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Final Report

Archaeological Inventory Survey of Area A 1 , Kahuku Training Area, O'ahu Island, Hawai'i

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Prepared for:

U.S. Army Engineer District, Honolulu Corps of Engineers, Bldg. 252

Fort Shafter, Hawaii 96858-5440

Contract DACA83-95-D-0006 Delivery Order 0016

Prepared by:

Ogden Environmental and Energy Services Co., Inc. 680 Iwilei Road Suite 660

Honolulu, Hawali 96817

May 2000

OGDEN

•••••

•

Final Report

Archaeological Inventory Survey of Area AI, Kahuku Training Area, O'ahu Island, Hawai"i

..
• By
.. Robert P. Drolet, Ph.D .
•
..
.. Project Director
.. Steven Clark, B.A.
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..
..
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• Prepared For:

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Corps of Engineers District, Honolulu Fort Shafter, Hawai'i 96858-5440 Contract No. DACA83-95-D-0006 Deli very Order 0016

Prepared By:

Ogden Environmental and Energy Services Co., Inc. 680 Iwilei Road, Suite 660

Honolulu, Hawai"i 96817

May 2000

ABSTRACT

This report presents the results of an archaeological inventory sample survey and limited subsurface testing at the United States Army Support Command-Hawaii (USASCH) Kahuku Training Area (KTA), northern Koolau Loa District, Island of O'ahu, Hawai'i. The survey was conducted by archaeologists from Ogden Environmental and Energy Services, Inc. (Ogden) at the request of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Pacific Ocean Division, Fort Shafter, Hawai"i, The survey was conducted intermittently in one- to two-week intervals between August 26 and December 17, 1997 by a two to three person crew under the direction Robert Drolet.

The archaeological survey was conducted within Area A~l, a 6,720 hectare (ha) (16,605 acre) parcel of land containing coastal escarpments, gulches, and interior uplands, located in the northwestern portion of KTA. This area was selected for survey to address specific research questions dealing with pre- and early post-Contact site dating and settlement patterns. The goal of the project was to focus on a single area defined by the limits of Area A-I, and record all archaeological features within this parcel through intensive survey. Limited testing at select sites was included to provide additional information concerning site use and antiquity. Although three previously recorded sites were known within Area A~I, including a heiau (Site 4885), agricultural terraces (Site 9517), and a possible habitation complex (Site 4887), most of the area had not been previously investigated.

A total of 166.1 ha (410.4 acres) were surveyed in Area A-I and 13 sites were recorded. The survey results confirm that a variety of traditional Hawaiian sites including rockshelters and caves, enclosures, walls, and terraces are located in Waialee, Pahipahialua, and Kauriala Gulch channels and along the northern facing slope areas adjacent to these drainages. In addition, historic features and military sites were recorded in the study.

The report recommends that further archaeological work be conducted at several of the traditional Hawaiian sites. This includes excavation to determine temporal relationships and site function. Continuation of systematic survey is also recormnended in the unsurveyed KTA areas adjacent to Area A~1 to locate and assess the archaeological resources. Finally, marking the northern KTA Area A-I boundary is recommended in order to determine whether the sites located along the northern facing slopes are within or outside the facility property.

PREFACE

The report text and bibliography have been prepared following the style guidelines published by the Society of American Archaeology (1992:749-790). Hawaiian words, except for place names, are italicized and presented in traditional form, using glottal stops and macrons (Pukui and Elbert 1986; Pukui et al. 1974). Titles, acronyms, and measurement references are spelled out the first time they appear in the text and thereafter are abbreviated. Botanical species names are taken from Wagner et al. (1990) and marine shell identifications follow Kay (1979).

Archaeological site numbers assigned by the State of Hawaii for Kahuku Training Area are preceded by the numeric designation 50-80-02-. The specific site number follows this designation as a three or four digit number. Once introduced in the text with it's full numeric designation (i.e., 50-80-02-5534), all State Site Numbers will be referred to only by their specific Site number (i.e., Site 5534).

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

PREFACE ii

ThITRODUCTION 1

ENVIRONMENTAL BACKGROUND 1

TOPOGRAPHY 1

CLIMATE AND RAINFALL 3

VEGETATION 3

GEOLOGY 3

SOliS 3

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 3

The Early Post-Contact Period: A.D. 1778-1845 4

Land Tenure Change: The Great Mahele 7

Malaekahana and Kahuku Ranches 9

Kahuku Sugar Plantation 10

PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH 11

RESEARCH DESIGN 20

SITE DENSITY AND DISTRIBUTION 20

SITE CHRONOLOGY 20

METHODS AND PROCEDURES 21

FIELD METHODS 21

FEATURE TYPES DEFINED 21

SUBSURFACE TESTING 26

LABORATORY METHODS 26

RESULTS 26

SITE DESCRIPTIONS 27

PAHIPAHtALUA GULCH 27

Rock Shelter, Site 50-80-02-5534 27

Burial Cave Site 50-80-02-5535 35

Rock Shelter (Site 50-80-02-5536) 37

Enclosure (Site 50-80-02-5537) 37

Wall (Site 50-80-02-5538) 44

Terrace and Stone Concentration (Site 50-80-02-5539) 44

Terrace (Site 50-80-02-5540) 50

BLUFF SITES WEST OF P AHIPAHI'ALUA GULCH AND SURROUNDING W AIALE'E GULCH 50

KAUNALA GULCH 52

Enclosure (Site 50-80-02-5684) 55

Rock Shelter (Site 50-80-02-5685) 55

Wall (Site 50-80-02-5686) 61

Historic Roadway (Site 50-80-02-5688) 61

Underground Bunker (Site 50-80-02-5689) 61

Military Bunker (50-80-02-5690) 67

DISCUSSION 67

SIGNIFICANCE EVALUATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 70

CONCLUSIONS 75

REFERENCES 77

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS, CONT.

APPENDIX A: LAND COMMISSION AWARD TESTIMONIES APPENDIX B: WOOD CHARCOAL IDENTIFICATIONS APPENDIX C: RADIOCARBON ANALYSIS

LIST OF FIGURES

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Kahuku Training Area, O'ahu

Location of Archaeological Survey Areas in Kahuku Location of Recorded Archaeological Sites in Kahuku Archaeological Site Probability Area in Kahuku Inventory Survey Area Priorities

Current Survey Area and Location of Archaeological Sites Site 50-80-02-5534, Rock Shelter Entrance

Site 50-80-02-5534, Rock Shelter

Site 50-80-02-5534, Test Unit 1, Feature 1 Site 50-80-02-5534, TU-l, Feature 1

Site 50-80-02-5535, Burial Cave Entrance Site 5-80-02-5535, Burial Cave

Site 50-80-02-5535, Burial Feature 1 Site 50-80-02-5535, Burial Feature 2 Site 50-80-02-5535, Burial Feature 3 Site 50-80-02-5536, Rock Shelter Site 50-80-02-5537, Enclosure

Sites 50-80-02-5538, Wall and 50-80-02-5537 Enclosure

Site 50-80-02-5539, Terrace (Feature 1), Stone Concentration (Feature 2)

Site 50-80-02-5539, Terrace Site 50-80-02-5540, Terrace General View of Kaunala Gulch

General View of Eroded Surface in Area A-I Site 50-80-02-5684, Enclosure

Site 50-80-02-5684, TU-l Profile

Site 50-80-02-5685, Rock Shelter

Site 50-80-02-5686, Wall

Site 50-80-02-5686, Wall

Site 50-80-02-5688, Historic Road Alignment Site 50-80-02-5688, Historic Elevated Roadway Site 50-80-02~5689, World War II Bunker

Site 50-80-02-5690, World War II Bunker

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

iv

2 13 15 17 23 29 30 31 32 33 36 38 39 40 41 42 43 45

47 49 51 53 54 57 59 60 62 63 64 65 66 68

LIST OF TABLES

I 2 3 4

Archaeological Sites Recorded in Area A-I Survey Site 50-80-02-5534, Soil Profile, East Face, Test Unit I Radiocarbon Age Determinations For Site 50-80-5534 Archaeological Sites Identified in Area A-I Survey

28 34 35 72

v

INTRODUCTION

This report presents the results of an archaeological inventory survey and limited subsurface testing within Area A-I at Kahuku Training Area (KTA), Island of O'ahu, Hawai"i, Environmental and historical background information is presented about the KTA installation, along with previous archaeological research conducted in the area and the methods used in the current field study. The sites identified are described, assessed for their significance according to National Register of Historic Places and United States Army cultural resource criteria. Conclusions and discussion of the findings are presented at the end of the report.

The survey was conducted by archaeologists from Ogden Environmental and Energy Services Company, Inc., (Ogden) at the request of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Pacific Ocean Division, Fort Shafter, Hawai"i, in compliance with the Scope of Work (SOW) presented in Delivery Order 0016, (Contract DACA83-95-0006).

The field work was conducted in four discontinuous time segments: Augurst 26 - 28, September 29 - 30, October 6 - 9, and December 15 - 17, 1997. This staggered schedule was necessary due to military training operations conducted in the survey area during the study. The investigations were conducted under the supervision of Robert P. Drolet, with assistance from Dorothy Barton, Steven Clark, Sara Cress, Dave Nichols, Mary Riford, Jennifer Robins, and Anthony Torres. A total of 304 person hours were expended in the field.

The survey area was situated between three previous surveys within Area A-I. The current survey began at the northern Area A-I border along the base of the coastal escarpment and extended approximately 2 km inland, skirting the borders of previous surveyed areas. The east and west survey limits followed the Area A-I borders, defined by Pahipahialua and Kaunala Gulches respectively.

ENVIRONMENTAL BACKGROUND

The Kahuku Training Area extends through much of the northeast upland Koolau Loa District (Figure I), consisting mostly of a wilderness environment containing limestone cliffs, narrow gulches, and steep, densely forested hillsides. The current project area is located in the northwest portions of KTA in the Waialee, Pahipahi'alua, and Kaunala Ahupuaa (traditional land divisions. This section provides a geographical and environmental overview of KTA, utilizing information from previous archaeological survey reports conducted in the region (Williams and Patolo 1995) and from environmental reference literature about the island of O'ahu (Armstrong 1983; Foote et al. 1972; Macdonald et al. 1990).

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TOPOGRAPHY

Topography within KTA varies from nearly level coastal plains to nearly vertical slopes along the Kahuku escarpment and within steeper portions of the many drainages. The upland areas consist of dissected drainages and moderate slope lands, with elevations ranging from 61 meters (m) (200 ft) near the coastal facing slopes to 567 m (1860 ft) along the crest of the Koolau range. There are 20 drainages in KTA including Waimea, Kalunawai-Ka'ala, Piikiilena, Kaleleli, Paumalii, Aimu'u, Waiale'e, Pahipahialua, Kawela, 'O'io, Ohiaai, Kea'aulu, Malaekahana, Kahawainui, "Ihi'ihi, Koloa, Kokololio, and Kaipapa'u Streams. Of these, only Waimea,

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Kahuku Training Area, O'ahu

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Kahawainui, and Kaipapa 'u flow to the sea year round; the others are intermittent drainages (Armstrong 1983; Foote et al. 1972; Williams and Patolo 1995:9).

CLIMATE AND RAINFALL

The average annual rainfall within KTA ranges from 150 inches (3810 mm) at the crest of the Koolau Range to 40 inches (1016 rrun) along the coastal plain (Armstrong 1983:64). The northern Koolau portion lacks high mountains that trap moisture-rich northeasterly trade winds. As a result, this area receives less rainfall than other windward portions of the island. The majority of precipitation occurs between November and March (wet season) and the least between June and September (dry season). Monthly temperatures average from 52°-93° Fahrenheit (Armstrong 1983:64).

VEGETATION

Vegetation within KTA includes species typical of dry lowland and wet upland areas. Valleys and gulches are dominated by introduced species, including various range grasses (Gramminae spp,), koa haole (Leucana glauca), Christmas Berry (Schinus terebinthefolios), kiawe (Prosopis pallida), Liliko'i (Passifora edulis), and guava (Psidium guajava). Upland sections also contain these species, as well as dense stands of Ironwood (Casuarina equisetifolia L.) on the ridge tops, and some native vegetation, including 'Ohi'a (Metrosideros sp.) and Hapu'u tree fern (Cybotium hawaiense).

GEOLOGY

The northeastern slopes of the Ko' olau range are formed by the remnant of a 2.2 to 1.3 million year old Pleistocene volcano. The basaltic lavas, derived from the Koolau volcanic series, are exposed along the Kahuku escarpment, drainage slopes, and in outcrops located throughout the uplands. The coastal plain is comprised of uplifted Late-Pleistocene limestone reef which is overlain by calcareous beach sands, and terrigenous sediments and soils derived from the eroded Koolau volcano (Macdonald and Abbot 1970; Williams and Patolo 1995:9).

SOILS

Three major soil associations are present in the KTA area. These include Ka'ena-Waialua Association within the coastal plain; Lolekaa-Waikane Association within the inland portions of the coastal plain, within valley bottoms, along the Kahuku escarpment, and along the lower reaches of the upland slopes; and Rough, mountainous land-Kapaa Association in the uplands (Foote et al. 1972:37,45,47; Williams and Patolo 1995:9).

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

This section presents archaeological and historical information about KTA lands. It describes the evidence relating to pre-Contact settlement of the area and the changes that occurred during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The information provides an understanding about the duration of traditional Hawaiian settlement, the land-use patterns, and post-Contact history associated with this northeastern island area. Portions of this section have been extracted from more detailed description presented by Williams and Patolo (1995), Anderson and Williams (1996) and Anderson (1997).

3

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The Early Post-Contact Period: A.D. 1778-1845

Following the explorations of Captain James Cook in 1778, European references to the Koolau Loa District appear in journals of early explorers. Equally brief and intermittent written records during the early post-Contact period are mentioned in the letters, reports, and journals of the missionaries who arrived in the Sandwich Islands in 1820, and in the published narratives of their native students. The majority of the early post-Contact period records of native land use and settlement patterns in Koolau Loa were found in the missionary letters and journals of Reverend John Emerson and his wife Ursula, assigned to the Koolau Loa-Waialua District mission in 1832.

The earliest description of the area was recorded 28 February 1779, in the log of Captain Charles Clerke, who had succeeded to command of the H.M.S. Resolution following the death of Captain Cook.

Run round the Noern [northern] Extreme of the Isle [O'ahu] which terminates in a low Point rather projecting [Kahuku Point]; off it lay a ledge of rocks extending a full Mile into the Sea, many of them above the surface of the Water; the country in this neighborhood is exceeding fine and fertile; here is a large Village, in the midst of it run up a large Pyramid doubtlessly part of a Morai (Captain Charles Clerk's narrative cited in Beaglehole 1967:572, and recited by Nakamura 1981:1).

