Frank Wilczek

The Origin of Mass

veryday work at the frontiers of modern physics usually involves complex concepts and extreme conditions. We speak of quantum elds, entanglement, or supersymmetry, and analyze the ridiculously small or conceptualize the incomprehensibly large. Just as Willie Sutton famously explained that he robbed banks because thats where the money is, so we do these things because thats where the Unknown is. It is an amazing and delightful fact, however, that occasionally this sophisticated work gives answers to childlike questions about familiar things. Here Id like to describe how myown work on subnuclear forces, the world of quarks and gluons, casts brilliant new light on one such child-like question: What is the origin of mass?

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Has Mass an Origin?

That a question makes grammatical sense does not guarantee that it is answerable, or even coherent. The concept of mass is one of the rst things we discuss in my freshman mechanics class. Classical mechanics is, literally, unthinkable without it. Newtons second law of motion says that the acceleration of a body is given by dividing the force acting upon it by its mass. So a bodywithout mass wouldnt know how to move, because youd be dividing by zero. Also, in Newtons law of gravity, the mass of an object governs the strength of the force it exerts. One cannot build up an object that gravitates, out of material that does not, so you cant get rid of mass without getting rid of gravity. Finally, the most basic feature of mass in classical mechanics is that it is conserved. For example, when you bring together two bodies, the total mass is just the sum of the individual masses. This assumption is so deeply ingrained that it was not even explicitly formulated as a law. (Though I teach it as Newtons Zeroth Law.) Altogether, in the Newtonian framework it is difcult to imagine what would constitute an origin of mass, or even what this phrase could possibly mean. In that framework mass just is what it isa primary concept. Later developments in physics make the concept of mass seem less irreducible. Einsteins famous equation E=mc 2 of special relativity theory, written in that way, betrays the prejudice that we should express energy in terms of mass. But we can write the same equation in the alternative form m=E/c 2. When expressed in this form, it suggests the possibility of explaining mass in terms of energy. Einstein was aware of this possibility from the beginning. Indeed, his original 1905 paper is entitled, Does the Inertia of a Body Depend on Its Energy Content? and it derives m=E/c 2, not E=mc 2. Einstein was thinking about fundamental physics, not bombs.

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QED and QCD in Pictures

(FIGURES 1A, 1B, 1C, AND 1D)

m=E/c comes to life. ) ForAt moderninparticle accelerators,Positron collider (LEP), example, the Large Electron
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The physical content of quantum electrodynamics (QED) is summarized in the algorithm that associates a probability amplitude with each of its Feynman graphs, depicting a

1a

1b

possible process in space-time.The Feynman graphs are constructed by linking together hubs, more conventionally called interaction vertices, of the form shown in 1a.The solid line depicts the world-line of an electrically charged particle, and the squiggly line straddles the world-line of a photon. By connecting hubs together we can describe physical processes such as the interaction between electrons, as shown in 1b. Quantum chromodynamics (QCD) can be summarized similarly, but with a more elaborate set of ingredients and hubs. There are three kinds of charges, called colors. Quarks resemble electrons in their mechanical properties (technically, they are spin-12 fermions), but their interactions are quite different, because they carry a unit of color charge. Quarks come in several avors u, d, s, c, b, and t so we have u u u d d d and so forth. Only u and d, which have very small masses, are important in ordinary matter.The others are heavy and unstable. Gluons resemble photons in their mechanical properties (technically, they are massless spin-1 bosons), but their interactions are quite different.There are eight different types of color gluons, which respond to and change the color charges of quarks they interact with. A typical hub for a quark-gluon interaction is shown in 1c, along with a hub for gluon-gluon interaction.The latter has no analog in QED, because the photon carries no electric charge. Asymptotic freedom, and all the drastic differences between how particles with and without color charges are observed to behave, ultimately arise from these new gluon-gluon interactions. In principle we can try to use Feynman diagrams to calculate the quark-quark interaction, as shown in 1d. But unlike in QED, in QCD contributions from graphs containing many hubs are not small, and this method is impractical.

