is as important as the hull or the engine to the performance of the boat. The propeller directly influences: top speed, fuel efficiency, and engine life.
General Information
While many operators will choose to operate at reduced throttle settings while cruising, the engine must be able to reach its rated speed (rpm) when the boat is ready for sea; fully loaded with fuel, water, and stores. For the ultimate in engine life and economy, expected engine operating speeds during sea trials should be approximately 1-3% over full load rated engine speed (rpm).
Table of Engine rpm at Sea Trials
Rated Speed (rpm) 2800 2800 2400 2400 2300 2100 1925 1800 1800 Expected Engine Speed During Sea Trials (rpm) 2830-2890 2830-2890 2425-2470 2425-2470 2320-2360 2120-2160 1945-1980 1820-1850 1820-1850
20
40
3%
60
80
100
120
The engine power may be expected to vary due to manufacturing tolerance by as much as 3% on either side of its rated or 100% power. The propeller power absorption may be as much as 5% higher, or lower, than originally expected. This could result from manufacturing tolerance in pitch, surface finish, and blade profile. The hull resistance may vary as much as 20% from calculated values or previous experience due to inevitable differences in weight and shape.
Engine fuel setting adjustment Many vessel operators and shipyards want to increase the engine fuel (rack) setting when their engine does not reach rated speed during sea trials. At first glance, this seems to be the easiest and least costly remedy. However, in such a situation, this solution is incorrect, even if the engine speed (rpm) does increase to the expected rated rpm. Increasing the fuel (rack) setting will result in reduced engine life, increased wear, or in worst case, early engine failure. The vessel operators engine repair and maintenance costs will likely far exceed the cost of replacing or modifying the existing transmission or propeller. High idle adjustment Another often considered alternative is increasing high idle engine speed to the specified free running speed. This will not provide the desired results since the fuel stop is already at the maximum fuel position, and an increase in high idle will not result in any appreciable speed change. Properly sized propeller and/or reduction ratio The correct, but more costly, remedy is to install a properly matched propeller and/or transmission ratio to allow the engine to operate within its rating guidelines. Avoiding driveline component changes There is another alternative which we will consider in cases where driveline component changes cannot or will not be considered. This method consists of a reduction of both the engine fuel setting and the high idle speed. Of course, the engine power and rated speed are reduced in the process; however, we are taking advantage of the fact that the propellers power demand drops off much faster than the engine power capability when engine and propeller speed is reduced(refer to Figure 2.2).
Marine Engine Performance Curve 3412 TA (388 kw (520 hp) at 1800 rpm) 500
400 hp Capability 300 Propeller hp Demand 200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 Engine Speed (rpm) Figure 2.2
The net result is that the engine will perform within its application limits and the engine/propeller match have been optimized. The following formula generally applies for a standard fixed pitch propeller:
hp1 = hp2 N1 N2
3
Where:
hp1 = Engine power produced at the full throttle speed recorded during the sea trial. This power level is determined by referring to the appropriate marine engine performance curve corresponding to the original engine rating sold by the dealer and reading the power on the curve at the recorded speed. hp2 = Calculated propeller power demand at the new reduced engine speed (rpm) proposed for this application. N1 = Engine speed (rpm) observed and recorded during the original sea trial prior to fuel setting and high idle modifications. (This speed should always be measured with a precision tachometer.) N2 = New, reduced engine speed (rpm) which must be determined in order to provide an acceptable engine, transmission, and propeller match.
10
For example: Consider a 3408B DITA engine, sold at a continuous rating of 365 hp at 1800 rpm; During the sea trial, the maximum attainable engine speed was only 1620 rpm. This engine was operating in an unacceptable overload (or lug) condition. The Marine Engine Performance Curve (for a continuous rating of 272 kw (365 hp) at 1800 rpm) indicates that the engine was producing (and the propeller was demanding) 344 hp at the limited speed of 1620 rpm. This power requirement exceeds the approved continuous rating of 330 hp at 1620 rpm. The solution is to further reduce the rpm until the approved engine rating, as shown on the 3408B marine engine rating curve, exceeds the propeller demand. For this example we will calculate the power required if the rated engine rpm was reduced to 1550.
hp2 = 334 x 1550 1620
3
P present = pitch of the propeller which is preventing the engine from reaching its rated rpm Engine rpm while overloaded = engine rpm under normal working conditions when equipped with the propeller whose pitch is too great Rated Engine rpm = appropriate engine rpm found on applicable engine specification sheet
= 301 hp
Reducing the engine speed by 70 rpm has resulted in a decrease in propeller demand of 43 hp. The approved engine continuous rating at 1550 rpm is 314 hp and the propeller demand has been reduced to 301 hp. At the initial trials, the recorded vessel speed was 10.2 knots for this 21 m long seiner. Resetting the engine from 344 hp @ 1620 rpm to 314 hp @ 1550 rpm would decrease the vessel speed to 9.7 knots, a relatively insignificant difference, especially considering the gain in engine life.
P present
Where:
P required = pitch the propeller must have to allow the engine to run at rated rpm
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Pitch Blocks
Pitch blocks are precisely shaped anvils, against which individual propeller blades are hammered to repair or correct their shape. They can be used to measure propellers by comparing the shape of an unknown propeller to a set of incremental pitch blocks until a match is found.
Angle-Measuring Type
Angle-Measuring Devices relate the angle of a circumferential line on the blade to a horizontal reference plane and calculate the pitch from the angle and the radial position. Caterpillar markets an angle-measuring pitch measuring toolPart Number 8T5322.
Figure 2.3
This machine reaches down from a horizontally mounted swing arm and touches the blade at several radial locations, at some standard increments of angle. The difference in elevation, the radial position, and the angular increment between readings allow pitch to be calculated between any two locations. The accuracy of this device is related to the rigidity of the swing arm and the degree of looseness in the required bearings. The potential accuracy of the propellers measured will be directly proportional to the number of measurements on each blade (places at which it touches each blade). For commercial (workboat) propellers, it is common to examine the blade at six (6) to nine (9) places per blade. On high-performance civilian propellers, it is common to examine each blade at twenty-five (25) to fifty (50) places while military propellers may be examined at several hundred places per blade. The skill of the
12
Where:
Bp srpm shp Va = Basic Propeller Design Variable = Propeller Shaft Speed (rpm) = Shaft Horsepower (shp) = Velocity of Advance of the Propeller (knots) generally equals 0.7 to 0.9 times boat speed
comfort, and eye appeal, but has little impact on the propulsion machinery. There are two basic types of hulls: Displacement Hulls and Planing Hulls. There are also some special types of hulls. These include the Semi-Displacement Hull, Catamaran, Wave-Piercing Catamaran, Hydrofoil, Surface Effects Ship (with both flexible skirts and rigid sidewalls), and the Small-Waterplane-Area-Twin-Hull (SWATH) Ship.
Displacement Hull
A displacement hull can be described in most basic terms as a block, with tapered ends.
Figure 2.4
To illustrate the basic shapes this allows, five blocks in what are rearranged to form four simple, but fundamental forms which cover most all displacement hull forms.
3 4 5
These are actual figures for a 1491 kW (2000 hp) installation with 2007 mm (79 inch) diameter propellers. A larger diameter open propeller would show up somewhat better, though not as good as the nozzles. More specific information on ducted propeller systems generally can be obtained from propeller manufacturers, many of which also manufacture propeller ducts.
Figure 2.5
Keep in mind that this discussion concerns only the portion of the hull below the waterline and that the blocks represent only the submerged part of the hull. When any one of the hulls shown above moves through the water, waves are formed. The bow pushes the water aside, forming a bow wave. The momentum imparted to the water carries it beyond the boundaries of the
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Hull Types
All hull types discussed here refer only to the portion of the hull below the waterline. What is above the waterline concerns seaworthiness, seakindliness, stability,
hull, leaving a hollow behind it. The wave surges back, into the hollow. At slow speeds, this causes the return surge to bounce off the hull, starting the familiar diverging pattern of troughs and crests originating with the bow wave.
own bow wave. For example, the last 10% of a displacement hulls top speed costs 27% of its engine power (and fuel consumption).
When the bow wave length is equal to the hull length, the speed length ratio formula can be expressed as follows:
4.5 (Hull Length meters) = (Boat Speed km/hr) or 1.34 (Hull Length feet) = (Boat Speed knots)
Planing Hull
The planing hull skims over the surface of the water with relatively little disturbance of the water. The main resistance to planing hull speed is the skin friction. Hulls of this type are very sensitive to the smoothness of the hull, making good hull maintenance essential for top performance. Planing hulls are very sensitive to boat weight.
Figure 2.6
Semi-Displacement Hull
The semi-displacement hull looks very much like the planing hull and is easily mistaken for the planing hull. Semi-displacement hulls can be described as having characteristics of both planing and displacement hulls, but are not one or the other. Displacement hulls have trouble with speed length ratios above 4.5 (1.34) due to their hull shape. The planing hulls have difficulties below speed length ratios of approximately 8.4 (2.5) because of their straight fore-and-aft lines.
Figure 2.7
Semi-displacement hulls are designed to operate well in this speed range. Semi-displacement hulls are characterized by the angle of the quarter-beam afterbody buttock line. Visualize a pair of vertical, parallel planes intersecting the hull midway from the longitudinal center of the hull to the waterline at the side of the boat. The intersection of the planes with the bottom of the hull near the stern form the quarterbeam afterbody buttock line (there are two, one on each side, but they have the same shape). The angle of the quarter-beam buttock line is formed between it and a line parallel to the at-rest waterline, fig. 2.8.
C L 1/4 W.L. Beam
If the angle of the quarter-beam buttock line is very small (less than 2 degrees), the hull is capable of planing performance. At an angle of 4 degrees, the limiting speed length ratio will be around 2.0. An angle of 7 degrees will limit the speed to speed length ratios of 1.5, or just above displacement hull speeds. These angles should be measured relative to the hulls waterline at rest.
Rules of Thumb
Power to Reach Hull Speed
A useful rule of thumb for vessels below 100 tons displacement is: Power to Reach Hull Speed horsepower = 5 x [Displacement long tons]
Fuel Consumption
A useful rule of thumb for basic budgetary purposes is: Fuel Consumption = 1 Liter per hour per 5 horsepower.
Figure 2.8
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Driveline
Screw Propeller Drivelines Jet Drive Torsional Vibration Driveline Couplings
Drivelines can be subdivided into two groups, depending on how the thrust forces driving the hull are created. Screw propeller drivelines have a propeller converting engine power to thrust outside the hull. The thrust forces are generated on the propeller and transmitted to the hull through the propeller shafting and marine transmission. * Jet drives have engine driven water pumps, either within the hull or bolted rigidly to it, which accelerate large flows of water. The thrust of the water leaving the pump propels the hull. The thrust forces are applied to the hull through the pump housing.
9 10 8 7 6 4 5 3 2 1
DRIVELINE COMPONENTS CENTERLINE MOUNTED THROUGH STERN POST 1. Shaft companion flange 2. Intermediate shaft 3. Shaft bearing pillow block, expansion type 4. Flange type shaft coupling 5. Tail shaft Figure 1.1 6. Stuffing box may or may not contain bearing 7. Stern tube one end threaded, the other slip fit 8. Stern bearing 9. Propeller 10. Retaining nut
apart to permit the shaft to conform to the hulls flexing. For this reason, shafting should be designed for the thrust and torque forces applied. Since the tail shaft is more subject to damage from a propellers contact with submerged objects, it should
Figure 1.2
be strengthened for this purpose. The following nomograms will serve as a guide for shaft sizes and bearing spacing for commonly used shaft materials consistent with good marine practice.
1 2
5 10 20
1.5
2 2.5 3
Tailshafts for heavy duty service should be increased by adding 1% of the propeller diameter to the basic shaft diameter.
50 100 200
4 5 6 Mild steel, read directly. Tobin bronze, multiply by 1.05. Monel, multiply by 0.88.
500 1000
7 8 9 10
Example 1 Condition Select bronze propeller shaft for engine with Intermittent rating of 315 hp @ 2000. Reduction ratio, 2:1. Propeller diameter, 32 inches. Light duty operation. Solution Intermittent hp = 315 Propeller rpm = 2000 = 1000 2 315 = 31.5 hp per 100 rpm = 10.00 Basic shaft diameter = 2.75 in. Bronze shaft diameter = 2.75 x 1.05 = 2.88 in.
Example 2 Condition Select steel intermediate shaft and bronze tailshaft for heavy duty service. Engine develops 300 continuous hp@ 1800 rpm. Reduction ratio, 4.5:1. Propeller diameter, 54 inches. Solution Continuous hp = 300 Propeller rpm = 1800 = 400 4.5 300 hp per 100 rpm = = 75 4.00
Basic shaft diameter = 3.64 in. Steel intermediate shaft = 3.64 x 0.95 = 3.46 in. NOTE: Round off shaft diameter to nearest larger Bronze tailshaft = (3.64 x 1.05) + (54 x .01) standard size. = 3.82 + 0.54 = 4.36 in.
Figure 1.3 10
BEARING SPACING
4000
20
15
40
2000
30
10 9 8 7
1000
20 6 Phos. Bz 5
Space bearings rule a line from shaft in second line scale to modulus in fourth scale (26 for Monel). Then rule a line from point of
intersection on center scale to connect propeller rpm on left scale and extend the line to right scale.
Vee Drives
In Vee Drives, the propeller shafting is in two sections. The first section of shafting is from the propeller to a Vee drive unit. The Vee drive unit is a bevel-gear box which allows the shafting to change directions. The Vee drive unit accepts full propeller thrust, transmitting the thrust to the hull through its mounting feet. The second section of shafting turns sharply backward from the Vee drive unit to the engine. The engine is generally mounted as far to the rear of the boat as possible, with its flywheel end facing toward the bow of the boat.
There are a number of advantages of the Vee drive layout: The engine is located at the extreme rear of the boat, taking minimal usable space within the hull. Because the shafting between the engine and the Vee drive unit is not loaded with propeller thrust forces, that section of shaft can include universal joints or other soft couplings. The driveline softness allows use of soft engine mounts, resulting in a very quiet installation. Disadvantage of the Vee drive arrangement: The engine center of gravity is relatively high. It is further aft than conventional inline drivelines. This reduces stability and adversely affects hull balance.
Z Drive
The Z drive is a drive arrangement where the engine is connected to a right angle gear unit. A vertical drive shaft leads down through the hull to a submerged, second right angle gear unit. The lower right angle gear drives the propeller through a short length of horizontal drive shaft. The engine may face either fore or aft. Transverse engine orientations are not recommended.*
*The rolling of the boat can shorten the life of the crankshaft thrust bearings. When the boat rolls, the crankshaft will slide back and forth, hammering on its thrust bearings. If the engine is running, the motion will be dampened by the engines oil film. If the engine is not running, the oil film is not present to protect the thrust bearing.
Stern Drives
The stern drive is a drive arrangement wherein the engine is connected to a reverse-reduction unit (to provide the
reversing capability) which drives two right angle gear sets (through a double universal joining shaft) and a propeller. The engine flywheel faces aft.
Figure 1.6
5
Jet Drive
Definition of Jet Drive
The boat is propelled by the acceleration of a flow of water, picked up from the bottom of the hull through an inlet grill and forced out through a nozzle mounted in the stern of the boat. The water flow is powered by an engine driven pump. The pump impeller is driven through a clutched reduction unit or direct from the engine flywheel to a universal joint shaft.
Torsional Vibration
Definition
Torsional vibration is cyclic irregularity of rotation in a shafting system. It is caused by engine combustion pulses, reciprocating motion and the propeller. As shafts in the system rotate, both the input torque (as each cylinder fires) and the resistance to rotation (caused by the propeller) varies. The torque variation is natural and unavoidable. It is only dangerous when uncontrolled.
Figure 1.7 Jet Drive
Any shaft rotating with a mass attached to each end is capable of torsional vibration if there is any irregularity in the rotation of either mass. Rotation originates with the power stroke of the piston.
The simplified drivetrain below illustrates the relationship of shaft diameter, length and inertia of the natural frequency of the system.
Conducted at the design stage of a project, the mathematical torsional analysis may reveal torsional vibration problems which can be avoided by modification of driven equipment, shafts, masses or couplings.
Figure 1.8
6. WR2 or principal dimensions of each rotating mass and location of mass on attached shaft. 7. Torsional rigidity and minimum shaft diameter, or detailed dimensions of all shafting in the driven system, whether separately mounted or installed in a housing.
*WR2 is a Polar Moment of inertia. It is the way we quantify the tendency of an object to resist changing its rotational speed. A flywheel is an object specifically designed to have a high polar moment of inertia. If its metal were concentrated near its hub, it would have a much lower polar moment of inertia, yet would have the same weight.
8. If a reciprocating compressor is utilized, a harmonic analysis of the compressor torque curve under various load conditions is required. If this is not available, then a torque curve of the compressor under each load condition is required. The WR2 of the available flywheels for the compressor should be submitted 9. The ratio of the speed reducer or increaser is required. The WR2 and rigidity that is submitted for a speed reducer or increaser should state whether or not they have been adjusted by the speed ratio squared 10. The WR2 and number of blades on the propeller.
Driveline Couplings
There are two types of driveline couplings: Rigid and soft couplings.
Rigid Couplings
Rigid shaft couplings may be classified by the method of attaching the shaft to the coupling.
Q-Cotter Pin T
N W E L J
MIN
Figure 1.9
H G
1 32
C Y A
/ "x45 P Drill M K B D
R rad
Y Sec Y-Y
Figure 1.10
Figure 1.10
.9985 1.000 1.123 1.248 1.248 1.373 1.373 1.498 1.498 1.748 1.125 1.250 1.250 1.375 1.375 0.500 1.500 1.750
*6 in. through 8 in. bore uses 1 in./ft taper. 1/12 in. per taper. Angle with centerline 2 23 ft 9 in.
Undercut "J" "K" .125 .125 .125 .125 .625 .125 .188 .188 .188 .188 .188 .250 .250 .375 .375 .375 .375 .375 .375 .500 .500 .500 .500 .500 .500
Nuts Plain Thick "T" .500 .625 .750 .750 .875 1.000 1.125 1.250 1.500 1.750 1.750 2.000 2.250 2.500 2.500 2.750 3.000 3.250 3.750 4.000 4.250 9.500 5.000 5.500 5.750
.75 .88 1.00 1.13 1.25 1.38 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 *6.00 *6.50 *7.00 *7.50 *8.00
1.313 1.500 1.750 1.750 2.719 2.250 2.438 2.750 3.125 3.500 3.500 4.000 4.375 5.125 5.125 5.500 5.875 6.375 7.125 7.750 8.500 9.250 10.000 10.375 10.750
.391 .484 .594 .594 .125 .813 .906 1.031 1.250 1.375 1.438 1.688 1.938 2.125 2.125 2.375 2.500 2.750 3.250 3.500 3.875 4.375 4.875 5.125 5.375
1.141 .141 1.328 .141 1.516 .141 1.516 .141 .719 .172 1.906 .172 2.094 .172 2.359 .203 2.734 .203 3.141 .266 3.141 .266 3.641 .266 4.016 .266 4.578 .375 4.578 .375 4.953 .375 5.328 .375
*6 in. through 8 in. bore uses 1 in./ft taper. 1/12 in. per taper. Angle with centerline 2 23 ft 9 in.
10
B MAX
Figure 1.11
11
12
Soft Couplings
Soft couplings will accept relative motions between their driving and driven sides without damage. These relative motions can take the following forms.
Combinations of Softness
Most commercially available shaft couplings are able to accommodate combinations of the above types of relative motion or misalignment. They vary in their tolerance for different types of motion. Good design practice will investigate the potential for the various types of shaft motion/misalignment and confirm the shaft couplings are capable of accommodating the expected shaft motion.
Types of Softness
Rotating shafts which will move relative to each other need couplings which permit misalignment without damage. The ability to accept misalignment without damage is often called softness.
Radial Softness
Couplings which are radially soft will allow the driving or driven shafts some freedom of motion, so long as their centerlines remain parallel.
Axial Softness
Couplings which are axially soft will allow the driving or driven shafts to vary in their end-to-end spacing. The sliding spline joints in the middle of an automotive universal joint shaft, to allow the effective shaft length to vary are shaft couplings with axial softness.
Angular Softness
Angularly soft couplings allow shaft angle to vary. Universal Joints are examples of angularly soft couplings.
Sound Isolation
The driveline of the vessel is a source of noise. One of the methods of reducing shipboard noise is to interrupt the noise path. One path for noise is from the engine down the propeller shaft to the hull via the stuffing box*. A soft coupling in the propeller shaft is an excellent means of introducing resilience into the path between the source of the noise (the engine and transmission) and the receiver of the noise (the ears of the personnel on board).
*There are other equally important noise paths. Another is from the engine to the hull via the exhaust piping. See the Exhaust Section for guidance on use of resilience in supporting exhaust piping. Another noise path from the engine to the hull is via the engine mounting feet. See the Mounting Section for guidance on use of resilient engine mounts. Cooling lines can transmit engine vibration to the hull where it will be perceived as noise by the crews. Cooling water connections must include flexibility.
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increased noise or vibration and decreased service life of affected bearings. Two methods are presented here for eliminating shaft droop as part of the alignment process: The estimated droop method, whereby droop at the companion flange is estimated from droop tables and directly compensated for. The scaled hoist method, whereby unsupported shaft weight is directly compensated for. Both methods give reasonably close approximations of the shafts true center if done correctly.
Note: For both procedures prior connection and alignment of propeller shafting from the first line bearing aft is required. Also, the shaft should be positioned about 13 mm (0.5 in.) aft of its final position when attached to the marine gear.
Propeller Shaft
Dh
(flange)
deflection (hub) 1st Shaft Brg. Companion Flange L = shaft length (in.) D shaft diameter (in.)
deflection or droop and the dimensions that apply in using the droop tables. Three sets of values, as illustrated in Figure 2.1, are used in determining droop (deflection) at the shaft free end (flange end). They are: 1. Flange hub dia. Dh; 2. Propeller shaft dia. D, and; 3. Shaft overhang length L. Dh/D determines which set of droop tables apply (see Appendix A). Dh/D = 1.40 to 1.74 use Figure 2.6. Dh/D = 1.75 to 1.99 use Figure 2.7. Dh/D = 2.00 to 2.25 use Figure 2.8. The D and L/D intersection in the appropriate table determines the estimated droop value. To obtain shaft droop, first determine the values L/D, and Dh/D. Then, go to the proper droop table for the Dh/D value and at the intersection of D and L/D read droop directly in inches. For example: If Dh = 9.0 in. and D = 6.0 in. then Dh/D = 1.5 and Figure 2.6 should be referred to. If overhung length is 120 in. then L/D = 120/6 = 20.0. The droop is read directly from Figure 2.6 at the intersection of D = 6.0, and L/D = 20 as droop = 0.148 in. In many cases the actual D and L/D values will fall between those listed in the tables. In those cases droop can be found by interpolation of the data in the tables. An example of this follows: D = 6.3 in. L/D = 20.4 Dh/D = 1.5 Since Dh/D is between 1.4 and 1.74 we will use Figure 2.6.
Shaft Diameter 6.0 0.148 6.3 (a) Ya 0.178 0.211 (b) 0.208 0.248 6.5 0.174
To obtain Ya proceed as follows: Let Da = Actual diameter of the shaft D1 = Next lower diameter on droop table L/Da = Actual length to Diameter ratio L/D1 = Next lower L/D ratio on droop table L/D2 = Next higher L/D ratio on droop table Y1 = Droop at L/D1 and D1 Y2 = Droop at L/D2 and D2 Ya = Actual Droop Ya = R (b a) + a R = (L/Da L/D1) / (L/D2 L/D1) a = (Da/D1)2 x Y1 b = (Da/D1)2 x Y2
Then
Where
In this example R = (20.4 20)/(21 20) = 0.4 a = (6.3/6.0)2 x 0.148 = 0.163 b = (6.3/6.0)2 x 0.178 = 0.196 Ya = 0.4 (0.196 0.163) + 0.176 = 0.189 in.
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Where: D = diameter of shaft or circular section in inches L = length of shaft or circular section in inches Alternatively, the weights of the shaft and flange sections can be determined by use of Figure 2.4 by simply multiplying the length, in inches, of any cylindrical section by the lb/in. value listed for the diameter of that section.
Scale Wt. #(lb) = sum of: 0.11 x D2 x L = lb 0.22 x Dh2 x h = lb 0.22 x Df2 x f = lb Wt.# = lb (all dimensions in inches)
Dh
Df
Weights of Circular Steel Sections Per Inch of Length Section Diameter lb/in. Length 4.00 3.52 6.75 10.0 9.50 19.9 14.5 46.3 4.25 3.97 7.00 10.8 9.75 20.9 15.0 49.5 4.50 4.46 7.25 11.6 10.0 22.0 15.5 52.9 2.00 0.88 4.75 4.96 7.50 12.4 10.5 24.3 16.0 56.3 2.25 1.11 5.00 5.50 7.75 13.2 11.0 26.6 16.5 59.9 2.50 1.38 5.25 6.06 8.00 14.1 11.5 29.1 17.0 63.6 2.75 1.66 5.50 6.66 8.25 15.0 12.0 31.7 17.5 67.4 3.00 1.98 5.75 7.27 8.50 15.9 12.5 34.4 18.0 71.3 3.25 2.32 6.00 7.92 8.75 16.8 13.0 37.2 18.5 75.3 3.50 2.70 6.25 8.59 9.00 17.8 13.5 40.1 19.0 79.4 3.75 3.09 6.50 9.30 9.25 18.8 14.0 43.1 19.5 83.7
Figure 2.4
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Since half the shaft weight plus all of the companion flange weight is to be compensated for at the scale, total scale weight can be calculated by the work sheet included in Figure 2.3 (example Figure 2.5).
(per formula-1): Hub section wt. = 0.22 x (6.0)2 x 6.5 = 51.5 lb Flange section wt. = 0.22 x (9.0)2 x 0.75 = 13.4 lb (per Figure 2.4) Hub section wt. = 6.5 in x 7.92 lb/in = 51.5 lb Flange section wt. = 0.75 in x 17.8 lb/in = 13.4 lb Total companion flange wt. = 64.9 lb Finally, the scale reading at the hoist should be the sum of the total companion flange wt. and half the overhung shaft wt.: P = 105.6 + 64.9 = 170.5 lb
Example Problem:
(ref. Figures 2.3 & 2.5) If in our illustration Figure 2.3, the following dimensions apply: Shaft diameter D = 4.0 in.; and, shaft length L = 60.0 in.; Companion flange hub diameter Dh = 6.0 in; hub length h = 6.5in.; Flange section diameter Df = 9.0 in.; flange thickness f = 0.75 in. Proceed in calculating hoist pull P (lb) as follows: Note: In this example both methods of obtaining weights will be shown. First, overhung shaft weight is calculated as: (per formula-1) Wt. = 0.22 x (4.0)2 x 60 = 211.2 lb (per Figure 2.4) Wt. = 60 in x 3.52 lb/in = 211.2 lb Half of overhung shaft wt. = 105.6 lb Then, companion flange weight, including shaft material inserted into the flange, is calculated:
Caution: The hoisting mechanism must be set up in such a manner that the direction of pull or lift is straight up, i.e., no force is to be exerted sideways in order to avoid side to side misalignment of the marine gear to the propeller shaft. This can be checked with a plumb line suspended from the overhead connection for the hoisting mechanism.
Also, if the hoist is to be removed and the shaft supported by other means prior to final connection to the marine gear, dial indicators at vertical and side locations should be employed to insure the shaft remains at its proper position.