Lieutenant James King, also on board the H.M.S. Resolution at the time, made a similar entry about the windward side of O'ahu in general:

It (Oahu) is by far the finest island of the whole group. Nothing can exceed the verdure of the hills, the variety of wood and lawn, and the rich cultivated valleys, which the whole face of the country displayed (McAllister 1933:153).

In contrast, Captain George Vancouver noted differences in the landscape 15 years later in 1794:

In every other respect our examination confirmed the remarks of Captain King; excepting, that in point of cultivation or fertility the country did not appear in so flourishing a state, nor to be so numerously inhabited. as he represented it to have been at that time, occasioned most probably by the constant hostilities that had existed since that period (Vancouver 1798, Vol 3:71 cited in Nakamura 1981:2).

The possible decimation of the population and abandonment of the fields may have been due to multiple causes, such as warfare or epidemics, or may be related to seasonality. Clerke and King arrived during the wet season; Vancouver, on the other hand, visited at the height of the dry season. Regardless of the cause, the population decline adversely affected the amount of land under cultivation. McAllister (1933:153) cites E.O. Hall's 1838 summary of conditions in the area: "Much taro land lies waste, because the diminished population of the district does not require its cultivation."

John Papa Ti (1800-1870). a high chief and Hawaiian government official, visited relatives and friends living in Waialee Ahupuaa sometime around 1810, and provided a description of the area:

4

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... a delightful land, well provisioned. There was a pond there, surrounded by taro patches, and there was good fishing places inside the reef. .. Chiefs and commoners crowded together at Puehuehue to go diving, or board surfing at Ulakua, just makai [towards the sea] of Kohalaloa, where the waves rolled and broke perfectly (Ii 1983:24, 63).

Taro ponds along the beaches and shorelines were also used as holding ponds for mullet (Wilcox 1975:2), a fish generally reserved for the royalty. Kapu fish and fishing rights, until the division of Hawaiian lands in the 1840s, belonged to the King and were the charge of the chiefs (konohiki) of each ahupua:a. In Koolau Loa, he'e (octopus; Polypus sp.) was owned by and kapu for the king (Department of the Interior, Documents: 10: 1852). Other fish and fishing rights were controlled by the chief, or headman of each ahupua:a, and were delegated to the commoners for harvesting.

Among other hardships the konohikis [sic] made exorbitant charges for fishing rights along the shore; certain fish were tabu and half the catch of other fish had to be shared with the chief (Emerson 1928:138).

These restrictions on fishing in the area would make cultivation and exploitation of terrestrial resources of high import. Following the division of lands after 1845, fishing rights were sold or leased by the owner of the ahupua 'a.

In September of 1815, John B. Whitman made a visit to Pahipahialua Ahupuaa with a friend to survey a plantation that had been granted by the high priest (Hewahewa) of Hawaii Island. Whitman wrote in his journal that the point of Pahipahialua Ahupua 'a contained a hog pen (in addition to dogs and fleas) and was rocky and uncultivated; however. the "small valley" (Pahipahialua Gulch) inland from the point was stocked with taro. Preparations for collection of the king's taxes from Pahipahi'alua, due at the time of the makahiki festival beginning in October, were being made at the time of Whitman's visit. The konohiki of Pahipahialua enumerated salted fish, hogs, tapa (barkcloth), "5 pows" (pa 'u; skirts worn by women), and "10 maros" (malo; men's loincloths) among the taxes being collected (Whitman 1979:78-82). The majority of the taxed resources included tapa [kapa] or bark cloth created from wauke, the paper mulberry tree. The pa 'u and malo were also made of kapa, indicating the importance of this resouce in the area.

The Protestant missionaries sent to the Sandwich Islands by the American Board of Foreign Missions found the people of Hawai"i:

... dominated by the will of an autocratic and sometimes capricious chief or chief' s headman ... They had no incentive to improve their condition ... and there were no laws to protect property and safeguard private ownership. A common man had to work for his chief whenever called upon; if he refused, he could be turned out of his home and whatever he had could be confiscated. his only recourse being to take French leave and ... put himself under the rule of another chief (Emerson 1928: 137),

Following the death of King Kamehameha I in 1819, a heavy tax on the labor of natives of Koolau Loa (and other districts of Hawai' i) was implemented to harvest sandalwood in an attempt to payoff debts accumulated by the monarch and high chiefs. Trees felled and branched by the men were carried along narrow foot paths to the collection station at Waialua, adjoining the Ko" olau Loa District on the north shore. for shipment to Honolulu.

5

EIII

Records of sandalwood tax collection from the Koolau Loa and Waialua Districts to pay back debts during the 1820s were kept by Stephen Reynolds (Reynolds 1989) and William French in the 1830s (French 1833). The heaviest traffic of schooners and brigs to Waialua, the collection station for the two districts, appears to have been between 1824 and 1829 (Reynolds 1989:28, 29-30, 181, 182, 185, 187, 193,248,249,262,272).

Levi Chamberlain made a tour of O'ahu during the sandalwood collecting period (1828) to examine the mission schools. South of the project area he examined a school of "sandal wood cutters from the mountains" before continuing on his tour to examine four schools in the Ko' olau Loa District. Being a guest of Peka, the Lii'ie konohiki, Mr. Chamberlain examined two schools in La'ie and Ma-laekahana the following day. After examining the schools, Mr. Chamberlain continued over "a level sandy country" to examine a large school at Kahuku, and a smaller one at Waialee (Chamberlain 1957:35, 36). Specific details giving precise locations of the schools, villages, and the population within the districts were not reported by Mr. Chamberlain.

On 24 July 1832, the missionaries Reverend John and Ursula Emerson were received at Waialua by Chief La'anui, and headman Kuakoa, to begin the second mission established on the island of O'ahu, The areas covered by the Emerson's mission were the Koolau Loa (generally referred to as "Kahuku"), Waialua, and later, the Wai'anae Districts. The native population was estimated at that time by Reverend Emerson to be about 8,000 in the three districts, with six settlements along the shoreline of Koolau Loa (Emerson 1928:55, 66, 103). Reverend Bingham, however, estimated the population at about 7,300 (Bingham 1981:468).

My father's (John Emerson) charge included the district of Koolaualoa (Long Koolau), the northern side of the island. Although this is only a strip of land from half a mile to a mile in width, running along the foot of cliffs, or bold precipices which terminate many mountain spurs, the soil is good and well watered by small mountain streams and the valleys between the spurs are rich and productive. There were six settlements along the shore with a population of about 2,700 ... (Emerson 1928:103).

The technology of grass hut construction, the purposes of enclosures, and available resources in these two districts are amply noted throughout Emerson's letters and journals. In 1832 Reverend Emerson described Kahuku as:

... a populous district green with forests of Lauhala [pandanus] trees, nestled among which the homes of the natives were sheltered from the strong winds. They used the choice luhala [sic] leaves for lining their grass huts and for skillfully braided mats for their gravel floors, while the fruit also had its uses (Emerson 1928:134).

Among the uses of the lauhala fruit was the identification of the district to whom a person belonged: "Men from Kahuku were identified by leis of the orange hala fruit which they wore by order of their chief when they left their ahupua'a" (Wilcox 1975:1).

House construction in Koolau Loa and Waialua, using natural resources growing in the districts, was described in detail by Reverend Emerson:

The frame of a native .house is built by fitting and tying to a ridgepole other poles which slant from it to the ground, or to upright posts, which in that case frame perpendicular sides. Across the poles are placed horizontally other poles about

6

an inch in diameter and two inches apart, the aho [cord], to which is fastened the thatch, which is made of bunches of pili grass lapped like shingles. The cords used for tying and fastening are prepared from the strong ahu-awa [sedge; Cyperus javanicus] reed ...

The land on which our houses stand .. .is enclosed by a sort of palisade of small poles about six feet high so fastened together with the native cord as to make quite a strong fence. This is necessary to keep the horses and goats from carrying off the houses, in other words, from eating them up. (Emerson 1928:57, 58).

Later, stone walls were constructed, not as animal enclosures, as is often assumed, but "to keep out roaming cattle, horses, and pigs from cultivated lots" (Emerson 1928: 127).

In addition to plants and animals mentioned by Reverend Emerson, Ursula Emerson wrote in letters that taro was "found in abundance in the mountains," and recently introduced fruit available to them "from the uplands" were oranges, lemons, limes, and pineapples. Their firewood was gathered from the forests among the kukui (Aleurites moluccana), koa (Acacia koa) "ohi:« ai (mountain apple), and kuawa (guava; Psidium guajava) trees. Sweet potatoes, bananas, arrowroot, and a large variety of historically introduced fruits and vegetables (grapes, figs, com, beans, cucumbers, squash, cabbage, melons, radishes, small onions) were mentioned by Mrs. Emerson as planted by Hawaiians in their scattered garden plots, and around their houses. Pigs, chickens, ducks, fish, and goat milk were also mentioned (Emerson 1928:66,84,96, 100, 151).

Gideon La'anui (1794-1849), the "Christian chief' (konohiki) of the Emerson's district, was baptized on 4 December 1825 in Honolulu by the first group of missionaries (T'i 1983:145). Duties of tax collection from the residents in the district were directed to Laanui by way of written messages. In 1834 a letter notified La'anui that a person was being sent to collect potatoes and poi, and that he was to get puakai (pukai; lime), medicinal herbs, ship some fish, and "hire" a man to get tapa material from the mountains. A message sent in 1837 stated that the king wanted hogs, fish and food. Other messages included the instructions "to go fishing" for fish and shrimp; "get some lime if matured," ship wood, sandalwood, food, and potatoes. While in port, La'anui was to supply the sailors on the King's vessel with food and fish (Department of the Interior: 1834, 1838a - 1838e).

With few exceptions all of these early descriptions of the area suggest an environment rich in resources that were cultivated or foraged by the local population.

Land Tenure Change: The Great Mahele

Until 1841, Hawaiian lands were owned by the King and administered by chiefs, with use rights assigned to them. Lands occupied by Hawaiians under a chief, or held by foreigners (in agreement with the king or various island chiefs), were subject to seizure and redistribution. The status of land tenure during the early post-Contact period was felt by foreigners to be a detriment to investment and the development of Western plantation agriculture, farming, and ranching. This resulted in the adoption of western judicial systems (e.g., trials) in 1832, codes of laws in 1833 and 1839 (superseded 1842), and the first Hawaiian Constitution in June 1840. The Hawaiian Constitution provided for the appointment of a legislature composed of the King, 16 chiefs, and 7 elected representatives (Department of the Interior 1840) .

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'''-'.''-~'-',- s.meetingheld on 1 April 1841, authorized the governor of each ).f}J:!Plql'~,' J., "l 'j"r ,,', " , up to, but not exceeding, 50 years (Department of the ......... noojt" .. t change occurred' during the period commonly referred to as of lands signaling the transition from traditional Hawaiian

Iro1Wniei'slhip to the Western concept of individual fee simple land ownership. The " in several stages between 1845 and 1854 (Chinen 1978: 10). Initially, King divided the lands into four categories: 1) the lands belonging to the King, 2) the irninel1l't, 3) chiefs and konohiki, and 4) the commoners (Chinen 1978:15-16). Article 4, Chapter 7~ of the Hawaiian Legislature, passed on 10 December 1845, provided for the Privy Council to appoint a Board of Commissioners to Quiet Land Titles. The Board reviewed claims by chiefs and commoners and made Land Claim Awards (LCA).

Two hundred sixty-nine land claim applications, indicating a rmmmum population of approximately 800 people, were applied for by residents of the Koolau Loa District. Hawai"i government survey maps detail coastal kuleana but the locations of upland kuleana are unknown. In 1873, the boundaries of the government land of Kahuku belonging to the Kahuku Ranch Company were still unsettled (Department of the Interior Letters: 1873). Some of the small kuleana land claim awards located along the lowlands of Koolau Loa appear on tax maps; others, as late as 1993, are listed in the tax records as ''unlocated kuleana." The individual land claims were accompanied by testimonies by the claimants which today prove very useful in determining land use patterns during that time.

The Land Commission Award Testimonies for the ahupua 'a that comprise the current project area in KTA have been recorded and are presented in Appendix A. Examination of these testimonies indicate that many of the inhabitants had lived in the Ko" olau Loa District since the time of King Kamehameha I or earlier. The testimonies also indicate that the Koolau Loa District was rich in resources of all sorts, providing it's inhabitants with all the necessary material needs to sustain life. The testimonies present good evidence that an emphasis was placed not only on coastal resources, but on inland resources as well. In fact, most of, the testimonies claim resources in the coast, flatlands, and uplands often making reference as to how their lands are scattered. It is of particular interest to note, that in the three ahupua'a that comprise the current project area, many of the claimants describe land in each of the ahupua 'a in the same testimony. This would suggest that there was considerable interaction and continuity amongst the inhabitants of all three ahupua 'a which may have possibly comprised a single community.

Settlement patterns for the Ko'o Lauloa District have been postulated from these descriptions in Anderson 1997. According to the testimonies, the coastal areas were utilized for habitation as well as exploitation of the coastal resources in a variety of ways including fish 10 'i, fishponds (aquaculture), fisheries and salt production. One testimony also indicated that at the time of the Mahele, fishing was still strictly regulated by the konohiki (overseer) (LCA 4266). No doubt shell fish, and sea vegetation were also heavily exploited, however, this was not mentioned in the testimonies.

Habitation also occurred in the flatland areas and both irrigated agriculture (lo'i) and nonirrigated agriculture (kula) was practiced. The 10 'j were cultivated in taro, whereas the kula contained a number of both traditional and non-traditional plants. These plants included; wauke (Broussonetia papyrifera, Paper Mulberry), bananas, sweet potatoes, hala (Pandanus tectorius), sugarcane, ipu, (gourd), watermelon, alani (oranges), 'ulu (Artocarpus communis, breadfruit),

8

tobacco, and ipu 'awa'awa (bitter gourd). In addition, several of the testimonies make references to watercourses, attesting to their obvious importance.

The upland areas were also described as being exploited for a number of resources, some of which required cultivation. These included; hala (Pandanus tectorius), banana (Musa spp.), noni (Morinda citrifolia, Indian Mulberry), pili (Hetetopogon contortus, Twisted Beardgrass), koa (Acacia koa), sweet potatoes (Ipomea spp.), wauke (Broussonetia papyri/era, Paper Mulberry), 'ohi:a (Metrosideros spp.), and ti (Cordyline terminalis, Ki),

In addition, the valleys were noted as places where noni (Morinda citrifolia; Indian Mulberry), banana, and sweet potato grew.

Most of the Koolau Loa lands were granted, leased, or sold to foreigners after 1850 for pasturing of cattle and sheep, turning most of the Ko' olau Loa District into the Malaekahana and Kahuku Ranches.

