Welcome to a session on the

study of Transformers , used

in the sub transmission and
distribution systems and also
in the EHV Network
 Transformers
1. Principles
2. Types
3. Materials used in Construction
4. Magnetic Circuit
5. Winding & Insulation
6. Voltage Regulation
7. Cooling Arrangements
8. Auxiliaries
9. Loading Life
10. Protection
11. Case Studies
 Transformer Components

• Core
• Windings HV / LV / Tertiary
• Insulating Oil
• Tapping Switch
• Coolers : Fans / oil pumps / Radiators
• Bushings HV / LV / Tertiary / Neutral
• Terminals
• Tank : Main / Conservator (+ OLTC)
• Gas Relay : Bucholtz (main / OLTC) / Surge
• Over Pressure Relief / Vent Diaphragm
• Control Cabinet : OLTC – M / R / A
• Cooler – M / A
• Temperature Indicators : Oil / Winding
 Types of Transformers

• Distribution

• Power : HV / EHV class, Single or Three phase

: Two / Three windings
: Auto

• Oil filled / Dry (Resin cast) / Gas Filled

• Completely self protected (CSP)
• Pole Mounted, Single phase
• Pad Mounted 3ph unit
 Transformers Principles

• Transfers power from one circuit to another without change in

frequency
• Works on mutual induction principle
• Comprises of two or more coils linked to a magnetic circuit
• Has one primary and one or more secondary windings
• Receives power at one voltage on the primary
• Delivers power on the secondary at another voltage
• Some formulae :
• e1 = -L * di / dt
• V1 = N1 * dø / dt(Counter emf is equal and opposite to applied volts)
• E1 = 4.44 * f * N1 * dø / dt
• E2 = 4.44 * f * N2 * Bmax * A
• V1/ V2 = I2 / I1 = NI / N2 = K (Turns ratio)
Transformer on no load
I0 = √ ( I µ 2 + I w 2 )

 Transformer on load :
N2 * I2 = N1 * I2 ‘
I2’ = N2 / N1 * I2 = K * I2
(I2” is the load component of primary current)
 Transformer with magnetic leakage
Z1 = √ R1sq + X1sq
Z2 = √ R2sq + X2sq
V1 = E1 + I1 * Z1
E2 = V2 + I2 * Z2
 Percentage Regulation = (V2 – V2’ / v2 ) * 100
 Losses : Core
Copper
 % Efficiency = { [ Input – losses] / Input }* 100
• Conditions of maximum efficiency occurs when

Copper Loss = Iron Loss

• In general a transformer is the most efficient equipment
(95%)
• In higher ranges 99% efficiency is achievable
• Auto transformers are used when the transformation ratio
differs slightly from unity
• Copper saved in auto transformer = K * wt of copper in
2winding Tr

Teritiary :
1. Can be unloaded / loaded
2. Delta winding ensures stability
3. Provides path for third harmonic currents
4. Rating depends on usage
 Materials used in construction
• 70 % of the materials used are :
• Core
• Winding
• Insulating Oil.

