WHAT PIPELINERS

NEED TO KNOW

ABOUT

INDUCTION BENDS

BARRY CROUCH
Managing Director

INDUCTABEND Pty Ltd

Melbourne Australia

1 of 20
 Abstract

Induction bends form an important link in the pipeline chain of delivery. Induction bending
requires careful planning and consideration to deliver high value and high benefit to cost ratio
solutions to pipeline routing problems.

Induction bends can be formed from a wide range of pipe materials – including low and high yield
carbon steels, alloy steels, stainless steels, Cr-Ni alloys and titanium; and find application in a wide
range of industries.

Induction bending is both a shaping and heat treatment process. Induction heating is utilised to
generate a narrow circumferential heat band in the pipe during the bending process. This hot
bending technique enables bending of large diameter and heavy wall pipe with relatively little force.
Induction heating is a controllable heat source, and in combination with appropriate bending
methods, can give consistent material properties and dimensional effects.

The metallurgical and dimensional characteristics of welded and seamless pipes affect the outcome
of the induction bending process and are often overlooked by pipeline designers and constructors.

Most gas transmission pipelines in Australia are based on HFW linepipe which has a range of wall
thicknesses and grades ideally suited to the induction bending process.

Limitations of the induction bending process may be encountered for high X grade materials in
thick wall SAW or seamless pipe; and especially for sour service applications where the pipe
chemistry may be insufficient to regain high strength whilst maintaining hardness limits. Under
these circumstances post bend heat treatments may be required.

This paper describes the process of induction bending and the influence of the motherpipe on the
resulting bend material properties and dimensions; and is intended to provide general background
information to designers and constructors to enable informed and timely decision making.

2 of 20
 1. What are induction bends?
Induction bends - or more commonly referred to by pipeliners as “hot bends” - are factory
manufactured bends formed from straight motherpipe using a pipe bending machine and the electric
induction heating process. Pipe bends produced from this process find application in the pipeline,
mining, power, process and construction industries.

Induction bending is simultaneously a shaping and heat treatment process. During bending, the
pipe is curved and changes section (wall thinning/thickening and ovality) and the material
properties are modified by the induction heating and cooling cycle. Induction bending is a dynamic
process and requires close control and monitoring to ensure that dimensional effects and imparted
material properties meet agreed values. Different pipe sizes and material types will respond in a
various ways to the induction bending process – and it is a requirement that the relationship
between the motherpipe and the induction process be well mapped-out prior to manufacture of the
production bends. The experience of the bending company, the size of the induction bending
machine(s) and the sophistication of the induction bending process controls become increasingly
important as the grade and process limits are approached.
For pipeliners, induction bending allows the production of piggable bends directly from bare
uncoated linepipe; generally from pipe produced directly for the project with due consideration for
the advantages and limitations of the process. Physical properties of induction bends can be
demonstrated through the manufacture of qualification test bends and subsequent mechanical
testing.
Suitable Standard references for the inspection and testing of pipeline induction bends are: ISO
15590-1, ASME B16.49, DNV OS F101.
Some archaic methods of “hot bending” use gas furnaces or torches to heat the pipe to enable
bending – “hot bends” formed in this manner are not applicable to the pipeline industry.

2. Why do pipeliners need induction bends?

A selected pipeline route is likely to include a number of changes in alignment, grade and elevation.
Pipeline designers and constructors have a range of options available to achieve the correct pipeline
position. In some sort of logical order; the pipeline string can be “roped” into place, installed with
cold-field bends, hot bends or even fittings. The selection of the appropriate mix of measures
would be made on a technical and commercially expedient basis.
Roping the pipeline string into position is limited by the maximum allowable strain of 0.5% (refer
AS2885.1 Section 5) which equates to 100% of the specified maximum yield strength (SMYS) for
the pipe. At 0.5% strain the equivalent bend radius of the roped pipeline is about 100 times the pipe
diameter (colloquially 100D). To avoid buckling the pipe and the use of external force, AS2885
recommends a minimum radius of 250D for roped bends.
Cold-field bends can be formed from individual coated pipe joints for the pipeline utilising
specialised field bending machines. Generally, the smallest radius obtainable by cold-field bending
in practice is about 1 ½° of angle deviation per diameter – this is equivalent to a bend radius of
about 40D. To ensure suitable results are achievable, trials are conducted to qualify the cold-field
bending machines and operators against the range of pipe to be used to construct the pipeline.
Neither of these methods is capable of giving the tight bend radii necessary to place the pipe close
to the alignment intersection point, negotiate tight confines, accommodate difficult terrain or to
cope with road and rail crossings and other features - particularly in built-up environments and for
larger pipe diameters.

3 of 20
Other than die pressed or forged bends, which may be difficult to obtain and expensive, the only
alternative is hot bends manufactured by the hot induction bending process. No other hot bending
method is explicitly approved by AS2885.1.

