Schmitt trigger

1 Invention

In electronics, a Schmitt trigger is a comparator circuit

with hysteresis, implemented by applying positive feedback to the noninverting input of a comparator or dierential amplier. It is an active circuit which converts an
analog input signal to a digital output signal. The circuit
is named a trigger because the output retains its value
until the input changes suciently to trigger a change. In
the non-inverting conguration, when the input is higher
than a certain chosen threshold, the output is high. When
the input is below a dierent (lower) chosen threshold,
the output is low, and when the input is between the two
levels, the output retains its value. This dual threshold action is called hysteresis and implies that the Schmitt trigger possesses memory and can act as a bistable circuit
(latch or ip-op). There is a close relation between the
two kinds of circuits: a Schmitt trigger can be converted
into a latch and a latch can be converted into a Schmitt
trigger.

The Schmitt trigger was invented by US scientist Otto H.

Schmitt in 1934 while he was still a graduate student,[1]
later described in his doctoral dissertation (1937) as a
thermionic trigger.[2] It was a direct result of Schmitts
study of the neural impulse propagation in squid nerves.[2]

2 Implementation
2.1 Fundamental idea
Input

Output

Schmitt trigger devices are typically used in signal conB

ditioning applications to remove noise from signals used
in digital circuits, particularly mechanical switch bounce.
They are also used in closed loop negative feedback congurations to implement relaxation oscillators, used in Block diagram of a Schmitt trigger circuit. It is a system with
function generators and switching power supplies.
positive feedback in which the output signal fed back into the input causes the amplier A to switch rapidly from one saturated
state to the other when the input crosses a threshold.
:A > 1 is the amplier gain :B < 1 is the feedback transfer function

Circuits with hysteresis are based on the fundamental

positive feedback idea: any active circuit can be made to
behave as a Schmitt trigger by applying a positive feedback
so that the loop gain is more than one. The positive feedback is introduced by adding a part of the output voltage
to the input voltage; so, these circuits contain an attenuator (the B box in the gure on the right) and a summer
(the circle with "+" inside) in addition to an amplier acting as a comparator. There are three specic techniques
for implementing this general idea. The rst two of them
are dual versions (series and parallel) of the general positive feedback system. In these congurations, the output
voltage increases the eective dierence input voltage of
the comparator by decreasing the threshold or by increasing the circuit input voltage; the threshold and memory
properties are incorporated in one element. In the third
technique, the threshold and memory properties are separated.

A
B

The output of a Schmitt trigger (B) and a comparator (A), when a

noisy signal (U) is applied. The green dotted lines are the circuits
switching thresholds. The Schmitt trigger tends to remove noise
from the signal.

Dynamic threshold (series feedback): when the input

voltage crosses the threshold in some direction the very circuit changes its own threshold to the opposite direction. For
1

2
this purpose, it subtracts a part of its output voltage from
the threshold (it is equal to adding voltage to the input
voltage). Thus the output aects the threshold and does
not impact on the input voltage. These circuits are implemented by a dierential amplier with series positive
feedback where the input is connected to the inverting
input and the output - to the non-inverting input. In this
arrangement, attenuation and summation are separated:
a voltage divider acts as an attenuator and the loop acts
as a simple series voltage summer. Examples: the classic transistor emitter-coupled Schmitt trigger, op-amp inverting Schmitt trigger, etc.
Modied input voltage (parallel feedback): when the
input voltage crosses the threshold in some direction the
circuit changes the very input voltage in the same direction (now it adds a part of its output voltage directly to
the input voltage). Thus the output helps the input voltage and does not aect the threshold. These circuits can
be implemented by a single-ended non-inverting amplier with parallel positive feedback where the input and
the output sources are connected through resistors to the
input. The two resistors form a weighted parallel summer
incorporating both the attenuation and summation. Examples: the less familiar collector-base coupled Schmitt
trigger, op-amp non-inverting Schmitt trigger, etc.

2 IMPLEMENTATION

A symbol of Schmitt trigger shown with a non-inverting hysteresis

curve embedded in a buer. Schmitt triggers can also be
shown with inverting hysteresis curves and may be followed by
bubbles. The documentation for the particular Schmitt trigger
being used must be consulted to determine whether the device is
non-inverting (i.e., where positive output transitions are caused
by positive-going inputs) or inverting (i.e., where positive output
transitions are caused by negative-going inputs).

