S 13 Tim 33
S 13 Tim 33
S 13 Tim 33
ksmK
q ;d mdol Ihud,dj mdi,a moaO;shg ykajdf ldhh 13 jk fYaK
% f
s ha .=re udf.damfoaY
ix.%y ykajdu;a iu imqK f' 12 jk yd 13 jk fYa%Ksj, isiq isiqhka Yaj oHd,
m%fYh i|yd mj;sk ;r.hg f.dreu ksid ksrka;rj u h ;rul mSvkhlg hg;a f'
kj Ihud,dj m%:u j;djg w' fmd' i' ^W' fm'& i|yd fhdod .efkk g fuu mSvkh ;j;a
f' tjeks wjia:djl Tn w;g m;ajk .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh" Ih ksfoaY ;rug u
.=rejrekg jeo.;a jkafka h' fuys uq,slj u .=rejrhd ie,ls,a,g .; hq;= me;s ;=kla we;'
tk .=re udf.damfoaY Ih ksfoaYh yd mqKj .e<mS ;su" Ihud,df wfmalaIs; ksmqK;d
mdolj Ihud,df oYkh yd lau uq,afldg f.k ilid ;su yd 12 - 13 fYa%Ksj,
orejdf.ka wfmalI
a ;
s idOk ugu fufkys fldg ilid ;su' tfyhska fuh fydka mYS,kh
lsu .=rejrhdg w;HjYH ldhhla yd j.lSula jkafkah'
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh by; lS lreKq ;=k u Tnf.a wjOdkhg f.k tau i|yd 13 jk
fYa%Ksj, b.eka lrk ishu .=rejrekg ta i|yd wjYH mqyqKq ,ndu i|yd o ls%hd;aul
is' ksrka;rj meje;afjk fuu mqyqKq ieisj,g wod< .=rejreka iyNd.su w;sYhska u
wjYH lreKla jkafka fuys lafjk bf.kq-b.eka uQ, Ou yd ls%hdodu jgyd .ekSug
mqyqKqj fnfyka bjy,a jk ksid h' fYaIfhka u mdi,a mdol we.hS ls%hd" ksmqK;d
jOkh i|yd bjy,a lr .ekSu wfmalaId flf' Ih lreKqj,g muKla b.ekau hg;aug
fkd isiqkf.a l=i,;d Tm .ekaf wNs,dIh bgqlrug f ish uey;a wjYH nj
wOHdmk yd we.hS ldhfha kshef,k wm ish u fokd jgyd .; hq;= f'
.=re udf.damfoaY ms<sfh, lsf w;sYh fjfyild ldhh bgqlr,Sug uey;a jq cd;sl
wOHdmk wdh;kfha ishu Ydia;S%h wxYj, ks,Odka we;= ldh uKav, yd ndysrj ta i|yd
odhl jq oaj;a yeu fokdg u o udf.a fYaI ia;+;sh ys f'
ix{dmkh
fuu .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh 2010 jIfha isg 13 jk fY%aKsh i|yd bf.kq - b.eka
l%shdj,sh ixOdkh lr .ekSu i|yd .=re Nj;=kayg m%fhdackj;a f'
fuu fmd; imdokh lsug mdol lr.;a Ih ksfoaYh fuf;la mej;s Ih ksfoaYj,g
jvd fjkia jQjls' tu fjki ykd .ekSug fhduqjk Tng th ksmqK;d mdol Ih ksfoaYhla
nj oelsh yels h' tfy;a ksmqK;d ug yd tla tla ksmqK;d ug hgf;a oelafjk bf.kq
M, tu fY%aKsh ;=< u w;am;a lr .; hq;= f' tneka Tng fY%aKshg wod< mdv ie,iq lr
.ekSf tu ksmqK;d ug yd bf.kq M, fnfyka m%fhdackj;a f' fuu bf.kqM,
bf.kq - b.eka l%shdj,sfha tla tla wruqKq ilid .ekSug fukau mka;s ldurfha is
flfrk we.hS WmlrK ilia lr .ekSf ksKdhl f,i fhdod .ekSu flfrys Tnf.a
wjOdkh fhduq lsu wfmalaId flf' fuu Ih yeoEf mYS,kh l< hq;= w;sfl fmd;a
m;a fuka u fj wv mss<sn| isiqka oekqj;a lsug o fuu .=re udf.damfoaYh Tng m%fhdackj;a
f'
fuys fhda; l%shdldrl Tn ksudKYS,s .=rejrfhl= jYfhka l%shd lsf wfmalaId iys;j
wdoYj;a f,i bm;a l< tajd jYfhka i,lkak' tysoS .=re flakaSh mka;s ldur l%shdj,sh
fjkia lr YsIH flakaSh njla we;s lsu fYaIfhka wfmalaId flf' tneka isiqka O
fmd;am;a mYS,kh wka;cd, Nd;h jeks .fIKhg fhduq flfrk bf.kq wjia:d yels
yeug u Wod l< hq;= f' b.ekaf im%odhsl f,i igyka bm;a lsu fjkqjg
wdlIKSh f,i kj oekqu uQ,Ou wdh bm;a l< hq;= f' ta i|yd ;dlaIKh yels;dla rg
fhdod.;a ikaksfok Wml%u ksudKYS,S j Nd; lsug kj mka;sldurh ;=< Wkka h
hq;= f'
13 jk fY%aKsfha fuu Ih b.ekau wrUk Tnf.a isiqkag Ih ksfoaY ukdj meye,s lr
fokak' jIh mqrd l%shd;aul lrk Tnf.a b.ekaf ie,eiau ykajd fokafka k th isiqka
;=< fm<Uula jkq we;' uq Ih ksfoaYh wdjrKh lr .ekSug mdi, fj; isiqka wdlIKh
f' fuu Ihud,d m%;sixialrK rgg oefkk mka;s ldur bf.kq - be.ka l%shdj,sfha
fjkila we;s lrkq i|yd wod< Ih ksfoaYh fuka u fuys fhda; l%shdj,s weiqfrka Tnf.a
ksudKYS,s yelshd mqnqjd .kakd fuka b,a,'
fuu udf.damfoaY ieliSf odhl jQ oaj;a ieug" .=reNj;=kg
a iy cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kfha
ks,Odkag udf.a ia;=;sh ys f' f ldhh i|yd u`.mkajQ wOHlaI ckrd,a wdpdh Wmd,s t'
fiaor ue;ska fuka u uqK lghq;= is lr mdi,aj,g ,ndf j.lSu Ndrf.k lghq;= l<
wOHdmk m%ldYk flduidia ckrd,a we;= ldhh uKav,hg uf.a fYaI ia;=;sh mqo lr'
fuys we;=<;a lreKq ms<sn| j ixjOkd;aul fhdackd wef;d;a ud fj; ,nd fokafka k
lD;{ f'
u,a is h U,df.dv
iyldr wOHlaI ckrd,a
Ihud,d ixjOk mSGh
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
II
Wmfoa Y kh(
wdpdh Wmd,s t' fiaor
wOHlaI ckrd,a
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
u,a ishU,df.dv uhd
iyldr wOHlaI ckrd,a
Ihud,d ixjOk mSGh
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
wla I Kh(
Ihud,d lgq j (
t' t*a' tia' mS' chjOk uhd
m%Odk jHdmD;s ks,Od
f;dr;=re ;dlaIK fomd;fka;=j
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
ta' t' ldka;s h
jHdmD;s ks,Odks
f;dr;=re ;dlaIK fomd;fka;=j
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
v,s' t' ta' tia' ffialr uhd
uOHia:dk l<ukdlre
l,dmSh f;dr;=re ikaksfok ;dlaIK wOHdmk uOHia:dkh
yd,s we,
III
ljr ks udKh(
f' ta' *ka uhd
l,dmSh f;dr;=re ikaksfok ;dlaIK wOHdmk uOHia:dkh
yd,s we,
IV
mgq k
msgqj
fmrjok
ix{dmkh
II
wdoY l%shdldrl
ksmqK;d ugu 5'1
ksmqK;d ugu 6'3
ksmqK;d ugu 6'4
ksmqK;d ugu 7'7
ksmqK;d ugu 8'9
ksmqK;d ugu 8'11
ksmqK;d ugu 9'3
ksmqK;d ugu 10'3
ksmqK;d ugu 10'4
ksmqK;d ugu 11'3
ksmqK;d ugu 11'4
ksmqK;d ugu 11'5
ksmqK;d ugu 11'8
ksmqK;d ugu 13'1
1
10
18
22
30
35
41
46
51
57
64
71
76
82
9
17
21
29
34
40
45
50
56
63
70
75
81
83
we.hS ie,iq
m<uq jdrh" we.hS wjia:dj 1
fojk jdrh" we.hS wjia:dj 2
;=kajk jdrh" we.hS wjia:dj 3
84 86 88 -
85
87
89
Yo ud,dj
90 -
98
VI
ks m q K ;dj 5(
ks m q K ;d ugu 5'1(
ld,h(
ld,fo myhs
bf.kq M,(
iafPdfjka bm;a jk <uqka y;r fofkl= mka;sh bhg le|jd my; ixjdoh mka;shg
bm;a lrkak'
.=re;=
ksu,a
uu fyd|g mdv l<d p' l,ska ojfi;a igyka fiaru fyd|g lsfhjd' ta;a
m%Yak m;%h w;g .;a;u bf.k .;a lsis fohla uf.a u;lhg wf kE'
.=re;=
ud,s
ug ld,h u jqKd p' u;l ;shdf.k ysh foaj,a u;la lr .kak l,a
.;jqKd'
.=re;=
iqo;a
ug k Nd.h wudre jqfKa kE p' m%Yak m;%h n,mq .ukau W;a;r fiaru
u;la jqKd'
.=re;=
iqo;a
ls h jH
kIH u;lh
(Volatile Memory)
(Read/Write)
u;lh
fuu u;lh m.Klfha m%Odk u;lh f,i o ykajkq ,ef' m.Klfha uOH ieliq
tallhg h ldhla is lsu i|yd wjYH jk moaO;s uDldx." fh uDldx. iy wfkl=;a
wjYH o;a; r|jd ;nd .kafka fuu m%Odk u;lfha h' fuys ,laIKhla jkafka ieliq
tallhg fuys we;s oE Rcqj u m%fY lr .ekSug yelshdj ;su h' tfia u fuys m%fY ld,h
o b;d wvq neka ieliq ldhh f.j;aj is lsug yelshdj ,ef'
ilikh fuu u;lfha kE u ;eklska Rcqj u o;a; m%fY lr.kq ,nk w;r ta i|yd
wkqms<sfj<la wjYH fkdf' tksid u fuu u;lh iiNd m%fY u;lh f,i ykajkq
,ef'
fuu u;l j.h f.j;a jkakd fia u fuys O jQ Od;d j,ska hqla; f' tfuka u fuys
o;a; lshug fukau ,sug o yelshdj we;' flfiajqj o m.Klh l%shd rys; l< g fuys
/ we;s o;a; ish,a, fudapkh f' iiNd m%fY u;l j. follska ,nd.; yel' tajdk
1' .;sl iiNd m%fY u;l (DRAM)
2' ia;sl iiNd m%fY u;l (SRAM)
kQ;k m.Klj, iq,Nj olakg ,efnk u;l j.h .;sl iiNd m%fY u;l f' fuu
u;lj, ;ekam;a lr we;s l=uk fyda o;a; ksrka;rfhka mqnq lsula (refresh) isf' fuu
u;lfha u;l fldaIj, r|jd we;s o;a; ;;amrhg ,shk jdr .Kkla mqnq flf'
ia;sl iiNd m%fY u;lh m.Klfha fojk j.fha m%Odk u;lh f,i yekah yel'
fuu u;l j, we;s o;a; ksrka;rfhka mqnq lsula is fkdf' kuq;a tu o;a; u; fjk;a
hula ,shk f;la fyda ,sh ika ula isjk f;la ia;sl ms<sUqjQjla f,i mj;S' fuu
u;l >k;ajfhka wvq neka iy th Nd; fkdlrk g ,s n,h Nd;h wju jk ksid
.;sl u;l j.hg jvd ilikfha we;s ix; u;l (cache memory) i|yd jvd;a fyd| f;dard
.ekSula f,i ia;sl u;l oelah yelsh' wfkla w;g .;sl u;lj, o;a; >k;ajh je
ksid m%Odk u;lhg jvd iqiq f;dard .ekSula f,i oelah yel'
fria ; r
m.Kl ksudK Ys,amfha fria;rh hkq b;d l=vd Od;djlska hq;a u;lhls' fjdfha we;s
o;a; fjk;a kE u ;ekl we;s o;a;j,g jvd b;d f.fhka ilikhg m%fYlr.; yelsu
fuys we;s jeo.;a u ,laIKh jkafkah' u;l OQrdj,sfha by<u ;,fha ;sfnkqfha fuu
fria;r u;l f'
ix; u;lh
m.Kl hka;%j, l%shdld;ajh inkaOj ld,h ukskqfha b;d l=vd tall j,sks' WodyrKhla
f,i m.Klhl ilikh m%Odk u;lh m%fY lr .ekSug .;jk idudkH ld,h kefkda
;;amr 60 ls' kuq;a ilikfha l%shdld;ajfha tla pl%hla i|yd .;jk ld,h kefkda ;;amr
2ls' f wkqj ilikhg kefkda ;;amr 60l ld,h b;d Yd, ld,hla f'
f fya;=j ksid u m.Kl ilikhg ;u ldhh i|yd wjYH jk o;a; m%Odk u;lfha isg
m%fY lr .ekSu Yd, ld,hla jehjk lreKla neka" m%Odk u;lhg jvd Od;dfjka wvqjQ
kuq;a f.j;a m%fYhla we;s" ilikhg b;d wdikakfha fyda ilikh ;=< fyda msysgqjd we;s
u;l j.hls ix; u;lh'
ix; u;lfha fndfydag ;ekam;aj we;af;a ilikh iska ksr;=rej u Nd; lrk m%Odk
u;lfha we;s o;a;j, msgm;a f' ilikhg m%Odk u;lfha h wkqia:dkhl we;s hula
lshug fyda tys hula ,sug wjYH jQ g ilikh uq,ska u tys msgm;la ix; u;lfha ;sfo
hkak mlaId lr n,hs' tfia ;sfk ilikh jyd u ix; u;lfha we;s tu o;a; m%fY
lr .kS' th m%Odk u;lfha o;a; m%fY lr .ekSug jvd b;d f.j;a jkafkah'
kQ;k mqoa., m.Klj, ix; u;l ug 3la we;' m<uq ugu (L1) ix; u;lh b;d
f.j;a jk w;r th ilikh ;=< u msysgd we;' f ksid tys o;a; ilikhg .uka lsug
u mqjref o;a; nih Nd; fkdlrhs' tneka th ilikfha f.hg jvd f.hlska
l%shd;aul f' fojk ugu (L2) yd f;jk ugu (L3) ix; u;l u mqjref fyda ilikh
;=< fyda msysgd ;sh yel' fuu u;lh u mqjref we;s gl th o;a; nih Nd; lrk neka
;rula f.h wvq jqj o m%Odk u;lhg jvd f.j;a h' f;jk ugf ix; u;lh fojk
ugf u;lhg wjYH foa ,ndfok w;r fojk ugf u;lh m<uq ugf u;lhg wjYH
