Physics is the scientific study of matter and energy and how they interact with each other.

This energy can take the form of motion, light, electricity, radiation, gravity . . . just about anything,
honestly. Physics deals with matter on scales ranging from sub-atomic particles (i.e. the particles that
make up the atom and the particles that make up those particles) to stars and even entire galaxies.

How Physics Works

As an experimental science, physics utilizes the scientific method to formulate and test hypotheses
that are based on observation of the natural world. The goal of physics is to use the results of these
experiments to formulate scientific laws, usually expressed in the language of mathematics, which can
then be used to predict other phenomena.

The Role of Physics in Science

In a broader sense, physics can be seen as the most fundamental of the natural sciences. Chemistry,
for example, can be viewed as a complex application of physics, as it focuses on the interaction of
energy and matter in chemical systems. We also know that biology is, at its heart, an application of
chemical properties in living things, which means that it is also, ultimately, ruled by the physical laws.

Over the years, one thing scientists have discovered is that nature is generally more complex than we
give it credit for. The following laws of physics are considered fundamental, but many of them refer to
idealized, closed systems, which are hard to obtain in the real world. Also, some are altered slightly in
different circumstances. The laws that Newton developed, for example, are modified by the findings of
the theory of relativity, but they are still basically valid in most regular cases that you'll run into.

Newton's Three Laws of Motion:

Sir Isaac Newton developed the Three Laws of Motion, which describe basic rules about how the
motion of physical objects change. Newton was able to define the fundamental relationship between
the acceleration of an object and the total forces acting upon it.

"Law" of Gravity:

Newton developed his "Law of Gravity" to explain the attractive force between a pair of masses. In the
twentieth century, it became clear that this is not the whole story, as Einstein's theory of general
relativity has provided a more comprehensive explanation for the phenomenon of gravity. Still,
Newton's law of gravity is an accurate low-energy approximation that works for most of the cases that
you'll explore in physics.

Conservation of Mass-Energy:

The total energy in a closed or isolated system is constant, no matter what happens. Another law
stated that the mass in an isolated system is constant. When Einstein discovered the relationship
E=mc2 (in other words that mass was a manifestation of energy) the law was said to refer to the
conservation of mass-energy. The total of both mass and energy is retained, although some may
change forms. The ultimate example of this is a nuclear explosion, where mass transforms into
energy.
Conservation of Momentum:

The total momentum in a closed or isolated system remains constant. An alternative of this is the law
of conservation of angular momentum.

Laws of Thermodynamics:

The laws of thermodynamics are actually specific manifestations of the law of conservation of mass-
energy as it relates to thermodynamic processes.
• The zeroeth law of thermodynamics makes the notion of temperature possible.
• The first law of thermodynamics demonstrates the relationship between internal energy, added
heat, and work within a system.
• The second law of thermodynamics relates to the natural flow of heat within a closed system.
• The third law of thermodynamics states that it is impossible to create a thermodynamic process
which is perfectly efficient.

Electrostatic Laws:

Coulomb's law and Gauss's law are formulations of the relationship between electrically charged
particles to create electrostatic force and electrostatic fields. The formulas, it turns out, parallel the
laws of universal gravitation in structure. There also exist similar laws relating to magnetism and
electromagnetism as a whole.

Invariance of the Speed of Light:

Einstein's major insight, which led him to the Theory of Relativity, was the realization that the speed
of light in a vacuum is constant and is not measured differently for observers in different inertial
frames of reference, unlike all other forms of motion. Some theoretical physicists have conjectured
different variable speed of light (VSL) possibilities, but these are highly speculative. Most physicists
believe that Einstein was right and the speed of light is constant.

Modern Physics & Physical Laws:

In the realm of relativity and quantum mechanics, scientists have found that these laws still apply,
although their interpretation requires some refinement to be applied, resulting in fields such as
quantum electronics and quantum gravity. Care should be taken in applying them in these situations.

Physics is a diverse area of study and in order to make sense of it scientists have been forced to focus
their attention on one or two smaller areas of the discipline. This allows them to become experts in
that narrow field, without getting bogged down in the sheer volume of knowledge that exists regarding
the natural world.

Below is a list - by no comprehensive - of different disciplines of physics. The list will be updated with
new additions and definitions as appropriate.
• Acoustics - the study of sound & sound waves
• Astronomy - the study of space
• Astrophysics - the study of the physical properties of objects in space
• Atomic Physics - the study of atoms, specifically the electron properties of the atom
• Biophysics - the study of physics in living systems
• Chaos - the study of systems with strong sensitivity to initial conditions, so a slight change at
the beginning quickly become major changes in the system
• Chemical Physics - the study of physics in chemical systems
• Computational Physics - the application of numerical methods to solve physical problems for
which a quantitative theory already exists
• Cosmology - the study of the universe as a whole, including its origins and evolution
• Cryophysics / Cryogenics / Low Temperature Physics - the study of physical properties in
low temperature situations, far below the freezing point of water
• Crystallography - the study of crystals and crystalline structures
• Electromagnetism - the study of electrical and magnetic fields, which are two aspects of the
same phenomenon
• Electronics - the study of the flow of electrons, generally in a circuit
• Fluid Dynamics / Fluid Mechanics - the study of the physical properties of "fluids," specifically
defined in this case to be liquids and gases
• Geophysics - the study of the physical properties of the Earth
• High Energy Physics - the study of physics in extremely high energy systems, generally within
particle physics
• High Pressure Physics - the study of physics in extremely high pressure systems, generally
related to fluid dynamics
• Laser Physics - the study of the physical properties of lasers
• Mathematical Physics - applying mathematically rigorous methods to solving problems within
physics
• Mechanics - the study of the motion of bodies in a frame of reference
• Meteorology / Weather Physics - the physics of the weather
• Molecular Physics - the study of physical properties of molecules
• Nanotechnology - the science of building circuits and machines from single molecules and
atoms
• Nuclear Physics - the study of the physical properties of the atomic nucleus
• Optics / Light Physics - the study of the physical properties of light
• Particle Physics - the study of fundamental particles and the forces of their interaction
• Plasma Physics - the study of matter in the plasma phase
• Quantum Electrodynamics - the study of how electrons and photons interact at the quantum
mechanical level
• Quantum Mechanics / Quantum Physics - the study of science where the smallest discrete
values, or quanta, of matter and energy become relevant
• Quantum Optics - the application of quantum physics to light
• Quantum Field Theory - the application of quantum physics to fields, including the fundamental
forces of the universe
• Quantum Gravity - the application of quantum physics to gravity and unification of gravity with
the other fundamental particle interactions
• Relativity - the study of systems displaying the properties of Einstein's theory of relativity,
which generally involves moving at speeds very close to the speed of light
 • Statistical Mechanics - the study of large systems by statistically expanding the knowledge of
smaller systems
• String Theory / Superstring Theory - the study of the theory that all fundamental particles
are vibrations of one-dimensional strings of energy, in a higher-dimensional universe
• Thermodynamics - the physics of heat

