PK.FKK.PPM.

MANUAL MAKMAL CHE465 (0)

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN KIMIA
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY I
(CHE465)

NAME : WAN ZULKARIM BIN WAN NADZRI

STUDENT NO. : 2004624899
EXPERIMENT : FLOW OVER WEIRS
DATE : 4 FEBRUARY 2004
PERFORMED
SEMESTER : NOV 2004 – MAC 2005
PROGRAMME / : Bachelor of Engineering (Hons.) in Chemical
CODE Engineering/ EH220

No. Title Allocated marks % Marks %

1 Abstract/Summary 5
2 Introduction 5
3 Aims/Objectives 5
4 Theory 5
5 Procedures 3
6 Apparatus 5
7 Results 20
8 Calculations 10
9 Discussions 20
10 Conclusions 10
11 Recommendations 5
12 References 5
13 Appendices 2
TOTAL 100

Remarks:

Checked by: EN. RUSMI Rechecked by:

TABLE OF CONTENT

1
Summary

Introduction

Objectives

Theory

Procedures

Apparatus

Results

Sample of calculations

Discussions

Conclusions

Recommendations

Reference

Appendices

SUMMARY

2
 What we can summarized about this experiment are we want to know the
characteristics of open-channel flow over a rectangular notch and a triangular (vee) notch and
the values of the discharge coefficient for both notches.

In this experiment we use the difference notch, which is rectangular and triangular.
Here, we can observe the difference of flow rate of water that flows into both of channel.

After we get the reading for volume flow rate we can we can know what the
coefficient of the discharge of the notches. The coefficient values can be determined
from measurement of the height of the free surface of water above the notch and the
corresponding volume flow rate. We applied the Bernoulli Equation to get the flow over
notches.

The importance is the equipment must be set up carefully to observe appropriate

results, where as volume, time and for calculating flow rate. All this observation values will
be applied in the coefficient of discharge equation to determine whether our observation is
right or not.
For the triangular (vee) notch, here we must carefully to adjust the increment of its
height with 5-6 mm. Fetching its known volume because we want to get more observation of
its time collects this. The experiment result will be compared with theory

INTRODUCTION

3
 Fluid mechanics has developed as an analytical discipline from the application of the
classical laws of static’s, dynamics and thermodynamics, to situations in which fluids can be
treated as continuous media. The particular laws involved are those of the conservation of
mass, energy and momentum and, in each application, these laws may be simplified in an
attempt to describe quantitatively the behavior of the fluid.
The Hydraulic Bench Description service module, F1-10, provides the necessary
facilities to support a comprehensive range for the hydraulic models each of which is
designed to demonstrate a particular aspect of hydraulic theory.
The specific hydraulic model that we were concerned with for this experiment was the
Basic Weir Apparatus, F1-13. This consists of two simple weirs, a rectangular notch and a
vee notch.

OBJECTIVES

• To observed the characteristics of open-channel flow over, firstly, a rectangular notch

and then a triangular (vee) notch.
• To determine values of the discharge coefficient for both notches.

4
THEORY

Because the depth of flow above the base of notch is related to the volume flow rate
through it, the notch forms the useful flow measurement device. The classical results for
flow over notches are obtained by an application of the Bernoulli Equation, from a point
well up-stream to a point just above the notch. This approach requires a number of very
substantial assumptions and it yields the following results:
For a rectangular notch

Qt = Cd 2/3 b √(2gH3/2)
For a vee notch

Qt = Cd 8/15 tan(θ/2)√(2gH5/2)

Where
Qt = volume flow rate
H = height above notch base
B = width of rectangular notch
θ = angle of the Vee in the triangular notch
Cd = the discharge coefficient, which has to be determined by experiment

(The coefficient Cd is required to accommodate the effects of the simplifying assumptions

in the theory.)

These can be arrange to give:

Cd = 3Qt
2b√(2gh3/2)
for a rectangular notch, and

Cd = 15Qt
8 tan θ√(2gH5/2)
2
for a vee notch.

5
THE MEASUREMENT OF DISCHARGE COEFFICIENTS, Cd

When flow occurs in a pipe or channel we are usually interested in the total rate
discharge rather than in the velocity, which varies considerably across the section of the
conductor; this amounts to saying that we are interested in the mean value of velocity taken
over normal section rather than velocities at particular points. The rate of discharge is usually
taken as a volume per unit when the fluid is liquid.
When the flow is steady the rate of discharge of a liquid is easily determined by
collecting the liquid, which passes in measured interval time. The volume may be obtained
directly from the observed depth of liquid in the collecting tank by use of a calibration curve
or indirectly by weighing the liquid and division by the specific weight.
For measurement of large discharges the most useful devices are the 90o V-notch and the
rectangular weir. In accordance with equation, the discharge over a V-notch is
given by
Q = 8 Cd tan θ √(2gh5/2)
15 2
where θ is the total included angle of the notch and h is the head. For a 90o V-notch Cd has a
value of about 0.59. The coefficient Cd is subject to slight variations as the head varies and
B.S. 3680: Part 4A : 1965 contains tables giving values of Cd for 0.05m< h< 0.38m. Head h is
measured as the head of free surface at a stagnation point above the apex of the notch.
Stagnation points occur in the corners where the notch bulkhead meets the sides of the
channel.
When the discharge exceeds 0.021 m3/s a rectangular weir may be used. For
rectangular weirs having complete contractions, B.S. 3680: Part 4A: 1965 gives the following
relationship