Kahuku had passed from the control of its chief to that of an Englishman. The pastures of his big ranch extended along the shore for 12 miles, reaching inland to the mountain chain, and he was so autocratic that the natives could not own a dog, or pasture a cow or horse, without his consent. The depredations of herds and flocks on their small homesteads became unbearable, but they appealed in vain for their beloved hala trees and patches of vegetables... There was no redress, however, and with the fading of the forests the people also disappeared and the once populous district of Kahuku [Koolau Loa] became a lonely sheep and cattle ranch (Emerson 1928:135-136).

Malaekahana and Kahuku Ranches

Cattle and sheep were introduced to Hawai'i by Captain George Vancouver as a gift Kamehameha I in 1794, with a twenty-year kapu agreement to allow the cattle to multiply (Vancouver 1984:812). By the end of the kapu period, the cattle had become so troublesome that bullock hunters were engaged by Kamehameha I to hunt the cattle for their skins and tallow. The tenuous nature of foreign possession of lands for economic enterprises, prior to the Great Mahele, prohibited most foreign investments. Honolulu merchant, William French, however, acquired Hawai"i Island property for ranching in 1838, trading a "beautiful horse" to Governor Kuakini for use of the premises, beginning the first cattle ranch in the Hawaiian Islands (Board of Land Commissioners, Foreign Testimony 2:157-168,171,305).

The formation of Charles Hopkins' Malaekahana Ranch appears to have begun with his purchase of livestock at Kahuku from Joseph Booth on 8 April 1850 (Bureau of Land Conveyances Liber 4:137). Robert Moffitt, owner of the Kahuku Ranch, began by acquiring large leases of Government lands in Koolau Loa in 1852. In land transactions between Hopkins and Moffitt in 1858, sheep, as well as cattle were apparently raised on the ranches (Bureau of Land Conveyances Liber 5:536).

A large number of deeds, grants, mortgages, and other land conveyances, from the formation of Ma-laekahana "Rancho" by Charles G. Hopkins, and Kahuku Ranch by Robert (Stoney) Moffitt from the early 1850s, until the charter of the Kahuku Plantation company in 1890, are filed with the Bureau of Land Conveyances. The major land transactions during the formation and ownership of Malaekahana and Kahuku Ranches illustrate the change of land use in the Kahuku Training Area from pastures and ranching to a cultivated sugarcane plantation.

9

I i

Combining the ranches, Malaekahana Ranch interest was purchased by Herman A. Widemann in 1867 and 1872 from Charles K. Hopkins, then residing in Montreal, Canada. Kahuku Ranch was purchased by Widemann from T.H. Stoney of Frankfort, Ireland, heir of Robert Stoney (alias Moffitt) in January 1873 (Bureau of Land Conveyances Libers 35:297~299; 39:1~5). Malaekahana and Kahuku Ranches were then sold by indenture of mortgage to Julius L. Richardson on 19 January 1874 (Bureau of Land Conveyances Liber 38:473477).

James Campbell, a sugar planter in Lahaina, Maui purchased "Kahuku and Malekahana Ranch" from J.A. Richardson on 2 October 1876 for $63,500.00. The ranches were comprised of the following land and properties in Ko' olau Loa on the date of sale to Campbell:

I. 1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
I 8)
I;
9)
, I ahupua 'a of Malaekahana ahupua'a of Keana ahupua 'a of Kahuku

ahupua 'a of Ulupehupehu, Hanakaoe, 'O'io and 1 and 2 ahupua 'a of Kawela

ahupua 'a of Opana 1 and 2

ahupua'a of Pahipahialua

ahupua'a of Kaunala

Leaseholds, -3,000 branded cattle, 90 head horses, -1700 sheep running or grazing on the ranch or adjacent lands, carts, yolks, harness, agricultural implements, tools, furniture, personal and mixed property.

Il, 1) ahupua 'a of Piipiikea

2) ahupua 'a of Paumahl

3) ahupua'a ofWai'alee

4) indentures and leases.

Kahuku Sugar Plantation

Early European visitors recognized the potential of Hawai"i developing sugarcane plantations. Captain Peter Puget observed in 1793 that "large and luxurious Growth [of sugarcane] ... would abundantly repay in Quantity any Labor bestowed on it in Sugar and Rum" (Bradley 1968:24). Officer Menzies, with Vancouver's voyage in 1793 thought:

... that it would be profitable for the British government to encourage the settlement of a few West India planters at the Hawaiian Islands inasmuch as sugar could be cultivated there by cheap labor without the necessity of recourse to slavery ... (Bradley 1968:24,42).

Captain Iurii (Yuri) Fedorovich Lisianskii, with the Russian exploration voyages of the Pacific Ocean in 1804 wrote:

The sugar-cane also thrives here, the cultivation of which alone would yield a tolerable revenue, if sugar and rum were made of it; and the more so, as the use of these articles is already known to the savages of the north-west coast of America (Barratt 1987:71).

The first sugar plantation in Hawai"i appears to have been initiated by a foreigner, John Wilkinson at Pu'u Pueo in Manoa Valley (behind Honolulu) about 1824. The mill and cane fields were taken over by Governor Boki and foreign partners following Wilkinsons' death in

10

i.

~~C-::=C,=-

1826. When the Pu "u Pueo plantation sugar was ground and distilled into rum, "a bad business" as described by Stephen Reynolds, the fields were destroyed by Queen Ka'ahumanu (Reynolds 1989:177,254,255,263,266,267). Milled sugar in Koolau Loa and Waialua Districts was first ground on shares for Hawaiians by Reverend John Emerson in 1836 (Conde' and Best 1973:340). The crude sugar mill was used by the boys boarding school at Waialua (1840-1843) through which the cultivation and sale of the sugar made the school self-supporting (Bradley 1968:351-354).

The Kahuku Plantation Company was chartered on 4 February 1890 (Department of the Interior, 43:54) by sugar planters James Campbell, James B. Castle, and Benjamin F. Dillingham (founder of the Oahu Railway and Land Company in 1888). In 1889, Dillingham's Oahu Railway and Land Company leased various pieces of land from Campbell to build a railroad from Honouliuli, "Ewa, to the Kahuku Sugar Mill at Kahuku, Koolau Loa. Right to pasturage; working stock and animals; spring waters, running streams, artesian wells, and rights to "take deadwood from the mountains for fuel," to dig up, carry away, and use the soil and rock;" and use of the present ocean landing were subleased from Dillingham to Castle in December 1889 (Bureau of Conveyances 121:372; 128:143-155). The railroad reached "Wai-alua in 1898, and Kahuku in 1899 ... [in] the early part of the twentieth century the Koolau Railroad was built along O'ahu's windward coast from Kahuku to Kahana Bay" (Mifflin 1983:64,65). The Koolau Railway was purchased by the Kahuku Plantation Company in 1931 (Conde and Best 1973:308,309).

Small-scale pineapple cultivation on Kahuku Plantation lands was begun about 1916 with additional leases of small parcels of land for pineapple leased to individual growers between 1921 and 1927 (Bureau of Land Conveyances 443:364-365; 832:267, 259; 885:105, 2~5). As the small leases expired, many of them mortgaged, the leases were acquired by the California Packing Company. Some portions of the Kahuku Training Area are former pineapple fields and contain plantation camp sites located in Kahuku, Keana/Malaekahana, and Hanakoae/Kawela ahupua'a.

I

I I I ! I I I I I I I

Dismantling of railroad tracks, and scrapping of railroad cars between 1948 and 1951, signaled the end of the O'ahu railroad era (Oahu Railway and Land Company 1946:11; 1948:8, 1951:4,7). Cane fields, serviced by portable cane trains at the Kahuku Plantation, were dispensed in 1954 (Conde and Best 1973:297-300), and 280 acres were initially leased to the U.S. Government in 1956 for the Kahuku Training Area. Additional leases at later dates expanded the facility to its present size of over 9,600 acres.

The Kahuku Training Area was used by divisions stationed at Schofield Barracks for war games, which contributed to serious topsoil erosion by the use of heavy army vehicles, and by jeeps crossing the ridges. "Heavy rains up in the mountains have stripped the grasses and low-lying vegetation from much of the [Kahuku] training area" (Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 4 May 1970:A2.2.4). In an effort to "halt wind and water erosion," the 29th Infantry Brigade of the Hawaii National Guard, with a motto to plant "a tree in every fox hole," planted 3,000 pine tree seedlings in the foxholes behind Kahuku in 1970 (Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 4 August 1970:A- 11.4.1). Unfortunately, pine trees were perhaps not the best choice as the constant bed of fallen needles inhibit understory growth and erosion continues to be a problem at KTA.

PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL REsEARCH

The first archaeological sites identified in KTA consisted of a heiau (Pu'uala Heiau, Site 260) and a large stone feature (Wei-Kane Stone, Site 259) recorded during the 1930s (McAllister

11

1933~ Figures 2 and 3). In the 1940s, another site, consisting of hillside agricultural terraces (Site'9517), was reported (Handy 1940:88) .. Limited archaeological inventory and evaluation studies began at KTA in the 1970s by the BIShop Museum (Chapman 1970; Rosendahl 1977), followed by reconnaissance level inventory surveys (Davis 1981). The 1970-1980 surveys recorded nine additional sites (Sites 2501, 1043,9506 - 9509, and 2357 - 2360; Figures 2 and 3), corresponding to agricultural and habitation features associated with pre-Contact and historic settlement in several upland gulches. One of these, the Hanakaoe Platform (Site 2501) is now a National Register Site; however, six (Sites 260, 9517, 1043, 2358, 2359, 2360) of the twelve remaining sites reported during these years have unfortunately been destroyed (Anderson and Williams 1998:52; Williams and Patolo 1995:27-34),

It

In 1992, archaeological reconnaissance and historical investigations were conducted in a portion of KTA known as Punamano Communication Station (Farrell and Cleghorn 1995). One site (0599) was recorded in this study, consisting of structures, features and artifacts primarily dating to the post World War n era.

i !i

In 1994, Williams and Patolo (1995) conducted an inventory sample of several gulch and bluff areas at KT A. The survey was designed to sample a variety of environmental zones that would provide a means of documenting site preservation patterns throughout the installation. The study identified nine new sites (Sites 4878, 4882 - 4888, 4930) within KTA and five outside boundaries (Sites 4876, 4877, 4879 - 4881; Figures 2 and 3), including traditional Hawaiian residential, ritual, and agricultural sites located in the coastal plain, bluff, and gulch areas (Williams and Patolo 1995:49,86-89. Two of the sites identified in this survey were wwn era military bunkers.

Based upon the results of the 1994 survey by Williams and Patolo a Historic Preservation Plan for the Kahuku Training Area was created (Anderson and Williams 1998), An important contribution of the Anderson and Williams (1998) study is a site probability model based on background research and survey information. It was determined that site preservation has been greatly affected by modem land alterations in zones such as the lower elevation ridge tops and wider gulches. Gulch slopes and secondary drainage areas, however, represent areas of low impact and contain well preserved sites. Rugged inland areas also contain preserved subsurface cultural deposits. Based on preservation evidence, zones where archaeological sites have a low, medium, or high probability of being found have been defined (Anderson and Williams 1998:58- 60) (Figure 4).

The traditional Hawaiian sites identified in the above study were located within or adjacent to principal gulches (Figure 3). From west to east, these include: a terrace complex (Site 4887) situated along the coastal foothills between Kaunala and Waialee Gulches; an earthen depression (Site 4888) located in the interior uplands along Paumalu Stream; a heiau (Site 4885) located at the base of the coastal facing escarpment, along the western bank of Pahipahi'alua Gulch; a terrace/mound complex (Site 4876), an enclosure and mounds (Site 4877), and a linear mound (Site 4930) located on a northern ridge fronting lower Ho" olapa Gulch; a rock shelter (Site 4878), and a linear mound (Site 4880) located on a bluff top, a rock shelter (Site 4879) located at the bluff base along lower Kalaeo-Kahipa Gulch; and a house site (Site 4883) and imu (Site 4884) located along the inland slopes of 'O'io Gulch.

Based on the information provided by these studies, an initial settlement pattern evaluation can be proposed for the pre-Contact and early post-Contact periods. The habitation complexes that have been identified in the KTA area are typically located in the lower gulch areas. "O'lo and

12

,,,_. __ ~ iiiiIIiiiiiiiiiliiiiiliiiiiii------'--

LEGEND

13

LOCATION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY AREAS IN KAHUKU KAHUKU TRAINING AREA

ISLAND OF O'AHU, HAWAI'I

,-:- -_- .. ,-

BASE BOUNDARY

~4ENT OF SUGAR CANE

ROSENDAHL 19n

WILLIAMS 1995

FAARELl& CLEGHORN 1996

SOURCE:

SPECIAL MAP

KAHUKU TRAINING AREA

29th ENGINEERING BATTALION DATED 7193

""'"

2

FIGURE

_~ ~ __ ------ L_O_C_A_TI_O_N_O_F_R_E_C_O_R_D_ED __ A_RC_H_A_E_O_L_O_G_IC_A_L_S_IT_E_S_IN_KA--H_U_K_U ----~ __ -- __ ~ ------~-----------[D3 .