Scale Wt. #(lb) = sum of: 0.11 x D2 x L = 105.6 lb 0.22 x Dh2 x h = 51.5 lb 0.22 x Df2 x f = 13.4 lb Wt.# = 170.5 lb (all dimensions in inches) Dh = 6.0 D = 4.0 Df = 9.0
f = 0.75
Shaft Diameter (inches) for Hub Diameter = 1.40 to 1.74 times Shaft Diameter Shaft L/d 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 2.0 .001 .001 .001 .002 .003 .003 .004 .006 .007 .009 .011 .014 .016 .020 .023 .028 .033 .038 .044 .051 .058 .067 .076 2.5 .001 .001 .002 .003 .004 .005 .007 .009 .011 .014 .017 .021 .026 .031 .037 .043 .051 .059 .069 .079 .091 .104 .118 3.0 .001 .002 .003 .004 .006 .008 .010 .013 .016 .020 .025 .031 .037 .044 .053 .062 .073 .085 .099 .114 .131 .150 .170 3.5 .002 .003 .004 .006 .008 .010 .014 .017 .022 .028 .034 .042 .050 .060 .072 .085 .100 .116 .135 .155 .178 .204 .232 4.0 .002 .004 .005 .007 .010 .013 .018 .023 .029 .036 .044 .054 .066 .079 .094 .111 .130 .152 .176 .203 .233 .266 .303 4.5 .003 .005 .007 .009 .013 .017 .022 .029 .036 .046 .056 .069 .083 .100 .119 .140 .165 .192 .223 .257 .295 .337 .383 5.0 .004 .006 .008 .012 .016 .021 .028 .035 .045 .056 .069 .085 .103 .123 .147 .173 .203 .237 .275 .317 .364 .416 .473 5.5 .004 .007 .010 .014 .019 .025 .033 .043 .054 .068 .084 .103 .124 .149 .178 .210 .246 .287 .333 .384 .441 .503 .573 6.0 .005 .008 .012 .017 .023 .030 .040 .051 .065 .081 .100 .122 .148 .178 .211 .250 .293 .342 .396 .457 .524 .599 .681 6.5 .006 .009 .014 .019 .027 .036 .047 .060 .076 .095 .117 .144 .174 .208 .248 .293 .344 .401 .465 .536 .615 .703 .800 7.0 .007 .011 .016 .023 .031 .041 .054 .070 .088 .110 .136 .166 .201 .242 .288 .340 .399 .465 .539 .622 .714 .815 .927 7.5 .008 .013 .018 .026 .035 .047 .062 .080 .101 .127 .156 .191 .231 .278 .330 .390 .458 .534 .619 .714 .819 .936 1.065 8.0 .009 .014 .021 .029 .040 .054 .071 .091 .115 .144 .178 .217 .263 .316 .376 .444 .521 .608 .704 .812 .932 1.065 1.211
Figure 2.6
Shaft Diameter (inches) for Hub Diameter = 1.75 to 1.99 times Shaft Diameter Shaft L/d 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 2.0 .001 .001 .002 .003 .004 .005 .006 .008 .010 .012 .015 .018 .021 .025 .030 .035 .041 .047 .054 .062 .071 .081 .091 2.5 .001 .002 .003 .004 .006 .007 .009 .012 .015 .019 .023 .027 .033 .039 .046 .054 .063 .074 .085 .097 .111 .126 .143 3.0 .002 .003 .004 .006 .008 .010 .014 .017 .022 .027 .033 .040 .048 .057 .067 .078 .091 .106 .122 .140 .160 .182 .206 3.5 .003 .004 .006 .008 .011 .014 .018 .023 .029 .036 .044 .054 .065 .077 .091 .107 .124 .144 .166 .191 .218 .247 .280 4.0 .004 .005 .008 .010 .014 .019 .024 .031 .038 .047 .058 .070 .084 .101 .119 .139 .163 .188 .217 .249 .284 .323 .366 4.5 .005 .007 .010 .013 .018 .024 .030 .039 .049 .060 .074 .089 .107 .127 .150 .176 .206 .238 .275 .315 .360 .409 .463 5.0 .006 .008 .012 .016 .022 .029 .038 .048 .060 .074 .091 .110 .132 .157 .186 .218 .254 .294 .339 .389 .444 .505 .572 5.5 .007 .010 .014 .020 .027 .035 .045 .058 .073 .090 .110 .133 .160 .190 .225 .264 .307 .356 .411 .471 .538 .611 .692 6.0 .008 .012 .017 .024 .032 .042 .054 .069 .086 .107 .131 .158 .190 .226 .267 .314 .366 .424 .489 .560 .640 .727 .823 6.5 .009 .014 .020 .028 .037 .049 .064 .081 .101 .125 .153 .186 .223 .266 .314 .368 .429 .497 .573 .658 .751 .854 .966 7.0 .011 .016 .023 .032 .043 .057 .074 .094 .117 .145 .178 .216 .259 .308 .364 .427 .498 .577 .665 .763 .871 .990 1.121 7.5 .013 .019 .027 .037 .050 .065 .085 .108 .135 .167 .204 .247 .297 .354 .418 .490 .571 .662 .763 .876 1.000 1.136 1.286 8.0 .014 .021 .030 .042 .056 .074 .096 .122 .153 .190 .232 .282 .338 .402 .475 .558 .650 .754 .869 .996 1.137 1.293 1.464
Figure 2.7
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Shaft Diameter (inches) for Hub Diameter = 2.00 to 2.25 times Shaft Diameter Shaft L/d 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 2.0 .001 .002 .003 .004 .005 .006 .008 .010 .012 .015 .019 .022 .027 .032 .037 .043 .050 .058 .067 .076 .086 .098 .110 2.5 .002 .003 .004 .006 .007 .010 .012 .016 .019 .024 .029 .035 .042 .049 .058 .068 .079 .091 .104 .119 .135 .153 .172 3.0 .003 .004 .006 .008 .011 .014 .018 .022 .028 .034 .042 .050 .060 .071 .084 .097 .113 .130 .150 .171 .194 .220 .248 3.5 .004 .006 .008 .011 .014 .019 .024 .031 .038 .047 .057 .069 .082 .097 .114 .133 .154 .178 .204 .233 .265 .299 .338 4.0 .005 .007 .010 .014 .019 .025 .032 .040 .050 .061 .074 .089 .107 .126 .148 .173 .201 .232 .266 .304 .345 .391 .441 4.5 .006 .009 .013 .018 .024 .031 .040 .051 .063 .077 .094 .113 .135 .160 .188 .219 .254 .293 .337 .385 .437 .495 .558 5.0 .008 .011 .016 .022 .030 .039 .050 .062 .078 .096 .116 .140 .167 .197 .232 .271 .314 .362 .416 .475 .540 .611 .689 5.5 .009 .014 .020 .027 .036 .047 .060 .076 .094 .116 .141 .169 .202 .239 .281 .328 .380 .438 .503 .575 .653 .739 .834 6.0 .011 .016 .023 .032 .043 .056 .071 .090 .112 .138 .167 .201 .240 .284 .334 .390 .452 .522 .599 .684 .777 .880 .992 6.5 .013 .019 .027 .037 .050 .065 .084 .106 .131 .161 .196 .236 .282 .334 .392 .458 .531 .612 .703 .802 .912 1.033 1.165 7.0 .015 .022 .032 .043 .058 .076 .097 .122 .152 .187 .228 .274 .327 .387 .455 .531 .616 .710 .815 .931 1.058 1.198 1.351 7.5 .018 .026 .036 .050 .067 .087 .111 .141 .175 .215 .261 .315 .375 .444 .522 .609 .707 .815 .935 1.068 1.215 1.375 1.551 8.0 .020 .029 .041 .057 .076 .099 .127 .160 .199 .245 .297 .358 .427 .505 .594 .693 .804 .928 1.064 1.215 1.382 1.564 1.764
Figure 2.8
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After the propeller shaft droop has been compensated for, and the shaft properly supported at the free end as shown in Figure 2.9, the marine gear or gear and engine combination may then be aligned to the propeller shaft.
"d" = gap between mating flange faces. "e" = offset dimension of mating flange/shaft axis "T.I.R" = Total Dial Indicator R eadings
T.I.R. =2e
marine gear
engine
23
angular misalignment
Angular misalignment occurs when the centerlines (axis) of the marine gear output shaft and the propeller shaft are not parallel. The limits for parallel and angular misalignment are given in the Alignment Procedure section. Parallel misalignment occurs when the centerlines, or axis, of the marine gear output shaft and propeller shaft are parallel but not in line.
Fuel, Water, and Temporary Ballast Tanks are filled to normal, average, operating levels, generally 1/2 to 3/4 filled. It is not necessary to fill fuel tanks with fuel, since it is only the weight of the fluid in the tanks that is important to load the hull to representative displacement. Water is a suitable alternative to fuel for this purpose. All major machineryweighing over 225 kg (500 lb)is either installed or simulated by equivalent weights appropriately located.
Note: Where prior experience has shown good results, the alignment process can be substantially completed prior to launch. Make final alignment check immediately prior to sea trials.
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"A" (zero)
"D"
"B"
METHOD AND TERMINOLOGY FOR MEASURING OUTPUT FLANGE OR COUNTER FLANGE RUNOUT
"C"
Figure 2.11
Alignment Procedure
Marine gears and engines with flywheel housing mounted marine gears: 1. With the propeller shaft set on roller block or oiled V block sweep the flange face with a dial indicator (Figure 2.11). While watching the indicator, rotate the shaft and note the point of minimum indicator reading. Make a reference mark (with paint, center punch, . . .) on the flange rim at the bolt hole nearest the point of minimum indicator reading. For all future readings on this flange this will be the ZERO reference location A. 2. With the dial indicator set at the A zero reference location, set the dial to zero. Rotate the shaft and measure and record indicator readings at the 3:00, 6:00, and 9:00 positions (facing the flange). These positions correspond to positions B, C, and D respectively. Continue the rotation to one complete turn, rechecking at the A, or 12:00 position for zero indicator reading. 3. Using the same zero A reference point set the dial indicator to measure and runout of the flange rim (periphery). Repeat the procedure outlined in step 2 to accomplish this.
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 to measure and record marine gear output flange face and peripheral runout with the following exception: Use bolt hole location nearest point of maximum indicator reading for zero A reference. Any runout errors must be accounted for in the alignment process. The maximum allowable runout, for most Twin Disc marine gears offered by Caterpillar, is: Maximum Face Runout = 0.10 mm (0.004 in.) Maximum Bore Runout = 0.10 mm (0.004 in.) Runouts shown are total dial indicator readings (T.I.R.).
Note: If face (or bore) runout is excessive on the marine gear flange, some correction may be obtained by removing and reinstalling the flange at a different position (if the type of connection permits).
Compensation may also be obtained by selective match of the mating flanges providing flanges have not already been reamed and matched for fitted bolts connection. For example, if the A reference points of both flanges, as determined in steps 1 and 4 are mated then face runout compensation will be realized (Figure 2.12).
25
Carrying this example further, if maximum T.I.R. of the shaft flange is +0.008 in. and that of the marine gear flange is 0.005 in. they are individually out of tolerance, however, their effective runout is their sum which is 0.008 + (0.005) = 0.003 in.. This would be acceptable since it is within the 0.004 in. limit. 5. Position the propeller shaft about 8 mm (0.3 inches) aft of its planned final position.
Note: At this point scantlings or supports for the gear engine mounting should be in place with sufficient gap for poured or metal shims. If not, install these supports now.
6. Now move the marine gear (or gear engine package) to its approximate final position so that mating flange gap is about 8 mm (0.3 in.), per step 5, without engaging the flange pilot.
7. Bore alignment: Take measurements of the diameter gap at four equally spaced points on the flanges diameters. A straight edge with a feeler gauge, or a dial indicator may be used as shown in Figure 2.13 to accomplish this. If the dial indicator is used, mount it on the gear output flange as shown and sweep the companion flange for T.I.R. Make appropriate position adjustments with wedges or jacking screws to locate the marine gear output flange within 0.127 mm (0.005 in.) of bore alignment (dimension e, Figure 2.13). Maximum T.I.R. would be 0.254 mm (0.010 in.). A slip fit of mating flange pilots on transmissions so equippedensures adequate bore alignment.
feeler gauge
8. When this condition is met, engage the flanges pilot surfaces by bringing the propeller shaft and companion flange forward to within 4.5 mm (0.180 in.) at all points about the diameter of the flanges. 9. Angular Alignment: Position adjustments of the engine and transmission may now be made to align the marine transmission output flange to a proper angular or face alignment position. Using a feeler gauge, or small hole gauge, take measurements of face gap at four equally spaced positions; A, B, C, and D. (Figure 2.13) Then, proceed as follows: a. Tabulate the readings of face gap. b. Compare diametrically opposite face gap readings (compare readings at A to readings at C; and readings at B to readings at D). c. Subtract the smaller of diametrically opposite readings from the larger for both A to C, and B to D.
Installation/Alignment Instructions
Caterpillar Engines and other Free Standing Marine Gears and Vulkan Rato Flexible Couplings Introduction
The purpose of this instruction sheet is to outline a proven and effective procedure for accurate alignment of Caterpillar Marine Engines to free standing reduction gears, most specifically, where Vulkan Rato flexible couplings are used. The procedure can be adapted to most other coupling types if care is taken to allow relative radial and angular movement between engine and marine gear coupling interface during the alignment process.
Preliminary
The following preliminary steps should already have been done or in place before starting engine to gear alignment: 1. Propeller shafting in place. Marine gear aligned to shaft and secured to foundation with fitted bolts and thrust stops as required. 2. Flexible coupling inner member mounted to marine gear and outer member mounted to engine flywheel per Figure 2.14. 3. Engine positioned in close proximity (by sight) to the final alignment, but with coupling outer and inner members not touching. 4. Jacking screws are for engine side to side and fore and aft positioning movement in place (provided and installed by shipyard or installer). Jacking screws provided with engine for vertical positioning should be clean and well oiled. 5. Necessary tools and instrumentation at hand, such as: dial indicators with bracketry; yoke for mounting instruments to marine gear hub (ref part numbers 6V2042 & 6V2043); pry bar for moving
27
Example: if the reading at A is 0.175 in. and the reading at C is 0.165 in., then subtract 0.165 from 0.175 giving a result of 0.010 in.
d. The resulting differences are proportional to the amount of angular or face misalignment. The face gap difference reading must not exceed 0.005 in. (A to C, or B to D). If the gap difference reading exceeds this value, the engine and marine gear must be moved until the required tolerance is reached. e. As the engine is moved for angular alignment, ensure the bore alignment is not altered. 10. Recheck all alignment readings, insert the bolts into the flanges, and prepare the marine gear/engine supports for final securing to the boats engine foundation. Except for final alignment checks, after securing the unit to the foundation and prior to sea trial of the vessel, this completes the alignment process.
crankshaft fore/aft and flywheel up/down; turning tool for rotating engine at flywheel; and miscellaneous hand tools.
Step 1
a. Clean periphery of flywheel and face of coupling/flywheel adapter plate so dial indicators can sweep face and circular runout at flywheel through one complete rotation. Remove any nicks or burrs that interfere with dial indicator readings. A light cleaning with oil may also be beneficial. b. Mount dial indicators from flywheel housing as shown in Figure 2.14. c. Rotate engine through one complete revolution and note total dial indicator readings for both face and periphery of flywheel. Record these readings. (Omit this step if coupling has torsional stop.) d. Remove an engine block side cover and, with the pry bar between the crankshaft web and the main bearing saddle, move the crankshaft fore and aft. Record total indicator movement on data sheet. Leave crankshaft in full forward position. e. With pry bar, move flywheel up (full travel) and record half of the total movement. This is the flywheel droop. f.
Flywheel
Flywheel Housing
Figure 2.14
Determine offset dimension Y. This is the amount the marine gear should be set higher than the engine and is equal to flywheel droop, (as found in step e), plus the difference in thermal growth of the engine and gear input centers Xt.
Y = [F. W. droop + Xt] Xt is approximated by the formula: Xt = [0.009 (0.0004 x d)] in. (Where d = gear input to mounting ledge distance in inches.)
Note: For WAF gear models 540 & 560; Xt = + 0.003 in. may be used. For WAF models 860 & 1160; use Xt = .002 (negative). Xt for WAF models 640, 660, 740, 760, 840, and 1140 is small and can be ignored.
g. Compute Y = F.W. droop + Xt = ______ + ______ = ______ Record Y on data sheet, see Figure 2.15.
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Step 2
a. Remove dial indicators from flywheel housing. b. With the crankshaft still fully forward, position the engine to the marine gear so that the flexible coupling outer member is aligned with the inner member (by sight) and the gap between the inner and outer members, measured with a feeler gauge, is equal to half the total fore/aft crankshaft movement, measured in step 1d, 0.002 in. The gap should be measured at the connection points for the bolts marked X in Figure 2.16.
Step 3
a. Install necessary yoke, brackets, etc., and mount dial indicators as shown in Figure 2.16.
Note: For the procedure outlined here it will be assumed that movement of the indicator tip into the dial case results in a positive reading. Also, all dimensions are in inches unless indicated. Note: If coupling is equipped with torsional stops (come home feature) proceed directly to sub step e; If coupling is not equipped with torsional stops (come home feature) proceed as follows:
b. Swing marine gear input shaft through one revolution while making sure no obstructions or protrusions hinder smooth movement of the indicator tips over the surfaces. c. Set dial indicators at A position and set dials to zero readings. Rotate the marine gear input member (or engine and gear together if equipped with torsional stops) and record T.I.R. readings, for both face and periphery, at locations B, C, and D per diagram in Figure 2.15. Recheck for zero at location A.
Face (zero) A
Periphery (zero) A
D C Limits: B,C,D = 0.010 in. max indicator reading Max. indicator difference of B to D is 0.010 in. Figure 2.15
D C Limits: C = 2Y0.005 in. (Y = D + B = C 0.005 in. Max. indicator difference of B to D is 0.010 in.
in.)
29
"P" "F" D B
C Engine Flywheel
d. Using the limits outlined in Figure 2.15, for face and peripheral dial indicator readings, adjust engine position as required to obtain readings within those limits. This will probably require several attempts to achieve the desired readings. For couplings without torsional stop feature, refer back to runout readings recorded at step 1c. If those readings are not more than 0.127 mm (0.005 in). face and 0.203 mm (0.008 in.) peripheral proceed directly to step 4, otherwise, continue at e. e. Install several clearance bolts at location X so that engine and gear can be rotated together without unduly constraining relative radial movement of the mating coupling members.
f.
Repeat sub steps c and d except rotate engine and gear together by barring or turning the engine flywheel. When readings within the desired range, per Figure 2.15, are obtained remove the clearance bolts at X and proceed to step 4.
Step 4
Check axial clearance between coupling members. With crankshaft full forward there should be some clearance between members or, if they are touching, inner member should be rotatable against outer member without excessive drag. (One man should be able to turn gear input shaft by hand or with a .610 mm (2 ft) long bar.) With crankshaft all the way to the rear, coupling members should be touching or gap should not exceed 0.508 mm (0.020 in.). Make sure these conditions are met before proceeding to step 5.
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Step 5
a. Pour engine chocks or install solid steel shims and secure engine to foundation by appropriate procedures. Do Not install fitted foundation bolt at this time.
Note: Loose metal shims are not recommended for heavy engine mountings.
b. When part a is complete (be sure sufficient cure time has been allowed for poured chocks) recheck face and peripheral alignment readings per step 3. If readings have changed, which is often the case, do not re-align if limits outlined in Figure 2.15 have not been exceeded by more than 0.127 mm (0.005 in.) face and 0.254 mm (0.010 in.) periphery. c. With condition b met install fitted bolt at rear engine mount on either left or right side. Install collision chocks if required. d. Using bore aligning tools (tapered pins) align mating coupling members and install snug fit bolts at locations X. Do not hammer bolts in. Press them in or squeeze them in with pliers. They should be installed with the heads to the engine side. e. Remove instrumentation, reinstall block side cover, etc. f. This completes the alignment process. If the alignment has been done in dry dock or on a new build in the yard, then alignment should be rechecked when vessel is floated and contains partial stores. This step is critical for vessels with less rigid foundation systems or those more sensitive to float conditions such as flat bottom types.
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Foundations
The marine gear/engine foundation is that portion of the boats structure which supports the propulsion machinery and holds it in proper relationship to the driveline components. It generally consists of two longitudinal railswith liberal transverse bracingwhich carry the weight, thrust, torque reaction and inertial loads of the gear/engine. It is good design practice to make the foundation members as long as possible. This helps to limit hull deflection by distributing the loads over more of the hull length. The entire foundation must be strong enough to withstand continued operational forces due to torque, thrust, pitching, rolling, and occasional grounding. Since no structure is absolutely rigid, it is essential that the foundation have greater rigidity than the driveline, so that none of the components of the driveline are stressed beyond their limits when flexing of the hull occurs. Foundation structures may be of metal (steel or aluminum), wood, or fiberglass depending usually on the vessels hull composition. In fiberglass vessels, foundations will generally be of the foam filled type, or wood: Foam filled foundations require a metal raft between the machinery and the fiberglass foundation to distribute machinery loads more evenly. Wood foundations allow for relatively simple mounting, using lag screws, and does not normally require special load distributing techniques.
Mounting Types
Engine and marine gear mounting generally falls into one of two categories, i.e. rigid or resilient. Rigid Mounting. The engine supports and necessary shims are fastened directly to the boats structure. The shims, used for positioning the engine or gear in proper alignment, are either steel or poured plastic (refer to the section on shims presented later in this document). With no vibration mounts between the engine supports and the boats
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structure, flexibility must be built into the engine supports to prevent the engine block from becoming stressed by motions of the hull. It is the simplest and least costly way to mount an engine. Rigid mounted machinery is generally bolted to the engine foundation. Resilient Mounting of machinery is usually done for isolation of noise and vibration from the ship structures. It is more expensive and requires more attention to detail than rigid mounting. Flexible fittings must be used for all connections (combustion air, coolant, fuel, exhaust gas, controls, etc.) when resilient mounts are used. A section on resilient mounts is presented later in this document.
3. Taking care not to move or disturb the gear to shaft alignment, drill and ream the holes for the fitted foundation bolts. A minimum of two fitted bolts should be used. They should be installed on each side and directly (not diagonally) opposite each other. For some marine gears it is permissible, but seldom necessary, to use fitted bolts in the remaining bolt hole locations. The thrust capacity of the bolted marine gear foundation results from: (a) the fitted bolts shear strength and, (b) the clamping force of all the foundation bolts together. 4. Install all fitted and clearance foundation bolts loosely with the threaded ends up. It is best to have sufficient thread showing for installation of double nuts. 5. If poured resin shims are to be used, refer to procedures outlined in the appendix, and to the resin manufacturers instructions. The basic steps are: (a) Prepare for the pour, i.e. dams around pads, spacers around clearance bolts, etc. (b) Recheck the gear to shaft alignment and reposition the gear as required to assure proper alignment. (c) Make the pour. Allow the poured shims to cure per manufacturers instructions and tighten the hold down nuts to the torque calculated per appendix, so that the recommended pressure on each chock will not be exceeded. (The pressure applied is the sum of the gear weight and bolt loads.) 6. If metal shims are being used, tighten the hold down bolt nuts per Figure 2.24 in the appendix. 7. Make a final alignment check and, if satisfactory, install the double nuts. Mark the nuts at the thread with a daub of paint for easier periodic visual checks of the bolt connections.
Mounting Procedures
Note: In the procedures that follow, it is assumed the alignment processes, i.e., marine gear to shafting and engine to marine gear have been accomplished per procedures outlined in previous sections.
Note: In exception to the caution listed in appendix, it is permissible to use peel type shim packs, or a few loose shims in conjunction with a thick steel chock. In both cases, stainless steel is preferred. This exception is due to the relative lower linear vibration and greater stability of the marine gear as compared to the engine.
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8. Draw the marine gear output flange and propeller companion flange connection tight with the connecting bolts. The connecting bolts are either fitted or clearance type. The fitted bolt connections carry the transmitted torque primarily by bolt shear strength, and by some degree of clamping force. As a rule of thumb, fitted bolts are usually required on propeller flange connections transmitting torque of 0.75 kW/rpm (1 hp/rpm) or greater. Below that torque level bolt load clamping force is often adequate to carry the transmitted torque with a high degree of safety, especially if grade 8 bolts at high tightening torque are used. If non fitted bolts are used, grade 8 bolts torqued to the standard high torque values should be used since full output torque will be carried by the bolt clamping force. The nominal standard torque and high torque values for 3/8 in. to 1-1/2 in. bolts, along with the resulting bolt load are given in Figure 2.18, (high torque values in bold print). Using these loads and the formula given in Figure 2.17, the torque that can be safely transmitted through the flange connection can be calculated.
Bolt Size .375 - 16 & 24 .738 - 14 & 20 .500 - 13 & 20 .563 - 12 & 18 .625 - 11 & 18 .750 - 10 & 16 .875 - 9 & 14 1.000 - 8 & 14 1.125 - 7 & 12 1.250 - 7 & 12 1.375 - 6 & 12 1.500 - 6 & 12
Torque (lb/ft) 32 40 50 65 75 100 110 145 150 200 265 350 420 550 640 825 800 1,000 1,000 1,350 1,200 1,700 1,500 2,000
Bolt Load "Bp" lb 5,200 8,200 7,100 11,400 9,200 15,400 12,000 20,000 14,800 25,000 22,000 37,000 30,000 49,500 40,000 65,000 44,400 71,000 50,000 87,000 55,000 100,000 63,500 108,000
Figure 2.18
Db
If fitted bolts are used, drill and ream the mating bolt holes (if this has not already been done) and install the fitted bolts. Torque the fitted bolts to the standard torque values for the bolt size or to the suppliers recommended torque if specified. 9. Install thrust or collision blocks if required. Install the blocks on both sides of the marine gear with sufficient clearance for thermal expansion of the gear case. The expansion that needs to be allowed for occurs over the distance from the collision block to the first fitted bolt connection. A clearance of 0.0008 in./in. of that distance should be provided for engine jacket water cooled gears. Provide clearance of 0.0006 in./in. of that distance for sea water or keel cooled gears.
Dp
N = no. of bolts Dp = Bolt Circle dia. (in.) Db = Bolt shank dia. (in.) To = Torque (hp/rpm) Bp = Bolt load (lb) Allowable Transmitted Torque (non fitted bolts): To = Dp x N x Bp (hp/rpm) 2,800,000 Figure 2.17
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the engine. The mounts will normally have stops incorporated in them to limit motion.
engine gear
gear
engine
(b)
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mount is attached to both ship rails but has a single swivel connection at the front of the engine with the swivel center on the crankshaft centerline. It often has some degree of fore/aft flexibility as well as a fair amount of rotational freedom. Clearance bolts are normally used for the front mounts. This is especially so if the front mount is rigid (not trunnion). In either case, clearance or flexibility of about 0.0008 in./in. of distance, from the fitted bolt or dowel at the marine gear mount, must be provided for thermal expansion of the engine and gear.
In resilient mount installations of gear and engine combined on common rails (Figure 2.19a), the following basic procedures apply: The marine gear must be doweled or attached with body fitted bolts to the common rails. The engine, if not directly connected to the marine gear at the flywheel housing, must be aligned to the marine gear and doweled, or fitted with a body fit bolt, at the left or right rear of the engine. Note: This step may be done toward the end of the installation process. The common rails are then positioned on the resilient mounts to be used and the package is aligned to the propeller shaft companion flange per previously outlined procedures. Appropriate shims or chocks are installed as required. Make sure propeller thrust or other externally applied forces are accommodated in the mounting system and limited by stops or other devices. (Refer to later sections in this document regarding resilient mounts and shim types.)
Engine Mounting
Three Point Mounting of Engines
Three point mounting systems are normally associated with combined engine/marine gear units. There are, however, some instances in which separately mounted engines will require the three point system such as in high performance patrol craft where weight reduction and system flexibility are premium factors. The three point system for the engine normally involves mounts on both sides at the rear of the engine at the flywheel housing plus the trunnion mount at the front. This arrangement is very tolerant of flexing of the ships mounting rails which may be encountered in light high speed craft. Hard mounts are used most often but resilient mounts are not uncommon with this arrangement.
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Example: A 3516 oil pan experiences a rise in temperature from 65F to 205F, or 140 F degrees The distance from the fitted bolt at the rear of the rail to the forward most clearance bolt is 80 inches. The expansion, or thermal shift at the forward clearance bolt, is then: 80 x 140 x 0.0000063 = 0.071 in.
The following basic steps may be followed in mounting 3500 family engines with factory supplied mounting rails: 1. Preliminary . . . Marine gear in place, aligned to propeller shaft, and secured to foundation. (Reference gear alignment procedure document and gear mounting procedure in previous section of this document.) 2. Prepare engine bed (foundations) for poured or metal chocks. Foundation pads for metal chocks should be flat, preferably to within plus or minus 0.005 inches flatness tolerance. Foundation pads for poured chocks are less critical for flatness but should be placed for best chock thickness, i.e. 12.7 mm to 44.4 mm (.5 to 1.75 in.) 3. Place the engine on the foundation, supported by the jacking screws in the rails, and at final aligned position by sight. Install side to side and fore to aft positioning screws or devices per Figure 2.20. Align the engine to the gear per instructions in the previous document, Installation/Alignment Instructions.
Note: The steel oil pan to which the mounting rails are attached expands at the rate of about 0.0000063 in./in. for each Fahrenheit degree temperature change (or 0.0000113 mm per Celsius degree).
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4. If steel chocks are used, a solid chock is recommended. Fit and install the metal shims at each of the four rail mounting pads according to the steel shim fitting and installation procedures outlined in the appendix. It is not necessary to run the steel shim the full length and width of the machined pads incorporated with the 3500 family engine rails. Smaller steel chocks are easier to machine and fit. The shims area can be considerably less as shown in the example of Figure 2.21, but, they should encompass the two retaining bolts, which are 152 mm (6 in.) apart, and cover at
Mounting Bolt Locations (clearance) Fitted Bolt Locations Jacking Screws Positioning Screws
least 19 of the 101 mm (.75 of the 4 in.) pad width. It is also a good rule of thumb to keep the applied unit pressure on soft steel shims under 34,475 kPa (5000 psi). 5. If poured chocks are used refer to the appendix for recommended installation
Marine Gear
3500 Engine
Foundation Rail TYPICAL SEPARATE MOUNTED ENGINE/GEAR FOUNDATION PLAN Figure 2.20
Machined Pad 3500 Engine Oil Pan Steel Shim Mounting Rail Mounting Rail Steel Shim Ship's Rail
Ship's Rail
Retaining Bolts
Figure 2.21
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Ship's Rail
Retaining Bolts
The shim material can be poured at the mounting pad locations only (an interrupted pour), or it can be used under the full length of the engine rail, except for immediately fore and aft of the machined mounting pads. This is referred to as a continuous pour Caution: (Figure 2.22). In either case, do not pour shim material inboard of the machined pad on the bottom of the mounting rail. Foam rubber strips must be installed on sides and both ends of each pad to provide for expansion. (Figures. 2.22 and 2.23).
