Counterpoints Unit1

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario.
All rights reserved. This publication (work) is protected by copyright. You are
authorized to print one copy of this publication (work) for your personal, non-commercial
use only. See Terms of Use for more information.
Permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction,
storage in a retrieval system, use on an interactive whiteboard or transmission in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise.
Contact the Permissions Department for more information.
Except as allowed in the preceding paragraphs, you may not modify, copy, distribute,
republish, commercially exploit, or update this publication (work) or any other material
on this web site without the prior consent of Pearson Canada. No intellectual property or
other rights in and to this publication (work) are transferred to you.
00b_Un01_opener_CP11_2e_se_F:Layout 1 4/14/10 1:23 PM Page 2
UNIT CHAPTER 1
In the early 1900s, Canada was seen
1
at home and abroad as a British
colony. Several groups, including
women, immigrants, and Aboriginal
peoples, were struggling for equality.
Canada in
A
Transition:
AD
A Nation
Emerges N
NORTH
AN
CHAPTER 2
The First World War provided AMERICA
During the first half of the new opportunities for women
and Aboriginal peoples, who
20th century, many events, had previously been discour-
aged from participating in
trends, and themes shaped military conflicts.
C ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Canada and its diverse PACIFIC
OCEAN
population. International
N
recognition, domestic
changes, acts of intolerance,
SO
and economic hardships SOUTH

forced many Canadians to ask AMERICA
hard questions about who
AR
they were and what they

CHAPTER 3
valued. The tragedy and Canadians celebrated the end of the First World
War by adopting new music and fashions. During
triumph of two world wars the “Roaring Twenties,” women fought for social
and legal equality, labour unrest gave rise to the
PE
saw Canada come of age as formation of unions, and Canada strengthened its
status as an autonomous nation.
an independent nation, but
still a proud and valued
CHAPTER 4
member of the British
The Great Depression was a decade of
Commonwealth. hardship and despair that highlighted
weaknesses in the Canadian and global
economy. As people struggled to
survive, tensions divided the country,
notedly between immigrants and non-
immigrants, men and women, and
Western and Central Canada.
2
©P
00b_Un01_opener_CP11_2e_se_F:Layout 1 4/14/10 1:23 PM Page 3
CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 5
The First World War had The atrocities of the
a profound impact on Second World War were
Canada. On the battlefield, used in recruitment posters
Canadian troops fought well to appeal to Canadian
as a united force and began nationalism. As the war
to see themselves less as continued, Canadians
British Empire colonials and became less tolerant of
more as citizens of an immigrants, in particular
independent country. enemy aliens. Japanese
Canadians were one of the
groups targeted and were
sent to internment camps
A
where many families were
separated.
AD
EUROPE
AN
ASIA
C PACIFIC
OCEAN
AFRICA
N
SO
INDIAN
OCEAN
AR
AUSTRALIA
0 1000 2000 km
PE
British Empire
(including
CHAPTER 5 protectorates)
French
The global economic crisis of the
1930s gave rise to totalitarian Dutch
dictators who promised a better Italian
life for their citizens. Adolf Hitler’s
imperialistic aggressions led to the Spanish
Second World War, in which Belgian
Canadian troops fought for the first
Turkish
time as an independent nation.
Portuguese
German
Danish
▼
The Colonial Empires of Western Europe by 1910
3
©P
01_Ch01_CP11_2e_se_F.qxd:Layout 1 4/13/10 1:17 PM Page 4
1
GUIDING QUESTIONS
A Different Canada
Society & Identity
● How did women influence
A
Canadian society in the early
1900s?
AD
● Why were the attitudes of
English- and French-speaking
Canadians different regarding
Britain?
● What attitudes did many
AN
Canadians have toward
minorities?
● What steps did the government

take to control immigration to
Canada? C
● What challenges did Aboriginal
peoples face in the early 1900s?
Economy & Human Geography

N
● How did technology impact
Canada’s economy during this
period?
SO
● What impact did industrial

development have on the natural
environment?
Autonomy & World Presence

AR
● What was Canada’s relationship

to Britain at the turn of the
century?
PE
TIMELINE
1896 1899 1903 1905 1906

Wilfrid Laurier becomes Canadian volunteers Alaska boundary Alberta and B.C. First Nations
prime minister of Canada fight in the Boer War in dispute settled Saskatchewan leaders take their
Klondike gold rush begins South Africa between the become land claim to King
United States provinces Edward VII of
and Canada England
4 Unit 1 ■ Canada in Transition: A Nation Emerges

©P
CHAPTER FOCUS QUESTION Significance Patterns and

Change
What defined Canada in the early 1900s, and what attitudes and
expectations did Canadians have for the century ahead? Judgements CRITICAL Evidence
INQUIRY
Cause and
Consequence Perspectives
On a cool October evening in 1904, a tall, dignified man stood

in front of a crowd in Toronto’s Massey Hall. He was Wilfrid
A
Laurier, Canada’s prime minister. Laurier stepped to the KEY TERMS
podium that night and presented a bold vision of Canada for prohibition
the new century: suffragist
AD
imperialists
nationalists
Let me tell you, my fellow countrymen, that the twenti- autonomy
eth century shall be the century of Canada and of head tax
Canadian development. For the next seventy-five years, Indian Act
AN
nay for the next one hundred years, Canada shall be the reserves
star towards which all men who love progress and free- residential schools
dom shall come. assimilation
–Wilfrid Laurier, Toronto Globe, October 15, 1904
C
What was Canada like at the beginning of the 20th cen-
tury when Laurier made his bold prediction? Manitoba,
Ontario, and Québec were much smaller than they are today.
N
Newfoundland was still a self-governing colony, and the
territory of Nunavut had not yet been created. The census of
1911 reveals that Canada’s population was only 7.2 million,
SO
less than a quarter of what it was by the end of the century.

People’s attitudes about good manners and behaviour in
general, the role of women, national identity, minorities, and
Aboriginal peoples were also different then. In this regard,
Canada fit the claim that “the past is like a foreign country;
AR
they do things differently there.” In our study of history, it is

important to try to see the world through the eyes of
Canadians at that time if we want to understand why they
took the actions that they did.
PE
1907 1908 1909 1911 1912 1914

Vancouver Anne of Green First airplane Laurier era RMS Titanic sinks Passengers on the
race riot Gables is flight in ends off coast of Komagata Maru are refused
occurs published Canada Robert Borden Newfoundland landing in Vancouver
elected prime First World War begins
minister
Chapter 1 ■ A Different Canada 5

©P
Society and Manners

Prime Minister By the early 20th century, most Canadians lived on farms or in small
Wilfrid Laurier villages, yet morals and manners of the day were set by a minority of
middle- and upper-class Anglophones. These people were greatly influenced
- born 1841, Saint-Lin, Canada East
(Québec) by the attitudes of Victorian England. This period—named after Queen
- lawyer Victoria, who was the British monarch from 1837 to 1901—was known for its
- first elected to Commons in 1874 appearance of moral strictness. Families were expected to attend church regu-
- prime minister 1896–1911;
larly; they supported Britain and the monarchy; and they believed in honour,
longest unbroken tenure as prime
minister; first prime minister of virtue, and duty. It was an age in which right and wrong, good and evil,
French ancestry seemed clear; they were not seen as issues that needed discussion or debate.
A
There was little tolerance for those who did not obey the law, and the
Domestic Record
application of the law could be quite harsh. At the time, the death penalty was
AD
• helped resolve the Manitoba
the sentence for murder. Most convictions, however, were for crimes against
Schools Question in 1896 by
allowing some Catholic and people’s property. Drunkenness was a close second.
French instruction in public
schools
• supported the construction of a Women of the Era
AN
second transcontinental railway
in 1903
In the early 1900s, the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, founded in
• oversaw Alberta and
the 1870s, was still actively campaigning for prohibition. These women saw
Saskatchewan joining alcohol as the cause of many of society’s problems. They also supported
Confederation in 1905 women’s right to vote. With the vote, women believed they could influence
• created the Royal Canadian Navy the government to address social problems of the day, such as child labour,
with the Naval Service Act in 1910
C
pollution, and poverty. Nellie McClung was a well-known suffragist who,
• opposed conscription during the together with other women, campaigned for women’s rights (see Chapter 3).
First World War (1914–1918)
Since moral codes of behaviour were strict and well-defined, the
N
International Record courtship of young, middle-class ladies was a formal affair under the watch-
• participated in colonial confer- ful eyes of their families and community. Once married, women had few
ences of 1897 and 1902, rejecting rights over property or children, and divorce was rare. Women were not con-
SO
England’s proposals to unify the sidered persons under the law—unless they committed a crime. Even a
British Empire
woman’s salary was legally the property of her husband. Women who worked
• sent a force of Canadian volun-
teers to fight in the Boer War outside the home, usually before marriage, were employed mainly as servants
(1899–1902) or factory workers. Some women were teachers and nurses; a few even
• fought for Canada’s claim during became doctors.
AR
the Alaska boundary dispute,

1903
● How did women influence

PE
Canadian society in the early FIGURE 1–1

1900s? Woman’s Christian
Temperance Union
convention in
Calgary, 1911
Thinking Critically
What class of women
do you think this
photograph repre-
sents? Why would
these women be
concerned about
society’s problems?

©P
Arts and Leisure KEY TERMS
Victorian of or pertaining to the reign

As Canada started to become more urbanized, its literature and art became
of Queen Victoria; also someone who
more sentimental, expressing a preference for rural life, simple values, and shares the values of that period
happy endings. In 1908, Lucy Maud Montgomery published the much-loved
prohibition the ban of alcohol
novel Anne of Green Gables, a rural romance set in Prince Edward Island.
Stephen Leacock gently mocked small-town Ontario life in his humorous suffragist a person who advocates
that women should have the right to
Sunshine Sketches of a Little Town (1912). Ernest Thompson Seton wrote vote
moving stories about animals. Pauline Johnson, daughter of a Mohawk chief
and his English wife, read poems about her Mohawk heritage to packed halls.
Ontario painter Homer Watson gained international recognition with his
A
farm scenes. In Québec, Ozias Leduc painted religious works and landscapes
filled with a sense of spirituality. In British Columbia, Emily Carr explored
AD
the landscapes and peoples of the West Coast through painting and writing.
For leisure, Canadians enjoyed outdoor activities, such as running,
cycling, and rowing. In the summer, trips to the beach were popular despite
confining “bathing costumes.” In the winter, tobogganing was a must.
AN
Still a British Nation ● What was Canada’s
relationship to Britain at the
At the beginning of the 20th century, some of Britain’s colonies, including turn of the century?
Canada, had their own governments but still depended on Britain to resolve
disputes with other countries. The British government often made decisions
that did not have Canada’s best interests in mind.
C
The Alaska Boundary Dispute
N
Dawson N.W.T.
The dispute was over the exact border of the Alaskan “pan-
handle,” a strip of land running down the Pacific Coast ALASKA
SO
between British Columbia and Alaska. Of particular concern

was the question of ownership of a fjord called the Lynn YUK ON
TER R ITOR Y
Canal. This waterway provided access to the Yukon, where
gold had been discovered in 1896. In a speech, Prime Minister
Laurier reflected on the relations between Canada and the
United States:
AR
Skagway
I have often regretted… that we are living beside a great PACIFIC Lynn BRITISH
neighbour who, I believe I can say without being deemed OCEAN Canal COLUMBIA
unfriendly to them, are very grasping in their national
PE
actions and who are determined on every occasion to get the 0 150 300 km
best in any agreement....

–Wilfrid Laurier, October 23, 1903 N
Canadian claim
U.S. claim
Boundary according
to award of Tribunal,
In 1903, the matter was finally settled. The British, weary 1903
from fighting the Boer War in South Africa and unwilling to
become involved in another international conflict, deter- FIGURE 1–2 The Alaska boundary dispute
mined that the Lynn Canal was part of Alaska, not B.C. Many Using Evidence From the map, explain how the
Canadians were angered by this decision, believing Britain Canadian claim would have allowed easier access to
had sold out Canada’s interests to keep peace with the U.S. Dawson.

©P
● Why were the attitudes of French-Canadian Nationalists

English- and French-speaking
Canadians different regarding
While unhappy with Britain’s decision regarding the Alaska boundary, most
Britain? English-speaking Canadians were proud to be British subjects, and they
shared Britain’s dreams of expanding the British Empire. These imperialists
had eagerly supported Britain in the Boer War in 1899.
KEY TERMS French-speaking Canadians, however, did not share this enthusiasm for
imperialists people who support the British Empire. They were the descendants of people who had settled
imperialism, the policy of one nation New France more than 200 years earlier, and they saw themselves as
acquiring, controlling, or dominating
another Canadiens rather than British subjects. French Canadians tended to be
nationalists, believing that Canada should have autonomy and be totally
A
Canadiens French descendants of the
original settlers of New France independent from Britain. For example, nationalist leader Henri Bourassa
resigned from Laurier’s Cabinet when Laurier agreed to send volunteers to
nationalists people who have a strong
AD
attachment to their culture or nation
fight with the British in South Africa during the Boer War. Bourassa’s stand
against Canada’s involvement in Britain’s wars became an even bigger issue
autonomy the power to govern oneself
and make one’s own decisions
during the First World War.
Language rights was another issue that divided French-speaking and
homesteaders newcomers who claimed English-speaking Canadians. After a bitter dispute, French Canadians first
and settled land
AN
lost the right to French-language instruction in Catholic schools in
ethnocentric the belief that one’s own Manitoba, then in Saskatchewan and Alberta. Henri Bourassa voiced the
culture is superior, and that other cultures
should be judged by its values concerns of many French Canadians when he suggested that Canadiens
might not have any reason to stay in Canada if their rights as a minority
head tax the fee that Chinese immigrants
were required to pay after 1885 in order
were not protected, as the people of Québec had believed they would be at
to enter Canada
C
the time of Confederation.
N
SO
FIGURE 1–3 This postage stamp

shows the extent of the British
AR
Empire in 1898.
Using Evidence The British Empire
was the biggest of the European
empires that controlled much of the
land and people of the world. What
does the expression “the sun never
PE
sets on the British Empire” mean?
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Perspectives Imagine you could go back to the 2. Describe the situation of women in Canada in the
Canada of 1914. What attitudes would you find years before the First World War.
most difficult to deal with? Why? What specific
3. Explain why some Canadians did not share enthu-
social values do you hold that would conflict with
siasm for Canada’s ties to Britain. Do you think
those commonly held in 1914?
their objections were justified? Explain.

©P
Canada’s Changing Population ● What attitudes did many

Canadians have toward
After becoming prime minister in 1896, Laurier realized that for Canada to minorities?
prosper, it needed more people, especially in the West. His government
● What steps did the
launched an advertising campaign to attract immigrants to Canada. It circu- government take to control
lated posters in the United States and northern and eastern Europe promot- immigration to Canada?
ing the Prairies as the “Last Best West” to distinguish it from the American
West, where land was becoming limited and more expensive. These efforts
resulted in a significant increase in immigration.
Entry into Canada was easy if you were reasonably
healthy and had funds to establish yourself. The federal
A
government offered immigrants willing to farm the Prairies
65 hectares of land for only $10. These homesteaders, as they
AD
were called, had three years to build a house and begin
cultivating the land. The loneliness and harsh conditions of
life on the Prairies prompted some to move to urban centres.
Not Everyone Is Welcomed
AN
Some Canadians did not welcome changes to Canada’s ethnic
composition. Many French-speaking Canadians were con-
cerned that the new immigrants would outnumber the
Francophone population. Most Canadians were ethnocentric,
C
believing their own race or group was superior, and therefore
FIGURE 1–4 Immigrants to Canada, 1894–1946
they disliked “outsiders.” As a result, many newcomers to
Canada experienced discrimination.
Eastern Europeans, particularly the Ukrainians and
N
Polish people who settled the Prairies, were targets of ethnic
prejudice. Their language and customs were unfamiliar to
SO
Canadians, who often ridiculed these people.

Many Chinese, Japanese, and South Asian immigrants
settled in British Columbia. They, too, suffered from discrim-
ination and racism. R.B. Bennett, a future prime minister,
reflected popular prejudice when he declared in 1907,
AR
“British Columbia must remain a white man’s country.” As

long as Asian immigrants did work that other Canadians
considered too unpleasant—such as hauling coal, packing
fish, and washing dishes—their cheap labour was generally
accepted. But when Canadian workers began to fear that
PE
Asian immigrants would compete against them for other

jobs, they joined in denouncing them.
The federal government tried to limit immigration from
Asia in 1885 by introducing the Chinese Immigration Act.
Under this Act, every Chinese immigrant to Canada had to
pay a head tax of $50 upon arrival. In 1907, an angry mob of
9000 people smashed windows and destroyed signs on stores FIGURE 1–5 Today many Canadian communities are
owned by Chinese and Japanese immigrants in Vancouver. multicultural, as shown on this street in Vancouver.
This race riot resulted in severe restrictions on Japanese Thinking Critically How does Canada benefit from its
ethnic diversity? In what ways is the immigrant expe-
immigration. A year later, there was a virtual ban on East rience different today?
Indian immigration.

©P
counter points
Is today’s government responsible for injustices of the past?
In the early 1980s, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau The Chinese

refused to apologize for past injustices committed by
As you read earlier, the federal government tried to dis-
Canadian governments. He claimed that we cannot
courage Chinese people from coming to Canada by
rewrite history; we can only try to be just in our time.
imposing a head tax in 1885. The tax was increased
A
Those calling for apologies say it is not about rewriting
from $50 to $100 in 1900, and to $500 in 1903. On
history. They feel acknowledging that the government
July 1, 1923, the federal government introduced the
AD
and its institutions took wrong turns in the past shows
Chinese Exclusion Act—an Act that tried to halt Chinese
that we are on the right road today.
immigration altogether. Chinese Canadians refer to this
Since 1988, federal and provincial governments
day as Humiliation Day. The Act was in place for more
have recognized and tried to compensate for past
than 20 years; it was repealed in 1947.
wrongs by issuing official apologies. In 1988, the
In 1984, the Chinese Canadian National Council
AN
Conservative government apologized to Japanese
(CCNC) began a campaign for an apology from the fed-
Canadians for their internment during the Second World
eral government. They also asked for a repayment of
War (see Chapter 5) and again in 1990 to Italian
$23 million, the amount collected from 81 000 Chinese
Canadians for similar reasons. Perhaps the most signifi-
immigrants who were forced to pay the tax.
cant event to date has been Prime Minister Stephen
In 1993, the Canadian government rejected the
Harper’s 2008 formal apology to Canada’s Aboriginal
peoples, acknowledging that “...the treatment of chil-
C redress claim stating that it was more important to erase
inequality in the future than to compensate people for
dren in Indian residential schools is a sad chapter in our
past mistakes. Dr. Alan Li, the then-president of the
history” (see Chapter 8). Supporters of this approach
N
CCNC, disagreed. He stated:
hope that such apologies offer closure to a hurtful past.
Opponents say that no matter how sincere an apology, it Returning the money is only basic justice. It is a
SO
cannot undo what has been done. strong statement of principle that a government
The following Canadian immigration case studies cannot, and should not, and must not, benefit
examine two apologies and corresponding responses. from racism.
–Alan Li, Speech, 1994
AR
PE
FIGURE 1–6 Immigration certificate for

Lee Don, 1918
Gathering Information How old was Lee
Don when he was admitted to Canada?
How much was the head tax he had to
pay? Where do you think he might have
obtained the money to pay the tax?

©P
01_Ch01_CP11_2e_se_F1.qxd:Layout 1 4/20/10 12:47 PM Page 11
CRITICAL
INQUIRY Judgements
In 1995, the CCNC approached the United Nations

Human Rights Commission to ask for their help with this
issue. In 2006, the Canadian government agreed to
address the claim and offered a parliamentary apology
A
for the head tax and exclusion of Chinese immigrants
from 1923 to 1947. The federal government promised
AD
financial redress of $20 000 to each of the surviving
head tax payers or their spouses.
For over six decades, these malicious measures,

aimed solely at the Chinese were implemented
with deliberation by the Canadian state. This
AN
was a grave injustice, and one we are morally
obligated to acknowledge.
–Prime Minister Stephen Harper, June 22, 2006
FIGURE 1–7 The Komagata Maru was docked for two months in
For Sid Chow Tan, national chairperson of the CCNC
Vancouver while the Canadian government decided the fate of its
and president of the Head Tax Families Society of
Canada, the apologies must not distract us from present-
C 340 passengers.
day problems. He stated: In May 2008, the British Columbia legislature

extended an apology for the Komagata Maru incident. A
N
The historical injustices of the Chinese Head Tax
few months later, at a Sikh festival in B.C., Prime
are being replicated today through Canada’s
Minister Harper also offered an apology for the incident.
exploitative guest-worker programs and restric-
SO
Sikh organizations have rejected the prime minister’s

tive immigration policies. The descendants of
apology, comparing it to the formal apology to Chinese
these policies will be demanding apologies in
future decades. We should deal with this present Canadians in 2006. The Sikh community requested a
reality and not just dwell on the past, especially formal apology in the House of Commons, which would
if a history that we are supposed to have learnt grant this issue the respect and dignity they feel it
deserves. The Conservative government has since said
AR
from is repeating itself.

–Sid Chow Tan there will be no further apology.
The Komagata Maru Analyzing the Issue

In 1908, the federal government passed the Continuous
PE
1. Compare the responses of Prime Minister Trudeau

Passage Act, a law requiring all immigrants to come to
to those of Prime Minister Harper. What might
Canada by a non-stop route. This effectively made
explain the differences in their opinions?
immigration from countries such as India impossible,
since there were not any steamship companies that 2. Official apologies for past wrongs have accelerated
offered direct routes to Canada. This law was challenged since 1988. Why do you think that has happened?
in 1914, when the passengers on the Komagata Maru, a Would you support treating all claims for redress for
steamer chartered to carry Sikh immigrants from Hong past wrongs equally? Why or why not?
Kong to Vancouver, were refused entry to Canada. 3. Organize a debate on the topic: Should we try to
right the wrongs of past generations?

©P
● What challenges did

Cultural Extinction?
Aboriginal peoples face
As thousands of immigrants settled into the western provinces, Aboriginal
in the early 1900s?
peoples found themselves more and more displaced. Their lives were
regulated by the Indian Act passed in 1876. By the 1880s, most Aboriginal
KEY TERMS peoples of the Prairies were living on reserves. The main purpose of reserves
Indian Act an Act created to regulate the
was to free up land for settlers and immigrants from Europe, and to avoid
lives of the First Nations of Canada the violent clashes that had taken place between Aboriginal peoples and
settlers in the United States.
reserves land set aside by the government
for the use of First Nations On the reserves, Aboriginal people were encouraged to take up farming
instead of traditional hunting. But their attempts to adapt to farming were
A
residential schools government-
authorized schools, run by the churches, hindered by several factors: the soil on the reserves was often unsuitable for
in which Aboriginal children lived apart crops. They traded their land for equipment and livestock, but were given
from their families and were educated in
AD
Canadian culture
hand tools and animals ill-suited for plowing. Even when Aboriginal farmers
managed to harvest crops, efforts to sell them were often hindered by gov-
assimilation adoption of the customs and
ernment agents who would deny them the passes they needed to leave the
language of another cultural group so
that the original culture disappears reserve and market their crops. As a result, many Aboriginal people experi-
enced hunger.
AN
Loss of land was not the only problem Aboriginal peoples faced. The
Canadian government established residential schools in an attempt to force
WEB LINK • Aboriginal children to set aside their identity and traditions and become
The last residential school closed in
1996. Find out more about Canada’s
part of the dominant culture. Children were taken from their communities
residential schools on the Pearson by Indian agents, police, or priests and sent to schools hundreds of kilome-
Web site.
C
tres away. The overcrowded dormitories, unsanitary conditions, and lack of
medical care caused tuberculosis and other diseases to
spread quickly. Many students were physically and sexu-
ally abused. They were punished for speaking their lan-
N
guage, forbidden to practise their culture, and denied
contact with their families.
SO
Residential schools, reserves, and enforced farming

were all part of the federal government’s policy of
assimilation, which was intended to make Aboriginal
peoples abandon their traditions and adopt a European
way of life. This policy had been in place since 1871, and
AR
by the early 1900s the populations of Aboriginal peoples

were declining. By 1913, an article in Maclean’s magazine
FIGURE 1–8 An Aboriginal man plowing land on a reserve
claimed that “the white man of Canada... is slowly,
Thinking Critically Aboriginal peoples traditionally survived
by hunting, trapping, and fishing. How would farming steadily and surely absorbing his red brother.” Aboriginal
change their traditional lifestyle? peoples did not agree. Their struggle to establish land
PE
claims and reclaim their culture was just beginning.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Despite their poor treatment in Canada, immi- 3. Describe the steps taken in British Columbia to
grants kept coming. Explain the factors that restrict Asian immigration.
attracted immigrants to Canada.
4. Describe the policies of the federal government
2. Why were many English- and French-Canadian that were designed to assimilate Canada’s
people upset by the changes to Canada’s ethnic Aboriginal peoples.
composition?

©P
up close Joe Capilano: Champion of Aboriginal

and personal Land Rights or Troublemaker?
Millions of immigrants came to Canada in the 20th B.C., speaking to First Nations peoples throughout
century. They were lured by the promise of freedom, the province. He told his audiences that the king
land, and a better quality of life. As new people came supported them in their dispute with the Canadian
to Canada, the original inhabitants of the country government. The effectiveness of his speeches was
were forced off their land. First Nations peoples in clear in The Victoria Daily Colonist headline on May 8,
British Columbia reacted by asserting their rights to 1907. It claimed, “Cowichan Indians in Restless
A
Aboriginal land and self-government. Squamish Chief Mood: Alleged That Tribal Discontent Is Aroused
Joe Capilano, a respected and talented speaker, Through Oratory of Joe Capilano.”
AD
played a major role in championing this cause. But Canadian authorities disputed the royal
On August 14, 1906, delegates led by Chief promise of King Edward because there was no written
Capilano met with King Edward VII at Buckingham record supporting the chief’s claim. This highlighted
Palace. They brought with them a petition expressing one of the key differences between European and
their dissatisfaction with the Canadian government Aboriginal cultures: Europeans relied on written
AN
and their claim to land. Although they could not pres- records while Aboriginals trusted verbal promises.
ent the petition directly to the king because of proto- The more active Capilano became in the cause,
col, they discussed these issues with him during the the more the Canadian government threatened him
audience. with prosecution and labelled him a troublemaker.
The delegates were enthusiastically received Until his death in 1910, Capilano continued his strug-
when they returned to Canada. Chief Capilano toured
C gle for Aboriginal rights. It was not until the latter half
of the 20th century that the Supreme Court of Canada
began to recognize Aboriginal rights.
N
1. Describe what the delegates might have hoped to
achieve in going directly to King Edward VII.
SO
2. Patterns and Change List the differences

between the activism of First Nations in the early
20th century and that of First Nations today. How
would you relate the early struggles to those of
today?
AR
3. During his journey to speak with the king, Chief

Capilano wore a blanket crafted to give spiritual
protection. In 2009, the Squamish Nation cele-
brated the historic return of the blanket to Salish
traditional territory at the Squamish Lil’wat
PE
Cultural Centre. Where should an important

artifact like Capilano’s blanket be kept?
What If…
Imagine that the king had convinced the Canadian
government to acknowledge the grievances pre-
FIGURE 1–9 Chief Joe Capilano sented in the petition. How might this have
Thinking Critically Why might this photograph have been changed the attitude of Canadians and the gov-
taken? Do you think this image shows the “real” Joe Capilano? ernment toward Canada’s Aboriginal peoples?
Why or why not?

©P
B u i l d i n g Yo u r S k i l l s
Analyzing Evidence: Primary and Secondary Sources
Throughout this textbook, you will be presented with photograph? How was the photograph to be used?
many points of view concerning issues in history, Sources of information must also be credible, that is,
government, and geography. You are not expected to they must be accurate and record the truth. One way
agree with these points of view, but to use them to to determine the accuracy of a source is to see
come to your own conclusions. The following guide- whether the information is supported by other
A
lines will help you in analyzing historical information. sources. The following sources offer information about
immigrants to Canada in the years before the First
Dealing with Evidence World War.
AD
There are two main categories of evidence: primary
and secondary. Primary sources are created at the Source 1
time of an event. Eyewitness accounts are the most Number of % of Total
Rank Nationality
obvious primary sources. These are often found in People Immigration
AN
diaries, government documents, photographs, 1 U.K. 150 542 37.4
newspaper articles, and political cartoons. Secondary
2 U.S. 139 009 34.5
sources are created after the event, often describing
3 Russian 18 623 4.6
or analyzing it. The perspective of time may provide a
more balanced analysis in these sources. C 4 Ukrainian 17 420 4.3
5 Italian 16 601 4.1
Understanding Bias 6 Polish 9945 2.5
When you interpret evidence, you cannot help but see 7 Chinese 7445 1.9
it through personal biases. Similarly, primary and sec-
N
8 Jewish 7387 1.8
ondary sources carry the authors’ personal views. 9 German 4938 1.2
Having a bias is not necessarily wrong. It is important,
10 Bulgarian 4616 1.1
SO
however, to be aware of biases when you analyze evi-

dence. These might include political, racial, religious, Other 25 903 6.4
ethnic, gender, or economic biases. Total 402 429 99.8

–Canada Year Book, 1914
Reliability and Credibility FIGURE 1–10 Immigrants to Canada in 1913
AR
When you read a document, it is important to deter-

mine how reliable it is as a source of information. Source 2
Ask yourself questions such as: A historian describes the attraction Canada had for farm-
• Who is the author? Was he or she close to the ers from Eastern Europe:
event? In the mountain trenches of Galicia... the furrows
PE
• Why might the author have recorded the event? of the strip farms ran to the very edges of houses.
• What were the author’s information sources? No wonder that... pamphlets (promoting Canada)
• What are the author’s biases or points of view? were so successful. Across the oceans lay a prom-
• What was the purpose of the document, and who ised land where 160 acres [65 hectares] of fertile
was the intended audience? soil could be had for the asking. Thus was initi-
ated a great emigration of Poles and Ukrainians
Photographs should also be examined closely
from Austria-Hungary.
when they are used as a historical piece of informa-
–Pierre Berton, The Promised Land
tion. The reader should ask: Who took the

©P
CRITICAL
INQUIRY Evidence
Source 3
A
AD
AN
FIGURE 1–11 Galicians at an immigration shed in Québec City
C
N
Source 4 Applying the Skill
Conditions in the slums as described by J.S.
Woodsworth, a minister and social activist, in a letter 1. Classify each of the sources as primary or second-
SO
to a Winnipeg newspaper in 1913: ary. Explain your choices.
Let me tell you of one little foreign girl. She 2. How reliable might the statistics in Source 1 be?
lives in a room.... Her father has no work.... What are some possible reasons for inaccuracies
The place is incredibly filthy. The little girl has in population statistics?
AR
been ill for months—all that time living on the 3. Make a list of information about immigrants that
bed in which three or four persons must sleep can be found by examining Source 3. What ques-
and which also serves the purpose of table and tions would you ask to determine how reliable this
chairs. For weeks this little girl has had an photograph is as a historical source? Given the
itch which has spread to the children of the advances in digital technology, are photographs
PE
surrounding rooms. She has torn the flesh on

today more or less reliable than those taken
her arms and legs into great sores which have
100 years ago? Explain.
become poisoned.
–J.S. Woodsworth 4. How reliable is Source 4? What does it tell us
about Winnipeg in 1913?
5. Use all four sources to create a picture of

Canadian immigration at this time. List some
additional sources that might help you to get a
more complete picture of the subject.

©P
KEY TERM Urbanization

urbanization the process by which an
While thousands of immigrants were settling farms on the Prairies, thou-
area changes from rural to urban
sands more were moving to towns and cities. Some immigrant groups,
particularly Jewish people, who were not allowed to own land in Europe,
chose urban life, which was more familiar to them. For others, living in large
communities without having to do back-breaking farm work was appealing.
Canada’s economy was in transition and the rise in manufacturing meant
more job opportunities in urban centres. The population of Canada’s west-
ern cities exploded in the early 1900s. For example, Winnipeg expanded
from 42 340 people in 1901 to 136 035 people in 1911. It optimistically
A
called itself the “Chicago of the North.”
The growing cities were filled with contrasts between the wealthy and
AD
the poor. The rich lived in luxury. They usually had servants; their houses
were lit by electricity, warmed by central hot water heating, and had running
water. Across town, the working class lived in shacks and overcrowded tene-
ments. Low wages forced women and children to take jobs and work long
hours to support their families. Restrictions on child labour were few and
AN
seldom enforced. Lack of clean water and proper sewers, together with pol-
lution from neighbouring industries, caused widespread health problems.
Pneumonia, diphtheria, tuberculosis, and typhoid were common in poorer
districts. Still, people flocked to the cities, attracted by jobs as well as by
cultural and social opportunities unavailable in rural Canada.
C
N
SO
AR
PE
FIGURE 1–12 Left: Wealthy home in Toronto, circa 1910; right: One-room home in Winnipeg, 1912
Using Evidence Find evidence in these photographs of the contrasts between rich and poor as described
in the text. Which photograph do you think most people would associate with the time period? Why? Evidence

©P
I n n ova t i o n s
Farther and Faster
While not exactly an information highway by today’s standards, the
pace of change in communications in Canada in the years before the
First World War seemed amazing. Radio messages could be sent over
oceans, telephones connected people in cities, and Canadians were
experimenting with new and faster ways to travel from place to place.
A
The telephone Invented in the 1870s, the
telephone was increasingly popular in the
AD
early 1900s. People had to share lines and
go through an operator to make a call.
AN
C
Wireless communication Italian-born
Guglielmo Marconi invented the wire-
N
The Father of Radio Québec-born inventor less telegraph, receiving the first wire-
Reginald Fessenden has been called less radio message sent across the
ocean in 1901, at Signal Hill in
SO
Canada’s greatest forgotten inventor. He

made the first broadcast of music and voice Newfoundland.
in 1906. Fessenden was later called the
Father of Radio.
AR
The bicycle craze

Bicycles were the new
craze at the turn of the
century, when one in
12 people owned a
bicycle. Bicycles
PE
liberated women from

restrictive clothing and
from chaperones, even
though they were often
criticized for riding.
Air travel The Wright Brothers made the first airplane

flight in the United States in 1903. In Canada, Alexander
Graham Bell and Douglas McCurdy developed the Silver
Dart, a gasoline-powered biplane.

©P
● How did technology impact An Economy Transformed

Canada’s economy during this
period? From its earliest days as a young British colony, Canada was known for its
abundance of natural resources. The export of timber, wheat, and minerals
was an important part of Canada’s economy. Canada’s export industries also
benefited from cheap shipping costs across the Atlantic Ocean. As well, the
opening of the Panama Canal in 1914 created a shorter shipping route for
Canadian products from the West Coast en route to Europe. Mining also
contributed to the economic boom in the early 1900s. Prospectors and
investors flocked to the Yukon and British Columbia after gold was discov-
ered near the Klondike River in 1896.
A
The Manufacturing Industry
AD
In the late 1800s, electric power was becoming more widely available with
wood- and coal-burning steam engines. In the early 1900s, hydroelectric
power stations were built to provide power to Canada’s factories. The arrival
of electricity in factories was an enormous boost to Canada’s industrial
AN
growth. With electric power, bigger and better machines could be used to
produce many more goods. This industrialization created more jobs in
manufacturing. Much of the small manufacturing sector was tied to
processing resources or providing tools and equipment for farms and
homes. Few people could foresee that the rising popularity of automobiles
C
would change the economy of southern Ontario and the way in which
Canadians lived and worked.
With jobs came an increase in the demand for consumer goods. Canada
Dry, Shredded Wheat, Palmolive soap, Heinz ketchup, and other brands
N
became familiar to Canadian shoppers, along with the first five-cent choco-
late bar. In 1913, more than 300 000 telephones were in use in Canada, and
SO
more and more automobiles were appearing on Canadian streets. By 1914,

wireless radios were used on board many ships, following their much-publi-
cized role in the rescue of passengers on the ill-fated RMS Titanic in 1912.
AR
FIGURE 1–13 The 1908 McLaughlin-

Buick sold for $1400, which was
beyond the reach of most Canadians.
Thinking Critically What recent
developments in transportation and
communication are comparable to the
PE
impact of the automobile in the first

decades of the 20th century? Explain.

©P
Corporate Giants KEY TERMS
hydroelectric power electricity produced

Corporations grew larger during this period of industrial expansion. Huge
from the energy of falling water
companies, such as Maple Leaf Milling, Massey-Harris, and Imperial Oil
controlled much of industry. With little competition, employers could set industrialization change in production
systems to large-scale mechanized
high prices for the goods they produced and pay low wages to their workers. factories
Some workers began to form trade unions to press for better pay, reduced
trade union a group of workers who
hours of work, and better safety conditions. When employers refused to give unite to achieve common goals in discus-
in to union demands, some unions went on strike. Most employers opposed sions with owners and management of
businesses and industries
union demands. As a result, strikes could get violent and, in some cases, the
police and military were called in to break up the protests. For example, in recession a decline in the economy,
A
1913, coal miners in Nanaimo were involved in a bitter strike that lasted resulting in lower levels of employment
and production
more than two years. The miners were striking over unsafe working condi-
AD
tions and low pay, while the Western Fuel Company, to keep wages low, was
trying to stop the workers from forming a union. Eventually, the Canadian
government sent in troops to bring the situation under control. They
arrested 39 people.
Financial speculation caused by the boom of the previous two decades
AN
saw many businesses expand quickly, but by 1910, a series of bank failures
led to a collapse in the stock market. By 1914, Canada was in a recession
after almost two decades of rapid growth. Industries cut back on produc-
tion, and many workers became unemployed. On the Prairies, most farmers
were planting a new, higher-yielding wheat, but the boom was over—the
international demand for wheat was down.
C
N
SO
AR
PE
FIGURE 1–14 Workers at the Robert Simpson Company mail-order office, 1909. Mail-order companies became
a popular and practical way for many Canadians to shop, comparable to online shopping today (inset).
Thinking Critically Why do you think mail-order companies were so popular in the early 1900s? Compare
online shopping today with catalogue shopping of the past.

©P
● What impact did industrial Resources and the Environment

development have on the
natural environment? From the early days of exploration, Canada was seen as a land of plenty with
an endless supply of natural resources, such as fur, water, timber, and miner-
als. For most Canadians in the early 1900s, protecting the environment was
not the issue it is today. In 1914, however, residents of British Columbia saw
how human interference could seriously damage an important natural
resource. Workers for the Grand Trunk Railway were blasting a new railway
line in the Fraser Canyon when an explosion caused a rockslide at Hell’s
Gate Canyon. This rockslide had disastrous effects on the spawning beds of
the sockeye salmon. The fallen rocks were massive and partially blocked the
A
river. This blockage increased the river’s current, which prevented many
salmon from swimming upstream to spawn. The rocks remained in place for
AD
about 30 years before a fish ladder was constructed to allow the spawning
fish to swim up the rapids. But catches of Fraser River salmon would never
again equal the pre-war numbers of 20 to 30 million fish.
The rockslide posed a particular hardship for the Stó:lo- First Nation
whose culture and livelihood were founded on fishing in the Fraser River.
AN
They worked for days to save the fish, carrying them one at a time over the
fallen rocks. As stocks improved, commercial fishers were given a monopoly
on fishing to help compensate for their financial losses. The Stó:lo-, however,
were never given back the allocations they had before the Hell’s Gate rock-
slide.
C
FIGURE 1–15 In 1945, the
Hell’s Gate fish ladder was built
N
to slow down the water flow in
the Fraser Canyon, thus
enabling the salmon to reach
SO
their spawning grounds upriver.

AR
PE
Incidents like this rockslide demonstrated that our actions could have
lasting, negative effects on the environment. Since the first national park was
established in Banff in 1885, the federal and provincial governments had
been setting aside land to ensure some of Canada’s natural landscape was
protected. By 1914, British Columbia had three national parks: Mount
Revelstoke, Yoho, and Glacier. The B.C. government had already designated
Strathcona and Mount Robson as provincial parks. Today, there are nearly
1000 provincial parks and protected areas in British Columbia.

©P
FA S T F O R WA R D CRITICAL
INQUIRY Patterns and Change
The Athabasca Oil Sands

Canada’s landscape still holds a wealth of resources, but
today people are more aware of the impact that exploiting
these resources has on the environment. One current
example is the Athabasca oil sands in northeastern
Alberta. The oil sands hold the world’s largest reserve of
crude bitumen, a sticky, tar-like form of petroleum. About
A
1.3 million barrels of oil are produced from the oil sands
each day. One method used to extract the oil is open-pit
mining, in which the oil sand is dug out of the ground and
AD
then mixed with hot water to separate the oil from the
sand.
Extracting the oil has an environmental impact. Open-
pit mining scars the land. Separating the oil from the sand
AN
requires large amounts of water, which is diverted from the
Athabasca River. The water needs to be heated, and burn-
ing natural gas produces greenhouse gases. The Alberta
government has programs in place to try to offset environ-
mental effects. However, debate continues over how to
FIGURE 1–16 Mining projects in the Athabasca oil sands
impact on the environment.

C
best use this resource while minimizing the negative are expanding.
Thinking Critically Why would a government allow
resource development if the production causes
environmental damage?
N
SO
War and Change

When Laurier predicted the 20th century would be the century of Canadian
development, he could not have predicted that Canada would play a role in a
devastating war involving many countries throughout the world. He also
could not have predicted the events and issues that have shaped Canada’s
AR
identity during the past century. In the following chapters, you will learn
about these events. You can be the judge as to whether the 20th century
really became “Canada’s century.”
PE
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Describe the contrasts between rich and poor in 3. Explain why employers and unions had stormy
cities during this period. relations in these years.
2. What technological changes were taking place in 4. Imagine you are a reporter sent to cover the Hell’s
Canada prior to the First World War? Gate Canyon rockslide. Send a telegram to your
newspaper describing the tragedy. Include a
headline.

©P
CHAPTER
Review
CHAPTER FOCUS QUESTION What defined Canada in the early 1900s, and what attitudes and
expectations did Canadians have for the century ahead?
In the two decades before the First World War, Canada experienced remarkable
changes. Wilfrid Laurier skilfully guided Canada through 15 years of prosperity, as well
as political and social upheaval. Immigration transformed Canada into a truly transconti-
nental nation with growing cities and industries. Agriculture and manufacturing pros-
A
pered. New technologies changed social and cultural habits. However, not all Canadians
were part of the new positive outlook. Aboriginal peoples, immigrants, women, and
workers struggled for their rights. By 1914, Canada was beginning to resemble the
AD
country we live in today.
1. Perspectives
a) People living in Canada in the two decades before Perspective of

Groups Canada Evidence
the First World War had many different perspec-
AN
Before the War
tives. Use the organizer to summarize how people Aboriginal peoples
in each of the groups might have viewed their place English Canadians
in Canada. Include one or more reasons why they French Canadians
would have had that perspective. European immigrants
Asian immigrants
b) Many factors affect a person’s perspective. The
C Women
boxed list includes those that generally have a Industrialists
significant influence on one’s perspective. Add any Workers
factors not included that you feel are relevant to
N
your situation. Rank the factors in the chart accord-
Factors Determining One’s
ing to the importance they have in determining your Ranking
Perspective
SO
perspective (one being the greatest influence).

Age
c) What effect do you think your background has on Gender
the way you view Canada today? Ethnicity
Religious or philosophical beliefs
d) Your perspective will determine how you view the Education
AR
past as well as the future. Do you have a mostly Family income/parents’ occupations
positive or negative view of Canada’s future? Give Place of residence
reasons for your choice. Places you have visited
PE
Vocabulary Focus Knowledge and Understanding

2. Review the Key Terms listed on page 5. Form small 3. From what you know of Canadian history before
groups. Each member of the group selects five 1913 and from what you have learned in this
terms from the list and writes each term and its defi- chapter, how was the French-Canadian view of
nition on an index card. Collect and shuffle all the Canada different from the English-Canadian view?
cards. Each player selects one of the cards, reads What issues were viewed differently by these two
the definition, and asks another member of the groups?
group to identify the term. Alternatively, each player
reads the term and asks for the definition. Continue
this process until all the cards have been used.