Induction bends form an important link in the pipeline chain of delivery. They require careful
planning and consideration to deliver high value and high benefit to cost ratio solutions to pipeline
routing problems. In particular, the pipeline can be correctly positioned and the cost of difficult and
expensive excavations may be reduced and environmental impacts minimised through the use of
compact hot bends and prefabricated configurations.

3. What kinds of induction bends are available to pipeliners?

Hot induction formed pipe bends can be manufactured from a wide range of pipe materials and
sizes to meet the needs of diverse industrial applications; including the pipeline, mining, power,
process and construction industries.

Materials
Pipe material types acceptable for induction bending include: all grades of carbon steels, stainless
steels, alloy steels, nickel alloys and titanium - as well as clad pipe. Basically the only metals
which are not generally amenable to induction bending are aluminium and copper based metals.

Pipe Types
Pipes manufactured as seamless or welded (HFW, SAWL, SAWH) are suitable for induction
bending, with each type presenting particular technical challenges.

Pipeline Bends
Pipeline requirements for induction bends can vary greatly in size and bend radii from project to
project. Generally manufactured from high strength carbon steel pipe, pipeline hot bends are
always required with demonstrable material properties, known dimensions and confirmed integrity.

4. How induction bends are made

Induction formed pipe bends are manufactured from straight motherpipe using specialised bending
machines and electric induction heating equipment. It is an inevitable consequence of the process
that the material and dimensional properties of the pipe are altered during hot bending. The
challenge is to design and control the process such that acceptable material properties are achieved
across the spectrum of grades and sizes that need to be bent. Each material is different, and this
means the process variables need to be defined for each situation to get the right results.
Process
The induction heating process has the unique capability to generate a narrow circumferential heat
band within the full wall thickness of the pipe. The pipe bending process utilizes the generated heat
band as a “plastic hinge”. Large sections can be bent with relatively little force due to the low hot
yield strength of the pipe as it moves through the coil. An additional advantage is that all the plastic

4 of 20
strain due to bending is confined to the narrow heat band and thereby minimising the tendency for
ovality and lowering the threshold for wrinkling.

Aim of induction bending

The primary aim for induction bending is that the end results of integrity (material properties and
defects) and dimensions are achieved as agreed. This requires advanced process control over the
principal manufacturing parameters of temperature, speed and cooling rate, as well as the important
start and stop procedures, in order to achieve consistent and acceptable results.

Simplistically, the induction bending process can be described as: commencing with the straight
pipe loaded into the bending machine and clamped to the bending arm at the required bend radius;
induction power is applied and when the required temperature is achieved the pipe is driven forward
at controlled speed to initiate bending. The bending arm provides the bending moment to curve the
pipe at the clamped radius; and bending progresses in a continuous even process until the required
bend angle is achieved.

4 7 Fb
5
P=Push Force
3
Fb=Bend Roll Force
le Fb R=Bend Radius
ang
2 1 1. Pusher
R

2. Bend roll
6 3. Heat transformer
4. Induction coil
5. Bend clamp
6. Bend arm
7. Pipe

SCHEMATIC OF INDUCTION BENDING MACHINE

Process Steps
In reality, the induction bending process is of course much more complex – especially for high end
applications where the effort expended before manufacture of any of the production bends can be
very extensive. For a typical X grade linepipe the process would involve careful evaluation of all
factors which affect the bending process; including: the pipe size and grade, pipe type (seamless or
welded), chemistry, the estimation of likely manufacture parameters; service condition; required
metallurgical and dimensional properties and therefore critical examination of the necessary starting
properties. The pipe for bending would have the surface prepared by grit blasting, visually
examined and inspected for wall thickness and defects. The induction coil would be designed for
optimum performance and a systematic approach to induction testing would be undertaken followed
by fully controlled qualification test bend manufacture with auto start and stop procedure

5 of 20
programming; inspections and mechanical testing. On approval of the qualification test bend results
the production motherpipe would be prepared and inspected and then induction bent as “clones” of
the approved procedure. The completed bends would be machined with bevel ends, tested and
inspected, coated as specified and labeled. Documentation would be assembled into a consolidated
manufacture data report detailing all aspects of manufacture, testing and inspections.

Each project represents a unique set of circumstances which must be defined and a suitable
Manufacture Procedure Specification (MPS) developed. Experience plays an important role in the
assessment of bending proposals and informing the client at the earliest possible opportunity of any
risks or issues to be considered. Historical data is valuable in saving time and reducing costs in
determining suitable process parameters.

Bending Capacity
The size and availability of induction bending machines governs the size and availability of
induction bends. Internationally, induction bending capacity covers the pipe size range DN50
through to over DN1600, and wall thicknesses from 3mm through to 150mm. A wide range of
machine types exist – many are one-off designs of varying capability and process control. The
bending capacity and capability for any given machine is a complex combination of pipe diameter,
wall thickness, material type, bend radius; and the appropriate processing parameters of
temperature, speed and cooling; and dimensional requirements.