Foam Dams (for pour) Outer Dam Poured Chock Ship's Rail Machine Pad
Use two nuts on each mounting bolt. Tighten the innermost nut to 490 Nm (360 lb ft.) Use Figure 2.24. in the appendix for torques of the outermost nut.
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due to inherent engine motion, misfiring, or vessel pitching and rolling. Collision blocks or stops will be required, in case of collisions or grounding. The flywheel mounted flexible coupling must be selected with care. It must routinely tolerate the ranges of side to side and fore/ aft motions predicted for the given set of soft mounts. Similarly, all water, air, exhaust, hydraulic, control, and fuel system connections must be flexible enough to accommodate repeated, day to day movement without failure. The foregoing applies to all soft mounted engine systems. If the marine gear, which is separately mounted, is also on soft mounts, the prior section on soft mounted gears should also be reviewed for additional factors of concern.
The plastic chocking material offers some degree of noise damping between the engine or gear and the foundation member. Zero shrinkage of the poured shim material, when mixed and applied properly, allows the most precise retention of position and alignment when the mounting procedure has been properly completed and the retaining bolts secured. Before installing poured shims, consult the manufacturers instructions for using the shim material. Strictly adhere to such critical items as mixing ratios, cure times, temperature effects, allowable thickness, and maximum unit loading. The basic steps in installing poured epoxy shims are as follows: 1. Machine to be mounted is in final aligned position with mating mounting structures in proper place and condition. These mating pads should be of sufficient strength and area, reasonably flat and parallel. 2. Liquid shim materials, damming materials, blowers, grease) releasing agents, tools, etc. at hand per manufacturers recommendation. 3. Drill clearance holes through at all clearance bolt locations.
Appendix
Shims, Spacers, Chocks:
General
Shims, spacers, or chocks must be provided to fit the individual locations between the top surface of the supporting members and the bottom surface of the mounting pads of marine engines and gears. Marine Classification Society (MCS) rules often dictate the type of shim to be used. The two most common and effective types will be addressed here. They are: (1) poured epoxy (plastic) shims, and (2) solid steel shims. Mounting With Poured Shims: Poured shims, or chocks, have become the shim of choice today in most mounting systems for marine propulsion equipment. The advantages of poured shims over metal are several: The time consuming (and costly) process of selective machining and hand fitting of solid steel shims is avoided. The surface condition or flatness of mating foundation and support planes is less critical, eliminating further machining operations in many cases.
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Note: It is recommended that holes for the fitted bolts be drilled and reamed after: the chocks have cured; the clearance bolts have been torqued; and alignment rechecked (in case the pour and alignment might have to be repeated).
4. Install the foundation hold-down bolts threaded end up and with nuts hand tight. Sleeve or foam wrap the bolt shanks to provide clearance for thermal expansion of the machinery. An optional method is to grease the bolt shanks with high temperature (non melt) grease, then, remove the bolts and redrill the bolt holes for adequate clearance after the chock has cured.
5. Spray all chock contact surfaces with a suitable releasing agent to prevent adhesion of the chock to those surfaces. 6. Install damming material in preparation for the pour. In this operation, consider the following: a. Ships trim . . . pour from the high end or from the side. b. On non pour sides of the chock, dams of non porous foam material is recommended. Use foam tape around edges of mounting pads to provide for pad movement during thermal expansion of the machine or flexing of the foundation members. c. Use rigid or semi rigid damming material around the pour area. Width of the pour area generally should not exceed 20 mm (.75 in.), and should provide a riser of at least 12 mm (.5 in.). 7. Mix the resin and hardener for the chocks and make the pour per the resin manufacturers instructions. Be sure to allow sufficient time for the chocking material to cure. 8. After making sure of sufficient clearance around clearance bolt shanks, torque all the clearance bolt nuts to obtain total bolt loading on the chocks equal to 2-1/2 times the weight of the mounted machinery but within the unit pressure limits for the individual chocks as set by the resin manufacturer. Unit pressure limits on the poured chock are usually 3447 kPa (500 psi) when maintenance of machinery
Unit load on a given chock is obtained by first summing the weight from the machine plus any machine torque load component plus the total bolt load, all of which is then divided by the chock area. 9. After the clearance bolts have been tightened, recheck for proper alignment or position of the machine. (Keep in mind that some slight shift is normal due to thermal effects on the ships hull, instrument variations and so on.) 10. If positioning is still satisfactory, install the fitted bolt or bolts. 11. Install the second set of nuts and torque these against the first nuts per Figure 2.24. Be careful that the first, or primary, nut is not torqued to a higher level than that determined in step 8. Mark the nuts with a paint spot to aid in future pass by inspections for loose nuts. 12. Remove damming materials. Clean, dress, or chip away excess chock, where necessary, for appearance and to relieve any unintended restraint of the mounting pad.
alignment is required, (as in the case of propulsion engines and gears). To aid in determining the proper torque range the
Full Torque Values Dia (in.) Torque (lb ft) .500 75 10 .563 110 15 .625 150 20 .750 265 35 .875 420 60 1.000 640 80 1.125 800 100 1.250 1000 120 1.375 1200 150 1.500 1500 200
Figure 2.24
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6. Install the bolts from the bottom up and draw the nuts down moderately tight. 7. Recheck alignment of the machine. If the alignment is still satisfactory, torque the nuts on all clearance bolts per torque values as listed in Figure 2.24. Drill and ream for the fitted bolt, or bolts, and install. Torque the nut on the fitted bolt also per Figure 2.24. 8. Install lock nuts on all bolts, torque, and mark with a spot of paint for future visual checks.
Miscellany
Warning Against Lead Shims Do not use lead metal. Lead is easily deformed under weight and vibration and has poor supporting characteristics. Warning Against Multiple Piece, Sheet Metal Shims Using hand cut, sheet metal shims, is discouraged. The edge deformation of the sheet metal shims, caused by the use of hand sheet metal cutters (tin snips) will prevent a stack of such shims from lying flat and will eventually allow an engine, thus shimmed, to drop out of alignment, as its shims relax. Also repeated, small, relative movement between shims, along with inherent engine vibration may cause the shims to beat out, especially with 3500 family engines and larger. Mounting Bolts There are two types of mounting bolts: Clearance bolts are nominally 1.5 mm (0.06 in.) diameter smaller than the holes in which they are installed. Clearance bolts are used to insure the engine does not move vertically on its foundation. Fitted bolts have a tight fit in the holes in which they are installed. Fitted bolts, sometimes called ground body bolts, are used to insure the engine does not move around horizontally on its foundation. Install both types of mounting bolts with the head down and the threaded end up for ease
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of routine periodic inspection of the bolted joints. One fitted bolt must be used at the rear of the engine to maintain position and alignment. Never use fitted bolts forward of the engines flywheel housing. Use clearance bolts in all locations forward of the flywheel housing.
mounts which use helical metal springs, rubber mounts which use rubber, either in shear or compression, and Combined Spring and Rubber Mounts-which use both methods of achieving resilience. Some characteristics of these mounts are: Spring Mounts generally, will achieve the highest amount of resilience. They are also generally more costly. Even with spring mounts, it is good practice to put some rubber in the mounting system. Mounts which use only metal components can still transmit significant vibration/noise in the high frequencies. Rubber Mounts are excellent at isolating the higher frequencies of engine vibration/noiseoften better than the spring type. Rubber mounts are generally cost effective, as well. Rubber mounts require periodic inspection for hardening/cracking of the rubber elements. Combined Spring and Rubber Type Vibration mounts combine the best of both types.
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Miscellaneous Considerations
Collision Blocks
When marine classification societies or local marine practice requires the use of collision blocks, they should be located with sufficient clearance to allow for thermal growth of the engine. Prefabricate the collision blocks and install them while the engine is at operating temperature with approximately 0.12 mm (0.005 in.) hot clearance. Collision blocks are recommended to resist the shock loads encountered in hard docking collisions and groundings.
Fig 2.25
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2. With the indicator still set at zero, rotate the crankshaft in the normal direction until the indicator nearly touches the connecting rods on the other side of the crankshaft. (Do not allow the indicator to touch the connecting rod.) The dial indicator reading must not vary more than 0.3 mm (0.001 in.) throughout the approximately 300 degrees of crankshaft rotation. Rotate the crankshaft back to its original position in the opposite rotation direction. The indicator must return to its original reading of zero to make a valid test. If not, the indicator shaft points were not properly seated and the test procedure must be repeated.
3. If the gauge reads more than 0.03 mm (0.001 in.), cylinder block distortion has occurred due to improper mounting. Loosen the hold-down bolts between the engine rails and mounting blocks. Check carefully for loose shims, improper locations of fitted bolts, interference from clearance bolts, or any other constraints to proper engine block movement. Make any needed adjustments and secure the hold-down bolts, making sure alignment of the engine has not been disturbed. 4. Repeat the distortion check procedure. Consult your Caterpillar dealer if the engine block is still bent.
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Auxiliary
Bases Alignment Mounting Auxiliary Engines
This section is concerned with the mounting and alignment of auxiliary engines. Auxiliary engines are power packages used to provide onboard power to drive generators, pumps, compressors, winches, etc. The engine driven equipment (load) is either directly mounted to the engine (close coupled) or is remote mounted from the engine and driven through a shaft and coupling. The major application of auxiliary engines is to provide shipboard electrical power. The following discussions, which refer primarily to engines driving generators, also apply to other types of auxiliary power packages. The Caterpillar diesel auxiliary engine is built as a rigid, self-supporting structure within itself. If the engine is mounted on a foundation which is true (flat) or on a pair of longitudinal beams, the tops of which are in the same plane, the engine will hold its own alignment. If subjected to external forces or restrained from its thermal growth by the mounting, affected tolerances may result in bearing or crankshaft failure. The power module must maintain the original alignment under all operational and environmental conditions. Misalignment between an engine and driven equipment can cause vibration and shorten the life of coupling and bearings. The major cause of misalignment is flexing of the mounting structure due to weakness. Other causes are poor installation methods and incorrect alignment procedures.
Limit torsional and bending moment forces caused by torque reaction and subbase flexing. Have a natural frequency such that resonance does not occur during the machinerys normal work. Make proper alignment easy. Allow sufficient space for shimming in the alignment process. Ease of initial installation, vibration isolation, or need of isolating from a flexing mounting surface are major reasons for use of fabricated bases. No base of any type should be rigidly connected to a flexing surface. The type of load will determine the design features required in an engine base: If the load is close coupledsuch as a single bearing generator, the base is subjected to relatively light twisting loads. Its rigidity need only be moderate. But if the load is remote-mountedsuch as a two bearing generator, the base is subjected to far greater twisting loads and its rigidity must be very great.
Bases
Base Design
The most important function of an engine base is rigidity. It must maintain alignment between the auxiliary engine and its driven equipment. An engine base must: Protect the engine block, drive train couplings, and load (generator gear reducer, or pump) from bending forces during shipment.
Figure 3.1
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Foot-Mounted Engines
Base cross members must be as substantial as the longitudinal beams. Place the cross members beneath each engine and generator support location. Use drilled and threaded steel mounting blocks between the engine/driven equipment and the base. Bolt these blocks to the engine/driven equipment first and then weld to the base providing a flat surface for shimming and mounting. Mounting holes drilled into the structural members of the base are not recommended. There should be sufficient space for shimming between the mounting blocks and the engine/driven equipment mounting surfaces. Flexible mounts are not allowed between the mounting blocks and the engine/load mounting foot surfaces.
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
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Rail-Mounted Engines
In addition to the requirements for foot mounted engines, the following applies for rail-mounted engines: The standard engine-mounted support rails (engine length) must be used between the engine and the structural base. Locate cross members directly beneath the front and rear engine-to-rail mounting locations.
Place threaded mounting blocks at the front and rear of the engine-mounted rails with space available for shimming. Bolt these blocks to the engine/driven equipment first and then weld to the base to provide a flat surface for shimming and mounting. Do not weld the engine-mounted rail to the structural base. Bolt the engine-mounted rails to the threaded mounting blocks through clearance holes to provide for thermal growth.
Figure 3.4
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BASE FOR ENGINES WITH REMOTE MOUNTED DRIVEN EQUIPMENT Figure 3.5
Experience has shown boxing is effective in preventing base cracking and misalignment.
Alignment
In high speed applications, at normal operating temperatures and load, misalignment between the diesel engine and all mechanically driven equipment must be kept to a minimum. Many crankshaft and bearing failures can be traced to incorrect
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alignment of the drive systems. Misalignment at operating temperatures and under load will always result in vibration and/or stress loading. Since there is no accurate and practical method for measuring alignment with the engine running at operating temperature and under load, all Caterpillar alignment procedures must be performed with the engine stopped and the engine and all driven equipment at ambient temperature. For information on alignment principles and the use of dial indicators, please refer to the Mounting and Alignment section under propulsion engines in this manual. Refer to the following Caterpillar Special Instruction for more detailed information and specific instructions on mounting and alignment procedures.
Form No. SEHS7654 SEHS7259 SEHS7073 Title Alignment - General Instructions Alignment of Single Bearing Generators Alignment of Two-Bearing Generators
Bearing Clearances
The generator rotor shaft and engine crankshaft rotate in the center of their respective bearings, so their centerlines should coincide. Alignment is made under static conditions while the crankshaft is in the bottom of its bearings. This is not its position during operation. Firing pressures, centrifugal forces, and engine oil pressure all tend to lift the crankshaft and cause the flywheel to orbit around its true center. Generally, the driven equipment will have ball or roller bearings which do not change their rotational axis between static and running conditions.
Running Clearance
Static Clearance
Crankshaft
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Flywheel Sag
With the engine not running, the weight of the overhanging flywheel and coupling causes the crankshaft to bend. This effect must be compensated for during alignment since it results in the pilot bore and outside diameter of the flywheel rotating lower than the true crankshaft bearing centerline during alignment. Caterpillar recommends alignment checks be performed with the coupling in place.
alignment due to insufficient base strength allowing excessive base deflection under torque reaction load. This has the effect of introducing a side to side centerline offset which disappears when the engine is idled (unloaded) or stopped.
Thermal Growth
As the engine and generator reach operating temperatures, expansion or thermal growth will occur. This growth is both vertical and horizontal. The vertical growth increases the vertical elevation between the component mounting feet and the respective centerlines of rotation. This thermal growth depends on the type of metals used, the temperature rise that occurs, and the vertical distance from the center of rotation to the mounting feet. Crankshaft horizontal growth occurs at the opposite end of the engine from the thrust bearing. The location of thrust bearings on Caterpillar Engines is at the rear of the crankshaft. This growth has to be planned for when driven equipment is connected to the front end of the engine. The growth is slight if the driven equipment is bolted to the engine block, since the block and crankshaft grow at approximately the same rate. An example of this would be a front power takeoff clutch.
Crankshaft
End Clearance
Horizontal compensation consists of using a coupling with sufficient end clearance that allows relative movement between the driving and driven members. The equipment must be positioned so the horizontal growth moves into the coupling operating zone, not away from it. Failure to do so will result in excessive crankshaft thrust bearing loading and/or coupling failure. Sufficient clearance has been allowed if it is determined during hot alignment check that the crankshaft still has end clearance.
Coupling Flywheel
Torque Reaction
The tendency of the engine to twist in the opposite direction of shaft rotation and the tendency of the driven machine to turn in the direction of shaft rotation is torque reaction. It naturally increases with load and may cause a torque vibration. This type of vibration will not be noticeable at idle but will be felt with load. This usually is caused by a change in
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Horizontal Thermal growth Thrust Bearing Rear Driven Unit Driven Unit Supports Driveshaft Flexible Coupling Engine
Flywheel Housing
Coupling Clearance
Engine
Flexible Coupling
Figure 3.8
to be made without removing the rubber element. The coupling for front-driven equipment is similar to the rear-drive coupling illustrated below. On front drives, the driven element shown in Figure 3.8 is to be supported on the engine crankshaft as it does not weigh as much as the driving element.
Other Couplings
The flexible element of other couplings must be removed during alignment checks. Element stiffness can prevent accurate alignment readings. With the coupling element removed, the driving and driven members of the coupling should be rotated together during alignment checks. This prevents face or bore runout of the piece parts from affecting the dial indicator readings. When both members are rotated together, only equipment misalignment will register on the dial indicator readings.
Fig. 3.9
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Base Rotates
Base Distorts
Distorting Force
Figure 3.10
Anti-Vibration Mounting
Caterpillar Engines are capable of withstanding all self-induced vibrations and no isolation is required merely to prolong their service life. However, vibrations from surrounding equipment, if severe, can harm a generator set which is inoperative for long periods of time. Bearings and shafts can beat out and ultimately fail if these vibrations are not isolated. A running generator set will rarely be harmed by exterior vibrations. The method of isolating the unit is the same for exterior vibrations as it is for self-induced ones. Caterpillar recommends the use of flexible mounts on all auxiliary engine installations. Refer to Vibration and Isolation section for information on types of vibration and isolation principles. Some new generator packages have factory installed vibration isolators. refer to the Price List to determine if they are standard or optional.
Three-Point Mounting
The three-point suspension system should be used when there is a possibility that the substructure supporting the base can deflect due to external forces or settling. Suspending the power unit on three points isolates the unit from deflection of the substructure, thus maintaining proper relationship and alignment of all equipment and preventing distortion of the engine block. More than three mounting points can cause base distortion (Figure 3.10.) Objectionable vibration can occur if the power module is not mounted on well supported structures or is not anchored securely. In addition to the three-point mounting, vibration isolators may be required to isolate objectionable vibrations.
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Propeller-induced vibration caused by the propeller blades passing the hull, strut, or skeg. Twin or multiple screw propulsion installations running out of phase where vibrations will occur at frequencies depending on the differences in engine rpm. All first order vibrations caused by other engines and installed pumping equipment.
Several types of resilient pads isolate noise but not vibration. Some may even amplify first order vibrations. As a general rule, resilient mounting pads should have at least 6 mm (15/64 in.) static deflection; less than this results in reduced noise, but little or no vibration isolation. Consult the supplier for specific information.
Protection
In order to protect marine auxiliary engines, flexible spring-type mounts should be installed between the base and the ships structure. Caterpillar and others can supply flexible mounts. To obtain the correct flexible mount, the supplier must know what protection is required.
C G
X Figure 3.11
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On smaller engines requiring only two pairs of mounts, locate one pair under front engine supports and the other pair under load supports.
C G WG
WT
WE
Figure 3.12
For three-point mounting of the engine base, arrange the isolators to obtain three point contact with the load equally distributed.
Figure 3.14
Assuming an engine and generator is assembled to a base, the assembled center of gravity (CG) can be calculated. A common reference point is needed. In this case, use the rear face of the flywheel housing. Because measurements are to both sides of the reference, one direction can be considered negative. Therefore:
WT (D) = WG ( d1) + WE (d2) D= (WE(d2) WG(d1)) WT
If additional equipment is added, such as front power take-off, the process is repeated to determine a new center of gravity.
Figure 3.13
Having established the center of gravity for the total unit, the loading on each pair of isolators can be determined (Figure 3.15).
(b) c a S =W ( ) c
S1 = W T
2 T
The location of the center of gravity of the assembled unit can be determined after the total weight of the unit is established.
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c a C G b
Spring Isolators
The most effective isolators of low frequency vibration are the steel spring type. These can isolate approximately 96% of all vibrations. They also provide overall economy and allow mounting, of all but propulsion machinery, on surfaces that need only support the static weight. No allowance for torque or vibratory loads is required on nonpropulsion machinery. Steel spring-type isolators are effective in the vibration frequency range from 5 to 1,000 Hz. Marine-type spring isolators should be used for auxiliary engine mounting. This type of isolator is equipped with all directional limit stops designed to restrict excessive movement of the engine and to withstand forces due to roll, pitch and slamming of sea-going vessels. By the addition of a rubber pad beneath the spring isolator, the high frequency vibrations which are transmitted through the spring are also blocked. These high frequency vibrations are not harmful but result in annoying noise (Figure 3.17). Follow the installation and adjustment instructions provided by the isolator supplier. Many spring type isolators are equipped with horizontal limit stops (snubbers) but do not include built in vertical limit stops. If this type of isolator is used, external vertical limit stops should be added between the engine rail, or support, and the ships engine bed. Isolator snubbers and limit stops should be adjusted to permit only the amount of motion necessary for isolation purposes. No matter what type of isolation is used, it should be sized to have its natural frequency as far removed from the exciting frequencies of the engine as possible. If these two frequencies were similar, the entire unit would be in resonance.
WT
S1 Figure 3.15
S2
Commercial Isolators
Several commercial isolators are available which will provide varying degrees of isolation. Care must be taken to select the best isolator for the application. Generally the lower the natural frequency of the isolator (softer), the greater the deflection and the more effective the isolation. However, the loading limit of the isolator must not be exceeded.
Rubber Isolators
Rubber-type isolators are adequate for applications where vibration control is not severe. By careful selection, isolation of 90% is possible. They will isolate most noise created by transmission of vibratory forces. Care must be exercised to avoid using rubber isolators which have the same natural frequency as the engine-exciting frequencies in both the vertical and horizontal planes.
Flexible Connections
When using the marine spring isolator, ensure that each pipe, control system, electrical, and driveline connection is properly designed to allow for maximum engine
59
Engine Rail
Rubber Pad MARINE-TYPE ISOLATOR Figure 3.16 Engine Rail Vertical Limit Stop
Vibration Isolator
Horizontal Snubber
Engine Bed
Rubber Pad SPRING ISOLATOR WITH EXTERNAL LIMIT STOP Figure 3.17
Collision Blocks
All spring-mounted equipment should have stops to restrict vertical and side movement within reasonable limits. Collision blocks may be provided for all auxiliary engine installations if they do not restrict thermal growth.
mounting feet must be in solid contact with the supports before installation of the anchor bolts. If the mounting feet are not in solid contact, distortion of the generator housing can result. Shim packs under all equipment should be 5 mm (0.2000 in.) minimum thickness to prevent later corrections requiring the removal of shims when there are too few or zero shims remaining. Shim packs should be of nonrusting material. Handle shims carefully.
Shimming
Use shims as necessary between the generator mounting feet and the generator supports to maintain correct vertical alignment with the engine. All generator
60
Mounting Bolts
The diameter of the clearance-type bolts used to hold the engine rails or feet to the base must be 1.6 mm (0.06 in.) less than the diameter of the holes in the engine rails. This clearance is to allow the engine mounting rails or feet to grow without confinement. Refer to the section on thermal growth.
5. Loosen bolts at mounting surface 2 and retorque bolts at mounting surface 4 to 1/2 torque value listed. 6. If indicator moves 0.05 mm (0.002 in.), or less, retorque bolts at mounting surface 2. If indicator moves more than 0.05 mm (0.002 in.), add shims under bolts at mounting surface 2 or 4. Repeat steps 1 thru 6. 7. With indicator and support bracket still at top position, retorque all bolts to full values. Reading should not change more than 0.05 mm (0.002 in.).
Bolt Torque
A bolt is properly torqued when it is stretched a calculated amount. The proper stretch clamps the machinery to the base securely. The clamping force is then maintained during movement caused by vibration(refer to Figure 3.20). A bolt that is undertorqued cannot maintain the clamping force while vibrations are present. It will gradually work loose and allow misalignment to occur. Bolts of the size used on Caterpillar bases require very high torque values. As an example, a 25.4 mm (1 in.) bolt has a torque of 868108 Nm (64080 ft lb). A torque wrench, extension and torque multiplier are required to obtain this high value. Do not use special bolt lubricants as the effective bolt clamping force can be excessive.
Proper Practice
2 Mounting Surface
4 Note: *Number near each mounting surface represent proper bolt tightening sequence. *Procedure described is valid for all independently mounted equipment. i.e., engine, two bearing generator, remote mounted marine transmission, etc.
3 Full Torque Value Bolt Diameter mm 3/4 Inch 19 7/8 22 1 Inch 25 Figure 3.19 Torque N m lb-ft 265 35 360 50 420 60 570 80 640 80 875 100
Caterpillar nuts and bolts are made of Grade 8 steel, one of the strongest available. They are identified by six raised or depressed lines on the nut or bolt head. Make sure mounting bolts are not bottomed out in hole, resulting in low effective bolt clamping force. After completion of the final shimming and bolting operation, recheck the alignment.
Crankshaft Deflection
Crankshaft deflection must be measured both cold and hot on certain specified engines. The allowable deflection must not exceed 0.025 mm (0.001 in.). Deflection must be measured at the center crankshaft throw. See Mounting and Alignment section for details on crankshaft deflection.
Clamping Force
Figure 3.20
62
Control Systems
General Information Engine Stall and Reversal
General Information
The use of a reliable control system is essential. The controls must be precise, dependable, and easy to operate. The control system, in its most basic form, is the equipment which allows the pilot to adjust the propulsion engine/s throttle (speed) and the marine gears clutchesfrom neutral to ahead or astern. To control throttle setting, a control system must rotate and hold the angular position of the governor control throttle. To effectively control the marine gear with mechanically actuated hydraulic control valves, a control system must move a short lever on the hydraulic control valve to any of three positions (forward, neutral, reverse) and maintain the selected position without placing undue stress on the linkage or allowing the lever position to creep. To effectively control the marine gear with solenoid-actuated hydraulic control valves, an electrical signal energizes one of two solenoids to pressurize either the forward or astern clutch. If neither solenoid is energized, the gear remains in neutral and neither clutch is pressurized.
se er ev le R Id
Fo Id
e v e rs R e if t Sh
F or w a Shif rd t
rw a le rd
se ea cr ttle In hro T
Full Forward
Figure 1.1
Neutral Throttle
Neutral throttle allows independent speed control when the marine gear is in neutral. This feature is useful when controlling the speed of engine-driven accessories such as generators, pumps or winches.
engine connections kits. Series installations are less precise than parallel systems and should be used only when a parallel installation would be impractical due to long cable runs and excessive or sharp bends in the cable. The system selected is determined by the cable length and total degrees of cable bend required.
Throttle Connection Kit (to suit engine) Clutch Connection Kit (to suit gear)
Figure 1.2
Type
Push-Pull Cable System
Push-pull cable control systems are reliable and economical. The distance between the control head at the pilot station and the engine is limited by friction in the cables. For best results, keep cable length under 30 ft. The number and included angle of bends in the control cables add significantly to their internal friction. Avoid all unnecessary bends. Keep all bends in the cables as gradual as possible (minimum 200 mm [8 in.] bend radius). Stiffness or binding in the operation of the hand lever can usually be traced to: Excessive number of bends in cable runs Sharp bend in the cables too close to the control head Bends smaller than the recommended minimum radius of 200 mm (8 in.) Tight or misaligned engine linkage Cable compressed too tightly by cable support Engine clutch lever hitting its limit stops at forward and/or reverse
MT CONTROL SYSTEM Clutch Connection Kit (to suit gear)
Figure 1.3
Control Head
MK Control Head
Shut-Off Cable
Turnbuckle
To Remote Station Throttle Connection Kit (to suit engine) Connection Kit (to suit transmission) Push-Pull Cables
The installation of push-pull cable control systems is fairly simple. Manufacturers installation bulletins for both two-lever (Figure 1.2) and single-lever lever (Figures 1.3 and 1.4) systems illustrate the systems.
Cable-in-Tension System
Where a cable control system is preferred and long runs and numerous bends may be encountered, a system is used utilizing two cables in tension, running over pulleys mounted on antifriction bearings (refer to Figure 1.5). To reduce the number of cables and to maintain precision in the response of the system, a single lever type of control system is used. A control gearbox to the governor and reverse gear is installed on the engine.
System Connectors
Electric control systems are generally interconnected by multiconductor electrical cable. This is much less expensive than mechanical cable or hydraulic tubing.
(PEEC) (PEEC)
Mathers, ED Electric, Sturdy, Twin Disc and Kobelt are control manufacturers that can provide fully electronic control packages with our electronically controlled engines. They have electronic controls that are programmable for shifting and provide an electronic signal compatible with Caterpillar electronic engines.
Control Logic
Generally, the control logic is contained in the electric-to-mechanical converter box in the engine room/compartment. Larger systems will combine the logic circuitry with a propulsion system monitoring system in a cabinet in the engine room.