foa ,nd fohs' m<uq ugf u;lh ilikhg tu o;a; imhhs' fuu u;l ug ish,a, u
fyda lsysmhla fyda kk m.Kl ;=< we;=<;aj we;'
fuu j.fha u;lj, ;ekam;aj we;s o;a; fyda f;dr;=re ,sh n,h ika jQ miqj fyda
m.Klh l%shd rys; l< miqj fyda fudapkh fkdf' tk uelS fkdhhs' fuu u;l
j.hg .efkkqfha mGk ud;% u;lh iy oa;Shsl wdphkhka h' fuu u;lhka Od;dfjka
Yd, jqj o kYH u;l fuka f.j;a fkdf' tfuka u f,ka o jeh'
kQ;k m.Kl ;dlaIKfha hqKqj;a iu. u f,dalfha O m.Kl iud. kIH u;lfha
f.hg iudk f.hlska l%shdl< yels mGk ud;% u;l ksmou flfrys oekg u;a ;u
mfhaIK lghq;= lrf.k hkq ,nhs' WodyrKhla f,i IBM iud.u oekgu;a ixjOkh
lrf.k hk Magnetoresistive RAM fyj;a MRAM oelah yel'
kIH fkdjk u;l m%Odk jYfhka fldgia follg fnh yel' tajd k
1' mGk ud;% u;lh (Read Only Memory - ROM)
2' oa;Shsl wdphk (Secondary Storage)
iefk<s u;lh
Flash Memory
- EPROM
by;ska i|yka l< ROM iy PROM iu. lghq;= lsu tla whqrlska kdia;sldr l%shdjla fia
ie,lsh yelsh' ukao fuu mj, , wvqjqj o tajd kej; kej; fla;kh l< fkdyels neks'
tu ksid u kej; kej; fla;kh l< yels mhla ykajd fok ,' th uelsh yels m%l%l
mGk ud;% u;lh f,i ykajkq ,ef' fuu mfha we;s o;a; mdrcnq, lsrK Nd;fhka
fYaI fuj,ulska uelsh yels w;r th bkamiq kej; ,sh yels ;;a;ajhg m;ajkafkah' fuys
imQK mh u uld oeu isf'
- EEPROM
uelsh yels m%l%l mGk ud;% mh m%l%l mGk ud;% mhg jvd .=Kdx. w;ska bfhka ish
o tu mh uelSf yd kej; ,sf ta i|yd fjkajqKq WmlrKhla Nd; lsug isu;a
wvq Y%uhlska f,fyisfhka lr .ekSf yelshdj fkdue;s u;a ksid fuu wmyiq;d u.yrjd
.kska oHq;a l%u u.ska uelsh yels mGk ud;% u;l mh ksmojk ,' fuys uq,a mj, ;snQ
wjdis iy.; ;;a;ajhka ish,a, bj;ajk ,' fuu mh ksmofuka my; i|yka jdisodhl
;;a;ajhka Wod we;'
kej; ,sf mh ilr we;s ;ekska bj;a lsug wjYH fkdu'
imQK mh uld fkdoud wjYH fldgi muKla kej; ,sug yelsu'
wka;.;h uld oeu i|yd fYaIs; fuj,ula wjYH fkdu'
iefk<s u;lh -
Flash Memory
oHq;fhka uelsh yels m%l%l mGk ud;% u;l mh kej; ,sf tljr ,sh yelafla nhs
(byte) 1l m%udKhls' tfuka u th ukao.d f,i isf' fuu ldhh ;rula myiq jqj o l=vd
Od;djlska hq;a o;a; m%udKhla ,su i|yd jqj o ld,h Yd, jYfhka jehu wjdis iy.;
;;a;j
a hls'
h WmlrKhla tys wka;.; mfha we;s o;a;j, blauka fjkialula isl<hq;= jkafka k
tjeks WmlrK i|yd fuu j.fha m iqiq fkdh' f miqnEug iula f,i iefk<s
u;l m ksudKh h' fuu j.fha mhl o;a; kej; ,sf tljr Yd, fldgia
(chunks) jYfhka ,sh yel' tk nhsg 512 l fldgila tljr ,shkq ,nhs' b;d f.j;a j
myiqfjka kej; kej; ,sh yels ksid;a ta i|yd fYaI WmlrKhla wjYH fkdjk ksid;a
iefk<s u;l jvd;a ckm%sh j we;'
fuh m.Kl u mqjref ilr we;s l=vd mhls' fuys wka;.;j we;af;a m.Kl
moaO;sfha kh" f,dj iy wfkl=;a uQ,sl lg,a wx. (settings) h' fuu mhg wjYH jkafka
b;d l=vd ,sh n,hla neka tu n,h l=vd ,s;sh neghla u.ska imhkq ,ef' fuu negh
jir .Kkdjla Nd; l< yel' th CMOS negh f,i ykajkq ,ef'
kIH fkdjk u;l j.hg .efkk wfkla u;l f,i oa;Shsl wdphk yekah yel' fjd
O iajrEmj,ska olakg we;' my; oelafjkafka bka iuyrls'
1' pqnls; m
2' oDV ;e
3' m%ldY ;e
Magnetic tapes
Hard disks
Opticla disks
pqnls; m
pqnl m.; lsu i|yd udOHh jkafka fuu pqnls; m h' isyska >klulska hq;=" mgq
tfuka u .= ma,diala mhla pqnlkh lsu u.ska fuu pqnl m ;kd .kq ,ef' fndfyda
Y%jH oDYH o;a; fuka u m.Kl o;a; .nvdlr ;eu i|yd fjd fhdod.kq ,ef' uq,ska u
fuu pqnls; m ksmojk ,oafoa cuksfha h' fuu m Y%jH oDYH m.; ls iy ms<sjehS
(play back) lrkq ,nk O Wmdx.j, Nd; flf' WodyrK f,i fma frfldavrh iy
fhda frfldavrh hkdh oelah yel' m.Kl o;a; .nvd lsu i|yd o fuu m fhdod
.efkk w;r fuu m Odjlh fma v%hs f,i ykajkq ,ef' uq,a hq.fha m.Klj,
oa;Shsl wdphk f,i nyq,j Nd; lf<a fuu m jk w;r Yd, Od;djlska hq;a fuu m
Wmia: (backup) f,i Nd; lsu iy Yd, o;a; m%udKhka .nvd lsf o oekg o Nd; lrkq
,ef'
oDV ;eh
m.Klj, m%Odk wdphkh f,i Nd; lrkq ,nkafka fuu oDV ;e h' ixLHdxl o;a; .nvd
lr we;s pqnlkh l< yels uqyqK;aj,ska hq;a f.fhka lerlefjk oDV ;e lsysmhlska
iuka; oDV ;e Odjlhla kQ;k m.Klj, olakg we;' fjd O Od;dj,ska ,nd.;
yelsh' pqnl mj,g jvd Yd, f.hlska o;a; m%fY lr .; yels fuu ;e kk
m.Klj, Nd; jk w;HjYH wx.hls'
m% l dY ;e
fjd me;,s jD;a;dldr ;e fYaIhls' fuys ixLHdxl o;a; ;ekam;a lsf tu ;efha we;s
l=vd j,j,a (pits) iy u;=msgj,a mdol lr .kska ixLHdxl 0 iy 1 lshh yels wdldrfha
;dlaIKsl l%uhla fhdod .kshs' fuu o;a; lshjkq ,nkafka f,ai lsrK wdOdrfhks' tfuka
u fuu ;efha o;a; .nvd jkafka f,ai u.ska fyda hdka;%sl uqd u.ska h' idudkHfhka fuu
;e ix.; ;e (Compact Disk-CD-R) f,i ykajk w;r fjdfha tlajrla muKla o;a; ,sh
yel' kej; kej;;a o;a; ,su i|yd CD-RW j.fha ix.; ;e Nd; lrkq ,ef' fjdfha
fndfyda g m.Kl o;a; .nvd lrkq ,nk w;r Y%jH iy oDYH o;a;hka o .nvd l< yelsh'
;%mg yd .S; jeks foa o wo fujeks ;ej, fhdod fj<|fmdf<a we;' f i|yd je jYfhka
Nd; lrkafka DVD ;e h' fuu ;e m%udK lsysmhlska o ,nd.; yel' kQ;k m.Klj,
nyq,j Nd; jk fuu ix.; ;e f,ka o wvq h'
laIq ilikhg ,nd .kakd ilia lrk ,o yd ilia fkdlrk ,o o;a; m%Odk u;lhg
heug fmr ;djld,sl j r|jd .ekSug l=vd Od;djlska hq;= fria;r (Registers) laIq
ilikh ;=< msysgd we;s nj
tu u;l" fria;r u;l f,i ykajk nj
iiNd m%fY u;l" ix; u;l iy fria;r u;l ,sh u; r|d mj;sk neka
tajd kIH u;l (Volatile Memory) f,i ykajk nj
kIH u;lj, o;a; ixOdkd;aulj ;ekam;a jk ksid tajd m%fY lr .ekSu f.j;a
nj
tu u;l helS .sh o .=ld,Sk u;lfhys ;ekam;a o;a; wjYH fgl kej; ,nd
.ekSf l%u ;sfnk nj
m.Klh ;=< i lr we;s m%Odk oDV;eh .= ld,Sk u;lh jk w;r .=ld,Sk
u;lfha ;ekam;a o;a; m.Klhg msg;ska ilr ;sfnk pqNl (magnetic) yd m%ldY
(optical) udOHj, .nvd l< yels nj
oDV;e" pqNl m (tapes) iy kuH ;e (floppy disk)" pqNl udOH jk w;r ix.; ;e
(CD) iy DVD ;e m%ldY udOH jk nj
pqNl yd m%ldY udOHfhka ie ,;a .=ld,Sk u;l kIH fkdjk u;l (Non Volatile
Memory) f,i ykajk nj
ks m q K ;dj 6(
ks m q K ;d ugu 6'3(
ld,h(
ld,fo myhs
bf.kq M,(
cx.u rl:khl ldhh iy tys imhd we;s fiajdjka ms<sn|j isiqkaf.ka uikak'
Call waiting jeks myiqlula l%shd;aul jk wdldrh idlPd lrkak'
my; oelafjk lreKq u;=jk fia idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
cx.u rl:khl weu;=ula iu`. inkaOj isk g ;j;a weu;=ula ,efk ta
ms<sn|j Yo ix{djla fuka u ;srfha iajk mKsvhla o ,efnk nj
wjYH k inkaOj is weu;=u ;djld,slj k;r lr kj weu;=u ,nd .; yels w;r
th ksujd h<s uq,a weu;=ug inkaO h yels nj
fuu l%shdj,sfha cx.u rl:kh u.ska tljr ldhhka lsysmhla l<yels myiqlula
iemfhk nj
fuu l%uh nyqldh l%shdj,shla (multitasking) f,i yekafjk nj
fuu l%shdj,sh l<ukdlrKh lrkq ,nkafka cx.u rl:khfha fufyhq moaO;sh
u.ska nj
m.Klhl o nyqldh l%h
s dj,s isjk w;r tajdfha l<ukdlrKh m.Klfha fufyhq
moaO;sh u.ska isjk nj
my; i|yka ud;Dld w;=ka Tf lKavdhug ,efnk ud;Dldj flfrys wjOdkh fhduq
lrkak'
nyq lhh iy nyq l%uf,aL fufyhq moaO;s j,
ld, Nckh (time sharing) iy ilikfha Wmfhda.S;dj (processer utilization)
l%shdhk (processes) yd tajdfha ;;a;aj (process states)
l%shdhk Wmf,aL lrKh (process scheduling)
10
ls h jH
nyq l%uf,aLkh
(Multiprogramming)
uq,a hq.fha Nd; jQ m.Klj, ilikhl ld,h je jkdlulska hqla; jQ w;r tu ld,h
Wmu f,i Wmfhda.Slr .ekSu Ialr ksid m.Klfha Wmdx.j, l%shdld;ajh fnfyka
ukao.d h' tfia jQfha ilikhla h ldhhla lrka ish fjk;a Wmdx.hla fyda
uDldx.hla fyda u.ska w;=re ula (Interrupt) ,o .i u ilikh tf;la lrka is ldhh
k;r lr w;=re u flfrys m%;spdr oelau ksidh' fuh iuia; moaO;shg n,mE n,j;a
wys;lr ;;a;j
a hla h' yeg oYlfha fuu ;;a;j
a hg ms<h
s ula f,i mYS,lhka je m%udKhlg
tljr lghq;= l<yels (Multiuser) iy jevigyka lsysmhla tljr l%shd;aul l< yels
(Multiprogramming) moaO;s ykajd fok ,' fuu moaO;s ms<silr jQfha ilikhg wLKavj
ieliq l%shdj,sh mj;ajdf.k hd yels wdldrhgh' tneka fuu l%uh by< ldhlaIu;djlska
hqla; nj lsj yelsh' fuu moaO;sj, tljr uDldx. lSmhla l%shd;aul lsf myiqj we;sh'
kQ;k m.Klj, h m.Kl uDldx.hla l%shd;aul lsf tu uDldx.fha tla msgm;lg
je msgm;a ixLHdjla tljr m%Odk u;lhg m%fY lr.; yels w;r fuu.ska tl u f,djl
tla wfhl=g jvd je msilg tu uDldx.h iu`. lghq;= lsf yelshdj ,ef' tmuKla
fkdj we;e uDldx.j, tla msgm;la muKla m%Odk u;lhg m%fY lr tu msgm; lsysm
fofkl=g tljr Nd; lsf yelshdj ,ndfoa' fuys tl u uDldx.hl fla; fmdf
fnod.ekSf l%uhla Nd; flf' fuu l%uh mqkrdodkh (Re-entered) hk kka ykajkq
,ef'
ilikhla tljr l%shd;aul lrkafka tla l%shdhkhl tla WmfoaYhla muKla jqj o hlsis
ld, mrdihla ;=< l%shdhk .Kkdjla r|jd ;nd .kS' fuu l%shdhkhka i|yd ilikh u.ska
ld, fo ,ndfoa' fuu ld, fo ,efnk ;=re b;s l%shdhk ;djld,slj l%shdrys; ;;a;ajfha
mj;ajd .kS' hlsis l%shdhk m%udKhla tl u f,djl l%shd;aul fkd h ld, fohla ;=<
l%shd;aul jkafka k tfia u iu.d l%shd;aul u (Concurrent excecution) kka ykajkq
,ef'
nyq l%uf,aL yd nyq ldh fufyhq moaO;shl l%shdhk Yd, ixLHdjla h ld, fohla ;=<
l%shd;aul lru isf' nyq l%uf,aL i|yd ilikh u.ska iEu l%shdhkhla i|yd u ksYa;
11
ld, fohla fjkalsu wjYH f' tf,i u ksh; ld, foh ;=< tu l%shdhkh ksud l<
hq;=h' fuu l%shdhkh wjika ug fmr wjia:djl ilikh u.ska ld,foh wjikal< fyd;a
th kej; yels blaukska wdrN fldg tys b;s fldgi ksu lsug wjia:dj ,ndu ish
hq;=h' by; oelajQ m l%shdhkhka wjika ug fmr w;ru. k;rlsu isl< yels wjia:d
folla we;' tajd k"
1'
2'
fjk;a l%shdhkhla u.ska moaO;shg ndOd mKsvhla ksl=;a lsu' fuu wjia:dj udldx.