In Australia, the current available induction bending capacity is based on Inductabend’s induction
bending machine with a rated maximum pipe diameter and wall thickness limit of DN900 and
100mm respectively (this should not be interpreted as capacity to bend DN900 pipe with a wall
thickness of 100mm). The bend radii available from Inductabend’s machine, depending on pipe
size, varies from 100mm to 12,500mm; and can be as tight as 1.5D. Longer radii are possible using
non conventional techniques.

100
90
Unsuitable - too stiff R = 3D
80
WALL THICKNESS

70 R = 5D

60 C A =Carbon steel @ 875 C

50
B B =Carbon steel @ 950 C
A
40 C =Carbon steel @ 1050 C
30 Suitable

20
10
Unsuitable - wrinkles
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
PIPE DIAMETER
TYPICAL INDUCTION PIPE
BENDING CAPACITY DIAGRAM

6 of 20
Bending Capability
Caution is recommended in the interpretation of induction bending capacity charts as they give no
clue to the levels of process controls which may be required to achieve the necessary material
properties and consistent dimensions throughout the arc length of the bend. Inductabend’s
machines have been specifically configured for enhanced process control necessary to manufacture
high quality pipeline bends from high X grade carbon steel pipes for the pipeline industry.

5. How is induction heating used for hot bending?

The beauty of induction heating is that it is controllable non-contact focussed heating. Induction
heating as applied to the induction bending process is configured as a single induction coil to heat a
relatively narrow circumferential band of pipe. The induction coil generates an intense localised
magnetic flux and “induces” an electric current to circulate within the pipe wall directly beneath the
induction coil but leaves no residual magnetism. It is the induced circulating current and the pipe
material resistivity which efficiently generates the heat necessary for hot bending. The induction
coil can be designed to give various heating affects such as a narrow or wide heat band to take
account of heat conduction into thick pipe walls; and with various configurations of cooling water
spray or forced air depending on particular requirements.

Induction Coil
Cooling Water
Cooling Water Induction Coil Spray
Spray Pyrometer
Aim
os Wall
ad Movement Thinning Temperature
tr

Contours
Ex

s Zone of
ado Bend O
Induction
r

Tensile M
Int

Heating Strain I

Plastic Zone

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF PIPE BEND AND INDUCTION COIL

The induction coil and cooling water spray system as shown in the diagram is based on water
sprayed from the induction coil directly onto the outside surface of the pipe bend as it emerges from
the induction coil. The difference in peak temperature and rate of cooling between the outside (O),
mid-wall (M) and inside (I) would be greatest for thick wall pipe.

6. How does induction bending affect dimensions?

Distortion of the pipe in the bend area due to induction bending includes ovality and wall thinning
at the bend extrados and a corresponding increase in wall thickness at the bend intrados. Expected
distortions for general bending can be estimated from tables. Actual distortions may vary from

7 of 20
predicted values due to the particular induction bending process requirements such as speed,
temperature, cooling method, coil design and material type.

8%

7%

6%
UNSUITABLE
FOR BENDING
OVALITY %

5%

4%
UNSTABLE
3%
110
2% 90
70
50 D/T
1% 30
SUITABLE
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
R/D
TYPICAL SUITABILITY & OVALITY
% THINNING ( T / T X 100)

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
R/D

TYPICAL WALL THINNING

Induction bends for pipe lines have typical bend radii between 10D and 5D, but may be as tight as
3D. For these radii, the expected wall thinning as a function of the actual starting wall thickness
would be 7%, 11% and 15% respectively. To meet particular project requirements it may be
necessary to use thicker pipe or select larger bend radii. In many projects it will be possible to
allocate heavier wall pipe for the induction bends by a planned allowance for additional heavy
walled pipe ordered for the special class locations such as crossings etc.

8 of 20
 7. How does induction bending affect the material properties?
There are three principal process parameters for induction bending which affect the material
properties – these are: speed, peak temperature and rate of cooling. Secondary process parameters,
which are very specific from machine to machine and depend on the sophistication of the control
process for each machine, are the start and stop procedures. Once qualified, these parameters must
be set as the target parameters for all subsequent production bends.

High Strength HFW Linepipe

Modern HFW line pipe steels are relatively low carbon micro-alloyed steels. Induction bending is
generally carried out in the temperature range 875C to 1075C which is above the austenitizing
temperature where re-crystallisation takes place. Over this temperature range the dissolution of
micro-alloyed elements increases with temperature. For a given starting chemistry, the peak
temperature achieved during induction heating and the rate of cooling determine the resulting
material properties. The established relationship of increasing strength and hardness with
increasing temperature and/or cooling rate is complex and is not the point of detailed discussion
here – suffice to say that the strengthening mechanism is a combination of grain size effects, the
solution and re-precipitation of micro-alloying constituents and the formation of low temperature
transformation products.