©P
4. Use information in this chapter to discuss the inter- 8. Choose three new technologies from today that you
actions between the Canadian government and think will have as great an impact as did those
immigrants such as Chinese people. described in this chapter. Support your choices with
at least two reasons.
5. Public hearings on the testimony of Canada’s
Aboriginal peoples about their treatment in residen- 9. Examine the following quotation from Olga Pawluk,
tial schools are underway. What should be the goal who was 18 years old when her family moved to
of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission? Would Canada from Ukraine. What does this document say
A
you recommend the same process for other groups? about some immigrants’ perception of Canada at
Why or why not? that time? How accurate was Olga in her description
of Canada? Upon what was she basing her opinion?
AD
6. Historians look for turning points in history, marking
the change from one era to another. Many see the I didn’t want to go to Canada... I didn’t know
First World War as the end of an era and the begin- where Canada was really, so I looked at the map.
ning of the modern age. What recent event would There were hardly any cities there. It looked so
you choose as a turning point in Canadian or world wild and isolated somehow and I felt that it
AN
history? Explain your choice. would be very difficult to live there.... I felt I was
going to a very wild place.
Critical Thinking –Quoted in Living Histories Series, 2000
7. Using the groups from the organizer, list both the

Document Analysis
positive and the negative impacts of the various
changes that were taking place in Canada at the
C
10. Read through the statistics and information about
start of the 20th century. Write a paragraph stating Canada in the table below. Select the four changes
which group gained the most and which group lost
N
that you think were most significant to Canada’s
the most as a result of these changes. emerging autonomy and explain your choices.
SO
1914 2009
Population 8 million 33.7 million
National Anthem God Save the King O Canada

AR
Nationality British Canadian
Flag Union Jack Maple Leaf
Governor General Duke of Connaught (British) Rt. Hon. Michaëlle Jean (Canadian)
Foreign Affairs British Foreign Office Canadian Dept. of Foreign Affairs

PE
Final Court of Appeal Judicial Committee of the Privy Council Supreme Court of Canada
House of Commons 221 MPs (all male) 308 MPs (69 women)
133 Conservative 77 Liberal Party of Canada
86 Liberal 49 Bloc Québécois
37 New Democratic Party
Senate 87 Senators (all male) 105 Senators (35 women)
Eligible Voters 1 820 742 23 677 639
Prime Minister Robert Borden, Conservative Stephen Harper, Conservative
FIGURE 1–7 Canada’s population and government in 1914 and 2009

©P
2
GUIDING QUESTIONS
Canada and the First World War
Society & Identity

● What challenges did Aboriginal
A
soldiers face during the war
and upon their return home?
AD
● What effect did the War
Measures Act have on the legal
rights of Canadians?
● How did Canada’s contribution

on the battlefield affect
Canadian identity?
AN
● What effect did the war have
on the role of women?
● What impact did conscription

have on Canadian unity? C
● How did Canada get involved
in the First World War?
N
● What was the war’s impact on
the home front?
SO
● How did the nature of warfare

and technology contribute to a
war of attrition?
● What were conditions like for

men in the trenches?
AR
● Describe Canada’s military role

in the First World War.
● What factors contributed to

Canada’s emerging autonomy?
PE
TIMELINE
1914 1915 1916

Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated in Sarajevo Canadian troops exposed to Canadians suffer heavy losses in
Germany invades Belgium and France poisonous gas at the Battle of Ypres the Battle of the Somme
Britain declares war on Germany; Canada Women in Manitoba, Saskatchewan,
automatically at war and Alberta gain the right to vote in
provincial elections
War Measures Act passed in Canada

©P

Change
What effect did Canada’s participation in the First World War have on
Canadian society and its status as a nation? Judgements CRITICAL Evidence
INQUIRY
Cause and
When the First World War began in 1914, few believed it would last
very long. Many young people in Canada and elsewhere saw the war
A
as an exciting chance for travel, adventure, and glory. Most were KEY TERMS
afraid that the conflict would be over before they could get into the imperialism
action. Many people signed up with noble, romantic ideas, such as militarism
AD
the honour of fighting for the British Empire to which Canada Triple Alliance
belonged: Triple Entente
nationalism
War Measures Act
These young men were the cream of Canada’s youth and enemy aliens
AN
chivalry, all volunteers, all willing to face the great adventure for internment camps
no man’s land
King and country, for freedom and civilization. No conscripts
Western Front
were they, but freemen, glad and willing to demonstrate
war of attrition
Canada’s loyalty and to make some return to England for the Battle of Ypres
civil and religious liberty we had enjoyed under the protection Battle of the Somme
of her flag....
C
–Manliness and Militarism: Educating Young Boys
Battle of Vimy Ridge
Passchendaele
in Ontario for War, 2001 convoy
Victory Bonds
N
honour rationing
“The Great War,” however, was a far different reality than this propaganda
romantic vision. It was modern, industrialized warfare on a vast conscription
SO
scale. The “war to end all wars” claimed the lives of more than khaki election
Hundred Days Campaign
8 million soldiers, cost almost $350 billion, and changed the map of
Paris Peace Conference
Europe. What could cause such a devastating international conflict? Treaty of Versailles
Why was the war so long and terrible, and what were the long-term War Guilt Clause
effects of the war on our nation? To answer these questions, we must
AR
understand the historical forces at work in Canada and around the

world at the time—in particular, nationalism, imperialism, colonial-
ism, and militarism.
PE
1917 1918
Canadian troops battle at Passchendaele Enlistment begins
Canadian troops capture Vimy Ridge Armistice declared on Europe’s Western Front
Women in British Columbia and Ontario gain the right to vote in provincial elections Women win the right to vote in federal elections
Wartime Elections Act gives federal vote to women related to servicemen
Borden re-elected as head of Union Government
Conscription introduced in Canada
Halifax devastated by an explosion
Income tax introduced as a temporary measure
Chapter 2 ■ Canada and the First World War 25

©P
KEY TERMS
Causes of the First World War
imperialism the policy of one nation
acquiring, controlling, or dominating What caused the First World War? There is no simple answer. At the begin-
another country or region ning of the 20th century, several factors pushed the world to the brink of war.
militarism a nation’s policy of enlisting, Industrialization drove the Great Powers—Britain, France, Germany, Italy,
training, equipping, and maintaining Austria-Hungary, and Russia—to expand their territories. As they sought
armed forces ready for war
more land, resources, and influence, they also tried to protect their territory
Slavic relating to peoples in eastern, by building up their military resources and creating alliances. Meanwhile, the
southeastern, and central Europe, includ-
ing Russians, Serbians, Croatians, Poles, nations colonized by the Great Powers struggled to keep their independence.
Czechs, etc. These power struggles created tension around the world, and one event, as
you will read about later, triggered the First World War.
A
Imperialism and the Age of Empires
AD
Why were the Great Powers so prepared to engage in war? Since the 15th
century, several European nations had been aggressively expanding their
territory (see Unit opener map). Powerful countries practised imperialism
by establishing colonies all over the world to create empires. They exploited
AN
the land and resources of the weaker nations they controlled. Massive
industrialization in the 19th century fuelled the Great
Powers’ desire to expand their domains, giving them access
to more raw materials and creating new markets for their
manufactured goods. Africa—with its wealth of gold, dia-
C
monds, ivory, agricultural land, and other resources—
became the last frontier for colonizers in the late 1800s.
European empires aggressively pursued their interests in
Africa, often competing for the same territory.
N
At the beginning of the 20th century, Germany was
struggling to establish itself as an imperial power. Its
SO
colonies in Africa were not as economically or strategically

advantageous as the areas controlled by Britain. Germany’s
leaders wanted their country to have its own “place in the
sun” and to extend its sphere of influence. Germany’s
aggressive pursuit of this goal brought it into conflict with
AR
other imperial powers, in particular Britain and France.
Increasing Militarism
Imperialism brought crisis after crisis, fostering distrust
PE
and tension among the Great Powers. As they expanded

their empires, the Great Powers developed their military
resources to protect their interests and intimidate each
other. They glamorized their armed forces, and the size
of their armies and navies became essential to national
prestige. They embraced militarism and saw war as an
acceptable way to resolve conflicts and achieve their goals.
FIGURE 2–1 Germany as an eagle in this 1890 cartoon Militarism was a constant threat to peace in the years
Interpreting Political Cartoons What is the message of leading up to the First World War.
this cartoon?

©P
By the beginning of the 20th century, Britain had estab-

lished the largest navy in the world to protect its vast empire.
Germany’s desire to be a major power in Europe drove it to
build up its military resources to match Britain’s naval strength.
In response, Britain dramatically increased the size of its navy
and built the HMS Dreadnought, the largest and fastest battle-
ship in the world. Germany in turn built more ships, including
dreadnoughts of its own. It also increased the size of its army
and its reserve of weapons. This buildup of military resources
forced France—who had long-standing grudges with
Germany—to arm itself in a desperate attempt to maintain the
A
FIGURE 2–2 Ships such as the British warship
balance of power. This arms race increased international ten- HMS Dreadnought were heavily armoured to pro-
sions, and by 1914 Europe had become an armed camp. tect them from enemy fire.
AD
The Role of the Balkans
As the Great Powers struggled to expand their colonies around the world, they
also fought over limited resources in Europe. Of particular interest were the
AN
Balkans, a cultural and geographic region on the Adriatic Sea in southeastern
Europe. Three different empires—Russia, Austria-Hungary, and the
Ottomans—wanted to control this area.
• Russia’s approach was to promote Pan-Slavism, the idea of uniting the
Slavic peoples of the Balkans. Russia hoped that supporting these nations
C
would allow it access to the region’s warm-water ports. This was extremely
important to Russia as most of its ports were frozen in winter, limiting its
ability to import and export goods.
N
• Austria-Hungary saw Pan-Slavism as a threat to its power. Several of the
nations under its control were Slavic and located in the Balkans, including
Slovenia and Croatia. Austria-Hungary feared that it would lose its grip on
SO
its territory if these peoples united.

• For more than 100 years, the Ottoman Empire had controlled the Balkans
and southeastern Europe, as well as areas of northern Africa and the Middle
East. But this empire was crumbling by the beginning of the 20th century.
AR
It had already lost its hold of the Balkans and feared losing even more
territory.
RUSSIAN EMPIRE N FIGURE 2–3 Imperial

struggles in the Balkans
PE
AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN
EMPIRE
BLACK SEA
AD
AT
RI
I C
SE
A
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
IONIAN AEGEAN 0 150 300 km Balkans

SEA SEA

©P
KEY TERMS The False Security of Alliances

alliance a union or agreement among
groups working toward a common goal These intense rivalries in Europe resulted in a rush to make or join alliances.
By the early 1900s, all the Great Powers in Europe were in alliances with
Triple Alliance the alliance of Germany,
Austria-Hungary, and Italy prior to the First other countries, promising to support one another if they were attacked.
World War
• The Triple Alliance was made up of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and
Triple Entente the alliance of France,
Italy. However, when the war broke out in 1914, Italy did not follow the
Britain, and Russia prior to the First World
War Triple Alliance into battle. Instead it joined the war in 1915 on the side
nationalism devotion to and support of
of the Triple Entente.
one’s culture and nation, sometimes
• The Triple Entente (also known as the Allies) consisted of France,
resulting in the promotion of independ-
A
ence Britain, and Russia.
Black Hand a terrorist group of Bosnian
These countries hoped that forming alliances would reduce the threat of
AD
Serbs that was determined to free Bosnia
from Austria-Hungary war, but it proved to have the opposite effect. Alliances made it easier for a
country to be drawn into war. Because members pledged to protect one
another, if any one of them was involved in a conflict, its allies would auto-
matically have to fight as well. As you will see, one dramatic event was all it
took to drag the whole of Europe into war.
AN
NORWAY
SWEDEN N
NORTH
SEA
GREAT
BRITAIN DENMARK
C
BALTIC
SEA
NETHERLANDS
N
RUSSIAN EMPIRE
GERMANY
ATLANTIC BELGIUM
SO
OCEAN
FRANCE
SWITZERLAND AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN
EMPIRE 0 150 300 km
ROMANIA
BO
PORTUGAL BLACK SEA

SE
SN
RB
ITALY
AR
SPAIN
IA
IA
BULGARIA
MONTENEGRO
ALBANIA
MEDITERRANEAN GREECE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
SEA
PE
European Alliances, 1914

FIGURE 2–4 European alliances, 1914
Triple Entente Reading a Map
Triple Entente 1. Look at the caption and legend of the map. These tell you the date and purpose of the
allies map. Why are Britain, France, and Russia the same colour?
Triple Alliance 2. Check the scale and direction of the map. How far is it from the easterly point of Great
Britain to the most westerly point of Russia? How might this distance affect Britain’s
Triple Alliance
and Russia’s abilities to act as effective military allies?
allies
3. Why would Germany feel threatened by the Triple Entente?
Neutral
4. Compare this map to a map of modern Europe in an atlas. What major differences do
you see?

©P
The Threat of Nationalism

As the Great Powers sought to expand their empires, they paid little atten-
tion to the interests of the nations they colonized. They practised their own
type of nationalism, showing great pride in and patriotism for their mother
country. But another type of nationalism—an intense loyalty toward and
desire to preserve one’s own cultural identity, language, and traditions—
simmered in the colonized countries.
The Balkans were a hotbed of nationalism. Some of the countries in the
area were newly created while others regained independence as the Ottoman
Empire disintegrated. The Austro-Hungarian Empire also controlled several
A
Slavic nations that wanted independence and rebelled against Austrian rule.
Bosnia, in particular, was highly contested as Serbia wanted to include this
AD
territory within its borders. Some Bosnian Serbs formed the Black Hand, a
group willing to fight for their nationalistic goals. They wanted to unite the
Slavic peoples to form “Greater Serbia.” To Austro-Hungarian imperialists,
Serbian nationalism was a deadly idea that had to be crushed at all costs.
AN
A Chain Reaction
● How did Canada get involved
In 1914, to demonstrate its imperial rule, the Austro-Hungarian Empire sent in the First World War?
its crown prince, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, to Bosnia’s capital of Sarajevo.
His visit gave the Black Hand an opportunity to strike back at the Empire,
C
whom they viewed as an invader. As their procession made its way through
the city, a Black Hand member, Gavrilo Princip, shot and killed Archduke
Ferdinand and his wife.
N
SO
AR
PE
FIGURE 2–5 Archduke

Franz Ferdinand and
Duchess Sophie, moments
before they were assassi-
nated on June 28, 1914

©P
This assassination triggered a chain reaction that started the First World
War. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the assassination. As part of the
agreement of the Triple Alliance, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany offered
Austria-Hungary a “blank cheque,” promising to support them even if they
went to war. When Serbia refused to submit to an ultimatum from Austria-
Hungary, the Empire declared war. This caused Russia to mobilize its troops
to defend Serbia as part of its promotion of Pan-Slavism. Germany
responded with its own mobilization. This prompted Britain to put its navy
on alert and France to mobilize its army. When Germany violated the
neutrality of Belgium in order to attack France, Britain declared war on
Germany to protect its ally. Canada, as part of the British Empire, automati-
A
cally went to war, too. Gradually, the conflict drew in more and more
countries around the world.
AD
TIMELINE
Timeline to War, 1914
June 28 Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie are assassinated in Sarajevo, Bosnia.
AN
July 6 Germany promises Austria-Hungary a “blank cheque” to support any military action in Serbia.
July 23 Austria-Hungary delivers an ultimatum to Serbia, threatening severe consequences:

• Serbia must dismiss all anti-Austrian teachers, government workers, and army officers.
• Austrian officials will be allowed to enter Serbia to investigate the assassination.
C
• Serbia must cooperate with the Austrian investigation.
July 26 Russia begins to mobilize its armed forces in anticipation of war.
July 28 Austria-Hungary rejects Serbia’s partial acceptance of its demands and declares war.
N
July 31 • Russia announces its general mobilization.
• Austria-Hungary and Germany demand that Russia stop mobilizing; Russia ignores
this command.
SO
• France agrees to respect Belgium’s neutrality, but Germany refuses.
August 1 Germany declares war on Russia.
August 3 Germany declares war on France.
August 4 • Germany invades Belgium and Luxembourg to attack France.

• Britain declares war on Germany.
AR
• Canada is automatically at war as part of the British Empire.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
PE
1. Build a flow diagram that links the following in then select the three you think are most important.
sequence, noting any events that occurred Justify your choices.
simultaneously: assassination of Franz Ferdinand
3. Imagine you are the prime minister of Canada.
and his wife, invasion of Belgium, creation of the
Compose a letter to the prime minister of Britain
Triple Alliance, Britain declares war on Germany,
explaining why you do, or do not, support an
and Russia mobilizes troops.
alliance between Britain, Russia, and France.
2. Significance List the causes and contributing 4. Write a well-reasoned argument for the following
factors that resulted in the outbreak of war and proposition: “The First World War was unneces-
sary and could have been prevented.”

©P
B u i l d i n g Yo u r S k i l l s CRITICAL
INQUIRY Cause and Consequence
Interpreting Political Cartoons
Political cartoons are a useful source of information or current issues, you need to be aware of the biases
about historical or current issues. They simplify an and prejudices that may taint political cartoons when
issue by portraying political personalities or events in you interpret them.
an exaggerated way and using symbols to represent
ideas. In this way, they are a very effective means of Steps to Interpreting Political Cartoons
convincing a reader to see an issue in a specific way.
A
But the perspective about the issue presented in a 1. Read the text and look closely at the drawing.
political cartoon is often extreme and harshly critical. 2. Identify the central issue or event in the cartoon.
AD
They represent political figures as caricatures, exag- 3. Identify the devices used by the cartoonist
gerating their physical and personality traits for comic (caricature, analogy, words, symbols, stereotypes,
effect. Political cartoons often use stereotypes to sizing, etc.).
emphasize their message. They also employ analogy
4. Identify the biases of the cartoonist by examining
to compare people or events to other things that the
AN
the devices used.
audience will relate to and understand. While these
devices help convey perspectives on historical events 5. Interpret the cartoon.
C
FIGURE 2–6 The Chain
of Friendship. This British
N
cartoon appeared in
some Canadian newspa-
pers at the outbreak of
SO
war. It highlights some of

the main causes of the
First World War by repre-
senting the European
countries in 1914 as
different characters.
AR
Applying the Skill

PE
1. Identify the countries represented by the child 3. Use the cartoon to make a list of the countries on
and the adult who is picking on him. Why is one either side of the conflict. Compare your list to the
country shown as a child? map in Figure 2–4.
2. The cartoon uses caricatures of speech and cloth- 4. What is the meaning of the title of the cartoon?
ing to identify European countries. Identify Could it be interpreted as an ironic or sarcastic
Germany, Britain, France, and Russia. Explain title? Explain.
your choice in each case.
5. Evaluate the cartoon. How effectively does it
deliver its message? Explain.

©P
● What challenges did Aboriginal Canada’s Response to the War

soldiers face during the war?
Although Canada had become a political union in 1867, Britain still con-
trolled the foreign policy of all its dominions. This meant that when Britain
declared war on Germany, Canada was automatically at war, along with the
rest of the British Empire.
Mobilizing the Forces

In 1914, most English-speaking Canadians were of British origin, and they
supported the war out of a strong patriotic feeling for Britain and the
A
Empire. One Toronto newspaper captured the excitement of the time:
AD
Cheer after cheer from the crowds of people who had waited long
and anxiously for the announcement of Great Britain’s position
in the present conflict in Europe greeted the news that the
Mother Country had declared war against Germany. Groups of
men sang “Rule Britannia,” others joined in singing “God Save
AN
the King”; some showed their sense of the seriousness of the
situation by singing “Onward Christian Soldiers”....
–Toronto Mail and Empire, August 5, 1914
Wilfrid Laurier, the leader of the Liberals and a French

C
Canadian, joined English Canadians in pledging support for
Britain and the Empire. Laurier stated, “It is our duty to let Great
Britain know and to let the friends and foes of Great Britain know
N
that there is in Canada but one mind and one heart and that all
Canadians are behind the Mother Country.”
FIGURE 2–7 At the start of the First World
Prime Minister Borden initially offered Britain 25 000 troops,
SO
War, crowds gathered to cheer the soldiers on

their way. but more than 30 000 volunteers from across Canada signed up
Thinking Critically What do you think the within a month. Many felt the patriotic urge to defend their
public attitude was after a few years of war? “mother country.” A lot of people volunteered because they
What might public reaction be to Canada’s
believed that the war would be over by Christmas. Others signed
involvement in a war today?
up because they were unemployed and the war meant a chance to
AR
escape financial hardships at home.

Not all Canadians who wanted to volunteer were welcome.
Rank Daily Rate Women were considered too frail and too emotional to partake in
Major-General $20.00
battle, so they were encouraged to stay at home and support the
soldiers. Women who did join the services worked as nurses and
PE
Colonel $6.00 ambulance drivers behind the front lines. Initially, the Canadian
Major $4.00 forces did not accept Aboriginal peoples and were reluctant to take
Captain $3.00
African and Japanese Canadians. Volunteers from these groups
managed to overcome such racist attitudes to join, but few were
Lieutenant $2.00
promoted. Such discrimination did not prevent these recruits from
Sergeant $1.35 serving their country well (see Case Study, page 48). Tom
Corporal $1.05 Longboat, an Onondaga from the Six Nations Reserve in Ontario,
was a well-known athlete and Boston Marathon runner. During the
Private $1.00
war, he became a courier, carrying messages between the trenches
FIGURE 2–8 Canadian Army rates of pay, 1917 in France, a position reserved for the fastest runners in the army.

©P
A National Identity Emerges ● What factors contributed to

Canada had to prepare for war. When Canada joined the war, its army
swelled from 3000 to more than 30 000 soldiers. The enormous task of
training and supplying the troops with clothing and munitions went to Sam
Hughes, the Minister of Militia. Camp Valcartier in Québec was built in only
four weeks to house and train Canada’s soldiers. After basic training that
lasted only four months, 32 000 enthusiastic, but ill-prepared, Canadian and
Newfoundland troops set sail for England.
Before the war, Canada was a patchwork of regions. Few transportation
and communication connections existed, and travel across the country was
A
difficult. Regions had little contact with one another; people lived their lives
close to home. Wartime training changed that. Young men from all over the
AD
country came together to train, first at Valcartier, then at bases in England.
As they gathered and worked together, they began to develop a national
sense of Canadian identity. In the words of one Canadian soldier:
We were in Witley Camp [in England] and right alongside us was a bat-
AN
talion from French Canada. We didn’t speak much French and they
didn’t speak much English, but they were the finest sports you ever
saw.... You met people from Nova Scotia, or from Prince Edward Island,
clean through to British Columbia.
–Ben Wagner
C
The army formed by these volunteers was known as the Canadian
Expeditionary Force (CEF). When the CEF arrived in England, British com-
N
manders assumed that, as a colonial army, the CEF would be integrated into
the larger, more experienced British units. For much of the war, however, the WEB LINK •
CEF maintained its independence and fought as a separate unit, which con-
SO
Find out more about wartime training

tributed greatly to a growing sense of national identity and autonomy. on the Pearson Web site.
AR
PE
FIGURE 2–9 Colourful recruiting

posters with urgent messages for
volunteers appeared across Canada.
Identifying Viewpoints Compare these
two posters. What methods does each
one use to appeal to different language
groups? What image of war does each
one present?

©P

Canada’s Minister of Militia
the home front? Sam Hughes was also in charge of Canada’s armament industry. He created
the Shell Committee to oversee the manufacture of artillery shells. Canada
provided a large portion of Britain’s shells. Hughes, however,
was a poor administrator and the Ministry of Militia soon
became bogged down in inefficiency and war profiteering.
While he insisted on using Canadian manufacturers, troops
were often supplied with equipment that was inappropriate
or of poor quality. By mid-1915, contracts worth about $170
million had been signed with wealthy businessmen, but only
A
$5.5 million in shells had actually been made. Some of the
shells were of such poor quality that they exploded before
AD
being fired, killing the gun crews. In one case, soldiers were
equipped with boots that fell apart in the rain due to soles
made of pressed cardboard. Troops came to hate the
Canadian-made Ross rifle because it jammed, so they picked
FIGURE 2–10 The 29th Battalion (Vancouver), CEF, in
up British-made Lee-Enfield rifles from dead soldiers when
training in Hastings Park, Vancouver, late 1914
AN
possible. Hughes was dismissed from his post in 1916, but
Using Evidence How are these men preparing for war?
not before being knighted by King George V.
The War Measures Act C

To meet the demands of war, Prime Minister Borden introduced the War
Measures Act in 1914. The Act gave the government the authority to do
● What effect did the War everything necessary “for the security, defence, peace, order, and welfare of
Measures Act have on the Canada.” For the first time, the federal government could intervene directly
N
legal rights of Canadians? in the economy to control transportation, manufacturing, trade, and agri-
cultural production. The government also had the power to limit the free-
SO
dom of Canadians. It could censor mail. It suspended habeas corpus, which

meant that police could detain people without laying charges. Anyone sus-
pected of being an “enemy alien” or a threat to the government could be
imprisoned, or deported, or both. Recent immigrants from Germany and
the Austro-Hungarian Empire were treated particularly harshly under this
AR
Act. Approximately 100 000 of them had to carry special identity cards and
report regularly to registration officers. More than 8500 people were held in
isolation in internment camps. These policies fostered nationalism and
prejudice in Canada, and led to attacks on German-owned clubs and
businesses.
PE
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Examine the quotation on page 32. What does this 3. Why did the government feel the need to control
document say about the attitude of people in the economy, transportation, and trade after war
Canada toward Britain at this time? How does the was declared? Was this a genuine need? Explain.
quotation on page 33 demonstrate a growing feel-
4. List the civil liberties suspended by the War
ing of Canadian identity among Canadian troops?
Measures Act.
2. What prevented women and other groups from
5. Explain why there was such enthusiasm for the
participating in the war?
war when it began.

©P
The War on Land KEY TERMS

profiteering making a profit by raising
Germany’s Schlieffen Plan, developed years before the First World War prices on needed goods or producing poor
began, was a bold strategy for a two-front war. Germany believed it could quality materials
fend off Russia in the east while it defeated France in the west with a light- War Measures Act an Act that gives the
ning-speed massive attack. The timetable left little room for error. German federal government emergency powers
during wartime, including the right to
armies needed to drive through Belgium and swing south to capture Paris detain people without laying charges
within a few weeks. Once this was accomplished, Germany could turn its
habeas corpus the right of a detained
attention to Russia. The Schlieffen Plan made two critical assumptions: person to be brought before a judge or
other official to decide whether the deten-
• It would take Russia time to mobilize its huge army. But Russia’s forces tion is lawful
A
were already on the move when Germany declared war.
enemy alien a national living in a country
• Britain would remain neutral. The plan relied on the fact that in the that is at war with his/her homeland
AD
past, Britain had not become involved in disputes between countries in deport to send a person back to his/her
country of origin
Europe. But, as part of the Triple Entente, Britain had promised to
defend France if it was attacked. Also, all the Great Powers had promised internment camp a government-run camp
where people who are considered a threat
not to attack Belgium, so Britain felt compelled to enter the war when are detained
Germany did just that.
Schlieffen Plan Germany’s plan to stage a
AN
two-front war with Russia in the east and
France in the west
The Reality of the Schlieffen Plan
no man’s land the area between the
The Schlieffen Plan almost worked. By August 1914, German troops were trenches of two opposing forces
only 50 kilometres from Paris. But German leaders had made some changes Western Front the area of fighting in west-
C
that weakened the original plan. They pulled troops from the west to rein- ern Europe during the First World War,
characterized by trench warfare and
force their defences in the east. The soldiers were exhausted by the pace of
inconclusive battles with heavy casualties
their attack through Belgium and into France. The Allies were able to rally on both sides
and stop Germany’s advance at the Battle of the Marne in September 1914,
N
making a quick German victory impossible. Instead, the German army dug a
defensive line of trenches along the river Somme and into Belgium. To
SO
counter this, British and

French troops dug their own
system of trenches to face NORTH
N
ENGLAND
them. Eventually a vast net- SEA
NETHERLANDS
work of trenches stretched
AR
from the English Channel to

the Swiss border. Between the Brussels
GERMANY
Somme Lille Aachen
trenches of the two enemies lay River BELGIUM
English Channel
no man’s land, a terrible Arras Liège
Amiens
wasteland of corpses, barbed LUXEMBOURG
PE
wire, and mud. By Christmas Compiègne
1914, armies protected by

Ma
Paris Metz
r ne
trenches that ran through Riv

er
northern France and Belgium FRANCE Strasbourg

on the Western Front were
locked in a stalemate. With Initial advances Twenty-second day
millions of soldiers on each 0 100 200 km Future advances Thirty-first day
side, neither Britain and
SWITZERLAND
France nor the Germans were
able to advance, and no one FIGURE 2–11 The Schlieffen Plan
was prepared to retreat.

©P
Life in the Trenches

No soldier could ever have been prepared for the horrible condi-
tions of trench warfare. Trenches were cold and damp in the win-
ter and often flooded in the heavy rains of northern France and
Belgium. Muddy trenches became stinking cesspools, overrun by
rats. Men spent weeks in the trenches without washing, which
allowed disease to spread. Soldiers’ clothes were infested with lice,
and many men developed trench foot, a painful condition that
caused their feet to swell and turn black. Many of the wounded
were left to die in no man’s land because rescue attempts were
A
too dangerous. Mental exhaustion also took its toll. Men were in
constant fear for their lives, either from deadly sniper fire or from
AD
exploding shells. One soldier reported:
The air is full of shells... the small ones whistling and shrieking
and the heaviest falling silently, followed by a terrific explosion
which perforates even the padded eardrums, so that a thin
AN
trickle of blood down the neck bears witness that the man is
FIGURE 2–12 Many Canadian soldiers lost their stricken stone-deaf. The solid ground rocks like an express
lives in the trenches and suffered psychological
disorders and nervous breakdowns.
[train] at full speed, and the only comparison possible is to a
volcano in eruption with incessant shudder of earthworks and
Gathering Information What can you tell about
life in the trenches from this photograph? How pelting hail of rocks.
might these conditions have contributed to
psychological problems?
C –Quoted in Toronto Globe, April 15, 1916
N
● What were conditions like for
New Technology and the War
men in the trenches? New technologies developed at the beginning of the 20th century changed
SO
● How did the nature of warfare the way wars were fought. In earlier wars, foot soldiers, supported by cavalry
and technology contribute to (soldiers on horses), tried to outmanoeuvre the enemy to take control of the
a war of attrition?
battlefield. By 1914, however, new weapons were so powerful and deadly that
it was suicidal to charge across open ground. Machine guns fired at unprece-
dented speed; massive artillery attacks killed thousands. Airplanes, invented
AR
KEY TERMS
only a decade before the war began, flew over the battlefields to pinpoint the
artillery large guns used to fire shells
enemy’s location and movements and were later equipped with machine
war of attrition a military strategy based
guns and bombs.
on exhausting the enemy’s manpower and
resources before yours are exhausted, Although soldiers were using modern weapons on the battlefield, many
usually involving great losses on both of their commanders failed to understand how the new technologies
PE
sides
demanded new tactics. Over the next three years, generals stubbornly
engaged in a war of attrition, each side repeatedly attacking the other until
one was completely exhausted and unable to continue. To attack the enemy,
soldiers were ordered “over the top,” meaning they had to leave the relative
safety of the trenches to face the horror of no man’s land. Hundreds of thou-
sands of soldiers on all sides were slaughtered as they were mowed down by
machine guns. These weapons kept either side from advancing, which was
the main reason for the stalemate on the Western Front. Later in the war,
armoured tanks were used to protect soldiers as they advanced across the
battlefield. Tanks could break through the protective wall of barbed wire in
front of trenches. By 1918, the trench system was itself obsolete.

©P
Major Canadian Battles ● Describe Canada’s military

role in the First World War.
The first division of the Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF) arrived in
France in February 1915. These forces soon became involved in combat
along the Western Front, including decisive battles in France and Belgium at ● How did Canada’s contribution
on the battlefield affect
Ypres, the Somme, Vimy Ridge, and Passchendaele. Canadian identity?
The Second Battle of Ypres

Some of the bloodiest battles of the early war N Allied Front Line: December 15, 1914
were fought in and around the Belgian town of
A
Allied Front Line: November 11, 1918
Ypres. On April 22, 1915, French and Canadian 1 The Second Battle of Ypres: April and May 1915
troops were blinded, burned, or killed when the 2 Battle of the Somme, July to November 1916
AD
Germans used chlorine gas, a tactic that had been 3 The Battle of Vimy Ridge, April 1917
outlawed by international agreement since 1907. 4 Passchendaele (Third Battle of Ypres)
As the clouds of gas drifted low across the battle- July to November 1917
ENGLAND
field, soldiers tried to escape from the deadly
NORTH
fumes. Many suffocated or choked to death. One SEA NETHERLANDS
AN
soldier described the scene as follows:
1 Passchendaele
Ypres 4 GERMANY
Brussels
[We noticed] a strange new smell.... A queer
brownish-yellow haze was blowing in from the English BELGIUM
Vimy
Channel 3
Ridge
north. Our eyes smarted. Breathing became
unpleasant and throats raw.... Some fell and
C Somme
River
2
Somme
LUXEMBOURG
choked, and writhed and frothed on the FRANCE
ground.... It was the gas.
N
–Canada and the Battle of Vimy Ridge, 1992
Paris
SO
Despite the Germans’ use of poison gas, the

0 25 50 75 km
battle continued for a month, but neither side
gained much advantage. More than 6000
FIGURE 2–13 Map showing the Western Front and major battles
Canadians were killed, wounded, or captured
holding their ground until reinforcements
arrived.
AR
One of the doctors serving with the Canada

Corps was Lieutenant Colonel John McCrae, who
wrote the famous poem “In Flanders Fields” to
commemorate Canadians serving at the Second
PE
Battle of Ypres. It is said that he wrote the poem

in about 20 minutes, but tossed it aside because
he was dissatisfied with it. The story goes that a
soldier later found it and convinced him to send
it to a popular British magazine.
FIGURE 2–14 The Belgian town of Ypres in 1917 showing the

massive destruction caused by the war

©P
KEY TERM The Battle of the Somme

casualties those injured, killed, captured,
or missing in action In July 1916, the Allies launched a massive attack against a line of German
trenches near the Somme River in France. The attack failed because
• The Allies shelled the German lines for days before the attack began, but
the shells did not destroy the Germans’ defences or the barbed wire
I past the worse fighting here around their trenches.
since the war started, we took
• The commanders used tactics that, though previously successful, proved
all kinds of prisonners but God
to be useless in trench warfare. Troops were ordered to march across
we lost heavy, all my camarades
open fields, and wave upon wave of men were shot down by German
killed or wounded.… dear wife
machine guns.
A
it is worse than hell, the ground
is covered for miles with dead • Despite heavy losses on the first day of battle—including nearly 58 000
corpses all over.… pray for me British troops—the attack continued.
AD
dear wife I need it very bad.… The battle lasted five months and the Allies captured only 13 kilometres of
as long as I leave I’ll remember
land. Both sides suffered heavy losses. There were more than 1.25 million
it.
casualties, with almost 24 000 Canadians among them. The Royal
–Francis Xavier Maheux,
September 20, 1916 Newfoundland Regiment alone lost approximately 90 percent of its men,
AN
and every officer was either wounded or killed. Most soldiers were badly
shaken by the slaughter.
Note: The quotation above contains
spelling and punctuation errors. It has Despite their heavy losses, Canadian troops distinguished themselves
been reproduced as it was originally during the Battle of the Somme and were brought in to lead assaults in sev-
written.
eral major battles over the course of the war.
C
The Battle of Vimy Ridge
In 1914, the Germans took control of Vimy Ridge, a key position near the
N
Somme. This vantage point gave a clear view of the surrounding country-
side, supply routes, and enemy positions. For more than two years, both
SO
French and British forces tried to capture the ridge but were unsuccessful.
Late in 1916, Canadian troops were chosen to lead a new assault on
Vimy Ridge. Lieutenant-General Julian Byng, a popular British officer (later
appointed a governor general of Canada; see Chapter 3), carefully planned
the attack. His troops trained and rehearsed until Byng decided they were
AR
ready. In preparation for the attack, artillery bombarded German positions

for more than a month. Meanwhile, sappers (army engineers) built tunnels
to secretly move troops closer to the ridge. On April 9, 1917, Canadian
FIGURE 2–15 The Canadian troops moved into position. The Canadian Corps followed their plan of
National Vimy Memorial in France attack and in less than two hours they had taken their first objective. On
commemorates Canadian soldiers
PE
who were killed during the First

April 10, they captured Hill 145, the highest point on the ridge. By April 12
World War. they had taken “the pimple,” the last German position.
Thinking Critically Do you think It was a stunning victory. The Canadians had gained more ground,
that war memorials are important? taken more prisoners, and captured more artillery than any previous British
Why or why not? offensive in the entire war. Although the cost was high—more than 3500
men were killed and another 7000 wounded—the losses were significantly
lower than in any previous Allied offensive. Byng’s meticulous planning and
What If… training, and Canadian professionalism and bravery, had paid off. The Battle
Imagine that Canada had lost of Vimy Ridge marked the first time that Canadian divisions attacked
at Vimy Ridge. How might that
together. Their success gave them a sense of national pride and the reputa-
have affected Canada’s identity?
tion of being an elite fighting force.

©P
Passchendaele
Byng was promoted for his role
at Vimy. His replacement was a
Canadian, General Arthur
Currie, a former realtor from
Victoria, British Columbia. As
the first Canadian appointed to
command Canada’s troops,
Currie brought an increasingly
independent Canadian point of
A
view to the British war effort.
Although he was a disciplined
AD
leader open to new strategies,
Currie still took orders from
General Haig. In October 1917,
Currie and the CEF were asked
to break through German lines FIGURE 2–16 Passchendaele; soldiers and horses sometimes drowned in the mud-
AN
filled craters which could be more than 30 metres wide.
and retake the town of
Passchendaele in Belgium.
Haig’s earlier assault on Passchendaele had left massive shell craters, which
the heavy autumn rains turned into a muddy bog. Currie warned that
casualties would be high, but Haig overruled him. Currie was right. The
C
Canadians captured Passchendaele, but the “victory” resulted in more than
200 000 casualties on each side, including more than 15 000 Canadians. The
Allies had gained only seven or eight kilometres, and the Germans soon
recaptured the town.
N
Women on the Western Front

SO
More than 2800 women served during the First World War. They were part
of the Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps and worked on hospital ships,
in overseas hospitals, and in field ambulance units on the battlefields. Many FIGURE 2–17 Edith Anderson,
were killed or injured by artillery fire, bombs, and poison gas. of the Six Nations Grand River
AR
Reserve, cared for wounded

soldiers in France.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
PE
1. What was the Schlieffen Plan, and why did its fail- 3. Make a list of conditions at the front that might
ure result in a stalemate on the Western Front? have contributed to psychological stress damage.
Use the information on pages 35–39 to gather
2. Judgements Discuss whether chemical weapons information.
should be allowed in warfare. The use of gas as a
4. How did new technological developments make
weapon was outlawed by the 1907 Hague
the First World War a war of attrition? Give specific
Convention. What is the point of an international
examples.
agreement if, when the time comes, countries do
whatever they wish?

©P
I n n ova t i o n s
War Technology
During the First World War, transportation and weapons technology
developed rapidly as nations dedicated their resources to the war
effort. The result was an industrial war with more casualties than
had ever been experienced.
A
A new type of warfare The
machine gun was largely
responsible for changing the
AD
way wars were fought. Its
ability to fire about 400–500
rounds per minute made it
an effective defensive
weapon. Both sides lined
their trenches with hundreds
of machine guns, making
AN
infantry attacks across no
man’s land futile and forcing
leaders to develop new
strategies.
C
N
Lighter than air Dirigibles (inflatable airships)
were developed in the late 1800s.
Germany’s Ferdinand von Zeppelin built
SO
huge, rigid dirigibles that were filled

with a lighter-than-air gas, such as
hydrogen, and propelled by an
engine suspended underneath.
Germany, France, and Italy used
dirigibles for scouting and bombing
AR
missions during the First World War.

PE
Deadly fire During the First World War,

more powerful and accurate artillery was
developed. New field guns could fire shells
almost 40 kilometres upward to hit targets
130 kilometres away. Often the shells were
filled with explosives and shrapnel, deadly
metal balls, or steel fragments.

©P
The silent enemy Although

the United States and Britain
did much of the work devel-
oping early submarines,
Germany used them the
most. Their U-boats (from
Unterseeboot, or “under-sea
boat”) were armed with torpe-
does that could sink large
A
ships. Germany used its
submarines to attack the
Warfare in the air Planes were first
convoys of merchant ships
AD
used to scout enemy positions.
and freighters that carried
Later in the war, pilots would throw
supplies to Britain in the
grenades at enemy planes or shoot
hopes of starving the British
at them with hand-held guns.
into submission.
Eventually, top-mounted guns were
added to planes and both sides
engaged in aerial dogfights.
AN
C
N
SO
AR
PE
New armour The British developed tanks to shelter soldiers Chemical warfare Germany was the first to use poison gas on
from gunfire while crossing no man’s land and to drive the battlefield, releasing clouds of chlorine gas at Ypres in 1915.
through the barbed wire that lined the trenches. In doing The gas blinded soldiers and attacked their respiratory systems.
so, tanks solved the problems of trench warfare. They were Early in the war, the only defence against poison gas was rags
first used during the Battle of the Somme to break through soaked in water or urine. Later, anti-gas respirators, or gas
the German lines. masks, made poison gas a less effective weapon.

©P
● Describe Canada’s military The War in the Air

During the First World War, airplanes were still a new invention and being a
pilot was very dangerous. Many pilots were killed in training and due to
KEY TERMS mechanical failure. The average life expectancy of a pilot in 1917 could be
biplane an airplane with two sets of wings, measured in weeks. Parachutes were not introduced until late in the war.
one on top of the body, and one under- Thousands of air crew and pilots were killed, many in training.
neath
At the beginning of the war, pilots flew alone in biplanes doing aerial
reconnaissance military search or explo- reconnaissance, photographing and reporting on enemy troop movements.
ration
Soon, however, pilots on both sides were armed, dropping bombs on the
sharpshooter a person skilled in shooting enemy below and firing guns at each other in the air. Fighter pilots had to be
A
dogfight aerial duels between aircraft sharpshooters with nerves of steel and lots of luck. Aerial dogfights were
ace a fighter pilot who has shot down five spectacular scenes as pilots used elaborate spins and rolls to avoid enemy
AD
enemy aircraft planes and stay out of their line of fire.
Air Aces
When a pilot could prove that he had shot down five enemy aircraft, he
AN
became an ace. Although Canada did not have its own air force (Canadians
who wanted to be pilots had to join the British Royal Flying Corps), it pro-
duced a number of aces. Among them were Billy Bishop, Ray Collishaw, Billy
Barker, William May, and Roy Brown. Some historians credit Brown with
shooting down the German flying ace Manfred von Richthofen, who was
C
known as the Red Baron. Because air aces became heroes in their home-
lands, they were often withdrawn from active duty overseas to promote
fundraising and recruitment at home.
N
FIGURE 2–18 A pair of

SO
Canada’s ace pilots:

Nanaimo’s Raymond
Collishaw (62 victories) and
Arthur Whealy (27 victories).
Many air aces were Canadian
even though Canada supplied
only a quarter of Britain’s
AR
pilots.
Thinking Critically Why would
valuable pilots be pulled from
active service to promote the
war effort at home? Why were
they good for promotion? How
PE
do you think they felt about

recruiting after they saw so
many of their friends killed in
battle?

©P
up close Billy Bishop: War Hero or CRITICAL

Judgements
and personal Cold-Blooded Killer? INQUIRY
Canada’s top air ace in the First World War was In warfare, society’s norms are put on hold, as
William Avery “Billy” Bishop, from Owen Sound, soldiers are often expected to kill, and in some cases
Ontario. His record was impressive. He shot down 72 are glorified for their number of kills. Many soldiers,
planes, the second highest number of “kills” in the past and present, suffer emotional trauma after expe-
war (Germany’s Red Baron had 80). Bishop was the riencing the atrocities of war and have difficulty
first Canadian pilot to be awarded the Victoria Cross, adjusting when they return home. At the time of the
A
Britain’s most prestigious medal for bravery. He First World War, soldiers’ battle stress was called shell
became the toast of Canada because of his success, shock or battle fatigue. It is currently identified as
AD
and toured to promote the war effort and help sell post-traumatic stress disorder.
Victory Bonds. In the following passage from his diary,
1. Bishop’s diary is his personal account of what
he describes some of his daring adventures:
happened. His “kill” total has sometimes been
He dived for about 600 feet [180 metres] and questioned because his deeds were not always
flattened out. I followed him and opened fire witnessed. Explain why you think Bishop was
AN
at forty to fifty yards [35 to 45 metres] range, given credit for the “kills.” Is the diary a primary
firing forty to fifty rounds. A group of tracers source? Evaluate it as a historical source.
(“visible bullets”) went into the fuselage and
2. Using the two sources presented here, identify
centre section, one being seen entering imme-
Bishop’s personal reactions to killing in warfare.
diately behind the pilot’s seat and one seemed
to hit himself. The machine then fell out of
C What might account for his conflicting feelings?
control in a spinning nose-dive. I dived after 3. Bishop most likely killed the pilots he shot down.
him firing.... He needed courage and nerve to do what he did.
N
What do you think the effect of the war would be
I must say that seeing an enemy going down
on someone like Bishop?
in flames is a source of great satisfaction.
SO
The moment you see the fire break out you 4. Do you think soldiers today are encouraged to
know that nothing in the world can save the count “kills”? Why or why not?
man, or men, in the doomed machine.
5. Are there times when killing is not justified in the
But the life of this Canadian legend was less glam- heat of battle? Explain.
orous than it appeared. In a letter home to his wife,
AR
Margaret, he wrote:
I am thoroughly downcast tonight....

Sometimes all of this awful fighting makes
you wonder if you have a right to call yourself
PE
human. My honey, I am so sick of it all, the

killing, the war. All I want is home and you.
–Billy Bishop
FIGURE 2–19 A stamp commemorates Canadian air ace

Billy Bishop.