15 KAHUKU TRAINING AREA

ISLAND OF O'AHU, HAWAI'I

.••••••......... __ ._------------------------------------------------------- ...•• ~~~-"""'~.- .. ---.-"" ... ~~~-

-~~7"?~."''''"'~'''='~-~.~.

f.~

LEGEND

BASE BOUNDARY

.. -_'-;--;

EXTENT OF SUGAR CANE 1924

SITE lOCATION

WITH SITE NUMBER (PREFIXED BY 50·BO~2-)

SOURCE:

SPEClAl MAP

KAHUKU TRAINING AREA

2Stl1 ENGINEERING BATIALION DATE07/s3

1:2S000

~ W\.IKANESTONE

MoALLlSTER 1933

M ..... LLlSTER 1_

6Q9 PUNAMANO COI.II.IIlNICATlDNS STATION ""RRELL&
CLEIlIIORN 1996
1043. KAW!:LAAGRlCULWRAL TERRACES K.'dIIDVI940
= STDNEI'I\LLR~ MVIStOO!
2358 HOIiSESffE DAVIS 1001
ZS5Io TERRACES DAVISt991
2380 STONE PLATFORM DAVIS 1001
2li01 tlANAKAOE PLATFORM CHAPIN\N 1970
-4$111 TERAACEAND ROCK MOUNDS WlLLVlMS 1995
4lJn ENClOSUREAND ROOK MOUNDS WlLUAMS II11lS
4878 ROCK SHELTER WlLLVlMS1_
4&711 RCCKSHELTER WILLIAMS lDIlS
43W L~e\R ROCK MOUND YIILLII\MS llNlS
4881 OCTAGONAL CONCREtE SlAB WILLIAMS 1985
4882 CONCRlrrE BUNKER WlLLVlMS1111lS
- IlISTORIC HOUSE slfe WlLUAIIIS 1986
48&1 IMU WlLUAMS 1995
4885 1¥.H11'I'.H!.6.WA HE!.'.u YIILLVlMSt_
- OONORETE BUNKER YIILLw.181_
4887 TERRACE COMPLEX WlL!JAMS1_
4885 EARlHEN DEPRESSION WlLLVlMS 1!19S
~1130 LIllEAR ROOK MOUND WlLLw.I~l_
9608 Kl!M.uLU DrrCH ROSENDAHL Ion
8507 '0'10 STREMHERRACE ROSENDAHL Ian
85C6 EAST '0'10 GULCH PLATFORM ROSENDAHL IBn
9500 '0'10 IlULCH COMPLEX ROSENDAHL 19n 9517 KANEAlllAGRlCULTURAL TERRACES HANOV 1940

&745 '0_ MOBLIE RADAR STATION

NRHP1901

1000

LEGEND

BASE BOUNDARY

HIGH PROBABIliTY

MODERATE PROBABILITY

LOW PROBABILITY

SOURCE:

SPECIAL MAP

KAHUKU TRAINING AREA

29th ENGINEERING BATIALION DATED 7193

SCALE 1:26000

17

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE PROBABILITY AREAS IN KAHUKU KAHUKU TRAINING AREA

ISLAND OF O'AHU, HAWAI'I

1000

Hoolana Gulches in the central and eastern portion of KTA seem to represent one principal habitation area. Within '(fio Gulch, habitation and agricultural terrace sites (Sites 9509, 9508, 9507, and 4884) have been recorded in a clustered area along the slopes and terraces (Rosendahl 1977; Williams and Patolo 1995). A heiau site (Site 2501) also forms part of this complex (Rosendahl 1977). Another religious structure, Pu'uala Heiau (Site 260 and possibly Site 4930), located at the mouth of Ho "olana Gulch to the north and east of 'O'io Gulch habitation complex, may also be related to this settlement configuration.

Further west, approaching Kalaeo-Kahipa, another site cluster is located along the bluff overlooking the coastal plain. This consists of what appears to be temporary habitations located in rock shelters (Sites 4878 and 4879) along with other nearby habitation and agricultural sites, containing terrace formations, rock mounds, and enclosures (Sites 4876, 4877, and 4880). This site complex may extend further inland; however, as no surveys have been conducted beyond this site cluster (Williams and Patolo 1995:50-57).

In the northwestern portion of KTA, habitation, farming, and religious site clusters have also been recorded. One cluster (Sites 2358, 2359, 2360) was reported from along the slopes and interior bluff above Kawela Gulch (Davis 1981; Figure 3). Unfortunately, these sites have been destroyed since they were identified. The site cluster consisted of a habitation complex containing occupation features, agricultural terraces, and a possible ceremonial terrace/platform. Also within the vicinity of this site complex, Handy (1940) and McAllister (1933) reported additional agricultural terraces (Site 1043; Figure 3) and a possible shrine feature (Site 259; Figure 3) at the mouth of the gulch. Site 1043 has since been destroyed.

Williams and Patolo (1995:92) have postulated that the earliest settlements in the KTA area were located along the coast, probably dating between A.D. 1220-1700. The largest settlements are thought to have existed from Waimea to Hau'ula, where conditions are moister than to the east (Williams and Patolo 1995:40-41). The authors further suggest that the permanent habitation sites were probably located at low elevations, on the coastal plain, and more dispersed inland, along the bluffs. Given the agricultural features in the KTA area, both irrigation and dryland agriculture were probably conducted, while the upper elevations probably served as seasonal or resource specific exploitation zones. The presence of religious sites, especially heiau, within the habitation complexes further indicates permanent residential clusters (Williams and Patolo 1995:41). Neither the spatial nor the temporal duration of these habitation complexes, however, have been clearly documented. While the known archaeological sites seem to support this settlement pattern, the model remains unconfirmed since, as the authors point out,less than 15% ofKTAhas been systematically surveyed (Williams and Patolo 1995:89).

Williams and Patolo also obtained the first radiocarbon date from the Kahuku Training Area. The date is associated with Site 4884, an imu feature, located in the upper 'O'io Gulch (Williams and Patolo 1995:67). The radiocarbon date is calibrated to a calendric year range at two standard deviations (95% probability): A.D. 1490-1680 and 1700-1800. Samples taken from the imu contained sweet potato (lmpomoea batatas) and koa (Acacia koa) (Williams and Patolo 1995:69). The date suggests a pre-Contact to early post-Contact time period and the plant remains indicate traditional use. Site 4884 provides the first direct evidence concerning the antiquity of settlements in the KTA area.

19

RESEARCH DESIGN

I 'Ii

Two research questions guided this study (Drolet 1997). The first deals with site distribution and and the second with chronology. Since the entire facility could not be surveyed, a study area was chosen where these questions could be applied to field results obtained within the allotted time frame stipulated in the Scope of Work. This information would compliment the currently recorded evidence concerning .site complexes at KTA and permit an assessment about the distribution of cultural features and the duration of occupation in the overall study area. The research questions relating to spatial and temporal habitation at KTA are discussed below in relationship to the project area selected.

SITE DENSITY AND DISTRIBUTION

One of the objectives of the current investigation was to determine the spatial and functional relationship between religious, habitation, and agricultural sites within a possible single settlement cluster. Although numerous archaeological sites had been recorded for KTA previous to this project (Davis 1991; McAllister 1933, Rosendahl 1977; Williams and Patolo 1995) and archaeological sensitive areas have been recognized (Williams and Patolo 1995), the known site complexes within the gulch and bluff areas remain poorly defined. To document this information and determine site density within a restricted gulch/bluff area an inventory survey was conducted adjacent to three known sites: a heiau (Site 4885); a set of destroyed agricultural terraces (Site 9517), and a residential/terrace complex (Site 4887). These dispersed sites were located at the base of the coastal escarpment between Kaunala and Pahipahi'filua Gulches, in the northwest portion of KT A. The survey conducted around these sites was designed to determine whether they were part of a larger cluster of traditional Hawaiian sites, such as a settlement complex, or represented features dispersed from one another. By designing the archaeological survey in this manner, data was collected on site density and site placement.

SITE CHRONOLOGY

The second objective of the investigation was to determine the antiquity of traditional Hawaiian sites within this northwest portion of KT A. Previous to this project, only one radiocarbon date was reported from a single KTA site, an inland imu (Site 4884), excavated by Williams andPatolo (1995). Excavated material from the site yielded a calibrated calendric range at two deviations: A.D. 1490 to 1680 and 1770 to 1800 (Williams and Patolo 1995:69). While this provides important temporal evidence for traditional Hawaiian use of the area, more radiocarbon dates from specific features are needed to assess the temporal duration of habitation in the area. The date reported by Williams and Patolo was from a recovered tuber (probably sweet potato [Ipomoea batatasl), suggesting that the inland gulch areas were being farmed during early postContact times and possibly earlier.

Habitation features associated with Site 4887 (Williams and Patolo 1995:81-84) provided possible locations for identifying habitation deposits and obtaining datable samples. Other habitation features with associated subsurface deposits were expected to be identified in the survey and provide alternative choices for testing. The Research Design for the current project (Drolet 1997) allowed for the recovery of these dating samples, cultural remains, and the analysis of stratigraphic soil layers to provide information about site antiquity.

20

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

A previously un investigated area was selected for intensive survey. This selection was based on the known distribution of archaeological sites, the unsurveyed areas located within KT A, the site probability model delineated by Anderson and Williams (1998), and the inventory survey priority areas defined by Anderson (1998:85-87) (Figure 5). The survey area was within a 161 ha section of Area A-I, located in the northwestern portion of KT A. It is an area of rough upland terrain containing coastal escarpments, gulches, and interior hills with dense vegetation. This section describes the field work schedule and personnel, survey area, survey methods, subsurface testing procedure, and laboratory analysis of collected samples.

FIELD METHODS

The intent of the surface survey was to record all archaeological features within this northern section of Area A-I. As previously mentioned, three traditional Hawaiian sites (4887, 9517, 4885) had been identified in previous investigations. The current survey was designed to determine whether other sites, possibly related to these, existed in the unsurveyed areas. Since portions of Area A-I have been designated as high and moderate probability areas (Anderson and Williams 1998:59)(Figure 4), additional sites were expected to be identified.

The bluffs, slopes, and lower stream channel terraces between Pahipahialua and Waialee Gulches were completed first. Transect lines separated 30 m apart were walked on the bluff portion, since this area was flatter, contained mostly low vegetation, and included numerous eroded areas of high visibility. Survey of the uplands along the southwestern portion of W aiale' e Gulch was conducted in the same manner. Gulches, stream banks and slope areas were traversed following contours. The final section surveyed was Kaunala Gulch. The high bluff above the stream channel was surveyed using parallel transects, while the slopes and terraces on the eastern side of the gulch were surveyed by contour lines.

When sites were located, they were cleared of vegetation and plan view drawings were prepared. The surrounding areas were inspected for associated artifacts and possible cultural deposits. Each site was flagged, given a temporary field number, photographed. recorded on field forms. Topographic maps were used to plot the site locations.

At Site 5535, a burial cave, detailed recording and drawings were prepared of the burial features. The planviews depict the size and orientation of the skeletal remains and helped identify the number of interments associated with each feature.

FEATURE TYPES DEFINED

During the inventory survey. several feature types were identified. The definitions of archaeological feature types presented in this report were derived from Williams and Patolo (1995:47-86) and revised to represent the features identified in the current study.

. !

A terrace includes both a level ground surface and a rock retaining wall that defines the down slope edge of the level surface. The retaining wall is usually nearly vertical in cross section but actually leans slightly against the slope. The retaining walls are either a single rock, or stacked several rocks thick, core-filled, or double-faced. Terraces were used for agriculture, habitation, or as components of various other secular and religious structures. Rock faces in Hawai"i also were used in dam construction and slope/cliff stabilization .

21

"

t .v&

. 23

~ BASE BOUNDARY _ PRIORITY AREA 0

AREAS PREVIOUSLY SURVEYED (WILLIAMS 1995)

~ PRIORITY AREA BOUNDARY

1_' PRIORITY AREA 1 _ PRIORITY AREA 2

_ PRIORITY AREA 3 _ PRIORITY AREA 4 _ PRIORITY AREA 5 _ PRIORITY AREA 6 It~'~'ij1%:m~.iil PRIORITY AREA 7 _ PRIORITY AREA 8

~ PRIORITY AREA 9

~ PRIORITY AREA 10

~ PRIORITY AREA 11

~ PRIORITY AREA 12

~ PRIORITY AREA 13 PRIORITY AREA 14

NOTES

1. THE ACCURACY OF THIS DOCUMENT IS LI MITED TO THE QUALITY AND SCALE OF THE SOURCE INFORMATION.

SOURCES

SPECIAL MAP, KAHUKU TRAINING AREA 29th ENGINEERING BATTALION, DATED 7/93 SCALE 1 :25000

FILE: KKUISPC.CDR

DATE: 3/27/97

TITLE

INVENTORY SURVEY AREA PRIORITIES KAHUKU TRAINING AREA ISLAND OF O'AHU, HAWAII

o

1000

1000 MBTERS (APPROXlMAI1l)

FIGURE

DATE REV. DRWN. IN!T.

3127197 NPG

5

An enclosure is a structure with walls surrounding an interior floor space. Size and shape may vary but common ones are rectangular, square, circular, or oval. Enclosures functioned as permanent and temporary habitations, animal pens, garden areas, or as components in other secular and religious structures.

Rock shelters are overhanging outcrops with internal cavities. These may be paved at the base of the overhang or unmodified. Midden, waterwom stone, and to a lesser extent coral and artifacts are often found in association with the shelters. These sites usually functioned as temporary habitations, affording shelter from natural elements.

A wall is a free-standing structure constructed with cobbles and boulders and faced bilaterally. It may include stacked and core-fill types. Walls functioned as land borders or were incorporated into other features.

A heiau is a stone mound structure built with boulders, cobbles, and pebbles. It was typically a sacred structure containing platform areas with additional wooden and stone constructions. This type of site was used for ceremonial and political activities by high ranking chiefs within ahupua'a land divisions.

A burial cave consists of a rock cavity with human interments. Only one burial cave has been identified at KTA, located in a basalt outcrop near the mouth of Pahipahialua Gulch.

A habitation complex consists of a multiple feature site containing agricultural or domestic related constructions. These may include terraces, enclosures, and rock alignments. In KTA, these sites have been located along low terraces fronting gulch areas (Davis 1981:19~ Williams and Patolo 1995:77-84).

In addition to these traditional Hawaiian sites, several historic and military site types occur in KTA. These include secondary roads, survey bench markers, military bunkers and modern military defense positions utilized during training activities.

Military personnel conducting training activities in the area often utilize basalt stones to create hasty fortifications. Sometimes, these small features can look very similar to traditional Hawaiian features. Clark (1987: 196-199) provides several criteria for defining military shelters so that they can be distinguished from Hawaiian single-use or recurrent-use shelters. These criteria should not be taken as all-inclusive; that is, one or more criterion may be absent. These criteria which were followed during the KTA survey are presented below followed by some suggested additions.

CRITERIA DEFINING MILITARY SHELTERS AND FEATURES

Presence of military debris; e.g., cartridge casings, shrapnel, equipment.

Basal rocks of features are not embedded in the soil, but rest on the ground.

Military structures were more commonly placed in swales and other areas where soil was present. In contrast, Hawaiian structures were placed in areas of little or no soil.

25

The interior of the military structures are often slightly excavated to afford greater protection.

While C-shapes and L-shapes were used, military structures were typically Ll-shaped with a narrow interior, or oval to rectangular .

Military shelters are generally smaller than Hawaiian shelters, ranging from 1 to 9 sq m.

Hawaiian shelters occur as isolated features or in small groups, generally associated with agricultural features, while military structures usually occur in large numbers.

Two additional criteria may help in determining the origin of a specific structure: differential patination (weathering) and recent fractures. It was noted that many of the structures within the present study area were built with stones exhibiting a weathered surface indicative of considerable exposure to the elements and a ground-stained surface exhibiting little or no weathering. This difference is the result of selecting stones partially imbedded in the soil for construction, thereby exposing the un-weathered surface. A similar phenomenon was also noted at known military shelters within, the U. S. Army Pohakuloa Training Area, Hawaii Island.

Recent fractures may also be indicative of historic, e.g., military, construction. As with the differential weathering noted above, the weathered surfaces are distinguishable from the more recent fracture planes or scars by color and surface texture.