4
Also, under crash reversal conditions, it is conceivable that unless some device is used to counteract the inertia of large masses, the engine could stall or actually be motorized to run in reverse rotation. Avoiding engine stalling and/or reversal with mechanical controls is difficult. One method is by careful clutch engagement and by allowing the boat to slow down before the shift is made. The adept operator can repeatedly engage and disengage the reversing clutch, until the vessels speed is checked sufficiently, and then complete the maneuver. Where large, heavy vessels, or those attached to a tow are concerned, this method may cause overheating of the reverse clutch. When this danger exists, other means must be employed. Engine stalling and reversal problems can be avoided if close attention is paid to the engine and transmission control system. Pneumatic and electronic controls which provide sequencing and timing of speed and directional signals offer optimum maneuvering as well as protection for the engine and transmission.
3500 Family Engines equipped with 3161 governors will shut off their fuel if subjected to engine reversal.
Throttle Boost
Throttle boost momentarily raises the idling speed setting of the engine. The engine speed increase comes just before engagement of the marine gear clutch. This momentary speed increase occurs only during maneuvering, not at steady boat speed conditions. Throttle boost is kept as low as possible because it tends to increase the load on the clutches during maneuvering. The control system should permit adjustment of both the amount and duration of throttle boost. The throttle boost for most Marine Gears should be set no higher than 750 rpm for 1800 rpm engines and 600 rpm for 1200 rpm engines at no load. Sea trials should determine the level of throttle boost necessary to ensure a safe shaft reversal and maintain engine speed above the minimum limits. Consult the marine transmission manufacturer for boosted-shift clutch capability. Although reversing problems seldom occur with marine transmissions ratios more shallow than those previously mentioned, it is recommended that a throttle boost system be incorporated with more shallow ratioed transmissions as an additional safety feature.
1. A propeller shaft brake can safely reduce vessel maneuvering time. A vessel will slow in half the time with a stopped propeller as compared to a windmilling propeller. The propeller slip stream torque, therefore, falls to a level lower than the slow speed torque of the engine in half the time. 2. The propeller shaft brake accepts half the speed reversal loads when maneuvering. The brake brings the propeller to a stop. This load is transmitted directly to the hull. The clutch and propulsion system are only asked to pick up a stopped propeller shaft rather than a windmilling propeller. Because load on the engaging clutch is greatly reduced, clutch life is extended. Transmission gears, engine and other major components of the propulsion system are subject to less shock. 3. The propeller shaft brake will prevent engine stall when attempting crash stops or when high vessel speed shaft reversals are attempted during maneuvers. A propeller shaft brake should be considered on any marine propulsion system using engines over 500 hp where the reduction ratio is 4:1 or deeper and where high speed maneuvering is a requirement. Disc brakes and drum-type brakes are available. The brake should be sized to handle at least 75% of the full rated shaft torque and should stop the shaft within three seconds during a crash reversal. Brake size requirements will vary with type of propeller, vessel speed, and vessel application. Proper control and sequencing of a propeller shaft brake is very important. Overlap can occur if the clutch engages before the brake is released. This would show as an extra load on the engine, slowing it and even stalling the engine. Underlap is releasing the brake well ahead of the clutch making contact. The propeller will quickly begin to windmill in the wrong direction and much of the advantage of the brake is lost.
Shaft Brake
In vessel applications where heavy maneuvering is required or if full speed reversals may be encountered, the use of a propeller shaft brake is recommended. A properly controlled shaft brake will stop the rotation of the propeller whenever the transmission clutches are disengaged and the engine is at low idle speed. This action reduces the amount of torque required from the engine in order to complete a shaft directional change. Several advantages are gained with the use of shaft brakes.
Properly adjusted air controls should provide event sequence time in the area of 5 to 7 seconds for slow speed maneuvering and in the area of 7 to 12 seconds or more for full speed crash reversals. The timing is set as fast as the propulsion system can safely be operated. The timing should be set permanently at the time of sea trials. Without a propeller shaft brake, a longer pause in neutral in place of Steps 3 and 4 in the event sequence will normally be required to allow reduced vessel speed. The control system must be carefully maintained. Follow the manufacturers maintenance recommendations explicitly.
Recommended Systems
Consult with the manufacturers of control systems to determine their availability to provide event sequence systems as described previously. The shipyard should furnish a low air pressure alarm located at the supply air to the pneumatic control system. The alarm should be audible and visual and should be actuated if the air pressure should fall below a predetermined levelgenerally 90 psi (620.5 kPa).
Mathers
The Mathers control system offers single lever pneumatic control of speed, clutch, and brake (if required). The system uses fixed orifice timing with option for as many control stations as required. They also offer electronic controls with the same sequence timing adjustments.
CH5 Control Head Port Numbers: 1 Supply 6 Speed 7 Direction 8 Direction Secondary Station Station Transfer Panel Transfer Button
761 8
761 8
Forward
81 7
AD12 Air Drive Port Numbers: 1 Supply 2 Ahead 3 Astern 4 Boost 5 Speed-Out 6 Speed-In 7 Astern 8 Ahead
Mathers Control
3 2 45 6
Governor Positioner
Clutch Actuator
Resevoir
Booster
Disc Brake
Mathers Controls Inc. AD12 Propulsion Control System For Hydraulic Clutches
Figure 1.6
WABCO
WABCO, a division of American Standard, also provide complete sequencing control systems. The following is an example. LMAC-3C Logicmaster Air Clutch-Control Systems for 3600 Family of Caterpillar Engines This control system provides interlocked and sequenced operation of proportional timing in ahead and astern clutch engagement and engine speed control to ensure proper operation of the propulsion machinery as the operator manipulates the remotely mounted control lever. The control system incorporates the following interlocks and the optional features. 1. Positive cross engagement interlocks ensure that one clutch is vented below 15 psi before the opposite clutch can be inflated. 2. The clutch engagement system incorporates a three-stage clutch fill. First, an initial quick fill to bring the clutch shoes into contact with the drum. Second, a controlled rate of fill. Third, a full flow hard fill inflation at maximum rate up to supply pressure.
timer unit controls rate of boost application and regulator controls the magnitude of boost delivered to the governor.
low command
10
4. A clutch pressure-engine speed interlock to ensure that the clutch is inflated to lock-up pressure before engine speed can be increased from the remote operating station. 5. Proportional reversing interlock occurs in both directions. This time is adjustable and provides a neutral hold time proportion to the vessel speed. Normal maneuvers are accomplished with the minimum reversing time increasing in proportion. 6. The ahead clutch hold-in function to shorten the reversing time by holding in the ahead clutch which uses the engines compression to slow down the propeller during high speed and crash reversals. 7. A shaft brake signal (optional) is provided to actuate a shaft brake in synchronization with the clutch engage/disengage control system. The brake is released when clutch engagement is initiated and is applied when both clutches are fully released. When a brake is used, the interlocks provide a neutral hold to permit the brake to be applied and the shaft stopped before reversal is initiated.
Supply Pressure
Fill
l odu
atio
Hardfill Pressure
10
3. A governor power boost is applied during initial clutch engagement to prevent engine stalling. This boost is adjustable in magnitude and duration. Adjustment of
10
state of charge of the batteries, and condition of the battery cables. C Transmission Oil Temperature Many transmission problems, such as clutch slippage, insufficient clutch pressure, bearing wear, cooler blockage or loss of cooling water flow will be manifested as an increase in transmission oil temperature. C Exhaust Stack Temperature Changes from normal exhaust stack temperatures will give useful information concerning air filter restriction, aftercooler restriction, injector condition, valve problems, and engine load. D Individual Cylinder Exhaust Temperature While these instruments will give immediate warning of individual injector failure, the inevitable wide tolerance on the standard temperature (42 C degrees) (75 F degrees) often causes undue operator concern. In general, advantages gained by this instrumentation are overshadowed by high cost (thermocouples need annual replacement) and need for special operator training.
Instruments
The functions below are listed in their order of desirability for Helmsmans station instrument panel placement. A = Must Have Instrumentation B = Highly Desirable Instrumentation C = Useful Instrumentation D = Questionable, Without Special Requirements A Engine Lubrication Oil Pressure Loss of lube oil pressure while operating at full power is likely to result in severe engine damage. Quick action by the pilot in reducing stopping the engine can save an engine. To protect the engine, the pilot must be able to see the status of engine oil pressure continuously. A Jacket Water Temperature Increase of jacket water temperature is almost as serious as loss of lube oil pressure and somewhat more likely. Similar quick action by the pilot can minimize engine damage resulting from a high temperature condition. A Engine Speed (rpm) Rather than a safety-oriented engine function, engine speed is an operation related measurement. Observing the relationship between engine speed, vessel load, and throttle position will allow the pilot to make informed judgments about engine load and need for maintenance. B Transmission Oil Pressure Transmission oil pressure measurement shows the pilot when the transmission clutches have engaged and useful information concerning the condition of the pump, filters, or clutches. Excessive pressure can damage components in the hydraulic circuit. B Voltmeter Voltage of the starter/alternator circuit give the pilot useful information regarding battery condition, alternator condition,
Alarm/Shutdown Contactors
These are preset contactors (switches) that will activate a customer-supplied alarm, light, or engine shutdown solenoid, when certain limits are exceeded. Alarm switches available from Caterpillar will operate on AC or DC, from 6 volts to 240 volts. These switches are of the singlepole double-throw type. With the exception of the overspeed function, propulsion engines should not be automatically shutdown. The pilot should be warned of impending failure but should retain the authority to decide whether to shut down the engine or to continue to operate. Overspeed failures will result in loss of engine power. If the engine is equipped with an overspeed protection device, the engine will
15
not be harmed as much as if the overspeed failure had proceeded unimpeded. A = Must Have Instrumentation B = Highly Desirable Instrumentation C = Useful Instrumentation D = Questionable, Without Special Requirements A Low Lube Oil Pressure There are two conditions that need to be alarmed: low lube oil pressure at low engine load (idle conditions) and low lube oil pressure at high engine speed and/or load. An oil pressure that would be perfectly safe while operating at very low loads and/or speeds would be too low at full load/speed conditions. A suitable system will include two pressure-sensitive contactors and a speed (rpm) switch to decide which pressure switch should have the authority to warn the operator. A High Coolant Temperature High coolant temperature contactors should be set to actuate within 2.8C (5F) of the highest normal temperature of the engine at the point of installation. A. Overspeed Overspeed faults occur when some part of the engine fails, causing the fuel control mechanism to be locked in a high fuel flow condition. When the engine load goes to a low level, the engine will continue to receive a high fuel flow. Without the load, the engine speed increases to a dangerously high level. Generally, the engines air supply must be cut off to save the engine. Overspeed contactors need to be set 12-15% over rated engine speed to avoid nuisance engine shutdowns during sudden reductions in engine load. B Water Level Alarm Warning of coolant loss could allow the operator to save an engine which would otherwise be lost to overheat failure. Install level sensors in the highest part of the cooling systemgenerally in the auxiliary expansion tank. This will give
16
warning of coolant loss at the earliest possible time, before the coolant level has fallen to a dangerous level. C Low Sea Water Pump Differential Pressure The sea water flow to a heat exchanger cooled engine is very important. It is a good idea to install a differential pressure contactor across the sea water pump to warn of any discontinuity in sea water flow. C Intake Manifold Temperature Alarm Switches Intake manifold temperature alarm switches are available for use on some engines. High intake manifold temperature will warn of sea water pump failure, sea strainer plugging, or any other condition which reduces or stops aftercooler water flow.
Alarm Panel
Caterpillar recommends the following features in alarm panels: Fault light lock-in circuitry keeps the fault light on when intermittent faults occur. Lockout of additional alarm lights prevents subsequent alarm lights from going on after the activated engine shutoff stops the engine. This aids in troubleshooting. Alarm silence allows the operator to acknowledge the alarm without having to continually listen to the alarm horn. The alarm light is left on. If more than one engine is connected to an alarm panel, a fault in a second engine should activate the alarm even though the alarm horn may have been silenced after a fault on another engine. Circuit test provides for periodic checking of alarm panel functions.
Instrumentation Problems
Without highly trained personnel and rigorous discipline, too much instrumentation can be detrimental. The weak link in any instrumentation system is the sensor unit (transducer). Too often, an otherwise fine system is sabotaged because of frequent false alarms. Plan annual replacement of the sensor units unless unusually high quality sensors are used. High water temperature sensors will not warn of overheat conditions unless their sensing bulbs are submerged in water. High water temperature sensors will not warn of coolant loss.
17
Starting Systems
General Information Starting Aids Starting Smoke
General Information
Startability of a diesel engine is affected primarily by ambient temperature, engine jacket water temperature, and lubricating oil viscosity. Any parasitic loads (usually associated with the driven equipment) can greatly influence the startability, as well. The diesel engine relies on heat of compression to ignite fuel. When the engine is cold, longer cranking periods or higher cranking speeds are necessary to develop adequate ignition temperatures. The drag due to the cold lube oil imposes a great load on the cranking motor. Oil type and temperature drastically alter viscosity. SAE 30 oil approaches the consistency of grease below 0C (32F).
Electric
Battery-powered, electric motors utilize low voltage direct current and provide fast, convenient, pushbutton starting with lightweight, compact engine-mounted components. A motor contactor relieves control logic circuits of high cranking currents.
STARTER MOTOR
TO
PO INP WER UT
BATTERIES BATTERY CHARGER
Starter Types
There are three different types of starting systems normally used for Caterpillar diesel engines. They differ in the method of storing and recharging the energy required for restarting the engine.
Figure 3.1
MAGNETIC SWITCH
FLYWHEEL
STARTING MOTOR
BATTERIES
Figure 3.2
Storage Method
Lead/Acid storage batteries.
Relative Cost
Lowest.
Maintenance Requirements
Highest, the batteries require considerable maintenance.
Reliability of Starting
Good.
Special Concerns
Hydrogen gas, released from the batteries during charging, is very explosive, and compartments containing lead acid batteries must be properly vented.
21
Batteries
Batteries provide power for engine cranking. Lead-acid types are readily available, have high output capabilities, and are relatively inexpensive. Nickel-cadmium batteries are costly, but have long shelf life and require minimum maintenance. Nickel-cadmium types are designed for long life and may incorporate thick plates which decrease high discharge capability. Consult the battery supplier for specific recommendations. Ambient temperatures drastically affect battery performance and charging efficiencies. When operating in cold climates, the use of battery heaters are recommended. The heaters should be set to maintain battery temperature in the range of 32 to 52C (90 to 125F) for maximum effectiveness. The significance of colder battery temperatures is described below. All battery connections must be kept tight and coated with grease to prevent corrosion.
Temperature vs Battery Output Percent of 27C (80F) F C Ampere Hours Output Rating 80 32 0 27 0 -18 100 65 40
Battery Chargers
Various chargers are available to replenish a battery. Trickle chargers are designed for continuous service on unloaded batteries and automatically shut down to milliampere current when batteries are fully charged. Overcharging shortens battery life and is recognized by excessive water losses. Conventional lead-acid batteries require less than 59.2 mL (2 oz) of make-up water during 30 hours of operation. Float-equalize chargers are more expensive than trickle chargers and are used in applications demanding maximum battery life. These chargers include line and load regulation, and current limiting devices which permit continuous loads at rated output. Chargers must be capable of limiting peak currents during cranking cycles or have a relay to disconnect during cranking cycles. Where engine-driven alternators and battery chargers are both used, the disconnect relay is usually controlled to disconnect the battery charger during engine cranking and running. Engine-driven generators or alternators can be used but have the disadvantage of charging batteries only while the engine runs. Where generator sets are subject to long idle periods or many short stop-start cycles, insufficient battery capacity could threaten dependability.
22
Example:
56 in. 6" 6"
SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STARTING MOTOR TYPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE RESISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . MINUS FIXED RESISTANCE 6 CONNECTIONS @ .00001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RESISTANCE REMAINING FOR CABLE . . . . . . . . . BATTERY CABLE LENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3.3
With cable length and fixed resistance determined, select cable size using the following chart. Only full-stranded copper wire should be used. Arc welding cable is much more flexible and easier to install than full stranded copper wire cable, but welding cable is not so durable and will be damaged from corrosion in a much shorter time.
.00300 .00280
RA PA IN #0 2OR LL
#0 0
Not all this resistance is allowed for cables. Connections and contactors, except the motor solenoid contactor, are included in the total allowable resistance. Additional fixed resistance allowances are: Contactors Relays, Solenoid, Switches 0.0002 Ohm each Connections (series connector) 0.00001 Ohm each The fixed resistance of connections and contactors is determined by the cable routing. Fixed resistance (Rf) subtracted from total resistance (Rt) equals allowable cable resistance (Rc): Rt - Rf = Rc.
Figure 3.4
RESISTANCE IN OHMS AT 800F(270C)
#4 #2 #1 #0
#00
#000
.00260 .00240 .00220 .00200 .00180 .00160 .00140 .00120 .00100 .00080 .00060 .00040 .00020 .00000 0 0 100 2.54 200 5.08 300 400
2-
PA
RA
0 IN P A AR LL EL
2-
IN
0 #0
00 00 2-#
IN
EL LL RA PA
500
LL
600 12.70 15.24
INCHES
7.62 10.16
METERS
EL
EL
23
To meet cable length and resistance requirements, cable size must be No. 1. To determine fixed resistance in a parallel circuit, only series connections in one leg of the parallel circuit are counted.
motors accelerate the engine to twice the cranking speed in about half the time required by electric starters. Air is usually compressed to 758 to 1723 kPa (110 to 250 psi) and is stored in storage tanks. Stored air is regulated to 759 kPa (110 psi) and piped to the air motor. A check valve between the compressor and the air receiver is good practice, to protect against a failure of plant air which might deplete the air receivers supply. The air compressors are driven by external power sources. Air starter air supply piping should be short and direct and at least equal in size to the motor intake opening. Black iron pipe is preferred. The piping requires flexible connections at the starter. Deposits of oil and water will accumulate in the air receiver and at low spots in the piping. The accumulation of oil and water must be removed daily to prevent damage to the starting motors. Manual or automatic traps should be installed at the lowest parts of the piping and all piping should slope toward these traps. Air tanks are required to meet specific characteristics, such as the specifications of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). Compressed air storage tanks must be equipped with a maximum pressure valve and a pressure gauge. Check the maximum pressure valve and pressure gauge often to confirm proper operation.
Connections/Proper Practices
Electrical connections are often a source of problems for shipboard electrical systems. Salt air and water are highly corrosive. Electrical connections are almost always made of dissimilar metals. Corrosion is more destructive between dissimilar metals. The following table lists good practices for marine electrical systems. When making electrical connections between wires, connect wires mechanically so tugging or pulling can be withstood without any other treatment of the joint. Then, coat the joint and the nearest portions of each wire with electrical solder. Do not expect solder to increase joint strength. The solder is for corrosion protection. Do not use crimp-type connectors for marine serviceThe plastic sleeve tends to hide the corrosion from view rather than protecting the joint.
Pneumatic
Figure 3.5
Air starting, either manual or automatic, is highly reliable. Torque available from air
24
Pa
Pt
Pmin
Where: = Vt Vs =
Atmospheric Pressure (psia or kPaa) normally, atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia or 101 kPaa. Air Storage Tank Pressure (psia or kPaa). This is the storage tank pressure at the start of cranking. Minimum Air Storage Tank Pressure Required to Sustain Cranking at 100 rpm (psia or kPaa)See Air Starting Requirements Chart.
Air Storage Tank Capacity (cubic feet or cubic meters) Air consumption of the starter motor (m3/sec or ft3/sec)See Air Starting Requirements Chart. Total Cranking Time Required (seconds) if six (6) consecutive starts are required, use seven (7) seconds for first start (while engine is cold), and two (2) seconds each for remaining five (5) starts, or a total cranking time of seventeen (17) seconds.
Air Starting Requirements Air Consumption of the Air Start Motor Versus m3/sec (ft3/sec) of Free Air Air Storage Tank Pressure -PtEngine Model 3304 3306 3176/96 3406 3408 3412 3508 3512 3516 793 kPaa (115 psia) 690 kPag (100 psig) .16 (5.8) .17 (5.9) .17 (6.2) .17 (6.2) .18 (6.4) .25 (9.0) .26 (9.3) .28 (9.8) .30 (10.5) 965 kPaa (140 psia) 1137 kPaa (165 psia) 862 kPag (125 psig) 1034 kPag (150 psig) .20 (6.8) .20 (6.8) .21 (7.3) .21 (7.3) .21 (7.3) .29 (10.3) .30 (10.8) .32 (11.4) .34 (12.1) .21 (7.7) .22 (7.8) .23 (8.3) .23 (8.3) .24 (8.6) .33 (11.8) .36 (12.6) .38 (13.3) .40 (14.1)
Minimum Tank Pressure -PminkPaa (psia) 345 (50) 352 (51) 379 (55) 379 (55) 372 (54) 310 (45) 310 (45) 345 (50) 448 (65)
Note: For engines equipped with pneumatic prelube: add .03 m3/sec (1 ft3/sec) air consumption.
25
adverse conditions up to a maximum of 1034 kPa (150 psi) to the starting motor. The values shown on the air requirements chart assume a bare engine (no parasitic load) at 10C (50F).
The air pressure to the starter must be regulated when tank pressures greater than 1550 kPa (225 psi) are used. These curves do not include air for a prelube pump. The Caterpillar air prelube pump consumption rate is 28.2 L/s (60 scfm). If the engine will be started at ambient temperatures lower than 25C (77F), additional storage tank volume will be required.
Operation
The supply of compressed air to the starting motor must be shut off as soon as the engine starts to prevent wasting starting air pressure and prevent damage to starter motor by overspeeding.
Hydraulic
Hydraulic starting provides high cranking speeds and fast starts. It is relatively compact. Recharging time, using the small engine-driven recharging pump, is fast. The system can be recharged by a hand pump provided for this purpose, although hand recharging is very laborious. The high pressure of the system requires special pipes and fittings and extremely tight connections. Oil lost through leakage can easily be replaced, but because of high pressures in the accumulators (usually 20,700 kPa [3000 psi] when fully charged) recharging the accumulator/s requires special equipment. Repair to the system usually requires special tools. Hydraulic starting is most often used where the use of electrical connections could pose a safety hazard. Hydraulic starting systems are not available from Caterpillar. Contact your local Caterpillar dealer for the nearest available supplier. The Hydraulic Accumulators, if used, contain large amounts of stored mechanical energy. They must be very carefully protected from perforation or breakage.
kPa
700
00
kP
1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0
2.6 2.4
14
16
00
a kP
kP a
00
20
00
kP
0 300
4000
kPa
kPa
Time/Start = 3 sec Regulator Pressure = 860 kPa Final Tank Pressure = 415 kPa 1 2 3 4 4 6 7 8 9 10
0.2 0.0
Figure 3.6
Air starters for 3600 Engines are designed to operate at a maximum air pressure of 1550 kPa (225 psi) at the starter. Minimum air pressure to provide adequate cranking speed for engine starting at 25C (77F) ambient temperature is 415 kPa (60 psi) at the starter.
26
10
Starting Aids
The diesel engine depends on the heat of compression of the air in a cylinder to ignite the fuel. Below some specified temperature, the cranking system will not crank the engine fast enough or long enough to ignite the fuel. One or more commonly used starting aids, such as jacket water heaters and/or ether may be required.
Manifold Heaters
Heat added to the intake manifold of an engine during cranking will significantly improve startability and reduce any white start-up smoke. Manifold heaters are not available from Caterpillar.
Starting Smoke
High performance engines are prone to have some white start-up smoke. The white smoke is composed of unburned fuel*. Caterpillar Engines have been designed to minimize this problem. Operators can do several things to improve the situation: Use of jacket water heaters to raise the engine water temperature to 32-49C (90 to 120F) prior to starting. Keep warm-up idle speeds (rpm) low. Warm the air to the air cleaners and intake manifold. Increase the exhaust pipe restriction-flow (exhaust back pressure) during the warm-up period.
*Diesel engines which are designed to have high output power, yet still be relatively light weight, generally have low compression ratios; i.e., in the range of 12.5 to 16:1. This design factor makes them prone to misfire and run rough until the engine reaches normal operating jacket water temperatures: 80 to 93C (175 to 200F).
Ether
Ether is a volatile and highly combustible agent. Small quantities of ether fumes added to the engines intake air during cranking reduce the compression temperature required for engine starting. Caution is required when using ether to prevent spread of fumes to atmosphere. A proper ether system will meter the rate of ether consumption. Not more than 1 cm3 (0.033 oz) of ether should be released per 100 rated hp for each 10 seconds of cranking. Very low ambient temperatures may require increasing the ether consumption rate. Under no circumstances should ether be released into an engine while running. The 3126 Marine Engine is equipped with an air inlet heater. Under no circumstances should ether be used on this engine.
27
Start-up Systems
General Information Testing/Instruments and Accessories
General Information
Start-up is the final examination at the end of the engine installation process. The start-up is: To confirm the engine is operating properly. To confirm the boats systems associated with the engine (exhaust, cooling, ventilation, fuel, starting, etc.) are adequate to allow the engine to operate up to its full potential. To determine the causes of performance deficiencies in the engine or boat.
30C to 1370C (20F to 2500F), See Special Instruction SMHS7140 and SEHS8446.
Pyrometer
Used to measure the engines exhaust temperature. Caterpillar Part NumberlP3060 Pyrometer Group, Temperature Range = 18C to 870C (0F to 1600F), See Special Instruction SEHS7807.
Pitchometer
Used to measure the propellers pitch; confirming their accuracy. Caterpillar Part Number8T5322 Pitchometer accurately measures propeller blade pitch either on or off the propeller shaft. Pitch can be measured at any shaft angle and at any point along the length of the blade, even under water. See Special Instruction SEHS8643.
Tachometer
Used to measure the speed (rpm) of the engine. Caterpillar Part Number6V3121 Multitach Group, See Special Instruction, SEHS7807
Caterpillar Part No. 5P2720 1/8 in.-27 NPT Thread 5P2725 1/4 in.-18 NPT Thread See Special Instruction SMHS7140.
31
Water Manometer
Measures the exhaust backpressure and intake duct or air cleaner restriction to flow. Caterpillar Part Number8T0452 Water Manometer Can be locally made from 1550 mm (5 ft) length of flexible clear plastic 3/8 in I.D. tubing. See Special Instruction SEHS8524.
Caterpillar Part No. lU5430 Fuel Monitor Arrangement for use with 3100, 3208, 3300, and 3400 Engine Families. Fuel flow range 11.4 L/h to 264 L/h (3 U.S. gal/h to 70 U.S. gal/h). lU5440 Fuel Monitor Arrangement for use with 3500, 3606, and 3608 Engines fuel flow range 151.4 L/h to 3785 L/h (40 U.S. gal/h to 1,000 U.S. gal/h).
32
Serviceability
Overhead Clearance for Connecting Rod and Piston Removal
General Information
Well-designed engine compartments will include features which contribute to the serviceability of the machinery. For example, overhead lifting equipment, some engine subassemblies may be heavier than one man can safely lift by hand, particularly in the often close quarters of the machinery space. Hatches located directly above engines, for simplified removal and reinstallation during overhaul. Outlets of electricity and compressed air to drive high production mechanics tools. Access to those points on the engine which require periodic preventive maintenance such as: lube oil filters and drain plugengine and transmission fuel and air filters sea water and jacket water pump turbochargers zinc plugs heat exchangerfor core cleaning
Vee Engines Engine 3408B&C, 3412C&E D346, D348, D349 D379, D398, D399 3508, 3512, 3516 3612, 3616 Height Above Crankshaft Center 693 mm (27.28 in.) 913 mm (35.94 in.) 1234 mm (48.58 in.) 969 mm (38.15 in.) 1891 mm (74.49 in.)*
35
q Cooling Systems
Cooling Systems
General Information Engine Cooling Circuits System Coolers Expansion Tanks Cooling System Protective Devices Emergency Systems Central Cooling Systems System Pressure Drop Corrosion Useful Tables to Designers of Cooling Systems
General Information
A properly controlled cooling system is essential to satisfactory engine life and performance. Defective cooling systems and careless maintenance are the direct cause of most engine failures. The factory-supplied cooling system should not be modified since the various circuits of the engine-mounted cooling system have been sized to provide the proper flows to its components. Changes to these circuits can cause flow balance to be disrupted to the point that various engine components may fail.
Flexible Connectors
Customer supplied coolant piping must be attached to the engine with flexible connectors. The positions of flexible connections and shut-off valves are important considerations. The shut-off valve should be located so that a broken flexible connection can be isolated without having to shut down the whole system.
Depending on the engine and configuration, the thermostats may be in a controlled inlet or controlled outlet configuration. The operating temperature of the jacket water will be about the same for either system if the thermostat settings are the same or similar. In either the outlet or inlet control system, thermostat placement and sensing of jacket water temperature (and therefore bypass control) is always at the jacket water outlet.