w;=re ula (Software Interrupt) f,i yekaf'
oDVdx. j,ska ndOd mKsvhla (Hardware Interrupt) ksl=;a lsula isjk wjia:dj' fuu
wjia:dj oDVdx. w;=re ula f,i ykajkq ,ef'
tla l%shdhkhla kj;d fjk;a l%shdhkhla wdrN lsu ikaoN iaph (Context Switch) hkqfjka
ykajkq ,ef' kQ;k fufyhq moaO;sj, tl l%shdhkhla" wkq l%shdhk .Kkdjlska iuka;
h yelsh' tjeks wkq l%shdhkhka thread f,i yekaf' fujeks wkq l%shdhk j,g ;ksj
l%shd;aul h yelsh'
ld, Nckh
(Time sharing)
mYS,lhka lsysmfofkl= w;r nyqldh iy nyq l%uf,aLk fufyhq moaO;s u.ska lrkq ,nk
ld, l<ukdlrKh" ld,h Nckh kka ykajkq ,ef' fuh uq,ajrg 1960 oYlfha ykajd
ka w;r 1970 oYlh jk g m.Kl ;dlaIKfha ikaia:dkhla iksgqyka lrka m.Klhl
fufyhq moaO;sfha m%Odk ,laIKhla njg m;ah' fuys isjQ tla jdishla f,i mYS,lhka
lsysm fofkl=g tla m.Klhla Nd; lsf yelshdj ,ndu u.ska ho wvqlr .ekSug
wjia:dj ,enqKs' ;j o tl u m.Kl fh l%shdjl tljr lsysm fofkl=g wka;
l%shdld;ajhka u.ska inkaOug o f iu. yelshdj ,eKs'
fuu ixl,amh mek ke.=fKa tla mYS,lhl= wldhlaIu jqj o je mYS,lhska ixLHdjla
fhdod .ekSf je ldhlaIu;djlska hq;=j l%shd lsug we;s yelshdj mok lr f.kh'
fuys tla mYS,lfhla m.Klh iu. h l%shdjla islr wjika kej;;a fjk;a l%shdjla
wdrN lsu i|yd je ld,hla .kakd g tu ld,h ;=< ilikh WodiSkj mj;S' fuu
WodiSkj mj;sk ld,h mYS,lhka .Kk jejQ g fjk;a flfkl=f.a Nd;h i|yd fhdod
.; yelsjkq we;' fujeks nyq mYS,l ldhhka i|yd fhdod.kakd lKavdhu W; jQ ixLHdjla
jk g imQK l%shdj,sh jvd;a ldhlaIu ;;a;ajhg m;af' ;j o ;e, m fyda cd, jeks
wdodk i|yd n,dfmdfrd;a;=fjka isk l=vd ld, fo fjk;a mYS,lhl=f.a Nd;h i|yd
fhdod.ekSu o fuys is flf'
ilikfha Wmfhda.S;dj
(Processor Utilization)
m.Klhla u.ska ldhhka tlla fyda lSmhla bgqlr .ekSf m.Kl moaO;sfha we;s O
im;a Wmfhda.S lr.kq ,ef' fjdfhka jeo.;a u im; jkqfha uOH ieliq tallhhs'
fuys ldhlaIu;dj Wmu whqka fhdod.ekSu ilik Wmfhda.S;dj f,i yekah yel'
tla l%shdhkhla muKla l%shd;aul j we;s g ilikhl Wmfhda.S;dj wju w.hla .kS' kuq;a
nyq l%shdhkfha ilikhl Wmfhda.S;dj Wmu w.hla .kS' tu Wmu Wmfhda.S;dj ,nd
12
.ekSu i|yd fufyhq moaO;sh ;=< O Wml%u fhdod .efka' l%shdhk kshuldrl o f i|yd
iqfYaIS ldhhla bgq lrhs'
m.Kl fufyhq moaO;sfha .Nh (Kernel) u.ska l%shdhk l<ukdlrKh lsf O mshjr
hgf;a fuu l%shdhk l%shd;aul lru fm<.iajhs' ta tla tla mshjf l%shdhk mj;ajdf.k
hk ;;a;ajhka k lr we;' O fufyhq moaO;sj, fuu k fjkia jqj o tla tla
;;a;ajfha flfrk ldhhka tl iudk f'
l%shdhk kshulrK u.ska fuu l%shdhkj,g wod< ;;a;ajhka mjrk w;r tu ;;a;ajhka
fjkia lrka l<ukdlrKh lrkq ,nhs' fuu ;;a;aj fjkia lsu ikaoN iaph (Context
Switch) kka ykajk w;r l%shdhk Wmf,aL u.ska tu ldhh is lrkq ,ef' fufia O
;;a;ajhka hgf;a mj;ajd.kq ,nk l%shdhk l%shd;aul lrf wjia:d fm<lska miqj tajdfha
l%shdld;ajh wjika fldg m%Odk u;lfhka bj;a lrkq ,ef' l%shdhkj, uQ,sl wjia:d iy
tu wjia:dj, mj;sk ;;a;ajhka i,ld n,uq'
ks; ^kj&
keje;ajQ$wjika l<
Created (New)
Terminated
/isu fyda
iQodku
Odjk
Running
Waiting or Ready
m%Odk u;lh
wjysr l<
Main Memory
Blocked
m%;syrKh l<
iy / isk
m%;syrKh l<
iy wjysr l<
Waiting
Blocked
w;;H u;lh
Virtual Memory
by; rEmfha oelafjk b,smaij,ska l%shdhk wjia:d o tajdg ish yels wjia:d udre ms<sn|j
B;,j,ska o fmkakq lrhs' ta wkqj ks; (created) l%shdhkhla iQodk ;;a;ajhg m;a lr th
m%Odk u;lhg meKSfuka tu ;;a;ajfhka l%shd;aul ;;a;ajhg m;a ilikhg hEug fyda
w;;H u;lhg f.dia ;jrg;a /isug fyda isf' l%shd;aul ;;a;ajhg m;ajQjfyd;a tu
13
uq,ajrg l%shdhkhla ksudKh l< g tu ;;a;ajh ks; (Created) fyda kj (New) hk kka
ykajkq ,ef' fuu ;;a;ajfha mj;sk l%shdhk iQodk ;;a;ajhg msiqu ,efnk f;la /
ish hq;=f' fjd md,kh lrkq ,nkafka .=ld,Sk kshuldrl (Long Term Scheduler) kue;s
uDldx.hla u.sk's iQodk ;;a;j
a fha (Ready State) mj;sk fuu l%h
s dhk .= ld,Sk kshuldrlh
u.ska B<`.g t<h hq;= ;;a;ajhg udre lsu islrkq ,nk w;r th m%udoug fyda tu
;;a;ajhg m;a fkdlr bj;a lsug o yelshdj we;' fndfyda jev;, (Desktop) m.Kl j,
fuu m%fY lsu ksrdhdifhka isjk w;r ;;a ld,Sk ieliq (Real Time Processing) isjk
m.Klj, f i|yd m%udohla we;sf' fuhg fya;=j jkafka ;;ald,Sk ieliq j, fuu
wkqLKav Yd, m%udKhla u;lhg we;=<;a lr.kq ,nk w;r tajd l%shd;aul ug mj;sk
;r`.h ksid wjidk m%;sM,h ,nd .ekSug hk ld,h .= uh'
iQodk ;;a;ajh
(Ready State)
fuu ;;a;j
a h /isk (waiting) fyda l%h
s d;aul l<yels (runable) ;;a;j
a h f,i o ykajkq ,ef'
kj ;;a;ajfha mej;s l%shdhkhla B<`.g m;ajkafka fuu ;;a;ajhg h' fuu ;;a;ajhg m;ajk
l%shdhkhka m%Odk u;lfha /|S mj;skafka tu l%shdhk m.Klfha uOHu ieliq tallh
u.ska l%shd;aul ;;a;ajhg m;alrk ;=reh' tu l%shd;aul ;;a;ajh Odjk ;;a;ajh (Running
State) kka ykajkq ,ef' tl ilikhla iys; m.Klhl tljr l%shd;aul jkafka tla
l%h
s dhkhla muKs' tneka iQodk ;;a;j
a fha mj;sk l%h
s dhk lsym
s hla tajd l%h
s d;aul ;;a;j
a hg
m;ajk ;=re m%Odk u;lfha fm< .eiS ;sh yelsh'
kuq;a kk m.Klj, we;s m%n,
ilikj,g tljr l%shdhk lSmhla l%shd;aul lsf yelshdj we;'
Odjk ;;a;ajh
(Running State)
fuu ;;a;ajh il%Sh (Active) ;;a;ajh fyda l%shd;aul (Executing) ;;a;ajh hkqfjka o ykajkq
,ef' fjk;a whqrlska lshf;d;a h wjia:djl uOHu ieliq tallfha l%shd;aul jk
lsh
% dhkh fuu kka ykajkq ,ef' fuu ;;a;j
a fha mj;sk l%h
s dhkhl l%h
s dld;ajh wjikaug
ksh; ld,hg jvd je ld,hla .;h yelsh' tjeks l%shdhkhla kej; iQodk ;;ajhg o
m;ah yelsh' tfia jQ g ;djld,slj wjysr l< ;;a;ajhg (Blocked State) fyda iQodk
;;a;ajhg (Ready State) m;al< yelsh'
wjysrl< ;;a;ajh
(Blocked State)
fuu ;;a;ajh ksd.; ;;a;ajh (sleeping state) kka o yekah yelsh' lsish l%shdhkhla
fuu ;;a;ajhg m;ajqj fyd;a th uOH ieliq tallfhka bj;a fldg m%Odk u;lfha fyda
w;;H u;lfha r|jd ;nkq we;' fufia mj;sk l%shdhkhkag wod< jQ uQ,dY% ,efnk ;=re
wjysrjQ ;;a;ajfha u isug is f' tu uQ,dY% ,enqKq jyd u tu wjysr jQ ;;a;ajh iQodk
;;a;ajhg udre l%shd;aul ;;a;ajhg m;au i|yd kej; fm< .efia'
14
(Terminated State)
l%shdhkhla l%shd;aul fjka mj;sk g w;ru. kj;d oeu ^keje;ajQ& fyda l%shd;aul
wjika jQ miq ^wjika l<& kj;d oeu f kka ykajkq ,ef' idudkHfhka fuu ;;a;ajhg
m;ajk l%shdhkhla m%Odk u;lfhka fyda w;;H u;lfhka bj;alrkq ,nk w;r tfia bj;a
lsula is fkdjqk l%shdhk wj;dr (Zombies) f,i ykajkq ,ef'
w;;H u;lh Nd; jk m.Kl moaO;sj, l%shdhk w;sfl ;;a;aj folla we;' fuu ;;a;aj
fofla u l%shdhk r|jd ;nkqfha oa;Shsl wdphkfha (Secondary Storage) h'
iQodk ;;a;j
a fha mj;sk l%h
s dhkhla fndfyda f,djla m%Odk u;lfha /;snK
q fyd;a blaukska
l%shd;aul h hq;= fjk;a l%shdhkhka i|yd m%Odk u;lfha bv ,nd ug fuu l%shdhkh
oa;Shsl wdphkfha we;s w;;H u;lhg udre lrkq ,ef' fufia udre l< miq th m;ajk
wjia:dj m%;syrKh l< iy / isk ;;a;ajh f,i ykajkq ,ef' fujeks l%shdhk kej;
l%shd;aul lsug wjYH jQ jyd u iQodk ;;a;ajhg m;afldg m%Odk u;lhg udre lrkq ,ef'
by; ;;a;ajh fuka u fuu wjia:df o m%Odk u;lfha we;s wjysr l< ;;a;ajh iys;
l%shdhkhka oa;Shsl wdphkfha we;s w;;H u;lhg udrelrkq ,ef' tg w;;H u;lfha
fuu l%shdhk mj;skafka m%;syrKh l< iy wjika l< ;;a;ajfha h' kuq;a fuu ;;a;ajh kej;
m%;syrKh l< iy ? isk ;;a;ajhg udreh yelsh' bkamiq th iQodk ;;a;ajhg m;aj
m%Odk u;lhg jqj o kej; meKsh yelsh'
kshulrKh
(Scheduling)
nyqldh iy nyq ieliq fufyhq moaO;s ksudKh lsf fhdod .kakd m%Odk;u ixl,amhla
f,i fuh yekah yel' fuys m.Klhl we;s uOH ieliq tall m%udKhg jvd je
l%shdhk m%udKhla ilikh ;=< l%shd;aul jk neka o mj;sk ieliq tall Nd; lr tu
ish l%shdhk l%shd;aul lrug isjk ksid o fuu l%shdhk h wkqms<sfj<lg ilikhkag
fhduqlrf jevms<f
s j<la m.Kl fufyhq moaO;sh u.ska l%h
s d;aul flf' fuu jevms<f
s j<
kshulrKh (Scheduling) kka ykajk w;r th l%shd;aul lsu i|yd kshuldrl (Scheduler)
hk kka ykajkq ,nk l%uf,aLhla we;' tu kshuldrl" m%jdylhd (dispatcher) hk kka
o ykajkq ,ef' fuu l%uf,aLh my; i|yka lreKq ms<sn|j uis,su;a f'
1' uOH ieliq tallh by< ldhlaIu;djlska Nd; lsu'
2' id; m%udKh (Throughput) - ld, tallhla ;=< l%shd;aul fldg wjika lrkq ,nk
l%shdhk ixLHdj
3' ldh mQrK ld,h (Turnaround) - l%shdhkhla ilikhg ,ndka g wod< l%shdhkh
l%shd;aulj mj;sk ld,h
4' m%udo ld,h (Waiting time) - l%shdhkhla ilikhg ,ndug fmr iQodk ;;a;ajfha
fm<.eiS mj;sk ld,h
15
5' m%;spdr ld,h (Response Time) - l%shdhkhlg h Wmfoila ,enqKq fudfydf;a isg th
l%shd;aul ug wdrN jk fudfyd; olajd jQ ld,h
6' ieliq tallfha iEu l%shdhkhlg u ieliq tall ld,h ,ndu idOdrKj bgq lsu
kshuldrl j.
(Scheduler Types)
.=ld,Sk kshuldrl
iQodk ;;a;j
a fm<.eiaug we;=<;a l< hq;f
a ;a l=uk l%h
s dhkh o hkak ;SrKh lrkq ,nkafka
fuu kshuldrlh u.sks' tf,i u l=uk l%shdhkh moaO;sfha l%shd;aul h hq;= o hkak o
;SrKh lrkq ,nkafka f u.sks' ;j o tl .g l%shd;aul h hq;= l%shdhkhka m%udKfhka
Yd, h hq;= o l=vd h hq;= o hkak;a fuu.ska ;SrKh flf' kQ;k fufyhq moaO;s j,
;;ald,Sk ieliqj, l%h
s dhk l%h
s d;aulu i|yd uOHu ieliq tallfhka m%udKj;a ld,hla
,ndu o fuu.ska is flf' fuu j.fha kshuldrl uyd mudKfhka ldKav ieliqlrKfha
(batch processing) fhfok iy Yd, mudKfha iqms m.Kl hdkdhg b;d jeo.;a f'
uOHld,Sk kshuldrl
fuu kshuldrlh u.ska l%shdhk" m%Odk u;lh yd w;;H u;lh w;r udre lru islrhs'
fuh m%%;syrKh (Swapping) hk kka ykajkq ,ef' fufia lsug isjkafka m%Odk u;lh
;=< iQodk ;;a;ajfhka fndfyda fj,d / ;sfnk l%shdhk bj;a fldg uQ,sl;ajh h hq;=
l%shdhkj,g m%Odk u;lhg msiSug wjYH bv myiql ,ndu i|yd h' fufia w;;H
u;lhg udrel< l%shdhk l%shd;aul ;;a;ajhg m;al<hq;= wjia:dj, tu l%shdhk w;;H
u;lfhka m%Odk u;lhg udrelru fuu.ska isf'
flld,Sk kshuldrl
fuu kshuldrlh m%jdylh (Dispatcher) f,i o ykajkq ,ef' oekg l%shd;aul ;;a;ajfha
mj;sk l%shdhkfhka miqj m%Odk u;lfha we;s l%shdhkj,ska l=uk l%shdhkh ilikhg heu
i|yd iqiq o hkak fuu kshuldrlh ;SrKh lrhs' th l%h
s d;aul lrkqfha fydard w;=reulska
(Clock Interrupt) fyda wdodk$m%;o
s dk hkdfhka tkq ,nk w;=reulska (I/O Interrupt) fyda fufyhq
moaO;sfhka fokq ,nk ix{djla fyda mKsvhla fyda fjk;a iajNdjhl ix{djla hkd
uey;a j,g miqj h' ;j o by; oelajQ .=ld,Sk yd uOHld,Sk kshuldrl j,g jvd fuu
kshuldrlh ksr;=rej Nd;hg .efka' fuys we;s fudhq,hla jk m%jdylh u.ska ilikhg
hjkq ,nk l%shdjka l%shd;aul lsug uOH ieliq tallh md,kh lsu iy ikaoN iaph
(Context Switch) hk kka ykajk l%shdhkhkaf.a ;;a;ajh udre lsu fuu.ska islrhs' fuu
m%jdyl fudhq,h b;d f.j;a h hq;=h' tfia h hq;af;a iEu l%shdhk ;;a;aj fjkia lsula
16
isjk wjia:djl u fuu m%jdylh l%shd;aul jk ksidh' tla l%shdhkhla kj;d fjk;a
l%shdhkhla wdrN lsug fuu m%jdylhg .;jk ld,h .=ma; m%jdyl ld,h (Dispatcher
Latency Time) kka ykajkq ,ef'
17
ks m q K ;dj 6(
ld,h(
ld,fo myhs
bf.kq M,(
18
ls h jH
m.Kl u;lh l<ukdlrKh
m.Klfha u;lh" m%Odk jYfhka wNHka;r yd ndysr jYfhka fldgia follg fnh yelsh'
wNHka;r u;lh f,i ie,flkafka"
1' fria;r u;lh
2' ix; u;lh I ugu
3' ix; u;lh II ugu
4' iiNd m%fY u;lh (RAM)
iuia;hla jYfhka .;a l, ish u wNHka;r u;lhka ys my; i|yka ,laIK oelsh yel'
1' wvq Od;djlska hqla; nj
2' wvq m%fY ld,hlska hqla; nj
3' f,ka wl nj
fmdf .;a l, ndysr u;lh" Yd, Od;djlska hqla; f' ;j o idfmalaIj je m%fY ld,
j,ska hqla; jk w;r , b;d wvq h ^, i,ld we;af;a nhsghla i|yd h&'
fria;rh muKla ie,l+ g thg f.j;a j l%shdlsf yelshdj we;;a th ilikh ;=<
wka;.; WmlrKhla neka jkdlka wl h' tys Od;dj o wvq h' m%fY ld,h o wvq
h' ix; u;lh - I ugu yd ix; u;lh - II ugu o f wdldrhg Nd; l< yel' tfia
ke;sjqjfyd;a Bg;a my<g we;s iiNd m%fY u;lh Nd; l< yel' fuys m%fY ld,h je
h' jkdlu oeh yels ugul mj;S' Od;dj o je h' fuhska fmfkkafka by< isg my<g
hkg jkdlu wvqjk w;r Od;dj yd m%fY ld,h jejk njhs'
m.Klhl iuia; ldhh idOkh i,ld n,k g jkdlu" m%fY ld,h yd Od;dj
m%Yia; ugulska mj;ajd .ekSug k by; u;l j. fol u l<ukdlrKh lsu wjYH f'
19
w;;H u;lh
(Vertual Memory)
idudkHfhka ilikhlg Yd, u;l ffi, m%udKhla oDYHudk jqj o m.Klhl fN!;sl
jYfhka we;af;a Bg jvd wvq u;l m%udKhls' tu ksid ;dlsl u;l fhduqjla fN!;sl u;l
fhduqjlg mj;kh lr .ekSf l%ufohla ;sh hq;=h' w;;H u;lh u.ska Yd, fhduq
wjldYhla ksudKh flf' l%shdhkhl j ld,h ;=< th l%shd;aul lrkqfha thjgd we;s
Wmfoia iq m%udKhlska h' tk l%shdhkhla ks;r ks;r Nd; lrkqfha ta yd inkaO jQ o;a;
wvx.= u;l ffi, iq m%udKhls' wvq u;l ffi, m%udKhlska jqj o ldhlaIuj u;lh
l<ukdlrKh lr .ekSu i|yd msgqlrKh yd LKavkSlrKh uy`.= msgqjy,la f'
msgqlrKh yd wkqrEmlrKh
w;;H u;l rduqjl we;s fhduqjlg wkqrEm fN!;sl u;lh we;s rduqjl fhduqjla wEu
wkqrEmlrKh f,i yekaf'
fufyhqul jvd kuHYS,SNdjh ,nd .ekSug kE u msgqjla kE u rduqjlg wkqrEmlrKh
lsf yelshdj we;'
ndysr wdphk u;lhla ;=< we;s o;a; m.Klfha m%Odk u;lh fj; m%fYkh lsu i|yd
fkdfhl=;a l%fudamdhka we;' m.Klfha m%Odk u;lfha we;s bv m%udKh iS; neka Yd,
m%udKfha l%uf,aL tljr u;lh ;=<g m%fYkh lr.; fkdyel' f ksid msgqlrKh kka
ykajkakd jQ l%ufohla Nd; flf' m%Odk u;lh l<ukdlrKh myiqlr .ekSu i|yd
ndysr wdphk udOHfha we;s o;a; fyda l%uf,aLk tl u m%udKfha jQ l=vd fldgiaj,g fnod
.efka' fuu LKavhla msgqjla f,i yekafjk w;r msgq jYfhka m%Odk u;lh fj; o;a; fyda
l%uf,aL fldgia m%fYkh lsfuka tys we;s bv m%udKh l<ukdlrKh lr.; yel' ;j o
fuh fmd;l msgq wdldrfha neka wjYH jQ g wjYH msgqj muKla m%fY lr .; yel'
20
(Driver Software)
fjd m.Kl l%uf,aL jk w;r fjd fufyhq moaO;sh yd oDVdx. w;r isjk ikaksfokh
i|yd odhl f' ksoiqkla jYfhka iqmlaIlh (Scanner) hka;h
% la yd m.Klh w;r inkaOhla
we;slsug iqmlaIlfha Odjl uDldx.h m.Klhg we;=<;a l< hq;=h' bkamiqj m.Klh
yd iqmlaIlh w;r wka; inkaO;djla we;sf'
21
ks m q K ;dj 7(
ld,h(
ld,fo myhs
bf.kq M,(
isiqka Yd, ixLHdjla iyNd.s jk Nd.hl m%;sM, f,aLkh iliajk wdldrh isiqka iu`.