• Core : In India, distribution Transformers manufactured use 0.27M4

grade CRGO.
However, the core losses can be reduced by using other superior
grades as below:
• H1 B – 0.27 : Reduction –16%
• H1 B – 0.23 : – 24%
• Laser Grade ZD MH-0.23 : – 38%
• Slitting of core must be done carefully otherwise it adversely affects
quality.
• MITRING (at 45º) reduces Reluctance and reduces core loss.
• Annealing is to be done at 760 to 845ºC to
• Reduce mechanical stress
• Prevent contamination
• Enhance insulation of lamination coating
• Core :
• Provides a high permeability closed path for Magnetic Flux
• Supports the winding
• Consists of laminated sheet steel (CRGO,Amorphous)
• Limbs - members, Yoke- Horizontal member
• Core laminations are very thin, coated with insulation /varnish.
• Types: Core - Generally used in India,Europe,USSR. Two , Three , Five
Limbed core construction
• Shell- Generally preferred in USA. In this the winding is encircled by Core.
The Flux in the vertical limb divides into two paths into the Horizontal
yokes.The Cross Section of the Limb is twice that of the Yoke.
• Core Type: Most of the Power Transformers are of this type.
• In Three Limbed core, the cross section of Limb and Yoke are equal.With
Large Transformers the height of the Transformer should be kept within
Transportation limits.
• Five Limbed core used in such cases. The Top and Bottom yokes are made
within 58% of the area of the principal Limb and the two return Limbs are
about 45% of the Principal Limb.
• This gives the choice of weight,Height, and Losses.
• The Core is made up of a number of Laminations
• The vertical members carrying winding is called Leg / Limb
• The Horizontal member at the Top and Bottom is called Yoke.
• The Limbs and the Yokes are stacked separately.
• In construction, the Laminations of the Limb and Yoke are interleaved.
• A long lamination of the Limb is matched with a short lamination of the Yoke
in one Layer. In the next layer, a short lamination of the Yoke is matched
with a long layer of the Limb. This method of alternate long and short
laminations form a stack in interleaved construction.
• Where the lamination of the Limb and the Yoke meet, the joint could be “Butt
type” or “Mitred”
• In the Butt joint, the flux changing from vertical to Horizontal experiences
Reluctance.
• In Mitred Joint, normally used with CRGO, the laminations are so placed the
Lines of flux flow in the direction of rolling in the Limbs/ Yokes/ Joints.
• This reduces the Reluctance of the Magnetic path, Iron Losses and
Magnetizing current.
• No Load Loss is reduced by 12%
• Excitation Current reduced by 25%
• The Limb and the Yoke are made of a number of laminations in steps.
• Each Step comprises of a some number of laminations of equal width.
• The width of the central step is “Maximum” and that at the circumference is
“Minimum”.
• The cross section of the Limb and Yoke is nearly circular.
• The Mitred joint could be at 45 or 35 to 55 degrees. But the former reduces
wastage.
• CLAMPING :
• Ensures mechanical rigidity and provides required magnetic characteristic.
• Top and Bottom yokes are clamped by steel sections using number of
insulated yoke studs.
• These studs do not pass through the core but held between steel sections.
• Of late, Glass fibre bands, are wound over the Limbs tightly with the desired
Tension and heat treated
• This utilizes the CRGO much better.
• Clamping methods without using Core Studs :
• (1) Glass Fibre Insulated Steel tape are tightened by insulating Laminated
wood or Reinforced synthetic Resin Bolt.
• (2) Resin impregnated glass fibre bands are used for tightening the core
assembly and baked at high temperatures.
• (3) The core is temporarily taped . A closely fitting SRBP cylinder is inserted
to insulate the limb and clamp the laminations.
• These methods can be used for Yokes also.
• Hysteresis Loss : The Alternating voltage applied to a winding produces
alternating Magnetic Flux and the crystals of the silicone steel are subjected
to such fluxes and result in spending of the energy. This loss is called
Hysteresis.
• Eddy Current Loss : When the Alternating Magnetic flux flows through the
core, a small emf is induced in the core which causes a circulating
current.This is called eddy Current and the energy as Eddy Current Loss.
• Magnetostriction: or generally called as Humming, is an inherent property of
Laminated steel and is due to the elongation and contraction of the
laminations. Higher silicone content will reduce the Hum but the lamination
will be very brittle.
 Winding Material
Copper - Usually in 8 – 16mm rods is drawn to the
required sizes and then insulated with paper etc..

Annealing is done for softening and stress releaving in electrically heated

annealing plant under vacuum upto 400-500ºC.

After 48hrs when the temperature reaches ambient, the vacuum is slowly
released and the material is transferred to Insulation section.
 WINDINGS

Types:
– Distributed
– Spiral
– Helical
– Continuous disc
– Transposed
– Interleaved Disc
– Shield Layer