Engine A Thermostat B
Outlet
Engine* *3406, 3408, 3412 D348, D349 3512, 3508, 3516 D379, D398, D399
Engine Driven Jacket water Pump Piping: Part of Engine Supplied by Installer
Figure 1.1
The expansion tank and cooler perform the same function as the radiator. A radiator fan provides air flow through the cooling fins of the radiator to transfer coolant heat to the air. An external water supply is used to accomplish heat transfer when using a heat exchanger or keel cooler. The inlet temperature controlled system provides less cycle temperature variation because mixing of the by pass jacket water and the cooled water takes place in the expansion tank before passing to the jacket
water pump. The volume of water already in the expansion tank dilutes and smooths the temperature change rate. With the simpler outlet control system, mixing occurs at the water pump inlet and temperature change (or cycles) may be more sudden and drastic. This can pose serious problems where the sea water is very cold and may require some special trimming or modification of the vessels cooling circuit.
Bypass Line
Return Engine Driven Jacket water Pump Piping: RADIATOR CONTROLLED OUTLET THERMOSTATS Figure 1.2 Part of Engine Supplied by Installer
Remote-mounted heat exchangers require connecting the jacket water inlet and outlet at the engine to the shell side of the exchanger. As shown below, an engine driven seawater pump is used to circulate the cooling water through the tubes of the heat exchanger.
1 10 2 9 7 8 3 5 4
13 13 11 13 14 JACKET WATER AFTERCOOLED Heat Exchanger 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Figure 1.3 Turbocharger Aftercooler, jacket water cooled Jacket water outlet connection Jacket water inlet connection Expansion tank Jacket water pump Auxiliary pump, seawater 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Seawater inlet connection Seawater outlet connection Pressure cap Duplex full-flow strainer Heat exchanger Shut-off valve Seawater intake 12
Fresh Water
Fresh water refers to drinkable water. Prior to chemical water treatment for engine corrosion inhibiting, it must be in a pH range of 5.5 to 9.0, containing no more than 40 ppm chlorides. Total dissolved solids must be less than 340 ppm. Total sulfates must be no more than 100 ppm. Total hardness must be less than 170 ppm. This is the cooling water that is used within the engines jacket water system.
Water Specifications
Caterpillar used two water classifications: fresh water and seawater.
Seawater
Seawater refers to salt water, river water, lake water and all waters that do not meet the fresh-water requirement. Heat exchanger components in contact with this water should be copper-nickel construction, or equivalent, highly corrosion resistant material. This is not the water retained within the engines jacket water system.
11 1 12 2
3 4
6 10 10 8 10 9 10 7 JACKET WATER AFTERCOOLED Keel Cooler 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Figure 1.4 Turbocharger Aftercooler, jacket water cooled Jacket water outlet connection Jacket water inlet connection Expansion tank Jacket water pump 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Keel cooler Bypass filter Duplex full-flow strainer Shut-off valve Auxiliary expansion tank Flexible connection
antifreeze. This practice can cause engine overheating. Antifreeze does not lose its ability to give freeze protection, but the additives in the antifreeze wear out with time and the antifreeze will not give certain other protection to the cooling system. Replace antifreeze periodically or add maintenance quantities of the additives, as directed by the antifreeze manufacturer.
Soluble Oil
Soluble oil is not recommended for cooling system protection.
Antifreeze
The climate where the engine will be used will determine the need for antifreeze. If antifreeze is needed, Caterpillar dealers can recommend specific types. Corrosion inhibitors are required. Some antifreeze products do not contain corrosion inhibitors. If the antifreeze chosen does not contain corrosion inhibitors, corrosion inhibitors must be added separately. Some antifreeze solutions, because of their higher viscosity (thicker than plain water), will reduce the cooling systems heat transfer capacity. Do not use higher than required concentrations of
6
troublesome and is not recommended. Consider the use of auxiliary jacket water heaters so during periods of light engine load, adequate amounts of heat can be sent to the watermaker, domestic water heater, or cabin heater. Cooling water piping to and from the watermakers, domestic water heaters, and cabin heaters must not allow entrained air/gases to collect. Trapped air/gases will displace the water required to carry engine heat to the watermakers, domestic water heaters, and cabin heaters and interfere with proper operation. Trapped air/gases can be vented by installing small, approximately 3 mm (0.125 in.), inside diameter-vent lines. The vent lines should carry air/gases from the high points in the domestic water heater and its associated piping to a higher point in the engine jacket water cooling circuit normally an installer-supplied auxiliary expansion tank. See the engine general dimension drawing for the connection locations of points on the engine where water for this purpose should be extracted and returned.
Watermaker Controls
The watermaker controls may be either manually operated valves or thermostatically controlled valves. Any failure of the water maker control system (electrical, air, etc.) must shut off jacket water flow to the watermaker and return the flow to the engine heat exchanger. The thermostat valve, shown in the figure describing automatic control watermaker circuit, would have a temperature setting that will not interfere with the engine thermostats. This valve should begin to divert water flow to the engine heat exchanger at no more than 88C (190F) and be fully diverting at 96C (205F). For safety, the bypass valve(s) in the engine heat exchanger circuit should contain 6.35 mm (0.25 in.) orifices so there will be a slight water flow in case all valves are inadvertently left closed. This orifice is then required to assure water flow to actuate an alarm system. If the watermaker cannot handle the full heat rejection of the engine and/or cannot handle the full water flow of the engine, the automatic system must be used.
WaterMaker Bypass Valve 6.35 mm (.25 in.) Orifice Shutoff Valves Engine Cooler
MANUAL CONTROL WATERMAKER CIRCUIT Figure 1.5 Engine Jacketwater Return Outlet
Auxiliary Heater
A To Watermaker Shutoff Valves Figures 1.5 and 1.6 B A 250 to 300 mm (10 in. or 12 in.) Schedule 40 Pipe 600 mm (24 in.) Long C
Watermaker
B Figure 1.7
Interconnecting Engines
Several problems arise from interconnection of several engines: unequal water flow, one failure shuts down all engines, excessive external head pressures, etc. For these reasons, separate connection of one engine per watermaker is recommended. It is the customers responsibility to provide a system that is compatible with the engine cooling system in all modes of operation.
Aftercooler Systems
Caterpillar uses two types of cooling circuits for the aftercooler. One type provides engine jacket water for cooling the air in the aftercooler. The other type provides a separate cooling circuit for the aftercooler. All aftercooled Caterpillar Engines applied in a marine environment should be equipped with a seawater-type aftercooler core to assure satisfactory core life.
The two arrangements of the separate circuit aftercooled engine configuration provide either an open seawater circuit or a closed fresh-water circuit for the aftercooler water.
2 9
3 4 6
10
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Figure 1.8
Turbocharger Aftercooler, auxiliary water cooled Jacket water outlet connection Jacket water inlet connection Expansion tank Jacket water pump
7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
Auxiliary water pump Auxiliary water inlet connection Auxiliary water outlet connection Lines to aftercooler cooler Lines to jacket watercooler
10
Seawater Aftercooling
Engines equipped with seawater aftercoolers use untreated water in the tube side of the aftercooler. Seawater refers not only to salt water but also includes river water, lake water or any source of untreated water. Use of seawater for aftercooling
achieves inlet manifold air temperatures lower than those resulting from jacket water or separate circuit fresh water aftercooling. This lower inlet manifold air temperature permits ratings of seawater aftercooled engines to exceed those for jacket water aftercooled engines.
1 10 7 8 6 2 9 3 5
13 13 15 11 13 14 SEPARATE CIRCUIT AFTERCOOLED Seawater Aftercooled 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Figure 1.9 Turbocharger Aftercooler, seawater cooled Jacket water outlet connection Jacket water inlet connection Expansion tank Jacket water pump Auxiliary seawater pump Auxiliary seawater inlet connection 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Aftercooler outlet connection Pressure cap Duplex full-flow strainer Heat Exchanger Shut-off valves Seawater intake Seawater discharge 12
11
Caution must be used when using the aftercooler keel cooler water circuit to cool an auxiliary piece of equipment (i.e. marine transmission). The auxiliary equipment cooler should be connected to the water circuit after it leaves the engine aftercooler to avoid adding any heat to the water before it enters the aftercooler. The additional resistance of the auxiliary equipment cooling circuit must be held to a minimum to avoid reducing the flow of water to the aftercooler.
15
16 1
17 18 2
7 8
3 4
6 11 11 10 10 11 12 11 13 SEPARATE CIRCUIT AFTERCOOLED Keel Coolers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Turbocharger Aftercooler, keel cooled Jacket water outlet connection Jacket water inlet connection Expansion tank Jacket water pump Auxiliary fresh water pump Auxiliary fresh water inlet connection Aftercooler outlet connection 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Bypass filter Shut-off valve Duplex full-flow strainer Keel cooler for aftercooler Keel cooler for jacket water Expansion tank for aftercooler circuit Vent line for aftercooler circuit Auxiliary expansion tank Flexible connection 11 12 11 14 11 11
Figure 1.10
12
ambient air conditions for operation in climates where both air and seawater temperatures run to extremes. This results in a cooler with excess capacity in cold seawater and warm air conditions. This will result in condensation in the engines intake system, especially during prolonged light engine load. Extremely cold seawater in the aftercooler can also cause condensation when engine inlet air temperatures are relatively warm with high moisture content. To minimize condensation during light engine load in separate circuit aftercooled systems, it is desirable to maintain the inlet manifold temperature between 38C and 52C (100F and 125F). This may be achieved by
19 18 1 10 7 8 2 9 3 4
6 11 15 13 12 11 16 SEPARATE CIRCUIT AFTERCOOLER Heat Exchangers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Turbocharger Aftercooler, heat exchanger cooler Jacket water outlet connection Jacket water inlet connection Expansion tank Jacket water pump Auxiliary fresh water pump Auxiliary fresh water inlet connection Aftercooler outlet connection Pressure cap 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Shut-off valve Duplex full-flow strainer Heat exchanger for aftercooler Heat exchanger for jacket water Customer provided seawater pump Seawater intake Seawater discharge Expansion tank for aftercooler circuit Vent line for aftercooler circuit 14 17 11 11
Figure 1.11
13
recirculating the aftercooler cooling water back to the auxiliary water pump inlet until the desired temperature is reached. Cool water should then be mixed with the recirculated water to maintain the temperature. The temperature of the water to the aftercooler can be controlled by using a thermostatically controlled three-way valve.
On closed circuit keel cooled or heat exchanger systems, the aftercooler water is bypassed around the cooler until it reaches the desired aftercooler inlet temperature. On seawater aftercooled engines, the warmed water from the heat exchanger is recirculated to the aftercooler until the desired aftercooler inlet water temperature is obtained. The thermostat valve used must be capable of being used continuously in seawater and be equipped with electrolytically compatible components.
16 15 1
18 19 7 2 3
17 11 10 12 11
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Turbocharger Aftercooler, keel cooled Jacket water outlet connection Jacket water inlet connection Expansion tank Jacket water pump Auxiliary fresh water pump Auxiliary fresh water inlet connection Aftercooler outlet connection
10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.
Bypass filter Shut-off valve Duplex full-flow strainer Keel cooler for aftercooler Keel cooler for jacket water Expansion tank for aftercooler circuit Vent line for aftercooler circuit Bypass valve thermostatically controlled Auxiliary expansion tank Flexible connection
Figure 1.12
14
The thermostatic valve used should not allow the temperature of the water to the aftercooler to exceed 30C (85F). The keel cooler, heat exchanger and marine transmission oil cooler used must be sized for this maximum temperature. A thermostatically controlled 3-way valve that is equipped with a remote sensor to monitor the inlet manifold air temperature can be used. Adjust the remote sensor to insure that the thermostatic valve does not permit recirculation when the inlet manifold temperature reaches 49C (120F).
It is important that water be recirculated rather than be throttled to reduce flow. It is essential that unrestricted water flow through the aftercooler be maintained regardless of temperature conditions. Size thermostatic valve plumbing to have internal diameters as large or larger than the inlet connection of the auxiliary pump. Use an air intake manifold temperature alarm set for 52 to 57C (125 to 135F) maximum to warn of system malfunction.
1 10 3 7 8 6 2 9 4 5
13 13 16 11 13 14 SEPARATE CIRCUIT AFTERCOOLED Aftercooler Seawater Recirculation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Figure 1.13 Turbocharger Aftercooler, seawater cooled Jacket water outlet connection Jacket water inlet connection Expansion tank Jacket water pump Auxiliary seawater pump Auxiliary seawater inlet connection 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Aftercooler outlet connection Pressure cap Duplex full-flow strainer Heat Exchanger Shut-off valves Seawater intake Seawater discharge Bypass Valve-themostatically controlled 15 12
15
Nipple
In situations where condensation can be a problem, a corrosion-resistant water trap can be attached to the intake manifold(s) of the engine.
Seawater System
General
The installation, size and material of the seawater suction lines is extremely important.
If the distance to the thru-hull fitting or sea chest is large or if many pipe elbows or bends in the hose are used, the pipe or hose size should be one size larger than the sea water pump opening (suction connection). In no case should the sea water pressure, measured at the sea water pump suction, be less than 24 kPa (3.5 psi) vacuum.
Size
Flow restriction in the sea water suction piping will result in abnormally high engine temperatures which can lead to unscheduled shutdowns and, in severe cases, reduced engine life. To minimize flow restriction, pipes and hoses should be at least as large as the sea water pump suction opening.
16
Install a water pressure actuated check valve downstream of the strainer and as close to it as possible. The function of the check valve is to prevent water from draining out of the pump inlet while the pump is not operating and during cleaning of the strainer. Install a vent valve between the strainer and the check valve to allow venting of trapped air after cleaning the strainer and opening the sea cock. If the pump is above the vessel water line, install a piping loop above the pump inlet elbow to trap enough water to keep the pump and priming chamber filled.
Loop
Figure 1.15
17
Air Vent (Used On Vessels Over 25 m (75 ft) Only) Main Deck
Sea Water Pump Strainer 1/4 Turn Sea Cocks Hull Figure 1.16
Seawater Pumps
Caterpillar offers three types of seawater pumps: Rubber Impeller Water Ring Centrifugal
cooling. Do not start an engine equipped with a centrifugal pump unless the pump and priming chamber are full of water.
Material
An excellent material for piping carrying seawater is of the copper- nickel alloys. The cost of such piping makes its use unusual for all but the most critical systems. The material of all the seawater piping should be the same, whenever practical. If parts of the seawater piping, made of different metals, make contact with each other, one of the metals will corrode, sometimes very rapidly. The materials will corrode according to their position in the electromotive series. See electromotive series chart in section of Useful Tables to Designers of Cooling Systems. Black iron pipe is often used in seawater service (replacement should be planned every two or three years). If it is necessary to use pipe or other cooling system components of more than one material, avoid letting the dissimilar metals touch, even by mutual contact with an electrically-conductive third material.
Corrosion will be much more severe if a flow of electrons is able to pass freely from one of the metals to the other.
pressure switch, will provide early warning of strainer plugging and resultant loss of engine cooling. In time, high engine water temperature alarms will also warn of a loss of sea water flow, but the differential pressure sensor will give early warning and the precise location of the problem.
Location
Install strainers below the boats water line and as close to the sea water intake or sea chest as possible (adjacent to the sea cock). The strainer must be installed so it can be easily cleaned, even in the worst weather conditions.
Inspection Schedule
Inspect the zinc plugs within 24 hours of filling the piping with sea water. If no significant corrosion is noted, inspect them again after 7 days of sea water submersion. If no significant deterioration is noted, reinspect in 60-90 days. Thereafter, inspect annually and replace if necessary.
Type
While simplex strainers, which require shutoff of the sea water flow, are adequate to protect the engine, greater safety will result from using duplex strainers, which can be cleaned without interrupting sea water flow or engine power.
Size
Well sized strainers will impose no more than 9 kPa (3 ft of water) restriction to flow at full seawater flow conditions. Suppliers can help in the proper selection of strainer size by providing the flow restriction of each size of strainer at varying water flow conditions.
Marine Growth
Marine plants and animals will enter seawater piping and take up residence there. Many forms of sea life are very comfortable within engine cooling system piping and will grow to a size which will threaten adequate flow. The lack of predators, darkness and abundance of suspended food particles combine to create prime growth conditions for sponges, barnacles and like creatures. Strainers are no protection against creatures which are microscopic in size during their infant stages of life. Periodic operation in fresh water will rid boats of salt water life infestation and vice versa. In any case, it will be necessary to remove and clean piping and heat exchanger passages of the corpses. Use of high water temperature alarms, seawater pump pressure switches, and other instrumentation can warn of gradual loss of seawater flow and are recommended. Periodic chemical treatment combats marine growth. Chemical type and
19
Mesh Dimensions
Recommended strainer media (screens) should not pass solid objects larger than 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) in diameter.Plate type heat exchangers require a mess less than 3 mm, while the tube type heat exchangers requires a mess less than 5 mm.
concentration must be controlled to prevent deterioration of the seawater cooling system components. Contact a knowledgeable chemical supplier. Continuous low-concentration chemical treatment via either bulk chemical or self- generating electrical processes are offered by various manufacturers.
is good practice to use good quality hoses. If users are unsure of their hoses quality, it is good practice to examine hoses internally at least once during their life. Replace them with good quality hose every three years.
System Coolers
There are two types of heat exchanging systems recommended for use with the Caterpillar Diesel Marine Engines. These involve the use of either inboard mounted heat exchangers or outboard mounted keel coolers.
Potential Problems
Nonreinforced Seawater Pump Suction Hose
The vacuum inside the Seawater Pump Suction Hose can become quite high. If the hose is not internally reinforced, atmospheric pressure will collapse it. That will severely impede the flow of seawater with potentially dangerous results. Use hose which is sufficiently strong to resist collapse due to high suction vacuum.
shell side requires chemical cleaning which is only available at shore-side facilities. The fresh water is circulated through the heat exchanger shell, across the tubes, by the engine-driven water pump. Most shell and tube heat exchangers are of either the single-pass or the two-pass type. This designation refers to the flow in the cold water circuit of the exchanger. In the two-pass type, the cold water flows twice through the compartment where jacket water is circulated; in the single-pass type only once. When using a single-pass exchanger, the cold water should flow through the exchanger in a direction opposite to the flow of jacket coolant to provide maximum differential temperature and heat transfer. This results in improved heat exchanger performance. In a two-pass exchanger, cooling will be equally effective using either of the jacket water connection points for the input and the other for return.
Jacket Water
Single Pass
Cooling Water
Jacket Water
Heat exchangers should always be located at a lower level (elevation) than the coolant level in the expansion tank.
21
* Refer to TMI (Technical Marketing Information) ** Refer to engine general dimension drawing *** Fouling Factor, a descriptive quantity often found on heat exchanger specifications, refers to the heat exchangers ability to resist fouling. As defined in Caterpillar literature, fouling factor is the percentage of the heat transfer surface which can be fouled without losing the heat exchangers ability to dissipate the engines full heat load.
22
Keel Coolers
A keel cooler is an outboard heat exchanger which is either attached to, or built as part of, the submerged part of a ships hull. The heated water from the engine(s) circuit(s) is circulated through the cooler by the enginedriven water pump(s).
Keel cooler area recommendations contained in the graphs below apply only to keel coolers made of structural steel (channel, angle, half pipe, etc.) welded to the ships shell plating. These recommendations take into account the thermal resistance to heat transfer of the steel plate, the internal and external water films, and the internal and external surface corrosion factors. The coefficient of heat transfer of the fresh water film flowing inside the cooler is based upon a flow velocity of 0.9 m/sec (3 ft/sec). The coefficient of heat transfer for the raw water film varies with the velocity of water flow past the cooler due to vessel speed. Surface corrosion factors are based on treated fresh water and polluted river water. Miscellaneous factors become so predominant in the resultant heat transfer rate that the type of material used and thickness of metal become minor considerations . Normal deterioration of the coolers inner and outer surfaces in the form of rust, scale and pitting progressively reduce a keel coolers effectiveness over a period of years. Protective coatings and marine growths will also reduce the rate of heat transfer. It can take 4-5 years before deterioration stabilizes in keel coolers. It must be designed considerably oversize when new. Because of the severe deterioration of heat transfer characteristics associated with structural steel coolers, adequate cooler size sometimes becomes impractical. This is particularly true in regions of high seawater temperature (over 30C [85F]). In these regions, the use of packaged keel coolers, or box coolers, made of corrosion-resistant materials is suggested. These coolers can provide more heat exchange surface area in a given volume on, or within the hull, than the coolers made of structural steel.
23
kW (Btu/min) L/sec (Gpm) 8 knots & above 3 knots 1 knot still water C (F) m2/kW (ft2/Btu/min) m2 (ft2) kW (Btu/min) L/sec (Gpm) 8 knots & above 3 knots 1 knot still water C (F) m2/kW (ft2/Btu/min) m2 (ft2) kW (Btu/min) 8 knots & above 3 knots 1 knot still water C (F) m2/kW (ft2/Btu/min m2 (ft2)
______________
24
Where: H marine gear = Heat rejection of the marine gear oil P engine = Power generated in the engine and transmitted through the marine gear = A factor relating the heat generated in the marine gear oil to the marine gear efficiency
F power loss
Maximum heat rejection to the marine gear cooling system is equal to the transmitted power from the engine multiplied by the power loss factor. H (marine gear) = P (engine) x F (power loss)
The following conversion factors are tabulated below. 31.63 x kW = Btu/min 42.41 x hp = Btu/min
e ov
32.3
1
an
8K
15.6 60
ot Kn
i ll St
a W
r te
.01 .05
.03 .16
.05 .26
.07 .37
.09 .48
.11 .58
.13 .69
.15 .79
Figure 1.18
25
F
bo ve an dA
ts
3K no
Kn
ot s
no ts
8K
15.6 60 12.8 55
.006 .032
.007 .037
.008 .042
.009 .048
.010 .053
.011 .058
St il
.012 .063
lW
at
er
.013 .069
.014 .074
Figure 1.19
26
26.7 23.9
80 75
Kn ot s Ab ov e
an d
21.1
70
no
3 Knots
il St
18.3
65
15.6
60
12.8
55
lW
r te
These Requirements Apply To Keel Coolers Made Of Structural Steel Only. Consider Use Of Packaged Keel Coolers Made Of Corrosion-Resistant Materials Where Sea Water Temperature May Exceed 650F
12.0 7.2
50 45
.01 .05
.03 .16
.05 .26
.07 .37
.11 .58
.13 .69
.15 .79
Figure 1.20
Design/Installation Considerations
Water Velocity Inside the Cooler
If the water flows through the keel coolers passages too fast (more then 2.5 m/sec [8 ft/sec]), the internal components will deteriorate (be eroded away), particularly near manifold entrances and exits, elbows and other discontinuities in the water flow. If the water flows through the keel coolers passages too slowly (less than 0.6 m/sec [2 ft/sec]) rust particles, sand, or other particulate matter in the water will settle out, tend to choke off the flow, and degrade the transfer of heat. Use the following procedure to determine the proper flow pattern through the keel cooler: Determine the maximum and minimum expected water flow through the keel cooler. This can be determined from the engines water pump performance data. Subtract the minimum expected water flow from the maximum expected water flow.
Multiply the resultant difference (between the min and max flow) by 2/3. Add 2/3 the resultant difference (from the prior step) to the minimum flow*. This is the most likely water flow. Use this figure to determine how to distribute the water flow through the keel cooler passages. Determine the cross-sectional area of one keel cooler passage. This is best done by consulting the manufacturer or an engineering reference on shapes of structural channel, pipes, angles, etc. Use a good conversion factor table to convert: the most likely water flow to units of m3/min (ft3/min), and cross-sectional area of one keel cooler passage to units of m2 (ft2).
*For design purposes, this is the most likely water flow through the keel cooler. This is dependent on the use of good practice in sizing the connecting piping.
27
Divide the most likely water flow by the cross-sectional area of one keel cooler passage. The result will be the average velocity through the keel cooler flow passages. If the average velocity through the keel cooler flow passages is greater than 2.5 m/sec (8 ft/sec), arrange the water flow in parallel, so it passes through two or more of the keel cooler passages per pass through the keel cooler. If the average velocity through the keel cooler flow passages is less than 0.6 m/sec (2 ft./sec), use a keel cooler passage with a smaller cross section.
too many passages, the velocity becomes too slow to maintain turbulent flow conditions. This will reduce heat transfer. The best compromise is to manifold the coolant in such a way that the flow, in the largest practical number of flow passages, is from rear to the fore end of the vessel.
Bypass Filters
Welded structural steel keel or skin cooler systems require the installation of strainers between the cooler and the pump inlet. Material, such as weld slag and corrosion products, must be removed from the system to prevent wear and plugging of cooling system components. Use a continuous bypass filter to remove smaller particles and sediment. The element size of the continuous bypass filter should be 20 to 50 microns (0.000787 to 0.000197 inches). Do not exceed 19 L/min (5 gal/min) water flow through the bypass and filter.
Strainers
Full-flow strainers are desirable. The strainer screens should be sized no larger than 1.6 mm (.063 in) mesh for use in closed freshwater circuits. The strainer connections should be no smaller than the recommended line size. The use of a differential pressure gauge across the duplex strainers will indicate the pressure drop, and enables the operator to determine when the strainers need servicing. The pressure drop across a strainer at the maximum water flow must be considered part of the systems external resistance. Suppliers can help in the proper selection of strainers and furnish the values of pressure drop versus flow rate. The strainer should be selected to impose no more than 3 ft (1 m) water restriction to flow under clean strainer conditions.
Manufacturers offer keel coolers in many configurations. They are generally made of
28
coppernickel alloys and are initially toxic to marine growth. This is one of their more important advantages. Another important advantage of packaged keel coolers is their compactness and light weight when compared to fabricated keel coolers. It is not uncommon to find packaged keel coolers that are able to cool an engine with less than 20% of the heat transfer surface of an analogous fabricated keel cooler.
4. Anticipated seawater maximum temperature Aftercooler Water Circuit: 1. Aftercooler circuit heat rejection* 2. Aftercooler circuit water flow* 3. Vessel speed classification
29
Box Coolers
Light Waterline
Hull
Figure 1.21
While the area immediately forward of the propeller(s) is a region of high water velocity and high enough on the hull to be protected from grounding damage, one must consider the effects on the keel cooler from sandblasting (from the propeller(s) during backing maneuvers).
30
Radiator Cooling
With radiator cooling, the hot water from the engine jacket flows to the radiator core where it is cooled by air being pushed or pulled over the core fins by a fan. The cooled water is then pumped back through the engine; circulation is maintained by a gear- or belt-driven jacket water pump.
When Used
Radiator cooling is used to cool engines that must be located well above the vessel water line or for emergency generator sets that require completely independent support systems.
Remote-Mounted Radiators
On installations where it is desirable to locate the radiator at some distance from the engineon an upper deck, outdoors or in another room, a remote radiator can be used. Remote-mounted radiator systems require special attention due to the added restriction imposed on the cooling water flow by additional piping. Careful calculations should be made to determine whether a higher output pump is necessary.
Radiator Sizing
As with all cooling systems, radiators are usually sized for a heat rejection load a minimum of 10% greater than the maximum full load heat rejection rate of the engine. This allows for overload conditions and system deterioration. This 10% should be added after a careful calculation has been made of the radiator size required to accommodate the maximum heat rejection rate (under normal full load operating conditions) at maximum ambient air temperature. Keep in mind that radiators lose capacity when operated at altitude or when filled with antifreeze. These conditions should be compensated for and added to the 10% compensation discussed above.
31
Hotwell
Hotwell systems are used when static head exceeds 10 m (33 ft) or a boost pump imposes excessive dynamic head. A mixing tank accommodates total drainback of the remote cooling device and connecting piping. A baffle divides the tank into a hot and cold side but is open sufficiently to assure full engine flow. Baffles are also used where water enters the tank to minimize aeration. If the Hotwell does not have sufficient volume, the pumps will draw in air during operation. The Hotwell tank must be large enough to accept the full volume of the remote radiator and the interconnecting piping, plus some reasonable amount to prevent air ingestion by the pumps. Generally, 110% of the radiator and piping volume is adequate.
Connection Size
Coolant connections must be as large as (or larger than) the applicable engine coolant connections.
Fan Noise
When selecting radiator location, consider fan noise. Noise may be transmitted through the air inlet as well as outlet. As further precaution against noise and vibration, do not rigidly attach ducting to the radiator.
Hot Side
Hot Water to Remote Radiator Mixing Passage Cool Water From Remote Radiator Cold Side
Sight Glass Note: Bottom of tank must be more than 0.6m (2 ft) engine water outlet
Pump
Figure 1.22
32
Duct Work
Duct work and adjustable shutters can be used to direct some or all of the warmed radiator air for heating purposes. Support duct work independently of the engine or radiator. Static pressure imposed by the duct work must be determined for each installation. Consult the radiator manufacturer to determine the permissible static pressure. The fan shroud must be properly positioned for optimum air flow. With a blower fan, two-thirds of the fan width should be outside the shroud. With a suction fan, two-thirds of the fan width should be inside the shroud.