Q = 2 √(2gCdbh3/2)
3
in which Cd = 0.616(1 - 0.1h/b)

where b is the length of the weir and h is the observed head above the crest for negligible
velocity approach. This equation may be used for the heads from 0.075m to 0.60m provided
that b/h is greater than 2. Care must be taken to have the approach channel sufficiently large,
as detailed in the specification.
The method of determining the theoretical flow through a notch is the same as that adopted
for a large orifice.

For a notch of any shape shown in figure, consider a horizontal strip of width b at a depth h
below the free surface and height h.

6
Area of strip = bh.

Velocity through strip =  (2gh)

Discharge through strip, Q = Area x velocity = bh (2gh).

Integrating from h = 0 at the free surface to h = H at the bottom of the notch,

Total theoretical discharge(Q),

1

Before the integration of equn.1 can be carried out, b must be expressed in terms of h.

Rectangular Notch:

For a rectangular notch, put b = constant = B in equn.1 giving,

2

V-Notch:

For a V-notch with an included angle   p ut b = 2(H-h)tan( /2) in equn.1, giving

7
Inspection of equns.2 and 3 suggests that, by choosing a suitable shape for the sides of the
notch, any desired relationship between Q and H could be achieved.

As in the case of orifice, the actual discharge through a notch or weir can be found by
multiplying the theoretical discharge by a coefficient of discharge to allow for energy losses
and the contraction of the cross-section of the stream at the bottom and sides.

In the forgoing theory, it has been assumed that the velocity of the liquid approaching the
notch is very small so that its kinetic energy can be neglected; it can also be assumed that the
velocity through any horizontal element across the notch will depend only on its depth below
the free surface. This is a satisfactory assumption for flow over a notch or weir in the side of
a large reservoir, but, is the notch or weir is placed at the end of a narrow channel, the
velocity of approach to the weir will be substantial and the head h producing flow will be
increased by the kinetic energy of the approaching liquid to a value

x = h + v12/(2g),

Where v1 is the mean velocity of the liquid in the approach channel. Note that the value of v1
is obtained by dividing the discharge by the full cross sectional area of the channel itself, not
that of the notch. As a result, the discharge through the strip will be

Q = bh (2gx).

8
PROCEDURES

Equipment Set Up

 The hydraulic bench is positioned so that its surface is horizontal (necessary

because flow over notch is driven by gravity).
 The rectangular notch was mounted into the flow channel and the stilling baffle
was positioned as shown in the diagram.
 In order to measure the datum height (with the height gauge) of the base of the
notch, the instrument carrier was positioned in the opposite way round from that
shown in the diagram.
 Then carefully the gauge was lowered until the point was just above the notch
base and the coarse adjustment screw was locked.
 Then, by using the fine adjustment, the gauge was adjusted until the point just
touched the notch bottom and a reading would be taken; here we must be careful
not to damage the notch.
 The instrument carrier was mounted as shown in the diagram and it would be
approximately located half way between the stilling baffle and the notch plate.
 The bench control valve was opened and water was admitted to the channel; the
valve was adjusted to give approximately 10mm depth above the notch base. To
help achieve this, I founded it useful to pre-set the height gauge position to give a
rough guide.

9
Taking a Set of Results

 The general features of the flow were observed and recorded.

 To take an accurate height reading, the fine adjustment was used to lower the
gauge until the point just touched its reflection in the surface; (to achieve this, I
need to have my eye level just above the surface).
 The flow rate was ensured large enough to prevent the outflow from the notch
“clinging” to the notch plate; it was projected clear of the plate.
 The volume flow rate was determined by measuring the time required to collect a
known volume in the volumetric tank. Using the ball valve to close the tank
outflow did this and then the volume collected would be determined from the
sight-glass.
 After determined the volume collected, the valve was opened again at the end of
the measurement.
 This procedure was repeated by having opened the bench valve further, to produce
an increase in depth of approximately 10 mm; the level was checked in stable
condition before taking readings.
 Readings with increasing flow rate were continued had been taken until the level
reached the top of the notch; take care not to allow spillage to occur over the plate
top adjacent to the notch.
 Before starting this test, there was sufficient water in the bench main tank checked
to allow the pump to operate without drawing in air at the maximum flow rate (i.e.
maximum height above notch).
 The rectangular notch plate was replaced with the Vee notch plate and procedure
above was repeated. For this notch I need to work with height increment 5-6 mm.