Distributed Winding:
• Used for HV windings where current does not exceed 20 amps.
• Used in small capacity Distribution Transformers.
• Circular cross section Conductor is used.
• The coils are joined in series spaced with Blocks which provide
Insulation and Cooling.
SPIRAL :
– Used up to 33kv,for Low Currents.Strip conductors are used.
– Wound closely on Bakelite/Press Board cylinders without cooling ducts.
– Multi layer windings are provided with cooling ducts between layers
– No transposition is necessary as the lengths are identical.
– Normally used on Flat side. But some times wound on edge.The width
and thickness of the strip must be adequate to prevent twisting.
Helical :
Used for low Voltage, High Currents
– A number of conductors are used in parallel to form one turn.
– The turns are wound axially, in helix.
– Each turn is separated from the other by a duct.
– Could be Single/Double /Multi Layer Winding
– Transposition is done to reduce Eddy Losses.
– Each Conductor within a coil is not of the same length, does not embrace
same Flux, has different impedances, hence circulating currents, and
therefore Transposed.
Continuous Disc :
• Used for voltages between 33 and 132kv only for medium currents.
• Coil comprises of a number of Sections placed axially.
• Cooling Duct is provided between each section.
• Each section has Flat Coil , has more than one Turn.
• Each turn may have more than one conductor (up to 5)
Interleaved Disc :
• Used above 145kv
• Interleaving makes the coil to with stand higher impulse voltages
Shielded Layer :
• Used up to 132kv in star connected transformers with graded
insulation
• Consists of a number of concentric spiral coils.
• These are arranged in layers
• Layers are graded –longest at neutral and shortest at line end
• Layers are arranged in concentric shields
• Layers are separated by cooling ducts
• This ensures uniform distributed voltages
 VOLTAGE REGULATION

• Off circuit Tap changer

• On load Tap changer
(voltage is changed by changing the number of turns in the primary or
secondary windings)

Off circuit Tap changer :

1. Cheapest
2. Transformer has to be taken out of service
3. Operating crank is provided outside the transformer
4. Tap positions are indicated
5. Interlocks are provided
6. An insulating shaft is connected to the moving contact
7. Fixed contacts are provided on terminals
8. Switching sequence
On load Tap changer :
1. Can be used on load
2. Transition resistors / reactors used
3. Transition reactors are used only in USA
4. Transition resistors are used in Diverter Switches
5. Selector switch , inside the main transformer selects the tap
6. Switching sequence as per transparency

• Tap changing operation takes about 40 – 80 ms

• Single / double transition resistors can be used
• Single / double compartments can be used
• Selector and diverter switches are located in one compartment in
single compartment type
• Double compartment type has separate compartments for selector
and diverter
• Tapping is provided on the neutral end of the HV winding
• OLTC is provided on the neutral end of the HV windings
• Tap changer could be one three phase or three single phase units
• Reversing switch helps in wider voltage regulation
• The diverter switch has make before break contacts
• The tap selector contact are arranged in two circles ,one even ,the
other odd taps
• Main Bucholtz relay takes care of the selector faults
• OLTC surge relay takes care of faults in the diverter
• Taps can be controlled manually / from remote / auto
• Tap changing is done step by step
• Some transformers have tripping scheme if the time exceeds
• Limit switches cut off the motor supply at the end of the taps
• Insertion of operating crank disconnects A/C supply to the motor
• In manual operation turning the crank further at the end taps
disengages the drive shaft of the motor
• The motor drive has all the electrical and mechanical interlocks ,
auxiliary switches , raise/lower push buttons , contactors, terminal
blocks etc
• A/C supply is automatically cut off to the control circuit if the push
button is held depressed during the tap changing operation
Dry Type Transformer:
• It is one in which the insulating medium surrounding the windings is
Gas or Compound.
• It does not use the insulating oil.
• The windings are coated with Varnish / Resin under vacuum.
• Vacuum impregnated with varnish protects winding against Moisture
and Contaminants.
• They are Single / Three Phase
• They could be ventilated / Non Ventilated / Sealed.
• It could be Indoor / outdoor
• It is Non Inflammable
• It has improved Thermal capability
• It is applicable in areas Exposed to Fumes/ Vapour/ Dust/ Steam/
Salt Spray/ Dripping of water / Snow.
Completely Self Protected Transformer ( CSP):