SUBSURFACE TESTING

At the direction of the CE-ACM, subsurface testing was limited during the survey so that field time could focus on identifying archaeological resources. Subsurface testing was conducted at only two sites, a rock shelter (Site 5534) and an enclosure (Site 5684). At each site a single test unit, measuring 0.50 m by 0.50 m was excavated to determine if cultural materials or features were present. The units ranged from 34-42 centimeters (cm) in depth and were excavated with trowels and whisk brooms. Excavations were conducted by arbitrary levels within stratigraphic layers and the excavated matrix was screened through 1/4 and 1/8 inch mesh.

LABORATORY METHODS

"I

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Charcoal and faunal materials were recovered from the test excavation at Site 5534. These materials were cleaned, sorted, weighed, and repackaged in the laboratory. The processed charcoal was sent to Beta Analytics, Inc., Miami, Florida, for radiocarbon analysis and the burnt wood remains were sent to International Archaeological Research Inc., Honolulu, for species identification.

?

RESULTS - 97~S -

Thirteen archaeological sites (Figure 6) ~:~:-mclUding three rock shelters (Sites 5534, 5536, 5685), one burial cave (Site 5533), two modified terraces (Sites 5539, 5540), two stone walls (Sites 5538, and 5686), two enclosures (Sites 5537 and 5684), two World War II military

26

bunkers (Sites 5689 and 5690) and an historic roadway (Site 5688). In addition, two bench mark stations and four modern military features were identified during the survey.

The survey results confirm that a variety of traditional Hawaiian sites are located in Waiale'e, Pahipahialua, and Kaunala Gulch channels and along the north facing slope areas adjacent to these intermittent steam gulches. The new identified sites compliment the three previously recorded sites in this area, and together represent religious, habitation, and agricultural features, probably constructed and built during late pre· Contact and early post-Contact times (Table 1).

SITE DESCRIPTIONS

This section provides a description of the sites recorded in the inventory survey. The descriptions include location and size information, physical characteristics, and an assessment of preservation condition. Table 1 lists the sites and their major characteristics.

PAmPAHI'ALUA GULCH

A total of seven archaeological sites were recorded in Pahipahialua Ahupuaa, The sites are considered to be traditional Hawaiian sites and were identified from the mouth to the lower portions of drainage. In addition, two historic survey markers and modern military constructions were identified on the bluff top west of the gulch.

Rock Shelter, Site 50·80·02·5534

...

This site is located west of Pahipahialua Gulch along the north facing slope containing a basalt escarpment situated approximately 73 m above the coastal plain and 50 m below the top of the cliff (Figures 6 . 8). Adjacent to the rock shelter, approximately 17 m to the west in the same escarpment, is a burial cave (Site 5535). Smaller rock cavities are present between these two sites; however, they contain no observable cultural remains. A small foot trail leading from the top of the ridge to Pahipahialua Gulch passes along the base of the escarpment directly in front of the rock shelter and burial cave.

The rock shelter contains a large unmodified opening, shallow interior area, and powdery soil floor (Figures 7 & 8). The interior cavity measures 5.0 m in length, 2.34 m in width, and 0.9 to 1.0 m in height. The floor contains scattered stone roof-fall and bird excrement.

One test unit (TU·l) was excavated to provide a preliminary assessment of the vertical dimension of the overhang shelter (Figures 9 & 10). The test unit, measuring 0.5 m by 0.5 m, was located on the relatively level eastern portion of the site, and oriented below the drip line of the shelter. A marine shell tTellina palatum) was observed on the surface. The matrix was screened through 114 and 1/8 inch mesh to ensure retrieval of cultural materials. Excavation proceeded by natural layers.

The stratigraphic sequence includes surface organics and basalt roof fall, two sediment layers and a portion of a cultural fire pit designated as Feature 1. Table 2 presents stratigraphic layer descriptions for Test Unit 1.

Test Unit 1 exposed the southwestern edge of cultural fire pit Feature 1 containing many angular basalt cobbles and abundant wood charcoal (Figures 9 & 10). The cobbles began to be exposed at 12 centimeters below the surface (cmbs) and continued to between 20 to 26 cmbs. They were

27

-- .. -------------------------------~~-~---------.

Table I

Archaeological Sites Recorded in Area A-I Survey

50-80-02-5534 Temporary Shelter Pahipahi' alua Fire pit Pre-Contact
EO 1490 N98930
50-80-02-5535 Cave Burial Pahipahialua 3 Burial clusters Pre-Contact
EOl500 N98930
50- 80-02-55 3 6 Rock Shelter Unknown Pahipahi" alua None Undetermined
E01530 N98810
50-80-02-5537 Enclosure Unknown Pahipahi' alua None Pre-Contact
EOI900 N98200
50-80-02-5538 Wall Unknown Pahipahi'alua None Pre-Contact
E01850 N98240
50-80-02-5539 Terrace Agriculture Pahipahi" alua Retaining wall; Pre-Contact
E01750 N98850 Stone concentration
50-80-02-5540 Terrace Agriculture Pahipahialua None Pre-Contact
E01750 N98910
50-80-02-5684 Enclosure Unknown Kaunala None Pre-Contact
EOO450 N97300
50-80-02-5685 Rock Shelter Temporary Shelter Kaunala None Pre-Contact
E00225 N97550
50-80-02-5686 Wall Ahupua'a Kaunala None Historic
Boundary E00500 N97900
50-80-02-5688 Roadway Transportation Kaunala None Historic
E00375 N97725
50-80-02-5689 Cavern Military Bunker Kaunala None World War II
E00550 N97820
50-80-02-5690 Enclosure Military Bunker Kaunala None World War II
E00525 N97875 ,I

,

28

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Identified In Current Study Archaeological Sites Identified In Current Study

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Site 50-80-02-5534, Soil Profile, East Face, Test Unit 1

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A few decomposing Christmas Berry and koa haole leaves. Three introduced land snail shells.

I

Less than 10 small cobbles and large pebble-sized angular basalt roof fall in a very dark brown, silty clay matrix.

1-2

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1- 24

Dark brown (lOYR 3/3, dry), Very dark brown (lOYR 2/2, moist) silty clay; strong, very coarse, medium subangular blocky structure; extremely hard when dry, loose when moist, slightly sticky and plastic when wet; common fine and medium tubular roots; contains approximately 5%, by volume, subangular saprolitic basalt pebbles; clear, irregular, boundary.

FE 1

15 -18

Feature 1 contained abundant angular basalt cobbles, wood charcoal (dense concentrations of charcoal below cobbles), and Layer II soils; abrupt to very abrupt wavy boundary.

III

24 -42

Dark brown (lOYR 3/3, dry), Very dark brown (lOYR 2/2, moist) silty clay; strong, very coarse, medium subangular blocky structure; strong when dry, weak when moist, slightly sticky and slightly plastic when wet; common fine tubular roots; contains approximately 10 - 30%, by volume, sub angular saprolitic basalt pebbles.

stained with charcoal .. but did not appear to be fire altered and may have formed a ring around the exterior of the fire pit while it was in use. The wood charcoal was composed of tiny twigs and small branches and was mixed with Layer II soils. The charcoal concentration was located between the cobbles of the feature. Some charcoal concentrations below the larger cobbles were between 2 to 4 ern thick. Feature 1 had been excavated into Layer ill soils and extended to the north and east of Test Unit 1. There was no burnt earth at the base of the exposed edge of Feature 1. The feature extends into the north and east walls. The excavated portion of the feature measures 35 by 50 em.

The burnt wood samples collected from within the fire-pit feature were analyzed for species identification (Murakami 1997:Appendix B). Three species were identified in the Feature 1 samples: one endemic plant, "akoko (Chamaecyse spp.), and two indigenous shrubs, pukiawe, kawa:u (Styphelia tameiameiaey and "ulei (Osteomeles anthyllidifolia). These plants are associated with traditional Hawaiian use. 'Akoko ranged from coastal to dry and wet forests and was valued for firewood {Hillebrand 1888:396). The indigenous pukiawe shrub, which has been recorded from all of the main Hawaiian Islands except Ni'ihau and Kahoolawe grew at 15 to 3230 m elevations (Wagner et al. 1990:590-591), and had several traditional uses. Neal (1965:663-664) reports that the wood was smoked as a cleansing agent by high ranking chiefs to avoid harming common people. Malo (1951:20) also states that the wood was used to cremate the bodies of outlaws. 'Ulei is a hard wood used to make digging sticks, fishing spears, carrying poles, musical bows, and hoops for fishnets (Buck 1964:12, 357. 14, 388; Neal 1965:387). According to Wagner et al (1990:1104-1105), the shrub is found on all the main islands except Ni'ihau and Kahoolawe and ranges in distribution from sea level to 2300 m in elevation. Thus. it would appear that all three species were locally available at KTA for use as firewood in the rock shelter.

34

Two charcoal samples were collected from Feature 1 and submitted to Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory for analysis (Appendix C). The results of the analysis are recorded in Table 3. The first sample yielded a conventional radiocarbon age of 100+/-40 BP. This age was calibrated by Beta Analytic to the following calendar year ranges at two standard deviations (95% probability): AD 1675 to 1770 and 1800 to 1940. The second sample yielded a conventional radiocarbon age of 220+/·60 BP. The calibrated ranges for this sample at two standard deviations are AD 1520 to 1570, 1630 to 1890, and 1905 to 1950. The calibrated age ranges present potential modem dates. However, due to lack of apparent disturbance of the site, lack of associated historic or modem artifacts, and the identification of indigenous wood species in the sample, it is likely that Feature 1 dates to at least the early post-Contact period rather than the more recent age ranges.

Table 3

Radiocarbon Age Determinations For Site 50-80-02-5534

14-17 cmbs

5.69 280+/· 60 -28.4

AD 1675 to 1770

120186 Feature 1

1.75 140+/-40 -27.8

100+/-40

AD 1800 to 1940

120187 Feature 1

220+/-60

AD 1520 to 1570

14-17 cmbs

AD 1630 to 1890

AD 1905 to 1950

Burial Cave Site 50-80-02-5535

This is a burial cave located along the northern facing slope west of Pahipahialua Gulch and 30 m east of Site 5534, the previous described rock shelter (Figure 6). The cave is located in the same basalt escarpment as Site 5534, approximately 73 m above the coastal plain, and adjacent to the small foot trail that leads from the top of the ridge to Pahipahialua Gulch. Both the rock shelter (Site 5534) and burial cave (Site 5535) are up slope from a previously recorded heiau (Site 4886; Williams and Patolo 1995), which is located approximately 150 m to the southeast on a terrace fronting the mouth of the gulch (Figure 6).

Exterior Features: The area outside the cave entrance consists of a modified terrace measuring 3.10 m in length, 2.0 m in width, and 1.25 m high, rising above the narrow ledge where the foot trail passes (Figurel1). The surface is flat and faced, containing a pavement of angular cobbles and pebbles. Access to the top of the terrace is through a narrow gap on the west side between the cliff and a large eroded boulder. The gap also has a small cobble/pebble surface and is retained by several boulders extending from the cliff. Two boulders, ranging 1.8 - 2.8 m long and 1.8 m wide are present just down slope from the cave entrance. The ground surface from the boulders, and in between them, slopes moderately down to the trail. Below the trail the slope descends steeply toward the coastal plain.

35

36

The cave entrance consists of a single, restricted opening in the face of the nearly vertical escarpment. It measures approximately 1.1 m wide by 0.6 m in height and was probably sealed at one time based on the presence of large cobbles and boulders blocking the lower half of the opening. The original height of the entrance was probably 1 m or more before the rock was placed sealing the entrance.

Interior Features. The interior of the cave consists of a tube-like cavity measuring 5 m long by 4 m wide (Figure 12). The principal portion is directly in front of the entrance. In the southeast portion, a 4 m long by 1 m wide tongue extends further back from the principle cavity. On the eastern and southern sides, there exists a shallow (30 em high) opening that extends 40-100 em back from the central cavity. The ceiling is dome-shaped, measuring approximately 1 m in the central portion and angling down to the floor on all sides. The floor is flat, containing soil, bedrock, and detached ceiling rock. At the interior cave entrance, there is a mound of cobbles that was originally used to seal the entrance and lower wall openings.

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Three burial features were identified 1 - 2 m apart in the central cavity (Figure 12). Each contains multiple interments that appear to be complete except for the absence of crania. The minimum number of individuals was determined by the counting of duplicate long bones. Burial Feature 1 (Figure 13), consisting of 2 individuals (adults), is located 2 m southeast of Burial Feature 3. Burial Feature 2 (Figure 14) contains remains of 3 individuals (adults) and is located 1 m southwest of Burial Feature 1. Burial Feature 3 (Figure 15) is located immediately south of the cave entrance and contains 2 individuals (adult and subadult). In addition to the three burial features, skeletal material from these interments and possibly others beneath them is scattered around the cave extremities. The burials all exhibit little evidence of articulation and may have been secondarily deposited. It is more likely however, that the remains had been' previously disturbed as evidenced by the lack of crania and the opening of the previously sealed entrance. No artifacts were identified with the burial features and no habitation material was observed on the surface of the cave. None of the skeletal material was disturbed or removed during site examination.

Rock Shelter (Site 50-80-02-5536)

This site is located on the steep western slope of Pahipahialua Gulch (Figure 6). The shelter is situated in a large basalt outcrop, measures 20 m long, 5.0 m wide, and 2.0 m high (Figure 16), and is surrounded by 2.0 m high Koa haole (Leucaena leucocephala). The opening of the shelter is on the down-slope (eastern) side, ranges from 0.5 to 0.8 m high, and extends 10 m in length. The interior portion of the shelter measures approximately 15 m long by 1.5 - 3.0 m wide (from back wall to the to drip line) with aim high dome-shaped ceiling that angles down to the floor on all three sides. The floor area contains powdery soil with scattered roof fall. The site shows no evidence of disturbance, probably the result of being located in a remote area of the gulch. Despite its well preserved condition, no cultural remains were observed on the surface.

Enclosure (Site 50-80-02-5537)

This site is located along the eastern bank of Pahipahialua Gulch (Figure 6). It consists of a rectangular enclosure constructed with basalt cobbles and boulders (Figure 17). It measures 62 m long by 40 m wide, is oriented parallel to the gulch bank, and extends up-slope. The walls are collapsed in numerous sections; however, preserved portions measure up to 0.85 m high and 0.75 m wide, containing 5 - 6 stacked basalt cobbles and a pebble-filled core. Three enclosure walls extend around the north, south, and west sides, while the eastern side, corresponding to the

37

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ascending slope portion, is open, with no evidence of a connecting wall. The interior portion is sloped with few flat areas and contains numerous naturally deposited cobbles and boulder outcrops. No surface structural features or cultural deposits were identified in the interior of the enclosure. Based on the shape and construction, the enclosure appears to be a traditional Hawaiian structure.

The site is in fair condition, although most portions of the walls are collapsed. On the southern side of the enclosure, a deep slope wash channel has eroded away the southwest corner of the structure (Figure 17). On the northern side, a foot trail leading up-slope to the bluff passes directly in front of the structure. Most of the wall tumble in this portion is probably due to hikers using the structure as a resting stop.