V+
RC1

Vin

RB

Q1

R1

RC2
Vout
Q2

Some circuits and elements exhibiting negative resistance

can also act in a similar way: negative impedance convertRE
R2
ers (NIC), neon lamps, tunnel diodes (e.g., a diode with
an N"-shaped currentvoltage characteristic in the rst
V
quadrant), etc. In the last case, an oscillating input will
cause the diode to move from one rising leg of the N
Schmitt trigger implemented by two emitter-coupled transistor
to the other and back again as the input crosses the rising stages
and falling switching thresholds.
Two dierent unidirectional thresholds are assigned
in this case to two separate open-loop comparators (without hysteresis) driving an RS trigger (2-input memory cell).
The trigger is toggled high when the input voltage crosses
down to up the high threshold and low when the input
voltage crosses up to down the low threshold. Again,
there is a positive feedback but now it is concentrated
only in the memory cell. Examples: 555 timer, switch
debounce circuit.[3]

inverting (Q1 emitter) inputs. The input voltage is applied to the inverting input; the output voltage of the voltage divider is applied to the non-inverting input thus determining its threshold. The comparator output drives
the second common collector stage Q2 (an emitter follower) through the voltage divider R1 -R2 . The emittercoupled transistors Q1 and Q2 actually compose an electronic double throw switch that switches over the upper
The symbol for Schmitt triggers in circuit diagrams is a
legs of the voltage divider and changes the threshold in a
triangle with a symbol inside representing its ideal hysdierent (to the input voltage) direction.
teresis curve.
This conguration can be considered as a dierential
amplier with series positive feedback between its noninverting input (Q2 base) and output (Q1 collector) that
2.2 Transistor Schmitt triggers
forces the transition process. There is also a smaller negative feedback introduced by the emitter resistor RE. To
2.2.1 Classic emitter-coupled circuit
make the positive feedback dominate over the negative
The original Schmitt trigger is based on the dynamic one and to obtain a hysteresis, the proportion between
threshold idea that is implemented by a voltage divider the two collector resistors is chosen RC > RC. Thus
with a switchable upper leg (the collector resistors RC less current ows through and less voltage drop is across
and RC) and a steady lower leg (RE). Q1 acts as a RE when Q1 is switched on than in the case when Q2
comparator with a dierential input (Q1 base-emitter is switched on. As a result, the circuit has two dierent
junction) consisting of an inverting (Q1 base) and a non- thresholds in regard to ground (V- in the picture).

2.2

Transistor Schmitt triggers

Operation
Initial state. For NPN transistors as
shown, imagine the input voltage is below the shared
emitter voltage (high threshold for concreteness) so that
Q1 base-emitter junction is backward-biased and Q1
does not conduct. Q2 base voltage is determined by the
mentioned divider so that Q2 is conducting and the trigger output is in the low state. The two resistors RC and
RE form another voltage divider that determines the high
threshold. Neglecting VBE, the high threshold value is
approximately

VHT =

RE
V+
RE + RC2

The output voltage is low but well above the ground. It

is approximately equal to the high threshold and may not
be low enough to be a logical zero for next digital circuits.
This may require additional shifting circuit following the
trigger circuit.
Crossing up the high threshold. When the input voltage (Q1 base voltage) rises slightly above the voltage
across the emitter resistor RE (the high threshold), Q1 begins conducting. Its collector voltage goes down and Q2
begins going cut-o, because the voltage divider now provides lower Q2 base voltage. The common emitter voltage follows this change and goes down thus making Q1
conduct more. The current begins steering from the right
leg of the circuit to the left one. Although Q1 is more
conducting, it passes less current through RE (since RC
> RC); the emitter voltage continues dropping and the
eective Q1 base-emitter voltage continuously increases.
This avalanche-like process continues until Q1 becomes
completely turned on (saturated) and Q2 turned o. The
trigger is transitioned to the high state and the output (Q2
collector) voltage is close to V+. Now, the two resistors
RC and RE form a voltage divider that determines the
low threshold. Its value is approximately

VLT =

RE
V+
RE + RC1

Symbol depicting an inverting Schmitt trigger by showing an inverted hysteresis curve inside a buer. Other symbols show a
hysteresis curve (which may be inverting or non-inverting) embedded in a buer followed by a bubble, which is similar to
the traditional symbol for a digital inverter that shows a buer
followed by a bubble. In general, the direction of the Schmitt
trigger (inverting or non-inverting) is not necessarily clear from
the symbol because multiple conventions are used, even with the
same manufacturer. There are several factors leading to such
ambiguity,[nb 1] These circumstances may warrant a closer investigation of the documentation for each particular Schmitt trigger.