idlPd lrkak'
fuys islrkq ,nk o;a; ieliSf l%shdj,sh meye,s lsug iafPdfjka bm;a jk
isiqfjl=g wjia:dj fokak'
my; i|yka lreKq u;=jk fia idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
Nd.fha tla tla Ih i|yd ,nd.kakd ,l=Kq m.Klhg we;=<;a lsfuka YsIHhka
,nd.;a ,l=Kq j,g wod< fY%aKsh ,ndfok nj
l,ska ;SrKh l< ,l=Kq mrdihla Nd; lrk nj
fY%aKsh ,ndf ,l=Kq ixikaokhla lr wod< fY%aKsh f;dard .kakd nj
fuu l%shdj,sh ish u isiqkaf.a ,l=Kq we;=<;a lsu wjidk jk f;la mqklrKh jk
nj
22
,l=Kq
fY%aKsh
75 g je k
65 isg 75 olajd
55 isg 64 olajd
45 isg 54 olajd
0 isg 44 olajd
ls h jH
iEu m.Kl l%uf,aLhl u my; i|yka md,k jHqyhka tlla fyda Bg je .Kkla Nd;
flf'
1' wkql%uh (sequence)
2' jrKh (selection)
3' mqklrKh (repetition/iteration)
m.Kl l%uf,aL ;=< we;s j.ka;s l%shd;aul lrk wkqms<sfj< md,k jHqyhka u.ska md,kh
flf'
1' wkql%uh
l%uf,aLhl we;s j.ka;s tlsfkl wkqms<sfj<ska we;s wdldrhg l%shd;aul lsu wkql%uh
kka ykajkq ,ef'
WodyrK 1(
celsius=float(input(Enter Celsius temperature: ))
fahrenheit = 1.8 * celsius + 32
print Fahrenheit = , fahrenheit
fuu l%uf,aLh u.ska WIaK;ajh fi,aishia w.hla jYfhka ,ndf.k th *erkayhs w.hla
njg m;alr th m%;sodkh lrkq ,ef' fuys we;s Wmfoia ish,a, wkql%lj l%shd;aul lrkq
,ef'
WodyrK 2(
price=float(input(Enter Price Rs: ))
qty=int(input(Enter Quantity: ))
23
amount=price*qty
print Amount is Rs: , amount
fuu l%uf,aLh u.ska NdKavhl , iy , .;a NdKav ixLHdj lshjd ,ndf.k ta i|yd
f.h hq;= uq uqo, .Kkh flf'
2' jrKh
fuys f;dard .ekSu i|yd l,am m%ldYk iuQyhla we;s g fok ,o fldkafoaishla mlaId lr
tla l,amhla muKla f;dard .ekSu isf'
a). ir, jrKh
ldrl ;sh
if
expression:
statement 1
statement 2
else:
:.
statement 1
statement 2
:.
WodyrK 3(
a=int(input(Enter a Number: ))
if a%2==0:
print Even number
fuu WodyrKfha ixLHdjla ,ndf.k th 2ka fn g b;=rejk w.h 0 k print '''Even number'
hk m%ldYkh o tfia fkdue;sk print "Odd number"hk m%ldYkh l%shd;aul flf'
24
nyq jrKh
ldrl ;sh
b).
if
expression 1:
statement 1
statement 2
:.
elif expression 2:
statement 1
statement 2
:.
else:
statement 1
statement 2
:.
WodyrK 5(
price=int(input(Enter Price Rs: ))
if price>1000:
discount=price*10/100
elif price>=500:
discount=price*5/100
else:
discount=price*2/100
net_price=price-discount
print Net Price is Rs: , net_price
fuu WodyrKh u.ska NdKavhl , ,ndf.k ta i|yd ysjk jgu .Kkh flf' NdKavfha
, re' 1000'00 je k 10] jgula o tys , 500 isg 1000 olajd k 5]l jgula o tfia
fkdue;s tajd i|yd 2] jgula o ysf'
WodyrK 6(
num1=int(input(Enter first number: ))
num2=int(input(Enter second number: ))
print 1. Add
print 2. Subtract
print 3. Multiply
25
print 4. Divide
choice=int(input(Enter Choice: ))
if choice==1:
print num1, + , num2, =, num1+num2
elif choice==2:
print num1, - , num2, =, num1-num2
elif choice==3:
print num1, * , num2, =,num1*num2
elif choice==4:
print num1, / , num2, =,num1/num2
else:
print Invalid Entry!
fuu WodyrKh ixLHd folla ,ndf.k th fukqjlska f;dard.;a .Ks; luhg wod< m%;sM,h
m%;sodkh lrhs'
3' mqklrKh
j.ka;s tlla fyda lsysmhla kej; kej; l%shd;aul lsu mqklrKh f,i yekaf'
a)
for m%ldYkh
j.ka;s tlla fyda je.Kkla fyda h ksYa; jdr .Kkla mqklrKh lsu i|yd fuu
m%ldYkh Nd; flf' fuh fhdod.; yelafla wjia:d foll muKs'
h ixLHd mrdihla ;=< mqklrKh is lsu'
ldrl ;s
i)
WodyrK 7(
for num in range(1, 5):
print (num)
fuu WodyrKh 1 isg 4 olajd ixLHd m%;sodkh lrhs' fuu WodyrKfha we;s range hkak u.ska
,ndfok ,o wdrNl w.h jk 1 isg wjika w.h jk 5 olajd ixLHd iuQyhla ckkh lrkq
,ef' ^fuys wjika w.h jk 5 we;=<;a fkdf'&
26
WodyrK 8(
numbers=[10,30,40,60,50]
for num in numbers:
print (num)
WodyrK 9(
for letter in Computer:
print (letter)
b)
while m%ldYkh
fuu m%ldYkh i|yd ,nd fok fldkafoaishla i;Hj mj;sk f;la mqklrKh isf'
WodyrK 10(
num = int (input ('''Enter Number'))
while
num>0:
if num%2==0:
count + = 1
num = int (input ('''Enter Number'))
print "Total Even numbers", count
by; WodyrKfha uq,ska u ,nd .kakd ixLHdj Ok ixLHdjla k num>0 fldkafoaish i;H
f' tfia k while m%ldYkh ;=<g mefKa' tys tu ixLHdj brf ixLHdjla oehs mlaId
flf' tfia k count ys w.h tllska je flf' bkamiq kej; ixLHdjla ,nd .efka' ,nd
we;s fldkafoaish (num>0) wi;H jk ;dla mqklrKh isflf' ,ndka uq brf ixLHd
.Kk fuu l%uf,aLh u.ska m%;sodkh flf'
break
uq,jok
for mh
fyda while mhl l,ska bj;a u i|yd break hkak Nd; flf'
27
WodyrK 11(
i=I
while 1<10:
print i
if i==5:
print "stoping the loop"
break
i+=1
wdfoaY lr we;s w.h 1 neka while m%ldYkfha fldkafoaish i<10 i;H f' tg mh
;=<g meK i ys w.h m%;sodkh flf' bkamiq if m%ldYkh u.ska i ys w.h 5 g iudkoehs mlaId
flf' h wjia:djl i ys w.h 5 iudk jk g "stopping the loop" hkqfjka m%;sodkh lr break
m%ldYkh u.ska while mfhka bj;a f'
Continue
WodyrKh 12(
while True:
name = input ("Enter a name less than four charactors or "quit" to stop")
if name=="quit":
break
if len (name)>5:
continue
else:
print name
by; WodyrKfha "quit" hkak wdodkh l< g mqklrKh k;r flf' we;=<;a lrk kf
wl=re .Kk 5la k ku m%;sodkh flf' tfia fkdue;s k kej; mh uq,g mefKa'
28
29
ks m q K ;dj 8(
ks m q K ;d ugu 8'9(
ld,h(
ld,fo myhs
bf.kq M,(
;eme,a ldhd,h yryd hyjl=g ,smshla heu ms<sn|j mka;sfhaa wjOdkh fhduq lrjkak'
my; i|yka lreKq u;= lrka idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
;eme,a ldhd,h yryd ,smshla hef l%shdj,sh fldgia lSmhlska isjk nj
fuys hjkafkla" ,nkafkla" hjk udOHhla yd f.khkafkla isk nj
,smsh ,su" ,smskh ,shd ljrhl nyd ;eme,a fmhg oeu" ;eme,a f.k hkakd
;eme,a fmfhka /f.k ;eme,a ldhd,hg ndru" ;eme,a ldhd,fhka ,smh
s ndrf.k
heh hq;= ;eme,a ldhd,hg fhduq lsu hkd f,i hjkakdf.a fldgi by< isg
my<g Wmfldgia ;=klg fnh yels nj
,nkakd r neyerl k w;r u. uOHu ;eme,a yqjudre uOHia:dkhla yryd heh
hq;= nj
uOHu ;eme,a yqjudrej yryd ,nkakdf.a ;eme,a ldhd,hg ,smsh heu" ,nkakdg
,smsh ,ndu iy ,nkakd ,smsh ,nd.ekSu" jD; lsu yd lshu f,ig ,nkakdf.a
fldgi o my< isg by<g Wm fldgia ;=klg fnh yels nj
iEu Wmfldgil u ksjer mqoa.,hdg ,smsh Ndru i|yd ldhNdrhla" j.lSula yd
Wml%u we;s nj
iEug u by< Wmfldgi" my< Wmfldgiska fiajdjla b,a,k w;r my< Wm fldgiska"
tu fiajdj by< Wmfldgig ,ndfok nj
fuf,i u m.Kl cd,lrKfha ;a ia;r lSmhlska hq;= jD; moaO;s ks;hka yuqjk
nj
my; i|yka ud;Dld ;=fkka Tf lKavdhug wod< ud;Dldj flfrys wjOdkh fhduq
lrkak'
wka;cd;sl m%;s wdh;kh (ISO) iy jD; moaO;s wka; inkaO;d wdlD;sh (OSI)
yekau'
30
OSI wdlD;sfha
ls h jH
ndysr f,dalh iu. wka; l%shdj,shl fhug yelshdjla iy myiql iys; moaO;shla jD;
moaO;shla f,i ykajk w;r tfia ndysr f,dalh iu. wka; inkaO;djka fkdmj;ajka
ish foa tu moaO;sh ;=< u islrkakdjQ moaO;shla ixjD; moaO;shla f,i ykajkq ,ef'
cd,lrKfha oDVdx. iy uDldx. j, ms;r (Specification) u; r|d fkdmj;sk tk
Wmia;rfhka iajdk kE u fjkia moaO;s w;r ikaksfokhg bv i,ik moaO;s ks;
jD; moaO;s f,i i,lkq ,ef'
jD; moaO;s ks; ixl,amh wka;cd;sl fjf<|du myiq u.lg fhduq lrhs' wka;cd,fha
tl u fjf<|fmd< wjYH;djla we;s fjf<kaoka iy mYS,lhska ;;H ld, fudhq,
we;=<;a m.Kl moaO;s Nd; lrhs'
uq,a wjfha m.Kl ikaksfokh m%Odk rduq m.Klh jgd uOH.;j mej;sKs' tu
m.Klhg mhka; WmlrK rdYshla inkaOj ;sKs'
cd,lrKfha ldhNdrh jeu;a iu. tu ldhNdrh fldgiaj,g fnod.ekSf wjYH;djla
u;=h'
ta jk g m.Kl cd, moaO;s w;r ikaksfokh oDVdx. iy uDldx.j, ms;r u; r|d
mej;=Kq w;r rdcH wkq.%yhka hgf;a (ARPAnet) fyda tla tla m.Kl wf,lrejka iska
nyq, f,i cd,lrKh islrkq ,eKs' fuu cd, w;r ikaksfokfha .eg mek ke.=K
neka fmd cd, m%;shl wjYH;djla we;s jQ w;r thg ms<s;=rla f,i kSjdys wka;cd;sl
m%;s wdh;kh u.ska jD; moaO;s wka; inkaO;d ks;h ykajd fokq ,eKs' tla tla
cd,.; m.Klhla ;j;a cd,.; m.Klhla w;r ikaksfokh iy f;dr;=re yqjudre jk
wdldrh fuu wka;cd;sl m%;s wdh;k ks;fhka ia;r lrk w;r fuh ia;r y;lska hq;=
iei ks;hla h' ienE f,dalfha cd,lrKh iu. fuh .,md .kakd g fuys we;s ia;r
lsysmhla tlg inkaOlr fjk;a ia;rhla ksudKh lr .ekSula l< yels w;r fuh kS;s
moaO;shla fkdj ksfoaY lsula f,i ie,lsh hq;=f'
31
7'
6'
5'
4'
3'
2'
1'
ikaksfokfha moaO;s folla w;r wka;ra inkaO;d we;s ia;r ;sfnk w;r iEu ia;rhlg
u mjrk ,o fYaIs; ldhhla iy j.lSula mjrd we;s w;r tys Nd; lrk Wml%u lsysmhla
o we;'
hjkakdf.a wka;h
(Senders end)
hjkakl= iska ,nkakl= yg o;a; hef hjk wka;fha isg o;a; wjfrdayK l%uhg .uka
lrhs' o;a; by< ia;rfha isg my< ia;rhg .uka lrhs' ^WodyrK y;ajk ia;rfha isg m<uqjk
ia;rhg&
,nkakdf.a wka;h
(Receivers end)
o;a; ,nkakdg ,efnk g th wdfrdayK wdldrhg .uka lsula olakg ,ef' tk my<
ia;rfha isg by< ia;rhg o;a; .uka lrhs'
hjkakd
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
,nkakd
fN!;sl ia;rh
01000110
32
fiajdj" oHq;a ;emE," o;a; mdol l<ukdlrKh iy wfkl=;a uDldx. fiajd fuu ia;rhg
we;=<;a f' Telnet iy FTP, DNS, HTTP, SMTP jeks kshudj,Ska fuu ugug wod< f'
kshudj,s fuu
ieis ia ; rh
fh w;r inkaO;djla f.dv ke.Su" mj;ajdf.k hdu iy wjika lsu' fuh ia;rfha
miajk ia;rhhs' iEu wka;hl u fhu w;r fonia" yqjudre lrka tajd mj;ajdf.k f.dia
wjika lsu fuys isflf'
fuys Nd; jk kshudj,s folla f,i SIP (Session Initiation Protocol), RTP (Real Time Transport
Protocol) oelah yelsh'
m% j dyk ia ; rh
fuh y;rjk ia;rh f' Odrlhla fyda ikaksfok w.% w;r o;a; mQK j yqjudrej is lrhs'
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) iy UDP (User Datagram Protocol) fuys Nd; jk m%Odk
kshudj,Ska folla f'
cd, ia ; rh
fuh f;jk ia;rh f' ikaksfok cd,hl ia lrKh (switching) iy ux ieliqu iy tla
ikaksfok ,laIHhl isg ;j;a ikaksfok ,laIHhlg o;a; ifm%aIKh fuys ia;r
lrhs' ux ieliqu iy o;a; bhg heu fuka u ,smsk ilia lsu" wjysrhka md,kh iy o;a;
melegq wkqms<fj<g ieliSu hk tajd o fuys ia;r flf'
cd, ia;rfha kshudj,Ska lsysmhla f,i IP (Internet Protocol), RIP (Routing Information Protocol),
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) oelah yel'
fN!;s l ia ; rh
fuh OSI wdlD;sfhys my< u ia;rh f' fuys ifm%aIK udOHhla yryd o;a; heu oelaf'
tk udOHh" o;a; f.h" ifm%aIK j.h, w;=re uqyqK;alrKh ifm%aIK ud,sh (Transmission Mode) hk tajd fuys w: olajhs'
34
ks m q K ;dj 8(
ks m q K ;d ugu 8'11(
ld,h(
ld,fo myhss
bf.kq M,(
ls h jH
fiajd.%dyl-fiajdodhl kHdih (Client Server
Configuration)
uyd mudKfha m.Kl i|yd l,amhla jYfhka mqoa., m.Klfha wd.ukh;a iu. mqoa.,
m.Kl weiqre lr.;a m.Kl cd,lrKh ckm%sh h'
m.Kl cd,lrK l%u w;=frka fiajdodhl-fiajd.%dyl cd,lrKh .ek ie,ls,su;a f
fiajd.%dyl m.Kl iy fiajdodhl m.Kl jYfhka m.Kl j. folla ykd.; yelsh'
fiajdodhl
fiajd.%dylhka
fiajd.%dyl
(Clients)
m.Kl
m.Kl cd,hlska fyda wka;cd,h yryd fyda wkq.%dyl m.Klhlska fiajdjka ,nd.kakd
m.Kl fiajd.%dyl m.Kl f,i ykajkq ,ef' idudkHfhka fjd cd, fufyhq
uDldx. Nd;fhka l%shd;aul jk mqoa., m.Kl jk w;r tajd cx.u m.Kl fyda jev;,
m.Kl fyda h yelsh'
fiajdodhl
(Servers)
m.Kl
m.Kl cd, fyda wka;cd,h yryd fiajdodhl m.Kl fj; fiajd imhk m.Kl fiajdodhl
m.Kl f,i yekaf' fiajd.%dylhka yg ldhlaIu fiajdjla iemhSu i|yd fiajdodhl
m.Klfha fufyhq f.h" u;l Od;dj iy wdphk Od;dj idfmalaIj je h hq;=h'
cd,hg inkaO jk fiajd.%dyl m.Kl ixLHdj je jk b,au imqrd,Su i|yd m.Kl
cd, ;=< fiajdodhl m.Kl lsysmhla Nd; jk wjia:d o olakg ,ef'
fia j dodhl j.
fN!;sl jYfhka mj;skk
a d jQ cd, fiajdodhlhka ;=< uDldx. Nd;fhka ia:dms; l< fiajdodhl
lsysmhla jqj o l%shd;aul l< yelsh' fuu fiajdodhl i|yd fYaIs; uDldx. Nd;hg .efka'
tjeks fiajdodhl uDldx. lsysmhla my; oelaf'
fj fiajdodhl (web servers)
;eme,a fiajdodhl (mail servers)
ksfhdack fiajdodhl (proxy servers)
fh fiajdodhl (application servers)
36
fj fiajdodhlhka
(Web Servers)
Apache Server
2.