To confidently achieve high strength and toughness directly off the induction bending machine, the
peak temperature and cooling rate needs to be carefully controlled and this process must be
determined and supported by physical testing. For a fixed speed and constant cooling rate, the peak
temperature is controlled by the level of induction power applied during the bending process. The
cooling is rate determined by the speed of bending and the cooling water spray system comprising
pressure, volume and apertures etc.

EXAMPLE
1200 DN500 WALL 12.7 API 5LX70 HFW PIPE
CEQ 0.36
1100 SPEED: 50 MM/MIN COOLING: WATER
External Surface
O
1000 M Bend Wall
Thickness
900
Temperature C

I
Internal Surface
800
700
600
O
500
M
400 Hardness
300 I Value
200 HV10

100 243 217 210

1 2 3
1 10 10 10
Time sec
INFERRED TIME - TEMPERATURE CURVE

9 of 20
 EXAMPLE HFW PIPE
DN500 Wall11.1 API 5LX70 CEQ0.36
SPEED: 50MM/MIN COOLING:WATER

300 DN500 Wall12.7 API 5LX70 CEQ0.36

SPEED: 50MM/MIN COOLING:WATER
OUTSIDE SURFACE
O
M
Hardness HV10
I
INSIDE SURFACE
250
O
M
I

200

150
900 950 1000 1050
Temperature C
TEMPERATURE - HARDNESS

The above diagrams illustrate the effect of the wall thickness and the inferred rate of cooling, and
induction bending peak temperature on the hardness at the outside (heat sink) surface; mid wall, and
inside surface.

Higher processing temperatures and rates of cooling give higher strength and hardness; but lower
elongation and impact properties. For high strength HFW linepipe it tends to be the yield strength
after bending which dictates the necessary induction bending process parameters. Obtaining high
strength directly off the induction bending machine becomes more difficult when:
. the size of the pipe limits the bending speed;
. the pipe has inadequate chemistry (as indicated by a low carbon equivalent CEQ);
. low hardness is required for sour service.

The pipe wall thickness has a major bearing on the success or otherwise of the induction bending
process in achieving high strength. For a given induction heating frequency, as the pipe wall
thickness increases the induction bending speed slows to allow sufficient soak time to through-heat
the pipe wall. At slower speeds the cooling rate reduces since the pipe bend emerges more slowly
from the heating coil into the cooling water spray ring. In addition, for thicker wall pipe the
distance increases for heat conduction from the bore of the pipe to the water spray heat sink at the
outside surface. Slower cooling rates result in lower hardness and strength toward the bore of the
pipe.

Hardness limits
In recognition of the effects of the induction bending process and the technical requirements for
pipeline maximum hardness, The Pipeline Induction Bending Standard ISO 15590-1 limits the
hardness for induction bends for PSL1&2 class of pipe to a maximum value of 300 HV10; and for
PSL2S (Sour Service) a maximum allowable hardness of 250HV10 at the bore and 275HV10 at the
outside surface.

10 of 20
General trends
An understanding of the induction bending process can be gained by an evaluation of how various
starting conditions and process parameters affect the material properties. Some general trends are
clearly evident; in particular strength and hardness increase with higher processing temperatures
and chemistries (CEQ).

The graphs below have been derived from preliminary test results performed over the past several
years as part of the qualification testing programme for a select sample of HFW linepipe induction
bends. The selected sample of motherpipes were typically high yield strength (413 – 482 MPa)
with wall thicknesses ranging from 7.9 to 14.3mm. The induction bending process parameters did
vary between projects but were typically: speed 40 to 65mm/minute and peak induction bending
temperatures between 875C to 1,150C. All bends were water spray cooled, but at various pressures
and spray nozzle configurations. Details have not been shown for individual projects - rather the
intent is to illustrate the trends which are evident despite the variety in pipe diameter, chemistry,
wall thickness and processing parameters.

Trends which are illustrated are:

• Yield and Tensile Strength increase with the Induction Bending Temperature. The weakest
trend is for Yield Strength where the determination of the yield value gives variable results
due to the affect of the flattening process during tensile sample preparation.

STRENGTH VS INDUCTION BENDING TEMPERATURE

900
YIELD STRENGTH & TENSILE STRENGTH

800

700

600
Mpa

500

400

300
800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200
TEMPERATURE C

• Hardness increases with Induction Bending Temperature. The greatest effect is apparent on
the outside (cooling) surface and samples have been plotted below to illustrate this effect.

11 of 20
 SURFACE HARDNESS VS INDUCTION BENDING
TEMPERATURE

330
310
290

HARDNESS HV10
270
250
230
210
190
170
150
800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200
TEMPERATURE C

• For a given induction bending temperature (1000C chosen for illustration), the Yield and
Tensile Strength increase with CEQ. As above the weakest trend is for the yield strength.