Recirculation
Care must be taken to ensure engine exhaust gases are not drawing into the radiator. Additionally, the radiators must be arranged so the hot air discharge of one radiator does not recirculate to the inlet of another radiator. Also, for maximum efficiency, the direction of radiator air flow should not be against the direction of strong prevailing winds. When an engine-mounted radiator is used and the generator set is installed in the center of the room, a blower fan can be used and a duct provided to the outside. This prevents recirculation and high equipment room temperatures. Some radiator packages have, as standard, a radiator duct flange for ease of installation. The duct is as short and direct as possible; its cross-section area should be as large or larger than the radiator core to minimize backpressure. The anticipated backpressure for a proposed duct design should be less than 12.7 mm (0.5 in) of water.
Expansion Tanks
Functions
Expansion tanks perform the following functions: Vent gases in the coolant to reduce corrosion. to prevent loss of coolant due to displacement by gases. Provide a positive head on the system pump. to prevent cavitation. Provide expansion volume. to prevent coolant loss when the coolant expands due to temperature change. Provide a place to fill the system, monitor its level, and maintain its corrosion inhibiting chemical additives.
Blower Fan
Flexible Joint
Figure 1.23
33
Provide a place to monitor the system coolant level. an alarm switch located in the expansion tank will give early warning of coolant loss.*
Fill Rate
The Caterpillar engine-mounted cooling circuits are designed to completely vent during the initial fill for fill rates up to 5 gpm (19.0 L/min). Vent lines are located such that the external cooling circuit will also be vented if the customer piping is installed level with, or below, the proper engine connecting points, and if no air traps are designed in the piping.
Table 1.1
34
Deaerator
All the functions of engine mounted expansion tanks may be fulfilled by a simple volume chamber, a few feet higher than, and connected to the jacket water pump, by a continuously upward-sloping standpipeall except for the need to continuously vent combustion gas bubbles. A deaerator is a device to separate gas bubbles from engine coolant in the absence of a factory-designed, engine-mounted expansion tank. It is mounted, in series, in the main flow of jacket water between the engine and its heat exchanger.
A simple volume chamber is still required to handle coolant expansion and for venting the separated bubbles to atmosphere. Engines installed with a simple, volume tank and a deaerator can avoid the use of the engine-mounted expansion tank.
Jacket Water Circuit Auxiliary Expansion Tank (Fabricated by the Engine Installer)
An auxiliary expansion tank is needed when additional expansion volume is required in the cooling system. This generally occurs when keel coolers are used and may occur when remote-mounted heat exchangers are used.
Figure 1.24
35
The auxiliary tank can consist of a simple tank. Internal baffles are not required. The engine-mounted components of the cooling system will adequately separate gases from the coolant. However, the gases, once separated, must by allowed to rise by a
continuous upward sloped standpipe to the auxiliary expansion tank. Additional air vent piping may be required if the auxiliary expansion tank is not located directly above the engine-mounted expansion tank.
4 7 6 8
3 2 10
AUXILIARY EXPANSION TANK Engine Jacket Water 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Engine mounted expansion tank Flexible connection Connecting pipe Auxiliary expansion tank Tank vent Level gauge 7. 8. 9. 10. Engine mounted expansion tank Flexible connection Connecting pipe Connect lower end of fill vent to vent piping entering rear side of engine mounted expansion tank
36
All closed separate circuit aftercooler circuits require installation of a vent line. A tapped hole is provided at the high point in the engine-mounted aftercooler circuit. Install a vent line from that point to the aftercooler circuit expansion tank. Vent line size of 6.3 mm (0.25 in.) is adequate. The vent line should enter the tank below the low water level. If possible, water lines connecting to the aftercooler circuit should be level with or below the connecting points on the engine. If the water lines must run above the connection points on the engine, it will be necessary to vent the high points in the external system. Air traps in the external system piping should be avoided.
5 4 7 8 6 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Return line from cooler Flexible connection Connecting pipe Auxiliary expansion tank Tank vent Level gauge Operating level Cold fill level Vent line from aftercooler Connecting line to auxiliary pump inlet Auxiliary fresh water pump
9 3 2 1 10 11
37
to allow free venting and refilling, when required. An exception exists in the situation of high performance craft, such as fast ferrys, yachts and patrol craft: vessels of this type are prone to have their engines stopped immediately after periods of hard use. In this circumstance, a phenomenon known as afterboil can occur. Afterboil is the boiling (change of liquid to vapor) of the coolant, caused by hot engine components which have lost coolant flow and
pressure when the engine is hastily shut off. This can result in sudden loss of coolant out the vents and fill openings of the expansion tank. This can be dangerous to personnel in the area if they are not expecting it.
If it is necessary to design a cooling system that will not purge itself of air when being filled, provide vent lines from high points to the expansion tank. These vents should enter the tank below the normal low water level to prevent aeration of the water which will circulate through these lines when the engine is running. Slope the vent line upwards with no air traps. The vent line should be 6.3 mm (0.25 in.) tubing. Use of a smaller size will clog and may not provide adequate venting ability. Too large a vent tube may introduce a circuit that could contribute either to subcooling or overheating, depending on the location. If at all possible, avoid external piping designs that require additional vent lines.
39
Emergency Systems
The worldwide marine classification societies require in certain applications that, for unrestricted seagoing service, engines be equipped with a separate emergency supply of cooling water flow. The requirement applies to both the engine jacket water and auxiliary (sea or fresh) water systems. The purpose of the emergency systems is to ensure cooling if either the jacket water or auxiliary (sea or fresh) water pump should fail. The customer-supplied emergency pumps should provide flow equal to the failed pump to permit operation at full, continuous power with the emergency systems. For pump flow requirements of engine-mounted pumps, refer to Technical Marketing Information (TMI) or consult the Caterpillar Dealer. If reduced power operation is acceptable, reduced flows can be utilized. Use flexible connectors at the engine to protect the piping and engine.
40
1 6 3 6 2
EMERGENCY JACKET WATER PUMP CONNECTIONS (Location of Jacket Water Pump May Vary) 1. Flanged tee connection to emergency pump 2. Blanking plate closed for emergency pump operation 3. Flanged tee connection from emergency pump 4. Valve customer supplied (open for emergency pump operation) 5. Emergency pump customer supplied 6. Flexible connector customer supplied
Figure 1.27
6 3 1
2 4
EMERGENCY AUXILIARY PUMP CONNECTIONS 1. Engine mounted auxiliary pump 2. Customer provided emergency auxiliary pump 3. Customer provided valve (normally closed) 4. Customer provided valve (normally open) 5. Auxiliary cooling circuit 6. Flexible connection
Figure 1.28
41
mentioned in the jacket water section, and inspect the parts for corrosion damage and deposits.
Flow Control
There are upper and lower limits to the allowable flow through an engine. The system must be able to throttle the flow through each engine independently.
Temperature Control
The heat exchanger must be capable of delivering the proper amount of cooling, proportional to engine load.
Load Control
The amount of external water flow through a Caterpillar Engine is directly proportional to the engines load. The greater the load, the greater the amount of cooling required and the more water the engines internal cooling circuitry will discharge for cooling. At light loads, the engines temperature controls will bypass the external portion of the engine cooling system, recirculating virtually all of the coolant. If the water pressure presented to an engine by a central cooling system is too high, the proper operation of the engines temperature controls may be overridden, and the engine will suffer over or under cooling problems. It is very difficult to adequately balance and control the flow through several engines, all of which might be operating at widely varying loads. The water pressure on an engine jacket water inlet cannot be allowed to exceed 172 kPa (25 psi). Economic factors encourage many designers to use higher pressures. Do not use higher pressures. Higher pressures will significantly reduce water pump seal life.
Running Yes No
Maintenance Condition Operational shutdown for maintenance but still connected to the system Overhaul in process, disconnected from the system
Redundancy Required for Reliability In the heat exchanger In the interconnecting plumbing* In the pump(s) and their controls/switchgear
* In areas of severe marine growth problems, it is a good idea to have two parallel sets of plumbing so that one set can be in process of being cleaned at any given time.
42
Curves showing water flow versus total external system head for engine-driven pumps are available. The value for the maximum external resistance must not be exceeded in the cooling circuit added by the customer in order to maintain minimum water flow. Flows lower than the minimums will certainly shorten the life of the engine. When designing the engine cooling systems, pressure drop (resistance) in the external cooling system can be calculated by totaling the pressure drop in each of the systems components. The section of useful tables to designers of cooling systems can be used to determine the pressure drop through pipe, fittings and valves. Suppliers of other components, such as strainers and sea cocks, can provide the data required for their product. It is always necessary to evaluate the design and installation of the cooling circuits by testing the operation and effectiveness of the completed system to ensure proper performance and life.
Corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion in Seawater
When two dissimilar metals are electrically connected and both submerged in saltwater, they form a battery and an electrochemical reaction takes place. In this process, one metal is eaten away. The rate of deterioration is proportional to a number of factors: The differential potential between the two metals on the electrochemical series (see Useful Tables to Designers of Cooling Systems). The relative areas of the two metals: If there is a small area of the more noble metal relative to the less noble metal, the deterioration will be slow and relatively minor. If there is a large area of the more noble metal such as copper sheathing on a wooden hull, and a much smaller area of the less noble metal, such as iron nails holding the copper sheathing to the wood, the wasting away of the iron nails will be violent and rapid.
43
Rule of Thumb:
Do not put iron or steel close to or connected with alloys of copper under salt water.
Table 1.2
44
If the zincs are not working, look for the following conditions:
The anode is not electrically bonded to the structure. The paint on the structure is still in near perfect condition.
2 .5
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450 gpm
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28 L/s
Flow
VELOCITY vs FLOW Standard Pipe Sizes 1.5 to 5 in. (38.1 to 127mm) Figure 1.29
(31.8 mm) (41.8 mm)(53.3 mm) (60 mm) 1.25 1.75 2.12 2.38 fps (25.4 mm) (38.1 mm) (50.5 mm) (57 mm)(63.5 mm) (70 mm) 1.50 1.00 2.00 2.50 2.75 2.25 12
m/s 3.5
2.5
Velocity
2 6 1.5 4 1 .408 Q V = .321 Q = ID2 A 2 .5 Nom. Tube Size .065 in. (1.65 mm) Wall V = Vel (fps) Q = Flow (gpm) A = In2 (ID) ID = Inside Dia. For Other Wall Thicknesses
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450 gpm
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
L/s
Flow
VELOCITY vs FLOW Tube Sizes From 1 in. to 5 in. O.D. (25.4 mm to 127 mm) (Common Usage Wall Thickness) Figure 1.30
45
Flow
gpm 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 75 80 90 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 (L/s) .34 .63 .95 1.26 1.58 1.90 2.21 2.52 2.84 3.15 3.79 4.42 4.73 5.05 5.68 6.31 7.89 9.46 11.05 12.62 14.20 15.77 17.35 18.93 20.50 22.08 23.66 25.24 26.81 28.39 29.97 31.55 47.32 63.09 78.86 94.64 110.41 126.18
(L/s) .75 in. (19.05 mm) 1 in. (25.4 mm) 1.25 in. (31.75 mm) 1.5 in. (38.1 mm) 2 in. (50.8 mm) 2.5 in. (63.5 mm) 3 in. (76.2 mm) .34 10.50 3.25 .84 .40 .16 .05 .63 38.00 11.70 3.05 1.43 .50 .17 .07 .95 80.00 25.00 6.50 3.05 1.07 .37 .15 1.26 136.00 42.00 11.10 5.20 1.82 .61 .25 1.58 4 in. (101.6 mm) 64.00 16.60 7.85 2.73 .92 .38 1.9 .13 89.00 23.00 11.00 3.84 1.29 .54 2.21 .17 119.00 31.20 14.70 5.10 1.72 .71 2.52 .22 152.00 40.00 18.80 6.60 2.20 .91 2.84 .28 5 in. (127 mm) 50.00 23.20 8.20 2.76 1.16 3.15 .34 .11 60.00 28.40 9.90 3.32 1.38 3.79 .47 .16 85.00 39.60 13.90 4.65 1.92 4.42 .63 .21 113.00 53.00 18.40 6.20 2.57 4.73 .72 .24 129.00 60.00 20.90 7.05 2.93 5.05 .81 .27 145.00 68.00 23.70 7.90 3.28 5.68 1.00 .34 6 in. (152.4 mm) 84.00 29.40 9.80 4.08 6.31 1.22 .41 .17 102.00 35.80 12.00 4.96 7.89 1.85 .63 .26 7 in. (177.8 mm) 54.00 17.60 7.55 9.46 2.60 .87 .36 .17 76.00 25.70 10.50 11.05 3.44 1.16 .48 .22 8 in. (203.2 mm) 34.00 14.10 12.62 4.40 1.48 .61 .28 .15 43.10 17.80 14.20 5.45 1.85 .77 .35 .19 54.30 22.30 15.77 6.70 2.25 .94 .43 .24 65.50 27.10 17.35 7.95 2.70 1.10 .51 .27 9 in. (228.6 mm) 32.30 18.93 9.30 3.14 1.30 .60 .32 .18 38.00 20.50 10.80 3.65 1.51 .68 .37 .21 44.10 22.08 12.40 4.19 1.70 .77 .43 .24 50.50 23.66 14.20 4.80 1.95 .89 .48 .28 10 in. (254 mm) 25.24 16.00 5.40 2.20 1.01 .55 .31 .19 26.81 17.90 6.10 2.47 1.14 .61 .35 .21 28.39 19.80 6.70 2.74 1.26 .68 .38 .23 29.97 7.40 2.82 1.46 .75 .42 .26 31.55 8.10 2.90 1.54 .82 .46 .28 47.32 7.09 3.23 1.76 .98 .59 63.09 12.00 5.59 2.97 1.67 1.23 78.86 8.39 4.48 2.55 1.51 94.64 11.70 6.24 3.52 2.13 110.41 7.45 4.70 2.80 126.18 10.71 6.02 3.59
Table 1.3
46
3000 2000
Note: For sudden enlargements or sudden contractions, use the smaller diameter, d, on the pipe size scale.
50
Standard Tee
30
20
100
Borda Entrance
50 30
Sudden Enlargement d/D-1/4 d/D-1/2 d/D-3/4 Standard Elbow or run of Tee reduced 1/2
10
5
Ordinary Entrance & Swing Check Valves D d
3 2
1 1 0.5 0.3
0.2
450 Elbow
0.1
Conversion Chart
0.5
20 1
40 2 100
60 3
80
100 4 200
120 5
140 6
160
180 7
200 8 400
10
20
220 9
240 mm 10 in 500 ft
0 10 20
30
40
50
60
120
130
140
150m
47
Electrochemical Series
Corroded End Least Noble
Magnesium Magnesium Alloys Zinc Beryllim Aluminum Alloys Cadmium Mild Steel or Iron Cast Iron Low Alloy Steel Austanitic Cast Iron Aluminum Bronze Naval Brass Yellow Brass Red Brass 18-8 Stainless Steel (Active) 18-8-3 Stainless Steel (Active) Lead-Tin Solders Lead 70-30 Copper Nickel Tin Brasses Copper Bronzes Copper-Nickel Alloys Monel Admiralty Brass, Aluminum Brass Manganese Bronze Silicon Bronze Tin Bronze Silver Solder Nickel (Passive) Chromium-Iron (Passive) 18-8 Stainless Steel (Passive) 18-8-3 Stainless Steel (Passive) Silver Ni-Cr-Mo Alloy 8 Titanium Ni-Cr-Mo Alloy C Gold Platinum Graphite
Metal Aluminum Zinc Lead Iron (Steel) Silicon Iron Stainless Steel** Copper Alloys Nickel Alloys Titanium Silver Platinum
* Rates are ranges for general loss in seawater at ambient temperatures and velocities no greater than 1 m (3 ft) per second. Pitting penetration is not considered. ** Many stainless steels exhibit high rates of pitting in stagnant seawater.
48
Ventilation
General Information Ventilation Air Combustion Air Sizing of Combined Combustion and Ventilation Air Ducts Rule of Thumb Crankcase Fumes Disposal Special Ventilation Considerations
General Information
There are three aspects to ventilation:
Routing
Correct Ventilation Air Routing is Vital
Comfortable air temperatures in the engine room are impossible without proper routing of the ventilation air. Fresh air should enter the engine room as far from the sources of heat as practical and as low as possible. Since heat causes air to rise, it should be discharged from the highest point in the engine room, preferably directly over the engine. Avoid incoming ventilation air ducts which blow cool air toward hot engine components. This mixes the hottest air in the engine room with incoming cool air, raising the temperature of all the air in the engine room.
Ventilation Air
The flow of air required to carry away the radiated heat of the engine(s) and other engine room machinery.
Combustion Air
The flow of air required to burn the fuel in the engine (propulsion and auxiliaries).
Ventilation Air
Engine room ventilation has two basic purposes: To provide an environment which permits the machinery and equipment to function dependably. To provide a comfortable environment for personnel. Radiated heat from the engines and other machinery in the engine room is absorbed by engine room surfaces. Some of the heat is transferred to atmosphere or the sea through the hull. The remaining radiated heat must be carried away by the ventilating system. A system for discharging ventilation air from the engine room must be included in the construction of the vessel. Do not expect the engine(s) to carry all the heated ventilation air from the engine room by way of the exhaust piping.
Where: Frouting is a factor which relates the relative efficiency of various ventilation air routing. Example: If the routing in Figure A (upper left) is used as a base to which the others are compared:
1.4 times more air is required (duct crosssectional area and fan capacity) to adequately ventilate the machinery space illustrated in Figure B (upper right). It takes twice as much air (duct crosssectional area and fan capacity) to adequately ventilate the machinery space illustrated in Figure C (lower right). 3.3 times more air is required (duct crosssectional area and fan capacity) to adequately ventilate the machinery space illustrated in Figure D (lower left).
Quantity Required
In general, changing the air in the engine room every one or two minutes will be adequate, if flow routing is proper. Provisions should be made by the installer to provide incoming ventilation air of 0.1 0.2 m3/min (4-8 cfm) per installed horsepower (both propulsion and auxiliary engines). This does not include combustion air for the engines. (See following remarks on engine combustion air, page 7.) Engine exhaust ventilation air should be 110 to 120% of the incoming ventilation air. The excess exhaust ventilation air accomplishes two things: It compensates for the thermal expansion of incoming air. It creates an in draft to confine heat and odor to the engine room. Operation in extreme cold weather may require reducing ventilation air flow to avoid uncomfortably cold working conditions in the engine room. This is easily done by providing ventilation fans with two speed motors (100% and 50 or 67% speeds).
If air is to enter the engine room from the accommodation spaces (staterooms, galley, salon, companionways, pilot house, etc.), good design practice will include sound deadening treatments for the opening(s) which conduct air from the accommodation spaces to the engine room.
Wire Mesh
Combustion Air
Quantity Required
A diesel engine requires approximately 0.1 m3 of air/min/brake kW (2.5 ft3 of air/min/bhp) produced.
Air Cleaners
Engines must be protected from ingesting foreign material. The engine-mounted air filter elements must never be remote-mounted, without factory approval. If large amounts of sea spray, dust, or insects are expected, external, remote-mounted, precleaners may be installed at the inlet to a duct system to extend the life of the engine-mounted filter elements.
Fans
In modern installations, natural draft ventilation is too bulky for practical consideration. Adequate quantities of fresh air are best supplied by powered (fan-assisted) systems.
Location
Fans are most effective when they withdraw ventilation air from the engine room (suction fans) and discharge the hot air to the atmosphere.
Type
Ventilating air fans may be of the axial flow type (propeller fans) or the centrifugal type (squirrel cage blowers). When mounting fans in ventilating air discharge ducts (most effective location), the fan motors should be outside the direct flow of hot ventilating air for longest motor life. The design of centrifugal fans (squirrel cage blowers) is ideal.
Duct Restriction
Total duct air flow restriction, including air cleaners, should not exceed 2.49 kPa (10 in.) of water measured while the engine is producing full rated power. It is good design practice to design combustion air ducts to give the lowest practical restriction to air flow, since this will result in longer times between filter element service or replacement.
Sizing
The name plate ratings of fans do not necessarily reflect their as-installed conditions. Just because a fans name plate says it will move 1000 cfm of air does not mean it will move 1000 cfm through an engine room which has severely restricted inlet and/or outlet openings. Fans are often rated under conditions which do not reflect as-installed flow restrictions. In general, the as-installed conditions will be more severe than the fans name plate rating conditions.
4
Water Traps
Traps should be included to eliminate any rain or spray from the combustion air. Rain and spray can cause very rapid plugging of the paper air filter elements on some Caterpillar Engines. This will reduce the flow of air through the engine, raising the exhaust temperature with potentially damaging effects.
derating of Caterpillar Marine engines is not required so long as combustion air temperatures remain below 49C (120F).
Temperature
A well designed engine room ventilation system will provide engines with air whose temperature is not higher than 8.5C (15F) above the ambient temperature though
Forward 3D
Discharge crankcase fumes and exhaust gases higher than combustion air inlet.
2D D
D 2 D/3 D/3
Equip combustion air inlet with a cap to prevent drawing in rain or spray.
Avoid crankcase fumes, exhaust gases, rain, or sea spray entering the engines combustion air inlet. Air cleaner service life will be greatly shortened. In severe cases, engine failure may result.
Figure 1.3
crankcase. To prevent pressure buildup within the crankcase, vent tubes are provided to allow the gas to escape. 3100 and 3208 and high performance 3176, 3406, 3408, and 3412 marine engines consume their crankcase fumes, by drawing the fumes into the engines air intake system. Larger Caterpillar marine engines must have their crankcase fumes piped away from the engine to prevent the fumes from plugging their high-efficiency paper air filter elements.
Pipe Sizing
Generally use pipe of the same size as the crankcase fumes vent on the engine. If the pipe run is longer than approximately 3 m (10 ft) or if there are more than three (3) 90 elbows, increase the pipe inside diameter by one pipe size.
Engine Mounted Crankcase Breather 40 mm/m (.5 in./ft) Downward Slope From Engine
Vent to Atmosphere (Locate Higher Than Engine Combustion or Ventilation Air Inlet)
25 mm (1in.) Maximum
Condensed Combustion Products (May Be Initially Filled With Oil or Water) Figure 1.4
6
The crankcase vent pipe may be directed into the exhaust gas flow at the termination of the exhaust pipe. Preferably, the crankcase vent pipe will vent directly to the atmosphere. The vent pipe termination should be directed to prevent rain/spray entering the engine.
Model 3116 3126 3176 3304B 3306B 3208 3406B 3408B 3412 D399 D398 D379 3508 3512 3516 3606 3608 3612 3616
Crankcase Volumes Crankcase Volume .045 m3 .045 m3 .14 m3 .05 m3 .063 m3 .0011 m3 .25 m3 .3 m3 .4 m3 1.28 m3 .96 m3 .64 m3 .65 m3 .98 m3 1.41 m3 2.3 m3 3.06 m3 3.12 m3 4.08 m3 (1.59 ft3) (1.59 ft3) (4.9 ft3) (1.76 ft3) (2.22 ft3) (.039 ft3) (8.8 ft3) (10.5 ft3) (14.1 ft3) (45.2 ft3) (33.9 ft3) (22.6 ft3) (22.9 ft3) (34.6 ft3) (49.8 ft3) (81.2 ft3) (108 ft3) (110.2 ft3) (144 ft3)
Many marine classification societies (MCS) expect crankcase pressure relief valves to be installed on engines with crankcase volumes more than 0.61 m3 (21.5 ft3) or cylinder bores over 200 mm (7.89 in.) in diameter. Caterpillar offers crankcase pressure relief valves on engines larger than the 3408.
* As the engine approaches its overhaul interval, blowby (one of the causes of crankcase pressure) will tend to increase. Careful monitoring of crankcase pressure will provide valuable guidance on the condition of an engines valve guides and piston rings.
Crankcase Volumes
The volume of an engines crankcase is required for the sizing of crankcase pressure relief valves. See the following table.
Exhaust System
General Information Wet Exhaust System Dry Exhaust System Exhaust Backpressure Limits Measuring Backpressure Warning Against Common Exhaust Systems Slobber (extended periods of insufficient load)
General Information
The exhaust system carries the engines exhaust gases out of the engine room, through piping, to the atmosphere. A good exhaust system will have minimum back pressure. Exhaust back pressure is generally detrimental as it tends to reduce the air flow through the engine. Indirectly, exhaust back pressure tends to raise exhaust temperature which will reduce exhaust valve and turbocharger life. There are two general types of exhaust systems seen on boats, wet exhaust systems and dry exhaust systems.
slope on the exhaust piping, downstream of the engine. Exhaust risers are pipes which elevate the exhaust gases, allowing a steeper slope in the downstream piping. The risers must be insulated or water-jacketed to protect persons in the engine compartment from the high temperatures of the exhaust gas in the riser. The sea water is not injected into the exhaust gases until downstream of the top of the riser, so the upward-sloping portion of the riser is dangerously hot if not insulated or water-jacketed. The weight of locally fabricated risers (not provided by Caterpillar) must be supported from the engine and marine transmission. Do not attempt to carry the weight of the risers from the boats overhead or deck structure. The risers will vibrate with the engine-transmission. The risers must be supported independently from the hull to avoid transmitting those vibrations into the boats structure and passenger compartments. Exhaust risers (for other than the smallest Caterpillar Engines) are not available from Caterpillar; the diversity of the various boat builders engine compartments prevents designing a riser with wide usability. See fabricators of custom exhaust components for exhaust risers.
Exhaust Risers
One way to minimize the possibility of water entering the engine from backflow in the wet exhaust system is to have a steep downward
Figure 2.1
11
11 4 10 5 6 1 7 3 2
WET EXHAUST SYSTEM USING DRY EXHAUST ELBOWS AT ENGINE EXHAUST DISCHARGE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. turbocharger heat shield flexible pipe connection 7. elbowC bend radius diameter of pipe L 8. insulation, must not restrict flexibility of 2 9. elbow (min 150 ) with water discharge ring 10. 11. exhaust hose connecting exhaust pipe surge pipe discharge pipe raw water discharge connection support from overhead structure
Figure 2.2
the outlet connection enters the tank walls, through the top, and extends to the bottom of the tank, where it terminates on an angle. As the mixture of seawater and exhaust gas enters the tank from the inlet connection, the water level rises in the tank. As the water level rises, the water surface gradually reduces the gas flow area entering the discharge pipe. The reduced area for gas flow causes a great increase in gas velocity. The high speed of the gases, entering the outlet pipe, finely divides the water. The finely divided water is transported to the highest elevation of the exhaust piping as a mist of water droplets.
12
If good design practice is not followed, the engines exhaust back pressure limit is easily exceeded. The vertical (upward sloping) portion of piping immediately downstream of a water lift muffler must be designed as a pneumatic conveyer, using high exhaust gas velocities to lift finely divided droplets of the sea water to a point from which the gas/water mixture can be safely allowed to drain to the thru-hull fitting. The designer should size the diameter of the upward sloping portion of the exhaust pipingbetween the water lift muffler and the highest system elevationsuch that the velocity of the exhaust-gas-and-water droplet mixture is not below 25.4 m/sec (5000 ft/min), with the engine running at rated load and speed. If this velocity is not maintained, the water droplets will not remain in suspension. The water will be forced out of the reservoir of the water lift muffler as a solid slug of water. This will cause the exhaust back pressure to be the same as a column of water the height of the upward sloping muffler discharge piping.
If the velocity in the upward sloping muffler discharge piping is kept above 25.4 m/sec (5000 ft/min), then the exhaust back pressure will be much lower.
Figure 2.3
13
Preventing Wave Action From Forcing Water Into Wet Exhaust Systems
Waves, striking the hulls exhaust opening, can force water up into the exhaust system. If the waves are severe, or if the exhaust system design allows, the water can reach the engine. Early turbocharger failure or piston seizure may result. There are a number of ways the kinetic energy of waves entering the engines exhaust system can be harmlessly dissipated. The traditional method of preventing water from entering an idle engine is to locate the engine far enough above the water line that breaking waves do not reach the height of the exhaust elbow. While the relative elevation of the engine to the water line is fixed and unchangeable, it is possible to design an exhaust system which protects the engine from ingesting water.
Features of such an exhaust system will include the following: Sufficient elevation difference between the water line and the highest point in the exhaust piping to prevent even small amounts of water from reaching the engine. Some method of dissipating the kinetic energy of the waves as they enter the exhaust piping. The more effective the method of wave energy dissipation, the lower the elevation difference required. In no case should the elevation difference between the water line and the highest point in the exhaust piping be less than 560 mm (22 in.).
Surge Chamber
A surge chamber is a branch of the exhaust piping, near the engine, which has one end closed off. When a wave of water enters the exhaust pipe and moves toward the engine, the air trapped in front of the wave will be compressed into the surge chamber. The cushion of compressed air in the surge chamber will force almost all waves back out.