• Has a Protective Link in the primary

• Has a Circuit Breaker in the secondary
• Has an External la for surge protection
• The Transformer is protected against Over loads
• It is protected against surges
• It protects the external system from external faults
• The LT breaker is provided inside the tank
• An indication is received when the LT CB operates
• HV Link is mounted separately inside the Tank.
• Amorphous Metal Distribution Transformers:
• AM comprises of Iron, Boron, and Silicone alloy in the form of Molten alloy.
• It is rapidly cooled such that it cannot form crystals. It is non crystalline and
has random molecular structure. Hence Hysterisis Loss is Low.
• The Metal is extremely hard. But the sheets are very thin.
• Hence Eddy Current Loss is Low. It has Low Hysterisis Loss.
• In respect of AM, when the AC supply is applied, the alternating magnetic
field applied to the metal causes the atoms reorient and return to the same
original orientation. In CRGO , a friction is caused resulting in heat and
excessive loss.
• AMT uses 70 to 80% less energy than the CRGO.
• The space factor for CRGO is 96% where as for AMT it is 80%. Space
Factor is defined as the ratio of Core Cross section to the Area available for
the core.Lower the Space Factor, cores have to be larger and heavier.
• The initial cost of a AMT is therefore 25 to 30 % more than a CRGO
• However, the TOC is considered ie when the loss is capitalized, the AMDT
is economical and beneficial to the user since it makes available additional
power, the pollution levels are low, and also helps in demand side
management of the load.
•
CONSERVATOR TANK:
– It is an Expansion Vessel
– It maintains oil in the Transformer above a Minimum Level
– It has a Magnetic Oil Level Guage.
– It can give an alarm if the oil level falls below the limit
– A portion of the Tank is separated for use with OLTC.
– This usually has oil level indicators
– Main Conservator Tank can have a Bellow
– It has an oil filling provision
– It has an oil drain valve
– Provision is there for connecting a Breather.
– HIGH voltage Bushings:
– Types: Porcelain
– Condenser
– Porcelain Bushing usage is limited to 36kv
– They are not used in EHV as they are Bulky.
• A Current carrying conductor passes through a Porcelain
Insulator filled with Insulating Oil, Air, or Gas.
• Condenser Type Bushings:
• The Insulation wall thickness is made of a number of
capacitors by concentric conducting cylinders.
• Better capability to with stand Electric Stress.
• The Aluminium foil used in the condenser is automatically
earthed through a Cap provided at the Bottom
• This helps in measuring the Tan delta Values periodically
to keep an eye on the insulation
• The Core Insulation is :
SRBP- Synthetic Resin Bonded Paper
OIP - Oil Impregnated Paper
RIP - Resin Impregnated Paper
• Resin Coated Paper/ Kraft Paper/ Crepe Kraft Paper
are used for making core for the above
• It is Hermetically Sealed.
SILICA GEL BREATHER:

– Prevents Moisture Ingress

– Connected to Conservator Tank
– Silica Gel is Blue when Dry; Pink when moist
– Oil Seal provides a Trap for Moisture before passing thro Silica Gel

COOLING:
The Oil serves the dual purpose of insulating medium and coolant .
The Heat generated inside a Transformer is dissipated to the
Atmosphere or Water through the insulating oil.
The dissipation of heat is necessary to control the temperature
within limits of the class of insulation used.
This ensures longer life and less thermal degradation of insulation.
For distribution Transformers, sufficient number of cooling tubes
are provided to limit the temperature rise.
For Power Transformers , both natural and Forced Air / oil / water
cooled methods are adopted.
• By Forced cooling the Transformer capacity can be increased
by more than 50%.
• Types of Cooling : ONAN- Oil Natural, Air Natural
• ONAF - Oil Natural, Air Forced
• OFAF - Oil Forced, Air Forced
• OFWF- Oil Forced, Water Cooled.
• The Power Transformer will have normally two sets of Radiator
Banks. Heat is directly dissipated to atmosphere through the
Radiator Banks in ONAN system.
• In ONAF, the capacity of the Transformer (ie ONAN rating) can
be increased to its full designed capacity by Installing cooler
fans below or on the surface of the Radiators to take away the
Heat at a faster rate.
• In OFAF, the Oil is forced and the Air is also forced. The
disadvantage is that, the Transformer does not have a ONAN
rating. Auxiliary supply must always be ensured.
• Radiators can be of two types :
• (1) Tank Mounted- For Small Capacity Trs
• (2) Separately Mounted- for Large Trs
• Normally standby Fan for each Bank and
Standby Oil pump is specified to take care of
failure of any Fan/ Pump.
• In OFWF cooling system, the pressure of Oil in
the cooler is maintained above the pressure of
water.The inlet temperature of Water should not
exceed 30C. A complete standby water cooler
is maintained which must be designed to be
taken into service when desired. Normally
Hydro station Gen Trs have this cooling
• Flow indicators with alarm is provided for
OFWF cooling.
• Alarm is provided for Cooler Fan failure/ AC
auxiliary supply failure
• Cooler fans and Oil pumps are controlled by
winding Temperature Mercury
Switches.Insulating Oil Reqmt:
• 1.0/lt per kva for Trs from 400 to1600kva
• 0.6lts per kva for Trs from 1600 to 80000kva
• 0.5lts per kva for Trs above 80000kva
PROTECTIVE DEVISES:
1. BUCHOLTZ RELAY:
– It is a Main Gas Operated Protection
– It is mounted on the pipe between the Conservator & Main tank.
– The above pipe is inclined at an Angle of 3 to 7 degrees
– It has a Float and two sets of Mercury Switches
– It has a Glass Guage marked in CC
– The Relay can give an Alarm or Send a Trip signal for Isolation
– Gas Trapped inside operates the above contacts.
– It has an Air Release Cock and a Drain cock
– A Stop Valve Provided helps in Testing the Relay
– The Relay should be periodically Tested by Air Injection

