Mechanics of Materials

MECHANICS OF
MATERIALS
Fourth Edition
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf

Lecture Notes:
J. Walt Oler
Texas Tech University
CHAPTER
2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
1
Introduction
Concept of Stress
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
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Beer Johnston DeWolf
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Contents
Concept of Stress
Review of Statics
Structure Free-Body Diagram
Component Free-Body Diagram
Method of Joints
Stress Analysis
Design
Axial Loading: Normal Stress
Centric & Eccentric Loading
Shearing Stress
Shearing Stress Examples
Bearing Stress in Connections
Stress Analysis & Design Example
Rod & Boom Normal Stresses
Pin Shearing Stresses
Pin Bearing Stresses
Stress in Two Force Members
Stress on an Oblique Plane
Maximum Stresses
Stress Under General Loadings
State of Stress
Factor of Safety
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Concept of Stress
The main objective of the study of mechanics
of materials is to provide the future civil
engineer with the means of analyzing and
designing various load bearing structures.
Both the analysis and design of a given
structure involve the determination of stresses
and deformations. This chapter is devoted to
the concept of stress.

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Review of Statics
The structure is designed to
support a 30 kN load
Perform a static analysis to
determine the internal force in
each structural member and the
reaction forces at the supports
The structure consists of a
boom and rod joined by pins
(zero moment connections) at
the junctions and supports
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Structure Free-Body Diagram
Structure is detached from supports and
the loads and reaction forces are indicated
A
y
and C
y
can not be determined from
these equations
( ) ( )( )
kN 30
0 kN 30 0
kN 40
0
kN 40
m 8 . 0 kN 30 m 6 . 0 0
= +
= + = =
= =
+ = =
=
= =
y y
y y y
x x
x x x
x
x C
C A
C A F
A C
C A F
A
A M
Conditions for static equilibrium:
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Component Free-Body Diagram
In addition to the complete structure, each
component must satisfy the conditions for
static equilibrium
Results:
| = = = kN 30 kN 40 kN 40
y x
C C A
Reaction forces are directed along boom
and rod
( )
0
m 8 . 0 0
=
= =
y
y B
A
A M
Consider a free-body diagram for the boom:
kN 30 =
y
C
substitute into the structure equilibrium
equation
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Method of Joints
The boom and rod are 2-force members, i.e.,
the members are subjected to only two forces
which are applied at member ends
kN 50 kN 40
3
kN 30
5 4
0
= =
= =
=
BC AB
BC AB
B
F F
F F
F
Joints must satisfy the conditions for static

equilibrium which may be expressed in the
form of a force triangle:
For equilibrium, the forces must be parallel to
to an axis between the force application points,
equal in magnitude, and in opposite directions
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Stresses in the Members of a Structure
While the results obtained in the preceding section represents a first
and necessary step in the analysis, they do not tell us whether the
given load can be safely supported. The answer depends not only on
the intensity of the internal force but also on the cross-sectional area
of the member and the properties of the material of which it is made.
The force per unit area, or intensity of the
forces distributed over a given section, is
called the stress at a point and is denoted by
the Greek letter o.
A
F
A
P
BC
ave
= = o
The internal force F
BC
actually represents
the resultant of elementary forces
distributed over the entire area A of the
cross-section.
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Stresses in the Members of a Structure
With P expressed in newtons (N) and A in square meters (m
2
), the
stress o will be expresses in N/ m
2
.
This unit is called pascal (Pa).
As pascal is an exceedingly small quantity, in practice, multiples of
this unit must be used.
1 kPa = 10
3
Pa = 10
3
N/ m
2

1 MPa = 10
6
Pa = 10
6
N/ m
2
= 1 N/mm
2
1 GPa = 10
9
Pa = 10
9
N/ m2
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Stress Analysis
Conclusion: the strength of member BC is
adequate
MPa 165
all
= o
From the material properties for steel, the
allowable stress is
Can the rod BC safely support the 30 kN load?
MPa 159
m 10 314
N 10 50
2 6 -
3
=
= =
A
P
BC
o
At any section through member BC, the
internal force is 50 kN with a force intensity
or stress of
d
BC
= 20 mm
From a statics analysis
F
AB
= 40 kN (compression)
F
BC
= 50 kN (tension)
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Design
mm 2 . 25 r 2 d
mm 6 . 12 m 10 6 . 12
10 500 A
r
BC
3
6
= =
= =
t
=
t
=

