BULK SOLIDS HANDLING

An I ntroduction to the Practice and

Technology

C. R. WOODCOCK, DipTech, MSc, PhD, CEng, MIMechE

Formerly Chief Executive of Centre for Industrial Bulk Solids Handling,
Glasgow Caledonian University
and

J. S. MASON, BSc, PhD, CEng, FIMechE, FIMarE, MIMinE

Principal and Vice-Chancellor. Glasaow Caledonian Universitv

t1l!

BLACKIE ACADEMIC cSt PROFESSIONAL

An Imprint of Chapman & Hall

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Published by
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First edition 1987
Reprinted 1993, 1995

1987 Chapman & Hall

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1987

Typeset in 101l2pt Times by Thomson Press (India) Ltd., New Delhi

ISBN-13: 978-94-010-7689-0
DOl: 10.1007/978-94-009-2635-6

e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-2635-6

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Preface
An understanding ofthe properties and the handling characteristics of liquids
and gases has long been regarded as an essential requirement for most
practising engineers. It is therefore not surprising that, over the years, there has
been a regular appearance of books dealing with the fundamentals of fluid
mechanics, fluid flow, hydraulics and related topics. What is surprising is that
there has been no parallel development of the related discipline of Bulk Solids
Handling, despite its increasing importance in modern industry across the
world. It is only very recently that a structured approach to the teaching, and
learning, of the subject has begun to evolve.
A reason for the slow emergence of Bulk Solids Handling as an accepted
topic of study in academic courses on mechanical, agricultural, chemical,
mining and civil engineering is perhaps that the practice is so often taken for
granted. Certainly the variety of materials being handled in bulk is almost
endless, ranging in size from fine dust to rocks, in value from refuse to gold, and
in temperature from deep-frozen peas to near-molten metal. Almost everyone
has seen a belt conveyor in operation-perhaps carrying grain on the local
farm, or stone and rock from a nearby quarry-but how many would know
that belt conveyors are now being developed to transport bulk solids at rates
in excess of 30 000 tonnes per hour? The domestic vacuum cleaner is a familiar
machine in which dust particles are conveyed through a pipe in a stream of air,
but few people would appreciate that large lumps of coal and rock, and even
fish, can be transported in a similar way. Examples of bulk solids handling can
be found in almost every kind of industry and the problems associated with the
design, installation and operation of plant for the storage and transport of
materials in bulk are many and varied. No book can be a substitute for the
technical skill acquired through long experience in the industry. Nevertheless,
we have attempted to present here a foundation of knowledge, generally with a
practical rather than an academic emphasis, upon which expertise in various
specialized aspects of bulk solids handling can be developed subsequently.
Governments of many nations are now recognizing that the education and
training of engineers in many fields should include some study of the
technology of bulk solids covering the properties, storage, flow and transport
of a wide range of materials in particulate or granular form. In the United
Kingdom, for example, recent initiatives emanating from the Department of
Industry have led to conferences, courses, and various publications aimed at
promoting a greater awareness of the unique features of bulk solids. The
School of Engineering at Thames Polytechnic, and in particular the staff of its

IV

PREFACE

Bulk Solids Handling Unit, have been deeply involved in these initiatives from
the outset and this book is the result of a clearly perceived need for an
introduction to the subject that would identify and set out a structure for the
area of study that is becoming known by the convenient, if not entirely
accurate, title 'Bulk Solids Handling'. Many specialist treatments are already
available: works on particle technology, hopper design, fluidization, dust
control, pneumatic conveying, and others, can be found on library shelves and
in most cases these are excellent and valuable works of reference for the
experienced engineer. However, for the student and for the engineer who
requires an overview of the emerging discipline of bulk solids handling,
supported by an adequate coverage of fundamentals, this book should
provide essential reading.
In common with most books of similar size and scope, this one should really
be regarded as the product of a team effort. We, as authors and editors, would
unhesitatingly acknowledge the contributions, both direct and indirect, of our
colleagues in the Bulk Solids Handling Unit at Thames Polytechnic, notably
Dr David Mills and Dr Alan Reed. In their various ways the academic and
technician staff of the School of Engineering, together with many of our
postgraduate and undergraduate students, have played some part in the
events leading up to the conception, preparation and, ultimately, the
production of this book. Although it is perhaps a little unfair to mention
individuals by name, we do gratefully acknowledge the patient and tolerant
efforts of Mrs Pam Colley in undertaking the massive task of typing the
manuscript. Finally, our sincere thanks and appreciation goes to our
respective families, especially to our wives Angela and Fran, for the patience,
understanding and considerable fortitude that they have shown during the
months that this book has been in preparation, and indeed during the many
years that we have both been so deeply involved in the multitude of activities
arising out of our interest in the fascinating subject of Bulk Solids Handling.
CRW
JSM