STRENGTH VS CEQ

900
YIELD& TENSILE STRENGTH MPa

800

700

600

500

400

300
0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38
CEQ %

• For a given induction bending temperature (1000C chosen for this illustration) the Surface
Hardness increases with CEQ.

HARDNESS VS CEQ

280

260

240
HARDNESS HV10

220

200

180

160

140

120

100
0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38
CEQ %

12 of 20
More subtle trends have been observed over time, these are:

• An increase in strength and hardness with an increase in the cooling rates – either by faster
processing speeds or higher cooling water pressure.

• For a given chemistry (CEQ) and processing temperature and cooling rate; a lower overall
pipe strength results as the pipe wall thickness increases. This is due to the proportionately
increasing contribution of material which has undergone slower and slower rates of cooling
as the wall thickness increases and cooling rates diminish with distance from the cooling
surface.

• Lower toughness and elongation with increasing temperature or cooling rates.

8. What about post bend heat treatment?

An important consideration for induction bends is the use of post bend heat treatments including
normalise, anneal, temper, and quench and temper.

In some cases there may be a conflict between the bending process parameters required to achieve
material properties – for example in heavy wall high strength pipe, the process parameters required
to achieve the yield strength and tensile strength may cause the outside surface hardness limits to be
exceeded. And the only way of solving that problem may be the application of a post bend heat
treatment. Heat treatment may also resolve an impasse where the process parameters required to
limit the wall thinning (the bend is formed with very cold extrados) in a critical application, does
not achieve the required material strength.

Post bend heat treatment is restricted by the size and availability of suitable furnaces. There are
very few furnaces available which are capable of heat treating induction bends made from large
diameter pipe. This is especially so for bends which require quench and temper heat treatments.

Incorrect use of post bend temper heat treatments may cause more problems than it solves – in
particular a temper heat treatment required for the bend area may adversely affect the unbent
straight tangent on each end of the bend.

Because of the size range of HFW pipe (limited diameter and relatively low wall thickness) and that
the chemistry is generally well suited to the induction bending process, heat treatment is rarely
required for induction bends formed from HFW linepipe.

9. How does the motherpipe affect hot bending?

To understand where the boundaries and risks lie for pipeline induction bending it is important to
understand the characteristics of the various types of linepipe and how they relate to the induction
bending process.

HFW Linepipe
Most transmission pipeline induction bends in Australia are based on high frequency welded
(HFW) linepipe with a range of wall thicknesses and grades such that the necessary material
properties can be produced directly from the induction bending machine without any further
treatments.

13 of 20
For HFW linepipe in the size range DN100 to DN600, wall thickness up to 14.3mm and grades X42
to X80, the pipeline designer should have every confidence that induction bends can be produced
with material properties equivalent to the motherpipe. Linepipe manufactured in modern HFW
pipe mills is produced from thermo-mechanically control rolled steel strip with chemistries to meet
grade and high speed seam weldability requirements. HFW pipe chemistry is generally well suited
to the requirements for the induction bending process. This can partly be explained in that modern
HFW linepipe mills utilize in-line induction heating for the weld seam annealing heat treatment
process. This annealing treatment - albeit at a different temperature and speed - is not dissimilar to
the induction bending process thermal effect on material properties.

SAW Pipe
Larger diameter and heavier wall SAW pipe may slow the induction bending process and thereby
restrict the range for the various process parameters. This is particularly the case for high X grade
materials where higher temperatures and faster cooling rates derived from faster process speeds are
required. For large diameter and heavy wall pipes, high strength properties may not be achievable
without a corresponding increase in pipe chemistry to ensure that the pipe material is sufficiently
responsive (hardenable) for the lower peak temperature at the pipe bore and the slower rate of
cooling.

Seamless
Achieving high strength properties directly off the induction bending machine tends to be more
problematic for seamless pipe compared to the equivalent size and grade of welded pipe.
High strength seamless carbon steel linepipe is manufactured in a manner quite different than that
used to make pipe from rolled plate or strip. Seamless pipe is hot formed to achieve the required
pipe diameter and wall thickness; it is then heat treated to achieve the required strength and
toughness. Pipe mills naturally design pipe chemistries to suit the rapid internal and external mill
quench and heat treatment process. Induction bending is practically limited to external water spray
cooling (ie from one side only) at relatively slow speeds and therefore cannot achieve the same
quench rate as pipe mills. For lean chemistry high strength seamless pipes with wall thicknesses
above 13mm it may be necessary to perform a full body post bend quench and temper heat
treatment otherwise only downgraded material properties may be achieved off the bending process.

Pipe Chemistry
As has been demonstrated, chemistry plays and important role in achieving the required pipeline
properties – this is particularly the case for high strength induction bends from heavy wall line pipe.