10
APPARATUS

In order to complete the exercise we need a number of pieces of equipment:

• The FI-10 Hydraulics Bench which allows us to measure flow by timed volume
collection.
• The F1-13 Stilling baffle
• The F1-13 Rectangular and Vee Notches
• Vernier Height Gauge (supplied with F1-13)
• Stop Watch
• Spirit Level

11
The apparatus has five basic element used in conjunction with the flow channel in the
moulded bench top of Hydraulics Bench Description.
 A stilling baffle and inlet nozzle combine to promote smooth flow condition in the
channel
 A Vernier hook and point gauge is mounted on instrument carrier, to allow
measurement of the dept of flow above the base of the notch.
 Finally, the weir notches are mounted in a carrier at the outlet end of the flow channel.
To connect the delivery nozzle, the quick release connector is unscrewed from the bed of the
channel and the nozzle screwed in place. The stilling baffle is slid into slots in the wall of the
channel. These slots are polarized to ensure correct orientation of the baffle.

The instrument carrier is located on the side channels of the moulded top. The carrier may be
moved along the channel to the required measurement position. The gauge is provided with a
coarse adjustment locking screw and a find adjustment nut. The vernier is locked to the mast
by screw and is used in conjunction with the scale. The hook and point is clamped to the base
of the mast by means of a thumbscrew.

The weirs may be clamped to the weir carrier by thumbnuts; the weir plates incorporate
captive studs to aid assembly.

12
 RESULT

RECTANGULAR NOTCH
Height of datum ho: 0 m
Height of
water Volume Flow H3/2
level, h, Volume Time of Rate Qt Rectangular Rectangular
(m) Collected collection, T, (m3/sec) Height above Notch (m3/2) Notch discharge
NO x 10-3 (m3) (sec) x 10-5 notch H (m) X 10-4 Coefficient Cd
1 4.0 0.003 103.0 2.91 4.0 2.53 0.02
2 8.5 0.003 39 7.69 8.5 7.84 0.03
3 11.2 0.003 29 10.3 11.2 11.85 0.03
4 14.5 0.003 20 15.0 14.5 17.46 0.04
5 19.0 0.003 14 21.4 19.0 26.20 0.04

VEE NOTCH

Height of datum ho: 0 m

SAMPLE OF CALCULATIONS
Height of
water Volume Time of Volume Flow Height VEE Notch VEE Notch
level (m) Collected collection Rate, Qt (m3/s) above notch H5/2 (m) discharge
NO x 10-3 (m3) (s) x 10-5 H (m) x 10-6 Coefficient Cd
1 7.5 0.003 69 4.35 7.5 4.8714 0.008
2 13.0 0.003 30 10.0 13.0 19.2689 0.0096
3 16.0 0.003 25 12.0 16.0 32.3817 0.009
4 19.0 0.003 15 20.0 19.0 49.7604 0.012
5 21.0 0.003 12 25.0 21.0 63.9069 0.013

RECTANGULAR NOTCH

13
 Cd = 3Qt
2b√(2gH3/2)

Qt = 2.91 x 10-5 m3/s

b = 0.03 m
H3/2 = 2.53 x 10-4 m
Cd = 3(2.91 x 10-5 m3/s)
2(0.03m)(√2*9.81m/s*2.53 x 10-4 m)

= 0.021

VEE NOTCH

Cd = 15Qt
8 tan θ√(2gH5/2)
2

Qt = 4.35 x 10-5 m3/s

θ = 90o
g = 9.81 m/s2
H5/2 = 4.8714 x10-6 m

Cd = 15 (4.35 x 10-5 m3/s)

8tan45o√(2 x 9.81m/s2 x 4.8714 x 10-6 m)

= 8.34 x 10-3

14
Calculation of error the Discharge Coefficient (Cd)

From the theory, the Cd value is 0.685

= Experimental value of Cd - theoretical value x 100%
Theoretical value of Cd

Rectangular notch;

From the rectangular notch table, take the value of Cd, = 0.021

= 0.685-0.021 x 100%
0.685

= 97%

Vee notch ;

From the vee notch table, take the value of Cd = 8.34 x 10-3

= 0.685- 8.34 x10-3 x 100%

0.685

= 99%

DISCUSSIONS

15
 After we have done this experiment, we are able to determine the flow rate and the
coefficient of discharge for flow over a triangular and rectangular notch using the Basic
Weir apparatus. We can make a few discussion based on this experiment.
Firstly, from the result we get, we observed that the trend of the coefficient discharge
for rectangular are increasing. We get the average of coefficient discharge is 0.03 m3/s. So
the results we get are suitable because the most ideal volumetric flow rate for a
rectangular notch is 0.021m3/s and above. For rectangular notch, Cd values at lower flow
rates were in quite wide variations. This was because the difference of values of height
was in wide range.
Secondly, For V-notch, Cd values at low flow rate were not in wide variations. This is
because the low height increments.