©P
● Describe Canada’s military The War at Sea

When war broke out between Britain and Germany, leaders expected that
huge battles would be fought at sea. As part of the growing militarism in the
KEY TERMS years before the war, Britain asked Canada to help contribute to its naval
allegiance loyalty or faithfulness
forces. In 1910, Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier introduced the Naval Service
Act, which authorized the building of Canadian warships. The ships would
merchant marine civilian ships and sailors
that transported food, weapons, and
be under Canadian control but could be turned over to Britain if war broke
munitions out. Many French Canadians felt that Canada should not automatically
convoy a group of ships travelling together support Britain in war. This created tensions with English Canadians, most
protected by an armed force of whom felt they owed Britain their allegiance.
A
Victory Bonds bonds issued by the During the war, Britain relied heavily on its own navy to protect the
Canadian government to support the war freighters that brought supplies and troops to the Western Front. While
AD
effort
Canada’s navy was small and unable to contribute much to the war effort,
honour rationing a civilian effort to con- Canada’s merchant marine played a significant role in the war by doing the
sume less and conserve supplies on the
home front
dangerous work of ferrying munitions and food to Britain. Although not
officially members of the armed forces, many merchant marines lost their
income tax a tax on personal income
lives when their ships were attacked crossing the Atlantic.
AN
corporate tax a tax charged to businesses
based on their total revenues
Submarine Warfare
Although Germany could not match Britain’s navy in size and strength, its
U-boat was a dangerous weapon because it could travel under water without
C
being detected. Equipped with torpedoes, U-boats took their toll on Allied
warships and merchant ships. Eventually the Allies developed the convoy
system to help protect their ships from the German U-boats. Freighters
travelled together and were defended by armed destroyers. The Allies also
N
developed an underwater listening device that helped them locate and
destroy U-boats. Both of these advances
SO
helped to greatly reduce the threat of

German submarines.
Germany’s aggressive use of sub-
marines also contributed to the United
States entering the war in 1917. In 1915, a
AR
German U-boat sank the Lusitania, a

British passenger liner, killing close to
1200 passengers. Among the dead were
Canadian and American civilians. In
February 1917, Germany announced that
PE
U-boats would sink any ship within the

war zone around Britain—including
ships that were not from Allied countries.
German leaders believed that this move
would put a stranglehold on Britain and
help end the war. But this threat also
FIGURE 2–20 The sinking of the Lusitania made American ships targets and encour-
Thinking Critically Explain why the United States felt justified in entering the aged the United States to enter the war on
war after the sinking of the Lusitania. Can you think of any recent events that
resulted in political and military conflict? What are some non-military options
the side of the Allies on April 2, 1917.
to resolve disputes between countries?

©P
The Home Front ● What was the war’s impact on

the home front?
Canada and many of its citizens were committed to
supporting the war effort. Prime Minister Borden
replaced Sam Hughes’s Shell Committee with the Forest Mineral Agricultural Animal
more efficient Imperial Munitions Board, and Year
Products Products Products Products
munitions factories started building ships and air-
1911 $12.0 $6.7 $61.4 $40.6
planes as well as shells. The production and export
of Canadian goods reached record highs. Resources 1912 $11.0 $5.6 $81.8 $36.9
such as lumber, nickel, copper, and lead were in 1913 $10.1 $12.1 $106.5 $30.3
high demand. Canadian farmers produced as much
A
1914 $10.6 $16.0 $146.2 $26.7
wheat and beef as they could to feed the troops
overseas. This demand for Canadian goods helped 1915 $9.9 $12.2 $95.8 $38.2
AD
its economy boom during the war. 1916 $14.1 $12.4 $196.8 $67.8
Most of what Canada produced was exported to
1917 $14.9 $15.5 $266.2 $93.3
Europe, so many goods became scarce within
Canada, which caused prices to rise. Some 1918 $4.5 $14.0 $403.5 $112.2
Canadian businesses made enormous profits from
AN
FIGURE 2–21 Value of exports from Canada to Britain during the
the inflated prices. Workers became increasingly First World War (in millions)
frustrated by government controls that kept wages Using Evidence In which year were Canadian exports to Britain the
low yet allowed prices to rise. Workers’ demands for highest? How significant were the increases in 1916? Why did some
higher wages and better working conditions became exports decrease in 1918?
a major issue after the war.
C
Supporting the War Effort
By 1918, the war effort was costing Canada about $2.5 million daily.
N
The government launched several initiatives to cover these costs.
• Canadians were urged to buy Victory Bonds. The government
SO
raised close to $2 billion through these bonds, which Canadians

could cash in for a profit when the war was over.
• Honour rationing was introduced to help combat shortages on
the home front. Canadians used less butter and sugar, and the
AR
government introduced “Meatless Fridays” and “Fuel-less

Sundays” to conserve supplies.
• In 1917, the Canadian government introduced income tax—a
measure that was supposed to be temporary. Affluent individu-
als and families had to pay a tax of between 1 and 15 percent of
PE
their income.
• A corporate tax was also introduced, charging businesses four
percent of their revenues. Many Canadians thought this was too FIGURE 2–22 This poster, showing a
low, considering the profits some companies made during the Canadian nurse, reminded the public of
war. Edith Cavell, a British nurse who was
executed by the Germans in 1915 for
Despite these efforts, the government still did not raise enough helping Allied soldiers escape German-
money to cover the costs of the war effort. It had to borrow money occupied countries. The names on the
poster represent German atrocities.
from other countries, in particular the United States, to pay its
Thinking Critically What is the message in
debts.
this poster?

©P
Getting the Message Out

During the First World War, Canadians were bombarded with
propaganda. It was everywhere: films, magazine articles, radio
programs, political speeches, and posters. Appealing to their sense
of patriotism, propaganda encouraged people to join the army,
buy Victory Bonds, use less fuel, eat less meat, and support the
government. Some of the campaigns used social pressure to
encourage men to join the army, contributing to the fact that the
majority of Canadians who served in the First World War were
volunteers.
A
Propaganda often distorted the truth. The number of Allied
soldiers killed or wounded was minimized, while enemy casualties
AD
were exaggerated. British commanders were praised even as they
continued to waste lives in futile attacks. When Germany invaded
Belgium in 1914, refugees who escaped to England told horrible
stories about the invasion. Writers used these stories to portray
German troops as barbarians intent on destroying the civilized
AN
world. While this propaganda was intended to recruit soldiers, it
also fuelled prejudice on the home front. Many Canadian citizens
were treated as enemy aliens, subjected to harsh restrictions by the
FIGURE 2–23 This recruiting poster was
government and violent attacks by angry citizens.
aimed at Canadian wives and mothers.
Thinking Critically Why do you think a war
poster targeted women? How effectively does
C
Women and the War
this poster communicate its message to its Before 1914, middle-class women had few options for working
intended audience? Explain.
outside the home. Some became nurses or teachers. Others were
N
employed as domestic servants or worked at low-skill, low-paying
jobs in food and clothing industries. During the war, increased
SO
industrial production created a demand for labour. Women were

● What effect did the war have
on the role of women? hired for all types of work, from operating fishing boats to work-
ing on farms. One Toronto woman who worked filling artillery
shells described her motivation on the job as follows:
AR
There was everybody, every single

class.... [W]e began to realize that
we were all sisters under the skin....
[T]here’s nothing that draws people
together more than mutual trouble....
PE
[W]e felt, “The boys are doing that for

us, what are we doing for them?” You
just rolled up your sleeves and you
didn’t care how tired you were or
anything else.
–Tapestry of War, 1992
FIGURE 2–24 Munitions assembly, Verdun, Québec. About 35 000

Canadian women worked in munitions factories where shells were
manufactured, and thousands more drove delivery trucks.

©P
Suffrage Is Granted to Women KEY TERM

propaganda information, usually
Without women’s efforts on the home front, Canada’s wartime economy produced by governments, presented
would have collapsed. But when the war ended, most employers assumed in such a way as to inspire and spread
that women would return to work in their homes. Many women believed particular beliefs or opinions
that their contribution to the war effort should allow them to make deci-
sions about how their country was run. During the 1915 provincial election
in Manitoba, one of the Liberal Party’s campaign promises was to give
women the right to vote. They kept their promise, and Manitoban women
received this right in January 1916. Thanks to the efforts of suffragists across
the country, women in other provinces soon won the right to vote as well.
A
Alberta and Saskatchewan followed Manitoba’s example later in 1916, with
Ontario and British Columbia following in 1917. In 1918, women were
AD
granted the right to vote in federal elections, with the exception of
Aboriginal and immigrant women.
The Halifax Explosion
AN
During the war, Halifax was a valuable
base for refuelling and repairing Allied
warships. It was also the chief depar-
ture point for soldiers and supplies
headed to Europe. The harbour was
extremely busy, but there was little traf-
fic control and collisions were frequent.
C
On December 6, 1917, the SS Mont
Blanc, a French vessel carrying more
N
than 2500 tonnes of explosives, was
accidentally hit by another ship. The
SO
collision caused an explosion so power-

ful that it devastated Halifax’s harbour
and levelled much of the city. More
FIGURE 2–25 Halifax Harbour after the explosion, in 1917
than 2000 people were killed, another
Thinking Critically Do you think the Halifax explosion might have made
9000 were injured, and thousands were people think differently about the war? Explain.
AR
left homeless by the explosion and the

fires it caused.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
PE
1. How was propaganda used during the war? 3. Explain how women contributed to the war effort,
Discuss whether it is appropriate to manipulate and describe how their status in Canadian society
information for patriotic purposes during war. What changed as a result.
differences, if any, are there between propaganda
4. What contributions did Canadians on the home
and advertising?
front make to the war effort?
2. List specific military contributions made by
5. Imagine you are the prime minister and you have
Canada.
received a request for aid from the mayor of
Halifax after the 1917 explosion. Write a response
explaining why help will be limited.

©P
CRITICAL
INQUIRY Significance
case study ● What challenges did Aboriginal

soldiers face during the war?
Aboriginal Peoples and the

First World War
Canada’s Aboriginal peoples contributed greatly to the
war effort, both by giving money to the cause and by vol-
unteering for the armed forces. This was despite the fact
A
that First Nations’ land claims were being brought before
the government, and they faced racism, bigotry, and
AD
poverty. In fact, at the start of the war, the government
discouraged Aboriginal peoples from enlisting. Why,
then, did they take part in the conflict?
Many Aboriginal peoples felt strongly about their
relationship with the British Crown, with which they had
AN
signed important agreements. Many were descended
from Loyalists who had fought for Britain in the FIGURE 2–26 Francis
American Revolution and in the War of 1812. In the FIGURE 2–27 National Aboriginal
Pegahmagabow won his
Veterans Monument in Ottawa
words of one Aboriginal soldier: Military Medal for bravery
at Passchendaele. Thinking Critically What do you
think the various elements of the
...[T]he participation of Great Britain in the war
has occasioned expressions of loyalty from the
C monument symbolize?
Indians, and the offer of contributions from their

When I was... on Lake Superior, in 1914, some of
funds toward the general expenses of the war or
us landed from our vessel to gather blueberries
N
toward the Patriotic Fund. Some bands have also
near an Ojibwa camp. An old Indian recognized
offered the services of their warriors if they
me, and gave me a tiny medicine-bag to protect
should be needed.
SO
me, saying that I would shortly go into great

–Indian Affairs, Annual Report,
1913–1914 danger. Sometimes [the bag] seemed to be as
hard as rock, at other times it appeared to con-
Young Aboriginal men saw the war as a chance to prove tain nothing. What really was inside it I do not
themselves. Most came from isolated communities and know. I wore it in the trenches, but lost it when I
thought the war would be an opportunity for adventure. was wounded and taken to a hospital.
AR
Also, soldiers were paid, so there was an economic –Francis Pegahmagabow

incentive for volunteering.
In the end, more than 4000 Aboriginal peoples
The hunting tradition of many Aboriginal peoples
volunteered for service, including nurse Edith Anderson
was excellent training for the battlefield, where steady
Monture and Boston Marathon winner Tom Longboat, an
nerves, patience, and good marksmanship made them
PE
Onondaga, who served at the Somme.

excellent sharpshooters. Francis Pegahmagabow, an
Ojibwa, and Henry Louis Norwest, a Métis, both won
Military Medals for their exceptional service as snipers Looking Further
and scouts. Inuit soldier John Shiwak compared sniping
to swatching, shooting seals in open water as they 1. What motivated Aboriginal peoples to enlist in the
popped up to breathe. Often, Aboriginal spiritual tradi- First World War? What qualities helped them to excel
tions went to the Western Front, as recounted by Francis on the battlefield?
Pegahmagabow:
2. Do you think Aboriginal peoples’ contribution to the
war effort would have been featured in a textbook
50 years ago? Why or why not?

©P
The Conscription Crisis ● What was the war’s impact on

the home front?
By 1917, thousands of Canadian men had been killed and many thousands
more had been seriously wounded. Many men were working in essential
industries at home to support the war effort, so there were not enough KEY TERMS
volunteers to replenish the Canadian forces in Europe. conscription forced enlistment in the
When the war began, Prime Minister Borden promised there would be armed forces of all fit men of certain ages
no conscription, or compulsory enlistment, for military service. But when Military Service Act a 1917 Act that made
Borden learned how many men were needed to win the battle at Vimy conscription compulsory for all Canadian
Ridge, he saw that Canada would have to send more troops to Europe. In men between the ages of 20 and 45, call-
ing up the younger men first
1917, Borden introduced the Military Service Act, which made enlistment
A
conscientious objector a person who
compulsory. At first, the Act allowed exemptions for the disabled, the clergy,
opposes war for religious or moral
those with essential jobs or special skills, and conscientious objectors who reasons
AD
opposed the war based on religious grounds. Conscription turned out to be
a very controversial and emotional issue that divided the country and left
lasting scars.
Opposition in Québec
AN
While Canada had a high overall rate of volunteers, recruitment was uneven have on Canadian unity?
across the country, with the lowest levels in Québec. Many French
Canadians were farmers and were needed at home. The majority of them
did not feel a patriotic connection to either Britain or France because their
C
ancestors had come to Canada generations before. They saw the Military
Service Act as a means of forcing them to fight in a distant war that had no
connection to them. Relations between Francophones and Anglophones
were also strained because French language rights had been lost in many
N
schools outside Québec. When Francophone men did volunteer, there was
little effort to keep them together and few officers spoke French. This did lit-
SO
tle to encourage French Canadians to volunteer to

fight overseas and made them feel like second-
class citizens on the home front.
Québec nationalist Henri Bourassa was one
of the most outspoken critics of conscription.
AR
Bourassa believed that the country had lost

enough men and spent enough money on a war
that had little to do with Canada. Spending more
money and sending more troops would bankrupt
the country and put a strain on Canada’s agricul-
PE
tural and industrial production. He argued that a

weakened economy would eventually threaten
Canada’s political independence. He also believed
that conscription would bitterly divide the nation
FIGURE 2–28 Stone dedicated to conscientious objectors; thou-
by aggravating tensions between Francophones sands of conscientious objectors from the United States took refuge
and Anglophones. Bourassa was right. Violent in Canada in the early 1970s to avoid fighting in the Vietnam War
clashes erupted in Québec between people (see Chapter 7). They were termed “draft dodgers” (those who
wanted to avoid mandatory conscription) or “deserters” (those who
protesting conscription and those who supported
abandoned military posts without permission).
the war.
Thinking Critically What is your opinion of conscientious objectors?
If you were drafted, how would you respond?

©P
KEY TERMS The Labour Movement

labour movement groups organized to
improve conditions for workers Farmers, particularly on the Prairies, also opposed conscription because
they needed their sons to work the farm at home, not fight a war overseas.
Military Voters Act an Act that allowed
men and women serving overseas to vote Industrial workers felt they were already contributing to the war effort and
Wartime Elections Act an Act that gave
did not want to give up their jobs to fight in Europe.
the vote to Canadian women related to In British Columbia, the coal miners of Vancouver Island led the labour
servicemen, but cancelled the vote for movement’s opposition to conscription. During the war, miners were urged
conscientious objectors and immigrants
from enemy countries
to increase their output, while wages and working conditions did not
improve and the mining companies made more profit. Workers were already
khaki election the name given to the
1917 federal election because of Borden’s
finding it difficult to provide for their families because of soaring prices and
A
efforts to win the military vote low wages, and conscription would mean they would earn even less. In 1917,
Union Government the coalition govern- labour leader Albert “Ginger” Goodwin led a group of smelter workers in a
AD
ment formed by Conservatives and some strike, demanding an eight-hour workday. During the strike, Goodwin
Liberals and independents that governed received his conscription notice to report for duty, even though he had been
Canada from 1917 to 1920
previously excused from active service because he had “black lung” from
working in the mines. Goodwin applied for exemption from service. When
he was turned down, he hid in the mountains with several other union
AN
members and conscientious objectors. He was eventually tracked down and
killed by the police.
The Khaki Election of 1917

C
Prime Minister Borden soon realized that there was strong opposition to
conscription in many parts of Canada. To try to strengthen his position, he
asked Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberals to join his Conservatives to form a
union or coalition government. But Laurier was firmly against conscription,
N
believing the “law of the land... declares that no man in Canada shall be sub-
jected to compulsory military service except to repel invasions or for the
SO
defence of Canada....”
Failing to get the Liberal leader’s support, Borden passed two pieces of
legislation to try to ensure he would win an election. He introduced the
Military Voters Act, which allowed men and
women serving overseas to vote. He also passed
AR
the Wartime Elections Act, which gave the vote

to all Canadian women related to servicemen,
but cancelled the vote for all conscientious
objectors and immigrants who had come from
enemy countries in the last 15 years. The 1917
PE
election became known as the khaki election

because of these attempts to win the support of
people serving during the war.
Before the election, Borden was able to sway
some Liberals and independents who favoured
conscription to join him in forming a wartime
Union Government. In addition, the Liberals
FIGURE 2–29 Prime Minister Borden gave Canadian men and
lost much support outside Québec because of
women serving overseas the right to vote in the federal election Laurier’s position on conscription. As a result,
of 1917. For the women in this photograph, it was their first time the Union Government won the majority of
voting in a federal election.
votes in the 1917 election.

©P
Conscription Divides the Country Union

Liberals
Government
The Union Government won the election with strong support from (Laurier)
(Borden)
the armed forces and women, but the anger and resentment stirred
Atlantic Canada 21 10
up by the conscription debate did not subside. In Québec, people
continued to demonstrate against conscription even after the elec- Québec 3 62
tion. Crowds in Montréal marched through the streets shouting Ontario 74 8
“À bas Borden” (“down with Borden”). Canadian troops were
Western Canada 55 2
pelted with rotten vegetables and stones when they taunted French
Canadians for refusing to enlist. Tensions finally erupted at anti- Total 153 82
conscription riots in Québec City during the Easter weekend of 1918. FIGURE 2–30 Results of the 1917 election by
A
On April 1, four demonstrators were shot and killed by soldiers. Ten region; number of seats in Parliament
soldiers were wounded over that weekend as well. Using Evidence Find evidence to support the
AD
Nevertheless, conscription took place. Of the 401 882 men across view that the 1917 election divided the country.
Canada who were called up, only 125 000 were enlisted and about
25 000 conscripted soldiers reached France before the end of the war.
Judgements
AN
INQUIRY
Conscription Around the World, 2009

1. Why do you think
some countries
have conscription
C while others do not?
2. Do you think that
N there should be
mandatory military
service in Canada?
N
Explain your think-
No armed forces ing.
SO
No conscription
Plan to abolish
conscription in
three years
Conscription
No information
0 2000 4000 km
available
AR
FIGURE 2–31 Mandatory military service in countries around the world in 2009
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
PE
1. Why did Prime Minister Borden believe that 4. Why do you think Borden did not allow conscien-
conscription was necessary? Who was opposed to tious objectors or recent Canadian immigrants
conscription and why? from enemy countries to vote in the 1917 election?
Why did he not give the vote to all women in
2. Write a letter to the editor of the Vancouver Sun
1917?
from Henri Bourassa explaining why conscription
was not good for the country. 5. By 1917, Canadian soldiers were being used as
“shock” troops, leading the attacks in battles.
3. In pairs, create small election posters for the khaki
Imagine you are in the position of Robert Borden.
election. Aim your advertising at two of the follow-
Make a list of pros and cons for sending more
ing groups: soldiers, women, French Canadians,
troops.
or English Canadians.

©P
KEY TERMS
The End of the War
abdicate to give up a position of authority
After three long years in a stalemate on the Western Front, two important
socialist a believer in a political and
economic system in which the means of events in the spring of 1917 changed the direction of the war. Like the other
production and distribution in a country members of the Triple Entente, Russia dedicated its resources to the war.
are publicly owned and controlled for the Thousands of soldiers died fighting along the Eastern Front. At home,
benefit of all members of a society
supplies and food were limited and prices soared. People became increas-
Central Powers the German Empire, the
ingly frustrated, and a series of revolutions forced Czar Nicholas to abdicate
Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman
Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria in March of 1917. The Provisional Government was formed, but the Russian
Hundred Days Campaign the final Allied
people were still dissatisfied with it and the war. In October 1917, socialist
offensive against the Central Powers on revolutionaries, called Bolsheviks, overthrew the Provisional Government,
A
the Western Front, from August 8 to promising the war-weary public “peace and bread.” They began negotiating
November 11, 1918
with the Central Powers to end the war.
AD
armistice an agreement by warring While Russia’s internal politics weakened the Allies on the Eastern Front,
parties to end hostilities
another important event of early 1917 shifted power on the Western Front.
Paris Peace Conference a meeting in The United States, still angered by the sinking of neutral ships such as the
Paris in 1919 to discuss the terms of a
peace agreement after the First World War Lusitania, learned that Germany promised to support Mexico if it attacked
the United States. On April 2, 1917, the United States declared war on
Treaty of Versailles one of the treaties that
AN
ended the First World War; it imposed Germany. In eight months, American soldiers reached the Western Front.
strict sanctions on Germany
The Hundred Days Campaign

On March 3, 1918, Russia and the Central Powers signed the Treaty of Brest-
C
Litovsk. This truce on the Eastern Front freed German troops to fight on the
Western Front. Germany knew that it needed a quick victory before
American troops reached France. In a desperate offensive beginning in
March 1918, the German army struck at weak points in the Allies’ lines and
N
drove deep into France. Positions that had been won at great cost in lives,
including Ypres, the Somme, and Passchendaele, were lost within weeks. By
SO
the summer of 1918, the new front line was only 75 kilometres from Paris.
With the arrival of the Americans, the Allies rallied and were able to stop
the German advance. In August 1918, the Allies launched a series of attacks
that came to be known as the Hundred Days Campaign. Canada’s offensives
were among the most successful of all the Allied forces during this cam-
AR
paign. Canadian troops, under the disciplined command of General Currie,

broke through German lines and won important battles at Arras, Cambrai,
and Valenciennes.
The Central Powers Collapse

PE
FIGURE 2–32 Workers march with Their final offensive in France and the battles of the Hundred Days
banners of the Russian Revolution,
Campaign exhausted the Germans and the rest of the Central Powers. They
1917
had no reserves and could not continue without fresh troops, food, and
supplies. The Central Powers collapsed one by one. In November 1918, the
German Kaiser abdicated and fled to Holland and Austria-Hungary agreed
to a ceasefire. An armistice, or truce to end the war, on the Western Front
was finally signed in a railway car in France at 5:00 a.m. on November 11,
1918. The war was to stop at 11:00 a.m. This corresponds to the date and
time of our modern-day Remembrance Day ceremonies.

©P
Canada’s Emerging Autonomy ● What factors contributed to

After signing the armistice, the leaders of the Allies and the other countries
that won the war met in Paris in 1919 to discuss the terms of a peace agree-
ment. The Paris Peace Conference lasted for six months and resulted in a
number of treaties that defined new borders and compensation for losses What If…
suffered during the war. More than 30 countries attended the conference, Imagine Canada had not been
each with their own agenda. Germany and its allies were not allowed to par- given a separate seat at the
ticipate. Russia, which had already negotiated the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Paris Peace Conference. How
with Germany in 1918, was not invited. might that have affected
Canadian autonomy?
A
Participating in Peace
AD
The Paris Peace Conference marked an important Dead Wounded Missing Total
moment in Canada’s emerging autonomy from
Canada 57 150 unknown 207
Britain. Because Canada had contributed so much to
the war and its soldiers had fought under Canadian Britain 659 2032 359 3050
leaders on the battlefields, Prime Minister Borden
AN
demanded Canada have its own seat at the conference. France 1359 4200 362 5921
U.S. President Woodrow Wilson opposed Canada’s
Germany 1600 4065 103 5768
participation. He thought that Britain should vote on
behalf of the British Empire and that a separate vote Russia 1700 5000 unknown 6700
for Canada was really just another vote for Britain. But
British Prime Minister Lloyd George reminded Wilson
C Austria-Hungary 922 3600 855 5377
that Canada had fought longer and supplied more United States 58 190 14 262
troops than other countries. In the end, Canada won a
seat at the conference and Borden insisted that he be FIGURE 2–33 Approximate* number of military casualties of the
N
First World War (in thousands)
included among those leaders who signed the Treaty of
* Although precise casualty numbers for the First World War are not available,
Versailles. For the first time, Canada gained interna- these numbers can be considered a reliable estimate of the casualties incurred
SO
tional recognition as an independent nation. by these countries.
The Treaty of Versailles

One of the treaties that came
AR
out of the Paris Peace

Conference was the Treaty of
Versailles. This document laid
out the terms of peace between
Germany and the Allies. Initially,
PE
U.S. President Wilson proposed

a 14-point plan for “just and
lasting peace” that emphasized
forgiveness and future interna-
tional cooperation. But some
Allied leaders wanted to shame
Germany and make it pay for
the damage their countries had
suffered during the war. FIGURE 2–34 Leaders from around the world gathered in Versailles, outside of Paris, to
negotiate a peace agreement, which became known as the Treaty of Versailles.

©P
KEY TERM In the end, the Treaty of Versailles included the following terms:
War Guilt Clause an article in the • Germany had to agree to a War Guilt Clause, meaning that it had to
Treaty of Versailles that made Germany accept sole responsibility for causing the war.
responsible for starting the First
World War • Germany’s territory would be reduced. Alsace-Lorraine would be
returned to France. Rhineland, on the west bank of the Rhine River,
would remain part of Germany but would be demilitarized. Some of
Germany’s land would be given to Poland so it would have a corridor to
the sea. Germany also had to give up control of its colonies.
• Germany had to pay war reparations totalling approximately $30 billion.
• The German army was to be restricted to 100 000 men. Germany also
A
had to surrender its navy—including its U-boats—and much of its mer-
chant fleet. It was not allowed to have an air force.
• Austria and Germany were forbidden to unite.
AD
The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919. Naturally, Germany
was reluctant to agree to such punishing terms, but it submitted because the
Allies threatened to resume fighting. The reparation terms were particularly
harsh. Like other European countries, Germany’s economy was in ruins after
AN
the war and it could not make full reparation payments. Under the Treaty of
Versailles, different ethnic and cultural groups were combined to create new
nations, which left many people without a homeland. This meant that the
feelings of nationalism that helped fuel the war were still unresolved. Many
historians believe that, instead of lasting peace, the treaty brought the cer-
C
tainty of renewed war. Even British Prime Minister Lloyd George later found
the terms too harsh. He observed that, “We shall have to fight another war
all over again in 25 years at three times the cost.”
N
N
SO
ATLANTIC SWEDEN
FINLAND
OCEAN
NORWAY
SEA
NORTH ESTONIA
UNION OF
SEA
IC
SOVIET SOCIALIST
LT
AR
DENMARK LATVIA
IRELAND BA REPUBLICS
GREAT DANZIG LITHUANIA (U.S.S.R.)
BRITAIN
NETHERLANDS GERMANY
GERMANY
BELGIUM POLAND
LUXEMBOURG CZ
E CH
SAAR OSLOV
PE
RHINELAND AKIA
Bay of
FRANCE
Biscay SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA
FIGURE 2–35 Europe HUNGARY
ROMANIA
in 1922
AL
Using Evidence BLACK SEA

TUG
YUGOSLAVIA
SPAIN ITALY
POR
Compare this map BULGARIA
with the map of PERSIA

ALBANIA (IRAN)
Europe on page 28. TURKEY
GREECE
Describe the changes
in national borders, SYRIA
(French
then list the names of CYPRUS (British)
Mandate) IRAQ
(British
the new countries 0 250 500 km MEDITERRANEAN SEA Mandate)
LEBANON (French Mandate)
created.

©P
CRITICAL
counter points
Did the war have a positive or negative effect on Canada?
The First World War brought profound changes to war. Aboriginal leaders, who hoped their peoples’ contri-
Canada. It changed the way we see ourselves as a butions to the war would ensure them a better situation,
nation. Canadian troops fought well as a united force were disappointed. If anything, Canadian society was
A
and their victories at Vimy Ridge and Passchendaele more discriminatory than ever.
distinguished them as disciplined and courageous
AD
fighters. The need for war supplies stimulated the The Cost of War
economy, resulting in major growth in Canadian industry. The losses both at home and throughout the world were
Women won the right to vote for the first time. The First staggering. Approximately 13 million people were
World War marked Canada’s coming of age as it moved killed during the First World War, and millions more were
from a collection of disparate communities to a nation psychologically or physically wounded. The economic
AN
united by a sense of pride and identity. Canada gained costs of the war in destruction and lost productivity were
international status by participating at the Paris Peace enormous. Between 1914 and 1918, Canada sent many
Conference, and Canadians began to see themselves millions of dollars worth of materials overseas, creating a
less as colonials in the British Empire and more as debt that took decades to pay off. Some historians
citizens of an independent country. According to challenge the idea that the First World War marked
Canadian historian George Woodcock,
C Canada’s coming of age. Historian Jonathan Vance asks,
...the emergence of Canada... as a nation among “How could a war that saw the deaths of 60 000
nations within the broader world context, Canadians and the wounding of 170 000 others become
N
caused people to think less of what divided them a constructive force in the nation’s history?” Vance
than of what united them. They shared a single, believes that Canada’s “coming of age” was a myth that
if immense, geographical terrain, a common his- developed during the 1920s and 1930s to transform the
SO
torical tradition in which their various pasts horrors of the war into a more positive experience. The
intermingled of necessity, and an identity in maturity myth was meant to help heal the country,
which the sense of being colonial—and therefore Vance says, because believing in it meant wartime
being linked irrevocably to a land far away— losses had served a real purpose for Canada.
metamorphosed into a sense of being Canadian.
AR
–George Woodcock Analyzing the Issue
1. Define “coming of age.” How did the First World

A Country Divided
War help bring about Canada’s “coming of age”?
The war had a very negative effect on the solidarity of
2. Make a study tool on the theme of Canadian unity
PE
Canada. The issue of conscription and the bitterness of

the debate between Anglophones and Francophones and the effects of the First World War. Which events
have never been completely forgotten. Those who spoke enhanced Canadian unity and which diminished it?
out against conscription were accused of being unpatri- 3. You and a partner have been chosen to be on a
otic and labelled cowards. Such accusations isolated panel to discuss the impact of the First World War
many French Canadians from the federal government on Canada’s development. One of you will defend
that had broken its promise not to impose conscription. George Woodcock’s position, the other, that of
The War Measures Act also caused problems in many Jonathan Vance. Prepare your arguments and
communities where immigrants from Eastern European present them to the class for further discussion.
countries suffered racial discrimination even after the

©P
The League of Nations

Prime Minister The Treaty of Versailles included the formation of the League of Nations.
Robert Laird Borden The League was Woodrow Wilson’s brainchild—as the idea of international
cooperation was one of the most important elements of his 14-point plan
- born 1854, Grand Pré, Nova Scotia for lasting peace. The League was based on the principle of collective
- teacher, lawyer
- first elected to Commons in 1896 security. If one member came under attack, all members united against
- prime minister 1911–1920 the aggressor, much as the forging of alliances hoped to accomplish at the
beginning of the war. As part of his struggle to be included in the Paris
Domestic Record Peace Conference, Prime Minister Borden also won the right for Canada to
• passed the War Measures Act become a member of the newly formed League. The League’s 42 founding
A
(1914) during the First World War nations first met in Paris on January 16, 1920.
• introduced income tax as a “tem- The idea of a League of Nations was not welcomed by everyone. Britain
porary” measure in 1917
AD
and France had doubts about it and wanted the freedom to pursue their
• made conscription mandatory in imperialist ambitions. But their leaders realized that Wilson’s proposal had
1917 by passing the Military
Service Act propaganda value, so they agreed to the basic concept, at least in principle.
• won the 1917 khaki election by Smaller nations, always concerned about becoming victims of the great
passing the Military Voters Act and powers, eagerly looked forward to a new era of peace. Ironically, the United
AN
the Wartime Elections Act States refused to join the League. Wilson had powerful opponents who
• sent federal troops to break up the rejected the principle of collective security, which would involve the U.S. in
Winnipeg General Strike (1919)
world affairs.
International Record
• led the Canadian delegation at the
The League’s Limitations
Paris Peace Conference in 1919
• fought to allow Canada to sign the
C
In many ways, the League of Nations proved to be a more idealistic vision
Treaty of Versailles than a practical solution to world problems. The refusal of the United States
• won Canada a place in the League to join the League greatly undermined its effectiveness to resolve disputes in
N
of Nations
the years after the First World War. It required the nations of the world to
• was lead author of Resolution IX
at the Imperial War Conference cooperate with one another, which was not something they had done very
SO
(1917), arguing that Canada well in the past. The League could punish an aggressive nation by imposing
deserved recognition as an economic sanctions against it, thus restricting trade with the offending
autonomous nation
nation. But the League did not have a military force of its own to impose its
decisions on aggressor nations. Nor was it easy to impose sanctions.
AR
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. With a partner, prepare briefing notes for the 2. Research the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.
Canadian delegation to the Paris Peace Make a PMI chart on the treaty’s terms and their
PE
Conference. Emphasize Canada’s status as a possible consequences.

nation, its contributions to the war, and the costs
of the war to Canada.

©P
Canada After the War ● What challenges did

Aboriginal soldiers face upon
After four long years of fighting, Canadian soldiers were finally on their way their return home?
home. Most returned to Canada in early 1919 only to find that there were
no steady pensions for veterans, no special medical services for those
wounded in the war, and above all, few jobs. To make matters worse, many
employers had grown rich during the war. The veterans had made the sacri-
fices, but it seemed that others were reaping the rewards.
Aboriginal soldiers returning to Canada faced even greater disappoint-
ments. During the war, they benefited from some of the social changes that
took place, including gaining the right to vote under the Military Voters Act.
A
Aboriginal peoples also believed that their contributions to the war effort
would be acknowledged. But they found that nothing had changed. They
AD
still faced prejudice, and Aboriginal soldiers received even less support and
opportunities than other veterans after the war.
Flu Pandemic of 1918
AN
During the winter of 1918 to 1919, a deadly
influenza virus (called Spanish Flu) swept across
Europe, killing millions. Many returning soldiers
carried the virus to North America. Young peo-
ple were especially susceptible to the virus, which
caused the deaths of an estimated 21 million
C
people worldwide, more than the war itself.
From 1918 to 1920, approximately 50 000
Canadians died during the epidemic. Many
N
small Aboriginal communities were almost
wiped out. Schools and public places were closed
SO
for months in an effort to stop the spread of the

FIGURE 2–36 After the devastation of the First World War, condi-
virus, and in some communities, people were tions were right for the flu virus to spread rapidly.
required to wear breathing masks in public. Developing Understanding Why are these people wearing masks?
AR
FA S T F O R WA R D
Worldwide Pandemics
When an infectious disease spreads rapidly across a Today, pandemics can spread more rapidly due
PE
continent or the whole world, it is called a pandemic. to increased mobility of the global population. The
The World Health Organization (WHO) is an agency SARS outbreak of 2003 demonstrated how air travel
of the United Nations that coordinates international could help spread disease across continents. H1N1,
efforts to monitor outbreaks of infectious diseases. or Swine Flu, which was first identified in Mexico in
It has three criteria to determine whether a flu 2008, rapidly spread around the globe. H1N1 is a
outbreak is a pandemic: very similar strain to the Spanish Flu, which caused
• It is a new flu germ to which humans did not the pandemic of 1918 that killed millions.
have immunity.
• Infected people can become very ill or even die.
• It is contagious and spreads easily.

©P
CHAPTER
Review
CHAPTER FOCUS QUESTION What effect did Canada’s participation in the First World War
have on Canadian society and its status as a nation?
The First World War influenced many events throughout were dramatically at odds, as the conscription crisis of
the 20th century. It was also Canada’s “baptism of fire” 1917 had shown. On the positive side, women, working
and helped create a Canadian identity. Before the war, in factories and fields and doing jobs formerly reserved
Canada was part of the British Empire. Many Canadians for men, saw their roles in society differently as a result.
A
identified with Britain as much as they did with Canada. In 1917, women voted for the first time in a federal
The First World War changed that. Men from across the election. Although the cost in lives was great, the First
country trained together and then fought together far World War helped transform Canada into a modern
AD
from home. Canadian troops proved themselves at industrial nation with international standing.
Ypres, Vimy Ridge and other battles, and Canada won a
place at the peace table at the end of the war. But the 1. Complete the following organizer to show how
war also exposed a deep divide in the land: the different Canada changed over the course of the First World
goals and aspirations of French and English Canadians War.
AN
August 1914 November 1918
Relations with Britain
Status of women
Feelings of national identity

C
Role of government
N
French–English relations
SO

2. Review the Key Terms listed on page 25 to help you 3. Create an annotated timeline showing steps to
AR
understand the nature and progress of the First Canadian autonomy. This will be an ongoing assign-
World War and its effects on Canada. Learn the key ment throughout the history section of this course.
terms of the chapter by using the method of key Start at 1914 and add dates to the timeline as you
term review presented in Question 2 of the Chapter progress through each chapter. Provide the date
PE
Review in Chapter 1. Alternatively, use the key terms and name of the event, and explain how the event
in a letter that Robert Borden might have written to contributed to Canadian autonomy.
explain why and how the war started, how it was
4. Create a bubble diagram, or flow diagram, around
progressing, and why it was good or bad for Canada.
the assassination of Crown Prince Franz Ferdinand
in Sarajevo. Link events that led up to the assassina-
tion and what resulted from it. Try to show cause
and result where possible.

©P
5. You have the opportunity to accompany either Document Analysis

Robert Borden or Henri Bourassa during the weeks
when conscription was a national issue. Write a 12. Primary sources give us glimpses into what people
series of blogs on your experience. Be sure to men- of a certain period were thinking about, and into the
tion the Wartime Elections Act, the Military Service issues that were important to them. At the beginning
Act, and the election of 1917. of the war, being part of the British Empire meant
that Canada almost automatically went to war when
6. In a small group, discuss the following: Without the Britain was threatened by a powerful enemy. Most
A
support received from the home front, Canadian Canadians of British origin accepted this but feared
soldiers would not have been as successful on the that Canadians would lose their identity by being put
AD
battlefields of Europe. Write down your group’s into British army units to fight as “British” soldiers.
responses so you can share with the rest of the Consider this excerpt from a 1916 letter to Prime
class. Minister Robert Borden from his Minister of Militia,
7. Review the descriptions of technology and trench Sam Hughes:
warfare. In a letter home from a First World War
AN
I do recall my visit to... Britain in the autumn of
nurse or soldier, explain why you think so many
1914. I did expect... that I would have been per-
soldiers are being killed or wounded. When you
mitted to exercise some “control and direction”
have finished your letter, bracket any parts that the over our gallant Canadian boys... But there had
wartime censors would have “inked out” of your evidently been some communication... that “con-
letter. trol and direction” of this magnificent Force
8. Write a paragraph explaining the concept of total
C should be under the British government direct.
war. Provide specific examples from Canada during The then Mr. George Perley, Acting High
the First World War. Commissioner, implied such in the following
N
words; — “You do not pretend surely to have
anything to do with the Canadian soldiers in
Critical Thinking
Britain.”
SO
9. In a small group, discuss the wartime internment –Excerpt from letter, November 1, 1916
and monitoring of “enemy aliens.” Record your
thoughts on display paper and present the results of As you read through the excerpt, consider the
your discussion to the class. In what ways was the following questions.
treatment of these immigrants unjust? Do you think
• What surprised Hughes on his 1914 visit?
AR
immigrants could be treated this way today in a sim-

ilar situation? Can you think of modern parallels? • What was the heart of the issue for Hughes and
other Canadians?
10. Use the organizer you developed in the Chapter
Focus section to help you answer the following: • Knowing what you know about Sam Hughes,
why do you think he would call the first
PE
• Assess Canada’s contributions to the First World

Canadian volunteers a “magnificent force”?
War. Provide specific examples of Canadian
contributions and evaluate how important that • How important was it to Canadian identity that
contribution was to the war effort. Canadians fight as part of their own army?
• Explain the social, political, and economic

impacts of the war on Canada.
11. Cause and Consequence How did each of the

technologies in the innovations feature help to
change the nature of war?

©P
3
GUIDING QUESTIONS
Canada in the 1920s
Society & Identity
● How did new technologies
A
influence society in the
1920s?
AD
● How does the United States
influence Canadian identity?
● How did women advance their

status during the 1920s?
● In what ways was Aboriginal
AN
identity threatened in the
1920s?
● Why was there labour unrest

after the First World War, and
how did people try to improve
their working conditions?
C
Politics & Government
● What is regionalism, and how

N
was it expressed in the 1920s?
SO
● What was the impact of

American investment on the
Canadian economy?
AR

PE
TIMELINE
1919 1920 1921 1922 1923

Winnipeg General Strike British Columbia votes Minority government elected Prime Minister Mackenzie Mackenzie King signs the Halibut
gives voice to post-war against Prohibition Agnes Macphail becomes first King refuses to send Treaty with the United States and
dissatisfaction woman elected to Parliament troops to support Britain refuses to let Britain sign
League of Nations during the Chanak Crisis Foster Hewitt gives play-by-play for
Frederick Banting and Charles
established, with Canada Best discover insulin first radio broadcast of a Canadian
as a full member hockey game

©P

Change
How did Canada adjust to political, social, and economic changes
following the First World War? Judgements CRITICAL Evidence
INQUIRY
Cause and
The 1920s are generally thought of as a decade of prosperity, fun,

and wild living. To some extent this was true. The end of the war
A
released an emotional flood of relief. Prompted by the horror and KEY TERMS
exhaustion of war, young people in particular tried to sweep away communism
the remnants of the old world. This was the “Jazz Age.” Bold new Winnipeg General Strike
AD
music, shocking fashions, and crazy fads quickly spread across the collective bargaining
United States and into Canada. Prohibition
Persons Case
This 1927 editorial from Canadian Homes and Gardens may
Famous Five
give a false picture of what life was really like for most women,
Canadian Constitution
but it certainly catches the optimism of the age:
AN
regionalism
Old Age Pension Act
Chanak Crisis
There is a certain magic to housekeeping these days—the Halibut Treaty
magic of electricity—over which I confess I never cease to King-Byng Crisis
marvel. Your modern housewife leaves the dishes within a Imperial Conference
C
machine, pops the dinner into an oven, laundry into a Balfour Report
Statute of Westminster
washer, and jumps into a roadster [car] with never a
Depression
thought except for... the round of golf which she is away to
enjoy for an afternoon. She returns to find the washing
N
done, her china and crystal sparkle, a six course dinner is
ready for serving.
SO
–Canadian Homes and Gardens, May 1927
Life did improve for many people in the 1920s. For many more,
however, the prosperity of the decade was merely an illusion. Life
continued as before, filled with discrimination, poverty, and lack
AR
of political power.
PE
1924 1926 1927 1929

Revised Red Ensign King-Byng Crisis illustrates Federal government Persons Case opens
approved for use on Canada’s need for introduces old-age way for Canadian
Canadian government autonomy from Britain pensions; first government- women to be appointed
buildings abroad Imperial Conference leads run assistance program in to the Senate
to publication of the Balfour Canada Stock market crashes
Report
Chapter 3 ■ Canada in the 1920s 61

©P
● Why was there labour unrest An Uneasy Adjustment

after the First World War, and
how did people try to improve In November 1918, Canadians celebrated the end of the First World
their working conditions? War. Soldiers returned home to find that there were few support serv-
ices for them, and few jobs. Many Canadians who had jobs were also
dissatisfied. During the war, workers had reluctantly agreed to lower
wages as part of their patriotic duty. After the war, inflation made it dif-
ficult for many people because wages no longer covered the cost of rent
and food. Workers demanded more money, and confrontation with
employers was inevitable.
A
The Rise of Communism
AD
At the end of the First World War, many people around the world were
dissatisfied with governments and the disparity between rich and poor.
As you read in Chapter 2, the Bolsheviks established a communist
regime during the violent 1917 Russian Revolution. Under communism,
all the means of production (such as factories and farms) and distribu-
AN
tion (transportation and stores) are publicly owned. There is no private
or individual ownership of business or land. The Bolsheviks encouraged
workers around the world to join this revolution. Communism never
gained widespread support in Canada, but the ideas of these revolution-
aries inspired workers in Canada to try to improve working conditions.
FIGURE 3–1 English translation of a
1919 Russian Communist publication
C
Analyzing Images What do you think Workers Respond
the chains represent? What message
Workers’ demands for higher wages, better working conditions, and the
N
is being conveyed?
right to join unions resulted in numerous strikes across Canada. Many
strikes were long, bitter disputes. Standoffs between workers and
SO
KEY TERMS employers, for example, led to four years of labour wars in Eastern
inflation the rise in prices for goods and
Canada. Most communities in the Maritimes depended on a single
services that increases the cost of living employer for jobs: the British Empire Steel Corporation. When demand
and triggers demand for higher wages for wartime industries declined after the war, the company tried to save
communism a social and economic theory costs by reducing wages. The workers responded by reducing their out-
AR
that property, production, and distribution put and striking. When the strikes turned violent, the company looked
of goods and services should be owned by
the public, and the labour force organized for support from provincial police and federal troops. In 1926, a Royal
for the benefit of all members of society Commission criticized the labour practices of the British Empire Steel
socialist believing in a system in which Corporation, but the Commission’s findings did little to ease suffering
the government controls the economy so and poverty in the Maritimes.
PE
that everyone benefits equally

There were also many strikes over wages and working conditions in
branch plants factories, offices, or other western Canada. Some western union leaders were more socialist in
operations set up in Canada but owned
or controlled by U.S. or other foreign
their policies, believing as the Bolsheviks did, that ordinary people
companies should be more involved in government. At the Western Labour
tariffs taxes on imported goods
Conference in March 1919, union leaders from Western Canada
founded One Big Union (OBU), which would represent all Canadian
primary industry an industry that deals
with the extraction or collection of raw workers. The OBU’s goal was to help workers gain more control of
materials, such as mining or forestry industry and government through peaceful means. The main weapon
secondary industry an industry that deals would be the general strike, a walkout by all employed workers.
with manufacturing or construction

©P
Canada’s Changing Economy ● What was the impact of

American investment on the
Canada began the 1920s in a state of economic depression. By the middle of Canadian economy?
the decade, however, the economy started to improve. Wheat remained an
important export for Canada, but there was also enormous growth in the
exploitation of natural resources and manufacturing. The demand for
Canadian pulp and paper grew, and new mills were built in several
provinces. Mining also boomed. Record amounts of lead, zinc, silver, and
copper were produced for export. These minerals were used to produce
consumer goods such as radios and home appliances. The expanding forest
and mining industries increased demand for hydroelectric power and
A
several new hydro-generating stations were constructed to provide Canadian
industries with cheap energy.
AD
The United States Invests in Canada’s Economy
Before the war, Canada traded mainly with Britain. After the war, Britain
was deeply in debt, and the United States emerged as the world’s economic
AN
leader. During the 1920s, American investment in Canada increased.
American companies invested in pulp and paper mills and mines across
Canada. The majority of these resources were then exported to the U.S.
Almost 75 percent of the newsprint produced in Canada was exported to the
U.S. Most of the metals mined in Canada were used in American-made
products, such as cars and radios.
C
American Ownership of Canadian Businesses
Rather than lend money to Canadian businesses the way the British had,
N
most American investors preferred to set up branch plants. By manufactur-
ing cars in Canada for the Canadian market, American car makers avoided
SO
having to pay Canadian tariffs. By the

end of the 1920s, the Canadian auto
industry had been taken over by the “Big
Three” American automobile
companies—General Motors, Ford, and
AR
Chrysler. American companies also

owned a large proportion of Canada’s oil
business, nearly half the machinery and
chemical industries, and more than half
the rubber and electrical companies.
PE
Many Canadians were so pleased with

American investment that they did not
question the long-term consequences. It
was true that the United States enriched
Canada’s economy by extracting or har-
vesting raw materials (primary indus-
tries), but these materials were
transported to the U.S. for processing and
manufacturing (secondary industries). It
FIGURE 3–2 Logging in British Columbia continues to be the
was the American economy that benefited province’s major industry.
most from this development.