at the CERN laboratory near Geneva, beams of electrons and antielectrons (positrons) were accelerated to enormous energies. Powerful, specially designed magnets controlled the paths of the particles, and caused them to circulate in opposite directions around a big storage ring. The paths of these beams intersected at a few interaction regions, where collisions could occur. [After more than a decade of fruitful operation, in which MIT scientists played a leading role, the LEP machine was dismantled in 2000. It is making way for the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which will use the same tunnel. LHC will collide protons instead of electrons, and will operate at much higher energy. Hence the past tense.] When a collision between a high-energy electron and a high-energy positron occurs, we often observe that many particles emerge from the event. [See Figures 2a and 2b on page 29.] The total mass of these particles can be thousands of times the mass of the original electron and positron. Thus mass has been created, physically, from energy.
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What Matters for Matter

Having convinced ourselves that the question of the origin of mass might make sense, let us now come to grips with it, in the very concrete form that it takes for ordinary matter. Ordinary matter is made from atoms. The mass of atoms is overwhelmingly concentrated in their nuclei. The surrounding electrons are of course crucial for discussing how atoms interact with each otherand thus for chemistry, biology, and electronics. But they provide less than a part in a thousand of the mass! Nuclei, which provide the lions share of mass, are assembled from protons and neutrons. All this is a familiar, well-established story, dating back seventy years or more. Newer and perhaps less familiar, but by now no less well-established, is the next step: protons and neutrons are made from quarks and gluons. So most of the mass of matter can be traced, ultimately, back to quarks and gluons.

QCD: What It Is
The theoryof quarks and gluons is called quantum chromodynamics, or QCD. QCD is a generalization of quantum electrodynamics (QED). For a nice description of quantum electrodynamics, written by an MIT grad who made good, I highly recommend QED: The Strange Theory of Electrons and Light, byRichard Feynman. The basic concept of QED is the response of photons to electric charge. Figure 1a shows a space-time picture of this core process. Figure 1b shows how it can be used to describe the effect of one electric charge on another, through exchange of a virtual photon. [A virtual photon is simply one that gets emitted and absorbed without ever having a signicant life of its own. So it is not a particle you can observe directly, but it can have effects on things you do observe.] In other words, Figure 1b describes electric and magnetic forces! Pictures like these, called Feynman diagrams, may look like childish scribbles, but their nave appearance is misleading. Feynman diagrams are associated with denite mathematical rules that specify how likely it is for the process they depict to occur. The rules for complicated processes, perhaps involving many real and virtual charged particles and many real and virtual photons, are built up in a completely specic and denite way from the core process. It is like making constructions with TinkerToys. The particles are different kind of sticks you can use, and the core process provides the hubs that join them. Given these elements, the rules for construction are completely determined. In this way all the content of Maxwells equations for radio waves and light, Schrdingers equation for atoms and chemistry, and Diracs more rened version including spinall this, and more, is faithfully encoded in the squiggle [Figure 1a]. At this most primitive level QCD is a lot like QED, but bigger. The diagrams look similar, and the rules for evaluating them are similar, but there are more kinds of sticks and hubs. More precisely, while there is just one kind of charge in QEDnamely, electric chargeQCD has three different kinds of charge. They are called colors, for no good reason. We could label them red, white, and blue;