The circular rod BC is made of aluminum with

an allowable stress o
all
=100 MPa. Determine its
diameter so that it can safely transmit the force
F
BC
=50 kN.
m 10 500
Pa 10 100
N 10 50 P
A
A
P
2 6
6
3
all
all
=
o
=
= o
and, since
2
r A t =
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The normal stress at a particular point may not be
equal to the average stress but the resultant of the
stress distribution must satisfy
} }
= = =
A
ave
dA dF A P o o
Axial Loading: Normal Stress
The resultant of the internal forces for an axially
loaded member is normal to a section cut
perpendicular to the member axis.
A
P
A
F
ave
A
=
A
A
=
A
o o
0
lim
The force intensity on that section is defined as
the normal stress.
The detailed distribution of stress is statically
indeterminate, i.e., can not be found from statics
alone.
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If a two-force member is eccentrically loaded,
then the resultant of the stress distribution in a
section must yield an axial force and a
moment.
Centric & Eccentric Loading
The stress distributions in eccentrically loaded
members cannot be uniform or symmetric.
A uniform distribution of stress in a section
infers that the line of action for the resultant of
the internal forces passes through the centroid
of the section.
A uniform distribution of stress is only
possible if the concentrated loads on the end
sections of two-force members are applied at
the section centroids. This is referred to as
centric loading.
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Shearing Stress
Forces P and P are applied transversely to the
member AB.
A
P
=
ave
t
The corresponding average shear stress is,
The resultant of the internal shear force
distribution is defined as the shear of the section
and is equal to the load P.
Corresponding internal forces act in the plane
of section C and are called shearing forces.
Shear stress distribution varies from zero at the
member surfaces to maximum values that may be
much larger than the average value.
The shear stress distribution cannot be assumed to
be uniform.
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Shearing Stress Examples
A
F
A
P
= =
ave
t
Single Shear
A
F
A
P
2
ave
= = t
Double Shear
Shearing stresses are commonly found in bolts, pins and rivets.
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Bearing Stress in Connections
Bolts, rivets, and pins create
stresses on the points of contact
or bearing surfaces of the
members they connect.
d t
P
A
P
= =
b
o
Corresponding average force
intensity is called the bearing
stress,
The resultant of the force
distribution on the surface is
equal and opposite to the force
exerted on the pin.
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Would like to determine the
stresses in the members and
connections of the structure
shown.
Stress Analysis & Design Example
Must consider maximum
normal stresses in AB and
BC, and the shearing stress
and bearing stress at each
pinned connection
From a statics analysis:
F
AB
= 40 kN (compression)
F
BC
= 50 kN (tension)
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The rod is in tension with an axial force of 50 kN.
( )( )
MPa 167
m 10 300
10 50
m 10 300 mm 25 mm 40 mm 20
2 6
3
,
2 6
=
= =
= =
N
A
P
A
end BC
o
At the flattened rod ends, the smallest cross-
sectional area occurs at the pin centerline,
At the rod center, the average normal stress in the
circular cross-section (A = 314x10
-6
m
2
) is o
BC
= +159
MPa.
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The minimum area sections at the boom ends are unstressed since the boom is in
compression..
The boom is in compression with
an axial force of 40 kN and average
normal stress of 26.7 MPa.
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The cross-sectional area for pins at A, B,
and C,
2 6
2
2
m 10 491
2
mm 25

=
|
.
|
\
|
= = t tr A
MPa 102
m 10 491
N 10 50
2 6
3
,
=
= =

A
P
ave C
t
The force on the pin at C is equal to the
force exerted by the rod BC,
The pin at A is in double shear with a
total force equal to the force exerted by
the boom AB,
MPa 7 . 40
m 10 491
kN 20
2 6
,
=
= =