3.
Novell Server
4.
;eme,a fiajdodhlhka
(Mail Servers)
m%dfoaYh
S iy ria: mYS,lhka fj;ska ,efnk oHq;a ;eme,a mKsv ,nd.kakd iy mYS,lhska
fj; heug we;s oHq;a ;eme,a mKsjqv fnodyef ldhh islrk fYaIs; uDldx. ;eme,a
fiajdodhl f,i yekaf'
WodyrK( 1. Microsoft Exchange
2. Qmail
3. Exim
4. Sendmail
;eme,a fiajdodhl fj; mYS,lhska fj;ska ,efnk oHq;a ;eme,a mKsv m<uqj r|jd ;nd
.kafka ;eme,a mKsv .nvd (message store) f,i ykajk tallhla ;=< jk w;r fojkqj"
wod< ,smskh fj; fhduq flf' mKsjqv hef SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) fyda
ESMTP (External Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) kue;s kshudj,S Nd; lrk w;r mKsjv
q ,nd.ekSf
POP-3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3) fyda IMP (Internet Message Access Protocol) hk kshudj,S
Nd; flf'
ksfhdack fiajdodhlhka
(Proxy Server)
ksfhdack fiajdodhl hkq wka;cd,h Nd; lrk jHdmdl jevy,a m.Kl mYS,lhka iy
wka;cd,h w;r w;ruefhl= f,i l%shdlrk fiajdodhlfhls'
fuys wka;cd,h yryd isjk f;dr;=re m%jdyhka ixOdkd;aulj md,kh lsu" mYS,l
mdYjfha wdrlaIdj ;yjqre lsu yd r|jd ;nd.ekSf fiajdjka ,ndu wdh islrkq ,nhs'
ksfhdack fiajdodhlhl we;s jdishla jkafka tys we;s ix; u;lh ishu mYS,lhka fj;
iemhsh yelsuhs' tneka ks;r ks;r b,a,d isk fj wv ksfhdack fiajdodhl ix;
u;lh (cache) ;=< /f|k ksid mYS,lhdg wvq ld,hla ;=< m%;spdr oelah yelsh'
37
fh fiajdodhlhka
(Application Server)
fh uDldx.hla i|yd jHdmdl ;lk (Business Logic ) imhk" jHdma;jQ cd, ;=< Nd;
jk fiajdodhl uDldx.hla fhojq fiajdodhlhla f,i yekaf'
fj fiajdodhlhla iu. inkaO l%shdlrk fh fiajdodhlhla fj fh fiajdodhlhla
(Web Application Server) f,i ykajhs'
Ih kdu fiajdodhl
mQj IP ,smsk yev.eiq fkdue;s wka;cd, kshudj,s u; mok m.Kl cd, tlsfkl
inkaO lsu i|yd Nd; lrk fiajdodhl uDldx. DHCP fiajdodhl f,i ykajhs'
WmlrKj,g wkkH jQ IP ,smsk meju i|yd Nd; jk kshudj,shla jk fuu fiajdodhl
uDldx.h" m.Kl cd,hg WmlrKh inkaO lsu yd bj;alsu wkqj tajdg ,ndka IP ,smsk
bj;alsu fyda w;a lsu lrkq ,nhs' wka;cd,hg myiqfjka inkaO u i|yd wka;cd,
fiajd imhkakka iska o DHCP fiajdodhl Nd; lrhs' tfia u mq,a m: ud. ldrl (Broad
Band Router) jeks cd,lrK Wmdx. Nd;fhka ia:dkSh .;sl cd,hlg mqoa., m.Klhla
inkaO lsu i|yd o DHCP fiajdodhl fhdod .efka'
n.;a inkaO;d
(Leased Lines)
ia:dk folla w;r rl:k fyda o;a; fiajd yqjudre lr .ekSu i|yd fjka l< rl:k
ikaksfok fiajdjka n.;a inkaO;d f,i yekaf' th fN!;sl /yekla u fkdjk w;r
,laIH folla w;r l%shdlsug fjka l< mm:hls' fjka l< o;a; /yeklg fl fyda .=
rlg me;sh yelsh' iEu g u idm%odhsl rl:k fiajdjkag m%;sreoaO f,i fuu /yeka
iEug u jD; mm: f,i ix{d kv;a;= lrkq ,nhs'
fuu n.;a inkaO;d fndfydag noaog .kq ,nkafka jHdmdl wdh;kj, YdLd ldhd,
tlsfklg inkaO lsu i|yd h' n.;a inkaO;d m%Odk wdldr 2ls'
T1
inka O ;d
T1 wdldrfha
n.;a inkaO;dfjys o;a; ifm%aIK f.h ;;amrhg fu.d nhs 1'544ls' fuu
mm:h ;U /yeka fyda m%ldY ;ka;= /yeka yryd l%shd;aul f'
T3
inka O ;d
fuys o ;U /yeka fyda m%ldY ;ka;= /yeka Nd;jk w;r ;;amrhg fu.d nhs 44'736 l o;a;
ifm%aIK f.hla fmkajhs' fuu /yeka .=r o;a; ifm%aIKh i|yd fYaIfhka
38
Nd;hg .; yelsh' by< o;a; ifm%aIK f.hla we;s ksid o;a; ikaksfokh lrk wdh;k
iska f i|yd ;rul by< udisl .dia;=jla whflf'
(ISP)
,xldj ;=< wka;cd, imhk iud. lSmhla i|yd ksoiqka my; oelaf'
Y%S ,xld fg,sfld
vhf,d.a iud.u
fudfg,a iud.u
,xldfn,a iud.u
iSfld iud.u
hqfld bkagfk iud.u
,xld bkagfk iud.u
ud. ldrl
(Routers)
ud. ldrl hkq ia:dkSh m%foaY cd, mq,a m%foaY cd,hlg inkaO lrk WmlrKhls' tla
cd,hl we;s m.Klhl isg fjk;a cd,hl we;s m.Klhlg o;a; fmd;s ifm%aIKh
lsf ksjer fhduqlsu $ m%fYh imhd fokafka fuu WmlrKh u.sks'
fodrgqu.
(Gateways)
fodrgq u.la hkq tlsfklg fjkia kshudj,s Nd;d lrk cd, w;r wka; inkaO;dj f.dv
k.k cd, ,laIHhls' ta wkqj tla cd,hl isg wfkla cd,hg m%fYh iemhSu fuh yryd is
f' fodrgq u.la oDVdx. yd uDldx. hk foflys iY%Khla f,i l%shd lrhs'
fiajdodhl m.Kl ;=<ska fiajd ,nd .kakd m.Kl fiajd.%dyl m.Kl f,i
ykajk nj'
m.Kl cd, yd ne wka;cd,h ;=< f;dr;=re ikaksfokhg Wmldr jk O
fiajdodhl mj;sk nj'
wka;cd, inkaO;d iemhSf n.;a inkaO;d" fodrgq u." ud. ldrl yd wka;cd,
fiajd imhkakkaf.ka iqfYaIS jQ ldh Ndrhla bgqjk nj'
ukd ikaksfok ldhhla bgq lr.ekSug ta i|yd u fjka jQ l%shd oduhla mej;sh hq;=
nj'
40
ks m q K ;dj 9(
ks m q K ;d ugu 9'3(
ld,h(
ld,fo y;rhs
bf.kq M,(
ks weula ms<sfh, lsf wkq.ukh lrk mshjr isiqka iu. idlPd lrka my;
i|yka lreKq biau;= lr .kak'
mdfNda.slhkaf.a wjYH;d wkqj o;a; tla/ia lsu" weu ie,iq (design) lsu" ta wkqj
wjYH fr j.h f;au" lmk ,o wef fldgia tl,ia lr weu ksu lsu wd mshjr
lSmhla wkq.ukh lsfuka miq zks weulaa ,efnk nj
tu ks weu ,nd .kakd mdfNda.slhd" th ksu lsu i|yd wkq.ukh l< l%shdj,sh
fkdolsk nj
f wdldrhg o;a; iuqodh l<ukdlrK moaO;s (DBMS) f.dv ke.Su o mshjr lSmhlska
isjk nj
o;a; iuqodh l<ukdlrK moaO;s f.dv ke.Su i|yd ANSI - SPARC kka ykajk
ug ;=kl iu; ixlaIsma; ks;h fhdod .kakd nj
41
zo;a; iajdh;a;;djz hkq l=ulaoehs w: olajd tys wkq fldgia ms<sn|j wOHhkh lr tajdg
WodyrK bm;a lrkak'
Tf wkdjrK iduQyslj o" ksudKYS,Sj o iuia; mka;shg bm;a lrkak'
ANSI -
ls h jH
SPARC ug ;=fkys ks;sh(
ANSI - SPARK hk
View 1
View 2
View 3
ndysr ugu
(External Level)
ixl,ams; ugu
(Conceptual Level)
fN!;sl$wNHka;r ugu
(Physical/Internal Level)
DB
fuu ks;sh ug ;=klska hq;a; jk w;r tajd ms<sfj,ska ndysr" ixl,ams; yd wNHka;r
jYfhka f'
ndys r ugu
- fuh mYS,lhdg imj we;s w;r tla tla mYS,lhka o;a; olsk
wdldrh fuu.ska ia;r f'
wNHka ; r ugu - fuh fN!;sl ugu f,i o yekafjk w;r fN!;sl wdjhkhg
imj we;s w;r fuh u.ska o;a; fN!;sl jYfhka .nvd lrk wdldrh
ia;r flf'
ixl,a m s ; ugu - fuh ;dlsl ugu f,i o yekafjk w;r wfkla ug fol w;r
wka;r inkaO;dj f.dv k.hs'
42
ndysr ufkdargdj
External
View 1
External
View 2
External
View 3
ixl,ams; oYkh
ixl,ams; ufkdargdj
(Conceptual View)
wNHka;r oYkh
wNHka;r ufkdargdj
(Internal View)
DB
43
wkqrEmKh
(Mapping)
tl u f,djl ndysr oYk lSmhla mej;sh yelsh' fok ,o ndysr oYkhla mYS,lhka
lSmfofkl=g Nd; l< yelsh'
o;a; iajdh;a;;dj
(Data Independence)
o;a; iuqodh wkqlD;sfha (Database Model) my< ugj,g lsis u n,mEula fkdjk m Wiia
ug ksudKh lsu zo;a; iajdh;a;;djz f,i yekaf'
o;a; iajdh;a;;dj wdldr follg fnh yelsh'
1' ;dlsl o;a; iajdh;a;;dj (Logicla data independence)
2' fN!;sl o;a; iajdh;a;;dj (Physical data independence)
45
ks m q K ;dj 10(
ks m q K ;d ugu 10'3(
ld,h(
ld,fo myhs
bf.kq M,(
HTML wla
mka;sfha isiqka iyNd.s lr .kska l;D iska mqj;am;a jd;djla ixialrKh lrk
wdldrh .ek mka;sfha wjOdkh fhduq lrjkak'
my; i|yka lreKq u;== lrka idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
ixialrKh l< fm< uq,a fm<g by<ska olakg ,efnk nj
jd;dj ,shkq ,nk mdgg jvd fjk;a mdgla fhdod .kska ixialrKh lrkq ,nk nj
fuh jd;dj ,shkakkag muKla jeo.;a jk nj
mqj;am; n,k mdGlhdg ixialrKfha l< i,l=Kq ls olakg fkd,efnk nj
ixialrKfha l;Djreka iska h ms<s.;a fla; l%uhla wkq.ukh lrk nj
mqj;am;a l,df fuka u m.Klfha fj msgq ieliSf ;a w fm< i,l=Kq olakg
,efnk nj
ls h jH
HTML
yekau
iuq;Ska
f.dkq .
.=
HTML f.dkqjla
iqrlaIs; lrk g .htm fyda .html hk f.dkq .=j,ska tlla Nd; lrhs'
fm<" ;%l" Y%jH oDIH miqre iy p,k rEm jeks uQ,sl jia;+ka we;=<;a
ls u'
HTML fm<
fj msgqjlg fm< tl;= lsu" kE u wjia:djl Wiq,khla Nd; lsfuka l< yelsh'
YSI mdGhla f,i fm< tl;= lsf <h1> isg <h6> olajd Wiq,khka Nd; lrk w;r <h1>
isg <h6> olajd fjkiajk g wl=rej, m%udKh l%ufhka l=vd f'
Wod(
47
fohla f,i fm< tl;= lsf <p> iy </p> Wiq,kh Nd; lrhs'
Wod( <p> This is a paragraph </p>
wl=rej, m%udKh" yevh" jKh wdh fjkia lsu o wl=re ;omeye lsu <b> iy we,lr ,su
<i> o l< yelsh'
HTML
;%l
fj msgqjlg ;%l we;=<;a lsug <img> Wiq,kh Nd; lrhs' fuhg wjika lsf
Wiq,khla ke;' <img> Wiq,kh ;=< src .=Kdx.h (attribute) Nd; lrhs' src hkak source ys wla
ku f' ksoiqkla f,i xxx.gif k mska;+rhla fj f.dkq tl;=fjys we;s g th my; i|yka
wdldrfhka ,sh yelsh'
HTML
<img src
"xxx.gif"
f.dkqf ku
.=j iu`.