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or alternatively, if we want to make drawing easier, and to avoid the colors of the French ag, we can use red, green, and blue. Every quark has one unit of one of the color charges. In addition, quarks come in different avors.The onlyones that play a role in ordinary matter are two avors called u and d, for up and down. [Of course, quark avors have nothing to do with how anything tastes. And, these names for u and d dont imply that theres any real connection between avors and directions. Dont blame me; when I get the chance, I give particles dignied scientic-sounding names like axion and anyon.] There are u quarks with a unit of red charge, d quarks with a unit of green charge, and so forth, for six different possibilities altogether. And instead of one photon that responds to electric charge, QCD has eight color gluons that can either respond to different color charges or change one into another. So there is quite a large varietyof sticks, and there are also many different kinds of hubs that connect them. It seems like things could get terribly complicated and messy. And so theywould, were it not for the overwhelming symmetryof the theory. If you interchange red with blue everywhere, for example, you must still get the same rules. The more complete symmetry allows you to mix the colors continuously, forming blends, and the rules must come out the same for blends as for pure colors. I wont be able to do justice to the mathematics here, of course. But the nal result is noteworthy, and easy to convey: there is one and only one way to assign rules to all the possible hubs so that the theory comes out fully symmetric. Intricate it may be, but messy it is not! With these understandings, QCD is faithfully encoded in squiggles like Figure 1c, and the force between quarks emerges from squiggles like Figure 1d. We have denite rules to predict how quarks and gluons behave and interact. The calculations involved in describing specic processes, like the organization of quarks and gluons into protons, can be very difcult to carry through, but there is no ambiguity about the outcome. The theory is either right or wrongtheres nowhere to hide.

How We Know Its Right

Experiment is the ultimate arbiter of scientic truth. There are many experiments that test the basic principles of QCD. Most of them require rather sophisticated analysis, basically because we dont get to see the underlying simple stuff, the individual quarks and gluons, directly. But there is one kind of experiment that comes very close to doing this, and that is what Id like to explain to you now. Ill be discussing what was observed at LEP. But before entering into details, Id like to review a fundamental point about quantum mechanics, which is necessary background for making any sense at all of what happens. According to the principles of quantum mechanics, the result of an individual collision is unpredictable. We can, and do, control the energies and spins of the electrons and positrons precisely, so that precisely the same kind of collision occurs repeatedly; nevertheless, different results emerge. By making many repetitions, we can determine the probabilities for different outcomes. These probabilities encode basic information about the underlying fundamental interactions; according to quantum mechanics, they contain all the meaningful information.

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When we examine the results of collisions at LEP, we nd there are two broad classes of outcomes. Each happens about half the time. In one class, the nal state consists of a particle and its antiparticle moving rapidly in opposite directions. These could be an electron and an antielectron (e e+), a muon and an antimuon ( +), or a tau and an antitau ( +). The little superscripts denote signs of their electric charges, which are all of the same absolute magnitude. These particles, collectively called leptons, are all closely similar in their properties. Leptons do not carry color charges, so their main interactions are with photons, and thus their behavior should be governed by the rules of QED. This is reected, rst of all, in the simplicityof their nal states. Once produced, any of these particles couldin the language of Feynman diagramsattach a photon using a QED hub, or alternatively, in physical terms, radiate a photon. The basic coupling of photons to a unit charge is fairly weak, however. Therefore each attachment is predicted to decrease the probability of the process being described, and so the most usual case is no attachment. In fact, the nal state e e+ , including a photon, does occur, with about 1% of the rate of simply e e+ (and similarly for the other leptons). By studying the
2a
Courtesy L3 at CERN

Figures 2a and 2b:

Real Jets These are pictures of the results of electron-positron collisions at LEP, taken by the L3 collaboration led by Professors Ting, Becker,and Fisher.The alignment of energetic particles in jets is visible to the naked eye.

Figures 2c and 2d:

Conceptual Jets These diagrams represent our conceptual model of the deep structure beneath jet production as it is observed.Electrons and positrons annihilate into pure energy (a virtual photon,actually),which materializes into a quark-antiquark pair. The quark and antiquark usually dress themselves with soft radiation,as described in the text,and we observe a two-jet event. About 10% of the time,however,a hard gluon is radiated.Then quark,antiquark, and gluon all dress themselves with soft radiation,and we see three jets.Figures 2c and 2d have been drawn to parallel the geometry of the observations shown in Figures 2a and 2b.(N.B. To keep things simple,I have not tried to maintain the full color scheme from Figure 1.)