The Offshore Pipeline Standard - DNV OS F101 gives maximum allowable chemistries for various
grades of line pipe (seamless and welded, tables 6.1 & 6.2) and motherpipe for induction bending
(table 7.5). The trend of allowing higher chemistries for higher grades is clearly evident. The
allowable maximum percentage of the principal constituents of carbon and manganese, as well as
the micro-alloying elements of niobium, titanium and vanadium, all increase with strength grade.
In addition, it can be seen that for induction bends a higher chemistry is allowable over and above
that for the equivalent grade seamless pipe; and even more so over that for welded pipe. These
trends are most apparent in the consequential increase in the maximum allowable carbon equivalent
(CEQ) for each grade and type. The footnote for each table indicates that the maximum allowable
chemistry is applicable to quite heavy wall thicknesses.

14 of 20
Pipe Wall thickness
The actual wall thickness compared to the “nominal” wall thickness, and the variations in wall
thickness, can be quite different between welded pipe and seamless pipe.
Welded pipe is made from plate and as such will have a very even wall thickness along the pipe and
around the pipe circumference with some thickening in the weld zone. Since pipe mills like to
economise, it can be expected that the actual wall thickness for welded pipe will almost invariably
be at or slightly under the nominal value.
Seamless pipe wall thickness is dependant on the quality of the pipe mill and can be much more
variable that for welded pipe. Wall thickness may vary greatly around the pipe circumference and
along the length of the pipe; and between pipe joints from the same heat. The bore may be
eccentric to the outer diameter and give thicker and thinner sides to the pipe; and ridges in the bore
may give immediately adjacent thick and thin areas of pipe wall.
On top of all of this of course any mark or blemish is going to further detract from the wall
thickness. Expectations of the actual motherpipe wall thickness compared to the nominal value
should generally be pessimistic – not optimistic!

10. What can go wrong with hot bends?

Things that can go wrong are basically divided into two groups: those relating to the motherpipe;
and those relating to the bending process – either the process parameters or those arising from faults
and incorrect set-up or defects detected in the bends.
Inspections provide a vital role in the manufacture of induction bends. The section dimensions can
be measured through the use of calipers and pigs for ovality and roundness; and ultrasonic
techniques for wall thickness. The integrity of the bend can be checked by non destructive
techniques including visual inspection; magnetic particle, ultrasonic, radiographic and dye penetrant
inspection; surface hardness testing and hydrostatic testing. Whilst bend material properties can be
inferred by the relationship between the principal manufacture parameters between the qualification
test bend and the production bends.

Mother pipe
a. Defects
Defects in the motherpipe can be exacerbated by the induction bending process. Induction bending
cannot turn a sow’s ear into a silk purse - what you start with is largely going to determine what you
end up with.

The most common defect in pipe is due to poor handling causing gouges and dents. Obviously thin
wall pipe will be more susceptible to damage than thick wall pipe. For HFW pipe, rolled-in
inclusions and lack of fusion or cracks in the weld region are possible but generally very rare.
Seamless pipe may have surface laminations and slivers that are revealed during grit blast
preparation and hot bending. These defects are rare but can affect whole lengths – and even
multiple lengths from the same heat – and are very much associated with the quality of the pipe
mill.

b. Chemistry
Hot induction bending effectively heat treats the pipe material in the bend area. The chemistry of
the pipe for induction bending is most critical in high strength requirements for thick wall pipes
where slower bending and consequentially slower rates of cooling are experienced. If the chemistry
is insufficient the hardenability of the pipe will be low and the required pipe strength may not be
achievable directly off the induction bending machine.

15 of 20
 c. Diameter
Due to mill tolerances for end and mid pipe diameter, large diameter SAWL and particularly
SAWH pipe may have a significant numerical diameter difference from the end of the pipe to the
middle of the pipe. Where bends are cut mid-joint from these pipes, transition pieces may be
required for weld preparation line-up.
d. Contamination
Surface contamination by low melting point metals such as copper, zinc or lead can cause “liquid
metal embrittlement” and result in surface cracks in the bend extrados. Pre-bend surface treatments,
such as inert grit blasting, minimise this risk.

Qualification Testing
During initial or qualification testing, difficulties in achieving minimum material properties may be
identified despite all the best efforts of the bender. Most commonly, the two principal protagonists
are: yield strength – which sets the lower bound of the processing parameters; and hardness - which
sets the upper bound. For thick wall pipe in sour service - a conflict can arise in that the process
parameters required to achieve the necessary strength cause the surface hardness to exceed the
specified limit. In this case the bending process window has “closed” and post bend immersion
quench and temper heat treatment may be required.