Q2 collector. In this conguration, the output voltage is

equal to the dynamic threshold (the shared emitter voltage) and both the output levels stay away from the supply
rails. Another disadvantage is that the load changes the
thresholds; so, it has to be high enough. The base resistor
RB is obligatory to prevent the impact of the input voltage
through Q1 base-emitter junction on the emitter voltage.
Direct-coupled circuit. To simplify the circuit, the R1
R2 voltage divider can be omitted connecting Q1 collector directly to Q2 base. The base resistor RB can be omitted as well so that the input voltage source drives directly
Q1 base.[4] In this case, the common emitter voltage and
Q1 collector voltage are not suitable for outputs. Only Q2
collector should be used as an output since, when the input voltage exceeds the high threshold and Q1 saturates,
its base-emitter junction is forward biased and transfers
the input voltage variations directly to the emitters. As
a result, the common emitter voltage and Q1 collector
voltage follow the input voltage. This situation is typical
for over-driven transistor dierential ampliers and ECL
gates.

Crossing down the low threshold. With the trigger now

in the high state, if the input voltage lowers enough (below the low threshold), Q1 begins cutting-o. Its collector current reduces; as a result, the shared emitter voltage lowers slightly and Q1 collector voltage rises signicantly. R1 -R2 voltage divider conveys this change to Q2
base voltage and it begins conducting. The voltage across
RE rises, further reducing the Q1 base-emitter potential
in the same avalanche-like manner, and Q1 ceases to con- 2.2.2 Collector-base coupled circuit
duct. Q2 becomes completely turned on (saturated) and
Like every latch, the fundamental collector-base coupled
the output voltage becomes low again.
bistable circuit possesses a hysteresis. So, it can be converted to a Schmitt trigger by connecting an additional
Variations Non-inverting circuit. The classic non- base resistor R to some of the inputs (Q1 base in the ginverting Schmitt trigger can be turned into an inverting ure). The two resistors R and R4 form a parallel volttrigger by taking V from the emitters instead of from a age summer (the circle in the block diagram above) that

2 IMPLEMENTATION
of the voltage dierence between its two inputs.[nb 3]
The positive feedback is applied by adding a part of the
output voltage to the input voltage in series or parallel
manner. Due to the extremely high op-amp gain, the loop
gain is also high enough and provides the avalanche-like
process.
2.4.1 Non-inverting Schmitt trigger

R2

Vin
BJT bistable collector-base coupled circuit can be converted to a
Schmitt trigger by connecting an additional base resistor to one
of the bases

R1
Vout

Schmitt trigger implemented by a non-inverting comparator

In this circuit, the two resistors R1 and R2 form a parallel voltage summer. It adds a part of the output voltage to the input voltage thus helping it during and after
switching that occurs when the resulting voltage is near
the ground. This parallel positive feedback creates the
needed hysteresis that is controlled by the proportion between the resistances of R1 and R2 . The output of the
parallel voltage summer is single-ended (it produces voltage in respect to ground); so, the circuit does not need
an amplier with a dierential input. Since conventional
and op-amps have a dierential input, the inverting input is
grounded to make the reference point zero volts.

sums output (Q2 collector) voltage and the input voltage,

and drives the single-ended transistor comparator Q1.
When the base voltage crosses the threshold (VBE
0.65 V) in some direction, a part of Q2 collector voltage
is added in the same direction to the input voltage. Thus
the output modies the input voltage by means of parallel
positive feedback and does not aect the threshold (the
base-emitter voltage).