Contents
PART 1 CHARACTERIZATION, FLOW AND STORAGE
1 The nature of bulk solids
1.1
1.2

Introduction
Sampling
1.2.1 Obtaining a gross sample
1.2.2 Preparing laboratory and test samples
1.3 Voidage and bulk density
1.4 Particle density
1.5 Particle size
1.5.1 Definition of 'size' and 'size distribution'
1.5.2 Measurement of particle size
1.6 Particle shape
1.7 Surface area
1.8 Particle hardness
1.9 Cohesion and adhesion
1.9.1 Angle of repose
1.9.2 Shear strength
1.9.3 The shear cell as a means of determining shear strength
1.9.4 Wall friction
1.9.5 Measurement of wall friction
1.9.6 Arching phenomena
1.10 Moisture content
1.11 Explosiveness
1.12 Notation
References and bibliography

2 Gravity flow of bulk solids

2.1
2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

Introduction
Pressure distribution in a bulk solid
2.2.1 Bulk solid at rest
2.2.2 The effect of flow on the pressure distribution
Flow of bulk solids from hoppers
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Core flow
2.3.3 Mass flow
2.3.4 Obstructions to gravity flow
2.3.5 Predicting the solids discharge rate
Flow of bulk solids in chutes
2.4.1 Introduction
2.4.2 Flow patterns in straight inclined chutes
2.4.3 Flow patterns in curved chutes
2.4.4 Chute design
Flow of bulk solids in vertical pipes
2.5.1 Introduction
2.5.2 Mode of flow
2.5.3 Flow control-J-valves and L-valves
Notation
References and bibliography

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CONTENTS

3 Dynamics of fluid/solids systems

3.1
3.2
3.3

3.4

3.5
3.6

3.7

3.8

Introduction
Flow through beds of fixed particles
3.2.1 Characteristics of flow in porous media
3.2.2 The prediction of pressure-drop across a fixed particulate bed
Settling behaviour of particles
3.3.1 Motion of a spherical particle settling in a stationary fluid
3.3.2 The settling of non-spherical particles
3.3.3 The settling of concentrations of particles (hindered settling)
3.3.4 Classification and sorting of particles
Fluidization
3.4.1 The fluidization process
3.4.2 The prediction of minimum fluidizing velocity
3.4.3 Entrainment of particles from a fluidized bed
3.4.4 The porous membrane, or distributor
3.4.5 The influence of particle size and density
Spouted bed behaviour
Gas/solids flow in pipes
3.6.1 Introduction
3.6.2 The flow of gas/solids suspensions in horizontal pipes
3.6.3 The flow of gas/solids suspensions in vertical pipes
3.6.4 Flow around 90 bends
3.6.5 The prediction of pressure-drop in flowing gas/solids suspensions
Liquid/solids flow in pipes
3.7.1 Flow characteristics of liquid/solids mixtures (slurries)
3.7.2 Non-Newtonian flow models for homogeneous suspension
3.7.3 The modelling of heterogeneous suspensions
Notation
References and bibliography

4 The design of storage bins and hoppers

4.1
4.2

Introduction
Hopper geometry
4.2.1 Shape
4.2.2 Overall dimensions
4.3 Outlet size and cone angle
4.3.1 Jenike's 'flow-no flow' criterion
4.3.2 Flow Functions and flow factors
4.3.3 Outlet dimension and cone angle
4.4 Period of storage and time consolidation effects
4.4.1 Caking
4.4.2 Testing for time consolidation
4.4.3 Practical ways of minimizing time consolidation
4.5 The effect of moisture
4.6 Overcoming space limitations
4.6.1 The use of low-friction linings
4.6.2 Changing hopper shape
4.7 Structural design
4.8 Control and measurement of discharge rate
4.9 Feeders
4.9.1 Introduction
4.9.2 Belt feeders
4.9.3 Apron feeders and rotary feeders
4.9.4 Rotary table feeders
4.9.5 Screw feeders
4.9.6 Vibratory feeders
4.1 0 Discharge aids
4.1 0.1 Introduction