Exhaust discharging pipe must have adequate slope to avoid water entering engine 2 2 4 2 Slope
2 3 2
WET EXHAUST SYSTEM (Engine Mounted Above Water Line) 1. water cooled exhaust elbow on engine - sea water cools elbow, then discharges through peripheral slot at discharge end of elbow into exhaust pipe 2. rubber exhaust hose flexible connection - must be oil and heat resistant 3. backwater surge chamber - prevents sea water surging into engine exhaust when vessel at rest with stern exposed to oncoming waves 4. exhaust pipe - should have slight downward gradient toward discharge end 5. end cover plate - removable for inspection and cleanout purposes
Figure 2.4
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Rain/Spray
It is the responsibility of the engine installer to provide appropriate drain connections, rain caps or other means to protect the engine from rainwater or sea spray entering the engine through the dry exhaust piping. Long runs of exhaust piping require traps to drain moisture. Traps installed at the lowest point of the line near the exhaust outlet prevent rain water from reaching the engine. Slope exhaust lines from engine and silencer to the trap so condensation will drain. Traps may be built by inserting a vertical pipe, with a drain petcock, down from a tee section in the line. Slope the last few feet of the exhaust pipe discharge to prevent rain water or spray from entering the pipe. Alternatively, fit some form of rain cap to a vertical exhaust pipe section. Saw cuts in the exhaust pipe to allow rain/spray to drain harmlessly. Deform the edges of all slots. Use a punch on engine side slot edges. Bend inward. Cut through no more than 60 of the pipe circumference.
punch engine - side slot edges in bend discharge - side slot edges out
Ventilation
Mufflers and other large dry exhaust system components would be best mounted outside the engine compartment. This is suggested to minimize the additional and unnecessary load on the machinery compartments ventilation system.
continual creep processes that take place throughout the life of any structure. Softness or flexibility is very important to prevent excessive vibratory stresses. The flexible connector must have high fatigue life to enable it to survive for indefinite periods. Softness prevents transmission of vibration beyond the connection. Resistance to fatigue keeps it from breaking under vibratory or recycling stresses. To prevent the exhaust coupling from flexing during exhaust system construction, it is recommended that straps be tack welded between the two flanges to make the coupling rigid. Remove these straps before starting the engines. The growth and shrinkage of the exhaust pipe must be planned or it will create excessive loads on exhaust piping and supporting structure. Long runs of dry exhaust pipes can be subjected to very severe stresses from expansion and contraction. From its cold state, a steel exhaust pipe will expand about 0.11 mm/m for each 100C rise of exhaust temperature (0.0076 in./ft of pipe for each 100F). This amounts to about 52 mm
Flexible Connections
The exhaust pipe must be isolated from the engine with flexible connections. They should be installed as close to the engines exhaust outlet as possible. A flexible exhaust connection has three primary functions: To isolate the weight of the exhaust piping from the engine. No more than 28 kg (60 lb) of exhaust piping weight should be supported by the engine. To relieve exhaust components of excessive vibrational fatigue stresses. To allow for relative shifting between reference points on engine exhaust components. This shifting has numerous causes. It may result from expansion and contraction of components due to temperature changes, or by slow but
INSTALLATION LIMITATIONS OF BELLOWS - TYPE FLEXIBLE EXHAUST FITTING Free Length B. C. A. max. compression max. extension max. offset between flanges from free length from free length mm in. mm in. mm in. 0 38.1 1.50 0 25.4 1.00 3.05 .12 22.86 .90 12.7 .50 6.35 15.24 .60 .25 7.11 .28 9.65 .38 10.16 .40 5.08 .20 A 12.7 5.84 .23 .50 .00 .00 19.05 0.0 .00 .75 .00 .00 Spring Rate of Bellows = 19.21 N/m (170 lb/in.) Approx. If bellows-type exhaust fittings are distorted beyond limits shown in table while engine is operating at full throttle, service life will be greatly reduced. B or C Figure 2.6
16
expansion per m from 35C to 510C (0.65 in. expansion for each 10 ft of pipe from 100F to 950F). Divide long runs of exhaust pipe into sections having expansion joints between sections. Each section should be fixed at one end and be allowed to expand at the other.
It is of utmost importance that the flexible pipe connection, when insulated, be insulated in such a way that the flexible pipe connection can expand and contract freely within the insulation. This generally requires either a soft material or an insulated sleeve to encase the flexible pipe connection.
Pipe Support
Drain
17
Dimension Chart Flange Type P/N Nominal ID mm (in.) Rect. Rect. Circ. Circ.
* ** *** ****
Flange OD mm (in.) 163* (6.42) 203*** (8.00) 274 (11) 400 (15.75)
Bolt Circle mm (in.) 127** (5) 152**** (6) 250 (9.875) 375 (14.75)
# of Bolts
Overall Length mm (in.) 457 (18) 609 (24) 304 (12) 304 (12)
4 4 8 12
This dimension is the length of each side of a square flange. This dimension is from bolt center to bolt center along a side of the rectangular flange. This dimension is the length of each side of a square flange. This dimension is from bolt center to bolt center along a side of the rectangular flange.
For best results, the intake air openings should discharge cool air into the engine room near the floor level. After the intake air has been heated by contact with hot surfaces in the engine room, draw the ventilating air out from a point directly over the engines, near the engine room overhead. Place the ejector in the exhaust system just prior to the exhausts discharge to atmosphere to avoid back pressure on the mixture of exhaust gas and hot air through any length of stack. Any bends in the exhaust stack following the mixture can seriously affect the systems performance. Furthermore, the exhaust stack will remain cooler and cleaner if the engine exhaust is contained within the exhaust piping throughout its run through the stack. The discharged ventilation air will tend to cool the exhaust stack upstream of the point where it is mixed with the exhaust gases. Exhaust ejectors are most effective on vessels with only one propulsion engine. On multiple engine installations, if one engine is operated at reduced load, the ejector air flow for the engine with reduced load may reverse, pulling exhaust gas from the more heavily loaded engine into the engine room. The following diagrams illustrate methods of laying out the system:
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4.5
2
2L
0.5 L
1.5
L
5
3.75 L
6 3 1 D 2.75 L or more 4
Figure 2.8
19
4.5
1.5
L
0 90
D = diameter L = X diameter 2 1
45
0*
2.25 L or more
Figure 2.9
20
D = diameter L = X diameter 2L
D 2.25 L
Figure 2.10
21
L = Length of pipe (feet). Includes all of the straight pipe and the straight pipe equivalents of all elbows. S = Specific weight of gas (lb/ft3).
S (lb/ft3) = 39.6 Exhaust Temperature + 460F
D=
3600000
LSQ2 P
D = Inside diameter of pipe (mm) Q = Exhaust gas flow (m3/min). See engine performance curve. L = Length of pipe (m). Includes all of the straight pipe and the straight pipe equivalents of all elbows.
352 Exhaust Temperature + 273F
45 Elbow
L = 15 D 12 L = 15 D 1000
S (kg/m3) =
Where:
L = Straight Pipe Equivalent Length of Elbows D = Pipe Diameter
D=
LSQ2 187P
D = Inside diameter of pipe (inches). Q = Exhaust Gas Flow (ft3/min). See engine performance curve.
= 0.0361 x in. of water column = 0.00142 x mm of water column = 0.491 x in. of mercury column = 6.3246 x mm of water column = 4.0 in. of water column = 0.30 x in. of mercury column = 0.145 psi
22
Mufflers
Exhaust noise attenuation is best performed with a quality muffler. However, the attenuation characteristics of a muffler are not the same for all frequencies. The effect of a given muffler could be quite different if the engine runs at two different speeds. The manufacturer must be contacted for any specific muffling characteristics. The location of the muffler within the exhaust piping, whether close to the engine or nearer the exhaust outlet, and the number of engine cylinders is important. It will affect the efficiency of the muffler. The sketch below offers suggestions for the most efficient muffler location.
L* 1/3 L Engine For In-Line and Vee With Divided Exhaust System L* 2/3 L Engine For Vee Engine With Single Exhaust L* 4/5 L Engine Alternate For All In-Line and Vee *L Is Total Length of Exhaust Piping Excluding The Muffler MUFFLER LOCATION Figure 2.11 1/5 L 1/3 L 2/3 L
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Maximum Exhaust Back Pressure Limits Metric Units Naturally Aspirated Engines Turbocharged Engines Except for those specifically listed below: 435 hp 3208, 3116, 3126 Propulsion Engines 3600 Family Engines 9.96 kPa 40 in. H20 The limits on 3600 are competitive with other medium speed diesels. Higher pressure will affect performance and fuel consumption. 8.47 kPa 6.72 kPa English Units 34 in. H20 27 in. H20
To ensure the above limits are not exceeded during operation, it is recommended the design limit be not more than one-half the specified back pressure limits.
IN.
48
36
24
12
Manometer in use
Figure 2.12
24
At no load or lightly loaded conditions, the sealing capability function of some integral engine components may be adversely affected. Exhaust manifold slobber is not usually harmful to the engine; the results can be unsightly and objectionable in some cases. Exhaust manifold slobber consists of fuel and/or oil mixed with soot from the inside of the exhaust manifold. Common sources of oil slobber are worn valve guides, worn piston rings and worn turbocharger seals. Fuel slobber usually occurs with combustion problems. A normally operating engine should be expected to run for at least one hour at light loads without significant slobber. Some engines may run for as long as three, four or more hours before slobbering. However all engines will eventually slobber if run at light loads. External signs of slobber will be evident unless the exhaust system is completely sealed. If extended idle or slightly loaded periods of engine operation are mandatory, the objectionable effects of the engine slobber can be avoided by loading the engine to at least 30% load for approximately ten minutes every four hours. This will remove any fluids that have accumulated in the exhaust manifold. To minimize exhaust manifold slobber, it is important that the engine is correctly sized for each application.
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Lubrication Systems
General Information Recommended Oils for Various Caterpillar Products Contamination Changing Lubrication Oil Engine Lube Oil Flow Schematic Filter Change Technique Lubricating Oil Heaters Emergency Systems Duplex Filters Auxiliary Oil Sumps Prelubrication Special Marking of Engine Crankcase Dipstick Synthetic Lubricants and Special Oil Formulations
General Information
Bearing failure, piston ring sticking and excessive oil consumption are classic symptoms of oil related engine failure. There are numerous ways to avoid them. Three of the most important are Scheduled Oil Sampling (SOS), regular maintenance of the lubrication system, and the use of correct lubricants. Taking these measures can mean the difference between experiencing repeated oil related engine failure and benefiting from a productive and satisfactory engine life. The following information will acquaint the reader with oil; what it is composed of and what its functions are, how to identify its contamination and degradation, typical consequences, and some preventive measures to help you protect your engine against the devastating effects of oil related engine failure.
Detergents help keep the engine clean by chemically reacting with oxidation products to stop the formation and deposit of insoluble compounds. Oxidation inhibitors help prevent increases in viscosity, the development of organic acids and the formation of carbonaceous matter. Dispersants help prevent sludge formation by dispersing contaminants and keeping them in suspension. Alkalinity agents help neutralize acids. Anti-wear agents reduce friction by forming a film on metal surfaces. Pour-point dispersants keep the oil fluid at low temperatures by preventing the growth and agglomeration of wax crystals. Viscosity improvers help prevent the oil from becoming too thin at high temperatures.
Function
Engine oil performs several basic functions: It cleans the engine by carrying dirt and wear particles until the filters can extract and store them. It cools the engine by carrying heat away from the pistons, cylinder walls, valves, and cylinder heads to be dissipated in the engine oil cooler. It cushions the engines bearings from the shocks of cylinder firing. It lubricates the wear surfaces, reducing friction. It neutralizes the corrosive combustion products. It seals the engines metal surfaces from rust.
Viscosity
Viscosity is the property of oil which defines its thickness or resistance to flow. Viscosity is directly related to how well an oil will lubricate and protect surfaces that contact one another. Oil must provide adequate supply to all moving parts, regardless of the temperature. The more viscous (thicker) an oil is, the stronger the oil film it will provide. The thicker the oil film, the more resistant it will be to being wiped or rubbed from lubricated surfaces. Conversely, oil that is too thick will have excessive resistance to flow at low temperatures and so may not flow quickly enough to those parts requiring lubrication. It is therefore vital that the oil has the correct
1
Additives
Lubricating oil consists of a mixture of base oil fortified with certain additives. Depending on the type of base, paraffinic, asphaltic, naphthenic or intermediate (which has some of the properties of the former), different additive chemistries are used.
Additive Types
The most common additives are: detergents, oxidation inhibitors, dispersants, alkalinity agents, anti-wear agents, pour-point dispersants and viscosity improvers.
viscosity at both the highest and the lowest temperatures at which the engine is expected to operate. Oil thins out as temperature increases. The measurement of the rate at which it thins out is called the oils viscosity index (or VI). New refining techniques and the development of special additives which improve the oils viscosity index help retard the thinning process. The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) standard oil classification system categorizes oils according to their quality.
There are seven contaminants commonly found in contaminated oil. 1. Wear Elements Wear elements are regarded as those elements whose presence indicates a part or component which is wearing. Wear elements include: copper, iron, chromium, aluminum, lead-tin, molybdenum, silicon, nickel, and magnesium. 2. Dirt and Soot Dirt can get into the oil via air blowing down past the rings and by sticking to the oil film and being scraped down from cylinder walls. Soot is unburned fuel. Black smoke and a dirty air filter indicate its presence. It causes oil to turn black. 3. Fuel 4. Water Water is a by-product of combustion and usually exits through the exhaust stack. It can condense in the crankcase if the engine operating temperature is insufficient. 5. Ethylene Glycol/Antifreeze 6. Sulfur Products/Acids 7. Oxidation Products Oxidation Products Oxidation products cause the oil to thicken; oxidation rate is accelerated by high temperature of the inlet air.
Cleanliness
Normal engine operation generates a variety of contaminationranging from microscopic metal particles to corrosive chemicals. If the engine oil is not kept clean through filtration, this contamination would be carried through the engine via the oil. Oil filters are designed to remove these harmful debris particles from the lubrication system. Use of a filter beyond its intended life can result in a plugged filter. A plugged filter will cause the bypass valve to open releasing unfiltered oil. Any debris particles in the oil will flow directly to the engine. When a bypass valve remains open, the particles that were previously trapped by the filter may also be flushed from it and then through the open bypass valve. Filter plugging can also cause distortion of the element. This happens when there is an increase in the pressure difference between the outside and inside of the filter element. Distortion can progress to cracks or tears in the paper. This again allows debris to flow into the engine where it can damage components.
Diagnostic Tests
Caterpillars Scheduled Oil Sampling (SOS) program is a series of diagnostic tests designed to identify and measure contamination and degradation in a sample of oil. SOS is composed of three basic tests: 1. Wear Analysis 2. Chemical & Physical Tests 3. Oil Condition Analysis A brief explanation of what each of these tests involves is in order.
Contamination
Contamination refers to the presence of unwanted material or contaminants in the oil.
2
Wear Analysis
Wear analysis is performed with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Essentially, the test monitors a given components wear rate by identifying and measuring concentrations of wear elements in oil. Based on known normal concentration data, maximum limits of wear elements are established. After three oil samples are taken, trend lines for the various wear elements can be established for the particular engine. Impending failures can be identified when trend lines deviate from the established norm. Wear analysis is limited to detecting component wear and gradual dirt contamination. Failures due to component fatigue, sudden loss of lubrication or sudden ingestion of dirt occur too rapidly to be predicted by this type of test.
Silicon
Above normal readings of silicon can indicate a major problem. Oil loaded with silicon becomes, in effect, a grinding compound which can remove metal from any number of parts during operation.
Sodium
A sudden increase in sodium readings indicates inhibitor leaking from the cooling system. Inhibitor may indicate antifreeze in the system which can cause oil to thicken and become like sludge, leading to piston ring sticking and filter plugging.
Aluminum
This can be critical. Concentrations of aluminum suggest bearing wear. Relatively small increases in the levels of this element should receive immediate attention because once rapid wear begins, the crankshaft may produce large metal particles which will become trapped in the oil filters.
Iron
Iron can come from any number of sources. It can also appear as rust, after engine storage. Frequently, when accompanied by a loss of oil control, increases in iron contamination indicate severe liner wear.
contamination. A dry environment will for instance affect silicon readings. Another example is engines which stand idle for long periods at a time. The liners in such engines will rust at an unusually rapid rate; oil samples will reveal high iron readings.
Soot
A high soot content is not usually the direct cause of failure but as solid particles which will not dissolve in the oil, it can plug oil filters and deplete dispersant additives. Soot indicates a dirty air cleaner, engine lug, excessive fuel delivery, or repeated acceleration in the improperly set rack limiter (smoke limiter). It can also indicate a poor quality fuel.
Water
Water combined with oil will create an emulsion which will plug the filter. Water and oil can also form a dangerous metal corroding acid. Most instances of water contamination are the result of condensation within the crankcase. More serious contamination occurs when a leak in the cooling system allows water to enter from outside the engine oil system.
Fuel
Fuel contamination decreases the oils lubricating properties. The oil no longer has the necessary film strength to prevent metalto-metal contact. This can lead to bearing failure and piston seizure.
Sulfur
The presence of sulfur signals danger to all engine parts. The type of corrosive wear attributed to high sulfur content can also cause accelerated oil consumption. Also, the more fuel consumed during an oil change interval, the more sulfur oxides are available to form acids. Therefore, an engine working under heavy loads should be checked more often. Also, its TBN should be checked more frequently. Fuel sulfur damage can cause piston ring sticking, and corrosive wear of the metal surfaces of valve guides, piston rings and liners. Engine operating conditions can also play a major role in the type and degree of oil
4
Turbo Charger
2 9 3 1 5
Engine Lube Oil Flow Schematic causing the oil to bypass the cooler until the 1. Sump lube oil is drawn from the sump oil is warm enough to require full oil flow through a strainer into the inlet of the lube oil through the cooler. pump. 6. Lube Oil Filter Caterpillar lube oil filters are 2. Lube Oil Pump the quantity of lube oil the full-flow type with a bypass valve to prodelivered by the lube oil pump exceeds the vide adequate lubrication should the filter engine's needs when the engine is new. become plugged. The filter system may have As the engine clearances increase through the replaceable element type or the spin-on normal wear, the flow required to properly type. The oil filter bypass valve is a protection lubricate the engine will remain adequate. against lube oil starvation if the oil filter 3. Oil Pressure Regulating Valve this valve clogs. regulates oil pressure in the engine and 7. Engine Oil Passages the main oil flow is routes excess oil back to the sump. distributed through passages to internal 4. Lube Oil Cooler the oil to the engine is engine components. The oil flow carries away cooled by jacket water in the engine oil heat and wear particles and returns to the cooler . sump by gravity. 5. Oil Cooler Bypass Valve when the viscosity of the oil causes a substantial pressure drop 8. Prelubrication Pump used only during starting cycle on largest engines. in the oil cooler, the bypass valve will open, 9. Check Valve. Figure 1.1
Requirements for emergency lube system operation: 1. Keep pressure drops to a minimum by using short, low restriction lines. 2. Use a line size at least as large as the engine connection point. 3. Install a low restriction strainer in front of the emergency oil pump. 4. Install a low restriction check valve between the emergency pump discharge and the engine inlet connection. 5. Use a pressure limiting valve in the emergency system set at 8.8 kg/cm2 (125 psi).
Emergency Systems
Some marine applications require the capability to connect an emergency lubricating oil pump into the engines lube system. This is a specific requirement of some marine classification societies for seagoing single propulsion engine applications. The purpose is to ensure lube oil pressure and circulation if the engine lube pump fails.
Transmissions
Some marine classification societies require emergency lube oil pumps for marine transmissions to meet unrestricted service classification.
Duplex Filters
The optional Caterpillar Duplex Oil Filter System meets the requirements of the standard filter system plus an auxiliary filter system with the necessary valves and piping. The system provides the means for changing either the main or auxiliary filter elements with the engine running at any load to speed. A filter change indicator is included to tell
when to change the main filter elements. A vent valve allows purging of air trapped in either the main or auxiliary system when installing new elements. Air must be purged from the changed section to eliminate possible turbocharger and bearing damage. The auxiliary system is capable of providing adequate oil filtration for at least 100 hours under full load and speed operation.
Figure 1.2
Check Valve Opening Pressure Set for 75% of Full Load Oil Pressure Measured at A.
Drain Opening Return Line Must Have Continuous Downward Slope to Engine 12 mm (1/2 in) minimum inside diameter A Minimum Inside Diameter With No Valves or Shut-Off Provisions of Any Kind
Oil Pump
Prelubrication
A prelube system provides the capability to prelubricate all critical bearing journals before energizing the starting motors. The automatic system utilizes a small pump which fills the engine oil galleries from the engine oil sump until the presence of oil is sensed at the upper portion of the lubrication system. The starter motors are automatically energized only after the engine has been prelubricated. The manual system uses the engines manually operated sump pump and allows the engine operator to fill all engine oil passages after oil changes, filter changes, periods of idleness, and before activating the starter motors. Either prelube system will allow the engine operator to fill all engine oil passages after oil changes, filter changes, and before activating the starter motors. Either system will allow the engine user to minimize the sometimes severe engine wear associated with starting an engine after periods of idleness.
and engine vibration can be caused by crankshaft counterweights dipping into the oil. These are all problems that can be caused by an improper amount of oil in the sump.
Procedure
1. Drain engine crankcase and remove oil filter elements. 2. Install new oil filter elements. 3. Fill crankcase with a given volume of oil (Vf) which can be determined as follows. Vf = Vr Vm
Where:
Vr = Volume of oil required to refill to Full mark with filter change. Vm = Volume of oil between add mark and Full mark for level operation. Note: Both Vr and Vm values for a specific engine model are published in the current Technical Marketing Information (TMI) on Marine Engine Systems and Performance Specification Data microfiche under subject heading Pan-Oil Capacity. Add to this any additional oil volume required for special filters, oil lines, or coolers which are additions to the standard engine or unique to the installation. 4. Insert the dipstick to make certain that the oil shows on the dipstick. Be certain that the correct dipstick is used and that it does not hit the bottom of the sump or is otherwise improperly installed. 5. Start the engine and operate it at one half rated rpm until the oil has reached normal operating temperature. Reduce engine speed to low idle and mark the level indicated on the dipstick. This is the add oil or low mark. 6. Add additional oil equivalent to Vm as shown in the Technical Marketing Information (TMI) and let the engine operate at least another five minutes in order to bring all the oil up to temperature. Mark the new oil level on the dipstick. This is the full oil mark. Refer to Operation and Maintenance manuals for dipstick marking base on intalled tilt angles.
9
molybdenum disulfide, etc., which have been properly blended into an oil that meets API CG4/CF4 specification can be used in Caterpillar Diesel Engines. These additives are not necessary to achieve normal life and performance of the engine. Normal engine life and performance can be achieved by properly applying the engine, by servicing at recommended oil change period, by selecting the correct oil viscosity, by using a API CG4/CF4 oil and performing and maintenance as outlined in the engine operation and maintenance guide. Caterpillar does not recommend the use of molybdenum dithiophosphate friction modifier additive in the engine oil. This additive causes rapid corrosion of bronze components in Caterpillar Diesel Engines.
Fuel Systems
General Information Cleanliness Tank Design Fuel Lines Fuel Specifications Filters Fuel SystemsMiscellaneous Appendix
General Information
Caterpillar Engines have three different types of fuel systems. The earliest has the high pressure pumps (for all the cylinders) in a single housing. The input shaft for that housing is driven by the engines gear train. The high pressure fuel pump housing provides the high pressure fuel to the fuel valves at each cylinder, at the proper time, and in precisely metered amounts. The fuel valves at each cylinder are simple and easily replaced. A later design combines each cylinders high pressure pump and the fuel valve in a single unit; therefore, the term unit injector. The power to generate the high pressures for injection is taken from the engines camshafts by way of pushrods and rocker arms. Electronic unit injectors use engine camshaft and push rods to generate injection press but use electronics to time the fuel delivery and the amount. Caterpillar Diesel Engine fuel delivery systems are designed to deliver more fuel to the engine than is required for combustion. The excess is returned to the fuel tanks.
Heat in Fuel
Excess fuel (returned to the fuel tanks) picks up engine heat and can raise the temperature of the fuel in the tanks. To avoid decreased injector life, fuel temperature to the engine must not exceed 66C (150F). Heat will also increase the specific volume of the fuel, resulting in a power loss of 1% for each 6C (10F) above 29C (85F) . If the tank is so located and is of such size that the accumulated heat will not be objectionable when temperature stabilizes, then nothing more needs to be done. If the stabilized fuel tank temperature is high, the returning fuel should be cooled. See section on Fuel Coolers.
Air in Fuel
Gases entrained in the supplied fuel are discharged from the engine in the returned fuel. The gases (generally, air introduced through leaks in the fuel suction plumbing) must be vented to prevent engine power loss.
Standpipe Systems
The simplest method for eliminating the air problems is to install a standpipe between the fuel tank and the engine. Fuel will flow from the tank to the bottom of the standpipe by gravity. This is the point where the engine picks up fuel. The fuel return line must enter the standpipe at a point a few inches above the higher of either the supply or delivery point. The top of the standpipe can be vented into the top of a fuel tank or to atmosphere. This system works satisfactorily with any number of fuel tanks. There must be no upward loops in piping between the fuel tank and the standpipe, as entrapped air may block fuel flow.
Cleanliness
Clean fuel meeting Caterpillars fuel recommendations provides outstanding engine service life and performance; anything less is a compromise and the risk is the users responsibility. Dirty fuel and fuels not meeting Caterpillars minimum specifications will adversely affect: The perceived performance of the combustion system and fuel filters. The service life of the fuel injection system, valves, pistons, rings, liners and bearings.
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1 11
10 6 9 8 4 7
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FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM-SINGLE TANK OR DAY TANK 1. Fuel filler 2. Fuel tank or day tank 3. Drain valve install at lowest part of tank to enable draining of all water and sediment. Outlet of valve should be plugged when not in use to prevent fuel dripping. 4. Fuel discharge valve 5. Water and sediment trap must be lowest point of system. 6. Fuel return standpipe 7. Primary fuel filter to be cleanable without shutting down engine 8. Fuel supply line to engine Figure 2.1 9. Flexible fuel lines connecting to basic fuel delivery system 10. Return from engine to standpipe 11. Vent from top of standpipe to top of fuel tank 12. Vent from top of fuel tank atmosphere-must be high enough above deck to prevent water washing over deck from entering pipe 13. Cleanout drain for water & sediment-valved and kept below fuel discharge from tank, to allow flushing water & sediment tank by gravity feed from supply
Fuel Coolers
The excess fuel returned from engines equipped with unit injectors (1.7 liter, 3500 and 3600 Family Engines) can absorb considerable heat from the injectors and the surrounding jacket water. Fuel coolers may be necessary for proper engine performance. The following factors affect the need for fuel cooling equipment:
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Length of periods of continuous operationIf the operating periods are short, the amount of heat returned to the fuel tanks will be relatively small. Fuel coolers are not generally required for engines used in high performance applications.
Length of time between periods of operationIf the time between periods of operation is long, the heat will have an opportunity to dissipate. Volume of the fuel tankIf the volume of the fuel tank is large (larger than 11 000 L [3,000 gal]), it will accept a great deal of heat before the temperature of the fuel leaving the tank increases significantly. Ability of the fuel tanks to dissipate the heat of stored fuelIf the fuel in the tank is in contact with shell plating*, the fuel heat will be easily dissipated and stored fuel temperature will remain within a few degrees of the ambient water temperature.
Auxiliary or day tanks also provide a settling reservoir so air, water, and sediment can separate from the fuel. The auxiliary or day tank should be located so that the level of the fuel is no higher than the fuel injection valves on the engine. If the fuel level is higher, the static pressure may allow fuel to leak into the combustion chambers when the engine is not running. The presence of liquid fuel in the combustion chamber at the instant of engine starting is very likely to cause engine failure. The tank should be close enough to the engine so the total suction lift is less than the 3.65 m (12 ft). The smaller this figure, the easier the engine will start.
* The shell plating should be approximately 10% of the inside surface area of the fuel tank.
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Vent Cap Locate Away From Flame or Sparks Baffle Engine to Tank (Return Line) Baffle
Auxiliary Fuel Pump Shut-Off Valve Tank to Engine (Delivery Line) Main Tank to Aux. Tank (Fill Line) AUXILIARY FUEL TANK Figure 2.2
Tank Design
Material
Fuel tanks are best made from low carbon rolled steel. Zinc, either in the form of plating or as a major alloying component, should not be used with diesel fuels. Zinc is unstable in the presence of sulfur, particularly if moisture is present in the fuel. The sludge formed by chemical action is extremely harmful to the engines internal components. Zinc should be avoided where continuous contact with diesel fuel is involved.
Cleanliness
All connecting lines, valves, and tanks should be thoroughly cleaned before making final connections to the engine. The entire fuel supply system should be flushed prior to engine start-up.
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Sizing
The capacity of a fuel tank or tank system can be estimated by multiplying the average horsepower demand by the hours of operation
between refuelings, and divide the result by 16 for U.S. gallons and by 4 for liters. This calculation does not allow for any reserve capacity which should be added to this basic requirement.
the bilges. Leaks from overhead fuel system components may fall onto hot machinery, increasing the likelihood of fire danger.