2.3

Comparison between emittercollector-coupled circuit

The output voltage always has the same sign as the opamp input voltage but it does not always have the same
sign as the circuit input voltage (the signs of the two input voltages can dier). When the circuit input voltage is
above the high threshold or below the low threshold, the
output voltage has the same sign as the circuit input voltage (the circuit is non-inverting). It acts like a comparator
that switches at a dierent point depending on whether
the output of the comparator is high or low. When the
circuit input voltage is between the thresholds, the outThe emitter-coupled Schmitt trigger has not low enough put voltage is undened; it depends on the last state (the
level at output logical zero and needs an additional out- circuit behaves as an elementary latch).
put shifting circuit. The collector-coupled trigger has ex- For instance, if the Schmitt trigger is currently in the high
tremely low (almost zero) output level at output logical state, the output will be at the positive power supply rail
zero.
(+VS). The output voltage V of the resistive summer can
be found by applying the superposition theorem:
The emitter-coupled version has the advantage that the
input transistor is backward-biased when the input voltage is quite below the high threshold; so, the transistor is
surely cut-o. It was important when germanium transistors were used for implementing the circuit and this
advantage has determined its popularity. The input base
resistor can be omitted since the emitter resistor limits the
current when the input base-emitter junction is forwardbiased.

2.4

Op-amp implementations

Schmitt triggers are commonly implemented using an operational amplier or the more dedicated
comparator.[nb 2] An open-loop op-amp and comparator
may be considered as an analog-digital device having
analog inputs and a digital output that extracts the sign

V+ =

R2
R1
Vin +
Vs
R1 + R2
R1 + R2

The comparator will switch when V=0. Then R2 Vin =

R1 Vs (the same result can be obtained by applying the
current conservation principle). So Vin must drop below

2.4

Op-amp implementations

out

op-amp output passes an opposite current through the input source (it injects current into the source when the input voltage is positive and it draws current from the source
when it is negative).

-T

in

-M

Typical hysteresis curve (Non-inverting) (which matches the

curve shown on a Schmitt trigger symbol)

A practical Schmitt trigger with precise thresholds is

shown in the gure on the right. The transfer characteristic has exactly the same shape of the previous basic conguration, and the threshold values are the same as well.
On the other hand, in the previous case, the output voltage was depending on the power supply, while now it is
dened by the Zener diodes (which could also be replaced
with a single double-anode Zener diode). In this conguration, the output levels can be modied by appropriate
choice of Zener diode, and these levels are resistant to
power supply uctuations (i.e., they increase the PSRR
of the comparator). The resistor R3 is there to limit the
current through the diodes, and the resistor R4 minimizes
the input voltage oset caused by the comparators input
leakage currents (see Limitations of real op-amps).

2.4.2 Inverting Schmitt trigger

1
R
R2 Vs to get the output to switch. Once the comparator output has switched to VS, the threshold becomes
1
R2
+R
R2 Vs to switch back to high. So this circuit creates
a switching band centered on zero, with trigger levels
1
R
R2 Vs (it can be shifted to the left or the right by applyR1
ing a bias voltage to the inverting input). The input voltage must rise above the top of the band, and then below
Vout
the bottom of the band, for the output to switch on (plus)
and then back o (minus). If R1 is zero or R2 is innity
Vin
(i.e., an open circuit), the band collapses to zero width,
and it behaves as a standard comparator. The transfer
characteristic is shown in the picture on the right. The
Schmitt trigger implemented by an inverting comparator
1
value of the threshold T is given by R
R2 Vs and the maximum value of the output M is the power supply rail.
In the inverting version, the attenuation and summation
are separated. The two resistors R1 and R2 act only as a
R2
pure attenuator (voltage divider). The input loop acts
as a simple series voltage summer that adds a part of the
output voltage in series to the circuit input voltage. This
R1
series positive feedback creates the needed hysteresis that
R3
Vin
is controlled by the proportion between the resistances of
Vout
R1 and the whole resistance (R1 and R2 ). The eective
Z1
voltage applied to the op-amp input is oating; so, the
op-amp must have a dierential input.
R4
Z2
The circuit is named inverting since the output voltage always has an opposite sign to the input voltage when it is
out of the hysteresis cycle (when the input voltage is above
A practical Schmitt trigger conguration with precise thresholds the high threshold or below the low threshold). However,
if the input voltage is within the hysteresis cycle (between
A unique property of circuits with parallel positive feed- the high and low thresholds), the circuit can be inverting
back is the impact on the input source. In circuits with as well as non-inverting. The output voltage is undened;
negative parallel feedback (e.g., an inverting amplier), it depends on the last state and the circuit behaves as an
the virtual ground at the inverting input separates the in- elementary latch.
put source from the op-amp output. Here there is no vir- To compare the two versions, the circuit operation will be
tual ground, and the steady op-amp output voltage is ap- considered at the same conditions as above. If the Schmitt
plied through R1 - R2 network to the input source. The trigger is currently in the high state, the output will be at

3 APPLICATIONS

the positive power supply rail (+VS). The output voltage Schmitt trigger ensures that the output only switches when
V of the voltage divider is:
there is certainly an input stimulating the device.