©P
case study
The Winnipeg General Strike: Labour Unrest

or Communist Conspiracy?
In 1919, the labour movement grew across Canada.
Workers formed trade unions in many different indus-
tries. These groups usually demanded higher pay, better
A
working conditions, and an eight-hour workday. Scores of
workers took action by walking off the job. It is said that
more workdays were lost to strikes and lockouts in 1919 [03-42]
AD
than in any other year in Canadian history.
Post-war tensions between labour and business
boiled over in Winnipeg, at that time the financial centre
of Western Canada and its largest city. The city’s metal
and building trades workers demanded higher wages, a
AN
shorter workweek, and the right to collective bargaining,
which would allow union leaders to negotiate with
employers on behalf of the union members. Labour and
management negotiated for months. Finally, in May
1919, negotiations broke down and the Winnipeg Trades
and Labour Council voted for a general strike. Up to
C
30 000 people walked off the job, crippling the city.
The strike closed factories and retail stores. Many
N
people sympathized with the striking workers and joined
their strike, including firefighters and postal workers. FIGURE 3–3 Strikers attacked this streetcar as it moved through the
There were no streetcars or deliveries of bread or milk, crowd because it was operated by the Citizens’ Committee of 1000.
SO
and no telephone or telegraph services. Winnipeg was Thinking Critically What does the photograph tell you about the
paralyzed. The Strike Committee, which coordinated the Winnipeg General Strike? How does the information in the photo-
graph compare with the Workers’ Liberty Bond?
strike, bargained with employers and allowed essential
food items to be delivered. Opponents of the strike felt
that this showed that the strikers were running Winnipeg, The federal government decided to intervene
AR
instead of the legally elected civic government. because it feared that the disruption and protest could
Not everyone sympathized with the strikers. Many spread to other cities. It changed the Criminal Code so
people in Canada worried that the formation of trade that foreign-born union leaders—and anyone whom it
unions might lead to the same violent uprisings that hap- believed was trying to start a revolution—could be
pened in Russia. The Red Scare contributed to an anti- arrested and deported without trial. The federal
PE
communist sentiment that made people nervous about government also sent troops to Winnipeg to try to
unions. In response to the strike, business leaders, politi- restore order.
cians, and industrialists formed the Citizens’ Committee On June 21, strikers held a parade to protest the
of 1000. The committee saw the union leaders as part of mayor’s actions. The parade turned violent when the
a communist conspiracy to overthrow the government. Royal North-West Mounted Police and the city’s special
They urged Winnipeg’s leaders to restore order. The city force, armed with clubs and pistols, charged the crowd.
responded by firing the entire police force, who sympa- In the resulting clash, one striker died, 30 were injured,
thized with the strikers, and replacing them with a special and scores were arrested. This event became known as
force to contain the strike. The mayor of Winnipeg also Bloody Saturday. Defeated, the strikers returned to work
had many civic workers and the strike leaders arrested. after a 43-day protest.

©P
CRITICAL
INQUIRY Perspectives
● Why was there labour unrest

after the First World War and
how did people try to improve
their working conditions?
What did the strike achieve? In the short run, the union KEY TERMS
movement suffered a setback. Seven of the arrested leaders Winnipeg General Strike massive strike
were convicted of conspiracy to overthrow the government by workers in Winnipeg in 1919
and served between two months and two years in prison.
A
collective bargaining negotiation of a
Many striking workers were not rehired; others were taken contract between unions and manage-
back only if they signed contracts vowing not to join a union. ment regarding such things as wages
AD
and working conditions
Distrust and divisions between the working class and busi-
Red Scare the fear that communism
nesses grew deeper.
would spread to Canada
In the long run, the verdict is less clear. A Royal
Bloody Saturday June 21, 1919, when
Commission set up to examine the strike found that the work- the Royal North-West Mounted Police
ers’ grievances were valid. Gradually, much of what they charged a crowd of protesters during
AN
fought for was achieved. Some of those involved in the strike the Winnipeg General Strike
took up political positions in which they could work toward

social reform. For example, J.S. Woodsworth (a well-known
social reformer who was arrested during the strike) went on to
found the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (see
C
Chapter 4), which later became the New Democratic Party.
Looking Further
N
1. Write a newspaper headline to explain the reaction of the
SO
Citizens’ Committee of 1000 to the Winnipeg General

Strike. Remember the attitudes and values of the times.
2. Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper to explain why

you think the Winnipeg strikers were, or were not, justi-
fied in their actions.
AR
PE
FIGURE 3–4 Canadians

were able to show their
support for the strikers
in Winnipeg by buying
bonds to assist in the
“fight for liberty.” The
Workers’ Defence Fund
used the bonds to help
pay for the legal costs
of those arrested.

©P
Bootlegging Across the Border

There was one product that Canada exported in large quantities
to the United States: illegal alcohol. Although organizations such
as the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union succeeded in
bringing about prohibition during the First World War, alcohol
was still available for those with money. People could get it as a
“tonic” from a doctor, or from a “bootlegger”—someone who
made or sold alcohol illegally. By 1920, the provincial govern-
ments had to admit that Prohibition was not working: it was too
unpopular with most Canadians. From 1921 on, most provincial
A
governments regulated the sale of alcohol rather than ban it. In a
series of plebiscites, Canadians eventually adopted government-
controlled liquor outlets.
AD
In the United States, Prohibition continued until 1933.
Canadians took advantage of this golden opportunity to supply
the U.S. with illegal liquor. Rum-running—smuggling alcohol
into the U.S.—became a dangerous but profitable business.
Ships from ports in the Maritimes and Québec, speedboats from
AN
FIGURE 3–5 This young woman with a liquor flask Ontario, cars and trucks from the Prairie provinces, and salmon
in her garter reflected the carefree attitude toward trawlers from British Columbia transported alcohol to the U.S.
alcohol that was at odds with those who sup- as fast as they could. Although it was dangerous, rum-running
ported Prohibition.
was extremely profitable. Many Canadians tolerated rum-
Thinking Critically In what ways would this young
runners and admired how they flouted the U.S. authorities.
woman have outraged the older generation? What
comparisons can you make with the attitudes of
C
Canadian governments seemed content to close their eyes to
young and old today? the practice.
N
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
SO
1. Explain the terms communism, general strike, and Source 1

collective bargaining. ...this is not a strike at all, in the ordinary
sense of the term—it is a revolution. It is a
2. a) What was the effect of the 1917 Communist
serious attempt to overturn British institutions
(Bolshevik) Revolution in Russia on Canada?
AR
in this Western country and to supplant them

b) Why was the One Big Union seen as a threat? with the Russian Bolshevik system of Soviet
rule....
3. Review the concept of perspective and world view
–Winnipeg Citizen, May 17, 1919
in Building Your Skills (page 82). In a two-column
organizer, list reasons why the views from the Source 2
PE
following two newspaper sources would differ. It must be remembered that [Winnipeg] is a
city of only 200 000, and that 35 000 persons
are on strike. Thus it will be seen that the
strikers and their relatives must represent at
least 50 per cent of the population. In the
numerical sense, therefore, it cannot be said
that the average citizen is against the
strike... there is no soviet [revolutionary coun-
cil]. There is little or no terrorism.
–Toronto Star, May 23, 1919

©P
The Roaring Twenties ● How did new technologies

influence society in the
The upswing in the economy meant that many Canadians could afford more 1920s?
luxuries and leisure time. The decade became known as the “Roaring
Twenties,” reflecting the general feeling of indulgence. The misery of the
First World War was over and people enjoyed the new forms of entertain- KEY TERMS
ment that were available. The “flapper” look dominated women’s fashion. prohibition the banning of the sale and
“Bobbed” hair, hemlines above the knees, and silk stockings outraged the consumption of alcohol
older generations. Young people also scandalized their parents with dances plebiscite a direct vote by electors on an
such as the Charleston, the Shimmy, and the Turkey Trot. issue of public importance; the outcome
of the vote may not be binding on the gov-
A
ernment
Increased Mobility
AD
In the 1920s, the automobile was beginning to change the landscape of the
country. The invention of the assembly line in 1913 by Henry Ford meant
that cars could be mass produced inexpensively and quickly. The most pop-
ular automobile was the Model T Ford. By the late 1920s, 50 percent of
Canadian homes had an automobile. Its popularity prompted more and bet-
AN
ter roads to be built, making it easier for people to travel.
Aviation expanded rapidly in the years after the war. Airplanes helped to
make the rugged coast of British Columbia and Canada’s remote northern
regions more accessible. Many veteran pilots
became “bush pilots” who flew geologists and
prospectors into remote areas to explore mining
C
opportunities. Wilfrid “Wop” May was one of the
best-known bush pilots who became famous for
his daring exploits. In 1929, he and another young
N
pilot tackled dangerous flights from Edmonton to
help save the people of Fort Vermilion from a con-
SO
tagious outbreak by delivering serum. May’s most

famous adventure was his participation in the
RCMP hunt for Albert Johnson, the “Mad
Trapper” of Rat River. May’s flight made Canadian
history due to the duration of the chase and
AR
because it was the first time two-way radios and FIGURE 3–6 Jack Bowen, Frank Riddell, and Wilfrid “Wop” May,
(far right)
aircraft were used in pursuit of a criminal.
Improved Communications WEB LINK •

PE
By the 1920s, the telephone had become a standard household appliance. Read more about Wop May on the
Pearson Web site.
Telephone lines were shared by many neighbours, which meant anyone
could listen in on your conversation. Widespread use of the radio began to
break down the isolation between far-flung communities. It soon became a
necessity, bringing news as well as popular culture and entertainment into
Canadian homes across the country. The radio was a revolutionary develop-
ment. Smaller Canadian stations, however, soon found it difficult to com-
pete with bigger, more powerful stations from the United States. By the end
of the 1920s, nearly 300 000 Canadians were tuning in to American stations
for their news and entertainment. Canada would move to introduce legisla-
tion to ensure Canadian content, which you will learn about in Chapter 6.

©P
I n n ova t i o n s
Canadian Inventions
and Inventors
During the 1920s, Canadians witnessed rapid changes in
technology. Many innovations occurred in household
appliances, and inventors from Québec made surviving the
Canadian winter a little easier.
A
AD
AN
A vehicle of necessity Armand Bombardier
of Valcourt, Québec, was only 15 years old
when he developed the snowmobile in
C 1922. Over the next few years, he improved
on the first machine and designed vehicles
that could travel on snow-covered roads.
An alternative to the snow shovel Born in Québec, Arthur Sicard His invention helped people in rural and
responded to Canadian winters by inventing the snow blower in 1925. The diffi-
N
remote areas of Canada overcome the isola-
culty of travelling on snowy roads in early automobiles led him to find a way to tion of winter.
efficiently remove snow. He adapted a four-wheel-drive truck to carry a snow-
scooping section and a snow blower that would clear and throw snow up to
SO
30 metres away from the truck.

AR
Rogers hits the airwaves

In 1925, Edward Rogers
of Toronto invented the
world’s first alternating
current (AC) radio tube,
replacing the noisy,
PE
battery-operated model.
The AC radio tube allowed
radios to be powered by
ordinary household
electric current. In 1927,
he launched the world’s
first all-electric radio sta-
tion, called Canada’s First
Rogers Batteryless
A medical breakthrough In 1921–1922, Frederick (CFRB). In 1931, he was
Banting, assisted by Charles Best, discovered insulin. granted Canada’s first
This discovery continues to help millions of people suf- television licence.
fering from diabetes. In 1923, Banting won the Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

©P
Arts and Leisure ● How does the United States

influence our Canadian
With the Roaring Twenties and new-found prosperity, people sought out
identity?
different forms of entertainment. Canada began to find its voice as a nation
with a distinct culture. As a result, several new forms of distinctly Canadian
art and entertainment emerged in the 1920s. KEY TERM
Group of Seven group of Canadian
Moving Pictures landscape painters in the 1920s
Soon radio entertainment was rivalled by moving pictures—the movies. At
first, movies were silent. An orchestra or piano player would provide sound
effects to accompany the silent screen, while subtitles conveyed the messages
A
and dialogue. The “talkies” arrived in 1927 with comedians such as Laurel
and Hardy and the Marx Brothers.
AD
Movies about Canada were made here during the early days, but
Canadian-made films could not compete with productions from the big stu-
dios in the United States. Eventually Hollywood came to dominate the
industry. In the absence of a home-grown industry, many Canadian actors,
writers, and technicians were drawn to the glitter and glamour of
AN
Hollywood. Many were very successful. Movie star Mary Pickford, born in
Toronto, became known as “America’s Sweetheart.”
FIGURE 3–7 The

Mounties as a symbol of
C Canada were a favourite
topic with Hollywood. In
true Hollywood style, the
Mounties always caught
N
the villain and got the
girl.
Using Evidence What
SO
stereotypes are used in

this photo to portray the
RCMP? Do these stereo-
types still hold for the
Mounties today? WEB LINK •
Read more about the Group of
Seven on the Pearson Web site.
AR
PE
A New Canadian Art

The increased American influence on Canada’s culture coincided with the
development of a new Canadian art movement. In 1920, the Group of
Seven held an exhibition in Toronto that broke with traditional Canadian
art. These painters were in tune with the new post-war national confi-
dence. Rather than imitate realistic classical styles, members of the group
sought to interpret Canada’s rugged landscape as they saw it, using broad,
bold strokes and brilliant colours. Although criticized by some critics in
the early years as the school of “hot mush” painting, the Group of Seven FIGURE 3–8 Stamp commemorating
the Group of Seven
had gained wide acceptance by the end of the 1920s.

©P
Canada’s Growing National Identity

The emerging sense of independence and identity was also reflected in
Canadian literature. The political magazine Canadian Forum first appeared
in 1920. Political debates and works of Canadian poets and writers appeared
regularly on its pages. As well, Maclean’s magazine published Canadian sto-
ries and articles from across the country, being careful to use only Canadian
spellings. Canadian novelists R.J.C. Stead, F.P. Grove, Martha Ostenso, and
Morley Callaghan wrote novels about Canadians and their experiences. And
poets A.J. Smith and Frank Scott wrote passionately about Canada and
Canadian issues. Yet Canadian magazines and writers found it difficult to
A
compete with American magazines and books.
Sports as Popular Entertainment
AD
The thirst for entertainment led to tremendous interest in spectator sports.
Hockey came into Canadian homes across the country when sportswriter
Foster Hewitt made the first play-by-play radio broadcast in 1923. Canadian
athletes also succeeded on the international stage, including two notable
athletes who excelled in several sports. Lionel Conacher was a baseball
AN
player, a star at lacrosse, a football player,
and an NHL all-star. Nicknamed the “Big
Train,” Conacher was known for his power,
stamina, and speed. One day in 1922, he hit
a triple in the last inning of a baseball game
C to win the championship for his team and
then later the same day he scored four
times and assisted once in lacrosse, bring-
N
ing victory to that team as well. Fanny
“Bobbie” Rosenfeld is one of Canada’s
greatest female athletes. She was a star at
SO
basketball, softball, hockey, and tennis, as

well as track and field. In the 1928 Olympic
FIGURE 3–9 Bobbie Rosenfeld (number 677). At the Amsterdam Games in Amsterdam, she won a gold and a
Olympics, Rosenfeld won a silver medal in the 100-m dash and a gold in
the women’s relay team. She was at one time the joint holder of the world
silver medal for Canada, becoming a
record for the 100-yard [91-metre] dash, which she ran in 11 seconds. national hero and the best-known
AR
Canadian woman of her time.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
PE
1. What evidence is there that the 1920s were the 3. How did new technology contribute to the spread
beginning of the modern “consumer age”? of American popular culture in Canada?
2. a) Which innovations made the 1920s a period of 4. What does the interest in professional sports tell
great change in communications. you about leisure time and the standard of living
for Canadians in this period?
b) Beside each development, make short notes
on how the change affected Canadian society. 5. Compare and contrast Bobbie Rosenfeld’s and
Patterns and Change
Lionel Conacher’s achievements as athletes with
c) How did these
those of popular sports heroes of today. How
technological developments make Canada
would you account for the differences?
a “smaller” country?

©P
up close
Emily Carr: From Ridiculed to Revered
and personal
Emily Carr was a unique Canadian artist and writer. 1. To what degree did the isolation of Victoria and
Born in 1871 in Victoria, B.C., she trained in the B.C. influence the art of Emily Carr?
United States, England, and France at a time when
2. Would you consider Emily Carr’s art to be
new trends in twentieth-century art were developing.
uniquely Canadian? Explain your answer.
She was also inspired by the Group of Seven. She
was moved by their bright, powerful images and 3. How important is art like that of Emily Carr and
A
inspired by their uniquely Canadian vision and com- the Group of Seven in developing a Canadian
mitment to their art. Lawren Harris, one of the Group, identity? Explain.
AD
became her mentor and helped her develop her artis- 4. Why are her paintings so popular today? Explain
tic style. your answer.
Carr seemed to thrive in the isolation of British
Columbia’s wilderness and drew her themes from
First Nations culture and the raw power of
AN
nature. She painted scenes of West Coast forests
and Aboriginal cultures. Carr made many jour-
neys to sketch at isolated villages in coastal B.C.
She described her work as follows:
Local people hated and ridiculed my newer

work.... Whenever I could afford it I went up
C
to the North, among the... woods and forgot
all about everything in the joy of those lonely
N
wonderful places. I decided to try and get as
good a representative collection of those old
villages and wonderful totem poles as I
SO
could.... Whether anybody liked them or not

I did not care a bean. I painted them to
please myself in my own way.... Of course
nobody wanted to buy my pictures
–Emily Carr
AR
At first, Carr gained little recognition for her

work. She had almost abandoned hope of
making a living from painting when the National
Museum in Ottawa organized a showing of West
Coast art built around her work. Carr eventually
PE
had shows at the Vancouver Art Gallery and in

Eastern Canada.
Emily Carr’s expression also took the form of
writing, publishing journals and five books. She
won a Governor General’s Literary Award for
Klee Wyck, a collection of stories about her life
with British Columbia First Nations peoples. FIGURE 3–10 Totems and Indian Houses
Another well-known book is her autobiography, Using Evidence How representative of Canada at the time was Emily
Carr’s painting?
Growing Pains.

©P
Missing the Roar

Not everyone benefited from the social and economic changes of
the Roaring Twenties. Many Canadians still battled discrimina-
tion, lack of political representation, and poverty.
The Role of Women

In the 1920s, hopes were high for reforms in health, education,
and the working conditions for women and children. Women
were gaining more control of their lives and were taking on roles
A
traditionally held by men, such as factory workers, politicians, and
even sports stars. Despite these gains, women still faced many
AD
social and political restrictions.
Women’s Social Status

The main role of women was as wives and mothers. Married
women were expected to stay at home and raise a family. Single
FIGURE 3–11 New labour-saving devices—such
AN
as the washing machine, refrigerator, vacuum women had limited career opportunities. They could be nurses or
cleaner, and electric iron—became more afford- teachers, but these jobs paid very poorly. A few women became
able to middle-class women. But this often
meant that women were expected to maintain
doctors, lawyers, professors, or engineers, but most women who
higher standards of cleanliness in the home. worked in business or industry held jobs as secretaries, telephone
operators, or sales clerks. Women usually earned much less than
C
men for doing the same job.
Women in Politics
● How did women advance their
status during the 1920s? Although most women had won the right to vote in federal elections in
N
1918, only four women ran for office during the 1921 election. Only one,
Agnes Macphail, won her seat. Macphail was the only woman in the House
SO
of Commons until 1935. The four Western provinces elected nine women to
their legislatures, but the federal and provincial governments remained
firmly male dominated. Although progress for women at the political level
was slow, they made gains in social reform. Mary Ellen Smith, British
Columbia’s first female Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA), and
AR
reformer Helen Gregory MacGill fought to expand rights for women and
children. By the end of the 1920s, an Equal Rights measure was passed in the
B.C. legislature. It reversed most of the laws restricting the political and legal
rights of women.
PE
TIMELINE The Advance of Women’s and Children’s Rights in B.C.
1917 1918 1920 1921 1922

Equal Guardianship of The Women’s Franchise Act Mothers’ Pensions Act Mary Ellen Smith Jury duty for women approved
Infants Act gives passed, allowing most women to appointed first female Maternity Protection Act
women same rights to vote in federal elections Cabinet minister prohibits the employment of
their children as men Mary Ellen Smith becomes B.C.’s women until six weeks after
Helen Gregory MacGill first female Member of the delivery
appointed British Legislative Assembly Fathers made responsible for the
Columbia’s first Minimum Wage Bill for Women maintenance of their children
female judge passed

©P
The Persons Case

The Persons Case of 1929 brought the issue of
women participating in politics to a head. Emily
Murphy, a well-known suffragist, was appointed a
magistrate in Alberta. Her appointment was chal-
lenged on the basis that only “persons” could hold
this office under the BNA Act, and that women were
not “persons” in the eyes of the law. The Supreme
Court of Alberta ruled that Murphy did, indeed,
have the right to be a judge, but the matter did not
A
stop there. Emily Murphy and four other women
activists, known as the Famous Five, challenged FIGURE 3–12 The Famous Five were Nellie McClung, suffrage
Prime Minister Mackenzie King to appoint a woman activist and writer; Emily Murphy, writer and the first female
AD
senator and to clarify the definition of “persons.” In magistrate in the British Empire; Irene Parlby, the first female
cabinet minister in Alberta history; former Alberta MLA Louise
April 1928, the Supreme Court of Canada decided McKinney; and Henrietta Muir Edwards, who helped found the
that women were not “persons” under the Canadian National Council of Women of Canada and the Victorian Order
Constitution. Murphy and her associates appealed of Nurses.
to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Thinking Critically How do the backgrounds of the Famous Five
AN
represent the changing roles of women in the early 20th
Britain. On October 18, 1929, the Judicial
century?
Committee declared its support for the women:
[The exclusion] of women from all public offices is a relic of days more KEY TERMS
C
barbarous than ours.... To those who would ask why the word “person”
should include females, the obvious answer is, why should it not?
Persons Case a court case in which the
Famous Five successfully fought to have
–Privy Council Judgement, October 18, 1929 women declared “persons” under
Canadian law in 1929
N
Famous Five five Alberta women who
Following the decision, Henrietta Muir Edwards wrote: fought for the political status of women
SO
Canadian Constitution the document that

Personally I do not care whether or not women ever sit in the Senate, describes the powers and responsibilities
but we fought for the privilege for them to do so. We sought to establish of the government and its parts, and the
rights of citizens
the personal individuality of women and this decision is the announce-
ment of our victory. It has been an uphill fight.
–Quoted in A Harvest to Reap: A History of Prairie Women, 1976
AR
The struggle for equality was far from won. The economic upheaval of the
next decade would threaten the Famous Five’s hard-earned gains.
PE
1923 1925 1928 1929 1931

Factory Act Equal inheritance Mary Ellen Smith Women declared Equal Rights measure
amendment prohibits approved for boys and appointed the first “persons” under gives women legal
children under 15 from girls female speaker of Canadian law equality with men
working the B.C.
legislature

©P
● In what ways was Aboriginal

Aboriginal Peoples: The Struggle to Preserve an Identity
identity threatened in the
Aboriginal peoples saw little of the good life in the 1920s. As you read in
1920s?
Chapter 2, Aboriginal veterans returning from the battlefields of Europe
found that their contribution to the war effort did little to change their situ-
ation at home. Aboriginal peoples were still not classified as “persons” under
the law. They could not vote in provincial or federal elections. In British
Columbia, Aboriginal people did not win the right to vote in provincial elec-
tions until 1949. It was not until 1960 that all Aboriginal peoples across
Canada could vote in federal elections.
A
A Policy of Assimilation
The government continued to use residential schools in an attempt to
AD
assimilate Aboriginal children. First Nations peoples were instructed by the
government to replace traditional or family leaders with graduates of resi-
dential schools. This practice often divided the community between those
who supported traditional leaders and those who sought to replace them.
AN
C
N
SO
AR
FIGURE 3–13 In 1920, attendance at residential schools was still compulsory. Instruction was in English
and children were not allowed to speak their first language, at the risk of being severely punished.
Using Evidence Use the diagram on page 82 in Building Your Skills: Establishing Cause,
Effect, and Results to create a cause and effect diagram dealing with residential schools. Cause and Consequence
PE
In the early 1920s, First Nations peoples in British Columbia challenged

the federal and provincial governments by fighting for the right to hold pot-
latches, an important cultural ceremony among certain peoples of the
Pacific Coast. At this ceremony, births, deaths, marriages, and other signifi-
cant events were recorded in the oral tradition. Potlatches involved families
and even entire villages and was a way of establishing status in tribes.
The government viewed potlatch ceremonies as an obstacle to assimila-
tion. The practice was forbidden in 1884. The ban was vigorously enforced
after the First World War when the Kwagiulth people decided to hold several
potlatch ceremonies in 1921. The provincial government arrested the chiefs
responsible, and many were sentenced to jail terms.

©P
The Struggle for Land KEY TERMS

Aboriginal peoples in British Columbia continued to struggle for land Aboriginal title claims by Aboriginal peo-
ples to lands that their ancestors inhabited
claims, or Aboriginal title, in the 1920s. Only a few First Nations peoples on
Vancouver Island had negotiated land treaties. The federal government had cut-off lands lands taken from reserves
without consent of the Aboriginal peoples
set aside large tracts of land as reserves, but it had been taking some of this
enfranchisement giving up one’s status as
land without the consent of the Aboriginal bands involved. These were
an Indian
known as cut-off lands. Aboriginal leaders wanted their claims to the land
self-determination the freedom for a
recognized by the federal government. As you read in Chapter 1 (page 13), group to form its own government
Joe Capilano travelled to London, England, in 1906 to present a land claim
petition to King Edward VII. Several years later, the Allied Tribes of British
A
Columbia appealed the federal government taking cut-off lands. They
claimed the government had gone against the Indian Act, which regulated
relations between the federal government and the Aboriginal peoples. The
AD
federal government responded by changing the Indian Act so that
Aboriginal consent was not needed to transfer reserve lands to the govern-
ment. The Act was also amended to prevent anyone from raising money to
pursue land claims without special permission. This made it virtually
impossible for First Nations peoples to fight for Aboriginal title.
AN
The Road to Self-Determination
In addition to residential schools and cut-off lands, Aboriginal peoples also
fought against the federal government’s use of enfranchisement to try to
enforce assimilation. In 1920, the Indian Act was changed to allow the gov-
C
ernment to enfranchise people without their consent. This meant that the
government could take away a person’s Indian status and land. Aboriginal
peoples resisted the government’s policy of involuntary enfranchisement
N
and it was given up two years later. But Aboriginal women who married
men who were not status Indians were still forced to give up their Indian
status (see Chapter 10).
SO
Cayuga Chief Deskaheh (Levi General), a leader of the Six Nations

Council of the Iroquois Confederacy, took the issue of Aboriginal
self-determination to the League of Nations in 1923. He wanted interna-
tional recognition of the Six Nations as an independent state and to end ties
with Canada and the Indian Act. The Six Nations would have their own
AR
laws, financing, employees, and police. In a radio talk in 1925, Deskaheh

explained the rationale behind the Six Nations’ fight for self-determination.
Unfortunately, Britain blocked Deskaheh’s efforts for the League of Nations
to hear the Six Nations’ claims. Self-determination for Aboriginal peoples in
Canada is still an issue today.
PE
This story comes straight from Deskaheh, one of the chiefs of the
Cayugas. I am the speaker of the Council of the Six Nations, the oldest
League of Nations now existing. It was founded by Hiawatha. It is a
League which is still alive and intends, as best it can, to defend the
rights of the Iroquois to live under their own laws in their own little
countries now left to them, to worship their Great Spirit in their own
way, and to enjoy the rights which are as surely theirs as the white
man’s rights are his own.
–Chief Deskaheh

©P
African Canadians: Undisguised Racism

The Canadian government discouraged the entry of African
Americans into Canada during the heyday of immigration before the
First World War. Those who managed to move to Canada faced bla-
tant discrimination. In Nova Scotia, the Education Act of 1918
allowed separate schools for “Blacks” and “Europeans,” a policy that
remained unchanged until 1954. Racial segregation was openly prac-
tised and, in some instances, supported by the courts. For example,
in 1921, the Superior Court of Québec ruled in favour of racially
segregated seating in Montréal theatres.
A
There were also instances of tolerance. In 1919, the Brotherhood
of Railway Employees accepted black porters as members. In 1924,
AD
Edmonton City Council refused to support an attempt to ban
African Canadians from public parks and swimming pools.
FIGURE 3–14 The Ku Klux Klan, founded
in the southern United States, promoted
fanatical racial and religious hatred against Immigrants
non-Protestants and non-whites. In the
AN
1920s, the Klan established short-lived After the First World War, the Canadian government adopted immi-
local branches in Canada, such as this one gration restrictions, giving preference to applicants from Britain and
in Vancouver in 1925. the United States. Some Canadians did not want restrictions on
Thinking Critically What does the exis- immigration for selfish reasons and others welcomed immigrants
tence of the Ku Klux Klan in Canada say
because they would work for low wages in jobs that Canadian work-
about the attitudes of the time?
C
ers did not want. Labour groups, however, supported the restrictions
because unions saw the willingness of some immigrants to work
long hours for low wages as “unfair competition.”
Restrictions on Asian immigrants were particularly severe. In
N
1923, the federal government passed a law that virtually excluded
Chinese immigrants to Canada until 1947 (see Chapter 1). A
SO
Canada-Japan agreement in 1922 restricted immigration from Japan

to 150 servants and labourers per year.
In 1925, as the economy improved, the government relaxed
restrictions on immigration. Thousands of immigrants landed
monthly at Canada’s ports looking for jobs and security. Many were
AR
forced to work in terrible conditions for pitiful wages.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Perspectives What does it mean to be a Aboriginal peoples were prepared to defend their
PE
“person” in a legal sense? How did the idea of rights?

not being a person affect women, Aboriginals, and
4. With a partner, list the issues and criticisms faced
visible minorities?
by women in the 1920s and women of today.
2. What was the attitude toward women in positions Which are most similar and most different?
of authority in Canada during the 1920s?
5. How were blacks treated in Canada during the
3. Give examples to show that the federal govern- early 20th century?
ment was pursuing a policy of cultural assimilation
6. Which groups supported immigration and which
of Aboriginal peoples. What responses show that
did not? Explain.

©P
A New Challenge to Federalism: ● What is regionalism, and how

was it expressed in the 1920s?
Regionalism
After the war, regionalism, or the concern of the various regions of the
KEY TERMS
country with their own local problems became more pronounced in
Canadian politics. federalism a political system that divides
power between federal and provincial
legislatures
The Maritimes regionalism a concern for the affairs of

one’s own region over those of one’s
During the 1920s, the Maritime provinces (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, country
A
and Prince Edward Island) found that their influence in national politics
free trade trade between countries
was declining. The population in the Maritimes was small, which meant it without tariffs, export subsidies, or other
had fewer seats in Parliament. Some businesses and banks moved to Ontario government intervention
AD
and Québec, while others suffered because their products (such as coal)
were no longer in demand. Prominent business and political leaders formed
the Maritime Rights movement and urged politicians to promote policies
that would benefit the Maritimes.
AN
The Prairies and Rural Ontario
Other regional challenges came from farmers on
the Prairies and in rural Ontario. They were frus-
trated by the National Policy of 1878 that placed
tariffs or duties on foreign goods imported into
C
Canada. These tariffs made foreign goods more
expensive, encouraging people to buy goods pro-
N
duced in Canada. Western farmers felt alienated by
this policy because they had no such protection.
They were forced to buy Canadian-made machin-
SO
ery, but their agricultural products were sold on

the open world market. Farmers wanted free
trade, abolishing tariffs and allowing them to buy
cheaper American-made machinery. They also
wanted lower freight rates and storage fees.
AR
When neither the Liberals nor the

Conservatives met their demands, farmers formed
their own political parties. By the early 1920s,
Ontario and the Prairie provinces had all elected
members of United Farmers’ parties to their legis-
PE
latures. In some provinces, these parties formed

the government. In 1920, the federal Progressive
Party was created, led by Thomas Crerar, a former
Minister of Agriculture in Robert Borden’s Union
Government. The Progressive Party wanted a new
National Policy based on free trade and public FIGURE 3–15 In 2001, Manitoban farmers demanded more finan-
cial aid from the government by driving their vehicles to the legis-
ownership of the railways. lature in a national day of protest.
Thinking Critically How effective do you think this protest was in
getting support for the farmers? In what ways was this protest the
same as and different from protests of the 1920s?

©P
KEY TERMS Québec

nationalize move from private to
The economic boom in the 1920s, and Québec’s proximity to the United
government ownership
States, led to rapid growth in many Québec industries. Cheap labour and
minority government a government in vast forests resulted in the expansion of the province’s pulp and paper
which the ruling party has less than half
the total number of seats in the legislature industry to feed the U.S.’s demand for newsprint. Increased manufacturing
in Canada and the U.S. during this decade helped to expand Québec’s min-
Old Age Pension Act an Act passed in
1927 to provide social assistance to ing industries. To provide power to its growing industries, Québec took
people over 70 advantage of the hydroelectric potential of its many rivers. The abundant
hydroelectric resources attracted the aluminum industry, and the Aluminum
Company of Canada opened several plants.
A
As Québec’s industries expanded, so did its desire to protect its own
interests. Hostility to the Conservative Party because of conscription and
AD
language rights helped the Liberals sweep all 65 seats in Québec in the 1921
federal election. Provincial politics were dominated from 1920 to 1936 by
Premier Louis-Alexandre Taschereau’s Liberal Party.
Western Interests
AN
For most of the 1920s, British Columbia was led by Liberal John Oliver, who
often attacked the federal government for favouring the interests of Eastern
Canada. B.C.’s growing economic strength during the 1920s meant its politi-
cians had a stronger voice in federal politics. The products of B.C.’s forests
C
and mines were in demand. Communities grew around the new pulp and
paper mills and mines. After the war, the port of Vancouver began to benefit
from the Panama Canal that had opened in 1914. More importantly, Pacific
Coast ports could challenge Eastern Canada’s dominance in shipping
N
Western grain. Premier Oliver went to Ottawa three times to demand rail-
way freight rates be reduced, a fight he won each time. As a result, annual
SO
shipments of grain from B.C. ports increased throughout the 1920s. By the
end of the decade, 40 percent of Canada’s grain was exported through B.C.
FIGURE 3–16 Cow East and West

AR
Interpreting a Cartoon What

point is being made by the car-
toon? How effective is the cartoon
in explaining its message? Why?
PE

©P
Canadians Choose a New Government

Regionalism and the Progressive Party greatly influenced the results of the
1921 federal election, effectively upsetting the balance of power between the
Prime Minister
Liberals and Conservatives.
In the 1921 election, both the Liberals and the Conservatives had new Arthur Meighen
leaders. William Lyon Mackenzie King was chosen to lead the Liberals in - born 1874, Anderson, Ontario
1919. He had a reputation as a reformer and was an authority on social and - lawyer
economic issues. Arthur Meighen, a brilliant debater and long-standing - first elected to Commons in 1908
- prime minister 1920–1921,
Member of Parliament, was chosen to replace Borden as the leader of the June–September 1926
Conservatives. While King always tried to find the middle path that would
A
offend the fewest people, Meighen believed in principles over compromise Domestic Record
and did not care who might be offended by his stand on issues. Meighen’s • helped write and pass the Military
Service Act and Wartime
AD
hard line alienated many groups before the election. His involvement in cre-
Elections Act
ating the Conscription Act and the new electoral laws of 1917 meant he had
• created the Canadian National
little support in Québec. His harsh treatment of the leaders of the Winnipeg Railways in 1919 by nationalizing
General Strike also provoked the hostility of the labour movement. several transportation companies
The Progressive Party’s election platform was based on their proposed • played a prominent role in ending
AN
National Policy, calling for free trade and to nationalize the railways. In the the Winnipeg General Strike in
1919
election, the Progressives managed to win an astonishing 64 seats, mostly in
• formed a minority government
Western Canada. This made it the second largest party in Parliament, giving
during the King-Byng Crisis in
the Liberals a minority government. Because they were not the majority, 1926
the Liberals needed the support of some of the opposition members to pass
legislation.
C International Record
• successfully argued against an
Despite its initial success, the Progressive Party did not last very long.
Anglo-Japanese alliance at the
However, it was influential in bringing about changes to Canada’s social pol-
1921 Imperial Conference
icy. In 1926, for example, King was challenged by the Progressives to set up
N
an old age pension. The Old Age Pension Act was passed in 1927. The Act
was an acknowledgement that government had a role to play in providing a
SO
network of social services for its citizens. The Progressive Party lost public
support in the 1925 and 1926
elections, and it eventually dis-
solved. But it did manage to
change Canadian politics by help- FIGURE 3–17 In a 1920 speech, Arthur Meighen said,
AR
ing to create Canada’s first minor- “Thousands of people are mentally chasing rainbows,
ity government. striving for the unattainable, anxious to better their lot
and seemingly unwilling to do it in the old-fashioned
way by honest intelligent effort. Dangerous doctrines
taught by dangerous men, enemies of the State, poison
and pollute the air....”
PE
Using Evidence What groups was Meighen referring

to? How would they have reacted to his speech?
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. List the concerns expressed by each region during 2. Why was the Progressive Party so successful dur-
the 1920s: Maritimes; Québec; Prairies and rural ing the 1921 election? What impact did this have
Ontario; Western Canada. To what extent were the on the federal government from 1921 to 1926?
concerns resolved?

©P
● What factors contributed to Canada’s Growing Independence

Canada’s emerging autonomy ?
After the First World War, Prime Minister Borden took a number of impor-
tant steps that raised Canada’s profile internationally, including participating
in the Paris Peace Conference and signing the Treaty of Versailles (see
Chapter 2). Mackenzie King, once he became prime minister, continued to
push for greater independence from Britain.
Prime Minister
William Lyon The Chanak Crisis
Mackenzie King In 1922, Mackenzie King refused Britain’s call for support when British
A
occupation troops were threatened by nationalist Turks during the Chanak
- born 1874, Berlin (Kitchener), Crisis. Chanak was a Turkish port controlled by Britain as a condition of
Ontario
AD
- author, editor, journalist, lawyer
one of the treaties signed at the Paris Peace Conference. If Turkey regained
- first elected to Commons in 1908 this port, it would have clear access to Europe through the Black Sea to the
- prime minister 1921–1926, Mediterranean. Britain saw this as a threat and sent a telegram to King, ask-
1926–1930, 1935–1948 ing him to send Canadian troops to support the Empire. Instead of auto-
Domestic Record matically granting Britain’s request, King brought the issue to Parliament.
AN
• created the Industrial Disputes
By the time the issue was debated in the House of Commons, the crisis in
Investigation Act in 1907 Turkey had passed. The Chanak Crisis marked the first time that Canada did
• helped create Canada’s first old- not automatically support the British Empire in war.
age pension program in 1927
• fought for Canadian autonomy
The Halibut Treaty
during the King-Byng Crisis
(1926) and in signing the Halibut
C
Treaty with the United States
The following year, Canada negotiated a treaty with the United States to
(1923) protect halibut along the coasts of British Columbia and Alaska. Mackenzie
King insisted that Canada be allowed to sign the Halibut Treaty without the
N
• appointed Cairine Wilson as the
first woman senator in 1930 signature of a British representative. Britain wanted to maintain its imperial
• commissioned the Rowell-Sirois right to sign international agreements on Canada’s behalf. When Britain
SO
Report of 1937 tried to pressure King into letting their representative sign the treaty, King
• introduced unemployment insur- insisted that it was a matter between Canada and the U.S. He threatened to
ance in 1940
set up an independent Canadian representative in Washington, and Britain
• held national plebiscite on con-
scription in 1942 backed down. The Halibut Treaty was the first treaty negotiated and signed
• passed the Family Allowance Act independently by the Canadian government.
AR
in 1945
• helped create the Canadian
Citizenship Act in 1947, which
The King-Byng Crisis
was the first statute to define In 1926, Mackenzie King publicly challenged Britain over the role of the
Canada’s people as Canadians
governor general and Britain’s influence on Canada’s internal politics in
• longest-serving prime minister in
PE
Canadian history what became known as the King-Byng Crisis. During the election of 1926,
King was able to avoid the issue of the scandal and appeal to nationalist sen-
International Record timents. He claimed that it was undemocratic for the Governor General, an
• defended Canada’s autonomy official appointed by Britain, to refuse to take the advice of the prime minis-
during the Chanak Crisis (1922) ter, who was elected by Canadians. Since the King-Byng crisis, no Governor
• helped create the definition of General has acted against the wishes of an elected prime minister.
Dominion status at the Imperial
Conference of 1926
• insisted that Parliament decide if
Canada would become involved
in international conflicts

©P
KEY TERMS
1925 Election. Prime King wishes to remain Governor General Byng
Minister Mackenzie King’s prime minister. King asks grants King’s request. Chanak Crisis the Canadian government’s
Liberals win fewer seats than Governor General Viscount The governor general is refusal in 1922, lead by King, to support
Meighen’s Conservatives. Byng to let him remain in responsible for making British troops in defending the Turkish
power because he has sure that the Canadian
port of Chanak; the first time the
the support from the prime minister and
Progressives in Parliament. government have the Canadian government did not support
(The prime minister and confidence of Parliament. the British military
Cabinet can stay in power
if they maintain the Halibut Treaty a 1923 treaty between
majority of votes in the Canada and the U.S. to protect halibut
House of Commons.)
along the Pacific Coast; the first treaty
negotiated and signed independently by
the Canadian government
Byng refuses. He argues King asks for another A customs scandal erupts
A
that the vote of censure favour. King asks Governor in 1926. The Conservatives governor general the person who
has to be completed first. General Byng to dissolve call for a motion of represents the British crown in Canada
King resigns. Parliament and call an censure—a vote of strong
election. King knows he disapproval—against
AD
will lose the Parliament King’s government. The King-Byng Crisis a situation that occurred
vote but that he will win a scandal weakens the in 1926 when Governor General Byng
general election. Progressive Party’s refused Prime Minister King’s request to
support for King’s Liberal dissolve Parliament and call an election
government.
coalition a formal alliance of political
parties
AN
Meighen gets the boot. Another election. Byng King returns to power.
Governor General Byng is forced to dissolve King and the Liberals win confidence in politics, it means support
appoints Meighen, the Parliament and call an a majority government in
leader of the Conserva- election in September the 1926 election. prorogue to postpone or suspend, as in
tives, to be prime minister. 1926.
Parliament
Meighen’s government is
ousted from Parliament
three days later after a
non-confidence vote.
C
FIGURE 3–18 After the King-Byng Crisis, King gained national support by claiming it
was undemocratic for the governor general, a British representative, to go against the
N
wishes of a prime minister elected by Canadians.
SO
FA S T F O R WA R D
King-Byng Revisited in 2008?