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4.10.2 Pneumatic methods

4.10.3 Vibrational methods
4.10.4 Mechanical methods
4.11 Notation
References and bibliography

5 Dust control
5.1
5.2

5.3
5.4
5.5

5.6

5.7

5.8
5.9

Introduction
Dust as a hazard to health
5.2.1 Dust particle size
5.2.2 Dust concentration limits
Dust suppression
5.3.1 Elimination of dust
5.3.2 Control of dust dispersion
Gravity and inertial separators
Air cleaners-cyclones
5.5.1 Principle of operation
5.5.2 Prediction of collecting efficiency
5.5.3 Prediction of pressure-drop
5.5.4 Cyclone selection
Air cleaners-wet washers or scrubbers
5.6.1 Principle of operation
5.6.2 Low pressure-drop wet washers
5.6.3 High pressure-drop wet washers
Air cleaners-filters
5.7.1 Mechanism of filtration
5.7.2 Filter media
5.7.3 Bag filters-design and selection
5.7.4 Filter cleaning
Air cleaners-electrostatic precipitators
Notation
References and bibliography

6 Explosion hazards
6.1
6.2

6.3
6.4

6.5
6.6

Introduction
Characteristics of dust explosions
6.2.1 Ignition
6.2.2 Explosibility limits
6.2.3 Expansion effects and explosion pressures
Measurement of explosion parameters
Explosion risks and system design
6.4.1 Minimizing sources of ignition and prevention of ignition
6.4.2 Containment
6.4.3 Explosion relief venting
6.4.4 Detection and suppression
Static electricity
Conclusion
References and bibliography

VB

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PART 2 MECHANICAL HANDLING

7 Belt conveyors
7.1
7.2

Introduction
Features of belt conveyors
7.2.1 Belt construction
7.2.2 Idlers
7.2.3 Drive arrangements

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viii

CONTENTS

7.2.4 The power unit

7.2.5 Loading and discharge arrangements
7.2.6 Belt cleaners
7.3 Belt conveyor design
7.3.1 The bulk solid to be transported
7.3.2 Belt speed
7.3.3 Belt width
7.3.4 Belt tension
7.3.5 Idler spacing
7.3.6 Power requirements
7.4 Belt conveyor variants
7.4.1 The cable belt conveyor
7.4.2 Belt conveyors without idlers
7.4.3 Closed-belt or pipe conveyors
7.4.4 Sand wich belts
7.5. Notation
References and bibliography

8 Bucket elevators
8.1
8.2

8.3

8.4

Introduction
Principal types of bucket elevator
8.2.1 Centrifugal discharge elevators
8.2.2 Continuous bucket elevators
8.2.3 Pivoted buckets
8.2.4 Profiled-belt elevators
Design and selection of bucket elevators
8.3.1 Design features
8.3.2 Loading
8.3.3 Discharge
8.3.4 Capacity
8.3.5 Driving power
Notation
References and bibliography

9 Chain and flight conveyors

9.1
9.2
9.3

9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7

Introduction
Drag conveyors
En-masse conveyors
9.3.1 Design features
9.3.2 Performance calculations
9.3.3 Applications of en-masse conveying
Tubular drag conveyors
Apron conveyors
Aerial ropeways
Notation
References and bibliography

10 Screw conveying
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4

Introduction
Principle of operation of screw conveyors
The enclosed screw or 'auger' conveyor
10.3.1 Constructional features
10.3.2 Prediction of the performance of an auger conveyor
The industrial screw conveyor or 'V-trough' conveyor
10.4.1 Constructional features
10.4.2 The conveyed product

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CONTENTS

10.5
10.6
10.7

10.4.3 Conveyor selection

10.4.4 Conveyor power
10.4.5 Inclined screw conveyors
Vertical screw conveyors
Conclusion
Notation
References and bibliography