Wall (Site 50·80·02.5538)

This feature is located approximately 660 m inland from the mouth of Pahipahialua Gulch, along the eastern bank (Figure 6). It consists of an incomplete stone wall constructed with stacked basalt cobbles (Figure 18). Only the foundation of the feature is present, measuring 0.85 m wide and 0.25 m high. It begins 5 m from the gulch bank and extends 15 m up slope. Although the area was cleared and mapped, this was the only remaining portion that could be identified. Although no cultural remains were associated with the wall it appears to be a traditional Hawaiian construction. This wall may have been associated with Site 5537, a stone enclosure located 50 m to the east.

Terrace and Stone Concentration (Site 50·80.02.5539)

This site is located along the gently sloping west bank of Pahipahialua Gulch, approximately 200 m from the mouth, and 25 m from the gulch channel (Figure 6). Two features, including a terrace (Feature 1) and a stone concentration (Feature 2) are associated with the site (Figure 19). A foot trail extending from the gulch up the western bluff slope skirts the northwest side of the site. The northeastern portion of the site is bordered by a 2 m deep wash that descends from the top of the bluff to the gulch.

The terrace (Feature 1) (Figure 20) measures 40 m in length and 15 m in width, extending parallel to the gulch. The top portion contains a flat soil surface bordered along the face by a basalt cobblelboulder retaining wall (Figure 19). The wall is 18 m in length, 3 - 5 m in width, and sloped. A 5 m long section in the northwest portion is collapsed and is covered by colluvial slope erosion. Between the base of the terrace wall and the gulch, another flat area measuring 20 m by 10 m appears to have been cleared of field stone. This lower cleared field may have been used as a terrace area in conjunction with the adjacent one. Surrounding the upper walled terrace are boulder concentrations located to the south and northwest. These represent stone clusters formed by slope erosion.

Feature 2 is located on the unmodified slope area 10 m south of Feature 1 (Figure 19). It consists of a stacked cobble concentration measuring 8 m long, 5 m wide, and 0.80 m high. Feature 2 appears to represent a clearing mound made during stone removal activities in the adjacent terrace area.

The terrace appears to be a traditional Hawaiian feature associated with agricultural and possible habitation use, although the entire site was surveyed and no traditional cultural materials were identified on the surface. In addition to the collapsed wall portion mentioned above, the site has been impacted by military activities. One section of the terrace retaining wall has been recently

44

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modified by the relocation of cobbles to hold a plastic water catch. Plastic sheet fragments were located beneath some of the wall cobbles and two plastic jugs were found tied to a Guava tree on the top of the terrace. Aside from these minor alterations, the site appears to be in good condition.

Terrace (Site 50-80-02·5540)

This site is located 100 m inland from the mouth of Pahipahi'alua Gulch, on the eastern slopes, 25 m above the stream channel and 30 m below a vertical basal escarpment (Figure 6). Six parallel terraces faced with basalt cobbles and boulders descend 15 m in length down slope (Figure 21). The terraces are flat or gently sloped, measure approximately 15 m wide, and are separated 1 - 2 m apart. Cobbles and pebbles were incorporated into areas of existing boulders and each terrace contains stacked stone, ranging in height from 50 to 80 em. More terraces with stacked stone walls appear to have been constructed further down slope from those identified; however, these are poorly defined and under heavy vegetation. Up slope from the terraces, the bluff top contains a low depression at the rim, where rain water is channeled down slope over the escarpment and into the terrace area. The natural wash created by the bluff depression appears to have been the water source used for irrigating the terrace. This terrace type in Hawai"i is referred to as the Riley Type I, built as barrage dams across streams, and unassociated with irrigation ditches or water diversion (Riley 1975:84). In the case of Site 5540, the terraces were constructed across an intermittent wash area, not a stream, which provided an irrigation source and renewed siltation within the small terrace fields.

BLUFF SITES WEST OF PAHIPAHI'ALUA GULCH AND SURROUNDING WAIALE'E GULCH

The bluff tops separating Pahipahi'alua and Waialee are currently used for military maneuvers and motor cross recreation. Except for areas of dense ironwood trees, the bluff tops are covered in low shrub and grass vegetation. Many areas, however, support no vegetation and are heavily eroded. These conditions provided easy access and visibility for conducting the archaeological survey.

Only four modem military constructions were noted during this portion of the survey. Their locations were recorded and plotted and they were given field numbers to differentiate them from archaeological sites (Field Numbers AD-I, AD-4, RD-I, and SC-I). Smaller military fox holes also exist in many areas, but these were not recorded on the survey maps. In addition, two survey markers were identified and their locations recorded. These modem features are briefly described below.

Military Defense Enclosure RD-I is located along the northeast edge of the bluff, on top of a small raised knoll (Figure 6). The feature consists of a low, rectangular structure measuring 20m in length by 15 m in width. The walls of the enclosure, which are all collapsed, consist of basalt cobbles that were probably stacked 3 - 4 stones high (0.50 m), Empty bullet shells and other military metal objects were identified within and around the structure. These remains indicate that the enclosure represents a recent construction, used as a defensive position in military activities.

Military Defense Enclosure AD-I is also located in the northeast section of the bluff, on top of a small raised knoll, 100 m west of RD-I (Figure 6). It consists of a low, rectangular enclosure measuring 8 m in length and 5 m in width. The feature contains 4 walls, 3 defining the outside of the structure, and one bisecting the middle. The rock walls measure approximately 0.50 m high and are constructed of stacked basalt cobbles. Scattered around the ground and on the wall are

50

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empty rifle shells, indicating that the enclose is an active defense construction used for military activities.

Military Defense Enclosure AD-4 is located 100 m south of the previous enclosure described (Figure 6). Like the others (AD-l and RD-l), this is a small military defense position located on a bluff knoll. It is a recent construction, rectangular in shape, and contains 3 low basalt-cobble walls. Bullet shells and a wooden fence post were identified in and around the feature,

Military Defense Enclosure SC-l is located approximately 150 - 200 m south (makai) of the Motor-Cross Park on the west bluff above upper Waialee Gulch (Figure 6). It is situated on a terrace with boulders and the enclosure is incorporated into this rocky area. Cobbles and boulders are piled together in a U-shaped configuration, measuring approximately 4 m in length by 3.5 m in width. Military ammo cartridges are present on the surface and between the piled stone. Judging from the different weathering patterns on the cobbles and boulders, these have been moved recently. The bullet shells further indicate that the site is probably an active military structure.

Survey Marker SC-2 consists of a 1927 US Coast Geodetic survey triangulation station (Figure 6). It is located in the northern bluff area, along the east margin of Waialee Gulch. The survey marker is level with the surface and housed within a protective stone enclosure that measures 2.4 m long, 1.8 m wide, and 1.1 m high. The walls have of 4 - 5 courses of dressed basalt and mortar, The survey marker is embedded in concrete, made of bronze, and located inside, The bronze cap contains the following information: U.S. Coast Geodetic Survey, Triangulation Station. For Information Write to the Director, Washington DC $250 Fine or Imprisonment for Disturbing This Mark. Waialee 1927.

Survey Marker MR-l consists of a 1933 Kaainalapa surface bench mark (Figure 6). It is situated several hundred meters southeast of the SC-l survey marker described above. The marker is located along the eastern lip of the bluff, on a small knoll above Waialee Gulch.

KAUNALA GULCH

Kaunala Gulch marks the western boundary of the KTA military installation and the current survey project (Figure 6). The lower gulch terraces, eastern slopes and bluff were surveyed up to 2000 m inland from the coastal plain. Six sites were located, including two traditional Hawaiian, two historic ranching-era, and two military sites. All are located below the bluff near the mouth of Kaunala Gulch.

The bluff surveyed to the east of the gulch contains tall ironwood stands interspersed with broad areas of low shrub and grass vegetation (Figure 22). Like the bluff areas further east, motorcross trails crisscross the flat ridge top and heavily eroded areas exist throughout (Figure 23). On the eastern side of the bluff, a small unnamed gulch extends from the coastal plain inland. Within this lower drainage portion an access road leads from the interior down to the coast and marks the eastern boundary of this survey section.

Much of the interior uplands is disturbed and could be easily surveyed. In contrast, Kaunala Gulch contains a heavy forest cover that extends from the base of the drainage to the lower slopes. A foot trail extending the length of the gulch passes through this lower drainage area, representing the only modem feature present. Survey within the inner gulch area was more difficult because of the tangled forest vegetation; however, the inspection was complete and

52

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systematic. Except for two sites listed below, no others were recorded in this inland drainage area.

Enclosure (Site 50·80·02·5684)

This site consists of a stone-wall enclosure located along the northeastern bank of the gulch, approximately 250 m inland from the mouth (Figure 6). The enclosure contains two basalt cobblelboulder walls that join together forming an L-shaped pattern (Figure 24). The north-tosouth wall, which measures 1 m wide and up to 1 m in height, begins from a basalt escarpment on the high slope and descends 48 m down to the gulch bank. The second enclosure portion begins at the south end of the first wall and extends 25 m west along the flat section of the gulch terrace. This wall portion also measures 1 m in width and up to 1 m in height. Both sections contain stacked cobbles incorporated into natural boulder outcrops, although many areas are collapsed nearly to surface level. Near the southeast comer of the enclosure, where the two walls meet, there is an internal construction, resembling an entryway. This is formed by a 7 m long internal wall placed 3 m north and parallel to the south wall. The feature forms a small enclosure or passageway within the larger enclosure. The function of this internal feature is unknown.

The western side of the site is bordered by a sharply sloping 50 m high hill that inhibits passage in most of this direction. The presence of the hill seems to have served as a natural barrier on this side of the enclosure. The southwestern portion of the enclosure, however, contains a 9 m open section between the base of the hill and the south enclosure wall fronting the gulch. Perhaps this western wall section has been destroyed or was built with wood. Currently, a barbed wire and wide-meshed fence line extend along the west side, indicating modem use of this structure, perhaps as an animal pen.

A .5 m by .5 m test unit (TV-I) was excavated in the southeast section of the enclosure, where the internal double-wall feature is located (Figure 24). The excavation extended 40 cmbs and contained two subsurface layers. Layer I extended 0 - 35 cmbs and consisted of a very dark brown (lOYR 2/2, dry) compact loamy clay. Layer II began at 35cmbs, consisting of a steam deposit containing basalt pebbles and cobbles in a loamy clay matrix (Figure 25). Although no cultural materials were identified in the excavation, the test unit revealed that the foundation of the enclosure wall was in Layer I deposits, approximately 10 - 15 em below the modem surface.

Rock Shelter (Site 50-80-02-5685)

This site consists of a rock shelter located on the north facing slope, 250 m east of Kaunala Gulch mouth (Figure 6). It is located 60 m above the coastal plain and 60 m down slope from the bluff top in a large basalt outcrop. The site contains a 0.60 m high by 8 m wide opening and a flat 2 m wide rock ledge below the shelter overhang (Figure 26). The interior shelter portion contains a floor area raised above the level of the ledge and a dome-shaped ceiling. The cavity measures 8.8 m long, 4.9 m wide, and up to 2 m in height. The floor area contains loose soil with fragments of kakui nut, marine shell, and charcoal on the surface, indicating a cultural deposit.

A depression measuring 80 em in diameter and 20 cm deep was present in the middle of the floor area (Figure 26). The depression appeared to be the result of recent excavation in the rock shelter, possibly during training activities, or as an attempt to locate and illegally remove artifacts from the site. Despite this disturbance, the surrounding floor area appeared to be unaltered.

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Wall (Site 50.80·02.5686)

This site is located at the 280 ft (85 m) contour on the northern facing slopes (Figure 6). It consists of an incomplete stone wall feature containing small and medium size boulders, faced along both sides, and oriented in a northwest to southeast direction (Figures 27 & 28). The wall section measures 3.6 m in length, 1.0 m in width, and ranges from 60 - 80 em in height. The southeast end of the wall abuts to a basalt outcrop ledge measuring 3 - 5 m high and the northwest end connects to a deteriorated wood post fence that extends to the cliff edge. The eastern side of the stone wall has collapsed. The wall construction suggests that it is a traditional Hawaiian structure. It is located along the boundary separating Waialee and Pahipahialua Ahupua'a. The wooden fence indicates that the wall was used as a ranching feature.

Historic Roadway (Site 50·80·02·5688)

An historic road bed was identified along the north facing slope east of Kaunala Gulch (Figure 6). The road apparently began from a point near Alpha Gate where a modem access road exists today, ascended the slope in a southwesterly direction and continued to the bluff top. Portions of the road cut are visible along this route; however, only one section was found to be well preserved. This section is located approximately 300 m east of the Kaunala Gulch mouth, approximately midway down the northern facing slope. Whether or not this road section is within the property boundary of KTA could not be determined.

The intact historic road section measures 29.2 m in length and 6 m in width (Figures 29 & 30). It curves around a basalt outcrop, has a soil surface, and on the northern or makai side, contains a stone retaining wall. The wall ranges from 1.3 to 2.4 m in height and is constructed of 10-12 courses of small and medium boulders. It is faced, and at the road surface contains 1-2 rows of stone, which rise 10-50 em above the road bed, forming a curb.

The construction date of this road is unclear. It is not present on the 1890 Kahuku Plantation Maps (Loebenstein 1890); however, these charts provide little detail of property lines and secondary roads inland from the coastal plain. U. S. Army (1909-1913), U.S. Geological Survey (1928), Hawaii Territorial Survey (King 1932) and Tax (Tax Map 1939) maps were also consulted, but contain no indication of a secondary road in the Waialee area. The road may represent a ranching or agricultural access road dating to the early twentieth century not illustrated on these historic maps.

Underground Bunker (Site 50·80·02·5689)

A military structure (Site 5689), consisting of an underground bunker, is located near the top of the same bluff, 75 m up slope from Site 5690 described below (Figure 6). It contains a tube-like entry way and a rectangular-shaped cavern that have been excavated into a basalt outcrop (Figure 31). The exterior terrain around the site slopes steeply to the northeast, except for a 1.0 m wide level soil area in front of the entrance, which measures approximately 1.6 m high and 1.0 m wide. From the entrance, a 1.6 m high and 1.5 m long tunnel leads to an inner rectangular cavity, which lowers 1.8 m from the entry way area. The cavity is a box-like cavern with straight walls, floor. and ceiling. It measures 1.7 m in length and 1.2 m in width. The cavern contains two features, including a small notched area at the edge of the entry way, apparently for a ladder. On the west wall, 18 em below the ceiling, there is a small boring hole of unknown function. The purpose of this underground structure may have been for ammunition storage in connection with the nearby bunker. No cultural remains were identified inside the site or on the basalt ledge fronting the entrance.