In 2008, Prime Minister Stephen Harper faced a crisis
AR
similar to that of Mackenzie King in 1926. The three oppo-

sition parties (Liberal, New Democrat, and Bloc
Québécois) were dissatisfied with the minority Conservative
government’s financial policies and formed a coalition to
oust the government. They asked Parliament to hold a
PE
non-confidence vote against Harper’s government. Before

the vote took place, Harper asked Governor General
Michaëlle Jean to prorogue, or suspend, Parliament for a
month so the government could bring in a new financial
policy. Governor General Jean agreed. During the month
Parliament was suspended, Harper managed to convince FIGURE 3–19 This cartoon shows the three opposition
the Liberal leader to accept the Conservatives’ new finan- leaders, Stéphane Dion, Gilles Duceppe, and Jack
cial plan and support them in the non-confidence vote. Layton, pointing at Stephen Harper.
With the Liberals’ support in Parliament, Harper’s Using Evidence How would you have advised Governor
General Jean regarding Harper’s request to suspend
Conservative government stayed in power.
Parliament?

©P
CRITICAL
Establishing Cause, Effect, and Results
How many times have you been asked to discuss the effects, and results of an event in different ways, and
causes of an event on an exam? As you probably their differing viewpoints will often lead them to differ-
know, it is much easier to describe what, where, and ent conclusions about the same event.
when an event happened than to explain why it Although the discussion on this page deals with
happened. For example, there is no disagreement that history, you will find examples of cause and effect
the First World War (what) began in Europe (where) in throughout this textbook. Issues related to politics,
A
1914 (when). Explaining the causes, effects, and human rights, population, and the environment all
results of the war is not so straightforward. Was one raise questions about cause-effect-result relationships.
AD
country more responsible than others? Why did Is the drop in voter turnout in elections related to
countries declare war? Why did the generals continue demographics? What impact did the atrocities in the
to use outdated tactics? What future events resulted Second World War have on the development of human
from the decisions made at the Paris Peace rights legislation? What changes in the environment
Conference? can be directly related to global warming?
AN
Events in history are the result of many other
events that directly or indirectly caused that incident
Applying the Skill
to happen. This is called causality. Understanding
causality helps us to see the relationship between one
1. Referring to Figure 3–20, create a cause-effect-
event (the cause) and another event (the effect). The
results organizer for the Winnipeg General Strike.
effect then leads to long-term results or consequences
C 2. Identify the background causes of regionalism in
that in turn lead to more effects (see Figure 3–20).
Some of the results of the First World War still affect us Canada during the 1920s.
today. For example, the location of boundaries in the
N
3. Note the immediate and longer-term effects of
Balkans, and in Middle East countries such as Iraq, closer relations between Canada and the United
established by the treaties of 1919, are still a source of States in the 1920s.
SO
conflict today. Historians (and geographers) use

cause-effect-results organizers to explain change. 4. Record the effects of discrimination on one or
People often have different perspectives and more of the following groups during the 1920s:
world views. Few people will understand events in Aboriginal peoples, African Canadians, or immi-
exactly the same way. They will explain the causes, grants.
AR
Causes Effect Results
New technologies
Trench
warfare Industrialized war
Imperialism
killing millions
PE
Militarism Growing autonomy

F t
First
World Canadians
Growth of industries
Alliances War on the
battlefield Conscription Crisis
Nationalism
War Measures Act
Assassination Treaty of Versailles

of Archduke Paris Peace
FIGURE 3–20 War Guilt Clause
Ferdinand Conference
Cause-effect-results
organizer for the International debt
First World War

©P
The Imperial Conference and the Balfour Report KEY TERMS

Imperial Conference a meeting of the
It was at the Imperial Conference of 1926 that Canada made the greatest leaders of the countries in the British
progress toward changing its legal dependence on Britain. At this confer- Empire
ence, the dominions of the British Empire (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Balfour Report the conclusions of the
South Africa, and the Irish Free State) requested formal recognition of their 1926 Imperial Conference that acknowl-
edged that Canada was an autonomous
autonomy, the freedom to govern themselves. A special committee under the
community within the British Empire
leadership of Lord Balfour, a respected British politician, examined the
request. The committee’s findings, published as the Balfour Report, sup- Statute of Westminster the law that
changed the British Empire into the British
ported the dominions’ position: Commonwealth; all commonwealth
countries to be considered equal in status
A
with Britain and able to make their own
...[We] refer to the group of self-governing communities composed of... laws
Britain and the Dominions. Their position and mutual relation may be British Commonwealth an association of
AD
readily defined. They are autonomous communities within the British nations that were formerly colonies of the
British Empire
Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any
aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common amending formula the process by which
changes can legally be made to the
allegiance to the Crown.... Canadian Constitution
–Summary of Proceedings at the Imperial Conference, 1926
AN
The Statute of Westminster
The recommendations of the Balfour Report became law in 1931, when the
C
Statute of Westminster was passed by the British government. This statute
formally turned the British Empire into the British Commonwealth. The
commonwealth countries were considered free and equal states that shared
an allegiance to the British Crown. Canada was now a country equal in sta-
N
tus with Britain and could make its own laws. There were, however, two
remaining restrictions on Canada’s independence. Canada’s constitution,
SO
the British North America Act (BNA Act), remained in Britain because the
Canadian federal and provincial governments could not agree on an
amending formula, the procedure for changing the Act. As well, the Judicial
Committee of the Privy Council, a court of final appeal for Canadians,
resided in Britain until 1949.
AR
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What was the significance of each of the following 4. Patterns and Change Review the Fast Forward.
PE
for Canada: Chanak Crisis, Halibut Treaty, Statute Which elements of the King-Byng Crisis and
of Westminster? Harper’s prorogation of Parliament are the same?
2. How was King able to turn an election defeat in What is the key difference between the two
1925 into an election victory? events?
3. Explain the challenges faced by minority 5. What restrictions to Canadian autonomy

governments. remained after the Statute of Westminster was
passed?

©P
CRITICAL
INQUIRY Perspectives
counter points
● How does the United States
influence Canadian identity?
Was Canada more or less independent

by the end of the 1920s?
While Canada gained greater political independence A Separate Identity
from Britain in the 1920s, it developed much closer Had the U.S. simply replaced Britain in controlling
economic and cultural ties to the United States. In Canada’s development? On the one hand, Canada’s econ-
A
1922, U.S. investment in Canada topped that of omy was very dependent on that of the U.S. Canada was
Britain’s investment for the first time. By 1930, 61 per- also awash in American popular culture. But it is hard to
cent of foreign investment in Canada was from the U.S.
AD
say how much the exposure to American entertainment
During the same period, close to a million Canadians diminished Canadian identity in the 1920s. For example,
moved to the U.S. in search of better jobs and higher the people of Québec remained relatively untouched by
pay. the influence of American culture in Canada. A different
Despite a growing cultural industry in Canada, most language and a protective church helped to ensure that
AN
Canadians listened to American radio stations, watched most French Canadians remained beyond American influ-
Hollywood films, and drove American-designed Model T ence.
Fords. Even Canadian sports teams were being bought On the other hand, concern about American cultural
up by U.S. interests. The National Hockey League and economic domination made Canadians determined
became Americanized as smaller Canadian cities were to protect their identity. A Royal Commission in 1928 rec-
C
unable to compete following the inclusion of U.S. teams. ommended that the government regulate private radio to
One historian described the close ties between ensure Canadian content. Although Canadians benefited
Canada and the United States in the 1920s: from having a larger, more prosperous neighbour to the
south, they never showed interest in becoming part of the
N
...in the immediate aftermath of the war, the
United States had a... depression and Canada U.S. J.A. Stephenson, a British correspondent in Canada
had a... depression too. Coal strikes broke out in during the 1920s, observed:
SO
the United States; coal strikes broke out in

The people of Canada are imbued with... a pas-
Canada. The United States embarked on
sion to maintain their own separate identity. They
Prohibition; so... did almost all the provinces of
cherish the rooted belief that they enjoy in their
Canada. The United States spawned the
existing political and social order certain mani-
Prohibition gangster; Canada spawned the
fest advantages over their neighbours.
AR
Prohibition rum-runner to keep him supplied.

–Quoted in Contemporary Review, October 1931
–Ralph Allen, Ordeal By Fire: Canada, 1910–1945
Year Britain % U.S. % Other % Analyzing the Issue

1910 77 19 4
PE
1. In Vancouver in 1923, U.S. President Warren Harding

1918 60 36 4
made the following statement about the interdepend-
1920 53 44 3 ence of Canada and the U.S: “We think the same
1922 47 50 3 thoughts, live the same lives, and cherish the same
1925 41 56 3 aspirations....” Do you think many Canadians would
1926 44 53 3 have agreed with Harding? Why or why not?
1930 36 61 3 2. Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper, explaining
Figure 3–21 Percent of foreign investment in Canada why you agree or disagree with President Harding’s
Interpreting the Table In what year did U.S. investment in statement. Give examples of Canada’s dependence or
Canada overtake that of Britain? What are some reasons that independence to support your argument.
might account for this change?

©P
The Stock Market Crash KEY TERM

Depression a severe economic downturn
In the latter half of the 1920s, the North American economy was booming. in the global economy in the 1930s
In 1929, the president of the Vancouver Board of Trade, Robert McKee,
reflected a sense of optimism in the financial community when he told a
business audience that “prosperity was so broad, so sound, [and] so hope-
ful” that it inspired confidence in the future.
However, as you will see in the next chapter, the prosperity soon came
crashing to an end. On Tuesday, October 29, 1929, the New York Stock
Exchange collapsed. On that day, prices of all stocks fell dramatically. The
order to traders was to “Sell, sell, sell!” More than 16 million shares changed
A
hands, but prices continued to fall. Everyone knew a disaster had occurred.
As you will read in the next chapter, the stock market crash marked a shift
AD
from the prosperity of the 1920s to the crushing poverty of the Depression
of the 1930s.
AN
C
N
SO
AR
PE
FIGURE 3–22 Front page of Toronto’s The Globe just days before the stock market crash
Using Evidence How does this front page show the different opinions on the state of the stock
market prior to the crash? What words express concern? Confidence?

©P
CHAPTER
Review
CHAPTER FOCUS QUESTION How did Canada adjust to political, social, and economic changes
following the First World War?
Canadians in the 1920s began to develop a distinct sense of identity from

Britain. Events and developments following the First World War at times
encouraged and at other times hindered this trend.
A
1. a) Complete the organizer below, gathering exam- c) How many of the examples affect your sense of
ples of events from the chapter that helped in the identity as a Canadian today? Explain.
growth of a Canadian identity and examples of
AD
d) Pretend you are in a foreign country and are mis-
events that worked against developing an identity.
taken for an American by someone you meet.
b) Which of the examples do you think had the How would you explain the difference? What
greatest impact on the growing sense of makes us Canadian?
Canadian identity? Which examples most
AN
hindered the growth of a Canadian identity?
Give reasons for your choices.
Events helping to promote a Canadian identity

C
GROWING SENSE OF CANADIAN IDENTITY
N
SO
Events hindering the growth of a Canadian identity

AR

2. Review the Key Terms listed on page 61. Create 3. Continue the annotated timeline begun in Chapter 2
a three-column organizer for the key terms in this showing steps to Canadian autonomy. Review the
chapter using the following headings: social; events that are covered in the chapter. Write the
PE
political; and economic. name and date of each event on the timeline and
explain how the event contributed to Canadian
Place each term into the category you think is
independence.
correct. If a term fits in more than one category,
place it in all columns you think are appropriate. 4. List the advantages and disadvantages of foreign
Make a note about the terms you are having investment and branch plants in Canada. Use your
difficulty understanding and review them. list to determine whether the positive impacts of for-
eign investment outweigh the negative impacts.

©P
5. Discuss why the 1920s are described as the 10. Rank the following from most to least important for
“Roaring Twenties.” Do you agree with this name? their impact on Canada’s independence. Provide
Explain your answer. If you do not agree, decide on information to support your ranking.
another name.
Chanak Crisis
6. What do the immigration policy, Aboriginal policy, Halibut Treaty
and treatment of African Canadians reveal about the King-Byng Crisis
attitudes and values of Canadian authorities in the Imperial Conference
A
1920s? Balfour Report
Statute of Westminster
7. What current political parties offer a change from
AD
traditional parties? How effective are these alterna- 11. Debate: Prime Minister Mackenzie King did more for
tive parties at influencing government policy? Canadian autonomy than any other Canadian prime
minister.
8. What was the long-term impact of the King-Byng
Crisis?
Document Analysis
AN
Critical Thinking 12. What point is the cartoon below making about
Canadian identity? WASP stands for White Anglo-
9. Compare the struggle of women and Aboriginal peo-
Saxon Protestants and refers to Canadians of British
ples during the 1920s. In your opinion, which group
descent. United Empire Loyalists fought for Britain
was more successful in the short term and long
term? Provide specific evidence to support your
C during the American Revolution and, after the war,
settled in what is now Canada.
opinion.
N
SO
AR
PE
FIGURE 3–23

©P
4
GUIDING QUESTIONS
The 1930s: A Decade of Despair
Society & Identity

● What were the effects of the
A
Great Depression on
Canadians?
AD
● How did minority groups fare
during the Depression?
● How did the Depression affect

women?
● How did Canadian social
AN
programs evolve?
● How was Québec nationalism

expressed in the 1950s?
● What was the government’s

response to the Great
Depression?
C
● What new political parties
N
appeared in response to the
Depression?
SO

● Where were the causes of the
Great Depression in Canada?
● How involved should the

government be in the economy
AR
during a depression?

● What were the effects of the
Depression on the global
community?
PE
TIMELINE
1929 1930 1931 1932 1933

New York Stock Exchange Severe drought City dwellers outnumber rural Co-operative Unemployment hits
crashes on Wall Street devastates the Prairies population in Canada Commonwealth Federation highest level
(1930–1937) Statute of Westminster is passed (CCF) established Hitler comes to power
R.B. Bennett becomes by the British government, Federal relief camps in Germany
prime minister making Canada an autonomous established
state within the British
Commonwealth

©P

Change
What were the causes, effects, and responses to the Great Depression?
Judgements CRITICAL Evidence
INQUIRY
Cause and
James Gray was a young man at the beginning of the

Depression. This account of his family’s struggle to survive
A
those difficult years is a vivid picture of the hardships KEY TERMS
endured by ordinary Canadians in the bleakest decade of recession
the 20th century: depression
AD
supply and demand
prosperity
For two months, half a million farm people huddled recovery
around stoves and thought only of keeping warm. If overproduction
food supplies ran low, they ate less. Only when fuel tariffs
AN
reached the vanished point would they venture to town protectionism
for a load of relief coal.... Winter ended with a thaw... On-to-Ottawa Trek
and presently we were into summer which was much Regina Riot
New Deal
worse.... There was no escape from the heat and wind
laissez-faire
and dust of the summer of 1936.... From Calgary to
welfare state
C
Winnipeg there was almost nothing but dust, in a
bowl that extended clear down to Texas. Within the
Co-operative Commonwealth
Federation (CCF)
bowl was stifling heat, as if someone had left all the capitalism
furnace doors open and the blowers on. Regina Manifesto
N
–James Gray, The Winter Years, 1976 Social Credit Party
Union nationale
Québec nationalism
SO
equalization payments
For most Canadians, the 1930s was a decade of despair.
In this chapter, you will learn about the causes, effects, and
government’s response to the Great Depression.
AR
PE
1935 1936 1937 1938 1939

On-to-Ottawa Trek Canadian Broadcasting Royal Commission “Sitdowners” occupy Second World War
Mackenzie King Corporation established on Dominion- Vancouver Post Office begins
becomes prime J.M. Keynes publishes Provincial Relations and Art Gallery
minister General Theory of created
Employment, Interest
and Money
Chapter 4 ■ The 1930s: A Decade of Despair 89

©P
● What were the causes of the Causes of the Great Depression

Great Depression in Canada?
The end of the prosperity of the 1920s came as a surprise to many
Canadians. The stock market crash on October 29, 1929 marked the begin-
KEY TERMS ning of a recession, which progressed to a decade-long depression in
recession less severe than a depression, Canada and around the world. Prior to examining the causes of the Great
a recession is a downturn in economic Depression and what was happening in the economy at the time, a basic
activity in which the value of goods and
services declines
knowledge of economic principles is necessary.
depression a long period of severe eco-
nomic and social hardship, massive
unemployment, and suffering
A
market economy an economic system in
which individuals produce goods and
AD
prices are determined by supply and
demand
mixed economy an economic system in

which both individuals and the govern-
ment produce and sell goods
supply and demand the quantity of a
AN
product that is available and the market’s
desire for that product; the price of the
product varies based on supply and
demand
prosperity in the economic cycle, the

period of economic growth and expansion
recovery in the economic cycle, the period

C
following a recession during which the FIGURE 4–1 People flood the streets of New York after the stock market crash.
value of goods and services rises
N
overproduction more goods being pro-
duced than being sold; leads to a
Basic Economic Principles
decrease in production, which leads to
increased unemployment
In a market economy, or free enterprise system, the means of produc-
SO
tion—factories, machinery, and land—are owned by individuals, not the

tariffs taxes on imported goods
government. Individuals decide what types of goods and services they pro-
protectionism a system of using tariffs to duce and the prices for their products. People are free to buy what they like
raise the price of imported goods in order
to protect domestic producers from whomever they choose. Canada has a mixed economy, meaning that
the government has some involvement in the economy, including the cre-
AR
ation of government-owned industries (for example, Canadian National

Railways), limitations on workers’ rights to strike, and subsidies to support
Prosperity certain industries.
In a market or mixed economy, production and prices are determined
by supply and demand. Supply refers to how much of a product is avail-
PE
Recovery Recession able. Demand refers to how much people want that product. Usually, when
the supply of a product is low, demand makes the price higher; when there
is a great supply, the price is lower. For example, at the beginning of the
Depression 1920s, a shortage of wheat as a result of the First World War led to a higher
price for Canadian wheat. As other countries began producing wheat after
FIGURE 4–2 In the economic cycle,
the war, increased supply lowered wheat prices.
market economies have ups and Market economies regularly go through cycles of growth and decline
downs. (see Figure 4–2). Expansion in many economic activities results in a period
Thinking Critically How would gov- of prosperity. This eventually is followed by a slowdown in the economy,
ernments try to alter this cycle?
Provide specific examples.
called a recession. If the slowdown is longer and more severe, it is called a
depression. Recovery is when the economy begins to grow again.

©P
Overproduction
During the 1920s, many industries in Canada expanded as demand for their
goods was high. But when the economy slowed down, many companies
faced overproduction as they produced more goods than they sold. At first,
manufacturers lowered prices and stockpiled goods. Eventually, they cut
back and produced fewer goods. This decrease in production led to layoffs in
factories, which meant people could not afford to buy consumer goods, so
sales slowed down even more.
Economic Dependence on Exports
A
The Great Depression exposed a major weakness in the Canadian economy:
AD
its heavy dependence on the export of primary resources. Two exports in
particular—wheat from the Prairie provinces, and newsprint from British
Columbia, Ontario, and Québec—made Canada extremely vulnerable to
changes in world markets. Eighty percent of Canada’s production on farms,
and in forests and mines was exported.
AN
In the early 1920s, wheat farmers in Canada and the United States pro-
duced record quantities of crops and sold them at record prices. But as more
countries, including Argentina and Australia, produced wheat crops, there
was more competition on the international market. Wheat was being over-
produced and the price of wheat began to fall. As international sales
C
decreased, farmers’ incomes dropped. Soon, many were unable to meet their
mortgage and loan payments.
N
Tariffs and U.S. Protectionism
Canada’s economy was hit particularly hard
SO
because of its close ties to the U.S. economy. The

United States had become Canada’s biggest trading
partner and largest investor. Consequently, when
the U.S. economy “crashed,” Canada’s economy was
bound to feel the effects.
Since the United States did not need raw mate-
AR
rials from other countries, it imposed high tariffs

on foreign goods. These tariffs were meant to pro-
tect the U.S. domestic market by making foreign
items, such as Canadian wheat, more expensive.
PE
However, this protectionism led other countries

to impose their own tariffs in response to the
United States’ actions. Tariffs caused a slowdown
in world trade as opportunities for export shrank.
Canadian exports decreased substantially as the
U.S. and other countries stopped buying Canadian
products. FIGURE 4–3 Increased U.S. protectionism as a response to the
recession of 2008–2009
Interpreting a Cartoon How does the cartoonist portray
Canada’s response to U.S. protectionism?

©P
KEY TERMS Debt from the First World War

reparations compensation from a
defeated enemy for damages caused by The United States lent several countries money during and after the First
war World War. Many of these countries relied on trade with the U.S. to raise
speculation buying shares “on margin” money to pay these debts. But as protectionism grew, international trade
with the expectation that the value of the decreased and several countries were unable to pay back the loans. Britain
shares will increase enough to pay back
and France in particular relied on German reparations to pay their war
the loan and make a profit
debts. After the First World War, Germany’s economy was in ruins. The
Black Tuesday October 29, 1929, when
the New York Stock Exchange collapsed
enormous reparations it was obligated to pay Britain and France under the
Treaty of Versailles further stunted its ability to recover (see Chapter 5).
Because Germany could not make its reparation payments, Britain and
A
France in turn could not pay their war debts.
AD
Speculation and the Stock Market Crash
Business was booming in the early 1920s. Companies wanted to expand, and
in order to raise money, they would issue shares (or stocks). Investors
bought these shares believing that the company would do well and the value
AN
of the stocks would rise. Between 1922 and 1926, Canadian companies
issued $700 million worth of new shares.
During the 1920s, many investors were buying “on margin.” This meant
buying shares with only a 10 percent down payment, assuming that when
the prices of the stocks increased the remaining 90 percent would be paid.
C
This process is called speculation. Loans for stocks were easy to obtain, and
high demand had driven the price of stocks up beyond their real value.
When some investors started selling their
stocks in order to cash in on high profits, others
N
1928–1929 1933 Percentage
Average $ per Decrease rushed to follow their lead. As a result, stock
$ per Capita Capita
prices fell. People panicked and began to sell off
SO
Canada 471 247 48 huge volumes of stocks, making prices drop even
further. On Black Tuesday, October 29, 1929, the
Saskatchewan 478 135 72
New York Stock Exchange collapsed, followed by
Alberta 548 212 61 the Toronto and Montréal Stock Exchanges.
Manitoba 466 240 49

AR
Falling Off the Economic Edge

British Columbia 594 314 47
The effects of the stock market crash were devas-
Prince Edward 278 154 45
Island
tating. Investors who had borrowed heavily to
buy shares went bankrupt in a single day. While
PE
Ontario 549 310 44 few Canadians actually invested in stocks, the

Québec 391 220 44
crash affected millions of people. Many compa-
nies cut back on production or closed their doors
New Brunswick 292 180 39 when the prices of their goods dropped. More
Nova Scotia 322 207 36 and more people lost their jobs and could not
find work. Without jobs, they could no longer
FIGURE 4–4 Average per person income, 1928/1929 and 1933. afford to buy such items as cars, radios, or tele-
Note that these numbers represent the average Canadian; many
Canadians fell well below this average and many had no money
phones. Without customers, the people who
at all. worked in the factories producing these goods
Using Evidence Which province do you think was hardest hit by also lost their jobs. Within a year, millions of
the Depression? Explain. Canadians were out of work.

©P
Industrialization leads to bigger

and more complex economies.
Bigger economies need more Industrialized countries look to

capital and international loans, resource-rich countries, such
making financial arrangements as Canada, for raw materials.
more intricate.
World economy becomes more
A
integrated and reliant on trade.
AD
Production surpasses demand
Consumer spending
as industries produce more
is reduced.
than they can sell.
AN
Cycle of
Farm income decreases. supply and Prices fall and producers’
demand C profits suffer.
Fewer workers are

needed, leading to higher Demand for raw materials
N
unemployment. People declines.
spend less and have
more consumer debt.
SO
New York Stock Exchange crash sets off

the world financial and economic collapse
AR
resulting in the Great Depression.
FIGURE 4–5 Causes of the Great Depression

PE
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. a) What factors contributed to the Depression? 3. Explain why Canada’s close economic ties to the
U.S. contributed to the Depression.
b) Explain how a reduction in consumer spending
can result in a slowdown in the economy. 4. Why were so many people able to invest in the
stock market?
2. Why was the Depression so severe in Canada?
What part of the country was hardest hit? Why? 5. Patterns and ChangeHow was the financial
collapse of 2008–2009 similar to and different
from the 1929 crash?

©P
● What were the effects of the The Desperate Years: Making Ends Meet
Great Depression on
Canadians? The Depression affected the entire country, but conditions in the Prairie
provinces were particularly severe.
KEY TERM
pogey relief payments by a government,
Drought on the Prairies
sometimes in the form of vouchers for In the boom years of the early 1920s, many farmers planted wheat to take
food and other essentials
advantage of world demand and rising prices. But one-crop farming takes
its toil on the land. Farmers replaced native grasses with wheat crops,
which used up nutrients in the soil. Just after the economic crash in 1929,
A
1925 1.51 the Prairies were hit by a disastrous drought that lasted almost eight years.
1926 1.46 Many farmers could not grow crops and families struggled to survive.
AD
1927 1.46
As the drought deepened, the winds began. Millions of hectares of fer-
1928 1.24
1929 1.24
tile topsoil—dried up by the drought and overfarming—blew away. By
1930 0.64 mid-spring of 1931, there were almost constant dust storms. Dust sifted in
Year
1931 0.59 everywhere. It piled in little drifts on windowsills, and got into cupboards
1932 0.54 and closets. In a bad windstorm, people could not see the other side of the
AN
1933 0.68 street. The semi-arid area in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan, known
1934 0.81 as Palliser’s Triangle, was hit especially hard.
1935 0.85
As if this were not enough, a plague of grasshoppers descended on the
1936 1.22
1937 1.31
Prairies. They stalled trains and buses and clogged car radiators. The
insects effectively wiped out any crops that farmers on the Prairies man-
0 0.5 1
Price of Wheat per Bushel
1.5 2
C
aged to grow during the drought. This combination of events devastated
(in Dollars) many farms and forced thousands of families to abandon their land.
FIGURE 4–6 Wheat prices dropped to
N
the lowest level in more than a century
in 1932.
Using Evidence Construct a cause and
SO
effect diagram (see Chapter 3, page 82)

to explain the impact of wheat prices on
Prairie farmers in the 1930s.
AR
PE
FIGURE 4–7 Windstorms such as this one turned the Prairies, already suffering from years
of drought, into a dust bowl during the Depression years. Overcultivation of fields and poor
land-use practices prior to the 1930s contributed to the erosion of the soil.
Using Evidence Describe the impact of the storm on the community in the photograph.

©P
FIGURE 4–8 Unemployed men of all

ages line up at a soup kitchen in
Vancouver, for food provided by a pri-
vate charity.
Thinking Critically How would you
describe this scene? How do you think
A
these men felt? Explain.
AD
Unemployment
As the Depression deepened, more and more factories and businesses
closed their doors and people lost their jobs. In a population of more than
11 million, only about 300 000 Canadians earned enough money to pay
AN
income tax in 1939. At that time, married people earning more than $2000
and single people earning more than $1000 paid tax. People were evicted
from their homes because they could not afford to pay rent. The loss of a
job also meant the loss of respect, as this man explained: C
I never so much as stole a dime, a loaf of bread, a gallon of gas, but in FA S T F O R WA R D
those days I was treated like a criminal. By the twist in some men’s
minds, men in high places, it became a criminal act just to be poor, and Permanent Food
N
this percolated down through the whole structure until it reached the Banks
town cop or railway bull and if you were without a job, on the roads,
In 2008, Food Banks Canada
wandering, you automatically became a criminal.
SO
helped more than 700 000

–Quoted in Ten Lost Years, 1997
Canadians in an average month.
They reported a 20 percent
increase in this number during
Collecting Pogey the recession of 2008–2009. The
Thousands existed on “pogey,” government relief payments given to those two largest groups accessing food
AR
who did not have an alternative source of income, similar to welfare today. banks are those living on social
The government did not make getting relief easy. The payments were pur- assistance and those with low-
posely kept low—$60 per month in Calgary to $19 per month in Halifax for paying jobs.
While some food banks are
a family of five—to encourage people to look for work rather than depend
government funded, most rely on
on the payments. People had to wait in line for hours and then publicly
PE
the generosity of Canadians.

declare their financial failure. They also had to swear that they did not own People donate money, food, cloth-
anything of value and prove that they were being evicted from their home. If ing, and their time. Their contri-
the applicants met these requirements, they received vouchers that could be butions are an example of active
exchanged for food and other essentials. The vouchers were never enough to citizenship and help to support
cover expenses, and getting them was a humiliating experience. the less fortunate.
Private charities helped by providing used clothing and meals, while 1. What do permanent food
soup kitchens were set up to help the hungry and homeless. For some peo- banks reveal about the
ple, the hardships were too much to bear. One Winnipeg man came home to Canadian economy and the
discover that his wife, who had been living on relief, had drowned their son, lives of many Canadians?
strangled their daughter, and poisoned herself. The note she left said, “I owe
the drugstore forty-four cents. Farewell.”

©P
Riding the Rails

By the winter of 1933, more than one quarter of
Canada’s workforce was unemployed. The country
was filled with young, jobless, homeless men drifting
from one place to another, looking for work. They
travelled across the country by “hopping” freight
trains. Some men even rode on the roof or clung to
the rods underneath the train.
After “riding the rails,” the men would stay a day
or two in the many shantytowns that had sprung up
A
in and around cities. These sprawling shantytowns
were often referred to as “jungles.” Sydney
Hutcheson, a young unemployed man in the sum-
AD
mer of 1932, recalls what life was like during these
years:
...I made Kamloops my headquarters as there were
AN
hundreds of men in the jungles on the north side of
the Thompson River right across from town.... I
made three round trips across Canada that sum-
mer by boxcar.... I carried my packsack with a
change of clothes, razor, a five pound pail and a
FIGURE 4–9 As the Depression grew worse, more and more

C collapsible frying pan that a man made for me in
the jungles in Kamloops in exchange for a pair of
people found themselves destitute and out of work. socks. I also had a little food with me at all times
Developing Understanding Why was unemployment a humili- such as bacon ends, flour, salt, baking powder and
N
ating experience for many Canadians? What does the sign in
the photograph mean? Can you think of a similar situation
anything else I could get my hands on.
today? –Sydney Hutcheson, Depression Stories, 1976
SO
The Disadvantaged
● How did minority groups fare
during the Depression? Canadians who had difficulty earning a decent wage when times were good
AR
suffered even more during the Depression. Even with emergency assistance
payments, there was discrimination. City families received more than coun-
try families because it was assumed that country families had livestock and a
big garden. Some groups of people, including immigrants, Aboriginal peo-
ples, and women, were particularly disadvantaged.
PE
New Canadians
The Canadian government had previously supported immigration because
it served the economic interests of Canada. During the Depression, however,
immigrants were viewed with hostility when they competed for scarce jobs.
Many immigrants who were already employed lost their jobs because they
had been the last to be hired. By 1935, more than 28 000 immigrants were
deported from Canada.

©P
The Chinese population in Vancouver suffered greatly. Already at a dis- KEY TERMS
advantage due to immigration policies and social prejudice, many Chinese transient an unemployed person who
people did not qualify for relief payments. By 1932, many were starving. moves from place to place in search of
work
deport to send back to one’s country of

By [1932] destitute Chinese men, most of them elderly, were begging in origin
the street.... The first... Chinese deaths from starvation finally forced
anti-Semitism discrimination or hostility
the provincial government to show some concern. It funded the toward Jewish people
Anglican Church Mission’s soup kitchen..., but it expected a Chinese to
be fed at half of what it cost to feed a white man on relief. Some desti-
tute Chinese said they’d rather starve than accept relief.
A
–Denise Chong, The Concubine’s Children, 1994
AD
Jewish people in particular were targeted and they faced blatant
anti-Semitism. Many professions were closed to them; employers often
posted signs forbidding them to apply. Across Canada, many clubs, organi-
zations, and resorts barred Jewish people. These barriers made it particularly
difficult for Jewish people to make ends meet during the Depression.
AN
FIGURE 4–10 The Lions Gate Bridge was
built to provide access to the expensive
development on the north shore of Burrard
C Inlet. A similar plan had been rejected in
1927 because a road would have had to be
built through Stanley Park to access the
bridge. The proposal to build the road and
N
bridge was approved in 1933.
Thinking Critically Why do you think the
proposal was approved in 1933 when it had
SO
previously been rejected? What considera-

tions would developers have to make today
to get a project similar to this one
approved? Why might governments over-
look these considerations?
AR
Aboriginal Peoples
Aboriginal families on relief were given only $5 a month, compared to the
$19–$60 received by non-Aboriginals. They were expected to live off the
land, even though conditions on the reserves were so poor that they had
been unable to do so for decades. The government continued to take cut-off
PE
lands from the reserves, further limiting Aboriginal peoples’ resources. In

one particular case, the government transferred land from the Squamish
Capilano Indian Reserve to the company that was building the Lions Gate
Bridge without consulting or compensating the First Nation. While visiting
Canada in 1939, King George VI and his wife Queen Elizabeth drove over
the completed bridge to honour it. A request by the Squamish First Nation
that the Royals stop, receive gifts, and meet Mary Agnes Capilano (see
Chapter 1) was ignored. Later they were assured that “Their Majesties took
particular pains to acknowledge the homage of their Indian subjects, and
that in passing them the rate of speed was considerably lowered.”

©P
case study
Faces of Despair: Women in the 1930s

In the 1930s, the primary responsibility of women was For women on the Prairies, the dust bowl added
seen to be the maintenance of the home and family. another problem on washday:
Most women were expected to get married and leave the
I could never get my laundry white. I’d try and
labour force as soon as they could. There were a limited
try. The children’s things, the curtains and the
number of jobs considered acceptable for middle-class
A
sheets, why they all looked as grey as that sky
women. Most were clerical, “pink collar” sector jobs for
out there. I’d work my fingers to the bone scrub-
which women earned 60 percent of men’s wages. The
bing.... We were lucky to have a deep well and
AD
garment industry, involving long hours of piece work, was
good water but even down that well... the water
one of the few occupations open to minority and working-
came up with dirt and dust in it.... The wind blew
class white women. One woman who had a job at that
that dust all the time. It never stopped.
time remembered: –Ten Lost Years, 1997
AN
My family were very unhappy with my having a
job on the [Victoria] Times.... They didn’t feel
that either my sister or I should be working in
the first place. My father got poison pen letters
from people saying “What are your daughters C
doing taking the bread out of the mouths of
starving people.”
–Illustrated History of British Columbia, 2001
During the Depression, many women who

N
did have jobs were forced into unwanted retire-
ment and married women were fired from their
SO
jobs. Most were told that these measures were

taken to provide jobs for men supporting fami-
lies. But Agnes Macphail, the first female
Member of Parliament in the House of
Commons, claimed that in taking employment,
AR
women were doing what they could to ensure

the survival of themselves and their families.
Most families suffering economic hardship
relied heavily on women’s capacity to find ways
to cut household costs. They gave up commer-
PE
cially prepared foods and kept bees to cut down

on sugar costs, expanded gardens, and picked
wild berries. They found ways to reuse every-
thing, such as transforming old coats into quilts. FIGURE 4–11 The poster on the left encouraged women to come to Canada
in the 1920s. The photograph on the right shows the great deal of physical
Flour bags were particularly useful, as this
labour required on washday, particularly the constant hauling of water from a
mother recalled: “You’d take an empty sack of well (most homes did not have running water) and the tiring scrubbing on a
flour... give it a good wash and bleach out the washboard.
lettering... cut two holes for the arms and one at Thinking Critically Compare and contrast the depictions of a farm woman’s
the top for the neck.... You had a dress for a life in these images. Think of a present-day example where the media’s por-
trayal of a situation differs from reality.
nine-year-old girl.”

©P
CRITICAL
INQUIRY Patterns and Change
● How did the depression

affect women?
Suffragist Nellie McClung lamented the effect of A young mother from Manitoba described her
constant work on women: dilemma:
On the farms before electricity and labour saving Dear Sir-

devices lightened their loads, women’s work I am a young mother of two small children a girl
A
obsessed them. Their hours were endless.... Many (6) and a boy (4) now in worst of hard times an
broke under the strain and died, and their places accident happend, my girl was playing & fell and
were filled without undue delay. Some man’s sis-
AD
cut her face very badley, so out off this got a
ter or sister-in-law came from Ontario to take the blood poison in her face, she’s in hospital now.
dead woman’s place. Just at present I have no money to pay the doctor
–The Stream Runs Fast, 2007 or fare for the train to go and see her.... Now Mr.
Pregnancy and the young offspring it brought added Bennett what I want to say is if you can lend me
AN
to the household’s difficulties. The sale and advertise- some money for a period of 3 or 4 months when
my cows will come fresh I’ll turn you the money,
ment of birth control information and abortion were
everybody here is broke and no where to get.... So
offences under the Criminal Code, yet couples managed
please lend me some money... and a couple of
to have fewer children as the Depression deepened. The
dollars wouldn’t mean as much as one cent
general fertility rate (the annual number of births per
means to me. I’d make you a mortgage for horses
1000 women) went from 128 in 1921 to 99 in 1931 and
C and cattle.
to 89 by the end of the decade.
–The Wretched of Canada, 1971
Many single and married women in desperation
wrote to Prime Minister Bennett. Barbara Harris, a young
N
woman from Moose Jaw, explained her difficult situation: Bennett responded to many of these women by
sending them $2–$4 of his own money. This was a lot of
Dear Sir-
SO
money at the time, considering that government relief

I am 19 yrs. of age Mr. Bennett, but it really is was $10–$15 a month. Despite this aid, women and their
impossible for me to get work. I haven’t got any families suffered greatly during the Depression.
shoes to wear & no coat & so I haven’t any home
or any relatives here, Im all alone as it were. Now
I tho’t perhaps you could help me a little.... Looking Further
AR
Here... it just seems impossible to get relief

unless you go & work for your board & room & I 1. What were the social attitudes toward women during
can’t work like that as I need clothes so badly. It’s the 1930s? What were the objections to women
even a fact that not only haven’t a coat to wear working during the Depression?
but I haven’t any stockings either. Mr. Bennett if 2. Evaluate the impact of the Depression on married
PE
you could just help me out a little bit I would be women compared to married men, and on single
very pleased & would appreciate it very much & women compared to single men.
would you kindly give me an answer.
–The Wretched of Canada, 1971 3. Make a list of three to five lessons that we should
learn from the difficulties faced by women and fami-
lies during the Depression. Share your list.
Note: The last two quotations on this page contain spelling and 4. What roles do you think women would have preferred
.punctuation errors. They have been reproduced as they were
originally written. during the 1930s?

©P
The Plight of Women

● How did the Depression affect
women? For women, there were few jobs other than domestic work, which paid just a
few dollars a week. Some critics believed working women actually con-
tributed to the Depression. Médéric Martin, a former mayor of Montréal,
KEY TERMS summed up the attitude of many toward working women:
deflation the opposite of inflation, defla-
tion occurs when the price of goods and
services falls Wouldn’t national life be happier, saner, safer if a great many of these
majority government a government in
men [the unemployed] could be given work now being done by women,
which the ruling party has more seats in even if it meant that these women would have to sacrifice their finan-
the House of Commons than all other cial independence? Go home to be supported by father, husband, or
A
parties combined
brother as they were in the old pre-feministic days?
–Chatelaine, September 1933
AD
Most unemployed single women did not qualify for government relief
and had to rely on charities to get by. In Vancouver, women’s groups such as
the Women’s Labour League campaigned for more support. As a result, the
city provided milk for babies, clothing allowances for women and children,
AN
and medical care for pregnant women during the Depression.
The Fortunate Minority

While the majority of people suffered during the Depression, wealthy
C
Canadians with secure jobs noticed little change in their lifestyle. Gray
Miller, for example, earned $25 000 a year as chief executive officer of
Imperial Tobacco. In contrast, clerks in the company’s United Cigar Store
earned only $1300 a year working 54 hours a week. As deflation led to
N
falling prices, money was worth more and the living conditions for those
with secure jobs improved. A young reporter in Victoria who was paid only
SO
$15 a week found that he could live well. Saturday night dances at the
Empress Hotel were easily affordable. “For two dollars a couple, a three-
course dinner was served with full valet service at tables arranged in cabaret
style around a magnificent ballroom.” For the majority of Canadians, how-
ever, this lifestyle was an impossible dream.
AR
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What part of Canada was hardest hit by the 4. Reread James Gray’s description of the 1930s on
Depression? Explain. page 89. Write a first-person account of the
PE
summer of 1936 on the Prairies.

2. a) What seemed to be the government’s attitude
toward people who had lost their jobs? Why do 5. Write a paragraph describing conditions in
you think this was the case? Do you think this Vancouver’s Chinese district during the Depression.
attitude exists today toward the unemployed? Explain why conditions were so harsh. Include
b) Compare the possible attitudes of people who information you have learned from previous
received social assistance in the 1930s and chapters.
those who receive assistance today.
6. Provide specific evidence explaining how minority
3. What did people have to do to qualify for “pogey”?
groups fared during the Depression.
Why do you think people were given vouchers
instead of cash?

©P
Responding to the Depression ● What was the government’s

Prime Minister Mackenzie King was unprepared to deal with a crisis on the Depression?
scale of the Depression. He believed the situation was temporary and that, in ● How did Canadian social
time, the economy would recover. When desperate Canadians turned to the programs evolve?
federal government for financial help, King told them this was the responsi-
bility of municipal and provincial governments. The financial strain of the
Depression, however, had bankrupted many municipalities. When the
Conservative Opposition asked why some provincial governments were not
being helped by the federal government, King said he would not give “a five-
A
cent piece” to a Conservative provincial government.
King never lived down this impulsive remark. The Conservatives used
his statement to build support during their 1930 election campaign. King
AD
lost to Richard Bedford Bennett and his Conservative majority government.
The Government’s Response

Prime Minister Bennett was no more in favour of government relief than
AN
Mackenzie King had been. He once told a group of students that “one of the
greatest assets a man can have on entering life’s struggle is poverty.”
Nevertheless, Bennett’s Conservative government introduced several meas-
ures to help Canadians through the Depression. C
• Bennett’s government introduced the Unemployment Relief Act, which
gave the provinces $20 million for work-creation programs. In spite of
this spending, the economy did not improve.
• Bennett tried to “use tariffs to blast a way” into world markets and out
N
of the Depression. He raised tariffs by an average of more than 50 per-
cent to protect Canadian industries, which provided protection for
SO
some businesses. In the long run, it did more harm than good, as other
nations, in turn, set up trade barriers against Canada.
• The Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Act was introduced in 1935 to help
farmers build irrigation systems and reservoirs. But by this time,
drought and poverty had forced many families to leave their farms and
AR
move elsewhere.
PE
FIGURE 4–12 As the situation in

Canada grew worse, Prime
Minister Bennett became a target
for people’s anger and frustration.
A deserted farm was called a
“Bennett barnyard”; a newspaper
was a “Bennett blanket.” Roasted
wheat was “Bennett coffee.” A
“Bennett buggy” was an automo-
bile pulled by horses when the
owner could no longer afford the
gas to run it.

©P
KEY TERMS The growing number of jobless, homeless men drifting across the coun-
On-to-Ottawa Trek a 1935 rail trip from try frightened many middle-class Canadians. The “Red Scare” was still dom-
Vancouver to Ottawa (stopped at Regina) inant in Canada, and Prime Minister Bennett feared these men would come
by unemployed men to protest conditions
at employment relief camps
under the influence of the Communist Party. In 1931, Bennett introduced a
law outlawing communist agitation. Communist Party leader Tim Buck was
Regina Riot a riot that occurred when
police attempted to clear On-to-Ottawa
convicted in defiance of this law, and spent two years in prison.
trekkers from a stadium in Regina
Working for Twenty Cents a Day
New Deal a series of programs, such as
social assistance for the aged and unem- In addition to relief payments and soup kitchens, Bennett created a national
ployed, introduced by U.S. president network of work camps for single men in an attempt to provide relief from
Roosevelt in the 1930s to deal with the
the Depression. In British Columbia, the provincial government had already
A
Depression
established work camps, and these were absorbed into the federal camps.
Work camps were usually located deep in the woods, so the men were com-
AD
pletely isolated. Men worked on projects such as building roads, clearing
land, and digging drainage ditches. They were paid $0.20 a day and given
room and board. The food was terrible, and the bunks were often bug-
infested. More than 170 000 men spent time in these camps.
AN
The On-to-Ottawa Trek
In 1935, more than a thousand men left the relief camps in the interior of
British Columbia in protest against camp conditions and to demand higher
Cpay. They gathered in Vancouver, holding rallies and
collecting money for food. Under the leadership of
the Relief Camp Workers’ Union, the men decided
to take their complaints directly to the prime minister
N
in a protest that became known as the On-to-Ottawa
Trek. Crowding into and on top of freight cars, the
trekkers rode through the Prairies. Many people sup-
SO
ported them by donating food and supplies, while

others joined the trek. By the time they reached
Regina, Saskatchewan, there were more than
2000 trekkers and their protest had gained national
attention.
AR
Bennett responded to the trekkers by calling in

the RCMP to stop them in Regina. The protesters
were confined in a local stadium, and only the leaders
were allowed to continue on to Ottawa. The union
leaders who met with Prime Minister Bennett had
PE
great hopes of being heard, but Bennett attacked the

leaders as communist radicals and troublemakers.
Back in Regina, the RCMP were ordered to clear
the trekkers from the stadium. The trekkers resisted,
battling the RCMP and the local police for hours. The
FIGURE 4–13 Relief Camp Workers’ Union newsletter incident became known as the Regina Riot. One
Thinking Critically Make a list of information that might have officer was killed, many were injured, and 130 men
been found in this newsletter. What use could a historian were arrested.
make of a source such as this one?