Sizing
Determine the fuel line sizing by the supply and return line restriction. The maximum allowable restriction is published in the Engine Performance books (green books). Supply and return lines should be no smaller than the fittings on the engine.
Fuel Specifications
Caterpillar Diesel Engines have the capacity to burn a wide variety of fuels. See your Caterpillar Dealer for current information on fuel recommendations. In general, the engine can use the lowest priced distillate fuel which meets the following requirements:
Drains
All fuel tanks should have easily accessible drain connections. Water and sediment which collects in the bottom of the tank must be eliminated regularly. Provide clean-out openings for periodical removal of sediment and trash which settles out of fuel tanks. Well-designed tanks have large enough cleanout openings so the lowest part of the fuel tank can be accessed with cleaning equipment.
Properties
Cetane Number or Index
The cetane index is a measure of the ignition quality of fuel which affects engine starting and acceleration. The fuel supplier should know the cetane number or index of each fuel shipment. Precombustion chamber fuel systems require a minimum cetane number of 35. Direct injection engines require a minimum cetane number of 40 for good starting characteristics.
Fuel Lines
Material
Black iron pipe is best suited for diesel fuel lines. Copper pipe or tubing may be substituted in sizes of 13.0 mm (0.5 in.) nominal pipe size or less. Valves and fittings may be cast iron or bronze (not brass). Zinc, either in the form of plating or as a major alloying component, should not be used with diesel fuels. Zinc is unstable in the presence of sulfur, particularly if moisture is present in the fuel. The sludge formed by chemical action is extremely harmful to the engines internal components.
Engine Effects
Fuel with a low cetane number usually causes an ignition delay in the engine. This delay causes starting difficulties and engine knock. Ignition delay also causes poor fuel economy, a loss of power and sometimes engine damage. A low cetane number fuel can also cause white smoke and odor at start-up on colder days. Engines running on fuels with low cetane numbers may need to be started and stopped using a good distillate fuel. Blended fuels or additives can change the cetane number. The cetane number is difficult and expensive to establish for blended fuels due to the complexity of the required test.
Routing
Whenever possible, route fuel lines under any machinery, so any leakage will be confined to
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White exhaust smoke is made up of fuel vapors and aldehydes created by incomplete engine combustion. Ignition delay during cold weather is often the cause. There is not enough heat in the combustion chamber to ignite the fuel. Therefore, the fuel does not burn completely. Using a cetane improver additive can often reduce white smoke during engine start-up in cold weather. It increases the cetane number of diesel fuel which improves ignition quality and makes it easier for fuel to ignite and burn. Contact your local fuel supplier for information on where to obtain cetane improvers. The cetane number sensitivity can also be reduced in an engine by raising the inlet air temperature, if practical. Cetane number is usually calculated or approximated using a cetane index due to the cost of more accurate testing. Be cautious when obtaining cetane numbers from fuel suppliers.
Cloud Point
The cloud point of a fuel is that temperature at which a cloud or haze appears in the fuel. This appearance is caused by the temperature falling below the melting point of waxes or paraffins that occur naturally in petroleum products.
Engine Effects
The cloud point of the fuel must be at least 6C (10F) below the lowest outside (ambient) temperature to prevent filters from plugging. The fuels cloud and pour points are determined by the refiner. Generally, the cloud point is most important to you since it is at this temperature that fuel filter plugging begins to occur and stops fuel flow to the engine.
Flash Point
The flash point is the temperature at which fuel vapors can be ignited when exposed to a flame. It is determined by the type of fuel and the air-fuel ratio. It is important for safety reasons, not for engine operating characteristics. The minimum flash point for most diesel fuels is about 38C (100F).
Note: Do not allow the fuel to get too warm because fuel above 29C (85F) will affect the power output of the engine. Never exceed 66C (150F) with straight distillate fuel. The high fuel temperatures also affect the fuel
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viscosity. When the fuel viscosity falls below 1.4 cSt, pump damage may occur. 2. You can also dilute high cloud point fuels with a low cloud point fuel like kerosene. 3. The fuel manufacturer can also add flow improvers (wax crystal modifiers) to the fuel. These do not change the cloud point of the fuel, but they do keep the wax crystals small enough to pass through the fuel filter. Caterpillar does not recommend the use of aftermarket fuel flow improvers because of occasional compatibility problems.
Low viscosity fuel may not provide adequate lubrication to plungers, barrels, and injectors; its use should be evaluated carefully.
Pour Point
The pour point of a fuel is that temperature which is 3C (5F) above the temperature at which the fuel just fails to flow or turns solid. Usually the pour point is also determined by the wax or paraffin content of the fuel.
Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of a liquids resistance to flow. High viscosity means the fuel is thick and does not flow as easily. Fuel with the wrong viscosity (either too high or too low) can cause engine damage. When comparing viscosity measurements, be sure they are taken at the same fuel temperature. Caterpillar recommends a viscosity between 1.4 cSt and 20 cSt delivered to the fuel injection pump. Engines with unit injectors can expect a 20C (68F) temperature rise between the transfer pump and the injector.
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of diesel fuel is the weight of a fixed volume of fuel compared to the weight of the same volume of water (at the same temperature). The higher the specific gravity, the heavier the fuel. Heavier fuels have more energy or power (per volume) for the engine to use.
Engine Effects
High viscosity fuel will increase gear train, cam and follower wear on the fuel pump assembly because of the higher injection pressure. Fuel atomizes less efficiently and the engine will be more difficult to start.
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Engines should maintain jacket water temperatures above 74C (165F) at all times to minimize internal condensation of water vapor (from combustion). Fuels containing higher sulfur levels can be utilized in Caterpillar Marine Engines. This does require proper lubrication oil selection. Consult the appropriate lubrication and maintenance manual, published by the Caterpillar Service Department, for specific recommendations. Maintain the crankcase breather system to prevent condensation in the crankcase oil which will cause rapid TBN depletion. Maintain a regular Scheduled Oil Sampling (SOS) oil analysis program. Infrared (JR) analysis is valuable as well. Follow standard oil change intervals unless SOS or known sulfur content indicates differently.
Heavy Fuels
A heavy fuel tends to create more combustion chamber deposit formations which can cause abnormal cylinder liner and ring wear. Correct Specific Gravity Blending is the only way to correct fuel density problems.
Vanadium
Vanadium is a metal present in some heavy fuels. It is impractical to remove or reduce this element at the refinery. Vanadium compounds accelerate deposit formation. Vanadium is not present in distillate fuels.
Contaminants
Sulfur
Sulfur, in diesel fuel, is converted to sulfur trioxide during combustion. Sulfur trioxide will exhaust from the engine (without causing serious problems for the engine), as long as it does not come in contact with liquid water. If the sulfur trioxide gas does contact liquid water, the result is H2SO4 or sulfuric acid; a highly corrosive compound which will cause severe engine damage.
Engine Effects
Vanadium in the fuel quickly corrodes hot components. It will often first appear in the form of molten slag on exhaust valve seats. Vanadium forms highly corrosive compounds during combustion. These compounds attach to hot metal surfaces, like exhaust valve faces, injector tips and turbocharger blades. Vanadium compounds melt and remove the oxide coating. When component temperatures rise, vanadium corrodes even faster. For example, exhaust valves can wear out in a few
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Water Separators There are two types of water separators. Sediment-Type Water Separator
The sediment type is installed ahead of the engines fuel transfer pump. For water and sediment to separate properly, the sedimenttype water separator should not be subject to violent motion. A sediment water separator does not have a filtering media in the element. It does not normally need scheduled element replacement. The water and sediment trap should be large enough to reduce the fuel flow rate to a velocity less than 0.61 m/s (2 ft/s). The larger particles of sediment and water will settle out at this flow rate. Locate the water and sediment trap as close to the fuel tank as possible. This is to minimize the length of ships fuel lines which are subject to water and sediment contamination. It will minimize any problem with water freezing in fuel lines.
Water
Water can be introduced into the fuel during shipment or as a result of condensation during storage.
Engine Effects
Water (both fresh and salt) can cause: Excessive separator sludge after the fuel has been centrifuged. Piston ring groove deposits. Wear in fuel system plunger and barrel assemblies. Power loss from fuel starvation; the water causes fuel filter media to swell, cutting off the engines fuel supply.
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8 4
1 2 2
SUGGESTED ARRANGEMENT FOR WATER AND SEDIMENT TRAP 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Fuel inlet Inlet baffle Hand hole and cover Fuel Outlet Baffles Openings at bottom of baffles for drainage Drain Opening Air bleed plug = Fuel Cons. Tank Cap. + 25 5000
Catalytic Fines
Catalytic Fines are small, hard particles which originate at the refinery. They are usually composed of aluminum and silicon particles and can cause very rapid abrasive wear.
Engine Effects
Catalytic Fines will severely damage injection pumps, injectors, piston rings and cylinder liners. Proper fuel treatment methods (centrifuging and filtration) will remove these particles.
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Dose all fuel inventory with biocide at the first sign of microorganism contamination.
Air
Air can be dissolved in fuel, and it can also be pulled into the fuel lines by a leak on the suction side of the fuel transfer pump.
Engine Effects
Air in the fuel will cause starting problems, missing, low power and smoke problems. Air can also cause excessive white smoke in some engines.
Asphaltenes
Asphaltenes are components of asphalt that are insoluble in petroleum naphtha and hot heptanes but are soluble in carbon disulphide and benzene. They are hard and brittle and are made up of long molecules with high molecular weight. In high concentrations, asphaltenes can cause filter plugging. They often contain heavy metals such as nickel, iron and vanadium. Asphaltenes are not present in distillate fuels.
Filters
Primary Fuel Filter Element Specification
The primary fuel filters elements should have the following properties: Mesh Size 32 x 28 strands per cm (70 x 80 strands per in.) Element Monel wire cloth material or equivalent Element Area 645 cm2 (100 in.2 ) or greater Opening Size 0.1778 mm x 0.2235 mm (0.007 in. x 0.0088 in.)
Microorganisms in Fuel
All water and fuel offer a medium for microorganism growth. These simple life forms live in the water and feed on fuel.
Engine Effects
Microorganisms in fuel cause corrosion and filter plugging. They may be any color but are usually black, green or brown. They grow in long strings and have a slimy appearance. A biocide added to the fuel will kill the microorganisms but will not remove the remains of their bodies. Extensive filtering of the fuel after using the biocide is required to eliminate engine-mounted filter plugging.
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absolute rating of 10 microns will stop all particles larger than 10 microns. In fact, filters with absolute micron ratings of 10 will pass some particles larger than 10 microns due to the irregularity of the paper weave. New filters may pass larger particles than they will after only a few hours of use. As a general rule, Caterpillar fuel filter media (paper) is about 3 microns nominal, 20 microns absolute. Oil filter media (paper) is about 10 microns nominal, 50 microns absolute. These are approximate values only. Filters are not effectively compared on the basis of micron rating alone. Evaluate filters on the basis of their ability to collect foreign material as a whole.
provide sufficient mixing. Failure to achieve adequate mixing will result in premature filter plugging by slugs of undiluted oil. Filter or centrifuge used oil before putting it in the fuel tanks to prevent premature fuel filter plugging, accelerated wear or plugging of fuel system parts. Soot, dirt, metal and residue particles larger than 5 microns (0.000197 in.) should be removed by this process. If filtering or centrifuging is not used before adding the oil to the fuel, primary filters with 5 microns (0.000197 in.) capability must be located between the fuel supply and engine. These will require frequent servicing. Clean handling techniques of the used crankcase oils are essential to prevent introducing contaminants from outside sources into the diesel fuel supply. Care must be taken in collecting, storing and transporting the used crankcase oil to the diesel fuel tanks. Diesel fuel day tank sight glasses may become blackened in time due to the carbon content in the crankcase oil. Ash content of the lube oil added to the fuel may also cause accumulation of turbocharger and valve deposits more rapidly than normal.
Sodium is frequently introduced during storage or because of incorrect handling procedures. Sodium can come directly from sea water or salt air condensation in fuel tanks. It can also be present in crude oil in its natural state.
Engine Effects
Sodium acts as a catalyst for vanadium corrosion. When sodium and vanadium combine, they react to form compounds which melt within normal engine operating temperatures. The sodium/vanadium combination causes high temperature corrosion of exhaust valves. It can also cause turbocharger turbine and nozzle deposits.
Corrosion
Copper Strip Corrosion
Corrosion is commonly tested by examining the discoloration formed on a polished copper strip when immersed in fuel for three hours at 100C (212F). Any fuel showing more than slight discoloration should be rejected. Many types of engine parts are of copper or copper alloys. It is essential that any fuel in contact with these parts be noncorrosive to copper. There are certain sulfur derivatives in the fuel that are likely sources of corrosion.
Crude Oils
Description
Crude oil is used to describe unrefined oils/fuels. Crude oil is basically the same as it was when pumped from the ground. Certain types of crude oils can be burned in Caterpillar Engines. See the Crude Oil Chart (Limits of Acceptability for Use in Caterpillar Engines) in the Fuel Section Appendix.
Heavy/Blended/Residual Fuels
Description
Heavy/Blended/Residual Fuel is composed of the remaining elements from crude oil after the oil has been refined into diesel fuel, gasoline or lubricating oils, etc. After the more desirable products have been refined, the remaining elements (which resemble tar
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and contain abrasive and corrosive substances) can be combined or diluted with a lighter fuel (cutter stock) so they can flow. These are called blended, heavy or residual fuels. Caterpillar 3500 and 3600 Family Engines can be modified to run on fuels which meet the specifications in the Heavy/Blended/ Residual Fuel Chart in the Fuel Section Appendix. Caterpillar 3500 and 3600 Diesel Engines can atomize many heavy fuels because of the unit injector fuel system. This system does not have high pressure fuel lines and can withstand higher injection pressures. 3500 Family Engines are capable of operating on blended fuels up to 180 cSt at 50C at 1800 rpm and lower, usually without changing engine timing. However, engine aerating may be required to keep the exhaust temperature below maximum limits. 3600 Family Engines are capable of operating on blended fuels up to 380 cSt at 50C. There are many other considerations to keep in mind when making the decision to switch to heavy fuel. Because heavy fuel is the heavy residue which is left over from the refining process, it has concentrated contaminants. In the best situation, using heavy fuel will increase the workload of the operating personnel. In the worst situation, heavy fuel could cause extremely short engine and component life. For your engine to operate successfully on heavy fuels, you must have a thorough maintenance program and high quality fuel treatment equipment. It is recommended that you always consult with your local Caterpillar Dealer when considering fuel changes.
Caterpillar or your Caterpillar Dealer will aid you in this evaluation. Also, investigate other fuel-saving methods. The following is a list of some fuel-saving alternatives: More modern, fuel-efficient engines. Lower speed (Engines can operate at 1200 rpm instead of 1800 rpm; 1000 rpm, instead of 1500 rpm; etc.). More efficient propeller (larger diameter with reduced pitch) or more efficient generator or other driven unit. Waste heat recovery. Lighter blends. Crude oil instead of diesel fuel.
Fuel Blending
Many fuel characteristics can be tailored by blending different fuels. A blended fuel can
help improve engine starting and warm-up, reduce deposits and wear, improve emissions and sometimes have an effect on power and economy. In general, lighter fuels are cleaner and help engine starting. Heavier fuels have higher heating values (per volume), better cetane quality, etc. The 3600 and 3500 Family Engines can use blended fuel economically as long as the fuel treatment facilities are adequate, and there are trained personnel to run this equipment.
nongenuine filters. For more information on fuel filter differences and considerations, see your Caterpillar Dealer. Properly store new filters to prevent dust from direct entry into the filter before use. Cut apart used filters after every filter change. A way to thoroughly inspect filters is to use the 6V7905 Filter Cutting Tool to cut them apart after they have been used (every filter change period). This will allow you to inspect internal filter components, see contaminants, and to also compare brands of filters for quality and filtering effectiveness.
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Daily Activities
Maintain and monitor fuel treatment equipment. Record engine temperatures to assure adequate jacket water temperature, aftercooler temperature and air intake temperature. Check exhaust thermocouples and record exhaust temperatures. Be alert for worn exhaust valves.
Installation of 8N9754 Fuel Heater Group SEHS7653-02 (Special Instruction) Fight Fuel Sulfur, Your Diesels Silent Enemy SEBD0598 Analyzing Fuel Nozzle and Fuel Line Failures SEBD0639 Using Diesel Fuel Thermo-Hydrometers GMGO0977 (Special Instruction) Using 2P8278 Fuel Flow Tube to Check for Entrained Air in Diesel Fuel GMGO0825 (Special Instruction) Heavy Fuel Contaminant Levels for 3500 and 3600 Engines LEKQ2314 (Engine Data Sheet 61.1) Sizing Fuel System Components for Heavy Fuels LEKQ9173 (Engine Data Sheet 61.3) Heavy Fuel Operating Procedures for 3500 and 3600 Engines LEKQ1177 (Engine Data Sheet 61.4) Fuel Water Separator for Use With 3208 and 3300 Engines Equipped With Sleeve Metering Fuel System LEKQ3383 (Engine Data Sheet 64.1) Fuel Conservation Practices LEKQ3106 (Engine Data Sheet 60.2)
Note: Measure valve stem projection when new; use a stationary point such as the valve cover gasket surface for a reference point. Record the measurements for each valve for later follow-up measurements. If valve stem projection moves more than 1.25 mm (0.050 in.), consider disassembly to find the reason. Another way to observe valve face wear is to measure and record changes on valve lash over a period of time.
Other Publications
ABS Notes on Heavy Fuel Oil (1984) American Bureau of Shipping 45 Eisenhower Drive Paramus, NJ 07652 U.S.A. Telephone: (201) 368-9100 Attention: Book Order Department
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Appendix
Table of Specific Gravity Versus Density Gravity Degrees API @ 15C (60F) 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 Specific Gravity @ 15C (60F) .9042 .8984 .8927 .8871 .8816 .8762 .8708 .8654 .8602 .8550 .8498 .8448 .8398 .8348 .8299 .8251 .8203 .8155 .8109 .8063 .8017 .7972 .7927 .7883 .7839 kg/L .902 .897 .891 .886 .880 .874 .869 .864 .858 .853 .848 .843 .838 .833 .828 .823 .819 .814 .809 .804 .800 .795 .791 .787 .782 Density lb/gal 7.592 7.481 7.434 7.387 7.341 7.296 7.251 7.206 7.163 7.119 7.076 7.034 6.993 6.951 6.910 6.870 6.830 6.790 6.752 6.713 6.675 6.637 6.600 6.563 6.526
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Crude Oil Chart Fuel Properties and Characteristics Cetane number or cetane index (ASTM D613 or calculated index) (PC Engines) (DI Engines) Water and sediment % volume (ASTM D1796) Pour Point (ASTM D97) Cloud point (ASTM D97) Sulfur (ASTM D2788 or D3605 or D1552) Viscosity at 38C (100F) (ASTM D445) API gravity (ASTM D287) Specific gravity (ASTM D287) Gasoline and naphtha fraction (fractions boiled off below 200C) Kerosene and distillate fraction (fractions boiled off between 200C and cracking point) Carbon residue (ramsbottom) (ASTM D524) Distillation 10% 90% cracking % residue (ASTM D86, D158 or D285) Reid vapor pressure (ASTM D323) Salt (ASTM D3230) Gums and Resins (ASTM D381) Copper strip corrosion 3 hrs @ 100C (ASTM D130) Flashpoint CF (ASTM D93) Ash % wieght (ASTM D482) Aromatics % (ASTM D1319) Vanadium PPM (ASTM D2788 or D3605) Sodium PPM(ASTM D2788 or D3605) Nickel PPM (ASTM D2788 or D3605) Aluminum PPM (ASTM D2788 or D3605) Silicon (ASTM D2788 or D3605)
PPM = parts per million
40 .5% 6C (10F) below ambient temperature Not higher than ambient temperature
Maximum Minimum Maximum Maximum Minimum Minimum Maximum Maximum Minimum Maximum Maximum Maximum Minimum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum
.5% See page 15 to adjust oil TBN for higher sulfur content 1.4 cSt 20 cSt 45 30 .8017 .875 35% 30% 3.5% 282C (540F) 380C (716F) 60% 10% 20 psi (kPa) 100 lb/1,000 barrels 10 mg/100 mL No. 3 Must be legal limit .1% 35% 4 PPM 10 PPM 1 PPM 1 PPM 1 PPM
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Heavy/Blended/Residual Fuel Chart Fuel Properties and Characteristics Water and sediment percent volume (ASTM D1796) Permissible Fuels as Delivered to the Fuel System Maximum 3500 .5 Sulfur (ASTM D2788 or D3605 or D1552) Viscosity (To the Unit Injector)(ASTM D445) Carbon Residue (Conradson Carbon Residue) (ASTM D189) Vanadium Aluminum (ASTM D2788 or D3605) Silicon (ASTM D2788 or D3605)
PPM = parts per million
Maximum Minimum Maximum Maximum Maximum (PPM) Maximum (PPM) Maximum (PPM)
Heavy/Blended/Residual Fuel Viscosity Chart Viscosity (cSt @ 50C) 30 40 60 80 100 120 150 180 240 280 Viscosity (Redwood Seconds @ 100F) 200 278 439 610 780 950 1250 1500 2400 2500
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q Dredge Engines
Dredge Engines
Definitions Pump Engine Considerations Engine Installation
Basically, dredging is the removal of material from under water, and its disposal elsewhere. It includes two distinct operations: first, excavating the material, and second, transporting it to a disposal area. There are two ways of doing this mechanically and hydraulically.
Definitions
Mechanical Dredges
Mechanical dredges were the first to be developed. Today three basic types are used: 1. Grapple Dredge 2. Dipper Dredge 3. Bucket Dredge
This type of dredge does not give the best results in very soft deposits where the material is likely to be washed out of the bucket or in very hard materials where the penetration is not sufficient to fill the bucket. Grapple dredges have the advantage of being able to work in confined areas near docks and breakwaters.
Boom Spud
Bucket
Figure 1.1
Hydraulic Dredges
Unlike the mechanical dredges, hydraulic dredges use the water on which they float to make dredging more efficient. A hydraulic dredge mixes the material to be removed with water and pumps it as a fluid. Hydraulic dredges are usually more versatile, efficient and economical to operate than mechanical dredges because the digging and disposing operation is performed by one self- contained unit.
Dipper Stick
Spud Bucket
Figure 1.2
Spud
Bucket Ladder
Figure 1.3
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As a further development, dredges of this type are sometimes equipped with a special suction head, using water jets or other devices to agitate the material. One particular adaptation of this principle is the Dustpan dredge, so named because of the shape of the suction head. Units of this type are used extensively on large rivers where accumulated materials must be rapidly removed from the navigation channel.
the pump or pumps installed on the dredge. The discharge pipes are connected to the dredge pump or pumps to carry the materials to the hoppers which are built into the hull. When the hoppers are filled, the dredge proceeds at full speed to the dumping grounds in deep water. Here, the hopper doors built in the bottom of the hull are opened and the material dumped. The dredge then returns to the site of work and repeats the cycle. Dredges of this type are necessary for maintenance work and improvement in exposed harbor entrances where traffic and operating conditions will not permit use of stationary dredges. These dredges have been built with hopper capacities ranging up to 6116 m3 (8,000 yd.3).
Pump
Discharge Pipe
Suction Pipe
Figure 1.4
Hoppers Pump
Figure 1.5
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well as compacted deposits such as clay and hard pan. The larger and more powerful machines are used to dredge rocklike formations, such as coral and softer types of basalt and limestone, without blasting. The cutterhead pipeline dredge, like several other types, is held in working position by spuds and advances by walking itself on these spuds. The advantages of the cutterhead pipeline dredge are its versatility and nearly continuous operating cycle, resulting in maximum economy and efficiency.
Winch
Pump
Spud Frame
Discharge Pipe
Cutterhead Ladder
Spud
Figure 1.6
Spuds
Winches
Cutter Head
Figure 1.7
Center Hull
Ladder
Dredge Nomenclature
CutterheadA rotating toothed auger for
dislodging material. The cutterhead contains the pump suction inlet. The cutterhead is usually driven by a separate diesel engine through hydraulic motors, electric motors, or a shafting drive line. Winches and spud lifters may also be driven by this engine.
Main or Center HullA rectangularshaped hull which contains the dredge pump and its associated reduction gearing, clutches, engine(s), and controls. Mounted on the center hull is the control station, swing and ladder winches, spuds, hydraulic drive engine, and the dredges service power generation machinery.
Engine Installation
Many marine engine installation practices apply equally to dredges. When this is the case, the reader will be referred to the appropriate marine engine section. Only those practices and recommendations that are unique to the dredge application will be discussed in this section.
Example: If a pump engine is called on to produce 100 hp when pumping clear water, the same pump engine must be capable of developing 150 hp while pumping the same flow rate (gpm) of a slurry (water and solid mix) whose specific gravity is 1.5.
When installed properly, there is sufficient axial clearance within the Caterpillar viscous damped engine-to-engine coupling to allow the engine nearest the load to grow without restraint. The axial clearance dimension can be checked on a new installation by measuring from the outer face of the grease retaining plate (of the Caterpillar viscous damped coupling) to the nearest surface of the coupling inner member. This dimension should be 8.6 0.76 mm (0.34 0.03 in.).
ENGINE FLYWHEEL
Figure 1.9
avoid torsional resonance. Many Caterpillar engines used in tandem service must have a low idle setting of not less than 600-650 rpm. Always check the engine data plate to determine proper governor settings. Many dredge engine settings are special and not listed in standard Caterpillar Service literature.
See fuel section for information on detection and prevention of fungus/bacteria growth in fuel tanks.
Combustion Air
Equip dredge engines with combustion air inlet ducts, located and routed to prevent recirculation of exhaust gases and crankcase fumes. Locate combustion air inlets so they do not ingest heated engine room ventilation air rising through removable roof caps. Exhaust gases must be discharged to atmosphere high enough above the combustion air inlet openings to prevent rebreathing of exhaust gases. Equip exhaust stacks with joints which allow addition of extra sections of exhaust pipe if exhaust recirculation proves to be a problem on operating location. An unrestricted elbow-type exhaust discharge fitting is preferred over the counterbalanced flapper valve because there will be less chance for downward deflection of exhaust gases.
H Rain Caps For Combustion Air Inlet Ductwork "Flapper" Type Rain Caps Are Discouraged Due To Possibilities Of Exhaust Recirculation
Crankcase Vent Discharge Opening Through Side Of Engine Compartment As Far As Possible From Combustion Air Inlet Ducts Figure 1.10
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See Ventilation and Exhaust sections for flow, pressure, and temperature information.
Ratings
Engines in dredge pump drive service should be applied at the continuous ratings. Engines driving electric or hydraulic cutterheads and/or winches may carry the intermittent or light duty commercial rating since neither cutterheads nor winches are continuous loads. Engines driving generators which supply lighting and service pumping power should be rated for prime power due to the continuous nature of lighting and pumping loads. For additional explanation of Caterpillar engine rating philosophy, see Ratings section.
Hydraulic Dredges will have, as one of their normal components, a service water pump. This pump is usually designed for abrasive water service. The service water pump provides clean sea water, at higher pressure, for lubrication and flushing of the dredge pump and cutterhead lineshaft bearings. Use of excess flow from the service water pump is a superior alternative to Caterpillar engine mounted sea water pump.
Box Coolers
Box-type coolers offer many of the advantages of keel cooling and shell and tube coolers, particularly in dredging applications.
Aftercooler Cores
Although many dredges operate in freshwater ponds, lakes, and rivers, experience has proven that engine aftercooler cores suitable for sea or salt water are a necessity. The moisture-laden air surrounding any floating equipment will corrode the fins on the air side of nonmarine aftercooler cores severely limiting the heat transfer and possibly even restricting the combustion flow.
Cooling
The dredging application may place severe demands on the engine cooling system.
Controls
Single Engine Drive
Dredge engine controls are the same as conventional controls for engines in other pumping or electric power generation applications, with the exception of tandem or compound engines driving a single load.
Load Share
Engines must share load equally so one engine, the one taking most of the load, will not wear out prematurely or fail. The precision of the sharing of the load is only important at or near the engines full power capability (large fractions of the engine rating).
Hydra-Mechanical Governors
A way to ensure load share at full load is to adjust the air actuators on Caterpillar standard hydra-mechanical governors so both engines reach the same high idle speed (rpm) with the same air actuator pressure. The adjustment is normally done at the factory when pairs of engines are specified to be used in tandem or compound.
Shut-down Devices
Sensors connected to automatic shut-down devices must be interconnected on tandem/compound engines to insure both engines shut-down in the event of a malfunction in either engine.
Isochronous Governors
Load sharing is more easily attained if governors capable of isochronous operation are avoided or adjusted to operate in a droop, or non-isochronous mode. Generally 5-10% droop is satisfactory.
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