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Site 50-80-02-5689, World War II Bunker

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66

Military Bunker (50·80·02.5690)

A World War II era military bunker was identified on the upper western slope near the mouth of an unnamed gulch, 60 m south of the stone wall (Site 5686) described above (Figure 6). The bunker is hexagon-shaped, made of concrete, and has gun openings on the northwest and southwest sides. The structure measures 4.2 m in length, 3.0 m in width, and 1.3 m in height. It is unaltered and in excellent physical shape and similar in design to a World War II era bunker (Site 4886) identified by Williams and Patolo (1995:77) on the ridge between Kawela and Pahipahialua Gulches (Figure 32).

DISCUSSION

The results of the current KTA survey include the identification of 13 archaeological sites located between Pahipahialua Gulch on the east and Kaunala Gulch on the west. These sites were assigned State Historic Register numbers. In addition, six modern features were recorded, plotted, and given field numbers. They consist of twentieth century features associated with modem military activities and government triangulation markers.

The survey covered an area of 166.1 ha, representing 6.5% of KTA property. Combined with previous investigations (Chapman 1970; Davis 1981; Farrell and Cleghorn 1995; Rosendahl 1977; Williams and Patolo 1995), archaeological surveys have now been conducted over approximately 33% of the facility. Area A-I, where the current investigations were conducted, represents the largest portion of intensively surveyed gulch and bluff zones.

Two research questions were delineated as part of the research design for this study. One deals with settlement patterns while the other focuses on site dating. The survey data relating to these questions is discussed below followed by an assessment of Anderson and Williams' (1998) site probability model for the KTA facility.

The first research question concerns the density and location of archaeological sites within the survey area. This question was formulated to document the nature of site distribution with regard to three previously recorded traditional Hawaiian sites adjacent to the survey area. The

. sites include a heiau (Site 4845), foothill terraces (Site 9517), and a habitation complex (Site 4887).

The newly identified traditional Hawaiian sites are located at the mouth and lower portions of two main drainages, Pahipahialua and Kaunala Gulches. At the first gulch, these include a rock shelter (Site 5534), a burial cave (Site 5535), an enclosure (Site 5537), a wall (Site 5538), and two terraces (Sites 5539 and 5540). Another rock shelter (5536) was also identified in close proximity to these sites. Five of the seven sites, including the rock shelters, burial cave, and terraces are clustered at the mouth of the gulch within a maximum distance of 250 m from one another. One of the previously recorded sites, Pahipahi'alua heiau is also within this site cluster. Two other sites, including the wall and enclosure are located approximately 100 m apart, 1750 m inland from the mouth. The rock shelters and burial cave are located on sharply angled slopes and in basalt outcrops above the gulch floor, while the heiau, terraces, enclosure, and wall are located on flat or gently sloping terraces adjacent to the drainage. Another terrace site (Site 9517), now destroyed, was reported by Handy (1940), 750 m to the west of these sites, at the mouth of the smaller Waialee Gulch. Based on the number, density, and close proximity of archaeological sites, the lower Pahipahialua Gulch area appears to have been a significant

67

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settlement area used for a diversity of activities, including religious, burial, temporary habitation, and terrace agriculture during pre-Contact and historic times.

Only post-Contact and modern military features were identified on the high bluff overlooking the coastal plain and Pahipahialua Gulch. These include bench mark mapping stations (Sites SC-l and MR-l) and active military defense positions (Sites AD-I, AD-4, RD-I, and SC-2). The lack of earlier archaeological sites here may be due to their destruction by historic farming activities and more recent military and recreational use of the uplands. Based on the traditional Hawaiian use of the area, however, the survey data indicates that the high upland zones were probably used for resource procurement and not permanent habitation or agriculture.

Another area of traditional Hawaiian use appears to be Kaunala Gulch. Although fewer sites were identified here than at Pahipahialua Gulch, there appear to have been similar uses of both drainage areas. A rock shelter (Site 5685) located on the steep slopes at the mouth of the gulch, and an enclosure (Site 5684) is present approximately 300 m inland, on the eastern drainage bank. The rock shelter, like that of Site 5534 further west, contains cultural deposits indicating that it was used as a temporary shelter. The enclosure located in the interior gulch area may represent an agricultural field construction. A previously reported small habitation complex, Site 4887, located at the mouth of Waialee Gulch, 500 m to the west, may have been associated with these sites, although it appears isolated from both the and Pahipahialua site clusters. The absence of more traditional Hawaiian habitation sites in the lower courses of the gulches suggests that permanent settlements were probably located along the coastal plain, closer to the shoreline.

Above Waialee and Kaunala Gulches, the inland bluffs contained evidence of historic activities such as ranching and World War II era defensive positions, and modern military activities. These include an historic roadway (Site 5688), two World War II era military bunkers (Sites 5689 and 5690), four modern military defense positions (AD-I, AD-4, RD-l, SC-l), and two geographical bench marks (SC-2, MR-l). The lack of traditional Hawaiian sites in this upland zone indicates that the area was not used as intensively as the gulch terraces and slopes. While this may be the case, considerable modification to the bluff areas has occurred through farming, recreational use, and military activities since the late nineteenth century, which could have resulted in the destruction of archaeological sites.

The second research question posed in the project deals with site dating. The traditional Hawaiian sites located contain evidence of being constructed and used in pre-Contact or early post-Contact times. The rock walls, enclosures, and terraces may date to either period. The use of at least one of the rock shelters (Site 5634) for temporary habitation appears to date to preContact times since the cultural deposit contained no recent materials and was associated with plant remains of two native species. Likewise, the burials identified in Site 5535 represent a typical Hawaiian cave interment pattern and are probably also pre-Contact. The field constructions, including walls, enclosures, and stone faced terraces were probably built and used during both pre-Contact and post-Contact times. More specific dates associated with these sites will have to be obtained from excavation testing.

The results of the survey correspond well to Anderson and Williams' site probability model (Figure 4)(Anderson and Williams 1998:58-60). The probability model predicted that site preservation is low in broad ridge areas and the rugged interior of KTA due to extensive landaltering disturbances during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. As mentioned above, only early twentieth century and modern military sites were identified in this survey zone. The

69

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densest site concentration recorded were in medium to high probability areas, which include gulches, bluff slopes, and the mouth portions of the drainages. According the site probability model, the denser archaeological resources in these areas are due to less land disturbance and their close proximity to the coastal flatland, which was a zone of primary traditional Hawaiian settlement (Anderson and Williams 1998:58-60). Thus, the survey data reinforces the site probability model, indicates that the gulches were economically important zones for agricultural activities and resource collection, and were easily accessible to local coastal settlements during pre- and post-Contact times.

SIGNIFICANCE EVALUATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The National Register of Historic Places defines the criteria for legally evaluating the significance of cultural resources:

The quality of significance in American history, architecture, archaeology, and culture is present in districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects of state and local importance that possess integrity of location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, and association, and:

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C. That are associated with events that have made a significant contribution to the broad patterns of our history; or

That are associated with the lives of persons significant in our past; or

That embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction, or that represent the work of a master, or that possess high

artistic values, or that represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose components may lack individual distinction; or

D. That have yielded, or may be likely to yield, information important in prehistory or history.

In addition, amendments to the National Historic Preservation Act include a provision stating that "Properties of traditional religious and cultural importance to an Indian Tribe or Native Hawaiian organization may be determined to be eligible for inclusion on the National Register" (§ 101(d)(6)(A)).

In addition to the National Register of Historic Places significance criteria, the United States Army also utilizes categories to assess significance of historic properties. These are as follows:

• Category I: property of major importance.

• Category II: property of importance.

• Category III: property of minor importance (includes properties that contribute to the significance of category I and II properties, but may not individually meet the National Register criteria)

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• Category IV: property of little or no importance.

70

• Category V: property detrimental to the significance of adjacent historic properties.

The sites located during the survey of KTA are tentatively evaluated for significance utilizing both the National Register of Historic Places critieria and the U.S. Army criteria. The results are summarized in Table 4 and are described below. All sites are presented below in numeric order.

Site 5534, a Rock Shelter, contains a pre- to early post-Contact habitation deposit, and is significant under Criterion d of the NRHP. The site is an excellent example of a temporary habitation site in a good state of preservation, and has yielded and has the potential to yield significant data on the prehistory of the area and Hawaii, Under Army evaluation criteria, the site corresponds to Category II (importance). This site should be preserved from any future disturbance. If possible, a boundary fence should be constructed in front of the site since it is located along an access path leading from Pahipahialua Gulch to the bluff top.

Site 5535, a burial cave, contains a minimum of 7 traditional Hawaiian interments and is significant under Criteria d of the NRHP. In addition, this site is also considered significant under the NRHP due to it's cultural importance. Under Army evaluation criteria, the site is Category I (very important). A management plan should be developed between the Army and the Hawaiian community to preserve and protect this site. The plan should address issues such as access to the site for Hawaiian visitation and whether the original stone facing sealing the entrance to the cave should be rebuilt or left open.

Site 5536 is a Rock Shelter that has the potential of containing pre-Contact cultural deposits. The site is well preserved and located close to other traditional Hawaiian sites in' the lower portion of Pahipahialua Gulch. Archaeological testing is recommended to determine if cultural deposits are present, and if so, their significance.

Sites 5537 to 5540, 5684, and 5686 are typical pre-Contact site constructions. They include 2 stone enclosures (Sites 5537 and 5684), 2 stone walls (Sites 5538 and 5686), and 2 stone-faced terrace complexes (Sites 5539 and 5540). All are significant under Criterion d in that they have and are likely to yield information that is important to the prehistory and history of the region and Hawaii. Under Army evaluation criteria, these are Category II sites (importance). All should be preserved if possible; if not, data recovery should be conducted to obtain information about their age and function.

Site 5685 is a Rock Shelter, that contains a pre- or early post-Contact habitation deposit. The surface floor contains shell, nut, and charcoal remains indicating that it has and is likely to yield information that is important to the prehistory of Hawaii, Under NRHP criteria, this site is significant under Criterion d and under Army evaluation criteria, it is a Category II site (importance). Archaeological testing is recommended to determine site dating, the nature of habitation use, and the significance of the deposits.

Since the northern border of Area A-I is unmarked the survey of this section included all accessible portions of the northern facing slope down to the coastal flatlands. While several traditional Hawaiian sites were identified in this section, their location within the KTA facility could not be determined. The sites include: 2 rock shelters (Sites 5534 and 5685); a burial cave (Site 5535); I stone wall (Site 5686), a military bunker (Site 5690), and a roadway (Site 5688). A clear delineation of this facility boundary by a professional survey team is recommended to determine which sites are under the preservation compliance responsibility of KT A.

71

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Continuation of archaeological survey within the southern portion of Area A-I and the adjacent land parcels (Areas A-2, B-1, B-2, C-I, 0-1, and 0-2) is recommended. The location and dating of sites in these areas will provide more complete evidence for assessing traditional Hawaiian settlement at KT A. Testing at sites identified in this study that have known or probable cultural deposits is also recommended. These sites include two rock shelters (Sites 5536 and 5685), and two enclosures (Sites 5537 and 5684). Testing is needed at these sites to more accurately assess their significance.

CONCLUSIONS

The archaeological inventory survey conducted in Area A-I of Kahuku Training Area recorded a total of 13 sites. Nine of these consist of traditional Hawaiian sites, including rock shelters, a burial cave, enclosures, rock walls, and terraces. The sites are located at the mouth and lower portions of two principal drainages, Kaunala and Pahipahi'alua Gulches. The highest density of sites was recorded at Pahipahialua Gulch, where a previously recorded heiau (Site 4885) is located (Williams and Patolo 1995). Traditional Hawaiian use of both gulch areas included agricultural terracing along the slopes and construction of enclosures, probably also for planting, along the gulch terraces. Rock shelters and caves, located in escarpment areas of the slopes were used for temporary habitation and for burial, No traditional Hawaiian sites were identified on the bluffs or further inland from the lower portions of the gulch channels, probably indicating that these zones were used less frequently as subsistence and habitation areas, or that these areas have been more disturbed during historic and recent times. The location of the sites suggest that permanent habitations were established adjacent to these areas, most probably in the coastal plains, as indicated by Williams and Patolo 1995. Although more dating is needed, the traditional Hawaiian sites recorded in the survey appear to be late pre-Contact and early postContact features, similar to coastal and valley sites dating to between the fourteenth and nineteenth centuries in neighboring portions of O'ahu (Kirch 1985).

In addition to the traditional Hawaiian sites, four historic sites, two modem benchmarks, and four recent military constructions were located on the bluff tops and high slope areas.

The total area surveyed at KTA is now approximately 33%, including the 166.1 ha covered in this study. The results of the current survey collaborate previous studies in several ways. First, traditional Hawaiian land use at KTA appears to have been most intensive in the mouth and lower drainage areas of the principal gulches. Permanent settlements appear to have been located adjacent to these drainage along the coastal plain. An important finding in this study suggests that principal gulches were intensively used for farming and that traditional sites were constructed close to one another in order to exploit water resources, cultivate lowland terraces, establish field boundaries, construct heiau, and bury individuals in nearby caves. The Area A-I survey was able to locate a significant sample of sites that indicate how local settlement clusters were distributed spatially and the range of associated internal features that were constructed.

75

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~,

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Handy, E.S.Craighill, and Elizabeth Green Handy

1972 Native Planters in Old Hawaii. Their Life, Lore, and Environment!. Bishop Museum Bulletin 233. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

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Honolulu Star-Bulletin, The

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! I

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Mifflin, Thomas

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Nakamura, Barry

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Neal, Marie C.

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Pukui, Mary Kawena and Samuel H. Elbert

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Reynolds, S.

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Riley, Tom, .1.

1975 Survey and Excavations of the Aboriginal Agricultural System, in Prehistory and Ecology in a Windward Hawaiian Valley: Halawa Valley, Molokai, P.V. Kirch and M. Kelly eds.: 79-116. Pacific Anthropological Records 24, Dept. of Anthropology, Bishop Museum, Honolulu.

Rosendahl, Paul H.

1977 Archaeological Inventory and Evaluation Report for U.S. Army Support Command, Hawaii (USASCH). Parts I Report Text, and IT Tables. Report Prepared for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Pacific Ocean Division, Ft. Shafter by Department of Anthropology, Bishop Museum:

Honolulu.

l

81

-g-----

1992 Editorial Policy, Information for Authors, and Style Guide for American Antiquity and Latin American Antiquity. American Antiquity 57(4):749- 770.

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; .

Tax Map

1939 Hanakaoe-Pahipahialua, Koolauloa, Oahu. Scale 1:500. Dwg. No. 3446, Zone 5, Sec. 7, Plat 02. Tax Maps Bureau, Honolulu.

U.S. Army

1909- Island of Oahu, City and County of Honolulu. Territory of Hawaii. Scale 1913 1:62500.