V+ =

R1
Vs
R1 + R2

Schmitt triggers are common in many switching circuits

for similar reasons (e.g., for switch debouncing).
List of IC including input Schmitt triggers

The comparator will switch when V = V. So Vin must

exceed above this voltage to get the output to switch. The following 7400 series devices include a Schmitt trigOnce the comparator output has switched to VS, the ger on their input or on each of their inputs:
1
threshold becomes R1R+R
Vs to switch back to high.
2
So this circuit creates a switching band centered on zero,
7413: Dual Schmitt trigger 4-input NAND Gate
1
with trigger levels R1R+R
V
(it
can
be
shifted
to
the
left
s
2
7414: Hex Schmitt trigger Inverter
or the right by connecting R1 to bias voltage). The input
voltage must rise above the top of the band, and then be 7418: Dual Schmitt trigger 4-input NAND Gate
low the bottom of the band, for the output to switch o
(minus) and then back on (plus). If R1 is zero (i.e., an
7419: Hex Schmitt trigger Inverter
short circuit) or R2 is innity, the band collapses to zero
74121: Monostable Multivibrator with Schmitt
width, and it behaves as a standard comparator.
Trigger Inputs
In contrast with the parallel version, this circuit does not
impact on the input source since the source is separated
74132: Quad 2-input NAND Schmitt Trigger
from the voltage divider output by the high op-amp input
74221: Dual Monostable Multivibrator with
dierential impedance.
Schmitt Trigger Input

Applications

74232: Quad NOR Schmitt Trigger

74310: Octal Buer with Schmitt Trigger Inputs

Schmitt triggers are typically used in open loop congurations for noise immunity and closed loop congurations
to implement function generators.

3.1

Noise immunity

74340: Octal Buer with Schmitt Trigger Inputs

and three-state inverted outputs
74341: Octal Buer with Schmitt Trigger Inputs
and three-state noninverted outputs

74344: Octal Buer with Schmitt Trigger Inputs

One application of a Schmitt trigger is to increase the
and three-state noninverted outputs
noise immunity in a circuit with only a single input threshold. With only one input threshold, a noisy input signal
74(HC/HCT)7541 Octal Buer with Schmitt Trig[nb 4]
near that threshold could cause the output to switch
ger Inputs and Three-State Noninverted Outputs
rapidly back and forth from noise alone. A noisy Schmitt
SN74LV8151 is a 10-bit universal Schmitt-trigger
Trigger input signal near one threshold can cause only
buer with 3-state outputs
one switch in output value, after which it would have to
move beyond the other threshold in order to cause another
switch.
A number of 4000 series devices include a Schmitt trigger
For example, an amplied infrared photodiode may gen- on inputs, for example:
erate an electric signal that switches frequently between
its absolute lowest value and its absolute highest value.
This signal is then low-pass ltered to form a smooth
signal that rises and falls corresponding to the relative
amount of time the switching signal is on and o. That ltered output passes to the input of a Schmitt trigger. The
net eect is that the output of the Schmitt trigger only
passes from low to high after a received infrared signal
excites the photodiode for longer than some known delay, and once the Schmitt trigger is high, it only moves
low after the infrared signal ceases to excite the photodiode for longer than a similar known delay. Whereas the
photodiode is prone to spurious switching due to noise
from the environment, the delay added by the lter and

4017: Decade Counter with Decoded Outputs

4020: 14-Stage Binary Ripple Counter
4022: Octal Counter with Decoded Outputs
4024: 7-Stage Binary Ripple Counter
4040: 12-Stage Binary Ripple Counter
4093: Quad 2-Input NAND
40106: Hex Inverter
14538: Dual Monostable Multivibrator

7
Dual Schmitt input congurable single-gate CMOS logic, simple and reliable oscillator with only two external comAND, OR, XOR, NAND, NOR, XNOR
ponents.
Here, a comparator-based Schmitt trigger is used in its
inverting conguration. Additionally, slow negative feedback is added with an integrating RC network. The result,
which is shown on the right, is that the output automatically oscillates from VSS to VDD as the capacitor charges
from one Schmitt trigger threshold to the other.