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Courtesy L3 at CERN

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details of these 3-particle events, such as the probability for the photon to be emitted in different directions (the antenna pattern) and with different energy, we can check all aspects of our hypothesis for the underlying hub. This provides a wonderfully direct and incisive way to check the soundness of the basic conceptual building block from which we construct QED. We can then go on to address the extremely rare cases (.01%) where two photons get radiated, and so forth. For future reference, lets call this rst class of outcomes QED events. The other broad class of outcomes contains an entirely different class of particles, and is in manyways far more complicated. In these events the nal state typically contains ten or more particles, selected from a menu of pions, rho mesons, protons and antiprotons, and many more. These are all particles that in other circumstances interact stronglywith one another, and Its such a mess that they are all constructed from quarks and gluons. Here, they make a smorgasbord of Greek and Latin alphabet soup. Its such a mess physicists have pretty much that physicists have pretty much given up on trying to describe all the possibilities and their probabilities in detail. given up on trying to describe Fortunately, however, some simple patterns emerge if we change our focus from the individual particles to the overall ow of energy all the possibilities and their and momentum. Most of the timein about 90%of the casesthe particles emerge probabilities in detail. all moving in either one of two possible directions, opposite to one another. We say there are back-to-back jets. (Here, for once, the scientic jargon is both vivid and appropriate.) About 9% of the time, we nd ows in three directions; about .9% of the time, four directions; and by then were left with a very small remainder of complicated events that are hard to analyze this way. Ill call the second broad class of outcomes QCD events. Representative 2-jet and 3-jet QCD events, as they are actuallyobserved, are displayed in Figure 2. Now if you squint a little, you will nd that the QED events and the QCD events begin to look quite similar. Indeed, the pattern of energy ow is qualitatively the same in both cases, that is, heavily concentrated in a few narrow jets. There are two main differences. One, relatively trivial, is that multiple jets are more common in QCD than in QED. The other is much more profound. It is that, of course, in the QED events the jets are just single particles, while in the QCD events the jets are sprays of several particles. In 1973, while I was a graduate student working with David Gross at Princeton, I discovered the explanation of these phenomena. We took the attitude that the deep similarities between the observed basic behaviors of leptons (based on QED) and the strongly interacting particles might indicate that the strongly interacting particles are also ultimately described by a simple, rule-based theory, with sticks and hubs. In other words, we squinted. To bring our simplied picture of the QCD events into harmonywith the observations, we relied on a theoretical discovery Ill describe momentarily, which we christened asymptotic freedom. (Please notice that our term is not cute.) Actually, our discovery of asymptotic freedom preceded these specic experiments, so