©P
Prime Minister
Richard Bedford
Bennett
- born 1870, Hopewell,
New Brunswick
- teacher, lawyer, businessman
- first elected to Commons in 1911
- prime minister 1930–1935
A
Domestic Record
• established relief camps for
AD
unemployed single men during
the Depression
• created the Canadian Radio
Broadcasting Commission
(CRBC) in 1932, which regulated
broadcasting in Canada; the
AN
CRBC became the Canadian
Broadcasting Corporation (CBC)
in 1936
• passed the Bank of Canada Act in
FIGURE 4–14 The On-to-Ottawa Trekkers 1934, creating a central bank that
Gathering Information How would protests of today differ from the On-to-Ottawa Trek? issues currency, sets the bank rate,
C
How might the government response be similar or different today? Explain. and helps decide banking policies
• helped create the Canadian Wheat
Board, which works to control the
prices and marketing of Canadian
Trouble in Vancouver wheat
N
When the federal government closed relief camps in 1936 and the provincial International Record
government reduced relief payments, many men were left destitute. In • persuaded the British Empire to
SO
give Canada preferential tariffs,

protest against the lack of government support, these men would conduct which helped the Canadian econ-
“sit-ins” at various buildings until the government responded to their com- omy during the Depression
plaints. In April, 1600 protesters occupied the Vancouver Art Gallery, the
main post office, and the Georgia Hotel. Most of the protesters were con-
vinced to end their sit-in without incident. At the post office, however, the
AR
men refused to leave; they were eventually evicted with tear gas.
Roosevelt’s New Deal

When Franklin Roosevelt became the U.S. president in 1933, he introduced
PE
a “New Deal” that created public work programs for the unemployed and
for farmers. His most drastic action was the introduction of the Social
Security Act. This Act provided several social assistance programs, such as
old age pension, unemployment insurance, and financial assistance for
dependent mothers and children. Under the New Deal, the U.S. federal gov-
ernment spent billions of dollars to get the economy working again. The
New Deal did not pull the United States out of the Depression. It did, how-
ever, help millions to survive, and it gave hope for the future in a time of
national despair.

©P
Bennett’s New Deal

Bennett was initially reluctant to spend government money
on relief. But in his radio addresses prior to the 1935 election
campaign, Bennett surprised
listeners and his Cabinet colleagues by introducing his own
version of Roosevelt’s New Deal which included
• fairer, progressive taxation so that people who earned
more money paid more tax
• insurance to protect workers against illness, injury, and
unemployment
A
• legislation for workplace reforms that regulated work
hours, minimum wages, and working conditions
AD
• revised old-age pensions to help support workers over 65
years of age
• agricultural support programs to help farmers and the
creation of the Canadian Wheat Board to regulate wheat
AN
prices
Many voters saw Bennett’s change in policy as a desperate
attempt to win votes and not as a true shift in his views. They
FIGURE 4–15 U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt
priming the New Deal pump
questioned the value of social insurance programs for people
Interpreting a Cartoon What is the message of
who did not have a job and so could not make a claim. For
this cartoon? Why has the cartoonist chosen the
C
most people it was too little and far too late.
image of priming a pump to describe Roosevelt’s
New Deal?
N
KEY TERMS
SO
laissez-faire an economic condition in

which industry is free of government
intervention
welfare state a state in which the

government actively looks after the
well-being of its citizens
AR
FIGURE 4–16 To combat U.S. influence on Canadians, a public

radio service was created, which became the Canadian Broadcasting
Corporation (CBC) in 1936. The CBC ran Canadian-produced music
and entertainment programs in French and English. French pro-
gramming in Québec was very popular, but many English-speaking
listeners still tuned in to popular U.S. shows.
PE
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What actions did governments take to deal with 3. Do you think the On-to-Ottawa Trek was a success
the Depression? Explain. or failure? Provide evidence to support your opinion.
2. What were the main complaints of relief camp 4. Which three of Bennett’s New Deal proposals do
workers? you think had the greatest impact on Canadians?
Support your choices.

©P
CRITICAL
INQUIRY Judgements
counter points
How involved should the government be in the economy

during a depression?
Before the Great Depression, governments generally did the government’s duty to provide basic services, such as
not interfere in the economy. Instead, they relied on a education, health care, unemployment benefits, and
laissez-faire approach, letting the free enterprise system other kinds of social assistance. This is referred to as a
A
regulate itself. During the 1930s, the public pressured welfare state. Other people support a competitive state
governments to create work programs and to provide in which the government creates an atmosphere of com-
AD
money for those who could not help themselves. Some petition for businesses by cutting spending on social
governments, most notably the U.S., followed the advice programs and reducing taxes. Most Canadians believe in
of British economist John Maynard Keynes who believed a mixed economy, where the government provides a cer-
that governments needed to jump-start the economy. He tain level of social services, but is not overly intrusive in
supported spending money on programs that would put planning and running the economy (see Figure 4–17).
AN
people back to work. Once they were working, people During the 2008 economic crisis, many govern-
would spend money. The increased demand for goods ments referred to the lessons learned during the
would mean more jobs and more spending. Depression to support intervention in the economy. With
Opposition in the U.S. criticized Roosevelt’s New little opposition, the Canadian government provided
Deal as a “...frightful waste and extravagance.... It has $12 billion of economic stimulus. In the U.S., which was
bred fear and hesitation in commerce and industry, thus
discouraging new enterprises, preventing employment
C harder hit by this recession, the government supplied
$787 billion to bail out failing industries and curb rising
and prolonging the depression.” In Canada, Prime unemployment.
Minister Bennett’s campaign during the 1935 election
N
promised his version of the New Deal. He said, “In my Communism Government involvement Capitalism
in the economy
mind, reform means Government intervention. It means
SO
Government control and regulation. It means the end of

laissez-faire.” Mackenzie King, who won the election,
believed that the economy would improve on its own in State control Mixed economy Laissez-faire
time. He warned that
FIGURE 4–17 Economic systems based on the level of competition
A house is not built from the top down. It is con-
AR
and government control

structed from the ground up. The foundation
must be well and truly laid, or the whole edifice
will crumble. To seek to erect an ambitious pro- Analyzing the Issue
gram of social services upon a stationary or
diminishing national income is like building a 1. Draw a flow chart to illustrate Keynes’ theory of how
PE
house upon the sands. government spending could lift a country out of a
–W. L. Mackenzie King, 1935 depression.
Many of the social programs created by the New 2. In a two-column organizer, summarize the argu-
Deal are part of today’s “social safety net” in Canada ments for and against government intervention in
and the U.S. These programs help to protect people and the economy during an economic slowdown and
businesses during an economic crisis. Since the during a period of economic growth.
Depression, people have debated the role of the govern-
3. Why do you think there was little opposition to gov-
ment in Canada’s economy. Most Canadians believe that
ernment intervention in the economy during the
even if the country is not experiencing a depression, it is
2008 recession?

©P
● What new political parties Politics of Protest

appeared in response to the
Depression? As Ottawa struggled to find ways to cope with the Depression, some
Canadians looked to new political parties for solutions.
The Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF)

The Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF), founded in the
Prairie provinces in 1932, was Canada’s first socialist party. The CCF
believed that capitalism breeds inequality and greed and had caused the
Depression. The CCF supported a socialist system in which the government
A
controlled the economy so that all Canadians would benefit equally. Their
ideas appealed to a wide variety of people who were dissatisfied with the
AD
government’s response to the Depression. At the CCF’s convention in Regina
in 1933, J.S. Woodsworth was chosen as party leader. The party platform,
known as the Regina Manifesto, opposed free-market economics and sup-
ported public ownership of key industries. It advocated social programs to
help the elderly, the unemployed, the homeless, and the sick. Woodsworth
AN
also urged the government to spend money on public works to create
employment. By 1939, the CCF formed the Opposition in British Columbia
and Saskatchewan.
The Social Credit Party

C
The Social Credit Party was another political party from Western Canada
that offered an alternative to Canadian voters. The party’s leader, William
“Bible Bill” Aberhart, was a charismatic preacher. Social credit was based on
N
the belief that capitalism was a wasteful economic system. Under capitalism,
banks hoarded money, preventing customers
SO
from buying goods that capitalism produced.

Aberhart felt that the government should
release money into the economy so that people
could spend it. The theory of social credit
appealed to many people from Alberta because
AR
the Depression had devastated their economy

and they resented the power and control of the
banks in Central Canada. Under Bible Bill’s
leadership, the Social Credit Party won 17 seats
in the federal election of 1935 with nearly
PE
50 percent of the popular vote in Alberta.

Aberhart promised each citizen a “basic
dividend” of $25 a month to buy necessities.
The federal government challenged the right of
a province to issue its own currency, and social
credit was disallowed by the Supreme Court.
FIGURE 4–18 William Aberhart came to power based on the popularity Despite this setback, the Social Credit Party
of his theory of social credit. remained in power in Alberta until 1971 under
Interpreting a Cartoon What is this cartoonist’s opinion of the sound- Aberhart’s successors, Ernest Manning and
ness of social credit?
Harry Strom.

©P
Union nationale
● How was Québec nationalism
In Québec, Maurice Duplessis, a former Conservative, joined forces with expressed in the 1950s?
some disillusioned Liberals to form the Union nationale, a party that
supported Québec nationalism. The Union nationale relied heavily on the
support of the Roman Catholic
Church and rural voters. Duplessis
blamed many of Québec’s social and
economic problems on the English
minority in Québec, which con-
trolled the province’s economy. The
A
Union nationale’s political platform
was based on improved working
AD
conditions, social insurance pro-
grams, publicly owned power com-
panies, and a system of farm credits.
During his first term, however,
Duplessis’ promises of reform evapo-
AN
rated, and he did little to improve
economic and social conditions in
Québec. Despite this, he remained
premier until 1959 with the excep-
tion of one term from 1939 to 1944 FIGURE 4–19 Hon. Maurice Duplessis (second from right) pictured here in
(see Chapter 6). August 1946
C
Provincial Solutions KEY TERMS
N
During the Depression, voters expressed their dissatisfaction with govern- Co-operative Commonwealth Federation
ment inaction by voting out ruling provincial parties. As the CCF and Social (CCF) Canada’s first socialist party
founded in the Prairies in 1932; advo-
SO
Credit parties gained momentum in Western Canada, and the Union cated government control of the economy
nationale gained power in Québec, voters in other provinces also made their
capitalism an economic system in which
voices heard by electing new governments. the production and distribution of goods
In Ontario, the provincial Liberals came to power in 1934 for the first are owned privately or by shareholders in
corporations who have invested their
time in 29 years. The Liberal leader was a populist farmer, Mitchell
money in the hope of making a profit
AR
Hepburn, who won wide support by championing the causes of “the little
Regina Manifesto platform of the Co-oper-
man.” He railed against big business and was fond of flamboyant gestures, ative Commonwealth Federation party; it
such as auctioning off the provincial government’s fleet of limousines. supported public ownership of industry
Although Hepburn tried to improve Ontario’s economy, he did little to help and social programs to assist those in
need
the unemployed and was against unionization.
PE
In British Columbia, Dufferin Pattullo was elected premier in 1933, Social Credit Party political party founded
in Western Canada; opposed to capitalism
returning the Liberals to power in that province. Pattullo was a strong
believer in greater provincial spending power. He introduced reforms to Union nationale nationalist French-
Canadian political party led by Maurice
shorten the workday, increase the minimum wage, and increase relief pay- Duplessis
ments by 20 percent. Public works projects were launched, most notably the
Québec nationalism a movement
Fraser River bridge at New Westminster and a new city hall for Vancouver. advocating for the protection and
Pattullo’s projects were short-lived, however, as the federal government chal- development of Québécois culture and
language
lenged his authority to introduce programs that were considered to be in the
federal domain. unionization the formation of labour
unions

©P
Decoding Photographs
Photographs convey information and provide insights Examine Figure 4–20. How many of the previous
into many areas of study in this textbook. Historical questions can you answer?
photographs are a useful primary source of informa-
2. Analyze the image and ask questions. It may help
tion about past events. To make use of a photograph
to divide the image into sections to examine
as a historical source, you must do more than look at
details. What are people in the image doing? Do
A
the photograph; you need to interpret the information
their facial expressions and body language sug-
it provides. This is called decoding.
gest anything? Are there signs, buildings, land-
A photograph is an image created by a photogra-
AD
marks, or other clues visible? Analyze Figure 4–20
pher. As such, it reflects that person’s world view. In
using these questions and any others you think
the same way, any meaning you take from it will be
are relevant.
influenced by your world view (see Chapter 1, Chapter
Review). It is important that you try to be open-minded 3. Evaluate the photograph as a source of informa-
when looking at photographs. tion. Do not simply accept the image as showing
AN
Paintings do not claim to represent reality. what happened. Is it reliable and credible? Is
Photographs do, but they can be manipulated. Images there bias in the presentation? (Review Building
can easily be altered with today’s digital technology, so Your Skills, Chapter 1.) What is your evaluation of
you must be aware of the intention of the photogra- Figure 4–20?
pher and how the photograph is being used when you
try to decode its meaning.
C 4. Draw conclusions based on the information you
have collected and consider what information is
missing. The photographer frames the image and
Steps to Decoding Photographs the story by focusing only on a part of what he or
N
she can see. Does outside information help you to
1. Examine the photograph carefully and describe
better understand the contents of the picture?
what you see. Does the image have clues as to
SO
Read about the circumstances of the On-to-

when it was taken and where? Who is in it? What
Ottawa Trek on page 102. Does this change your
is happening? Why was the image taken? Does the
interpretation of the picture? Why or why not?
caption help to answer these questions?
AR
PE
FIGURE 4–20 Police and

On-to-Ottawa trekkers during
the Regina Riot of July 1, 1935

©P
CRITICAL
INQUIRY Evidence
Applying the Skill
1. Apply the four-step decoding process to the images

below and then answer the questions accompanying
each image.
A
AD
AN
C
N
FIGURE 4–21 Relief camp in the 1930s. Compare and contrast the description of relief camps on
page 102 with this photograph. Do you think the picture was staged? Which details do you consider
SO
most significant and why? Is it a fair representation of a bunkhouse in a 1930s relief camp? Why or
why not?
AR
FIGURE 4–22 Protesters at the

PE
free-trade Summit of the

Americas held in Québec City,
2001. What point of view does
this photograph represent? Why
do you think so? What evidence
is there in the image that the
protesters were aware that the
media were covering the event?
Compare and contrast this image
with Figure 4–20. Which image is
a better source of information?
Why?

©P
● What was the government’s

A Change in Federal Government
By 1935, five years after Bennett was elected prime minister, voters were
Depression?
frustrated by his inability to deal with the crisis of the Depression. In the
federal election, they returned Mackenzie King to power.
KEY TERMS King did not support government intervention in the economy. He
Rowell-Sirois Report report of the Royal
believed that in time, the economy would improve on its own. King also felt
Commission on Dominion-Provincial that spending money on social programs during a depression did not make
Relations, a commission set up in 1937 to economic sense, and that it was better to wait until the economy was strong
examine the Canadian economy and
federal-provincial relations
before introducing these expensive programs.
King’s views clashed with the findings of the National Employment
A
equalization payments a federal transfer
of funds from richer to poorer provinces
Commission, which he had set up in 1936 to examine the state of unemploy-
ment in Canada. The commission recommended the federal government
AD
spend millions of dollars on job creation and training programs. King ended
up spending only a fraction of what was recommended.
Federal-Provincial Tensions
In 1937, King created the Royal Commission on Dominion-Provincial
AN
Relations to examine the thorny issue of federal-provincial relations and to
look into the responsibilities of the different levels of government. The
unemployment crisis of the Depression had caused a great deal of tension
between the federal and provincial governments. There was disagreement
over which government had the right to collect tax money and which gov-
C
ernment should pay for social and unemployment assistance.
The Commission’s findings, referred to as the Rowell-Sirois Report,
recommended that the federal government give the poorer provinces grants,
N
or equalization payments, to ensure that every province was able to offer its
citizens the same level of services. The Commission also recommended that
the federal government bear the responsibility for unemployment insurance
SO
and other social benefits such as pensions.

The wealthier provinces did not like the idea of equalization payments
because they did not want their tax dollars going to other provinces. The
provinces also felt that many of the Commission’s recommendations would
mean a loss of provincial power. By the time the Commission made its
AR
report, the economy had started to turn around. More people were finding
jobs, and there was a mood of cautious optimism. Canada’s involvement in
the Second World War meant most of the Commission’s recommendations
were either pushed aside indefinitely or adopted later.
PE
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. List the political parties that were started during 3. What were Mackenzie King’s views on government
the Depression. Identify the supporters, leader, involvement in the economy?
and policies of each party. Where on the political
4. What were the main recommendations of the
spectrum would each party sit?
Rowell-Sirois Report? Why did the wealthier
2. What difficulties did provincial governments provinces dislike these recommendations?
encounter in dealing with the problems of the
Depression? Give examples from British Columbia
and Alberta.

©P
I n n ova t i o n s
Medical Advances
During the 1930s, a number of Canadians pushed the
boundaries of science and technology. As the government
looked for ways to ease the economic suffering, Canadians
tried to find ways to improve the lives of others, especially
in the areas of health and medicine.
A
AD
Pablum stands the test of time In 1930,
doctors at Toronto’s Hospital for Sick Children
created Pablum, the first pre-cooked, vitamin-
enriched cereal for infants. For 25 years, the
hospital received a royalty for every package
sold. In 2005, H.J. Heinz Company acquired the
AN
Pablum brand. How does the development of
Pablum reflect the social conditions of the
Depression?
C
N
SO
Saving lives on the front

lines Norman Bethune was
a Canadian doctor, inventor,
AR
and political activist. As a

dedicated physician in
Montréal during the
Depression, Bethune pro-
vided free medical care to
A revolutionary brainwave Canadian doctor the poor and advocated for
PE
Wilder Penfield founded McGill University’s a social system of health

Montréal Neurological Institute in 1934, care. He also volunteered
which became an international centre for for the Spanish Civil War
education and research on the brain. (see Chapter 5). He was the
Penfield is most known for developing a sur- first to set up a blood bank
gical treatment for epilepsy known as the close to the front lines and
“Montréal Procedure.” He used a local organize a mobile blood-
anesthetic so patients remained conscious transfusion team.
during the operation, and then probed their
brains to locate the site of the seizures.
Doctors today still use maps of the sensory
and motor sections of the brain that were
drawn from these operations.

©P
up close Mackenzie King and Bennett:

and personal Public Persona vs. Private Life
During the turbulent years of the 1930s, Canada was Bennett was a millionaire bachelor who made his
led by two men who were studies in contrast. William home in Ottawa in a suite occupying a whole floor of
Lyon Mackenzie King and Richard Bedford Bennett the luxurious Château Laurier Hotel. It was small won-
both had a profound effect on Canada. Yet history’s der that poverty-stricken Canadians felt little affection
judgement of each man has been vastly different. for him. However, they did not see the private man
King, one of the most dominant political leaders in who, according to Bennett, between 1927 and 1937
A
Canadian history, was prime minister of Canada for gave nearly $2.5 million to charities from his own
almost 22 years, from 1921 to 1930, save for a few income. Sometimes this was in response to the many
AD
months in 1926, and from 1935 to 1948. One historian letters he received from Canadians asking for his help
has called him the “...greatest and most interesting of (see the letters on page 99). Bennett secretly sent
prime ministers.” Bennett led Canada for five years many of these people money. His generosity was
going from landslide victory in 1930 to disastrous defeat uncovered in his private papers after his death.
in 1935 after one term in office. Bennett’s negative his-
AN
torical reputation comes from what was seen as his fail- King: The People Pleaser
ure to find a solution to the Depression. He eventually King was a pragmatic and cautious politician who
left Canada and died in England as a member of the avoided making decisions if he could. He had a feel
House of Lords, forgotten by Canadians and generally for the mood of the country and unlike Bennett, he
ignored by historians. was patient, willing to wait for events to unfold. He
C claimed that “it is what we prevent, rather than what
Bennett’s One-man Show we do that counts most in Government.”
In 1930, there were high hopes that the energy
N
and competence Bennett displayed as leader of
the Opposition would help the new prime minister
find solutions to the economic crisis. However as
SO
the Depression worsened, so did his reputation.

Bennett lacked the common touch and never
wavered in his conviction that he was right. Even
his supporters agreed that he liked to hear himself
speak, paying little attention to the opinions of oth-
AR
ers. Members of his Cabinet accused him of run-

ning a one-man show, seldom informing them of
important decisions. It was joked that when
Bennett was mumbling to himself, he was holding
a Cabinet meeting. This insensitivity toward the
PE
opinions of others and his unwillingness to compro-

mise hindered Bennett’s efforts to deal with the
worsening Depression.
FIGURE 4–23 Bennett as a one-man government

Interpreting a Cartoon What is the cartoonist trying to say
about Bennett? What techniques does the cartoonist use to
convey his message?

©P
CRITICAL
INQUIRY Judgements
King was notorious for dull and ambiguous 1. Why was King a more successful politician than
speeches that blurred the issues and seemed to Bennett? Do you think his reputation as an effec-
promise everything to everyone. These speeches infu- tive leader is justified? Explain.
riated many listeners. In fact, King was a skilled nego-
2. What were the strengths and weaknesses of each
tiator who wanted desperately to keep Canada
leader?
united—French and English, the different regions and
A
social classes—and his vague manner was a deliber- 3. How was Bennett perceived by Canadians during
ate technique to try to please everyone. His successes the Depression? Do you think this image of him
AD
seemed to result from being the leader who divided was justified? Explain your answer.
Canadians the least. 4. Is it necessary to know private details of the lives
After King’s death, it was discovered that this of our politicians to evaluate their role in Canadian
apparently colourless man had, as he wrote in his history?
diary, “a very double life.” He had kept a detailed per-
AN
sonal diary from his student days in the 1890s to his 5. Should we judge politicians based on their
death in 1950. The nearly 30 000 pages in the diaries accomplishments or personalities?
revealed that King was a believer in spiritualism,
obsessed with clocks and mystical numbers. He held
seances in which he communicated with the dead,
especially with his mother, Wilfrid Laurier, and others.
C WEB LINK •
You can read King’s diaries at the
Pearson Web site.
N
SO
AR
PE
FIGURE 4–24 King as Wobbly Willy

Interpreting a Cartoon Mackenzie King was known for his
reluctance to make decisions. Is the cartoonist effective in
conveying this idea? Why or why not?

©P
● What were the effects of the The Depression and Global Politics
Depression on the global
community? During the 1930s, many countries around the world were suffering from an
economic slowdown. As in Canada, many people lost their jobs and were
destitute, and governments looked for solutions to the economic crisis.
Germany After the War

Germany, in particular, suffered the effects of the Depression. Since the end
of the First World War, Germany had grown increasingly unhappy with the
terms of the Treaty of Versailles. It bitterly resented the “war guilt” clause
A
that required it to pay $32 billion in reparations to other countries. These
payments put a great strain on the German economy, which had been
AD
ruined by war. To meet the payments, the government printed large
amounts of money in the 1920s, which in turn lowered the value of the
German currency. As German money became worth less and less, the price
of basic goods continued to rise.
To control this inflation, Britain, France, and the United States agreed to
AN
give better terms for Germany’s reparation payments. Germany made a
modest recovery. However, when world stock markets collapsed in 1929, the
weakened German economy was affected more than most countries. As you
read at the beginning of this chapter, Germany’s inability to make its repara-
tion payments affected the economies of other countries and contributed to
C
the causes of the global Depression.
N
SO
AR
PE
FIGURE 4–25 This

photograph, taken in
1923, shows a German
woman using several
million marks to fuel
her stove.
Using Evidence What
can you conclude
about the value of
German currency from
this photograph?

©P
The Depression in Asia KEY TERM

Keynesian economics an economic
The Empire of Japan, the only independent Asian nation with a colonial theory named for John Maynard Keynes
empire, developed a strong manufacturing industry after the First World (1883–1946) who advocated government
War. Tariff barriers and the decline of international trade during the intervention in the economy, especially
during economic downturns
Depression greatly affected Japan’s economy, which relied on raw materials
from the United States and other countries. To deal with the slowdown,
Japan adopted Keynesian economics and increased government spending to
stimulate the economy. It also put into action an aggressive plan to expand
its territory to gain resource-rich lands by invading China’s northern
province of Manchuria in 1931 (see Chapter 5).
A
Russians Embrace Communism
AD
After the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, Russia experienced a series of politi-
cal upheavals that led to a civil war. In 1922, Russia joined with several other
communist countries to form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(U.S.S.R.) or Soviet Union. During the Depression, the Soviet Union’s com-
AN
munist economic system insulated it from the economic slowdown experi-
enced by other countries. It appeared to many as though the communist
system worked, while the capitalist system had failed. This in turn increased
people’s interest in communism. But the people of the Soviet Union paid a
price for their economic progress. Joseph Stalin’s ruthless dictatorship
C
robbed the Soviet people of their political and social freedom, and his eco-
nomic and agricultural policies led to the deaths of millions of people (see
Chapter 5).
N
Prelude to War
SO
The economic crisis of the 1930s resulted in social and political instability
around the world. As you will learn in Chapter 5, this instability was the per-
fect breeding ground for dictators who gained power by offering solutions
and hope to desperate people. Ambitious plans to expand territories and
resources led to a global military conflict, which had a profound impact on
Canada’s development and its reputation on the world stage.
AR
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
PE
1. Explain why Germany was affected so deeply by 3. What effect did the Depression have on Japan?
the Depression. How did Japan respond?
2. How did other countries try to help Germany dur- 4. Why did communism gain attention during the
ing the Depression? Depression?

©P
CHAPTER
Review
CHAPTER FOCUS QUESTION What were the causes, effects, and responses to the Great Depression?
For most people, the Great Depression of the 1930s was ideas and hope to Canadians. The Great Depression was
a decade of hardship and despair. Formative historic a national crisis that, in many ways, divided the country:
events such as the Great Depression often lead to con- the rich and poor, the immigrants and non-immigrants,
flict. As you have seen in this chapter, the Depression men and women, and Western and Central Canada.
highlighted weaknesses in the Canadian economy and
1. Create an organizer such as the one below. Provide
A
its close ties to the United States. As the government
as many examples as possible for each category.
struggled to provide relief to many suffering Canadians,
AD
regional political parties were created that offered new
Causes Effects Responses
Economic Cycle New Political Parties New Social Programs
AN
C
N
SO
Vocabulary Focus 5. a) In what ways did the federal and provincial gov-
ernments respond to the needs of Canadians
2. Review the Key Terms on page 89. Then, go to the during the 1930s?
Pearson Web site and complete the activity.
b) What does this response say about the values
AR
Knowledge and Understanding that were held by society at the time? Use the
personal memories in this chapter to support
3. Continue the ongoing timeline assignment. Write the your answer.
name and date of each event that occurred in this
c) How successful were the government responses?
chapter on the timeline, and explain how the event
PE
contributed to Canadian independence. 6. Suggest three actions that could have been taken to
prevent the Depression. Why do you think these
4. What were the major weaknesses in the Canadian
were not done?
economy from 1919 to 1939? How did these
weaknesses make the Depression in Canada 7. Why were Aboriginal peoples, Asian men, and
particularly severe? How did Canada’s economic prob- women in a particularly desperate situation in the
lems compare to those of other countries? Why was 1930s?
there a reluctance on the part of many governments to
take aggressive action to correct these problems?

©P
8. In your view, which political party would each of the

Judgements
following have supported during the Depression?
Explain your choice. 11. With a partner or in a small group, imagine you are
the founding members of a new political party in the
a) owner of a small business
1930s. Your party is dedicated to solving the eco-
b) single unemployed person nomic and social problems of the Depression. On a
single page, write your party’s name, a summary of
c) farm wife
the country’s major problems, and a five- to ten-
A
d) hourly paid worker point declaration of your party’s program. Include a
catchy slogan or statement that sums up what your
AD
Critical Thinking party stands for.
9. Construct a cause and effect diagram for the Great

Document Analysis
Depression. Refer to Building Your Skills on
page 82. Use your diagram to list and explain three 12. Use Figure 4–26 and Figure 4–27, and the content
AN
key lessons that today’s governments should learn of this chapter, to answer the following:
from the Great Depression.
a) Which were the two worst years of the
Evidence Depression? List and explain the evidence you
used to reach your decision.
10. Choose three images from the chapter that you
think best illustrate the impact of the Great
C b) What might explain Saskatchewan and Alberta’s
steep decline in per capita incomes from 1928 to
Depression on Canadians. Explain your reasons for
choosing each of the photographs. 1933?
N
c) Which provinces do you think were least affected
by the Depression? Explain your response.
SO
1928–1929 1933 Percentage

1925 1.51 Average Average $ Decrease
1926 1.46 $ per Capita per Capita
1927 1.46
Canada 471 247 48
AR
1928 1.24
1929 1.24 Saskatchewan 478 135 72
1930 0.64
Year
1931 0.59 Alberta 548 212 61

1932 0.54
Manitoba 466 240 49
1933 0.68
PE
1934 0.81 British Columbia 594 314 47

1935 0.85
1936 1.22 Prince Edward Island 278 154 45
1937 1.31
Ontario 549 310 44
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Price of Wheat per Bushel Québec 391 220 44
(in Dollars)
New Brunswick 292 180 39
FIGURE 4–26
Nova Scotia 322 207 36
FIGURE 4–27 Average per capita incomes, 1928/1929 and 1933

©P
05a_Ch05_CP11_2e_se_F.qxd:Layout 1 4/14/10 2:36 PM Page 118
5
GUIDING QUESTIONS
Canada and the
Second World War
Society & Identity
● What effect did the war have on
A
the role of women?
AD
have on Canadian unity?
● What effect did the War

Measures Act have on the legal
rights of Canadians?
AN
● Why were totalitarian leaders

able to gain power in Europe
and Asia?
● How did the war raise awareness

C
of human rights issues?
● How did Canada get involved in

N
the Second World War?

SO
the home front?

in the Second World War.

AR
PE
TIMELINE
1939 1940 1940–1943 1940–1944 1941

Germany invades Poland Germany invades Denmark and Norway North African Campaign Battle of the Atlantic Germany invades the Soviet Union
Britain and France Germany invades the Netherlands, Japan bombs Pearl Harbor
declare war on Germany Belgium, Luxembourg, and France U.S. declares war on Japan
Canada declares war on Evacuation of Dunkirk Battle of Hong Kong
Germany National Resources Mobilization Act China officially declares war on
France surrenders to Germany Japan
The Battle of Britain

©P

Change
How did the Second World War impact Canada socially, politically,
and economically? Judgements CRITICAL Evidence
INQUIRY
Cause and
On the Sunday of Labour Day weekend in 1939, Canadians gathered

around their radios to hear King George VI address the rumours of war
A
that had been heard across the country. KEY TERMS
totalitarian state
Nazis
AD
For the second time in the lives of most of us we are at war. Over
Holocaust
and over again we have tried to find a peaceful way out of the
policy of appeasement
differences between ourselves and those who are now our enemies.
British Commonwealth Air Training
But it has been in vain.We have been forced into a conflict. For we Plan (BCATP)
are called, with our allies, to meet the challenge of a principle total war
Allies
AN
which, if it were to prevail, would be fatal to any civilised order in
the world. Axis
Dunkirk
–Historical Royal Speeches and Writings
Battle of Britain
Pearl Harbor
Battle of Hong Kong
Once again, the world was at war. What would war mean to
Canadians? How was this war different from the First World War? How
C Battle of the Atlantic
Bomber Command
was Canada different as a nation at the beginning of the Second World Dieppe Raid
War? In this chapter, you will learn about the events of the Second World Italian Campaign
N
War and the contributions made by hundreds of thousands of D-Day
Canadians during its course. Liberation of the Netherlands
genocide
SO
enemy aliens
arsenal of democracy
AR
PE
1942 1943 1944 1945

Internment of Japanese Canadians Allies begin bombing German cities D-Day The Netherlands liberated
Canadians vote in support of Sicily and mainland Italy invaded Germany surrenders
conscription Canadians win Battle of Ortona, Italy Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki,
Allied raid on French port of Dieppe Axis forces defeated in Stalingrad Japan
Japan surrenders; war ends
Chapter 5 ■ Canada and the Second World War 119

©P
● Why were totalitarian leaders The Rise of Totalitarianism

able to gain power in Europe
and Asia? As you learned in Chapter 4, the economic crisis of the 1930s led to social
and political upheaval in countries around the world. During the
Depression era, several charismatic leaders promised solutions to their citi-
KEY TERMS zens’ woes, but soon emerged as powerful dictators.
dictator a ruler with unrestricted power, The term totalitarian describes political philosophies that put the state
without any democratic restrictions
above all else, including the rights of the individual. In a totalitarian state,
totalitarian state a dictatorship in which the government has total control over all aspects of politics and society. It
the government uses intimidation, vio-
lence, and propaganda to rule all aspects
uses violence and intimidation to gain power, and then relies on its police
of the social and political life of its citizens force to maintain its control. Usually, the ruling party bans other political
A
five-year plans Stalin’s plans for economic parties and does not tolerate any opposing ideologies. Propaganda and cen-
development in the Soviet Union over five sorship reinforce the party message and control society. The government
AD
years controls the economy and all the resources of the state, and uses these to
fascist a form of authoritarian government further its goals. The state has one leader who has absolute power. In the
that is totalitarian and nationalistic
1930s, different forms of totalitarian states arose in Germany, Italy, Spain,
Weimar Republic the democratic govern- the Soviet Union and, in a different way, Japan.
ment in Germany after the First World War
AN
Nazis members of the National Socialist
German Workers’ Party; the Nazis were Stalin’s Soviet Union
extreme nationalists who took power in
1933 and controlled every aspect of By 1917, the Communists had taken control of Russia. In 1924, Joseph Stalin
German life through a police state became the leader of the Communist Party in what was now the Soviet
Union. By 1928, he had gained total control of the Soviet Union and began
C to implement a series of five-year plans
to industrialize the country and give the
government complete control of the
economy. The first step of Stalin’s plan
N
was to collectivize agriculture, which
meant seizing all privately owned land.
SO
Next he created industrial projects,

including building coal and steel mills,
roads, and railways. Stalin focused on
building industry and the military, prac-
tically ignoring the needs of the people.
AR
The government controlled all media

and imposed strict censorship and travel
restrictions on everyone. The secret
police arrested anyone deemed to be a
threat, and the government controlled
PE
the courts. During the Great Purge of the

late 1930s, Stalin eliminated anyone he
believed opposed the communist gov-
ernment or his power. Millions of people
were convicted of crimes against the
state and hundreds of thousands were
FIGURE 5–1 This statue of Joseph Stalin was unveiled in 1955 in Prague, Czech executed. Many more Soviet people died
Republic. The monument was later destroyed by the Communist Party of of exhaustion or starvation in Gulags,
Czechoslovakia in an effort to eliminate Stalin’s influence and political system.
labour camps that Stalin established in
Gathering Evidence What does Stalin’s statue reveal about his personality and
Siberia.
his views on leadership?

©P
Mussolini’s Italy
After the First World War, Italy suffered from chaotic eco-
nomic and political conditions. Benito Mussolini took
advantage of the situation. He established the Fascist Party,
which emphasized nationalism and challenged Italy’s demo-
cratic government. His new political movement found sup-
port in the government and with the middle class. Mussolini
created the Blackshirts, gangs of fascists who intimidated
their opponents by attacking communists and socialists in
the streets. Their favourite tactic was forcing bottles of
A
castor oil, a laxative, down a victim’s throat. Promising to
revitalize Italy and to restore Italian pride, the increasingly
AD
militaristic National Fascist Party won 35 seats in the elec-
tion of 1921. Although the Fascists were anti-communist,
Mussolini used the totalitarian model of the Soviet Union as
a blueprint for his own plans to rule Italy. In 1922, Mussolini
led the March on Rome: he gathered 26 000 Blackshirts out-
AN
side the city and demanded that the government be turned
over to him. Soon after taking power, Mussolini—who was
called Il Duce (“the leader”)—brought all communications, FIGURE 5–2 Fascist leader Mussolini (seen on
industry, agriculture, and labour under fascist control and left) and his Blackshirts march in Rome
turned Italy into a totalitarian state.
C
Fascist Germany
Like Italy, Germany was politically and economically unstable at the end of
N
the First World War. The kaiser had abdicated and a democratic govern-
ment, the Weimar Republic, was set up. But the German people distrusted
SO
the government since it had signed the Treaty of Versailles, which had added
to the country’s economic struggles after the war. Many Germans wanted a
leader who could solve the country’s problems.
Hitler Comes to Power

AR
In 1920, Adolf Hitler joined the National Socialist German Workers’ Party,
also known as the Nazis, and by 1921 he was the leader of the party. The
Nazis gathered support throughout the 1920s by criticizing the Weimar
Republic and the humiliating terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler per-
suaded Germans that he could save the country from the Depression and
PE
make it a great nation again. In 1932, the Nazis became the largest party in
the Reichstag, the German parliament, and in 1933 Hitler became chancellor
of Germany.
Once in power, Hitler—called Führer (“the leader”)—ruled his country
through intimidation and fear. He banned all political parties other than the
Nazis and used the Gestapo, a secret police, to enforce his rule. Hitler’s gov-
ernment defied the terms of the Treaty of Versailles by stopping all repara-
tion payments and rebuilding Germany’s military. It also subsidized farmers
and poured money into public projects. To the delight of the German people,
unemployment went down and the economy improved.

©P
KEY TERMS The “Master Race”

Kristallnacht a coordinated attack against The Nazi Party believed that the German people were a “master race” of
Jewish people and their property carried
out by Nazis in Germany on November 9,
Aryans, a supposedly “pure” race of northern Europeans. Non-Aryans,
1938 including Jewish people, Roma (“Gypsies”), and Slavs, were considered infe-
persecution to oppress or ill-treat because rior. People with mental or physical disabilities were despised because they
of race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, destroyed the image of the master race. Communists and homosexuals were
or beliefs also targeted as undesirables. The Nazis banned non-Aryans and undesir-
Holocaust the Nazi imprisonment and ables from teaching or attending schools and universities, holding govern-
murder of 6 million Jewish people and 5
ment office, or writing books. As early as 1933, the Nazis set up
million other peoples during the Second
World War concentration camps to isolate these people from German society.
A
Hitler’s regime of hatred targeted Jewish people in particular. During his
rule, he passed the Nuremberg Laws, which forced Jewish people to wear the
Star of David at all times, banned marriages between Jews and Aryans, and
AD
made it illegal for Jewish people to be lawyers or doctors. The Nazi govern-
ment also encouraged violence against Jewish people. On the night of
November 9, 1938, Nazi mobs attacked Jewish homes, businesses, and syna-
gogues across Germany. Many Jewish people were terrorized, beaten, and
imprisoned for no reason. The attack was called Kristallnacht or “Crystal
AN
Night” because sidewalks in many parts of the country were covered with
broken glass from windows. Their persecution escalated even more after
that night. More laws were introduced which made it illegal for them to own
FIGURE 5–3 Under the Nazi
businesses and restricted their travel. Eventually, Hitler and Heinrich
regime, the Jewish Star of David
Himmler, the head of Hitler’s elite police unit, instituted the “Final Solution”
was to be worn by all Jewish peo-
ple for easy identification.
C
and the Holocaust, which you will learn about later in this chapter.
N
SO
AR
PE
FIGURE 5–4 The Nazis were brilliant propagandists, presenting selected information and using
symbolism and pageantry to appeal to the emotions of the public.

©P
Fascism in Spain
As in Germany and Italy, Spain struggled with economic and political strife
after the First World War. During the Depression, Spain’s democratic gov-
ernment was unable to prevent widespread poverty, and people became
more and more dissatisfied. Led by General Francisco Franco, fascist
rebels—called Nationalists—tried to overthrow the elected socialist govern-
ment in 1936. This rebellion resulted in a brutal civil war that lasted three
years. Although democratic governments around the world chose not to get
involved in the conflict, socialist supporters from several countries went to
Spain to join in the fight against Franco and fascism. More than 1200
A
Canadian volunteers, called the Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion (the Mac
Paps), fought in the Spanish Civil War. They went to Spain even though the
FIGURE 5–5 Francisco Franco
AD
Canadian government passed a law that made it illegal for them to fight in
ruled Spain for 36 years.
foreign wars. One of the volunteers was Dr. Norman Bethune, a Canadian
surgeon and political activist (see Chapter 4).
Despite their efforts, Franco—with military support from Hitler and
Mussolini—won the war and became the ruler of Spain in 1939. Once in
AN
control, Franco proved to be a brutal totalitarian dictator who ruled by
intimidation and violence. Thousands of people were imprisoned in concen-
tration camps or executed, and many others were used as forced labour to
build railways and dig canals. Franco ruled Spain until he died in 1975.
Totalitarianism in Japan
C
Japan also became a totalitarian state in the 1930s, but there were important
differences between Japan and the fascist states in Europe. Japan had all the
N
elements of a totalitarian state. Many people had strong nationalist senti-
ments and notions of racial superiority. Japan had a government loyal to a
SO
single leader, the emperor. The country’s parliament, called the Diet, had
little power because government ministers answered only to the emperor.
Much of the power rested with the military and the Zaibatsu, large family-
run corporations, such as Mitsubishi. These groups took advantage of the
political and economic problems of the Depression to gain control of the
AR
country. Influenced by European fascism, Japan took on many of its charac-

teristics, including a Gestapo-like police force, the Kempeitai, which had the
power to arrest, torture, or kill anyone thought to be an enemy of the state. FIGURE 5–6 Hirohito, the 124th
emperor of Japan, reigned from
Militarists took control of Japan in the 1930s and began strengthening the 1926 until his death in 1989.
empire by conquering other countries and seizing their resources.
PE
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. In your own words, explain the term totalitarian. 4. How did the Nazis try to accomplish their goal of a
Cause and Consequence
“master race” in Europe?
2. What common conditions
led to totalitarianism in Italy, Germany, and Spain? 5. What was Canada’s involvement in the Spanish
Civil War?
3. List the ways in which Stalin, Mussolini, and Hitler
each made his country a totalitarian dictatorship. 6. How were totalitarian leaders able to gain power in
Europe and Asia?

©P
KEY TERMS
Causes of the Second World War
policy of appeasement giving in to an
aggressor’s demands in the hopes that no As you have read, different forms of totalitarianism took hold in Europe, the
more demands will be made Soviet Union, and Japan during the 1930s. Like the colonialist leaders of
non-aggression pact an agreement pre–First World War empires, the totalitarian leaders of these states had
between two countries not to attack each nationalistic ambitions to expand their territory and resources. Germany
other
and Italy felt that they had been cheated by treaties at the end of the First
World War and wanted to right these wrongs. Japan wanted access to more
resources to help support its industries. In other countries, leaders were
conscious of the sacrifices their citizens had made during the last war and
wanted to avoid another conflict at all costs. All these factors contributed to
A
the Second World War.
AD
Hitler’s Imperialistic Ambitions
When Hitler came to power in 1933, he intended to make Germany a pow-
erful nation again. Part of his plan involved uniting the “master race” of
Germanic people and taking back territory that he believed belonged to
AN
Germany. In the years leading up to the Second World War, Hitler put his
plan into action.
C
SEA
N
IC
LT
NORTH BA
N
SEA Danzig
EAST
PRUSSIA
GREAT (GERMANY)
BRITAIN 6
SO
GERMANY 6 U.S.S.R.
ATLANTIC 1 POLAND
OCEAN BELGIUM
4
Saar (returned 3 CZECHOSLOVAKIA
AR
to Germany 1935) 2
0 200 400 km
FRANCE AUSTRIA
1. Occupation of the Rhineland, March 1936

PE
2. Annexation of Austria, March 1938 BLACK

3. Annexation of the Sudetenland, October 1938 ITALY AD
RI SEA
4. Occupation of Czechoslovakia, March 1939 AT
I C
5. Danzig and “Polish Corridor” threatened, summer 1939 SE
6. Invasion of Poland, September 1939 A
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
FIGURE 5–7 Hitler’s aggression in Europe, 1936–1939

Thinking Critically Which countries might have felt threatened by Germany’s actions? Why? Italy,
also ruled by a fascist government at the time, was Germany’s ally. What difference might this
alliance have made to the countries of Europe?