Process Parameters
Process parameters should not vary from manufacture of the qualification test bend to manufacture
of the production bends. Principal process parameters include: speed, temperature, cooling and the
start/stop procedures.

a. Speed
It is critical that the speed does not vary during the bending process. The thermal cycle
experienced by each elemental piece of pipe which passes through the induction process must be
restricted to a narrow range. Slippage in the pipe clamp on the radius arm or an elastic or spongy
drive mechanism will cause speed variations during bending. Pipe which “lurches” through the
bending process will produce variable properties along the arc length. Some bend regions which
have “stalled” in the machine will have higher peak temperatures and slower rates of cooling: whilst
others will have lower peak temperature and rapid cooling caused by sudden rapid forward progress
of the pipe in the machine.

b. Temperature
As has been shown, the bending temperature will have a significant effect on the final bend
properties.

Optical pyrometers are the eyes for the induction bending process – they record the temperature of
the bending process and support the basis of manufacture.

Aiming the pyrometers is critical in that the peak temperature within the heat band must be within
the field of view. Recorded temperatures must practically represent the entire circumference of the
pipe. For smaller pipes it may be acceptable to have two pyrometers – one at the intrados and one
at the extrados to monitor and record the peak temperature; for larger pipe say >DN300 it may be
necessary to have four pyrometers covering the four quadrants of the circumference of the pipe. In
addition the bend machine operator must visually monitor the temperature of the heat band
circumference for consistency between the pyrometer aim locations. A hand held “roaming”
pyrometer can be very useful in this regard.

16 of 20
Some processes are more temperature sensitive than others and identification of the level of
temperature control required is an important phase of the preliminary testing process.

c. Cooling
Cooling of the pipe bend as it emerges from the induction coil is critical in achieving high strength
for linepipe bends. The coil used for production must be the same coil used to manufacture the
qualification test bend; and at the same cooling water pressure and temperature.

d. Start and Stop programmable procedures

Probably the least known and described aspect of induction bending, and is generally highly
guarded proprietary information.

For critical applications such as high X grade bends with properties derived directly off the
induction bending machine, the start and stop process must be programmable - not operator driven –
and set as part of the qualification process.

The start and stop procedures must give consistent reproducible results for the thermal transitions at
each end of the bend. Note here that the thermal transition (as opposed to the dimensional
transition) may actually lie some distance along the straight tangent on each end of the bend. It may
not actually be at the tangent point where the bend curvature transitions into the straight tangent.

e. Bend angle
Bend angles achieved by induction bending are generally very accurate – particularly after the first
bend of a batch. Measurement of the bend angle should be made for each bend immediately after
forming. Estimates of the likely bend spring-back can be made and adjusted as bends progress.
Any bends outside the agreed angle tolerance can be isolated for discussion. Various angle
measuring techniques are required to measure the correct angle – particularly for pipe with short
tangent ends where significant ovality in the straight tangent on each end of the bend may
complicate measurement of the actual angle.

f. Radius
Actual bend radii are generally within a tolerance of 1% of the target radius. Unless a serious set-
up mistake has been made, it would be very unlikely the radius for pipeline bends is an issue.

g. Wrinkles and bumps.

Bends for pipe lines are generally made at fairly generous radii. If wrinkles or bumps are detected a
manufacturing problem may have occurred. A slight bump may be evident at the bend start
intrados where bending compression “up-sets” the pipe wall. This “up-set” is associated with pipe
wall thickening, where the change in wall thickness tends to exhibit on the outside surface of the
pipe. Unless obviously severe the “up-set: is not detrimental to the pipe but can be controlled by
good start-up procedures, thicker walled pipe and larger bend radii.

A wrinkle in the middle of the bend may indicate slippage in the clamp, power outage or excessive
coil movement.

h. Process interruptions
Loss of electrical power, even if only momentary, will cause the bending process to shut down and
will almost always lead to rejection of the bend – particularly if induction bending high strength
pipe to achieve high strength material properties.

17 of 20
 i. Air draught
During hot induction bending using water spray cooling (necessary for high X grade pipes) air is
blown from behind the induction coil to draught the cooling water spray away from the heat band.
The use of air draught must be kept to a minimum and must be consistent throughout the bending
process as the air draught can affect the surface temperature recorded by the pyrometers. Excessive
air may suppress the outside surface temperature giving an artificially low reading. The operator
may adjust for this apparent drop in temperature by increasing induction power - thereby
inadvertently increasing the subsurface temperature of the pipe and adversely affecting the material
properties.