2. TEMPERATURE INDICATORS:
(1) For Oil Temperature
(2) For Winding Temperature
• They Indicate Maximum Temperature, Resettable They indicate
Current Temperature.
• Each Indicator has Two sets of mercury switches operated by
Temperature to Give Alarm and Trip.
• The WTI has additional Switch for Auto Operation of Cooling
Equipment.
• The Coolers can automatically Start or Stop.
• It has a Temperature sensing Bulb placed in a Socket on the Top of
the Transformer tank.
• Two capillary Tubes connect the Bulb and the Instrument
• One Capillary Tube connects the Operating Bellow
• The second one connects a compensating Bellow
• The Operating System is filled with a Liquid which changes its
Volume as the Temperature varies
• The Compensating Bellow acts on the Operating bellow to
compensate the Ambient Temperature.
• The Bellow expands or Contracts as the Temperature varies
• This is Transmitted to the Temperature Indicator.
• The Graduated Temperature settings can be adjusted
• OTI & WTI work on the same principle but in WTI an
additional bellow heated by a resistor in the WTI CT
circuit which represents the actual winding temperature
is provided.
• As It is not possible to measure the Winding
Temperature directly,it is measured by Thermal imaging
• Temperature variations in the heating element is
proportional to the Winding temperature.
• It simulates the increase in the winding Temperature
over Oil Temperature.
• This indicates the Hot Spot Temperature.
Transformer under Short Circuit :

• Electro Magnetic Forces are caused by Short Circuits both External and
Internal
• These Result in : (1) Radial Force
• (2) Axial Force
• Radial Force Squeezes Inner Winding and Bursts External windings
• Axial Forces Tend to Bend the Conductor Axially

Some Methods adopted by the Manufacturers for strengthening the

Transformers against Short Circuits are :

(1) Providing adequate Radial supports for Inner Coils

(2) Pre Compressed Insulating Material used to prevent Shrinkage
when in service.
(3) Proper Processing and Pre Stressing to obtain Dimensional
Stability.

Hydraulic Dampers/ springs provided in certain cases to absorb Impact

due to Short Circuit.
 Conditions for parallel operation
1.Same voltage ratio
• 2.Same % impedance
• 3.Same polarity and phase sequence
• 4.Same Vector Group

Item 1 must be satisfied to a close value.