For experimental values for Cd for water flowing over V-notch with central angles
varying from 100 to 900. The rise in Cd at heads less than 0.5 ft is due to incomplete
contraction. At lower heads the frictional effects reduce the coefficient. At a very low
heads, when the nappe clings to the weir plate, the phenomenon can longer be classed as
weir flow.

The values of Cd for vee notch at low flow rate were not in wide variations
because the low height increments.

But the values of Cd for rectangular notch at lower flow rates were in quite wide
variations because the difference of values of height was in wide range.

From the experimental result, the values of coefficient discharge calculated

increased when the head increased for rectangular notch. From the theory, volume flow
rate that is suitable for this notch is about from 0.021m3/s and above, but in the
experiment we can’t constant the value of volume flow rate. We only know the volume
flow rate by measuring the data that we have. So the volume flow rate that we use less
than the volume flow rate of theory because of that the values of Cd also less from the
theory.

CONCLUSIONS

16
 What we can conclude after we have done this experiment, our objectives are to
observed the characteristic of open-channel flow over, firstly, a rectangular notch and
then a triangular (vee) notch and to determined the discharge coefficient for both
notches.
We have also concluded that the coefficient of discharge of both; triangular and
rectangular notch depends on the volumetric flow rate of the water and the height of the water
level from the base of the notch. The coefficient of discharge corresponds differently to the
height of the water level (H) to the type of notch used. For rectangular notch; H3/2 and
triangular notch; H5/2 in there has given equation. For triangular notch, the coefficient of
discharge also depends on the angle of the vee shape.

• Rectangular weir has wide range variations of Cd. This is because this notch has width
with 0.03 m.

• V-notch has small range of variations for the value of Cd. This is because this notch
has an angle at its bottom where about 90o. This angle might affect the values of flow
rate and Cd.

The Cd values for both notches.

Rectangular Notch Triangular Notch

1 0.02 0.008
2 0.03 0.0096
3 0.03 0.009
4 0.04 0.012
5 0.04 0.013

17
RECOMMENDATIONS

1. The data that was observed in the experiment that was time gain should be taken
twice. This can avoid the very wide deviation because of only take once of each
observation

2. Take care not to allow spillage to occur over the plate top adjacent to the notch. If this
happened, it would effect the collection of known volume.

3. Once the data were taken, the procedure cannot be reverse to find the value of time
collection by adjusting the height. This would affect the value of height datum. The
height datum must be constant and the observation should be done once round for the
little increment of height especially for V-notch.

4. The readings of height should be taken carefully by avoiding sight error. The time
collection should be taken much appropriately.

REFERRENCES

1. Bruce R Munson, Donald F. Young, Theodore H. Okiishi, Fundamental Of

Fluid Mechanics, fourth edition, page 650-651, John Wiley & Sons, Inc

2. Laboratory manual 1(CHE 465)

APPENDICES

18
 NOMENCLATURE

Column Units Nom. Type Description

Heading
Notch Type Measured Vee Notch or Rectangular Notch
Height m ho Measured Datum height, which is the base of the notch.
Datum This is read from the vernier and used to
calculate height of water level above the
notch. The height datum is measured in
millimeters. It has been converted to meters
for the calculations.
Water m h Measured This is read from the vernier. The water level
Level is measured in millimeters. It has been
converted to meters for the calculations.

Volume m3 V Measured Taken from the scale on hydraulic bench.

Collected The volume collected is measured liters. It
has been converted to cubic meters for the
calculations (divide reading by 1000).
Time for s t Measured Time taken to collect the known volume of
Collection water in the hydraulic bench. The time is
measured in seconds.
2
Volume m /sec Qt Calculated Qt = V/t = Volume collected/Time for
Flow Rate collection
Height m H Calculated H = h-ho = Height of Water Level – Height
Above Datum.
Notch
H3/2 Calculated Used to describe relationship between flow
Rectangular rate and height for a rectangular notch.
Notch
Rectangular Cd Calculated Cd = 3Qt
Notch 2b√(2g3/2)
Discharge
Coefficient
H5/2 Vee Calculated Used to describe relationship between flow
Notch rate and height for a Vee notch
Vee Notch Cd Calculated Cd = 15Qt

19
Discharge 8 tan θ√(2gH5/2)
Coefficient

20