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1928 Island of Oahu. Topographic map. Surveyed in cooperation with the Territory of Hawaii and the War Department.

Vancouver

1984 A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific World. Printed for G.G. and J.

Robinson, Paternoster-Rowand J. Edwards, Pall.Mall., London

Wagner, Warren L., Derral R. Herbst, and S.H. Sohmer

1990 Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii. 2 vols. University of Hawaii and Bishop Museum Presses, Honolulu.

Whitman, John B.

1979 An Account of the Sandwich Islands: The Hawaiian Journal of John B. Whitman 1913-1815. Topgallant Publishing, Honolulu.

Wilcox, Barbara Stevens

1975 The Kahuku Sugar Mill Story. Island Heritage, Norfolk Island, Australia.

Williams, Scott and Tomasi Patolo

1995 Archaeological Inventory Survey of the Kahuku Training Area and Preparation of a Historic Preservation Plan for the Legacy Resource Management Program, O'ahu Island, Hawaii. Draft Report prepared for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Honolulu

82

APPENDIX A:

LAND COMMISSION A WARD TESTIMONIES

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N N APPENDIXB:

WOOD CHARCOAL IDENTIFICATIONS

IDENTIFICATION OF CHARCOAL TAXA IN SAMPLES FROM KAHUKU, O'AHU

Gail M. Murakami November 20, 1997

METHODS AND RESULTS

Selected charcoal in five samples, collected during the Kahuku Survey Project, were examined under magnification of an American Optical Stereoscan dissecting microscope. Identifications were made by comparing the anatomy seen in the transverse and tangential faces of the charcoal pieces at magnifications up to 60X against prepared thin sections of known taxa and published descriptions of Hawaiian and exotic woods.

The subsamples (Bags 12.1, 12.2, 13.1, and 13.2), collected from a firepit feature in a shallow rock shelter (Site 50-80-02-5535), each contained Chamaesyce ('akoko), Osteomeles anthyllidifolia ('IdeO and Styphelia tameiameiae (puktawe). Subsample (Bag) 8.1, also from the same provenience, was only composed of 'ulei. These native taxa are described in the review of taxa which follows. The results of this analysis are summarized in Table 1.

Review of Taxa

Euphorbiaceae

Chamaecyse spp. ( 'Akoko)

The endemic members of this genus consists of 15 species which may be found in ecological regimes ranging from coastal to dry to wet forests as shrubs to small trees (Wagner et al. 1990: 602-617). Hillebrand (1888: 396) believed the Hawaiians valued 'akoko for firewood. The milky sap was once considered a possible source for rubber (Rock 1913: 261).

Epacridaceae

Styphelia tameiameiae (Cham. & Schlechtend.) F.v. Muell. (Pukiawe, kawa 'u)

The indigenous pukiawe is most often seen as a spreading shrub but may be tree like in upper elevations or dwarfed and trailing in bogs. It has been recorded from all of the main Hawaiian Islands except Ni'ihau and Kaho'olawe at 15 to 3,230 m elevations (Wagner et al. 1990: 590-591). On Maui this species is known as kawa 'u. In ancient times, smoke from the burning wood was used to cleanse kapu and enable a high ranking chief to mingle among the common people without harm to them or himself (Neal 1965: 663-664). The wood was also used to cremate the bodies of outlaws (Malo 1951: 20).

1

Rosaceae

, I

I" "

Osteomeles anthyllidifolia Lindl. ('Olet)

This indigenous plant can often be found sprawling among the rocks along the coasts but may become an erect shrub up to 3 m tall in other environments. Osteomeles is found on all the main islands except Ni'ihau and Kaho'olawe and ranges in distribution from sea level to 2300 m in elevation (Wagner et al. 1990: 1104-1105). In the past, the hard wood was used to make digging sticks ('6 '6), fishing spears, carrying poles ('auamo), and a musical bow (,ukeke) (Buck 1957: 12,357, 14,388). The flexible smaller branches were bent into hoops for fishnets (Neal 1965:387).

Table 1. Summary of charcoal identifications in samples from Site 50-80-02-5535, Test Unit I, Feature I.

8.1

Taxon Count Weight
cf. Osteomeles anthyllidifolia 2 0.93
cf. Styphelia tameiameiae 2 0.87
Chamaesyce sp. 0.15
cf. Osteomeles anthyllidifolia 27 2.68
cf. Osteomeles anthyllidifolia 1 0.52
cf. Styphelia tameiameiae 4 0.88
cf. Chamaesyce sp. 1 0.02
cf. Osteomeles anthyllidifolia 28 1.38
Bark 3 0.08
cf. Osteomeles anthyllidifolia 13 1.56 Bag No.

12.1

12.2

13.1

13.2

I

I'

2

LITERATURE CITED

Buck, Peter H. (Te Rangi Hiroa)

1957 Arts and Crafts of Hawaii. Bishop Museum Special Publication 45. Honolulu.

Malo, David

1951 Hawaiian Antiquities (Moolelo Hawaii). Translated by Nathaniel B. Emerson, 1898. Bishop Museum Special Publication 2 (2nd ed.). Honolulu.

Neal, Marie C.

1965 In Gardens of Hawaii. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu.

Wagner, Warren L., Derral R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer

1990 Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai'i. University of Hawaii and Bishop Museum Presses. Honolulu.

3

APPENDIXC:

RADIOCARBON ANALYSIS

REPORT OF RADIOCARBON DATING ANALYSES

Mr. Stephan Clark

Ogden Environmental and Energy Services

July 17,1998 August 20, 1998

Sample Data

Measured C14 Age

C13/C12 Ratio

Conventional C14 Age (*)

Beta-120183

380 +/- 50 BP

-25.4 0/00

380 +/- 50 BP

SAMPLE #: Makua-1 ANALYSIS: Standard-AMS

MATERIAL/PRETREATMENT: (charred material): acid/alkali/acid

Beta-120184

330 +/- 50 BP

-16.3 0/00

470 +/- 50 BP

SAMPLE #: Makua-2 ANALYSIS: Standard-AMS

MATERIAL/PRETREATMENT: (charred material): acid/alkali/acid

Beta-120185

80 +/- 70 BP

-20.9 0/00

150 +/- 70 BP

SAMPLE #: Makua-3

ANALYSIS: radiometric-standard

MATERIAL/PRETREATMENT: (charred material): acid/alkali/acid

Beta-120186

140 +/- 40 BP

-27.8 0/00

100 +/- 40 BP

SAMPLE #: Kahuku-1 ANALYSIS: Standard-AMS

MATERIAL/PRETREATMENT: (charred material): acid/alkali/acid

Beta-120187

280 +/- 60 BP

-28.4 0/00

220 +/- 60 BP

SAMPLE #: Kahuku-2

ANALYSIS: radiometric-standard

MATERIAL/PRETREATMENT: (charred material): acid/alkali/acid

NOTE: It is important to read the calendar calibration information and to use the calendar calibrated results (reported separately) when intergretjna theBe re§!IJt§ in ARlee term§,

Dates are reported as RCYBP (radiocarbon years before present, "present" = 1950AO.), By International convention, the modern reference standard was 95% of the C14 content of the National Bureau of Standards' Oxalic Acid & calculated using the Libby C14 half Ufe (5568 years). Quoted errors represent 1 standard deviation statistics (68% probability) & are based on combined measurements of the sample, background, and mo.dern reference standards,

Measured C13/C12 ratios were calculated relative to the PDB·1 international standard and the RCYBP ages were normalized to -25 per mil, If the ratio and age are accompanied by an (*), then the C13/C12 value was estimated, based on values typical of the material type. The quoted results are NOT calibrated to calendar years. Calibration to calendar years should be calculated using the Conventional C14 age.

CALmRATION OF RADIOCARBON AGE TO CALENDAR YEARS

(Variables:C13/CI2=-27.8:1ab mult.=I)

Laboratory Number:

Conventional radiocarbon age:

Calibrated results: (2 sigma, 95% probability)

Intercept data:

Intercepts of radiocarbon age with calibration curve:

1 sigma calibrated results: (68% probability)

Beta-120 186 100:1: 40 BP

cal AD 1675 to 1770 and cal AD 1800 to 1940

cal AD 1890 and cal AD 1905

cal AD 1690 to 1735 and cal AD 1815 to 1925

I
I'
I, ~ 200
1
I 'J
QI
0'
'11
C
0
.c
> I '-
'11
I U
'! : 0
:a
'11 100
a: 1700

1800

References:

1900

2000

2100

cal AD

Pretoria CaHbration Curve for Short Lived SllItlples

Vogel,1. C., Fuls, A., Visser. E. and Becker, B., 1993, Radiocarbon 35(1), p73·86 A Simplified Approach to CaHbraJing CN Dates

Talmo, A. S. and Vogel, 1. C., 1993, Radiocarbon 35(2), p317.322 Calibration - 1993

Stuiver, M, Long, A., Kra, R. S. and Devine, 1. M, 1993. Radiocarbon 35(1)

Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory

4985 S.W. 74th Court, Miami, Florida 33155. Tel: (305)667-5/67. Fax; (305)663-0964. E-mail: [email protected]

CALm RATION OF RADIOCARBON AGE TO CALENDAR YEARS

(Variables:C13/C12=-28.4:1ab mult.=I)

Laboratory Number:

Conventional radiocarbon age:

Calibrated results: (2 sigma, 95% probability)

Intercept data:

Intercept of radiocarbon age with calibration curve:

1 sigma calibrated results: (68% probability)

220 :t 60 BP

Beta-120187 220:60 BP

cal AD 1520 to 1570 and cal AD 1630 to 1890 and cal AD 1905 to 1950

cal AD 1665

cal AD 1650 to 1680 and cal AD 1745 to 1805 and cal AD 1935 to 1950

CHARRED MATERIAL

100
+
j-
:Ii 0
1500 1600 1700 lEOO 1900 2000
cal AD
References: iOO

6: 300
(II
...,
II
0'
"
5
J;I
... 200
."
U
0
'i
a: Pfetofia CaUbfalion CuIVe/of Short Uved Samples

Vogel, J. C., Fuis, A., Visser, E. and Becker, B., 1993, Radiocarbon 35(1), p73·86 A Simplijled Approach to Calibrating CU Dates

Talmo, A. S. and Vogel, J. C, 1993, Radiocarbon 35(2), p317-322 Calibration -1993

Stuiver; M, Long, A., Kra; R. S. and Devine, J. M, 1993, Radiocarbon 35(1)

Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory

4985 S. W. 74th Court, Miami, Florida 33155 • Tel: (305)667-5167 • Fax: (305)663-0964 • E-mail: [email protected]

; 1;

.i I

; ,!.

I I

I

,

I I

I I

I,

;

BETA ANALYTIC INC.

RADIOCARBON DATING SERVICES

Dr. MURRY A. TAMERS Mr. DARDEN G. HOOD Directors

RONALD E. HATFIELD Laboratory Manager

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY (SEM) of materials submitted for radiocarbon dating

CHRISTOPHER L. PATRICK TERESA A. ZILKO-MILLER Associate Managers

Secondary CaC03, 690x, SEM

Cedar or cypress, 180x, SEM

CaC03 foram Infilling, 1360x, SEM

APPROPRIATE MATERIALS; SEM is especially useful for AMS samples. It is recommended for: (1) very small carbonates which cannot be pretreated (forams, ostracods, coccoliths); (2) unidentified macro-fossils concentrated from sediments; and (3) wood or charcoal for which some taxon identification is useful.

THE SERVICE & COST: Three (3) micrographs of various angles and/or magnifications are provided for each sample. Micrographs are obtained on a representative portion of the material submitted for radiocarbon dating, not on the dated material itself. The technician will usually be able to choose the angles and magnifications which are most appropriate. The service does not include identification or characterization, but wherever possible, some will be provided. The cost is $60 per sample when performed with C14 dating. Additional micrographs are available for $20 per photo per sample (minimum of 2).

4985 S.W. 74 COURT, MIAMI, FL 33155 U.S.A.

TELEPHONE; 305-667-5167 I FAX: 305-663-0964/ E-MAIL: betcerocsoccroon.com

BETA ANALYTIC INC.

RADIOCARBON DATING SERVICES

MURRY A. TAMERS DARDEN G. HOOD

ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES AND FINAL REPORT

RONALD E. HATFIELD Laboratory Manager

FINAL REPORT

CHRISTOPHER PATRICK TERESA A. ZILKO-MILLER Associate Managers

This package includes the final date report, this statement outlining our analytical procedures, a glossary of pretreatment terms, calendar calibration information, billing documents (containing balance/credit information and the number of samples submitted within the yearly discount period), and peripheral items to use with future submittals. The final report includes the individual analysis method, the delivery basis, the material type and the individual pretreatments applied. Please recall any correspondences or communications we may have had regarding sample integrity, size, special considerations or conversions from one analytical technique to another (e.g. radiometric to AMS). The final report has also been sent by fax or e-mail, where available.

PRETREATMENT

Results were obtained on the portion of suitable carbon remaining after any necessary chemical and mechanical pretreatments of the submitted material. Pretreatments were applied,

where necessary, to isolate 14C which may best represent the time event of interest. Individual pretreatments are listed on the report next to each result and are defined in the enclosed glossary. When interpreting the results, it is important to consider the pretreatments. Some samples cannot be fully pretreated making their 14C ages more subjective than samples which can be fully pretreated. Some materials receive no pretreatments. Please read the pretreatment glossary.

ANALYSIS

Materials measured by the radiometric technique were analyzed by synthesizing sample carbon to benzene (92 % C), measuring for 14C content in a scintillation spectrometer, and then calculating for radiocarbon age. If the Extended Counting Service was used, the 14C content was measured for a greatly extended period of time. AMS results were derived from reduction of sample carbon to graphite (100 %C), along with standards and backgrounds. The graphite was then sent for 14C measurement in an accelerator-mass-spectrometer located at one of six collaborating facilities; Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) in California, Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule University (ETH) in Zurich, Oxford University in England, The New Zealand Institute of Nuclear and Geological Sciences (GNS), Groningen University in The Netherlands, or The University of Kiel in Germany.

THE RADIOCARBON AGE AND CALENDAR CALIBRATION

The "Conventional C14 Age (*)" is the result after applying C13/C12 corrections to the measured age and is the most appropriate radiocarbon age (the "*" is discussed at the bottom of the final report). Applicable calendar calibrations are included for organic materials and fresh water carbonates between 0 and 10,000 BP and for marine carbonates between 0 and 8,300 BP. If certain calibrations are not included with this report, the results were either too young, too old, or inappropriate for calibration.

4985 s.w. 74 COURT. MIAMI, FL 33155 U.S.A.

TELEPHONE: 305-667-5167 / FAX: 305-663-0964/INTERNET: betosrcotoccroon.com WEB SITE: http://www.radiocarbon.com