NC7SZ57 Fairchild
NC7SZ58 Fairchild
SN74LVC1G57 Texas Instruments
SN74LVC1G58 Texas Instruments

3.2

4 See also

Use as an oscillator

Main article: Relaxation oscillator

A Schmitt trigger is a bistable multivibrator, and it can

Hysteresis
Positive feedback
Operational amplier applications
Bistable multivibrator circuit
Threshold detector with hysteresis
Comparator

5 Notes
Output and capacitor waveforms for comparator-based
relaxation oscillator

V-

VDD
Vout
VSS
R

V+

A comparator-based implementation of a relaxation oscillator

be used to implement another type of multivibrator, the

relaxation oscillator. This is achieved by connecting a single RC integrating circuit between the output and the input of an inverting Schmitt trigger. The output will be a
continuous square wave whose frequency depends on the
values of R and C, and the threshold points of the Schmitt
trigger. Since multiple Schmitt trigger circuits can be provided by a single integrated circuit (e.g. the 4000 series
CMOS device type 40106 contains 6 of them), a spare
section of the IC can be quickly pressed into service as a

[1] One factor contributing to ambiguity is that one simple

transistor-based realization of a Schmitt trigger is naturally inverting, with a non-inverting Schmitt trigger sometimes consisting of such an inverting implementation followed by an inverter. An additional inverter may be added
for buering a stand-alone inverting conguration. Consequently, inverting congurations within an integrated
circuit may be naturally inverting, while non-inverting
congurations are implemented with a single inverter, and
stand-alone inverting congurations may be implemented
with two inverters. As a result, symbols that combine inverting bubbles and hysteresis curves may be using the
hysteresis curve to describe the entire device or the embedded Schmitt trigger only.
[2] Usually, negative feedback is used in op-amp circuits.
Some operational ampliers are designed to be used only
in negative-feedback congurations that enforce a negligible dierence between the inverting and non-inverting
inputs. They incorporate input-protection circuitry that
prevent the inverting and non-inverting inputs from operating far away from each other. For example, clipper circuits made up of two general purpose diodes with opposite
bias in parallel or two Zener diodes with opposite bias in
series (i.e., a double-anode Zener diode) are sometimes
used internally across the two inputs of the operational
amplier. In these cases, the operational ampliers will
fail to function well as comparators. Conversely, comparators are designed under the assumption that the input
voltages can dier signicantly.
[3] When the non-inverting (+) input is at a higher voltage than the inverting () input, the comparator output
switches nearly to +VS, which is its high supply voltage.
When the non-inverting (+) input is at a lower voltage than

the inverting () input, the comparator output switches

nearly to -VS, which is its low supply voltage.
[4] Where the noise amplitude is assumed to be small compared to the change in Schmitt trigger threshold.

References

[1] Otto H. Schmitt, A Thermionic Trigger, Journal of Scientic Instruments 15 (January 1938): 2426.
[2] August 2004 issue of the Pavek Museum of Broadcasting Newsletter - http://160.94.102.47/Otto_Images/
PavekOHSbio.pdf
[3] Debouncing switches with an SR latch
[4] 7414 datasheet

External links

EXTERNAL LINKS

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1

Text

Schmitt trigger Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schmitt%20trigger?oldid=649569666 Contributors: Heron, Glenn, GCarty, GRAHAMUK, Schneelocke, Selket, Omegatron, Robbot, Auric, Ruakh, HaeB, AJim, Ravn, Glogger, Sonett72, RevRagnarok, Jayjg, TedPavlic, Roo72, ESkog, Gxti, Viriditas, Hooperbloob, Malo, Wtshymanski, Unixer, Cbdorsett, Palica, BD2412, Snaekid, Commander, Brighterorange, Alejo2083, Krishnavedala, YurikBot, Bullzeye, Amakuha, Light current, SmackBot, Forrestc, Gilliam, Chris the
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Makholm, Adsllc, Chetvorno, ZsinjBot, Circuit dreamer, MC10, Matthew of Hamburg, Thijs!bot, Nick Number, Luna Santin, Tkirkman, Acertain, JJ Harrison, R'n'B, Zen-in, Ducky84375, Pmoseley, Luciopaiva, VolkovBot, B Pete, CanOfWorms, Spinningspark, SieBot,
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32RB17, Sanjayram1994, Thomasch35 and Anonymous: 117

8.2

Images

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