width = "104"
mska;+rfha
m<,
mska;+rfha
Wi
oekg mj;sk f.dkqf yer fjk;a ia:dkhlska ;%lhla we;=<;a lsf ;%lh we;s ia:dkfha
ksjer fhduqj oelah hq;=h'
m.Klfha oDV ;efha we;s D keue;s fnf ;sfnk images k f.dkqfjys we;=<;a abc.gif
mska;+rh we;= lsug k my; wdldrhg fla; l< hq;=h'
<img src = "D:/images/abc.gif">
fla;h
<html>
<head> <title>My First Page </title> </head>
<body>
<h1> Text and Graphics </h1>
<h2> Text </h2>
<p> The Location of Sinharaja <br>
<b> Sinharaja </b> is a rain forest located in the south-west of Sri Lanka </p>
<h3> Graphics </h3>
<img src="C:/......./Sunset.jpg">
</body>
</html>
48
fuys <br> Wiq,khg jid oef Wiq,khla fkdue;' mska;+rh w;laiqf oYkh ug
mska;+rh we;s ia:dkhg ksjer fhduqj oelah hq;=h'
HTML
HTML msgqjl
Y%jH oDYH miqre we;=<;a lsf .mid, .mp3, .wav, .mpeg, .wmv jeks f.dkq .= Nd;
l< yelsh' fuys <a href> fyda <embed> jeks Wiq,khla fhdod .kS'
Wod( <a href = "myfile.mid"> My Song </a>
<embed> iu`. src .=Kdx.h fhdod .kS'
Wod( <embed src = "myfile.mid" width = "45"> </embed> fuys fhh yels w;r tf,i fhg
iajhxl%Shj oDYH miqre jev lrhs' .wav iy .au jeks f.dkq .= Yd, ksid oYkh ug ld,hla
.;f'
mska;+rhlg inkaO we;s ix.S; f.dkqjla k
<a href = "myfile.mid"> <img src = "mypicture.jpg" Border = "0" alt = "describe picture and music"> </a>
fla;h
<html>
<head> <title>My Second Page </title> </head>
<body>
<h1> Text and Audio </h1>
<h2> Text </h2>
<p><u> Beethoven's Symphony</u><br>
<embed src="C:/......./Beethovens Symphony.mid" autostart="false" loop="false">
</embed>
</body>
</html>
fuys oYH miqr we;s ia:dkhg ksjer fhduqj oelah hq;=h' autostart - "true" jQ g iajhxl%Shj
ix.S;h wefia'
p,krEm
msgqjl p,krEm we;=<;a lsf .swf fyda .gif jeks f.dkq .= Nd; f' <embed>
Wiq,kh src .=Kdx.h iu`. f.dkq .=j .swf f,i f.dkqf ku ,shkq ,ef'
HTML
wdldrh ilD; gif (animated gif) l< yelsh' th <img> iu`. Nd; lrhs' gif ijk
fndfydag fj w;laiq yryd oel.; yelsh' ijk gif, HTML msgqjlg fhu idudkH gif
fhdok wdldrhg iudk h'
Wod( <img src = "filename.gif" alt = "alternate text" width = x hight = y>
fuys j iy ol=Kq t,a,h (alignment) o fhh yelsh'
49
fla;h
<html>
<head> <title>Animation </title> </head>
<body bg color = "ffffaa">
<h1> Text and Animation</h1>
<p> It is a gif </p>
<img src="xxx.gif">
</body>
</html>
50
ks m q K ;dj 10(
ks m q K ;d ugu 10'4(
fj msgj
q la jehqKq lsu i|yd HTML NdIdf we;s hqKq ,laIK
Nd; lrhs'
ld,h(
ld,fo myhs
bf.kq M,(
fj msgqjl jia;+ka ixOdkh lsf HTML NdIdf we;s hqKq ,laIK Nd; lrhs'
nyqO fj wka;.;hka inkaO lrk wdldrh meye,s lrhs'
fj msgq ksudKfha jia;+ka ixOdkh lsug HTML ys hqKq ,laIK Nd; lsf
wjYH;dj ia;r lrhs'
jH ixOdkh lsu wdlIKSh f,i is lrhs'
f,aLkhlg weuqKqula l%udkql+,j ia:dk .; lrhs'
my; i|yka ud;Dld ;=fkka Tf lKavdhug wod< ud;Dldj flfrys wjOdkh fhduq
lrkak'
,ehsia;=
j.=
rduq
lsh m;%sldj iuia;hla jYfhka o Tf lKavdhug wod< fldgi iqfYaIsj o wOHhkh
lrkak'
nyqO fj wka;.;hka fj msgqjlg inkaOlrk wdldrh uid n,kak'
Tf lKavdhug ,e we;s ud;Dldj flfrys oeka wjOdkh fhduq lrkak'
fm< ixialdrlhla wdOdrfhka Tng wod< fla;hka h;=re ,shkh lr fj w;laiqjlska
th iajk whqre mlaId lrkak'
51
fj msgqjla je hqKq lsf jia;+ka ixOdkh lsug Tng ,e we;s HTML hqKq
,laIKh fhdod .kakd wdldrh iy tys wjYH;dj fidhd n,kak'
lsh m;%sldf f;dr;=re bm;a lsf i,lkq ,nQ lreKqj,g wu;rj Tn okakd
fjk;a lreKq igyka lr .kak'
Tf wkdjrK ksudKYS,Sj o iduQyslj o iuia; mka;shg bm;a lsug iQodk jkak'
ls h jH
fj msgq ksudKh i|yd lreKq ixOdkh lsrSfoS j.=" rduq" ,ehsia;= jeks foa fhdod.kq ,ef'
wjYH;djh wkqj fuu wdlD;s Nd; lsfuka fj msgqjla je hqKq lr.; yelsh'
,ehs i a ; =
fj msgqjl wxlkh lrk ,o ,ehsia;=" ixfla; we;=<;A lrk ,o ,ehsia;= fuka u w: oela
we;=<;a ,ehsia;= o olAkg,ef'
ms<sfj<ska wxlkh lrk ,o ,ehsia;= wkql%l ,ehsia;= f,io ixfla; we;=<;A lrk ,o ,ehsia;=
wkql%l fkdjk ,ehsia;= f,io ykajkq ,ef'
wkql%l fkdjk ,ehsia;=jla hkq uq,ska ixfla; fh ,ehsia;=jla jk w;r wkql%l ,ehsia;=jl
uq,ska wxl fhdohs'
wkql%l fkdjk ,ehsia;=jla <ul> Wiq,kfhka wdrN jk w;r wkql%l ,ehsia;=jla <ol>
Wiq,kfhka wdrN f'
wkql%l fkdjk ,ehsia;=
<ul>
<li>coffee</li>
<li>tea</li>
</ul>
wkql%l ,ehsia;=
<ol>
<li>coffee</li>
<li>tea</li>
</ol>
52
w: oela ,ehsia;=
w: oela ,ehsia;=jla <dl> Wiq,kfhka wdrNjk w;r w: oelaula i|yd <dt> Wiq,kh
o tys ia;r i|yd <dd> Wiq,kh o Nd; lrhs'
<dl>
<dt> Sinharaja</dt>
<dd> A lowland rain forest in Sri Lanka </dd>
<dt> Red faced Malkoha</dt>
<dd> Endemic bird to Sri Lanka </dd>
</dl>
j.=
iEu j.=jlau <table> Wiq,kfhka mgka .kS'
iEu fma<shlau <tr> Wiq,kfhka wdrN jk w;r <td> j,ska j.=f o;a; wdrN lrhs'
<html>
<body><p> each table starts with a table tag</p>
<h4>One column</h4>
<table border=1">
<tr><td>100</td></tr>
</table>
<h4>One row and three columns</h4>
<table border=1">
<tr><td>100</td>
<td>200</td>
<td>300</td></tr>
</table>
<h4>Two rows and three columns</h4>
<table border=1">
<tr><td>100</td>
<td>200</td>
<td>300</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>400</td>
<td>500</td>
<td>600</td></tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
53
200
300
200
300
400
500
600
<tr> Wiq,kh we;=<; <th> Wiq,kh Nd; lr ud;Dld fhu is lrkq ,ef' j.=jlg
fndavrhla" jKhla jeks .=Kdx. o we;=<;a l< yelsh' my; wdldrhg ;Sre lsysmhla we;s
j.=jla ksudKh lr.; yelsh'
Wod(
<html>
<body>
<h4> table width two rows and three columns </h4>
<table border = "1" border color = "#336699" width = "100%">
<tr>
<th> Name </th>
<th> Marks </th>
<th> Rank </th>
</th>
<tr>
<td> Mala </td>
<td> 70 </td>
<td> 2 </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> Geetha </td>
<td> 85 </td>
<td> 1 </td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
54
rduq (
rduq fhfuka tl u w;laiq ljqjl tllg jvd fj msgq .Kkla Tng oYkh
lr.; yelsh' f,aLkhla uqKh lsf wmyiq;dj iy Html f,aLk lsysmhla iEh
hq;=u rduq fhf we;s wjdis f' iuyr fj w;laiq j,ska oYkh lsf we;sjk
.eg ksid rduq Nd;h wojk g wvq we;' <frameset> Wiq,kh u.ska ljqj fnfok
wdldrh fmkajhs' fuu Wiq,kh u.ska fma<s yd ;Sre .Kk olajk w;r tuksid ;Srfha
Yd,;ajh o fmkajkq ,ef'
Wiq,kh Nd; lr Html f,aLkfha l=uk fldgig rduq fhdokjdo hkak ;SrKh l<
yels f'
<frame>
Wod( ;Sre foll rduqjla we;sg w;laiq ljqf m<,ska 25] m<uq ;Srej o fojk ;Srej 75]
la o f'
m<uq Html f,aLkh "frame-a.html" m<uq ;Srefjys yd "frame-b.html" fojk Html f,aLkh fofjks
;Srefjys o wjYH g th my; m ,shd oelah yelsh'
<frame src cols = "25%, 75%">
<frame src = "frame-a.htm">
<frame src = "frame-b.htm">
</frameset>
<html>
<frameset cols = "2.5%, 50%, 25%">
<frame src = "frame-a.htm">
<frame src = "frame-b.htm">
<noframe>
<body> your browser doesn't support frames.
</body> </noframes> </frameset> </html>
w inkaOl" r|jkhka
(Anchor)
iy inkaOl
55
inkaOlh
56
ks m q K ;dj 11(
ks m q K ;d ugu 11'3(
ld,h(
ld,fo y;rhs
bf.kq M,(
ch.%dyS
lKavdhu
ch.%dyS
lKavdhu
m%:u ia:dkh
ch.%dyS
lKavdhu
57
idp,H l% u h
A/B
A/C
A/D
B/C
B/D
wjidk ;r.h
je u ;r. .Kkla
kk lKavdh
fol w;r
C/D
ls h jH
f;dr;=re moaO;shla ixjOkh lsf O wdlD;s Nd; lrhs' tjeks wdlD;s f.dvke.S
we;af;a pl%Sh l%uhlg h' tjeks f;dr;=re moaO;s lsysmhla my; oelaf'
1' h we,s (waterfall) wdlD;sh
2' ims, (spiral) wdlD;sh
3' talSlD; ixjOk (united development) wdlD;sh
4' iS.% fhojq ixjOk (rapid application development) wdlD;sh
58
h we,s wdlD;s h
f;dr;=re moaO;shla ixjOk talSh wdlD;sfhys mshjrhka fh ir, l%uhg bm;a lrk
wjia:djla f,i yekaf' fuu wdlD;sh uq,ska u bm;a lrk ,oafoa 1970 jIfha
W.W. Royce isks'
fuys uQ,sl mshjr y; my; wdldrhg oelah yelsh'
1.
System Definition
2.
Software Analizing
3.
System Design
4.
System Development
5.
Testing
6.
System Implimentation
7.
Maintenance
59
h we,s wdlD;sfhys by; mshjrhkag wod< igyka fufia bm;a l< yelsh'
j,x.=;d mlaIdj
System Feasibility
Validation
j,x.=;d mlaIdj
Validation
i;Hdmkh
Product Design
Verification
i;Hdmkh
Detail Design
Verification
fla;lrKh
^fla; ,shd oelau&
tall mlaIdj
Unit Testing
Coding
ix.; lsu
Integration
Product Verification
ia:dmkh lsu
moaO;s mlaIdj
Implementation
System Test
fufyhu iy
kv;a;=j
kej; j,x.=;d
mlaIdj
Operation &
Revalidation
Maintenance
60
fuu wdlD;shg wkqj tla mshjrl j,x.=;dj fyda ilikh wkqj b mshjr lrd fhduqh
yelsh' tfia fkdjqkfyd;a u;=jk tu mshjr mqkrdj;kh isflf' h we,s wdlD;shg wkqj
f;dr;=re moaO;sh ixjOkh fkdkj;sk l%shdj,shls' WodyrK( fufyhq moaO;shla fuj,
lsysmhla Tiafia ixjOkh u f;dr;=re moaO;shla ixjOkh lsu i|yd fhdod.kakd we,s
wdlD;sh' th jvd;a iqiq jkafka wjYH;d fydka i|yka ffoksl ;fha mq,a jYfhka
Nd; jk jHdmD;s i|yd h'
ims , wdlD;s h
ims, wdlD;sh hkq fh wdlD;sh iy uQ,dlD;s wdlD;sfhys iY%Khla iys;j mKduh
jQjls' th 1988 Boehm iska bm;a lr we;' fuu wdlD;shg wkqj uDldx." fj Tiafia
b;d f.j;a j jehqKq lr.; yelsh' ims, wdlD;shla l%shdld rduq fyj;a ldh l,dmhka
lSmhlg fnod we;' idudkHfhka ldh l,dmhka 3 isg 6 olajd m%udKhla mj;S'
2' wjodk Yaf,aIKh
(Analize Risks)
l%shd;aul lr fmkau
wjodku ke;slsu
i|yd ie,iq lsu
l,am iy iSud&
m%.;s iudf,dapkh
ixjOkh
(Product Development)
ksuejqu ixjOkh
yd i;Hdmkh lsu
u`.fmkau iy
iudf,dapkh
61
by; igykg wkqj ldhh l,dm ykd.ekSf my; oelafjk lreKq ms<sn|j wjOdkh
fhduq l< hq;=f'
fiajdodhlhd yd ksuejqu ixjOkh lrkakd w;r M,odhS ikaksfokhla f.dv ke.Sf
wjYH;dj wjfndaO lr .ekSu'
im;a w: oelau" ld, iSudjka ksKh lsu iy jHdmD;shg wod< f;dr;=re ksKh lsu
i|yd wjYH ldhh ie,iq lsu'
wjodk Yaf,aIK ldhh ;lafiare lsf ;dlaIKsl wjodku yd l<ukdlrK wjodku
hk fol u ie,ls,a,g .; hq;=f'
fhojq ksfhdack tlla fyda je .Kkla ksfhdackh i|yd bxfkare ldhh wjYH f'
f.dv ke.Sf iy ksoyia lsf ldhh i|yd f.dv ke.Su" mlaId lsu" msysgqu iy
mYS,l Wml%u iemhSu (Documents & Training) wjYH f'
msysgq lr l%shd;aul lrk wjfha iy ksudKlrK bxfkare wjfha ta u; mok jQ
mYS,l m%;sfmdaIKh wjYH f' uDldx. ixjOkh lrkakka uqyqKfok ish u .eg i|yd
ims, wdlD;sh u.ska i ,nd.; fkdyel'
62
jHqla;slrKh (Abstraction)
jia;= hkq ienE f,dalfha fjkalr oelah yels fldgils' tk Wmqgd oelah yels
fldgils' tajd fndfyda g kv;a;= l< yelsjd fuka u kej; kej; Nd; lsu o l<
yelsh'
II) ixlaIsma;lrKh (Encapsulation)
kv;a;= lsf yelshdj jehqKq lsu i|yd jia;= wNHka;r wka;.;h wfkl=;a
Wmdx.hkaf.ka i`.jd ;nd .ekSu fyj;a ixlaIsma; lsu'
III) m%fKsh (Inheritance)
jia;= kej; Nd;hg wkqn, u i|yd mka;s wkqms<sfj<la iys;j jia;= ixOdkh
lsu'
I)
63
ks m q K ;dj 11(
ld,h(
ld,fo y;rhs
bf.kq M,(
urejd jeks meye,s jk pl%hla iys; fhl=f.a jk pl%fha iajNdjh ms<sn|j <uqka
w;r ixjdohla f.dv k.kak'
ls h jH
jHqy.; moaO;s Yaf,aIKh yd ksudK l%ufoh
wdh;khla ;=< f;dr;=re moaO;shla f.dvkeSf Nd; l< yels m%Odk l%ufohka lSmhla
mj;S' bka iuyrla idm%odhsl jk w;r wfkla tajd kQ;k l%ufohka h'
f;dr;=re moaO;shla m%jOkh lsf nyq,j Nd; lrk idm%odhsl l%ufohla f,i jHqy.;
moaO;s Yaf,aIKh yd ksudK l%ufoh (SSADM) yekah yelsh' f;dr;=re moaO;shl ixlSK
nj wju lsu i|yd whfrka whr f.dvke.Su jHQy.; moaO;s Yaf,aIKh yd ksudK
l%ufoh ;=< olakg ,efnk uQ,sl ,laIKhls' tfuka u jHdmD;s l<ukdlrKh ia;r lsug
iqiq iels,a,la o tu.ska imhhs'
tlai;a rdcOdksfha rdcH wxYfha f;dr;=re moaO;sh ksudKh lsf fuu l%ufoh zzrdcH
uOHu m.Kl iy ,sixfoaYk tackaishZZ u.ska l%s'j' 1980 uq,ska u ykajd fokq ,eK'
1'
2'
3'
4'
65
5' jHdmD;s i|yd m.Kl wdY%s; uDldx. bxfkare moaO;s jeks m.Kl mdol fuj,
Nd;hg .;yels u'
6' jHdmD;s uKav,hl msi w;r ukd ikaksfokhla f.dv ke.Su'
u.ska moaO;shl YlH;d wOHhk ugf isg fN!;sl ie,iq ksuejqu olajd wdjrKh
flf' fuu l%uhg wkqj moaO;s ixjOkh lsf Nd; jk iEu whrla u wfkla whrg
.,dhk fia ksudKh we;' th hwe,s wdlD;sfha wdldrhg ksrEmKh l< yels w;r YS>%
fh ixjOk wdlD;s (Rapid Application Development) l%uhg mriamr h' Bg fya;=j YS>% fhojq
ixjOk l%ufha iEu mshjrla u iudka;r.; l%uhg jOkh u h'
SSADM
ta wkqj moaO;sh f.dv ke.Sf we;s h yels .eg u yrjd .ekSu i|yd moaO;s ie,iqlrejka
iska ;dlsl inkaO;djka ksrEmKh lrk moaO;s m%jdy rEigyka (System Flow Diagrams) iy
o;a; m%jdy igyka (Data Flow Diagrams) Nd; lrhs'
mmQK wdlD;shls' fuys mj;sk iqfYAIs ,laIKh jkafka wod< jHdmD;shla i|yd
fuys we;s W; wx. muKla Nd; l< yels uhs'
SSADM
uq,ska u moaO;s ie,iqlrejka iska wod< moaO;sh foi b;d mq,a f,i wjOdkh fhduq lrhs'
bka miq iuia; moaO;sfhys fldgia yd ug fjk fjk u f.k ia;rd;aul f,i wOHhkh