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we were able to predict the results of these experiments before theywere performed. As a historical matter, we discovered QCD and asymptotic freedom by trying to come to terms with the MIT-SLAC scaling experiments done at the Stanford Linear Collider in the late 1960s, for which Jerome Friedman, Henry Kendall, and Richard Taylor won the Nobel Prize in 1990. Since our analysis of the scaling experiments using QCD was (necessarily) more complicated and indirect, Ive chosen to focus here on the later, but simpler to understand, experiments involving jets. The basic concept of asymptotic freedom is that the probability for a fastmoving quark or gluon to radiate away some of its energy in the form of other quarks and gluons depends on whether this radiation is hardor soft. Hard radiation is radiation that involves a substantial deection of the particle doing the radiating, while soft radiation is radiation that does not cause such a deection. Thus hard radiation changes the ow of energy and momentum, while soft radiation merely distributes it among additional particles, all moving together. Asymptotic freedom says that hard radiation is rare, but soft radiation is common. This distinction explains why on the one hand there are jets, and on the other hand why the jets are not single particles. A QCD event begins as the materialization of quark and antiquark, similar to how a QED event begins as the materialization of lepton-antilepton. They usually give us two jets, aligned along the original directions of the quark and antiquark, because only hard radiation can change the overall ow of energy and momentum signicantly, and asymptotic freedom tells us hard radiation is rare. When a hard radiation does occur, we have an extra jet! But Just as for QED, such antenna we dont see the original quarks or antiquarks, individually, because they are always accompanied by their soft radiation, patterns provide a wonderfully which is common. By studying the antenna patterns of the multi-jet QCD direct and incisive way to check events we can check all aspects of our hypotheses for the underlying hubs. Just as for QED, such antenna patterns provide the soundness of the basic a wonderfully direct and incisive way to check the soundness of the basic conceptual building blocks from which we conceptual building blocks from construct QCD. Through analysis of this and many other applications, which we construct QCD. physicists have acquired complete condence in the fundamental correctness of QCD. By now experimenters use it routinely to design experiments searching for new phenomena, and they refer to what theyre doing as calculating backgrounds rather than testing QCD! Many challenges remain, however, to make full use of the theory. The difculty is always with the soft radiation. Such radiation is emitted very easily, and that makes it difcult to keep track of. You get a vast number of Feynman graphs, each with many attachments, and they get more and more difcult to enumerate, let alone calculate. Thats very unfortunate, because when we try to assemble a proton from quarks and gluons none of them can be moving veryfast for verylong (theyre supposed to be inside the proton, after all), so all their interactions involve soft radiation.

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Its from Bits (FIGURE 3)

This plot, taken from the CP-PACS collaboration, shows a comparison between the predictions of QCD and the masses of particles.The green level lines indicate observed values of particle masses, while the circles within intervals indicate

To meet this challenge, a different strategy is ) required. Instead of calculatingradically of quarks and gluons the paths through space and time, using Feynman graphs, we let each segment of space-time keep track of how manyquarks and gluons it contains. We then treat these segments as an assembly of interacting subsystems. Actually in this context wemeans a collection of hard-working CPUs. Skillfullyorchestrated, and working full time at teraop speeds, they manage to produce quite a good account of the masses of protons and other strongly interacting particles, as you can see from Figure 3. The equations of QCD, which we discovered and proved from very different considerations, survive this extremely intense usage quite well. Theres a big worldwide effort, at the frontiers of computer technology and human ingenuity, to do calculations like this more accurately, and to calculate more things.
Center for Computational Physics, University of Tsukuba

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CP-PACS (1998) GF11 (1993) experiment

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The Ingredients of QCD, Lite and Full-Bodied

With the answer in hand, lets examine what weve got. For our purposes its instructive to compare two versions of QCD, an idealized computational results and their statistical uncertainties.The K meson is the left-most entry, while the proton and neutron are version I call QCD Lite, and the realistic Full-Bodied version. N.The calculations employ cutting-edge computer technology QCD Lite is cooked up from massless gluons, massless u and with massive parallelism, and even then some approximations d quarks, and nothing else. (Now you can fully appreciate the must be introduced to make the computations feasible.These results are a remarkable embodiment of the vision that wit of the name.) If we use this idealization as the basis for our elements of reality can be reproduced by purely conceptual calculation, we get the proton mass low by about 10%. constructionsIts from Bitsbecause the underlying theory, Full-Bodied QCD differs from QCD Lite in two ways. First, based on profoundly symmetrical equations, contains very few it contains four additional avors of quarks. These do not adjustable parameters. appear directly in the proton, but they do have some effect as virtual particles. Second, it allows for non-zero masses of the u and d quarks. The realistic value of these masses, though, turns out to be small, just a few percent of the proton mass. Each of these corrections changes the predicted mass of the proton by about 5%, as we pass from QCD Lite to Full-Bodied QCD. So we nd that 90% of the proton (and neutron) mass, and therefore 90% of the mass of ordinary matter, emerges from an idealized theory whose ingredients are entirely massless.