©P
Appeasing Hitler
In 1936, Hitler ordered his troops into the Rhineland, an area along
Germany’s western border that had been demilitarized and put under
French protection by the Treaty of Versailles. Although this was a violation
of the treaty, Britain and France chose not to act at the time. Two years later,
Germany annexed, or took over, Austria. Again, this was another breach of
the treaty, but Britain and France chose not to act. They were willing to
make concessions to maintain peace. However, their weakness made Hitler
bolder.
Next, Hitler set his sights on the Sudetenland, a territory populated by
A
ethnic Germans given to Czechoslovakia at the Paris Peace Conference.
When Hitler threatened to invade this territory, British and French leaders
met with him in Munich to try to negotiate. In exchange for the
AD
Sudetenland, Hitler promised not to invade the rest of Czechoslovakia.
British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain announced to the world that
the Munich Agreement and their policy of appeasement would secure
“peace for our time.” Only six months later, in March 1939, Hitler broke his
promise and Germany invaded Czechoslovakia. Hitler’s actions made it
AN
clear that the policy of appeasement had failed. Another war in Europe was
looming.
The Nazi–Soviet Non-aggression Pact

After taking over Czechoslovakia, Hitler planned to unite East Prussia with
C
the rest of Germany. This territory had been separated from Germany when
the map of Europe was redrawn at the Paris Peace Conference, giving Poland
a strip of land so it had access to the Baltic Sea and making Danzig an inde-
N
pendent state under the protection of the League of Nations. Before Hitler
could act, he had a problem to solve. If Germany invaded Poland, the Soviet
Union would likely regard Germany’s actions as a threat to its own security.
SO
In August 1939, Hitler stunned the world by signing a non-aggression pact

with Joseph Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union, even though the Nazis hated
communists and vice versa. Both countries pledged not to fight each other if
one of them went to war, and they agreed to divide Poland between them.
Germany was now free to make its move.
AR
On September 1, 1939, German troops invaded Poland, and bitter fight-

ing followed. This time, Britain and France responded immediately. They
ordered Germany out of Poland by September 3, 1939. When Germany
ignored this deadline, Britain and France declared war.
PE
Failure of the League of Nations

While the policy of appeasement failed to prevent German aggression, the
League of Nations was not effective in preventing nationalistic aggression in
other parts of the world. The League was supposed to help maintain world
peace, but it was too weak and did not have a military to enforce its deci-
sions. The League’s ineffectiveness in the following two military conflicts
helped pave the road to war.

©P
Japan Invades Manchuria

As part of its plans to expand its territory and influence, Japan invaded the
Chinese province of Manchuria in 1931. The Chinese government appealed
to the League of Nations to take action against Japan. The League condemned
Japan’s action and tried to negotiate. Japan merely withdrew from the
League and continued with its policy of aggression. In 1937, it expanded its
invasion of China and the two countries were at war.
Italy Invades Abyssinia

Like Hitler in Germany, Mussolini wanted to expand Italy’s territory and
A
power. Still bitter that Italy had not received more land in Europe after the
First World War, Mussolini wanted to expand Italy’s resources by adding to
its African colonies. In the spring of 1935, Italy attacked Abyssinia (now
AD
Ethiopia). Abyssinia had never been colonized and was one of the few inde-
pendent African nations. It fought hard against the Italian invasion and won
support around the world. The League of Nations immediately voted to
impose trade sanctions against Italy. But this action was not very effective
because oil, a crucial import for Italy, was not included in the sanctions. At
AN
this point, the League still hoped for Italy’s support if there was a new war
with Germany.
U.S.S.R. N N
C ITALY BLACK SEA
CASPIAN
SEA
Mongolia
Manchuria MEDITERRANEAN
SEA
N
Suez Canal
SEA OF PACIFIC LIBYA
JAPAN OCEAN EGYPT
(EAST SEA) RED SEA
JAPAN
SO
KOREA
(Japanese) Italian attacks FRENCH
YELLOW SOMALILAND
CHINA SEA SUDAN ERITREA
0 400 800 km BRITISH
(ANGLO- SOMALILAND
EGYPTIAN)
EAST ETHIOPIA
CHINA Japan 1890 (ABYSSINIA)
SEA Territory added by 1918 ITALIAN
Territory added by 1934 SOMALILAND
AR
UGANDA
ATLANTIC OCEAN KENYA
Iron ore Coal
INDIAN
Gold Petroleum OCEAN
0 750 1500 km
FIGURE 5–8 Japan’s aggression by 1934 FIGURE 5–9 Route of Italians invading Ethiopia (Abyssinia),
1935
PE
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Cause and Consequence Use a graphic organizer 3. Why was the non-aggression pact important to
to show the causes of the Second World War (simi- both Germany and the U.S.S.R.?
lar to the one on page 82 in Chapter 3). Explain
4. Why was the League of Nations unable to stop the
the effect and result for each cause of the war.
aggression of Japan and Italy? How did this failure
2. Explain why appeasement was used by Britain and encourage Hitler?
France toward Germany.

©P
Canada’s Response to the Threat of War KEY TERMS

isolationism the policy of remaining apart
As events escalated in Europe, with Hitler’s aggressive policies and the civil from the affairs of other countries
war in Spain, many Canadians asked why lives should be risked in another refugee a person displaced from his of her
European war when Canada itself was not threatened. home and territory by war and other acts
of aggression
Canada’s Policy of Isolationism

Throughout the events of the 1930s, Canada practised isolationism, keeping
out of affairs outside its borders. Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie
King did not want Canada to become involved in another world conflict and
A
had hoped that Britain’s policy of appeasement toward Hitler would be suc-
cessful. The First World War had deeply divided Canada on the issue of con-
AD
scription, and Canadians had made many sacrifices in that overseas conflict.
King knew that if he imposed conscription in this war, he and the Liberal
Party would lose support in Québec. Besides, Canada was just starting to
come out of the dark years of the Depression. The economy was slowly
[N]othing is to be gained by
improving and King did not want the country plunged back into debt.
creating an internal problem
AN
in an effort to meet an interna-
Canada’s Response to Jewish Refugees tional one.... We... must seek to
keep this part of the Continent
While King knew that the Nazis were tyrannizing people, he maintained free from unrest.
Canada’s isolationist policy. Like King, many Canadians believed that what –Diary of Mackenzie King,
C
was happening in Germany was a domestic issue that should not affect Tuesday, March 29, 1938
them. This attitude influenced Canada’s immigration policies and attitudes
toward Jewish refugees fleeing persecution in Europe.
N
SO
AR
PE
FIGURE 5–10 After meeting Hitler in Germany,

Mackenzie King (centre) wrote the following in
his diary on June 29, 1937: “[Hitler] smiled very WEB LINK •
pleasantly and indeed had a sort of appealing Read more from King’s diary on
and affectionate look in his eyes. My sizing up of the Pearson Web site.
the man as I sat and talked with him was that he
is really one who truly loves his fellow-men....”

©P
KEY TERMS Anti-Semitism in Canada

anti-Semitism discrimination or hostility Some Canadians supported the dictators who had seized power in Europe or
toward Jewish people
approved of Hitler’s policies and hatred of Jewish people. In Québec, some
deportation the act of sending someone nationalists called for an independent Québec with a pure French-Canadian
back to his or her native land
population. Anti-Semitism in Canada during the 1930s was not restricted to
extremists. It was shared by many in mainstream society, and was reflected
in newspapers and in general conversation.
Anti-Semitism and isolationism influenced Canada’s immigration poli-
cies in the 1930s. After Kristallnacht in November 1938, Liberal Cabinet
Minister Thomas Crerar recommended that 10 000 Jewish people be
A
allowed to immigrate to Canada, but the Cabinet refused his suggestion.
Jewish refugees were seen as a burden on the state. As you read in
Chapter 4, due to rising unemployment, Canada was reluctant to accept
AD
immigrants other than those from Britain or the United States who could
support themselves. The government restricted immigration in the 1930s. As
a result, the number of immigrants to Canada fell from 166 783 in 1928 to
14 382 in 1933. The number of deportations also increased to nearly 30 000
by 1936.
AN
The SS St. Louis
Canada’s immigration policy and refusal to accept Jewish refugees had tragic
consequences in 1939. The S.S. St. Louis left Hamburg, Germany, in May
with 907 Jewish passengers desperately trying to escape persecution. The
C
St. Louis was denied entry in Cuba, South America, and the United States.
Canada was the passengers’ last hope. The Canadian government refused to
let the St. Louis dock in any port because the passengers did not qualify for
N
entry as immigrants. The ship was forced to return to Europe. Tragically,
many of the people aboard later died in concentration camps during the
Holocaust.
SO
AR
PE
FIGURE 5–11 Passengers aboard the S.S. St. Louis looked to the Canadian government to accept them as refugees.
Using Evidence At what stage of the journey was this photograph probably taken? Explain.

©P
Canadians Speak Out ● How did the war raise

awareness of human rights
Many Canadians did not share the government’s anti-Semitic
issues?
views. Cairine Wilson, Canada’s first female Senator and chair of
the Canadian National Committee on Refugees, spoke out against
the banning of Jewish refugees from Canada. Prime Minister
Mackenzie King was urged to offer the Jewish refugees sanctuary.
In 1938, there were more than 150 000 Jewish people living in
Canada. Rallies were held in many parts of the country in support
of a more humane immigration policy. When the S.S. St. Louis was
turned away and its passengers sent back to Nazi Germany, news-
A
paper editorials also lashed out at the government:
AD
This country still has the bars up and the refugee who gets
into Canada has to pass some mighty stiff obstacles—deliber-
ately placed there by the government.... Immigration bars...
are undesirable.... We are deliberately keeping out of this
country [people] and money who would greatly add to our
AN
productive revenues. We are cutting off our nose to spite our FIGURE 5–12 This sign in Québec reflects the
face. anti-Semitism found in many parts of Canada
during this time. Discrimination took many
–Winnipeg Free Press, July 19, 1939 forms, including restricting admittance to
certain faculties at universities and membership
in clubs.
Despite these objections, Canada still admitted only about 5000
Jewish refugees between 1933 and 1945.
C
N
FA S T F O R WA R D
SO
Changing Attitudes
The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, age, or mental or physical disability.” Due in large
enacted in 1982, guarantees that every Canadian part to the Charter, discrimination of any form is
has the right to live “without discrimination based on unacceptable in Canada today. You will read more
race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, about the Charter in Chapter 10.
AR
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
PE
1. Why were many Canadians isolationist in the 4. Why were the Jewish refugees so desperate to
1930s? leave Germany? Provide specific information from
this chapter.
2. What reasons were given for Canada’s admitting
so few Jewish refugees fleeing persecution in 5. Why do you think discrimination like this was
Europe? Do you think that official reasons were the considered acceptable by many people in the
real reasons? Explain. 1930s and is not acceptable today?
3. How do you think Prime Minister Mackenzie King 6. Judgements To what extent should Canadians
could form such a misguided opinion of Adolf be responsible for trying to stop human rights
Hitler? abuses in other countries?

©P
● How did Canada get involved Canada Declares War

in the Second World War?
On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland. Two days later, Britain and
France declared war on Germany. In the First World War, when Britain
KEY TERM declared war on Germany, Canada was automatically at war. But, in 1939,
British Commonwealth Air Training Canada was an autonomous country with no such obligation. Prime
Plan (BCATP) a program to train pilots Minister Mackenzie King knew that once Britain became involved in such a
and aircrew during the Second World
major conflict, Canada would almost certainly support it, but the decision to
War; it produced half of all Commonwealth
aircrew and is the largest air training join the war had to be a Canadian one, decided by Canada’s Parliament.
program in history
A
Parliament Votes for War
On September 8, King called a special session of Parliament to decide
AD
whether Canada would join the war. He gave a strong speech in favour of
declaring war. His Minister of Justice, Ernest Lapointe from Québec, also
spoke in favour of the war. But Lapointe spoke bluntly about what conscrip-
tion would do to Liberal supporters in Québec:
“I am authorized by my colleagues in the
AN
Cabinet from Québec, to say that we will never
agree to conscription and will never be members
or supporters of a government that will try to
enforce it.” This statement helped win support
for the war in Québec and convinced voters
C that Canada’s involvement in the war was neces-
sary. Conscious of how conscription had
divided the country during the First World
War, King assured Parliament, and Québec, that
N
“So long as this government may be in power,
no such measure [conscription] shall be
SO
enacted.”
King’s position on joining the war was sup-
ported by the opposition Conservative Party.
Only J.S. Woodsworth, leader of the Co-opera-
tive Commonwealth Federation (CCF), argued
AR
against going to war. He believed that nothing

could be settled by war and tried to convince
the government that Canada should remain
neutral. But Woodsworth did not find support
for his pacifist position, and Parliament voted
PE
in favour of going to war. On September 10,

1939, Canada declared war on Germany.
FIGURE 5–13 Troops departing from Winnipeg

Using Evidence Carefully examine this photograph. How do you think
most Canadians felt about going to war? Consider the feelings of those
who were staying home as well as those who were going to fight.

©P
Mobilizing Canada’s Resources ● What was the war’s impact on

the home front?
Despite its willingness to join the war, Canada was not prepared for it. Its
armed forces were small and unfit for combat. The Canadian army had only
4300 troops, a few light tanks, and no modern
artillery. The air force and the navy were small with
outdated equipment.
Unlike the First World War, there were no
crowds cheering on the streets when Canada
declared war in 1939. Many Canadians vividly
remembered the horrors of the last world conflict.
A
Still, Canada had no trouble finding volunteers. In
September 1939, more than 58 000 people volun-
AD
teered for service. The Canadian army initially
rejected African-Canadian volunteers because of
racist attitudes. As the war continued, however,
African Canadians were encouraged to join the
regular army and the officer corps. As in the First
AN
World War, Aboriginal peoples volunteered at a
higher percentage of their population than any
other group in Canada. Among them was Thomas
Prince, a Brokenhead Ojibway from Manitoba.
Prince became a sergeant and served in Italy and
France as part of an elite unit. One of Canada’s
C
most decorated soldiers, he received ten medals,
including the Military Medal for bravery given to
him by King George VI.
N
Many people still felt strong ties to Britain and
volunteered from a sense of duty. Others were
SO
driven by a sense of new-found national pride.

After years of economic hardship, some Canadians
were attracted by the lure of a steady income. The FIGURE 5–14 This Vancouver Board of Trade poster encouraged
first Canadian troops sailed from Halifax on forest workers to contribute to the war effort.
December 10, 1939.
AR
The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan

Mackenzie King hoped that Canada’s contribution to the war effort would
be mostly supplies and training, rather than troops, so that he could avoid
PE
the issue of conscription. In December 1939, Canada agreed to host and run
the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP). Pilots and other
flight personnel from all over the Commonwealth came to Canada to train
with British instructors. Airfields were built on the Prairies and in other
locations near small towns and villages. Old aircraft were refitted and
returned to service for training purposes. The program was a major
Canadian contribution to the war effort. The BCATP trained more than
130 000 pilots, navigators, flight engineers, and ground crew. The total cost
was more than $2.2 billion, of which Canada paid more than 70 percent.
Contrary to King’s hopes, however, Canada’s role in the war went far beyond
its involvement in the BCATP.

©P
Total War
The demands of total war meant that the federal government became
more involved in planning and controlling the economy. In April 1940,
the Department of Munitions and Supply was created and industrialist
C.D. Howe was put in charge. Howe, whom you will learn more about in
Chapter 6, was given extraordinary authority to do whatever it took to gear
up the economy to meet wartime demands. He told industries what to
produce and how to produce it. He convinced business leaders to manu-
facture goods they had never made before. Soon, Vancouver was building
ships for the navy, Montréal was constructing new planes and bombers,
A
such as the Lancaster, and Canada’s car industries were producing military
vehicles and tanks. Munitions factories opened in Ontario and Québec. If
AD
the private sector could not produce what Howe wanted, he created Crown
FIGURE 5–15 A propaganda poster
commissioned by the Wartime
corporations to do the job. Even farmers were told to produce more
Information Board wheat, beef, dairy products, and other foods. Under Howe’s leadership, the
Analyzing Images What three sectors government ran telephone companies, refined fuel, stockpiled silk for
of the workforce are represented here? parachutes, mined uranium, and controlled food production. Some called
AN
How would this poster encourage the him the “Minister of Everything.”
policy of total war?
C
N
FIGURE 5–16 Maintenance Jobs in

SO
the Hangar by Paraskeva Clark

(1898–1986)
Analyzing Images Paraskeva Clark
was a feminist whose painting con-
veyed a strong social message. How
do this painting and the poster above it
AR
illustrate Canada’s commitment to total

war? What social message do they
convey? How do you think more tradi-
tional artists and critics might have
reacted to this type of painting in the
1940s?
PE
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What assurance did Mackenzie King give 3. Compare Canadians’ reaction to the announce-
Canadians during the debate on Canada’s involvement of the First World War with that of the
ment in the war? Why did he do this? Second World War. Why did many people still
volunteer?
2. What was the British Commonwealth Air Training
Plan? Why was Canada chosen to host it? Why did 4. How did Canada’s policy of total war change the
King support the plan? economy? Why was the policy necessary?

©P
Axis Advances KEY TERMS

Wartime Information Board board
With the declaration of war in September 1939, the Allies (Britain, France, established in 1942 to coordinate wartime
and Commonwealth countries including Canada, Australia, and New propaganda in Canada
Zealand) raced to get their forces organized. The alliance of Germany, Italy total war the mobilization of the entire
(1939), and Japan (1940) became known as the Axis. Allied troops were resources of a nation for war
quickly stationed along France’s border with Germany, where they waited Crown corporations businesses and
industries owned by the Canadian
for Germany’s next move. But for seven months, from October 1939 to April
government
1940, nothing happened. This period became known as the “phony war,”
Allies countries fighting against Germany
and many people started to believe there might not be a war. during the Second World War, including
These illusions were shattered when Germany renewed its blitzkrieg Britain, France, Canada, Australia, New
A
(“lightning war”), attacking Denmark and Norway in April 1940. The Zealand, and after 1941, the United
States and the U.S.S.R.
blitzkrieg was an extremely successful war tactic that used surprise, speed,
AD
and massive power to quickly overwhelm the enemy. War planes would Axis alliance between Germany, Italy, and
Japan
often lead the attack, knocking out key enemy positions and supply lines.
With lightning speed, German panzers (tanks) would crash through enemy blitzkrieg German war tactic of surprise
attacks by tanks and fighter planes
lines, driving forward as far as they could. Soldiers would also parachute
Dunkirk port town in France from which a
into enemy territory, destroying vital communication and transportation
massive Allied evacuation took place in
AN
links. The attacks left the defending army confused and, eventually, sur- May 1940, when German forces con-
rounded. quered France
Using these tactics, Germany quickly conquered Denmark and Norway. Luftwaffe the German air force
Germany then attacked the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Belgium. Within
weeks, all three countries were overrun. Hitler then set his sights on France.
C
Evacuation at Dunkirk
Within days of launching an attack on France through Belgium, German
N
panzers reached the English Channel and surrounded Allied forces in the
French port of Dunkirk. If the Allied troops surrendered, Britain would lose
SO
the bulk of its army. They had to escape before the Germans captured the
town. In an act of desperation, the British navy rounded up every boat capa-
ble of navigating the English Channel. Hundreds of fishing boats, pleasure
crafts, and ferries joined navy and merchant ships as
they headed across the Channel for Dunkirk. The ENGLAND N
AR
evacuation began on May 26. Two days later, the London

German Luftwaffe bombed the port of Dunkirk.
The evacuation was finally completed on June 4, Dover
ver
1940. o f Do Calais
it
English Stra
It was a dramatic rescue. Nearly 340 000 Allied Channel Boulogne Dunkirk
Bruges
PE
soldiers, thousands more than originally antici-

Ghent
pated, were brought to safety in Britain. This could Brussels
Som
Dieppe e Riv BELGIUM

have been a disastrous loss for the Allies. Instead,
m
er
Caen iv e
r
the evacuation of Dunkirk was seen as a “miracle” Rouen Meuse R
Falaise
and helped boost morale. FRANCE
After the evacuation at Dunkirk, the German 0 50 100 km
army continued to sweep through France. The Seine Riv
er
German troops Paris
French army proved to be no match for the German Allied evacuation
troops, and on June 22, 1940, France surrendered.
Britain and the Commonwealth now stood alone FIGURE 5–17 The Allied evacuation at Dunkirk
against Germany.

©P
05a_Ch05_CP11_2e_se_F1.qxd:Layout 1 4/20/10 1:05 PM Page 134
KEY TERMS Battle of Britain

the Blitz the heavy, frequent bombing
attacks on London and other British cities Once France fell, Hitler launched “Operation Sea Lion,” his plan to invade
by Nazi Germany Britain. For this scheme to succeed, the Royal Air Force (RAF) had to be
Battle of Britain an air campaign defeated so that German forces could cross the English Channel and land
launched in Britain. In July 1940, the Luftwaffe started a massive bombing campaign,
in 1940 by the Royal Air Force to stop the
aimed at destroying harbours and shipping facilities in southern England. In
Germans from achieving air superiority
August, the Germans targeted airfields and aircraft factories. On August 24,
Operation Barbarossa Germany’s unsuc-
cessful invasion of the Soviet Union in
German planes bombed several areas of London (some historians believe
1941–1942, which broke the non-aggres- that this was accidental, while others claim it was a deliberate attack). In
sion pact and ultimately led to the Soviet retaliation, the RAF bombed the German city of Berlin. This attack enraged
A
Union joining the Allies
Hitler. He ordered the Luftwaffe to bomb London and other British cities.
These raids, which become known as “the Blitz,” took place over many
AD
weeks, destroying buildings and terrifying and killing civilians.
Although the Germans had more aircraft than the British, they were
unable to defeat the RAF. One reason was that the British had a very
advanced radar system that warned them of German air raids. The British
also used Spitfires and Hurricanes, two extremely effective fighter planes.
AN
In addition, the RAF was reinforced with pilots, planes, and supplies from
Canada and other Commonwealth countries. In September 1940, as the RAF
shot down more and more German bombers, Hitler finally gave up on his
plans to invade Britain. During the Battle of Britain, more than 23 000
people, mostly civilians, were killed.
C
North-African Campaign
Once Hitler was certain of victory in France, and days before the German
N
Luftwaffe attack on Britain, Axis forces began what would become a three-
year campaign in the deserts of North Africa. This campaign, known as the
SO
Desert War, was a struggle for the control of valuable resources and strategic
positions.
FIGURE 5–18 For almost two months, As you read earlier, Italy wanted to increase its territories in Africa. Its
the German Luftwaffe bombed first move had been to invade Abyssinia in 1935. Once Italy formally entered
London day and night. the war on the side of the Axis in June 1940, British cavalry and tank
Developing Understanding What is
AR
regiments immediately invaded Libya (an Italian colony). Italy, in turn,

the likely target in this photograph?
Where could people find protection
invaded Egypt with its sights on the Suez Canal, a major strategic point.
from such attacks? To have any hope of victory, the Axis had to dominate the
Mediterranean by controlling its two access points: the Strait of Gibraltar
and the Suez Canal (see map on page 135). Holding these waterways would
PE
give the Axis armies access to the oil-rich Middle East.

By December 1940, the British Commonwealth forces had all but
destroyed the Italian army. German forces were dispatched to the area to
support the Italians and to prevent an Allied victory in North Africa.
Germany had hoped their Italian allies would quickly overrun Allied forces
in the region. Instead, it now found its forces engaged on a second front.
Over the next three years, neither side won decisive victories. The tide
turned in 1942 with a final Allied victory in North Africa in May 1943. The
Allied forces could now focus on their next objective: the invasion of Sicily
and the liberation of Italy, which you will read about later in this chapter.

©P
Operation Barbarossa
After Germany’s defeat in the Battle of Britain, Hitler launched “Operation
Barbarossa” (“red beard”) on June 22, 1941. This massive attack on the
Soviet Union broke the non-aggression pact that Hitler had signed with
Stalin in 1939. Hitler saw the Soviet Union as a source of raw materials, agri-
cultural land, and labour for the German army, and conquering the Soviet
Union was part of his long-term plans for a new German Empire.
The Soviets were unprepared for the attack, enabling the German army
to strike deep into Russian territory. By autumn, they had reached the out-
skirts of Moscow and Leningrad (now St. Petersburg). But the Germans were
A
ill-equipped for the long and bitterly cold Soviet winter and soon lost their
advantage. In 1942, Germany launched another offensive in the Soviet Union,
AD
this time focused on the rich oil fields in the south. The German troops got
as far as Stalingrad, but were stopped once again by the severe winter. The
Germans could not turn back. Nor could they hope for reinforcements, since
the Axis powers were also engaged in North Africa. After suffering more than
300 000 casualties, the German army surrendered in early 1943.
AN
After the German surrender, the Soviet army went on the offensive,
retaking much of the territory it had lost. Hitler’s aggression also assured
that the Soviets joined the war on the Allies’ side.
C FINLAND The Axis
Allied with the Axis
Leningrad
N NORWAY Occupied by the Axis
SWEDEN
ESTONIA
N SEA
Moscow
NORTH LATVIA
IC
SEA Farthest Axis advance

LT
DENMARK
GREAT BA LITHUANIA Nov. 1942
IRELAND BRITAIN
SO
EAST
PRUSSIA
S O V IE T U N IO N
London Berlin Stalingrad
NETHERLANDS
Dunkirk
POLAND
ATLANTIC BELGIUM GERMANY
OCEAN Dieppe Farthest Axis advance
Normandy
LUX. Dec. 1941
Paris SLOVAKIA
AR
AUSTRIA HUNGARY
Bay of FRANCE SWITZ.
Biscay
Yalta
ROMANIA
YUGOSLAVIA BLACK SEA
SERBIA
ITALY Ortona BULGARIA

AL
TUG
SPAIN MONTENEGRO
POR
ALBANIA
PE
TURKEY
GREECE
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
Strait of Gibraltar Sicily SYRIA
SP. MOROCCO IRAQ
LEBANON
SIA
ALGERIA MIDDLE
NI
Axis advance
TU
MOROCCO PALESTINE
halted, 1942 EAST
Suez Canal
TRANS-
JORDAN
El Alamein
SAUDI
0 250 500 km NORTH AFRICA Cairo ARABIA
LIBYA EGYPT
FIGURE 5–19 Extent of Axis control in Europe and North Africa, 1942
Reading a Map Use this map and the text in this section to understand the scope of Axis control in Europe and North Africa.

©P
KEY TERMS The War in the Pacific

Pearl Harbor the Japanese bombing of
the U.S. naval base in Hawaii As you read earlier, Japan began a campaign to expand its territory in the
1930s. By 1941, it was prepared to invade American and European colonies
Battle of Hong Kong Japan’s attack on
the British colony of Hong Kong in which in Southeast Asia to gain control of valuable resources such as oil, rubber,
there were heavy Canadian losses and tin. Japan knew such action would almost certainly involve the United
Black Christmas December 25, 1941, the States, which had thus far remained neutral in the war.
date Hong Kong fell to the Japanese Japanese strategy depended on a quick and decisive strike against the
United States. In a surprise attack on December 7, 1941, Japanese planes
bombed the U.S. naval base in Pearl Harbor, on the island of Hawaii. More
than 2400 people were killed and much of the American fleet was destroyed.
A
Japan then bombed the U.S. territory of the Philippines. The surprise
bombings stunned the Americans. On December 8, the U.S. joined the Allies
AD
and declared war on Japan. Japan’s allies—Germany and Italy—then
declared war on the United States. The whole world was now at war.
AN
U.S.S.R.
N France Netherlands
Great Britain Portugal
Japan United States
OUTER MONGOLIA MANCHUKUO
SINKIANG HA
NG
C
NG PACIFIC OCEAN
ME
KOREA JAPAN
N
TIBET CHINA
BHUTAN
NEP
SO
AL
INDIA
BURMA Hong Kong
THAILAND PHILIPPINE
FRENCH ISLANDS
INDOCHINA
AR
MALAYA
SU
BORNEO
M
AT
R
NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES

A
INDIAN NEW GUINEA

OCEAN
PE
0 750 1500 km AUSTRALIA
FIGURE 5–20 Control of the Pacific area in 1939

©P
Battle of Hong Kong

Only hours after bombing Pearl Harbor, Japan attacked in the Second World War.
Hong Kong, a British colony. Weeks earlier, Canada had
sent two battalions, from Winnipeg and Québec, to rein-
force the British and Commonwealth forces in Hong
Kong. The Canadians were inexperienced and the 20 000
Allied soldiers were no match for the skilled Japanese
soldiers. After 18 days of bitter fighting, Hong Kong fell
to the Japanese on what would be known as “Black
Christmas,” December 25, 1941. Every Canadian was
A
either killed or taken prisoner.
Nearly 1700 Canadian prisoners of war (POWs)
faced brutal conditions and were later used as slave
AD
labour. More than 260 of these POWs died during three
and a half years of imprisonment. Canadians at home
were horrified to learn the fate of the soldiers and angry
that troops had been sent to Hong Kong. The Japanese
treatment of Allied troops may have encouraged the
AN
anti-Japanese sentiment that culminated in the intern-
ment of Japanese Canadians. You will read about this
later in the chapter.
C
N
FIGURE 5–21 A recruitment poster issued after Canadian
forces were defeated at Hong Kong
SO
Expressing Ideas What is this poster’s message?
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
AR
1. Explain why German forces needed to invade 5. Using the information about each of the major bat-
Britain if they were to hold Western Europe. What tles in this section, explain the strategic advan-
efforts did they make to do this? tages of the Axis forces as well as how these
eventually led to the major turning point that
2. How did Canada contribute to the Allied victory in
PE
occurred in Stalingrad.
the Battle of Britain?
6. Why did the Japanese attack the U.S. navy at
3. What strategic benefit was there to controlling the
Pearl Harbor? How did this attack change the
Mediterranean? Why would the Axis have needed
course of the war?
to control this area?
7. Why would Canada send troops to Hong Kong?
4. Do you think it was an error on Germany’s part to
Why were Canadians angry when they learned the
invade the U.S.S.R.? Explain.
fate of troops in Hong Kong?

©P
● Describe Canada’s military role Canada’s Contribution to the War Effort

Canadians contributed to the war effort on all fronts. Over the course of the
war, Canada expanded its navy and air force to help reinforce the Allies.
The Battle of the Atlantic was Battle of the Atlantic

the dominating factor all
through the war. Never for one When war broke out, the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) had only 13 ships
moment could we forget that and 1819 sailors. Desperately short of equipment and personnel, Canada
everything happening else- embarked on a massive building and training program so that by the end of
where—on land, at sea or in the war, the RCN had grown to 400 vessels and more than 100 000 sailors.
A
the air—depended ultimately By 1941, the Battle of the Atlantic was in full swing and Canada’s contribu-
on its outcome, and amid all tion was much needed. As in the First World War, Britain was almost com-
AD
other cares we viewed its pletely dependent on food and military supplies from Canada and the
changing fortunes day by day United States. But the Allied supply ships bound for England were being
with hope or apprehension. attacked by “wolf packs” of German U-boats patrolling the Atlantic.
—Winston Churchill Germany was trying to starve Britain by cutting off vital shipping routes.
AN
The Allies Gain Momentum
For the first three years of the war, it seemed that the Allies would lose the
Battle of the Atlantic. German submarines pounded convoys, sinking hun-
dreds of ships. Some German submarines even sailed into the Gulf of St.
Lawrence and up the St. Lawrence River to attack ships there. Gradually, the
C
situation started to turn around. The British had cracked the German naval
code, allowing the Allies to track German submarine movements more eas-
ily. As well, the Allies were building more ships than were being destroyed.
N
Canada’s War at Sea
Canada also helped turn the tide. The RCN is credited with providing about
SO
half the escorts across the Atlantic. Better training of Canadian navy person-
nel and more sophisticated equipment contributed to the Allies’ success. The
Women’s Royal Canadian Naval Service was created
in 1942. Most “WRENs” were limited to shore-based
jobs, and worked as wireless operators, coders, driv-
AR
ers, and operational plotters.

To protect supply ships from German torpedoes,
the Allies sailed in convoys so warships could help to
protect vessels carrying vital supplies. But even con-
voys did not stop the attacks. German U-boats
PE
destroyed hundreds of supply ships, sinking millions

of tonnes of cargo. In response, Canada started build-
ing small warships, called corvettes, to escort convoys
across the ocean. The corvette was quick and
manoeuvred well, but it was not a very stable vessel.
Nevertheless, the corvette was the best ship that could
be built in such a short time. The corvettes were
FIGURE 5–22 This convoy, assembled in Bedford Basin, Nova helped by long-range Liberator bombers, which
Scotia, was transporting war supplies to Europe. could fly from bases in Britain and Canada to protect
Thinking Critically Identify the smaller ships in the photograph. much of the convoy’s route. By May 1943, the Allies
What might be the nature and function of these vessels?
believed they had won the Battle of the Atlantic.

©P
War in the Air KEY TERMS

Battle of the Atlantic the struggle
Like the RCN, the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) grew quickly once the between the Allies and the Axis powers to
war began. More than 215 000 people enlisted in the RCAF and, at one control the Allies’ shipping route across
point, 35 Canadian squadrons were posted overseas. Canadian aircrews the Atlantic Ocean
participated in bombing raids in North Africa, Italy, Northwest Europe, corvettes small, fast, warships built in
Canada to help protect convoys in the
and Southeast Asia.
Atlantic Ocean
The Women’s Division (WD) of the RCAF was created in 1941. Women
Bomber Command the section of the RAF
trained as clerks, cooks, hospital assistants, drivers, telephone operators, that directed the strategic bombing of
welders, instrument mechanics, and engine mechanics. The RCAF refused to Germany
let licensed female pilots fly until later in the war. Women ferried bombers
A
to Britain, but they never took part in combat.
Bomber Command
AD
The RCAF also participated in one of the most controversial missions of the
war: night bombings over Germany. As part of Britain’s Bomber Command,
Canada’s Bomber Group pounded German cities, including Dresden and
Cologne, night after night. These
AN
cities were targeted for a number of
reasons: to retaliate for the German
air raids on English cities, to dimin-
ish German morale, and to destabi-
lize German industrial centres. Tens
of thousands of civilians were killed
by these air raids. One of the worst
C
attacks was on the city of Hamburg
in July 1943. Relentless bombing by
N
the Allies created a firestorm and
the city was engulfed in flames. The
SO
city was practically destroyed and

more than 40 000 civilians were
killed.
The casualty rate for the RCAF
aircrew was as high as seven out of
AR
ten. Nearly 10 000 Canadian

FIGURE 5–23 Bombing raids on German cities, like Hamburg, killed thousands
Bomber Group members lost their of civilians.
lives during the war. Making Generalizations What would you say was the effect of bombing raids on
Germany, based on this photograph?
PE
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. How did Canadian sea and air forces change over 4. Describe the contributions of women in the navy
the course of the war? and air force.
2. Explain why the corvette and the convoy system 5. Why do you think the casualty rate for the RCAF
were so important to the Allied war effort. was so high?
3. What did Winston Churchill mean when he said 6. Is the bombing of civilian targets ever justified?
everything in the war depended on the outcome of Explain your position.
the Battle of the Atlantic?

©P
I n n ova t i o n s
Advances in War Technology
Technology played an important role in the Second World
War and in many ways determined its outcome. Major
technological advances were made in weaponry,
communications, intelligence, and medicine.
A
AD
Peril of the
seas Both the
AN
Allies and the Axis powers
used submarines, which were much more efficient than in the
First World War. The Germans invented a snorkel that made it
possible for U-boats to recharge batteries underwater, reducing
the time on the surface, where it was vulnerable to attack.
C
N
SO
AR
Finding the enemy Radar (radio detection and

ranging) is an electronic system that uses radio
waves to detect objects beyond the range of
A new type of terror weapon The German V-2 vision. It gives information about the distance,
rocket had a range of 350 kilometres. V-2s were position, size, shape, direction, and speed of
used with deadly effect against London in the approaching aircraft. Radar was a deciding factor
PE
closing days of the war. Wernher von Braun, the in the Battle of Britain.
designer of the V-2, moved to the United States
after the war. After becoming a U.S. citizen, he
designed the Gemini and Apollo rockets that
eventually led to the U.S. moon landing in 1969.
The deadliest weapon The United States developed

the atomic bomb, which permanently changed
warfare. In this weapon, a sphere of concentrated
radioactive material about the size of a baseball could
easily destroy a city.

©P
Technology in the air The first jet-propelled airplanes were used in the
A
Secret codes The
Second World War. Because jets could fly higher and faster than propeller-
Germans developed a
driven planes, both the Axis powers and the Allies worked around the clock
coding machine, known
to produce as many jets as they could. However, jets were not perfected until
AD
as “Enigma,” which
after 1945. Not enough were produced to affect the outcome of the war.
converted radio messages
into code. This machine
Treating the wounded Great advances were made in medical
spurred the development
technology as doctors tried to repair the hideous wounds of
of an early computer that
war. Penicillin, an antibiotic, was first
could decode German
isolated in 1929 by British scientist Alexander
signals.
AN
Fleming and was used to treat infections in
humans in 1941. Recovery rates for wounded
soldiers increased significantly due to
penicillin. Below, a Canadian doctor
treats a German soldier in 1944.
C
N
SO
AR
PE

©P
● Describe Canada’s military role The Tide Turns

In 1942, the tide of the war finally began to turn. The Allied forces became
stronger when the United States entered the conflict in December 1941.
KEY TERM With the Americans’ help, the Allies started to gain ground in North Africa.
Dieppe Raid the 1942 trial raid by They were more and more successful against U-boats in the Atlantic and
Canadian troops against Germany’s occu- made important advances in the Pacific.
pation of Dieppe; Canada suffered heavy
losses
The Dieppe Raid
By the middle of 1942, the Soviet Union, now one of the Allied powers, had
A
lost close to a million soldiers in its desperate fight against invading German
troops. Stalin demanded that the Allies invade Europe from the west to
We were sacrificial lambs…
AD
weaken Germany by forcing it to fight the war on two fronts.
They were there waiting for
us—they knew it was just a
The Allies had hoped to postpone the full invasion of Europe, but they
matter of time. In fact, one felt ready for a trial run. A smaller raid would allow them to test new tech-
German at Dieppe actually niques and equipment, and serve as a scouting mission for a future invasion.
asked us: “What took you so The 2nd Canadian Division was chosen to be the main attack force in a raid
AN
long?” on the French port of Dieppe. The plan was to launch four pre-dawn attacks
–Thomas Hunter along the coast, followed by the main attack on Dieppe. Air force bombers
and tanks brought in by ship would support the troops.
On the morning of August 19, 1942, one of the ships carrying Canadian
soldiers to Dieppe met a small German convoy. The two sides engaged in a
C
brief sea battle, and the noise alerted German troops on shore. To make
matters worse, the ships were
delayed and the troops landed in
daylight. They were easily
N
machine-gunned by waiting
German soldiers. Allied tanks
SO
were ineffective because they

could not get enough traction to
move on the steep, pebbled beach.
Communication between the
ships and troops on land was
AR
poor. Believing the first wave of

soldiers had reached the town,
commanders sent reinforcements
ashore. These troops, too, became
trapped on the beaches. Unable to
FIGURE 5–24 Dead Canadian soldiers and tanks on Dieppe beach, August 19, 1942
PE
retreat or advance, they were easy

Using Evidence Canadian troops were supported by tanks that arrived in transport
ships, but most never advanced far from the shoreline. Find evidence in this photo- targets for the German soldiers
graph to suggest why tanks were useless in this attack. on the cliffs along the coastline.
TIMELINE Major Canadian Battles, 1939–1945
September 1939–May 1943 May 26–June 4, 1940 August–October, 1940 December 7–25, 1941
Battle of the Atlantic Battle of Dunkirk Battle of Britain Battle of Hong Kong

©P
Disaster or Learning Experience?

The Dieppe Raid was a terrible failure. Casualties were high. Of the nearly
5000 Canadian soldiers involved in the nine-hour battle, 907 were killed.
Almost 600 were wounded and another 1946 were taken prisoner. Ross
Munro, the Canadian war correspondent who accompanied the troops to
Dieppe, described the raid and its devastating results:
For eight hours, under intense Nazi fire from dawn into a sweltering
afternoon, I watched Canadian troops fight the blazing, bloody battle of
Dieppe. I saw them go through the biggest of the war’s raiding opera-
A
tions in wild scenes that crowded helter skelter one upon another in
crazy sequence. There was a furious attack by German E-boats while
AD
the Canadians moved in on Dieppe’s beaches, landing by dawn’s half-
light. When the Canadian battalions stormed through the flashing FIGURE 5–25 Ross Munro, Second
World War correspondent for the
inferno of Nazi defences, belching guns of huge tanks rolling into the
Canadian Press
fight, I spent the grimmest 20 minutes of my life with one unit when a
rain of German machine-gun fire wounded half the men in our boat and
only a miracle saved us from annihilation.
AN
–Ross Munro, The Windsor Daily Star, 1942
Opinion is divided as to whether Dieppe was a valuable learning experi-

ence or a complete disaster. Some historians claim that the Allies were later
C
able to launch a successful invasion based on what they had learned at
Dieppe. Others maintain that the raid was poorly planned and taught the
Germans more than it taught the Allies.
N
INQUIRY Judgements
SO
Reporting War
Today, news reports make it possible for us to see reports to prevent security risks or to put their own
what is happening on a battlefield almost instantly. slant on events. Some people argue that improved
Many have argued, however, that what we see on the coverage of war is positive because it keeps us
AR
news is not always an accurate report of what is hap- informed of what is happening in distant parts of the
pening in a war zone. Several factors can influence world. Others maintain that this coverage is negative
what is reported on the news. For example, reporters because it hardens us to images of war so that we are
“embedded” with combat units are often sympathetic no longer shocked by what we see.
to the young soldiers they live and work with. Back
1. Can a news broadcast ever completely avoid bias
PE
home, newspaper editors and television directors

and show viewers the “truth”?
choose stories that will attract viewers so they can sell
2. Should reporters tell us everything they see on
advertising. The government may also censor news
the front lines?
August 19, 1942 July 1943– June 6, 1944 September–November, February 8–

Dieppe Raid February 1945 D-Day 1944 March 10, 1945
The Italian Campaign Battle of the Scheldt Battle of the Rhineland

©P
KEY TERMS The Italian Campaign

Italian Campaign 1943 Allied battles to
recapture Europe from the south, through After the failure at Dieppe, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill felt
Sicily and Italy that the best way for the Allies to recapture Europe was through what he
called the “soft underbelly” of Europe: Sicily and Italy. The Allied victory in
North Africa made it possible for forces to launch their attack from the
south. The invasion ended up lasting almost two years and cost thousands of
lives. The “underbelly” proved anything but soft.
Battle of Sicily
On July 10, 1943, Allied forces invaded Sicily. Once again, the Canadians
A
proved themselves to be fierce opponents. They fought Italian and German
soldiers through 240 kilometres of mountainous terrain, losing 562 soldiers
AD
in the battle. The Allies captured the island after 38 days.
This victory quickly led to Mussolini’s downfall. He was overthrown and
the new Italian government surrendered. The Germans, however, continued
to defend their Italian territory.
Battle of Ortona
AN
The Allies followed the Germans as they retreated to mainland
Italy. Canadians were given the task of capturing the medieval
town of Ortona on the Adriatic Sea. Before they could reach the
heavily fortified Ortona, the Canadians had to capture several
C
smaller villages, cross the river Moro, and fight across several kilo-
metres of German-occupied territory. The regiment describes the
battle:
N
Throughout the night of December 8th–9th the RCR [Royal
Canadian Regiment] maintained its position on the feature
SO
which came to be known… as “Slaughterhouse Hill.” The fight-

ing was most confused, the enemy appearing on several sides
of the perimeter as well as within it… the incessant shellfire
from both sides turned the night into pandemonium.
–A Regiment at War, 1979
AR
Once they reached Ortona, advances were slow and battles were
often fought house by house on the town’s steep, rubble-filled
streets. Canadians captured the town on December 28, 1943, but
lost 1372 soldiers before the Germans withdrew. After capturing
PE
Ortona, Canadian troops advanced through Italy until they were

FIGURE 5–26 Ortona after the Canadian advance sent to join the campaign in France. Nearly 6000 Canadians were
killed in Italy.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Why was the Dieppe Raid unsuccessful? Do you 2. Explain why the Italian Campaign was strategically
think it was a disaster or a learning experience? important to the Allies.
Support your opinion.
3. In your own words, describe the Battle of Ortona.