A
P
ave A
t
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Divide the pin at B into sections to determine
the section with the largest shear force,
( ) ( ) (largest) kN
kN
25 20 15 P
15 P
2 2
G
E
= + =
=
MPa 9 . 50
m 10 491
kN 25
2 6
,
=
= =

A
P
G
ave B
t
Evaluate the corresponding average
shearing stress,
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Pin Bearing Stresses
To determine the bearing stress at A in the boom AB,
we have t = 30 mm and d = 25 mm,
( )( )
MPa 3 . 53
mm 25 mm 30
kN 40
= = =
td
P
b
o
To determine the bearing stress at A in the bracket,
we have t = 2(25 mm) = 50 mm and d = 25 mm,
( )( )
MPa 0 . 32
mm 25 mm 50
kN 40
= = =
td
P
b
o
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Summary: Stress in Two Force Members
Axial forces on a two force
member result in only normal
stresses on a plane cut
Transverse forces on bolts and
pins result in only shear stresses
on the plane perpendicular to bolt
or pin axis.
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Pass a section through the member forming
an angle u with the normal plane.
From equilibrium conditions, the
distributed forces (stresses) on the plane
must be equivalent to the force P.
We will now show that either axial or transverse forces may produce both
normal and shear stresses with respect to a plane other than one cut
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u u
u
u
t
u
u
u
o
u
u
cos sin
cos
sin
cos
cos
cos
0
0
2
0
0
A
P
A
P
A
V
A
P
A
P
A
F
= = =
= = =
The average normal and shear stresses on
the oblique plane are
u u sin cos P V P F = =
Resolve P into components normal and
tangential to the oblique section,
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The maximum normal stress occurs when the
reference plane is perpendicular to the member
axis,
0
0
m
= ' = t o
A
P
The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane at
+ 45
o
with respect to the axis,
o t ' = = =
0 0
2
45 cos 45 sin
A
P
A
P
m
Maximum Stresses
u u t u o cos sin cos
0
2
0
A
P
A
P
= =
Normal and shearing stresses on an oblique
plane
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A member subjected to a general
combination of loads is cut into
two segments by a plane passing
through Q.
Q
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through Q
AR
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through Q
For equilibrium, an equal and
opposite internal force and stress
distribution must be exerted on
the other segment of the member.
A
V
A
V
A
F
x
z
A
xz
x
y
A
xy
x
A
x
A
A
=
A
A
=
A
A
=
A A
A
lim lim
lim
0 0
0
t t
o
The distribution of internal stress
components may be defined as,
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Stress components are defined for the planes
cut parallel to the x, y and z axes. For
equilibrium, equal and opposite stresses are
exerted on the hidden planes.
It follows that only 6 components of stress are
required to define the complete state of stress
The combination of forces generated by the
stresses must satisfy the conditions for
equilibrium:
0
0
= = =
= = =

z y x
z y x
M M M
F F F
( ) ( )
yx xy
yx xy z
a A a A M
t t
t t
=
A A = =
0
zy yz zy yz
t t t t = = and similarly,
Consider the moments about the z axis:
State of Stress
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Design Considerations: Ultimate strength
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Design Considerations: Ultimate strength
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Design Considerations: Factor of Safety
stress allowable
stress ultimate
safety of Factor
all
u
= =
=
o
o
FS
FS
Structural members or machines
must be designed such that the
working stresses are less than the
ultimate strength of the material.
Factor of safety considerations:
variations in material properties
uncertainty of loadings
uncertainty of analyses
number of loading cycles
types of failure
maintenance requirements and
deterioration effects
importance of member to structures
integrity
risk to life and property
influence on function of structural
elements
(high FS on column with high axial load leads to very large section
dimensions impairing the function of the structure)
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Design Considerations: LRFD
0 . 1
0 . 1 ,
R P P
L D
u L L D D
s |
>
| s +
Load and Resistance Factor Design: An alternative method, which is gaining
acceptance among structural engineers, makes the design possible through the
use of three different factors to distinguish between the uncertainties associated
with the structure itself and those associated with the loads it is designed to
support.

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MECHANICS OF

Joints must satisfy the conditions for static

The circular rod BC is made of aluminum with

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