lrhs'
1'
2'
3'
4'
5'
6'
7'
(Systems Investigation)
kj moaO;shla ms<sn| woyila bm;a lsu fyda mj;sk moaO;shla ms<sn|j ixjOkd;aul
fhdackd bm;a jQ wjia:djl isg fuu whr l%shd;aul fjhs' fuu whf moaO;sh ms<sn|j
mQK wjfndaOhla ,nd .ekSu ;=<ska tjekakla ksudKh lsf wjYH;dj ksKh lrhs' ta
i|yd wxY folla Tiafia uYkh is flf'
1' uQ,sl uYkh (Preliminary Investigation) - fuys moaO;sh ykd.ekSu yd tys mj;sk
.eg ykd.ekSu is fldf'
67
2' YlH;d wOHkh (Feasibility Study)- moaO;sh mysgqu ms<sn|j fhda.H;d mlaIKhla is
lrk w;r tys fhda; moaO;sh mqoa.,hdg fyda wdh;khg fl;r rg .e,fma o hkak
ms<sn|j ia;rd;aul uYkhla ,nd fohs'
moaO;s Yaf,aIKh
(Systems Analysis)
YlH;d jd;dj ms<sn|j jHdmD;sh Ndr lgqj u.ska kj moaO;shl wjYH;dj .ek iEySulg
m;a jqjfyd;a ta ms<sn|j iia;rd;aul wOHhkhl fhug jHdmD;s lgqj ;SrKh lrhs' ta
wkqj YlH;d wOHhk jd;dj Tiafia ,nd we;s lreKq ;j rg;a uYkhg ,la flf' kj
moaO;sfha wruqKq" Bg wod< Ih ikaOdrh" wjYH jk fN!;sl yd udkj im;a iy fhda; kj
moaO;sh ixjOkh lsf we;s h yels .eg yd iSud wdh ms<sn|j fuys fYaIfhka i,ld
n,kq ,ef' tfia u moaO;s Yaf,aIK l%shdj,sfha wdh;kfha jHqyh ms<sn|j;a" l<ukdlrK
ug iy fufyhq ug ms<sn|j;a ia;rd;aul f;dr;=re /ia lr .ekSula is lrkq ,ef'
Bg fya;=j fhda; kj moaO;sh u.ska l<ukdlrejkaf.a iy mYS,lhkaf.a wjYH;d imqrd,sh
hq;= u h' ta wkqj moaO;s Yaf,aIK wjfha o;a; tla/ia lsu iy o;a; f;dr;=re njg m;a
lsu ;=<ska moaO;sfha wjYH;d ia;rd;aulj uYkhg ,la flf'
(Systems Design)
moaO;s ixjOkh
(Systems Development)
ie,iq l%ufo j,g wkqj imQK moaO;sh fudhq,j,g fnod l%uf,aLlhska fj; ,nd fohs'
l%uf,aLlhska iska W; m.Kl NdIdjla fhdod.kska fodaI wju jQ l%uf,aL wvx.= fh
68
uDldx. moaO;s iEu lrkq ,ef' fufia ksudKh lrk ,o fudhq, ish,a, uq,ska ms<sfh,
lr.;a w;=re uqyqK;la iu. inkaO lr iuia; moaO;sh f.dvke.Su isflf' < mshjr
jkafka fuu moaO;sh mlaIdjg ,la lsu h'
moaO;s mlaIdj
(Systems Testing)
fuu whf m%Odk wruqK jkafka fodaI wju" ;;a;ajfhka Wiia .Kfha moaO;shla fiajd
odhlhd fj; ,nd u h'
fuys iajdk lKavdhula iska moaO;sh imQK mlaIdjg Ndck lrkq ,nk w;r moaO;sh
iska fiajd odhlhdf.a wjYH;djka Tyq n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk wdldrhg iemfha o hkak mlaIdjg
,la flf' tfuka u l%uf,aLfha we;s fodaI .ek o uYkh flf'
moaO;s mlaId whf moaO;sh my; i|yka mlaIdjkag fhduq flf'
tall mlaIdj (Unit Testing)
iuia; mlaIdj (Integrated Testing)
moaO;s mlaIdj (System Testing)
m%;s.%yK mlaIdj (Acceptance Testing)
(Systems Implementation)
id:lj ksulr.;a moaO;sh l%shd;aul lsu fuu whf isf' fuys imQK moaO;sfha
l%shdld;ajh f,aLKdrEV lsula is l< hq;= w;r moaO;sh Nd; lrk wdldrh ms<sn|j
mYS,lhka ish fokd oekqj;a flf'
moaO;sh ia:dmkh lsu mshjr lSmhlska isf' tajdk(
iDcq ia:dmkh (Direct Implimentation)
iudka;r ia:dmkh (Parallel Implimentation)
whruh ia:dmkh (Phased Implimentation)
kshuquh ia:dmkh (Pilot Implimentation)
moaO;shg wjYH oDVdx. ia:dmkh lsu yd uDldx. ia:dmkh lsu fuu wjosfha oS is f' tfia
u moaO;sfha id:l;ajh yd wid:l;ajh fuu whf ;SrKh f'
moaO;s kv;a;=j
(Systems Maintenance)
kj moaO;shla ia:dmkh l< miqj th l%shd;aul lsf O .eg mek k.S' m.Kl
moaO;shl we;s fYaI;ajh jkqfha ;dlaIKfha YS>% hqKqj;a iu. ksr;=rej hdj;ald,Sk l<hq;=
u h'
moaO;s kv;a;= whf moaO;shg n,mdk fjkiia mlaId lr ta i|yd wjYH fhdackd
moaO;s kv;a;= lgqj u.ska wdh;kfha l<ukdld;ajhg bm;a flf' tfia u moaO;s kv;a;=
lgqj iy wdh;kfha l<ukdld;ajh iska wjOdkh fhduq l< hq;= ksKdhl lSmhla mj;S'
moaO;shl wruqK"q ldhlaIu;dj" M,odhs;dj" fhdod.kakd ;dlaIKh" jehjk msjeh" wdrlaIdj
iy moaO;sh u.ska ,efnk m%;s,dN ta w;ka m%Odk f' moaO;s kv;a;= wjfha ykd.kakd
fjkia isl< hq;af;a by; fjkia j,g wkql+,j h'
69
70
ks m q K ;dj 11(
ks m q K ;d ugu 11'5(
ld,h(
ld,fo myhs
bf.kq M,(
ixOdkhl fyda wdh;khl oekg mj;sk f;dr;=re moaO;sfha .eg fidhd n,d bm;a
lrhs'
mj;akd .eg ksrdlrKh i|yd kj f;dr;=re moaO;shl wjYH;dj bm;a lrhs'
m%jOkh lsug n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk kj moaO;sh ms<sn|j ia;rd;aul uYkhla is
lrhs'
hlsis ldhhla ie,iq lsf we;sh yels .eg ykd .kshs'
h ldhla lsug fmr" ta ms<sn|j uYkhla is lrhs'
71
3'
ls h jH
uQ,sl uid ne,Su
(Preliminary Investigation)
;SrK .ekSu yd .eg ksrdlrKh lsf l%shdj,sfhys f;dr;=rej, n,mEu w;sYhska u jeo.;a
f' tl u f;dr;=rla O ugj, tlsfklg fjkia wruqKq i|yd Nd;hg .efka' tfia
jqjo tl u moaO;shla tlsfklg fjkia jQ wruqKq i|yd fhdod .ekSu W; fkdf' tneka
;SrK .ekSf " O ug wkqj Bg jvd;a .e,fmk f;dr;=re moaO;s Nd; lrkq ,ef' th
ie,iq l< hq;af;a wod< ixOdhlhkaf.a wdh;kfha jHqyh" wruqKq iy wfmlaId wkqj h'
lsish wdh;khlg ;u f;dr;=re moaO;shla ie,iq lsf mj;sk moaO;sh ms<sn|j fyda
ie,iq lrkq ,nk kj moaO;sh ms<sn|j mQj uid ne,Sula w;HjYH h'
wdh;kh ;=< f.dvke.Sug hk kj moaO;sh ms<sn|j u;aj wOHhk lghq;= islsug fmr
moaO;sh ixjOkh lsf wruqKq iy fya;+ka ykd.ekSu fuys m%Odk jYfhka is flf' g
wod< lreKq wdh;kfha by< l<ukdld;ajhg bm;a lr wkque;sh ,nd .;hq;= f' fuys
kj moaO;s ie,iqlrejka iska my; i|yka lreKq ms<sn|j wjOdkh fhduq l< hq;=h'
mj;sk moaO;sfha we;s .eg ykd .ekSu iy ta ms<sn|j jd;djla ilia lsu'
kj moaO;s ie,iqlrejka iska uq,ska u isl< hq;af;a wdh;kh ;=< ksrdlrKh lr.; hq;=
.eg ykdf.k tajdg i fidhd.ekSug wkq.ukh l< hq;= l%shdud. fudkjdoehs
bm;a lsu h' fuh wdh;kfha by< ugf isg my< ugu olajd we;s .eg ksrdlrKh
lr.ekSug uy;a msgqjy,la f'
l,am i fhdackd lsu'
kj l,am i bm;a lsu hgf;a" jHdmD;shg w;ska we;=<;a l< hq;= fldgia" oekg
mj;sk moaO;sfha ixfYdaOkh l<hq;= ia:dk yd kj fhdackd wd wdh;kfha id:l;ajh
i|yd by< l<ukdld;ajhg myiqfjka ;SrK .; yels wdldrfha l,am fhdackd ,ndu
isl< hq;=h' fuys
1' fhda; kj jHdmD;sh u.ska wdh;kfha hqKqjg ,efnk m%;s,dN iy msjeh'
2' wdh;kh ;=< kj moaO;sh Nd; lsug woyia lrkq ,nk lafIa;% iy bka ,eh yels
m%fhdack
3' kj moaO;sh hqKq lsf uqyqKug ish yels iSud fyj;a Ialr;djka yd tajd
u.yrjd .; yels wdldrh ms<sn| ia;r
4' fhda; kj moaO;shg wjYH im;a yd tajd wdh;kh ;=< fn hdhq;= wdldrh
72
YlH;d wOHhkh
(Feasibility Study)
fhda; kj moaO;sh ms<sn| wkque;sh wdh;kfha by< l<ukdld;ajh ;=<ska ,ndka miqj
YlH;d wOHhk lKavdhu iska kj moaO;sfha fhda.H;dj wOHhkh lrkq ,ef' kj
moaO;sh wdh;khg ykajd f .egj ms<sn|j lrkq ,nk ia;rd;aul uYkhla f,i
YlH;d wOHhkh yekaf'
tneka moaO;s uYk (System Investigation) wjia:df mj;sk w;HjYH mshjrla f,i
YlH;d wOHhkh yekah yelsh'
kj jHdmD;sfha YlH;dj uid ne,Su wx. lsysmhla Tiafia YlH;d wOHhk l%shdj,sh ;=<
isflf' tajd my; oelaf'
;dlaIK YlH;dj - (Technical Feasibility)
wdl YlH;dj
- (Economic Feasibility)
fufyhq YlH;dj - (Operational Feasibility)
wdh;ksl YlH;dj - (OrganizationalFeasibility)
;dlaIKsl YlH;dj
mj;sk f;dr;=re moaO;sh hqKq lsu i|yd fyda kj moaO;shla m%jOkh i|yd i,ld ne,sh
hq;= jeo.;a idOl fudkjdo@"ta i|yd Nd; l< yels m%fY iy l%u fudkjdo@" kj moaO;sh
;=< Nd; l< yels o;a;" l%shdj,s" f;dr;=re" m.Kl" m.Kl cd, iy uDldx. yd Bg
wod< fjk;a im;a iy Wml%u fudkjd o@ hkak ms<sn|j;a" tajd mj;sk moaO;sh yd .e,mSu
ikaikaokd;aul f,i wOHhkh lsu;a ;dlaIKsl YlH;dj ;=< islrkq ,ef'
tk" kj moaO;shg wod< oDVdx." uDldx. yd wfkla Wmdx. .egj ksrdlrKh i|yd
,nd.; yelso@ hk nj fidhd ne,Su ;dlaIKsl YlH;djhs'
wdl YlH;dj (Economic Feasibility)
kj moaO;sh m%jOkh i|yd jehjk wdl jkdlu ms<sn|j iEySulg m;ah yels o@ hk
nj iy tys msjeh Bg .;jk ld,h yd ieif idOdrK o hk j. wdl YlH;dj
jYfhka ie,fla'
fuys YlH;d wOHhk lKavdhu u.ska fhda; moaO;sh i|yd jehjk iuia; msjeh yd tys
m%;s,dN ms<sn|j Yaf,aIKh lrkq ,ef' fuh islrkq ,nkafka oekg mj;sk moaO;sh
ms<sn|j i,ld ne,Sfuks' f i|yd jehjk iuia; msjeh
1' ksYa; ho
- Tangible Cost
oDVdx." uDldx." l<ukdlrejka iy fiajlhka yd fiajdjka i|yd jehjk msjeh
ksYa; ho f,i yekaf'
2'
tfuka u wdl YlH;dj ;=< moaO;shg ,efnk m%;s,dN o j. follg fnod oelah
yelsh'
1' ksYa; m%;s,dN - Tangible Benifits
WmlrK" hka;% iQ;% mmd,k lghq;=" l<ukdlrK uKav, iy ldhuKv, inkaO
jQ msjeh wvqu fyda b;su wdh ksYa; m%;s,dNhka f'
2' wksYa; m%;s,dN - Intangible Benifits
l<ukdlrK uKav,hg ;SrK .ekSu i|yd jvd;a W; ldhlaIu yd M,odhS f;dr;=re
iemhSu" ixOdkfha fyda wdh;kfha ldhhkaj, .=Kd;aulNdjh by< kexug yelsu"
wdh;khg inkaOjk fiajd odhlhka i|yd Wiia fiajdjla ,ndu" yd ta ;=<ska
wdh;kfha m%;srEmh iy lS;skduh by< kexu wdh wksYa; m%;s,dNhka f'
fufyhq YlH;dj (Operational Feasibility)
kj moaO;sh fufyhq i|yd l%shdld;ajhg m;al< yels o hkj. wOHhkh lsu fufyhq
YlH;dj f,i yekaf' kj jHdmD;sh ms<sn|j wNsfm%arKh (Motivation) ldhlaIu f,i
ie,iq ixOdkh yd l%shdjg kexu iy m%;s.%yKh (Acceptance) fuhg wod< f'
wdh;ksl YlH;dj (Organizational Feasibility)
kj moaO;sh ms<sn|j wdh;kfha fyda ixOdkfha l<ukdlrK uKav,fhys iy ldh
uKav,fhys oelshyels wdl,am yd phd ms<sn|j wOHhkh lsu wdh;ksl YlH;dj hs'
f wjia:df YlH;d wOHhk lKavdhu u.ska my; i|yka lreKq ms<sn|j f;dr;=re
,nd.; hq;=h'
wdh;kfha ldh uKav,fha m.Kl mph
fhda; kj moaO;sh ms<sn|j wdh;kfha ldh uKav,h ;=< mj;akd wdl,am
kj moaO;sfhys fjkial ldh uKav,fha /lshd ms<sn|j we;slrkq ,nk n,mEu
kj moaO;sh ms<sn|j wdh;kfha ldh uKav,h oekqj;a l< yels wdldrh
fuu f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSu i|yd wdh;kfha l<ukdlrK uKv,fha iy fiajl fialdjkaf.a
iyfhda.h w;HjYH f'
YlH;d wOHhk lgqj u.ska by; lreKq ms<sn|j ,nd.;a f;dr;=re weiqfrka ta ms<sn|j ksjer
wOHhkhla lr miqj wdh;kfha by< l<ukdlrK uKav,h fj; YlH;d jd;djla bm;a
l< hq;=h' tjeks YlH;d jd;djl fmdf we;=<;a h hq;= lreKq lsysmhla mj;S' tajd my;
oelaf'
1' wdh;kh ;=< oekg mj;sk moaO;sh iy Bg inkaO .eg" u;jdo yd th hqKq lsug wod<
ia;rhla
2' kj moaO;sh hqKq lsu yd inkaO imQK ie,eiau ms<sn| ia;rhla
3' kj moaO;sh wdh;khg iqiq nj oelafjk YlH;d wOHhk lgqf woyia ms<sn| ia;rhla
4' kj moaO;sh ixjOkh i|yd .;jk ld,h iy hou ms<sn|j weia;fka;=jla
5' moaO;sh ixjOkh lsf mj;sk kS;suh miqu iy m%;Ska ms<sn| ia;rhla
74
kj f;dr;=re moaO;shla ykajd u fyda mj;sk moaO;sh klrKh lsu fyda i|yd
n,mdk .eg ykd.; hq;= nj
wdh;khl fyda ixOdkhl we;s f;dr;=re moaO;s yd inkaO .egj,g l,am i
yd fhdackd mj;sk nj
.egj ms<sn|j ia;rd;aul uYkh lsu ;=<ska kj moaO;s m%jOkh lsu islrkq
,nk nj iy tu uYkh YlH;d wOHhkh kka ykajk nj
YlH;d wOHhkh islsf Bg wod< iqfYaIS lreKq lsysmhla ms<sn|j i,ld ne,sh
hq;= nj
YlH;d wOHhk jd;dj u; kj moaO;sh m%jOkh lsu fyda fkdlsu fyda islrkq
,nk nj
75
ks m q K ;dj 11(
ks m q K ;d ugu 11'8(
ld,h(
ld,fo myhs
bf.kq M,(
wdmk Yd,djl Nd; lrk laIKsl ls f;a idok hka;%hla ms<sn| mka;sfha isiqkaf.ka
uikak'
my; i|yka lreKq u;=lrka ixjdohl fhfokak'
hka;%hg wjYH wuq jH jk f;a fld<" iSks iy ls wdodkhka f,i ,ndh hq;= nj
bkamiq th l%shdj,shlg Ndckh jk nj
hka;%fha fnd;a;u ;ol< miq ksYa; Od;djla we;s fldamamhlg idod.;a ls f;a tu
m%udKhg muKla jefgk nj
fuu l%shdj,sh isug ta i|yd l,ska ilia l< jevigykla tys wka;.; l< hq;= nj
fuhg wdodkh l< jH h l%shdj,shlg Ndckh bka m%;sodkhka ,efnk nj
ta wkqj fuh o moaO;shla f,i l%shd;aul jk nj
tf,i u ;ekam;a l< jevigykl md,kh hgf;a" moaO;shla fufyhh yels nj
my; i|yka ud;Dld w;=ka Tf lKavdhug ,efnk ud;Dldj flfrys wjOdkh fhduq
lrkak'
l%uf,aLkfha ms<smeh hq;= l%uf,aLk YslaIK yd i;Hdmkh
mlaId wjia:d (Test Cases) " tall mlaIdj" taldnoaO mlaIdj" moaO;s mlaIdj
m%;s.%dyl mlaIdj" ld, uxcqid mlaIdj" Yaf; uxcqid mlaIdj
lsh m;%sld iuia;hla f,i o Tn lKavdhug wod< fldgi iqfYaISj o wOHhkh
lrkak'
Tf wkdjrK wdlIKSh yd ksudKYS,Sj iuia; mka;shg bm;a lsug iQodk jkak'
76
ls h jH
fla ; lrKh
fla;lrKhl fyda l%uf,aLk whrl wruqK jkafka moaO;s ksudKhla we;s l%uf,aLk
NdIdjlg mj;kh lsuls'
tu.ska ,nd.;a fla;h m.Klh l%shdlrjd" moaO;s ksudKfhys jer ksjr Ndjh i;Hdmkh
l< hq;=h'
fla;lrK whr mlaId lsu yd kv;a;=lrK whr hk folg u n,mEula we;s lrhs'
wm okakd m fla;lrKhg .kakd ld,h yd msjeh" uDldx. msjeh iu`. ii|k g b;d
iq m%;sY;hls' moaO;s mlaIdj yd kv;a;=j i|yd Yd, msjehla jeh f' fuhska meye,s
jkafka fla;lrKfha wruqK moaO;sh l%shdjg kexf hou wvq lsu fkdj moaO;s mlaIdj
yd kv;a;= hou wvq lsu h'
l%uf,aLhla O ;;a;aj hgf;a ksYaph l< yelsh' tajd k lshf yelshdj" l%uf,aLlfha
Yd,;ajh" Odjk ld,h yd l%uf,aLlhg wjYH u;l m%udKh hkdh hs'
lshf yelshdj yd f;are .ekSf yelshdj l%uf,aLhl ;sh hq;= fYaI .=Kdx. f' tu.ska
uDldx.h kv;a;= lsu jvd myiq jkq we;'
l% u f,a L k Ys l a I Kh
fla;h ,sf wkq.ukh l< hq;= ksfoaYs; YslaIKhla we;' fuu YslaIKh fla;h ir,j