Item 2 deviation results in unequal loading.
Item 3 must be satisfied absolutely
Item 4 depends on Groups and Time indices
• There are several Groups and Time indices as below :
• Group-1 Time indices 0, 4, 8 ex: Dd0, Yy0, Dz0
• Group-2 “ “ 6, 10, 2 ex: Dd6, Yy6, Dz6
• Group-3 “ “ 1, 5 ex: Dy5, Yd5, Yz5
• Group-4 “ “ 7, 11 ex: Dy11, Yd11, Yz11
• Transformers in Group 1&2 can be paralleled in their own
Group.
• Transformers in Group 3 & 4 can be interconnected for parallel
operation .
• Normally the Vector Group of Distribution Transformers are
Dy11.
• The Power Transformers are Yy0, Yd1 (Generator
Transformer), Dy1, Dy11
• It is possible to have different Vector Groups but the most
commonly used connections are the Dy11,YY0, Yd1.
LIFE OF A TRANSFORMER:

• Being static, a Transformer designed and constructed as per

standards almost Never Dies, it is Killed by improper maintenance
and abnormal stresses.
• Failure is therefore due to Temperature, Moisture over a period of
time and due to operational stresses (electro magnetic, thermal,
mechanical beyond the strength of the parts which have
deteriorated over a period of time.
• It is not possible to precisely determine the life of a Transformer.
There is no scientific basis on which the Risk of continuing the
Transformer in service exists.
• However deterioration of Insulation, due to various factors especially
the temperature is the one causing failure
• The table shown gives the loading capabilities of a transformer at a
place like Hyderabad based on several historic data.
 SPECIFICATIONS
1. Mandatory
2. Supplimentary
3. Additional

Mandatory :

KVA Rating
Voltage ratio
System earthing
Number of phases
Frequency
Tapping / Switch
Vector group
Service conditions indoor / outdoor
Terminations Cable / outdoor
Cooling
Winding material
Altitude
Mounting
Supplementary :

• No load current and losses

• Load losses
• Percentage impedance
• Temperature rise over ambient
• Basic insulation level
• System fault level
• Specific requirement of fittings / accessories
• Provision of additional Neutral
• MVO / WTI / OTI / MB
• Limitation of flux density
• Protection – HV fuses / LV MCB
• Size of ACSR cable
• Dimensional limitation if any
• Evaluation of cost by loss capitalization
 Additional Specifications
• Core constructions
• Core lamination
• Stray loss
• Tank thickness
• Gasket quality
• Explosion vent (Bursting pressure)
• PR Valve
• External / Internal clearances
• Noise level
• Foundation details
• Track guage
• Space
• Some Interesting News:
• Toshiba Electric co. started manufacturing Transformer in 1894
• The Transformers produced by them are:
• 1909… 44 kv, 4.5 MVA
• 1917… 110 kv 13.2 MVA bank
• 1939… 220 kv, 80 MVA
• 1961… 330 kv, 300 MVA
• 1968… 525 kv, 1200 MVA
• 1982… 765 kv, 805.5 MVA
• 1985… 515 kv,1260 MVA
• 1988… 765 kv, 1650 MVA

• Adopts a mitre core joint

• To withstand short circuits, A pressure is applied with a Hydraulic
jack on thick annular insulating plate on the top, a perfectly dried pre
compressed press board is used.All insulation pretreated.
• To prevent large Leakage flux, a magnetic shield is provided on the
inner surface of he tank, and clamp surface opposite of the coil. Also
slits are provided on core leg clamping plates and so on inorder to
reduce stray losses to prevent overheating.Also Non Magnetic steel is
used in the vicinity of large current leads.
• Normally 3 phase Transformers, three cores are used.
• Some times, for large capacity transformers, four or Five cores are
used in order to reduce the Transport height.
• Interleaved Disc wiinding, Continuous Disk Winding, Helical coil
Winding are generally used.
• Partial Discharges can take place due to :
• (1) Incompletely dried insulation
• (2) Voids in insulation
• (3) Floating Material
• (4) Edged Electrodes
• (5) Dust, Foreign Matter
• (6) Concentrated electric stress applied to oil gap
• To prevent all these, the assembly must be made in Dust proof
environment, proper drying and oil treatment methods adopted,
for avoiding voids oil impregnable glue is to be used on insulation
like paper, press board.
Tests that are done before Commissioning:
1. Insulation Resistance and the corresponding Temperature
2. Turns Ratio in all taps
3. Impedance Test
4. Short Circuit Test
5. Vector Group Test
6. Core Insulation Test
7. Polarity Test
8. Core balance Test
9. Dielectric test on Oil.
10. No Load current Test