The Origin of (most) Mass

Now Ive shown you the theory that describes quarks and gluons, and therefore has to account for most of the mass of matter. Ive described some of the experiments

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that conrm the theory. And Ive displayed successful calculations of hadron masses, including the masses of protons and neutrons, using this theory. In a sense, these calculations settle the question. They tell us the origin of (most) mass. But simply having a computer spit out the answer, after gigantic and totallyopaque calculations, does not satisfyour hunger for understanding. It is particularly unsatisfactory in the present case, because the answer appears to be miraculous. The computers construct for us massive particles using building blocksquarks and gluonsthat are themselves massless. The equations of QCD Lite output Mass without Mass, which sounds suspiciously like Something for Nothing. How did it happen? The key, again, is asymptotic freedom. Previously, I discussed this phenomenon in terms of hard and soft radiation. Hard radiation is rare, soft radiation is common. Theres another way of looking at it, mathematically equivalent, that is useful here. From the classical equations of QCD, one would expect a force eld between quarks that falls off as the square of the distance, as in ordinary electromagnetism (Coulombs law). Its enhanced coupling to soft radiation, however, means that when quantum mechanics is taken into account a bare color charge, inserted into empty space, will start to surround itself with a cloud of virtual color gluons. These color gluons elds themselves carry color charge, so they are sources of additional soft radiation. The result is a self-catalyzing enhancement that leads to runaway growth. A small color charge, in isolation, builds up a big color thundercloud. All this structure costs energy, and theoreticallythe energy But simply having a computer for a quark in isolation is innite. Thats whywe never see individual quarks. Having only a nite amount of energy spit out the answer, after to work with, Nature always nds a way to short-circuit the ultimate thundercloud. gigantic and totally opaque One way is to bring in an antiquark. If the antiquark could be placed right on top of the quark, their color calculations, does not satisfy charges would exactly cancel, and the thundercloud would never get started. Theres also another more subtle way to our hunger for understanding. cancel the color charge by bringing together three quarks, one of each color. In practice these exact cancellations cant quite happen, however, because theres a competing effect. Quarks obey the rules of quantum mechanics. It is wrong to think of them simply as tiny particles, rather they are quantum-mechanical wavicles. They are subject, in particular, to Heisenbergs uncertainty principle, which implies that if you try to pin down their position too precisely, their momentum will be wildly uncertain. To support the possibility of large momentum, they must acquire large energy. In other words, it takes work to pin quarks down. Wavicles want to spread out. So theres a competition between two effects. To cancel the color charge completely, wed like to put the quark and antiquark at precisely the same place; but they resist localization, so its costly to do that.

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This competition can result in a number of compromise solutions, where the quark and antiquark (or three quarks) are brought close together, but are not perfectly coincident. Their distribution is described by quantum mechanical wave functions. Many different stable wave-patterns are possible, and each corresponds to a different kind of particle that you can observe. There are patterns for protons, neutrons, and for each entry in the whole Greek and Latin smorgasbord. Each pattern has some characteristic energy, because the color elds are not entirely cancelled particles and because the wavicles are somewhat localized. And that, through m=E/c 2, is the origin of mass. A similar mechanism, though much simpler, works in atoms. Negatively charged electrons feel an attractive electric force from the positively charged nucleus, and from that point of view theyd like to snuggle right on top of it. Electrons are wavicles, though, and that inhibits them. The result, again, is a series of possible compromise soluThe wave patterns that describe tions. These are what we observe as the energy levels of the atom. When I give the talk on which this article is based, at protons, neutrons, and their this point I use Dean Daugers marvelous Atom in a Box program to show the lovely, almost sensuous patterns of relatives resemble the vibration undulating waves that describe the possible states of that simplest of atoms, hydrogen. I hope you will explore Atom patterns of musical instruments. in a Boxfor yourself. You can link to it at http://www.dauger.com. In its absence, I will substitute a classic metaphor. The wave patterns that describe protons, neutrons, and their relatives resemble the vibration patterns of musical instruments. In fact the mathematical equations that govern these supercially very different realms are quite similar. Musical analogies go back to the prehistory of science. Pythagoras, partly inspired by his discovery that harmonious notes are sounded by strings whose lengths are in simple numerical ratios, proposed that All things are Number. Kepler spoke of the music of the spheres, and his longing to nd their hidden harmonies sustained him through years of tedious calculations and failed guesses before he identied the true patterns of planetary motions. Einstein, when he learned of Bohrs atomic model, called it the highest form of musicality in the sphere of thought. Yet Bohrs model, wonderful as it is, appears to us now as a very watered-down version of the true wave-mechanical atom; and the wave-mechanical proton is more intricate and symmetric by far! I hope that some artist/nerd will rise to the challenge, and construct a Proton in a Box for us to play with and admire.