lshug yd f;are .ekSug yelsjk m ,shd oelaug uy`.= rel=,la f' tajdhska iuyrla
my; i|yka m f'
k lsu
(naming)
fudhq, yd p,H i|yd k f;dard .ekSf tajd w:dka; h hq;=h' ;j o fudhq, kduh
tys l%shdjg W; jQjla h hq;=h'
md,k jHq y h
jHqy.; fkdjk wdldrhg Wmfoia ud,djla ilia lsfuka m.Kl jevigyk ys ldhlaIu;dj
j, f' tuksid u;a md,k jHqyhla Nd; l< hq;=h'
w;= r e M,
fudhq,hla le|f fhdod .kakd mrd;ska fjkia lsul iuyr g tys w;=re M,hla
f,i l%uf,aLlh o fjkia ulg Ndckh h yelsh' fujeks w;=re M, u.yeh hq;= w;r th
ksjer wdldrhg f,aLk.; l< hq;=h'
77
kSv lsu
(nesting)
fla;lrKfha > jYfhka kSv lsu je<elah hq;=h' tfia jqjfyd;a fla;h f;are .ekSug
wmyiq f'
wNHka;r m%f,aLkh
(internal documentation)
fla;lrK whr m%;sodk m%f,aLkh jYfhka i,lkqfha fla;h hs' fuu m%;sodk m%f,aLkfha
we;s fla;h ilia lr we;af;a f;are .ekSu myiqjk wdldrhg h' m%;os dk m%f,aLkh fla;lrKfha
l%uf,aLlhd iska fla;hg jrK fhu is flf' jrKhla m%ldYhla jk w;r th
l%uf,aLh Odjkfha wjYH fkdf' fla;h u.ska flfrk ldhh l=ulaoehs jrKhla u.ska
ia;r flf'
i;Hdmkh
(verification)
fla;lrK whf m%;sodkh i|yd i;Hdmkh Nd; lrkq ,nkafka tu whfrys we;s fodaI
wkdjrKh lsu i|yd h'
fla;h i;Hdmkh lr fodaI ke;s njg ;yjqre lsfuka fmkakq lrkafka fla;h" ie,iqug
wkql+, jk nj;a tu uDldx.h l%shd;aul lsug iqiq nj;a h'
l%uf,aL i;Hdmkh lsf wdldr folls' tajd ia;sl wdldrh yd .;sl wdldrh f'
.;sl wdldrfha l%uf,aLlhg mlaIl o;a; (test data) we;=<;a lr th l%shd;aul flf' tg
tu wjia:df l%uf,aLlfha m%;sodkh ys fodaI ;sfoehs mlaId flf'
ia;sl wdldrfha l%uf,aLhg h:drEmS mlaIK o;a; we;= lr tajd h:drEmS j l%shd flf'
ia;sl Ys,amSh l%ufha l%uf,aLlh imdokh lr l%shd lru is fkdflf' fuys fla;h
i;Hdmkh lsu" lshu" iudf,dapkh lsu" wkqjrKh lsu (walk through) hkdh islrkq
,nhs'
78
moa O ;s mla I dj
moaO;s m%jOk l%shdj,sfha kE u whrl fodaI u;=h yelsh' tla tla whrj, we;sjk fodaI
wkdjrKh lsug fhdod.kakd O Ys,amSh l%u we;' flfia fj;;a fuu ljr l%uhl jqj
o ishhg iShla u ksjer j tk fodaI rys; moaO;shla l%shd;aul lsug yelshdjla fkdue;'
fndfyda wjia:dj, tla tla whfrys we;sh yels fodaI uDldx. fla;lrK wjfha biau;=
h yelsh' fuhg fya;= jkqfha Bg fmr whrj, j,x.=;d mlaId yia;Shj islrk ksidh'
l%uf,aLhla Odjkh lsf we;sjk fodaIj,g wu;rj l%uf,aLl m%jOkhl we;sjk
ie,iq fodaI fuka u fiajdodhlhdf.a wjYH;dj ksjer ikaksfokh fkdu ksid we;sjk
fodaI o olakg ,ef'
l%uf,aLhla m<uqjrg l%shd;aul lrkq ,nkafka mlaId wjia:df h' mlaId wjia:djl
,efnkakdjQ m%;sodkh wm n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk ldhh idOk ugug <`.dh hq;=h' f ksid
l%uf,aL mlaIdjla is lrkq ,nkafka tys we;s fodaI ke;s lsug h'
mlaId wjia:d
(Test Cases)
moaO;shl we;s fodaI ykd.ekSug mlaId wjia:d Wmld f' mlaId l%shdj,sfha mlaId
wjia:d wdodkhka jk w;r moaO;sh ksjerj l%shd;aul foehs oek .ekSug j,x.=;d mlaId
wjia:d Yd, m%udKhla wjYH f'
m%Yia; mlaId wjia:djl ldhh bgqjkafka l%uf,aLlfha fodaI ke;s jQ g h'
m%Yia; mlaId wjia:djl ie,lsh yels ldhhla jkafka l%uf,aLlhl h yels wdodk thg
we;=<;a l< yels g h'
l=vd l%uf,aLlhl jqj o wdodkh i|yd ;sh yels uQ,dx. ixLHdj Yd, mrdihl h yelsh'
f ksid mlaId lsul h:d wruqK jkafka m%Yia; ugug wdikak mlaId wjia:d iuQyhla
f;dard .ekSuhs'
79
Ya f ; uxcq i d mla I dj
fla; mlaIdj islsug moaO;sh l%shd;aul lr we;s wdldrh .ek oekSula wjYH f' fla;
mlaIdjg moaO;sh ;=< o;a; .e,S Yaf,aIKh" .e,S md,kh" fla; mlaIdj u.ska mlaIdjg
,la flf' fojkqj uDldx.j, iM,;dj yd ksrjoH;dj mlaId lsug" mlaIl fpkd;aul
oDIa fldaKhlska th foi ne,sh hq;=f' f;jkqj mlaIdj M,odhS f,i l%shd;aul lsug
fla; mlaIdf l%shd;aul lsug fla; mlaIdf l%shd;aul lrk fjkia wdldrfha
fuj, yd Ys,amSh l%u .ek;a mlaIljrhd oekqj;au wjYH f' fla; mlaIdf fuu
wjYH;d ;=k ;ks ;ksj u l%shd;aul fkdjk w;r tajd tljr l%shd;aul f'
fiajdodhlhdf.a wjYH;dj
m%;s.%yK mlaIdj
wjYH;djka
moaO;s mlaIdj
ie,iqu
taldnoaO mlaIdj
fla;lh
tall mlaIdj
ta l l mla I dj
fuys moaO;sfha tla tla ixrpl ;ks ;ksj u mlaIdjg ,la flf' fuu mlaIdj lrkq
,nkafka l%uf,aLl iska jk w;r Tyqf.a iuhqre iska th i;Hdmkh lrkq ,nhs' fuu
mlaIdf wruqK jkafka fudhq,fha wNHka;r ;lh mlaId lsuh' l%uf,aLlhd ish u
j,x.= fkdjk ;;a;aj mlaId lr th ljr ;;a;ajhla ;=< fyda jevigyka ula ;sfoehs
mlaId l< hq;= w;r l%uf,aLlfha ldhnoaO;dj o mlaId l< hq;=h' fuys ish fla;l
wdjrKh jk m fuu mlaIdj .ek fyd| ;lafiarejla l%uf,aLl iska ,ndh hq;=h'
ta l dnoa O mla I dj
fuu ugf fndfyda tall mlaIs; fudhq, Wm moaO;sj,g taldnoaO lr kej; mlaIdjg
,la lrkq ,nhs' fuu mlaIdf wruqK jkqfha fudhq, ksishdldrj taldnoaO lr we;aoehs
fidhd ne,Su h' fjk;a wdldrhlska lshf;d;a fuu.ska islrkqfha fudhq, w;r w;=re
uqyqK;a wjOdrKfhka hq;=j mlaId lsu h'
moa O ;s mla I dj
fuys imQK uDldx.h mlaIdjg ,la flf' fuu l%shdldrlu i|yd iuqoafoaY f,aLkhla
jYfhka fhdod.kq ,nkqfha moaO;s wjYH;d f,aLkhhs'
80
fuys wruqK jkafka uDldx.h tys wjYH;djka imqrd we;aoehs fidhd ne,Suhs'
fuh fndfyda g j,x.=;d mlaIKhla jk w;r fndfyda wjia:dj, fhdod.kakd tl u
j,x.=ldrl l%shdldrlu o fuh f' moaO;s mlaIdj jvd;a M,odhS jkafka iajdk lKavdhula
md,s; mirhl islrk g hs'
fuu l%shdjg wu;rj moaO;sfha iqrlaIs;;dj" m%;sidOkh (recovery) iy moaO;sh kej; kshu
wdldrfhka mgka.kafka o hkak mlaIdjg ,la l< hq;=h'
m% ; s . % y K mla I dj
m%;s.%yK mlaIdj i|yd fhdod.kq ,nkafka o;a; h' fuys fiajdodhlhdg" m%jOkh l<
uDldx.h i;=gqodhl f,i l%shd;aul jk nj wdoYkh lr fmkah hq;=h'
fuys mlaIdjg ,la lrkq ,nkafka moaO;sfha ienE yeisuhs'
fiajd odhlhd fhda; moaO;sh wkqu; lsu fyda m%;slafIam lsu islrkq ,nkqfha fuu
mlaIdfjka wk;=rej h' B<`. whr jk moaO;s l%shd;aul lsf whr wdrN lrkq ,ef'
81
ks m q K ;dj 13(
ks m q K ;d ugu 13'1(
ld,h(
ld,fo y;rhs
bf.kq M,(
;d;al f,dalfha ksoiqka ;=<ska nqoah yd ye`.S ms<sn| ixl,am ykd .kshs'
nqoauh hka;% oHdf tk (Artificial Intelligence) nqoauh m.Kl l%uf,aL ms<sn| .fIKh
lrhs'
lkafia moaO;s (Kansei Systems) iy ye`.S ms<sn| m.Kl l%uf,aL .fIKh lrhs'
nqoauh hka;% oHdj iy lkafia moaO;s hkq iajNdl nqoah$ ye`.S ms<sn| m.Kl
l%uf,aLl jk w;r" tajd lD;s%u nqoahla fyda ye`.Sula .ek fkdmjihs'
fyg k f,dalfha we;sh yels ksia$hka;% iymeje;au (Coexistance) meye,s lrhs'
82
83
we.hS ie,iq
^1&
we.hS wjia:dj
^2&
wdjrKh flfrk
ksmqK;d ug
10'3" 10'4
^3&
WmlrKhg wod<
Ih ikaOdrh
HTML NdIdj
ykajd u
HTML iu;hka
f.dkq .= (Extentions)
fj msgqjla i|yd uQ,sldx. we;=<;a lsu
wl=re" ;%" Y%jH" oDYH" p,k rEm
hqKq ,laIK Nd;fhka jia;+ka (Objects) ixOdkh
lsu
wdlD;s" ,ehsia;=" j.=" rduq ksudKh lsu
nyq O fj wka;.;hka inkaO lsu
weuqKq" msgq" nyq udOH jia;+ka
^4&
WmlrKfha iajNdjh
m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrlu
^5&
WmlrKfha wruqKq
^6&
7&
,l=Kqf l%uh
ksKdhl
,l=Kq mrdih
b;d fyd|hs
fyd|hs
uOHia:hs
ixjOkh h hq;=hs
85
04
03
02
01
we.hS ie,iq
^1&
we.hS wjia:dj
^2&
wdjrKh flfrk
ksmqK;d ug
^3&
WmlrKhg wod<
Ih ikaOdrh
^4&
WmlrKfha iajNdjh
;a;s mqj;am;
^5&
WmlrKfha wruqKq
^6&
7&
,l=Kqf l%uh
ksKdhl
,l=Kq mrdih
b;d fyd|hs
fyd|hs
uOHia:hs
ixjOkh h hq;=hs
87
04
03
02
01
we.hS ie,iq
^1&
we.hS wjia:dj
^2&
wdjrKh flfrk
ksmqK;d ug
^3&
WmlrKhg wod<
wka;cd,h
imhk fiajdjka
Yaj is huk (WWW)
fmd wk;=re (Common Vulnerabilities)
;ck (Threats)
wdl%uK (Attacks)
fodaI ckl jevigyka (Malwares)
^4&
WmlrKfha iajNdjh
.fIKh
^5&
WmlrKfha wruqKq
^6&
7&
,l=Kqf l%uh
ksKdhl
,l=Kq mrdih
b;d fyd|hs
fyd|hs
uOHia:hs
ixjOkh h hq;=hs
89
04
03
02
01
Abstract
Abstraction
Acknowledgement
Addition
Addressing
Address space
Advantages
Alignment
Algorithms
Amplitude
Analog
Application Servers
Architecture
Arguments
Arithmetic & Logic Unit
Associative
Attenuation
Attribute
Auction
Authentication
Automated
Axiom
Bandwidth
Backup
Basic
Batch
Binary
BIOS-Basic Input Output System
Bit / Byte
Bitwise
Blocked State
Blogs
Booting
Boolean Algebra
Boundary
Cache Memory
90
Capacity
Canonical
Causes
Characteristics
Chunk
Classes
Classification
Client
Clips
CMOS Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
Collecting
Command
Communication Partners
Communication Technology
Commutative
Compaction
Compare
Competency
Competency Level
Compiler
Complement
Computer
Computer Based
Computing
Concept
Concurrent Execution
Context Switch
Control Unit
Copyright
Counter
Coverage
CPU(Central Processing Unit)
Crackers
Criteria
Created State
Data
Data Flow Diagram
Data Packets
Decimal
91
Odrs;dj
fi!;s%l
fya;=
,dlaIKslh" .=K" .;s ,laIK
l=h" Yd, fldgi
mx;s
j.SlrKh
fiajdodhlhd
miqre
wkqmQrl f,day Tlaihsv wO ikakdhl
tla/ia lsrSu
Odkh
ikaksfok iylrejka
ikaksfok ;dlaIKh
kHdfoaY
iqixys;lrKh
iei|Su
ksmqK;dj
ksmqK;d ugu
imdol
wkqmQrlh
m.Klh
m.Kl mdol
wd.Kkh" m.Kkh
ixl,amh$ixl,ams;
iu.d l%shd;aul u
ikaON iaph
md,k tallh
m%ldYk whs;sh
.Klh
wdjrKh
uOH ieliq tallh
fla; |skakka
ksKdhlh
ks; ;;a;ajh
o;a;
o;a; m%jdy rEigyk
o;a; fmd;s
oYu
ksjpk
ksLKavkSlrKh
ugu
mrdh;a;h
ie,iq ksudKh
.;sl ix.%dyl kHdi kshudj,s
wkq.%dyl
wxls;
wlajgk
wxls; mm:h
wxls; w;aik
Rcq
frlagh
wjdis
ksrdjrKh
;eh
m%jdylh
lD;sh
>gk
wxYh" Ndckh
Ih m:h
Ih kdu fiajd wkq.%dyl
fydfrka ijka oSu
oHq;a hdka;%
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Digital
Dialup
Digital Circuit
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Directory
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Disclosure
Disk
Dispatcher
Distortion
Distributive
Division
Domain
Domain Name Service Server
Eaves dropping
Electro Mechanical
Electronic
Elements
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Entities
Error Checking
Espionage
Evolution
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Fiber Optics
Field
File
Firewalls
Firmware
92
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Flash Memory
Floating Point
Flow Charts
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Folder
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Fragmentation
Frames
Frame Synchronization
Gateway
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Hand Traces
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Instruction Set
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Internet
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Kansei Systems
Kernel
Key Constraints
Keyword
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Laws
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Libraries
Lists
Logic
Logic Gates
Logical Link
Logical Link Control Layer
Magnetic
Mail Servers
Malware
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Media access control
Memory
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MICR
Micro
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Microwave
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Motherboard
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Non Volatile Memory
Normalization
Number System
Numeric Data
Object Oriented
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OCR
Octal
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OMR
Open Source Software
Operating System
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Pits
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Portals
Postulate
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Presentation
Problem
Procedures
Process
Process State
Processes
Process Scheduling
Process Scheduler
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Receiver
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Redundancy
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Source file
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System Development
System Flow Diagram
Tables
Tag
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Techniques
Technology
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Terminated State
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Topologies
Transistor
Translate
Translators
Transmitter
Transmission Mode
Truth Table
Turnaround
Tuples
Twisted Pair
Two state logic
Type
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User
User Authentication
Variables
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Video Conferencing
Virtual Memory
Volatile Memory
Waiting State
Waiting Time
Web Browsers
Web Servers
Word length
World Wide Web
Zombies
98