Bend dimensions
a. Ovality
Ovality caused by bending is mainly confined to the bend area but can extend some distance along
the straight tangent on each end of the bend – particularly for thin wall bends formed at tight bend
radii. Ovality is generally a function of pipe diameter, wall thickness and bend radius but it is also
influenced by the bending temperature, cooling method and material type. Ovality is less likely to
occur for heavy wall, large radius bends formed at high temperature giving the lowest bending
forces; and using water spray cooling (rather than forced air) to give the narrowest possible heat
band. It is generally possible to predict ovality from historical information and simple guidelines.

b. Diameter
During induction bending the pipe circumference in the bend area may contract (typically 0.5% for
carbon steels, 1% for stainless) due to the coefficient of thermal expansion. Such constriction may
impact on very tight internal diameters for pigging etc.

c. Wall thinning
Thinning of the bend wall on the extrados is a feature of all bending processes and, for a given pipe
diameter, is largely a result of the specified radius. Uncontrolled wall thinning can result if the
extrados becomes hotter than the bend intrados – effectively shifting the bend neutral axis towards
the intrados. This highlights the need for good temperature control on the bend intrados and
extrados for wall thinning control.

11. What pipeliners should consider to get good induction bends right first
time and on time?
a. Include the consideration of hot bends in the design (FEED and detail).
b. Familiarise themselves with the ISO, ASME, DNV standards as necessary.
c. Talk to the bender
d. Give consideration to the pipe material chemistry in relation to the required material
strength for the given wall thickness. This is effectively making a risk assessment on the
likelihood of achieving the material properties after induction bending.
e. Give careful consideration to the maximum allowable hardness value. Specifying a value
lower than that which is technically required will unduly limit the scope of the bender and
may compromise other more critical material characteristics – such as yield strength.
f. Allow for actual dimensions of the motherpipe - in particular to allow for mill tolerances
and some surface marking; take a conservative view of the actual pipe wall thickness.

18 of 20
g. The material take-off (MTO) for the bends should be determined on the basis of the
individual length of pipe required for each bend being nested into the available pipe joint
lengths. Do not total the length of pipe required for the bends and divide by the available
joint length to determine the number of joints required. The bender can advise a suitable
MTO for the pipe joints required for the list of bends. Allow for and expect wastage from
trimming and short off-cuts.
h. Allow for a contingency quantity of motherpipe to cover the need for qualification testing
and any reject bends etc. For small quantities of bends this may mean an oversupply of
100% of the pipe actually required for the bends (including the preliminary and qualification
bends); on larger jobs it may mean an additional 5% of pipe joints.
i. Induction bends for pipe lines require that a full qualification test bend be performed per
heat. Where possible, select bare uncoated motherpipe all from the same heat - otherwise
significant cost impacts will arise due to multiple qualification test bends and a loss of
motherpipe consumed in the additional testing.
j. Allow for suitable straight tangent lengths on each end of each bend to avoid the bend
ovality which is greatest closest to the bend. Small diameter thick walled pipe formed to
large bend radii shall have the least bend ovality. Typically, ovality is minimal at least two
pipe diameters away from the bend area. Regardless, all pipeline contractors should expect
and plan for the use of external line-up clamps when welding hot bends into the pipeline.
k. Bend angles should be stated as the angle of deflection – not the internal angle. Pipeline
routes are often characterised by changes in alignment based on the survey internal angle.
On this basis, a straight pipe would have an internal angle of 180 degrees; and a bend with a
deflected angle of 45 degrees would have an internal angle of 135 degrees! Never use a mix
of both methods of angle description!
l. Allow for a suitable lead time and other logistics to manufacture and test the preliminary
and qualification test bend before the production bends. For a small project the qualification
process of two to three weeks may take longer than the period of time required to
manufacture the production bends. Completed bends can be stored at the bender or the
coater’s yard and called-up as required, or if remote stored on-site at suitable staging
locations.
m. Transport should be carefully planned. It may be possible to transport only a few bends at a
time - especially if the bends are made from large diameter pipe, at large bend radii, with
large bend angles and with long straight tangents on each end of each bend. Supporting and
padding bends and the use of fabric restraints during transport should be carefully
supervised to ensure they can be safely transported and unloaded without damage. Handling
of bends requires the use of soft slings from overhead cranes or mobile plant – forklifts are
not an acceptable method of handling bends.
n. Coating systems suitable for buried pipe bends are generally based on spray or roller applied
ultrahigh build-up epoxy which must be compatible with the tie-in coating system. Tape
wrapped bends have difficulties in wrap adhesion to the three dimensional curved surface of
a pipe bend and may be unsuitable. Under special circumstances, fusion bonded epoxy
(FBE) coatings may be available on induction bends.
o. Where possible take advantage of compound formed bends to make compact pipe spools to
reduce field welds etc in the piping system.

19 of 20
12. References:
• API Specification 5L Specification for Line Pipe
• AS 2885.1-2007 Pipelines – Gas and liquid petroleum.
• ASME B16.49 Factory-made Wrought Steel Buttwelding Induction Bends for
Transportation and Distribution Systems.
• DNV OS F101 Submarine Pipeline Systems
• ISO 15590-1 Petroleum and natural gas industries – Induction bends, fittings and flanges for
pipeline transportation systems – Part 1 – Induction bends.

20 of 20