11 Vibratory conveyors
11.1
11.2

11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6

Introduction
Movement of a bulk solid in a vibrating trough
11".2.1 The motion of the trough
11.2.2 The motion of bulk material in the trough
11.2.3 Average conveying velocity
11.2.4 The influence of the design parameters
11.2.5 Two-phase trough motion
Design features
11.3.1 Drive mechanism
11.3.2 Mounting systems
Applications of vibratory conveying
Spiral elevators
Notation
References and bibliography

IX

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PART 3 PNEUMATIC AND HYDRAULIC TRANSPORT

12 Basic pneumatic conveying systems
12.1
12.2
12.3

12.4

12.5

Introduction
Modes of conveying-dilute-phase and dense-phase
Low-pressure pneumatic conveying systems
12.3.1 Positive-pressure systems
12.3.2 Negative-pressure (vacuum) systems
12.3.3 Combined negative/positive pressure systems
High-pressure systems
12.4.1 General features
12.4.2 Single blow tank systems
12.4.3 Twin blow tanks and continuously operating systems
12.4.4 Long-distance conveying
Low-velocity conveying and the use of supplementary air feeds
12.5.1 General features
12.5.2 Plug-forming systems
12.5.3 Plug-limiting systems
12.5.4 Air-injection and booster systems
References and bibliography

13 Components of pneumatic conveying systems

13.1
13.2

Introduction
The air supply
13.2.1 General requirements
13.2.2 Fans and turbo-blowers
13.2.3 Roots-type blowers
13.2.4 Sliding-vane rotary compressors
13.2.5 Screw compressors
13.2.6 Reciprocating compressors
13.2.7 Vacuum pumps

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CONTENTS

13.3

13.4
13.5
13.6

Feeding devices
13.3.1 Rotary valves
13.3.2 Screw feeders
13.3.3 Venturi feeders
13.3.4 Gate lock valves
13.3.5 Blow tanks
13.3.6 Entrainment devices for vacuum systems
The pipeline
Disengaging and collecting devices
Notation
References and bibliography

14 Pneumatic conveyor design

14.1
14.2

14.3
14.4
14.5

Introduction
General design procedure
14.2.1 Conveying velocity and volumetric air flow rate
14.2.2 Solids mass flowrate and solids loading ratio
14.2.3 Pipeline diameter
14.2.4 Pressure-drop
14.2.5 Stepped pipelines
14.2.6 Selection of the air mover
Summary of preliminary design procedure for dilute-phase systems
Designing from available test data
14.4.1 Conveying characteristics
14.4.2 Scaling for pipe size and conveying distance
Notation
References and bibliography

15 Air-assisted gravity conveying

15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4

15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8

Introduction
The flow of fluidised solids
Practical air-assisted gravity conveying
Design parameters for air-gravity conveyors
15.4.1 Slope of channel
15.4.2 Conveying distance
15.4.3 Width of conveying channel
15.4.4 Air requirement
Properties of bulk solids for air-gravity conveying
Air-float conveyors for horizontal and upward transport
Energy consumption of air-gravity conveyors
Notation
References and bibliography

16 Hydraulic conveying
16.1
16.2

16.3
16.4

Introduction
Components of a hydraulic conveying system
16.2.1 Pumps
16.2.2 Slurry preparation plant
16.2.3 The pipeline
16.2.4 De-watering equipment
System design
16.3.1 General design approach
16.3.2 Flow characreristics and pressure-drop
Recent development
References and bibliography

17 Capsule transport
17.1

Introduction

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CONTENTS
17.2

17.3

17.4
17.5

Index

Capsule transport in a pneumatic pipeline

17.2.1 General features of a pneumo-capsule system
17.2.2 The capsules
17.2.3 The pipeline
17.2.4 The air supply
17.2.5 Loading and unloading stations
Capsule transport in a hydraulic pipeline
17.3.1 General features of a hydro-capsule system
17.3.2 The capsules
17.3.3 The pipeline
17.3.4 The water supply and pump system
17.3.5 Injection and ejection of capsules
Size of capsule fleet
Notation
References

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... when you caD meaS\lfe what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know
something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your
knowledge is of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind: it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you
have scarcely, in your thoughts, advanced to the state of SCIENCE, whatever the matter may be.
(Lord Kelvin, as Sir William Thomson, speaking on 'Electrical Units of Measurement' at the
Institution of Civil Engineers, London, 3 May 1883.)

(Arab proverb, freely translated as: 'Experience without learning is better than learning without
experience'.)