The World as Concept, Algorithm, and Number

I will conclude with a few words concerning the broader signicance of these developments for our picture of the world. A major goal of theoretical physics is to describe the world with the greatest possible economy of concepts. For that reason alone, it is an important result that we can largely eliminate mass as an independent property that we are forced to

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introduce in order to describe matter accurately. But there Eliminating mass enables us is more. The equations that describe the behavior of elementary particles become fundamentally simpler and more to bring more symmetry into symmetric when the mass of the particles is zero. So eliminating mass enables us to bring more symmetry into the maththe mathematical description ematical description of Nature. The understanding of the origin of mass that Ive sketched of Nature. for you here is the most perfect realization we have of Pythagoras inspiring vision that the world can be built up from concepts, algorithms, and numbers. Mass, a seemingly irreducible property of matter, and a byword for its resistance to change and sluggishness, turns out to reect a harmonious interplayof symmetry, uncertainty, and energy. Using these concepts, and the algorithms they suggest, pure computation outputs the numerical values of the masses of particles we observe. Still, as Ive already mentioned, our understanding of the origin of mass is by no means complete. We have achieved a beautiful and profound understanding of the origin of most of the mass of ordinary matter, but not of all of it. The value of the electron mass, in particular, remains deeplymysterious even in our most advanced speculations about unication and string theory. And ordinary matter, we have recently learned, supplies only a small fraction of mass in the Universe as a whole. More beautiful and profound revelations surely await discovery. We continue to search for concepts and theories that will allow us to understand the origin of mass in all its forms, by unveiling more of Natures hidden symmetries.

frank wilczek is considered one of the worlds most eminent theoretical physicists. He is known, among other things, for the discovery of asymptotic freedom, the development of quantum chromodynamics, the invention of axions, and the discovery and exploitation of new forms of quantum statistics (anyons). When only 21 years old and a graduate student at Princeton University, in work with David Gross he dened the properties of color gluons, which hold atomic nuclei together. Presently his main obsessions are exotic superuidities on the one hand and dark energy on the other. He suspects the two are connected. Professor Wilczek received his B.S. degree from the University of Chicago and his Ph.D. from Princeton University. He taught at Princeton from 1974 to 1981. During the period 1981 to 1988, he was the Chancellor Robert Huttenback Professor of Physics at the University of California at Santa Barbara, and the rst permanent member of the National Science Foundations Institute for Theoretical Physics. In the fall of 2000, he moved from the Institute for Advanced Study, where he was the J.R. Oppenheimer Professor, to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he is the Herman Feshbach Professor of Physics. He has been a Sloan Foundation Fellow (197577) and a MacArthur Foundation Fellow (198287). He has received UNESCOs Dirac Medal, the American Physical Societys Sakurai Prize, the Michelson Prize from Case Western University, and the Lorentz Medal of the Netherlands Academy for his contributions to the development of theoretical physics, and the Lilienfeld Prize for his writing. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the Netherlands Academy of Sciences, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He is a Trustee of the University of Chicago, and an ofcial advisor to CERN and to Daedalus. He contributes regularly to Physics Today and to Nature, explaining topics at the frontiers of physics to wider scientic audiences.

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