©P
Reading a Map
Historical maps are useful documents that give spe-

Applying the Skill
cific information. They are a visual way of conveying
facts as well as concepts. As with other historical As you read about the events that occurred in Europe
documents, the information included in these types between 1942 and 1945, refer to Figure 5–27. Go
of maps is selective, so you must examine them through the three steps in reading a historical map,
carefully. and answer the questions below.
A
1. What is the map about? What are the six pieces
Steps to Reading a Map
of information given in the legend?
AD
1. Look at the title and legend of the map below.
2. The cartographer (map-maker) has shown a lim-
These should tell you the historical period of the
ited number of cities. How would you explain the
map, its main purpose, and the other kinds of
choice of Dunkirk, Stalingrad, and Palermo?
information that the map is meant to convey.
3. What ideas does this map convey about
2. Examine the names (or symbols) closely. Look for
AN
patterns in the information. Why, for example, are a) the importance of the success of the North
some names bigger or bolder than others? African campaign to the Allies?
Certain colours may be used to illustrate similari- b) the role of the U.S.S.R. in defeating Germany?
ties in or differences between regions. C c) the importance of supremacy in naval forces
3. Now read the map by analyzing the information. for the Allies?
Ask yourself: What is this map about? How is the d) the importance of an effective air force?
information being communicated? What conclu-
sions can be drawn from this map?
N
FINLAND
NORWAY Leningrad
SWEDEN
N
SO
ESTONIA
SEA
Moscow
NORTH LATVIA
IC
SEA
LT
DENMARK
GREAT BA LITHUANIA SOVIET UNION
IRELAND BRITAIN Danzig
4
194
5 194 1943 Stalingrad
London NETHERLANDS Berlin
ATLANTIC 1945
19 4 5 Warsaw 1944 194
3
OCEAN 1945
AR
1944 BELGIUM
Dunkirk GERMANY POLAND
CZ
LUX. 5 ECH 44
NORMANDY 194 OSLO 19
Paris VAKIA
42
1945
19
Bay of FRANCE SWITZ. AUSTRIA

HUNGARY 4
Biscay 194
19 4 4
ROMANIA Yalta
ITALY BLACK SEA
YUGOSLAVIA
PE
BULGARIA
AL
Ortona
TUG
SPAIN Rome
Anzio ALBANIA
POR
TURKEY
Salerno
1944
GREECE
3
194
Palermo
194
2 1 9 4 3 SICILY SYRIA
SP. MOROCCO Algiers
Oran 1942 Tunis
LEBANON
Casablanca ALGERIA TUNISIA
MOROCCO MEDI
TERRANEAN SEA
European Allied territory, Tripoli PALESTINE
Axis powers, 1942 1942 TRANS-
Cairo JORDAN
Maximum extent Concentration
of Axis control, 1942 camps, 1939–1945 19 1942 El Alamein
FIGURE 5–27 Allied
43 SAUDI
Neutral nations, Allied advances EGYPT ARABIA advances on Germany,
RE
1942 0 250 500 km LIBYA

DS
1942–1945
EA

©P
● Describe Canada’s military role D-Day: The Normandy Invasion

The Allies immediately followed their success in Italy with the biggest Allied
invasion of the war. On D-Day, June 6, 1944, the Allies launched a full-scale
invasion of Europe called “Operation Overlord.” To avoid a disaster like
Dieppe, the Allies planned and rehearsed the invasion down to the smallest
detail.
The Allies launched their attack by landing their troops on five beaches
along an 80-kilometre stretch of the Normandy coast in northern France.
The beaches were code-named Sword, Juno, Gold, Omaha, and Utah. The
soldiers on the beaches had massive air and naval support. The Allies were
A
able to disrupt transportation and communication lines before the attack by
dropping paratroopers behind enemy lines and bombing targets on the
AD
beaches. Their naval support also allowed the Allies to bring in more than a
million troops, along with military vehicles and supplies, after the initial
landing.
The D-Day invasions were also successful because the Allies had man-
aged to keep the details of the attack a secret from the Germans. Although
AN
the Germans had anticipated an attack, they thought it would come from
the north. The weather also helped the Allies. A storm delayed the initial
attack and the Germans believed that the Allies would not attempt a landing
in bad weather. As a result, the German defence was poorly coordinated.
C
English Channel
N
N
SO
Ut
ah
Om
a ha
Gold Juno
Sw
or d
0 10 20 km Bayeux
D-Day objectives
AR
American forces Caen

British forces St. Lo
FRANCE
Canadian forces
FIGURE 5–28 Allied invasion of Normandy on D-Day, June 6, 1944

PE
Juno Beach
On the morning of June 6, 1944, 14 000 Canadian soldiers arrived at Juno
Beach (see Figure 5–28) as part of the first wave of the attack. They had to
make their way past the German defences, including concrete barriers,
barbed wire, and land mines, to take the beach. By the end of the day, the
Canadians had fought their way inland by about nine kilometres. Although
they were successful, casualties from the day were high—359 Canadians died
and 715 were wounded.

©P
Battle of the Scheldt KEY TERMS

D-Day June 6, 1944; the day Allied
It took the Allies weeks of constant fighting to expand their territory before armies, including Canada, invaded
they could begin an advance through France and Belgium toward Germany. France; the biggest Allied invasion of the
The 11-month campaign was exhausting and there were several moving Second World War
moments in which the Allies were welcomed as the liberators of Europe. In paratroopers soldiers trained to parachute
from airplanes onto combat areas
September 1944, for example, Canadians marched triumphantly through
Dieppe where only two years earlier they had suffered a terrible defeat. Juno Beach the nine-kilometre stretch of
beach in France where Canadian troops
In October, Canadians were given the task of clearing enemy troops landed on D-Day
from the Scheldt River in Belgium. This river was important because it con-
nected Antwerp to the North Sea. Although the Allies had already liberated
A
Antwerp, German forces controlled the river and access to the sea. The
Canadians achieved their goal after a month of bitter fighting, allowing the
AD
Allies to bring in supplies for their final advance into Germany.
Battle of the Rhineland

On February 8, 1945, the Allies—including approximately 175 000
AN
Canadians—began their attack to drive the Germans back over the Rhine
River and out of the Netherlands. The fighting was slow as soldiers struggled
through mud and flooded fields against fierce German resistance. Nearly
23 000 Allied soldiers were killed, including more than 5300 Canadians. The
Germans lost about 90 000 men, including 52 000 who were taken prisoner.
On March 10, the German army withdrew to the east bank of the Rhine
River, allowing the Canadians to continue north to liberate Holland.
C
Liberating the Netherlands
N
Once the Allied forces had reached the Rhine River and Germany, the
Canadians were given a separate task: liberating the Netherlands. This was a
SO
difficult job. An earlier Allied attempt to free Holland had failed and
German troops had practically destroyed the port cities of Amsterdam and
Rotterdam and flooded much of the countryside. By the end of 1944, food
and fuel supplies to the Dutch had been cut off and many were starving to
death. The bitter winter of 1944–1945 made difficult conditions even worse.
AR
ENGLAND N
NORTH SEA Emden
London Wilhelmshaven
Amsterdam
The Hague Oldenberg
PE
Dover NETHERLANDS
Rotterdam Bremen
Dover
Al
Ma
it of
le r
Flushing as
S t r aCalais Dunkirk R.
FIGURE 5–29 Allied
R.
Arnhem
Ems R.
English .
Boulogne
Bruges rR liberation of France,
Channel Nijmegen se
We
Ghent Belgium, and the

Hazebrouck Antwerp Hertongenbosch Hanover
Brussels
Netherlands, and
Dieppe Abbeville
La Havre R. invasion of Germany
ldt BELGIUM
So
he Dusseldorf
mm
Caen Meuse
R. Reading a Map Use
Sc
eR
Rouen the text and the map

.
GERMANY
Falaise to determine what
Rhin
FRANCE route the Canadians

e R.
Allied forces used in their attack

0 50 100 km Seine
Paris R. in the Netherlands.

©P
Lasting Gratitude
After reaching the Rhine, it took another month of fighting to drive
the Germans out of the Netherlands. On April 28, 1945, the Allies
negotiated a truce with Germany, allowing them to bring much needed
supplies to the Dutch people. Convoys of trucks carrying food and fuel
eventually delivered thousands of tonnes of supplies to civilians.
As they liberated towns and cities throughout the Netherlands,
Canadians were hailed as heroes in victory parades. Percy Loosemore,
who travelled with Canadian soldiers, wrote:
A
When we entered Holland from Belgium, the Dutch people seemed
overwhelmed with joy at their deliverance and the end of the war;
AD
FIGURE 5–30 Celebrating the liberation for while the Belgians had been liberated for some time, the Dutch
of Utrecht, in the Netherlands, by the were celebrating both the end of the war in Europe and their own
Canadian Army, May 7, 1945 immediate liberation. Bunting hung everywhere; people cheered
Analyzing Evidence Use the quotation as we drove by… Once, when I stopped my car, children gathered
and image to understand why Canadian around and proceeded to decorate our vehicle with flowers and
AN
troops were hailed as heroes in Holland.
coloured streamers. To witness the enthusiastic joy and happy
faces of these people was a [great] pleasure to me… I was deeply
moved.
–Quoted in A Soldier’s View, 2005
C
Victory in Europe
N
WEB LINK •
While the Allies invaded Germany from the north and west, the Soviet
To this day, the Dutch continue to show their Union attacked from the east. Facing certain defeat, Germany surren-
appreciation to Canada for liberating the dered to the Allies on May 7, 1945. Hitler committed suicide in a
SO
Netherlands. Visit the Pearson Web site to find

out more.
bunker in Berlin before he could be captured. The war in Europe was
over and the Allies declared May 8 as Victory in Europe (VE) Day.
AR
PE
FIGURE 5–31 At the Yalta

Conference in February 1945, with
an Allied victory only months away,
Winston Churchill, Franklin D.
Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin (front
row, from left to right) discussed the
reorganization of post-war Europe,
including occupation zones and new
borders.

©P
Japan Surrenders KEY TERMS

Manhattan Project the code name during
After the Allied victory in Europe, the war in the Pacific intensified. By the Second World War for the American
mid-1945, most of the Japanese air force and navy had been destroyed, but plan to develop the first atomic bomb
the army was still strong. In March 1945, the Americans, the main Allied atomic bomb a bomb containing radio-
force in the Pacific, had begun fire-bombing Japanese cities trying to force active material, capable of destroying an
entire city or region
them to surrender. Although these bombing raids destroyed cities and killed
thousands of people, the Japanese declared that they would “fight to the last
person” and not surrender.
The Atomic Bomb
A
For some time, American and British scientists had been
working on the Manhattan Project, a top-secret plan to
AD
develop an atomic bomb. In 1942, Canada was notified
of the project and asked to contribute uranium, an
important component of the bomb. The Canadian gov-
ernment agreed, and secretly bought the Eldorado mine
at Great Bear Lake, Northwest Territories, to produce the
AN
uranium.
On August 6, 1945, an American bomber plane
(named “Enola Gay” after the pilot’s mother) dropped an
atomic bomb over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. The
destruction unleashed by the bomb had never been
experienced before. Three days after the bombing of
Hiroshima, a second atomic bomb was dropped on the
C
city of Nagasaki. While precise casualty numbers are not
available, it is estimated that the two bombings killed
N
approximately 100 000 people and wounded another
100 000. Long-term effects, such as cancer, affected many
SO
more Japanese citizens.
The War Ends

The Japanese, realizing that they could not withstand the
AR
awesome power of the new U.S. weapon, surrendered on

FIGURE 5–32 The nuclear detonation at Nagasaki on
August 14, 1945. Finally, after six long years and the loss
August 9, 1945, created a mushroom cloud that rose
of millions of lives, the Second World War was over. many kilometres into the air.
PE
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What was D-Day? Why was it necessary? In what 2. In your own words, describe the situation in the
ways did the D-Day invasion differ from the raid on Netherlands in the spring of 1945. Why were
Dieppe? What role did Canadian troops play in Canadian troops considered heroes in the
both of these invasions? Netherlands?
3. Compare and contrast how the war ended in

Europe and Asia.

©P
counter points
Are weapons of mass destruction ever justified?

On July 16, 1945, a group of American scientists tested Personally I recoiled at the idea and said to
the first atomic bomb—the most powerful weapon ever Roosevelt: “Mr. President, this would violate
built until that time. The scientists who witnessed the every Christian ethic I have ever heard of and all
test were awestruck by the power of what they had known laws of war. It would be an attack on the
created. non-combatant population of the enemy....”
A
We knew the world would not be the same. A It was my opinion that the use of this barbarous
weapon at Hiroshima and Nagasaki was of no
AD
few people laughed. A few people cried. Most
people were silent. I remembered the line from material assistance in our war.... The Japanese
the Hindu scripture—the Bhagavad-gita. Vishnu were already defeated and ready to surrender....
is trying to persuade the prince that he should My own feeling was that in being the first to use
do his duty and to impress him, takes on his it, we had adopted an ethical standard common
to the barbarians of the Dark Ages. I was not
AN
multi-armed form and says, “Now I am become
Death, the destroyer of worlds.” I suppose we all taught to make war in that fashion, and wars
felt that, one way or another. cannot be won by destroying women and
–Robert Oppenheimer, children....
scientific director of the Manhattan Project C –I Was There, 1950
Two atomic bombs, dropped

on the Japanese cities of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, ended
N
the war, but controversy regard-
ing their use continues to this
SO
day. Was it necessary to use

such a deadly weapon? Even
before the atomic bomb was
dropped, there were those who
believed its use could never be
justified. Admiral William Leahy,
AR
an advisor to U.S. President

Harry Truman, opposed the
bomb. In 1944, he advised
Truman’s predecessor, Franklin
PE
Roosevelt, not to use the bomb.
FIGURE 5–33 Hiroshima before the bombing

©P
CRITICAL
INQUIRY Judgements
Colonel Paul Tibbets, commander of the air force For almost 200 years, war strategists have been
squadron that dropped the bombs on Japan and pilot of influenced by the writings of Carl von Clausewitz, a
the plane that dropped the bomb on Hiroshima, rejected Prussian general and military theorist. In his book
such criticism because he felt it failed to take into con- On War, he writes about his theory of absolute war:
sideration the “context of the times”:
A
To introduce into a philosophy of war a principle
As for the missions flown against Japan on the of moderation would be an absurdity. War is an
AD
6th and 9th of August, 1945, I would remind act of violence pushed to its utmost bounds.
you, we were at war. Our job was to win. Once –Quoted in Gwynne Dyer, War, 1985
the targets were named and presidential
Weapons now exist that have the potential to destroy
approval received, we were to deliver the
all life on Earth. Nations have stockpiled thousands of
weapons as expeditiously as possible, consistent
warheads hundreds of times more powerful than the first
AN
with good tactics. The objective was to stop the
atomic bombs. Arsenals and laboratories store biological
fighting, thereby saving further loss of life on
weapons designed to spread diseases. Governments
both sides. The urgency of the situation
maintain stores of deadly chemical weapons. Von
demanded that we use the weapons first—before
Clausewitz could never have envisioned destruction on
the technology could be used against us.
such a scale.
–Quoted in news release by
Airmen Memorial Museum, 1994
C
Thankfully, some nations have agreed to
treaties that limit the testing of nuclear
N
weapons and that reduce the arsenal of
nuclear weapons. Still, both the United States
and Russia have the capability to destroy the
SO
world several times over. Many other nations

also have nuclear arms and large quantities
of chemical and biological weapons.
Analyzing the Issue

AR
1. What reasons did Admiral William Leahy

give against using the atomic bomb?
2. What three arguments did Colonel Paul

PE
Tibbets give to support the use of the

atomic bomb on Japan?
3. What do you think Robert Oppenheimer

meant by “We knew the world would not
be the same”?
4. Do you think there are any circumstances

in which weapons of mass destruction
can ever be justified? Explain your
answer.
FIGURE 5–34 Hiroshima after the bombing

©P
● How did the war raise Crimes Against Humanity

awareness of human rights
issues? Atrocities inflicted upon civilians and POWs during the Second World War
brought the issue of human rights to the world’s attention, and ultimately
led to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (see Chapter 10).
The Holocaust
The anti-Semitic and racist views of Hitler and the
Nazi government were well-known in the 1930s.
By 1941, the Nazi government adopted the “Final
A
Solution”—a horrifying plan of genocide. Hitler
ordered all Jewish people and “undesirables” to be
AD
shipped to concentration camps, such as Bergen-
Belsen and Buchenwald in Germany, and Auschwitz
and Treblinka in Poland. Upon arrival, guards
stripped them of their clothes and valuables,
shaved their heads, and separated families. The
AN
weak, the old, and the young were immediately
killed in gas chambers. Healthy people worked as
slave labourers. When overwork, starvation, and
disease weakened them, they too were murdered.
FIGURE 5–35 Survivors from the Buchenwald By 1945, the Germans had killed more than 6 mil-
concentration camp. Elie Wiesel wrote about his
experiences during the Holocaust in his book
C lion Jewish people and another 5 million Roma,
Night. Wiesel (inset and the farthest face on the Slavs, and other “undesirables.” Though the Allies
right, second bunk from bottom) was later had known about German concentration camps,
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize they did not realize the full extent of the horrors of
N
the Holocaust until they pressed closer to
Germany and saw the Nazi atrocities.
SO
The Nuremberg Trials

A Canadian soldier at Bergen- In 1945, the Allies established an International Military Tribunal in
Belsen wrote:
Nuremberg, Germany, to prosecute prominent Nazi leaders and many others
Tonight I am a different man. I for atrocities committed during the war. Twelve defendants were sentenced
AR
have spent the last two days in to death and others were imprisoned. This is the first time in history that
Belsen concentration camp, the leaders of a country were charged for immoral acts during wartime. The
most horrible festering scab Nuremberg Trials became a model for prosecuting war criminals in Rwanda
there has ever been on the face and the former Yugoslavia (see Chapter 10).
of humanity....
PE
You have seen pictures in

the paper but they cannot tell Atrocities in Asia
the story. You have to smell it Liberators of Japanese POW camps also encountered terrible war crimes
and feel it and keep a stern committed during the war. Mass killings, human experimentation, famine,
look on your face while your torture, and forced labour were a few of the hardships suffered by POWs
heart tears itself into pieces and civilians alike. Since many of Japan’s wartime acts violated international
and the tears of compassion law, the alleged crimes were subject to trial in international courts of justice,
drench your soul...
similar to the Nuremberg Trials. The Tokyo Trials heard these cases and
–King Whyte, Letters Home,
1944–1946, 2007 passed sentence on military personnel found guilty of war crimes and
crimes against humanity.

©P
The War at Home ● What was the war’s impact on

the home front?
Canadians at home made enormous contributions to the war. Under the
policy of total war, many Canadian factories were dedicated to producing
supplies and war materials. In 1944, Canada produced 14 000 tanks and per- KEY TERMS
sonnel carriers, more than 4000 aircraft, and 16 000 artillery pieces. Factories crimes against humanity widespread
operated non-stop, and Canadians worked long hours to run them. attacks against civilians, including murder,
enslavement, deportation, and torture
Final Solution the Nazis’ plan to system-

Women and the War Effort atically kill all European Jews
As in the First World War, women joined war industries in roles that were genocide the systematic extermination of
A
unusual for them at the time. They worked as welders, drillers, and punch- a religious or ethnic group
press or machine operators. “Rosie the Riveter” became a popular nickname tribunal court of justice
AD
for these working women. Women were in high demand as factory workers war crimes the killing, torture, and
and many moved from rural areas to industrial centres. With government hostage-taking of civilian populations, or
the deliberate and extensive destruction of
funding, some companies built dormitories close to their factories to house
their property
workers.
AN
Canada’s Wartime Economy
With so much increased production and employment, people suddenly had
more money to spend. At the same time, there were fewer goods to buy as
most of what was produced was shipped to Britain. Prime Minister
C
Mackenzie King wanted to avoid soaring inflation and hoped to prevent the
massive debt that had burdened Canada after the First World War so the
government took the following steps:
N
• As Minister of Finance, James Ilsley enthusiastically encouraged
Canadians to buy Victory Bonds. The government used the money to
help finance the war, and people cashed in the bonds for profit after the
SO
war.
• Ilsley increased income taxes for
added revenue.
• In 1941, the Wartime Prices and Trade
AR
Board, which had been set up in 1939,

froze all wages and prices to try to
prevent inflation.
• In 1942, King introduced food
rationing, limiting the amounts of
PE
certain goods that Canadians were

allowed per week. Each Canadian
adult was limited to about 1 kilogram
of meat, 220 grams of sugar, 250 grams
of butter, and about 225 grams of cof-
fee. Canadian rations were generous
compared with those in England and
the United States.
FIGURE 5–36 Women were employed in non-traditional roles during the
Second World War.

©P
case study ● What effect did the war have

on the role of women?
Women and the War Machine

The Second World War changed Canadian society. Most Ronnie, the Bren Gun Girl
young men joined the military and many went overseas. Governments used propaganda and created stereotypes
At the same time, industrial production greatly increased, to mobilize the home front and to change the public’s
meaning that more workers were needed. Although mind about women in the workforce. Working in the war
women in poorer families and on farms had always
A
effort had to seem glamorous, exciting, and patriotic. The
worked, the middle-class ideal was that women looked Americans created Rosie the Riveter to idealize the work-
after the home and men went out to work. This pattern ing woman. Her posters show her with sleeves rolled up,
AD
was so engrained that middle-class men resisted even ready to pitch in and help her country. Canada’s stereo-
the idea that their wives would go to work, believing that typical working woman was Ronnie, the Bren Gun Girl,
it would indicate, among other things, that the men could who was, as opposed to Rosie, a real person working in a
not provide for their families. During the Depression, munitions factory.
governments wanted women to stay at home to keep
AN
more men employed. When the war changed everything,
attitudes had to change too. Looking Further
1. In your own words, describe how the role of
The National Selective Service Program
Canadian women changed from the Depression to
During the war, the National Selective Service program
registered women for work in factories and established
C the end of the Second World War.
2. Examine, describe, and compare the images of Rosie
daycare centres in Ontario and Québec, where industry
the Riveter and Ronnie, the Bren Gun Girl. What do
was concentrated. Women also joined the Canadian
they tell us about the societies they represent?
N
Women’s Army Corps (CWAC), serving mostly as clerks,
drivers, and nurses. By 1945, almost one-third of all 3. Describe social controls that might be used against a
Canadian women were employed in the war effort. woman who chose to live independently rather than
SO
participate in the war effort.

AR
PE
FIGURE 5–37 Ronnie, the Bren Gun Girl—a real Canadian woman named FIGURE 5–38 Rosie the Riveter represented the ideal-
Veronica Foster ized American woman contributing to the war effort.

©P
The Growing Demand for Social Change KEY TERMS

“cradle to grave” social security social
The federal government’s Wartime Prices and Trade Board was also estab- assistance provided by the government,
lished to help reduce social unrest. It limited the power of trade unions by from birth to death
controlling wages so that striking would be less effective. The shortage of National Resources Mobilization Act an
labour, however, often worked to the unions’ advantage, and many ignored Act passed in 1940 enabling the govern-
ment to do whatever was necessary for the
restrictions on the right to strike. Workers wanted higher wages but they
war effort; it was amended in 1942 to
also demanded the right to bargain. The board was unable to prevent steel allow conscription
workers in Nova Scotia and coal miners in Alberta and British Columbia
from going on strike in 1943. In 1944, the federal government softened its
policy, allowing workers the right to join a union and forcing employers to
A
recognize their workers’ unions.
The war also brought changes to the role of
AD
government. The wartime government had been
involved in almost every aspect of Canadians’ lives,
and many Canadians wanted some of this involve-
ment to continue. The Co-operative Commonwealth
Federation party and its platform of social reform
AN
was becoming increasingly popular at both the
national and provincial levels, a fact that was not
lost on Prime Minister Mackenzie King. In 1943,
the CCF made up the Opposition in Ontario. In
1944, it formed the government in Saskatchewan
under T.C. “Tommy” Douglas. Mackenzie King had
C
already brought in an unemployment insurance
program in 1940. In 1945, he expanded Canada’s
social assistance by bringing in the Family
N
Allowance program, which helped families cover
the cost of child maintenance. Canada’s policy of
SO
“cradle to grave” social security had begun.
The Conscription Crisis

Prime Minister Mackenzie King had promised
AR
there would be no conscription when Canada

declared war in 1939. But the speed with which the
Germans occupied Europe in 1940 stunned
Canadians and made it clear that thousands of sol-
diers would be needed to fight against the Nazis.
PE
Canadians, including the opposition Conservative FIGURE 5–39 The government reminded Canadians that every-
Party, demanded that their government do more one was involved in the war effort—and to be aware of possible
for the war effort. In response to these demands, spies in their midst.
King’s government quickly brought in the National Identifying Viewpoints How serious does the danger of spying
and sabotage appear to be from this poster? What course of
Resources Mobilization Act (NRMA). This Act action does it suggest citizens take? What techniques does it
gave the government special emergency powers to use to create an impact on the viewer?
take over the nation’s resources. Most significantly,
the NRMA allowed for conscription, although only
for home defence.

©P
Canadians Vote on Conscription

have on Canadian unity? As the war progressed, the Conservative opposition continued to pressure
Mackenzie King to bring in conscription. But the prime minister knew that
there would be strong resistance to conscription in Québec. As in the First
KEY TERMS World War, many Québécois did not feel connected to a war in Europe that
plebiscite a vote on a particular issue did not directly affect Canada.
enemy aliens nationals living in a country King decided to hold a plebiscite to get Canadians’ views on conscription.
that is at war with their homeland He used the slogan “Not necessarily conscription, but conscription if neces-
sary” to describe the government’s position on the issue. On April 27, 1942,
voters were asked whether they would release the government from its prom-
A
ise not to send conscripts overseas. In all provinces but Québec, the majority
voted “yes.” Once again, the issue of conscription divided the nation.
AD
“Yes” to Conscription
Mackenzie King finally allowed conscription for overseas serv-
ice by amending the National Resources Mobilization Act in
August 1942. Many Québécois felt betrayed by King’s actions.
There were riots in Montréal to protest King’s decision. The
AN
Québec legislature passed a motion condemning the federal
government’s actions.
King managed to avoid the issue of conscription for the
next two years. But after heavy Canadian casualties during the
campaigns in Italy and northwest Europe, there was a severe
C
shortage of trained infantry. King could no longer avoid the
issue and agreed to send conscripts overseas.
In 1944, King conscripted 15 000 men for active service
N
under the NRMA. In the final months of the war, 12 908
NRMA conscripts were sent to Europe. Only 2463 of these
Canadian conscripts ever reached the front.
SO
Province Yes (%) No (%)

Ontario 84.0 16.0
FIGURE 5–40 Cartoon published in the Montreal
Prince Edward Island 82.9 17.1
Gazette in 1941
AR
Interpreting a Cartoon What is the cartoonist’s British Columbia 80.4 19.6

message? Québec 27.9 72.1
FIGURE 5–41 Plebiscite results for selected provinces, 1942

PE
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What three initiatives did the Canadian govern- 4. Explain how Mackenzie King managed to avoid
ment undertake to prevent inflation and pay for sending conscripts overseas. Why did he eventu-
the war? How successful were these initiatives? ally have to send conscripts overseas?
2. What social changes took place in Canada during 5. Why was Québec so opposed to conscription?
the war? What demands were unions making? What had changed between 1917 and 1944? How
Cause and Consequence
do you think people felt about conscripts? Why?
3. What unintended conse-
quences do you think were caused by women
being a major part of the war effort?

©P
case study ● What effect did the War

Measures Act have on the
legal rights of Canadians?
Racism and Japanese Canadians
When war broke out, more than 22 000 Japanese In 1947, the government finally cancelled the policy.
Canadians were living in British Columbia. No evidence It was not until 1988 that the federal government apolo-
indicated that they supported Japan in the war, nor did gized for its actions. As compensation, it agreed to pay
the government consider these enemy aliens a security the people still living who were affected by the policy
risk. But anti-Japanese sentiment grew in Canada after $21 000 each. It also agreed to restore Canadian citizen-
A
the bombing of Pearl Harbor and the invasion of Hong ship to any person who had been deported to Japan.
Kong in 1941. In early 1942, the Canadian government
AD
caved in to public pressure. For the second time in its
Looking Further
history (see Chapter 2), the War Measures Act was
invoked. All Japanese Canadians living near the British 1. Why were Japanese Canadians relocated and
Columbia coast were “invited” to move to the Okanagan detained during the Second World War?
Valley. They would be settled in temporary “relocation
AN
centres.” In the wake of anti-Japanese marches in 2. How would posters like Remember Hong Kong (on
Vancouver, about 750 people moved voluntarily. Soon, page 137) contribute to these attitudes?
the government forced all Japanese Canadians, regard- 3. In your opinion, what would be just compensation for
less of how long they had lived in Canada, to leave the Japanese Canadians interned during the war?
coast.
Government officials separated families, sending
C 4. Canadian veterans who were POWs in Asia were not
compensated for being starved or used as slave
members to different internment camps in the interior of
British Columbia where they were held until the end of labour in Japanese factories, even though their mis-
treatment violated the rules of war. People often cite
N
the war. David Suzuki, a famous Canadian environmen-
talist and broadcaster, was interned with his sisters and the compensation given to Japanese Canadians as a
mother when he was six years old, while his father reason why the Canadian government should negoti-
SO
worked at a labour camp. Some families chose to go to ate with the Japanese for compensation for these
Alberta or Manitoba. These locations were farther away, veterans. Do you agree with this reasoning? Explain
your thinking.
but at least families were allowed to stay together.
The situation worsened in January 1943. Federal
government officials, called Custodians of Enemy
AR
Property, were given the power to confiscate and sell

Japanese Canadians’ property. People who had been
relocated inland lost everything. Possessions were auc-
tioned off and the owners received almost nothing.
In 1945, the federal government offered Japanese
PE
Canadians a choice: they could apply to be sent to

Japan, which had been devastated by war, or they could
agree to permanently settle east of the Rocky Mountains.
Some people challenged Canada’s right to deport inno-
cent citizens, but the Supreme Court upheld the govern-
ment’s position. In all, 3964 Japanese Canadians were
deported—2000 were Canadian citizens. Thousands of FIGURE 5–42 A Japanese Canadian family awaits relocation
other Japanese Canadians were relocated to other parts from Vancouver, 1942. Many families were separated, with
of Canada. men being interned separately.
Thinking Critically Why do you think the men were interned
separately?

©P
● What was the war’s impact on What the War Meant to Canada
the home front?
The Second World War had many long-lasting economic, social, and
political effects on Canada. As you will read in the next chapter, these
KEY TERMS effects ushered in tremendous changes in post-war Canadian society.
arsenal of democracy a slogan coined by
President Franklin D. Roosevelt in
December 1940 promising to help the Economic Growth
Allies fight the Germans by providing mili-
tary supplies while staying out of the Arsenals supply armies with weapons. In 1940, before the United States
actual fighting entered the war, President Roosevelt called the United States the “arsenal
war brides foreign women who married of democracy.” Roosevelt promised to arm and support the Allies, while
A
Canadian troops serving overseas and staying out of the actual fighting. Canada, as part of the Empire, supplied
then immigrated to Canada after the war
both soldiers and an arsenal, providing Britain with the weapons and
AD
resources it needed to resist Germany from 1939 onwards.
11 848 11 863 Under its policy of total war, Canada provided major military and
11 053 economic support to the Allies. The value of goods it produced rose from
10 265
$5.6 billion in 1939 to $11.8 billion in 1945. During the war, Canada gave
the Allies billions of dollars in financial aid.
8282
AN
Virtually every sector of the Canadian economy boomed. There was a
$ Millions
6713 rapid increase in the production of aluminum, which was used in the
5621 manufacture of aircraft. Wood and paper production rose, as did mining
4301
and smelting. There was also a great increase in the demand for petroleum
to fuel tanks, trucks, and airplanes. A wave of exploration led to discover-
C
ies of new oil fields in Alberta. Many jobs were created in production,
transportation, processing, and providing services for the new industries.
The wartime boom brought another important change to the
Canadian economy. Agriculture, once the most important sector of
N
1935 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945
Year Canada’s economy, was overtaken by manufacturing. Canadian cities and
the industrial areas around them became much more important contribu-
FIGURE 5–43 Value of Canada’s gross
SO
national product (GNP), 1935–1945. tors to the economy after the war. During the period from 1939 to 1949,
GNP is a measure of the value of all Canada had transformed itself from a rural economy to a modern indus-
goods and services produced by a trial nation.
nation.
Gathering Evidence Why did Canada’s
GNP increase significantly during the Societal Changes
AR
war?
The Second World War changed Canadian society in several ways. Women
were employed in great numbers during the war. Their contribution
helped to raise their profile in society and promote their rights as workers.
There was a significant wave of immigration as about 48 000 war brides—
PE
along with approximately 21 000 children—arrived from Europe to join

their soldier-husbands after the war. The government encouraged war
brides to come to Canada by paying for their trip. Once they arrived,
many faced a difficult adjustment as they became members of a new cul-
ture and society.
In addition to war brides, thousands of people displaced by the war
came to Canada to start a new life. After the war, Canada eventually loos-
ened some of its immigration restrictions to allow more people to come to
Canada to meet the growing demand for labour. But, for the most part,
Canadian immigration policy remained unchanged. It allowed mainly
immigrants from preferred countries in Europe to enter Canada.

©P
Building an Identity ● What factors contributed to

Canada’s enormous contribution to the war, in both human and economic
terms, gave it a new role on the world stage. Just two decades earlier, Canada
had been a colony in the British Empire. By the end of the Second World
War, Canada had emerged as a major player in a global conflict, with one of
the world’s largest navies and fourth-largest Allied air force. Once again, Country Casualties
Canadian troops proved themselves on the battlefields, and were recognized Canada 42 000
for their contribution to the Allied victory. In addition, the efforts of
Aboriginal, Asian, and black soldiers—along with those from other minority Britain 326 000
groups—during the war helped further civil rights for all Canadians. France 340 000
A
Although many Canadians were killed, wounded, and captured, the Second Germany 325 000
World War became a defining event in the development of Canada’s identity.
Soviet Union 8 668 000
AD
Japan 1 506 000
But it was a good war for Canada too, because it made us a great
nation. I mean... it showed us what we could do. We just weren’t a United States 295 000
bunch of wheat farmers and Nova Scotia fishermen and lumbermen in
FIGURE 5–44 Allied and Axis military
B.C. We were a nation. A big and tough and strong nation.
casualties
AN
–Quoted in Barry Broadfoot, Six War Years, 1974
Thinking Critically Casualty numbers
for the Second World War vary widely
depending upon their source. Give
some possible explanations.
C
N
SO
AR
FIGURE 5–45 In May 1946, more than 100 black veterans attended a welcome
home banquet in their honour.
PE
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. a) How did the war end the Depression? 3. In your opinion, which branch of the armed
forces had the greatest impact on the outcome
b) What were the major changes in Canada’s
of the war? Provide evidence from the chapter.
economy during this period?
4. Do you agree that “it was a good war”? Explain.
2. In what ways did the war change the social make-
up of Canada? In what ways was it unchanged? 5. Significance What were the three most
significant ways that the Second World War
changed Canada?

©P
CHAPTER
Review
CHAPTER FOCUS QUESTION How did the Second World War impact Canada socially,
politically, and economically?
Unlike in the First World War, Canada entered the Holland. The Canadian navy grew enormously during the
Second World War as a recognized and independent war, protecting the sea lanes over which the products of
nation. Even so, ties to Britain were still very strong. After Canadian forests, farms, and factories travelled to Britain
Britain declared war on Germany in September of 1939, and Russia to help the war effort. Canadian pilots and
Canada almost immediately followed suit. The war put crews fought in the Battle of Britain and flew thousands
A
the development of Canadian industry into overdrive. On of missions over Europe. The need for more personnel
the home front, women took over many of the jobs for- brought back conscription, which again threatened to
AD
merly done only by men and everyone had to adjust to split the nation. Canada’s participation was critical to the
rationing and the rigours of a war economy. Canadians war effort and won the nation increased status in the
fought in Hong Kong, Dieppe, Italy, Normandy, and post-war world.
1. Complete the following organizer to show the impact of the Second World War on Canada.
AN
Event Description Significance of the Event Long-lasting Effects
C
N
Vocabulary Focus 6. Explain the significance of each of the following to
Canada:
2. Review Key Terms on page 119. Then go to the
SO
a) Battle of Hong Kong

Pearson Web site and match the terms with their
definitions. b) Dieppe Raid
c) Battle of Britain
Knowledge and Understanding
d) Battle of Ortona
3. Continue the annotated timeline showing steps to
AR
e) Battle of the Scheldt

Canadian autonomy that you started in Chapter 2.
Review the events that are covered in this chapter. f) Battle of the Atlantic
Write the name and date of each event on the time- g) Liberating the Netherlands
line and explain how the event contributed to h) D-Day
Canadian independence.
PE
7. The Nazis killed millions of Jewish people in the

4. Outline the causes of the Second World War. Holocaust during the Second World War, but their
5. Describe how the war changed women’s roles and anti-Semitism became official government policy in
how you think this may have changed Canadian the 1930s. What position do you think the Canadian
society. government should have taken toward Germany
before the war? Might the war have been prevented
if other countries had protested? Explain.
8. Find examples in the textbook of divisions within the

country that were exacerbated by the war.

©P
Critical Thinking e) Faced with the same factual information as

Truman, would you have decided to use the
Significance
atomic bomb?
9. Use the organizer you created in Question 1. Which
Having found the bomb we have used it. We have
three events had the greatest impact on Canada?
used it against those who attacked us without
Provide evidence to support your opinion.
warning at Pearl Harbor, against those who have
Cause and Consequence starved and beaten and executed American pris-
A
oners of war, against those who have abandoned
10. Could war have been avoided if Britain, France, and all pretense of obeying international laws of
their allies had stood up to Hitler’s demands earlier warfare. We have used it in order to shorten the
AD
than they did? Why do you think politicians were so agony of war, in order to save the lives of thou-
ready to appease Germany in 1939? Prepare rea- sands and thousands of young Americans.
soned arguments for both sides of these questions. –Harry S. Truman, 1945
11. During the Second World War, Canada and its allies
AN
practised “total war.” Explain how this contributed to
the Allied victory. How successful would Canada
have been if it had participated in the war on a lim-
ited basis, such as with the war in Afghanistan?
12. Discuss with a partner how the following countries

and groups might have viewed Canada at the end of
C
the Second World War. Be prepared to discuss your
ideas with the class.
N
a) Britain
b) the Netherlands
SO
c) United States
d) Japanese Canadians
e) Canadian women
Document Analysis
AR
13. Read the quotations on the bombing of Hiroshima

on pages 150–151, keeping in mind that quotations
must always be understood in context.
PE
a) What moral question is raised here?
b) Briefly summarize the arguments presented and

rank them by how strong you think they are.
FIGURE 5–46 A woman and child who survived the atomic bomb
c) Do you think photos of the bombing victims have dropped on Nagasaki, Japan, on August 9, 1945. Their faces are
influenced the use of nuclear weapons? Explain. burned from the heat of the explosion.
d) In your opinion, where does the responsibility for

the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki chiefly
lie? Explain.

©P
05b_CP2e_U01 CC-SG_F1:Layout 1 4/20/10 1:07 PM Page 162
UNIT 1
Study Guide
Use this Study Guide to synthesize your learning about Canada’s development
as a country. As you work through the following steps, refer back to the Focus
Questions for Chapters 1 to 5. Look for evidence in your understanding to
answer these questions.
STEP 1 Unpacking Knowledge

Use a chart to record information you learned in Unit 1. Your information may
A
include events, key terms, individuals, or concepts.
AD
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5
A Different Canada, First World War, The Twenties, Great Depression, Second World War,
1900–1914 1914 to 1919 1919 to 1929 1929 to 1939 1939 to 1945
AN
STEP 2 Organizing Your Understanding
C
Using the information you recorded in Step 1, complete a chart, grouping your
items into course topics. You do not need to use every item from Step 1. Focus
N
on the key items. Many items can and will fit into multiple categories. Explain
this in the Significance column.
SO
Sample Topics Event/Person/Date/Key Term Significance
What steps did Canada take to

become an autonomous nation?
AR
What was Canada’s role in the First

World War? How did the war affect
developments in Canada?
PE
What were the labour and social

impacts of economic cycles and
changes between the wars,
especially the Great Depression?
What is regionalism and in what

ways was it expressed in Canada
from 1900 to 1945?
Society & Identity Politics & Government Economy & Human Geography Autonomy & World Presence

©P
05b_CP2e_U01 CC-SG_F1:Layout 1 4/20/10 1:07 PM Page 163
STEP 3 Making Connections

Immigration Women’s Rights Voting
Complete a mind map for one of the Restrictions
main course themes using the items
from the chart you created in Step 2.
The four main themes are
Society & Identity, Politics & SOCIETY & IDENTITY
Government, Economy & Human
A
Geography, and Autonomy & World
Presence.
AD
Conscription
STEP 4 Applying Your Skills

Analyzing Evidence
AN
Examine the images in the Unit Opener
(pages 2–3) and the following sources and
discuss how they connect to the material
you have covered in this unit. Identify what
each source is about, what is its message,
and how it is evidence for one of the course
C
themes. Remember to apply the skills you
have learned including looking for bias and
assessing reliability.
N
▲
SOURCE 1: The Battle of Vimy Ridge,

SO
Richard Jack, 1918
▲ SOURCE 2: Lord Sankey, Privy Council

Judgement, October 18, 1929
AR
[T]he exclusion of women from all

public offices is a relic of days more
barbarous than our.... To those who
would ask why the word “person”
PE
should include females, the obvious

answer is, why should it not?
▲ SOURCE 3: Mr. MacInnis, Debate in the House of

Commons, June 26, 1935
The easiest way to provoke a person into taking

action which possibly he should not take is to
ignore his rightful claims. I contend that these men ▲ SOURCE 4: Canadian women worked in munitions
in the camps have rightful and just claims which factories during the First World War.
have been ignored by this government.
163
©P
05b_CP2e_U01 CC-SG_F:Layout 1 4/14/10 2:08 PM Page 164
UNIT 1
Study Guide
Interpreting Political Cartoons Decoding Photos
▲ ▲
SOURCE 5: Hawkins, N. H. “The Same Act Which Excludes SOURCE 7: During the Second World War, Ronnie, the Bren Gun
Orientals Should Open Wide the Portals of British Columbia Girl represented the war machine on the home front.
to White Immigrations.” Saturday Sunset, Vancouver,
August 24, 1907
A
AD
AN
C
SOURCE 8:
Unemployment
▲
during the
Depression
N
SO
▲ SOURCE 6: “Equal Partners All.” The Imperial Conference,

held in London in 1926, resulted in the Balfour Report.
The Grain Growers’ Guide, Winnipeg, December 15, 1926
AR
PE
▲ SOURCE 9: An automobile pulled by horses

was called a “Bennett buggy” in the 1930s.

©P
05b_CP2e_U01 CC-SG_F:Layout 1 4/14/10 2:08 PM Page 165
Gathering Information
▲
SOURCE 10: Women with jobs in Canada, 1939–1945
▲
SOURCE 11: Alaska boundary dispute
Number of Women Employed
1 500 000
1 200 000
Dawson N.W.T.
A
900 000
ALASKA
600 000
AD
Y U K ON
300 000 T E R R ITOR Y
0
1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945
AN
Year
Skagway
PACIFIC Lynn BRITISH

OCEAN Canal COLUMBIA
C 0 150 300 km
N
Canadian claim
U.S. claim
N
Boundary according
to award of Tribunal,
1903
SO
AR
SOURCE 12: Second

World War propaganda
poster
PE
STEP 5 Thinking Critically

Now that you have reviewed Unit 1 content, practised skills, and explored evi-
dence and themes, it is time to synthesize your learning.
In a well-organized, multi-paragraph essay, discuss the accuracy of Laurier’s
quote from Chapter 1:
…the twentieth century shall be the century of Canada and of Canadian CHECK the Pearson
development. For the next seventy-five years, nay for the next one hun- Web site for additional
review activities and
dred years, Canada shall be the star towards which all men who love questions.
progress and freedom shall come.
165
©P

Counterpoints Unit1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Counterpoints Unit1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Counterpoints Unit1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What was Canada's role in World War 1 and how did it affect developments in Canada?

What was Canada's role in World War 1 and how did it affect developments in Canada?

How did attitudes towards immigrants change during World War 2?

How did attitudes towards immigrants change during World War 2?

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario.

and economic hardships SOUTH

they were and what they

The Colonial Empires of Western Europe by 1910

Society & Identity

● How did women influence

● What attitudes did many

● What steps did the government

Economy & Human Geography

● What impact did industrial

Autonomy & World Presence

● What was Canada’s relationship

1896 1899 1903 1905 1906

4 Unit 1 ■ Canada in Transition: A Nation Emerges

CHAPTER FOCUS QUESTION Significance Patterns and

On a cool October evening in 1904, a tall, dignified man stood

less than a quarter of what it was by the end of the century.

they do things differently there.” In our study of history, it is

1907 1908 1909 1911 1912 1914

Chapter 1 ■ A Different Canada 5

Society and Manners

the Alaska boundary dispute,

● How did women influence

Canadian society in the early FIGURE 1–1

6 Unit 1 ■ Canada in Transition: A Nation Emerges

Arts and Leisure KEY TERMS

Victorian of or pertaining to the reign

between British Columbia and Alaska. Of particular concern

best in any agreement....

Chapter 1 ■ A Different Canada 7

● Why were the attitudes of French-Canadian Nationalists

FIGURE 1–3 This postage stamp

sets on the British Empire” mean?

8 Unit 1 ■ Canada in Transition: A Nation Emerges

Canada’s Changing Population ● What attitudes did many

Not Everyone Is Welcomed

Canadians, who often ridiculed these people.

“British Columbia must remain a white man’s country.” As

Asian immigrants would compete against them for other

Chapter 1 ■ A Different Canada 9

Is today’s government responsible for injustices of the past?

In the early 1980s, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau The Chinese

FIGURE 1–6 Immigration certificate for

10 Unit 1 ■ Canada in Transition: A Nation Emerges

In 1995, the CCNC approached the United Nations

For over six decades, these malicious measures,

day problems. He stated: In May 2008, the British Columbia legislature

Sikh organizations have rejected the prime minister’s

from is repeating itself.

The Komagata Maru Analyzing the Issue

1. Compare the responses of Prime Minister Trudeau

Chapter 1 ■ A Different Canada 11

● What challenges did

Residential schools, reserves, and enforced farming

by the early 1900s the populations of Aboriginal peoples

claims and reclaim their culture was just beginning.