It should become obvious that there is some overlap. For example, the difference between astronomy,
astrophysics, and cosmology can be virtually meaningless a

There are a lot of interesting theories in physics. Matter exists as a state of energy, while waves of
probability spread throughout the universe. Existence itself may exist as only the vibrations on
microscopic, trans-dimensional strings. Here are some of the most interesting theories, to my mind, in
modern physics (in no particular order, despite the enumeration).

Wave Particle Duality

Matter and light have properties of both waves and particles simultaneously. The results of quantum
mechanics make it clear that waves exhibit particle-like properties and particles exhibit wave-like
properties, depending on the specific experiment. Quantum physics is therefore able to make
descriptions of matter and energy based on wave equations that relate to the probability of a particle
existing in a certain spot at a certain time.

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Einstein's Theory of Relativity

Einstein's theory of relativity is based upon the principle that the laws of physics are the same for all
observers, regardless of where they are located or how fast they are moving or accelerating. This
seemingly common sense principle predicts localized effects in the form of special relativity and
defines gravitation as a geometric phenomenon in the form of general relativity.

Quantum Probability & the Measurement Problem

Quantum physics is defined mathematically by the Schroedinger equation, which depicts the
probability of a particle being found at a certain point. This probability is fundamental to the system,
not merely a result of ignorance. Once a measurement is made, however, you have a definite result.
The measurement problem is that the theory doesn't completely explain how the act of measurement
actually causes this change. Attempts to solve the problem have lead to some intriguing theories.

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

The physicist Werner Heisenberg developed the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, which says that
when measuring the physical state of a quantum system there's a fundamental limit to the amount of
precision that can be achieved.
For example, the more precisely you measure the momentum of a particle the less precise your
measurement of its position. Again, in Heisenberg's interpretation this wasn't just a measurement
error or technological limitation, but an actual physical limit.

Quantum Entanglement & Nonlocality

In quantum theory, certain physical systems can become "entangled," meaning that their states are
directly related to the state of another object somewhere else. When one object is measured, and the
Schroedinger wavefunction collapses into a single state, the other object collapses into its
corresponding state ... no matter how far away the objects are (i.e. nonlocality).
Einstein, who called these influences "spooky action at a distance," illuminated this concept with his
EPR Paradox.

Unified Field Theory

Unified field theory is a type of theory that goes about trying to reconcile quantum physics with
Einstein's theory of general relativity. The following are examples of specific theories that fall under
the heading of unified field theory:
• Quantum Gravity
• String Theory / Superstring Theory / M-Theory
• Grand Unified Theory
• Loop Quantum Gravity
• Theory of Everything
• Supersymmetry

The Big Bang

When Albert Einstein developed the Theory of General Relativity, it predicted a possible expansion of
the universe. Georges Lemaitre thought that this indicated the universe began in a single point. The
name "Big Bang" was given by Fred Hoyle while mocking the theory during a radio broadcast.
In 1929, Edwin Hubble discovered a redshift in distant galaxies, indicating that they were receding
from Earth. Cosmic background microwave radiation, discovered in 1965, supported Lemaitre's
theory.

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Dark Matter & Dark Energy

Across astronomical distances, the only significant fundamental force of physics is gravity.
Astronomers find that their calculations & observations don't quite match up, though.
An undetected form of matter, called dark matter, was theorized to fix this. Recent evidence supports
dark matter.

Other work indicates that there might exist a dark energy, as well.

Current estimates are that the universe is 70% dark energy, 25% dark matter, and only 5% of the
universe is visible matter or energy!

Quantum Consciousness
In attempts to solve the measurement problem in quantum physics (see above), physicists frequently
run into the problem of consciousness. Though most physicists try to sidestep the issue, it seems that
there is a link between the conscious choice of experiment and the outcome of the experiment.
Some physicists, most notably Roger Penrose, believe that current physics cannot explain
consciousness, and that consciousness itself has a link to the strange quantum realm.

Anthropic Principle
Recent evidence shows that were the universe just slightly different, it wouldn't exist long enough for
any life to develop. The odds of a universe that we can exist in are very small, based on chance.
The controversial Anthropic Principle states that the universe can only exist such that carbon-based
life can arise.
The Anthropic Principle, while intriguing, is more a philosophical theory than a physical one. Still, the
Anthropic Principle poses an intriguing intellectual puzzle.