International Food Research Journal 15(3): 337-346 (2008)

Essential oil from five Zingiberaceae for anti food-borne bacteria

Natta, L., *Orapin, K., Krittika, N. and Pantip, B.
School of Bioresources and Technology, King Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi,
Bangkhuntein, Bangkok, Thailand 10150
Abstract: Essential oil from five Zingiberaceae species: ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe.), galanga (Alpinia
galanga Sw.), turmeric (Curcuma longa L.), kaempferia (Boesenbergia pandurata Holtt.) and bastard cardamom
(Amomum xanthioides Wall.) obtained by hydrodistillation and two solvent extractions (petroleum ether
and ethanol) was characterized. Their antibacterial effects towards Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus,
Bacillus cereus and Listeria monocytogenes were tested by a disc diffusion assay. Essential oil of kaempferia
and bastard cardamom obtained by hydrodistillation extraction could inhibit growth of all tested bacteria.
Essential oil of ginger extracted by hydrodistillation had the highest efficiency against three positive strains
of bacteria (S. aureus, B. cereus and L. monocytogenes), with a minimum concentration to inhibit B. cereus and
L. monocytogenes of 6.25 g/ml. Volatile compounds of all extracts were analyzed by gas chromatographymass spectrometry (GC-MS). The major components of ginger, galanga, turmeric, kaempferia, and bastard
cardamom obtained by hydrodistillation, were zingiberene, methyl chavicol, turmerone, -terpinene, and
methyl chavicol, respectively.
Keywords: Ginger, galanga, turmeric, kaempferia, bastard cardamom, antibacteria

Introduction
Food-borne diseases are still a major problem of
the world, even in well-developed countries (Mead
et al., 1999). A variety of microorganisms also lead
food spoilage that is encountered as one of the most
important matter concerning the food industry.
So far, many pathogenic microorganisms, such
as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella
pneumoniae, Listeria monocytogenes and Campylobacter
jejuni have been reported as the causal agents of
food-borne diseases and/ or food spoilage (Deak
and Beuchat, 1996; Betts et al., 1999). Thus,
at present, it is a necessity to use the chemical
preservatives to prevent the growth of food spoiling
microbes in the food industry (Sagdc and Ozcan,
2003). Due to the consumers concerned about the
safety of food containing preservative as synthetic
chemicals, therefore, there is a growing interest to
use natural antibacterial compounds. Extracts of
herbs and spices can be the preservation of foods, as
these possess a characteristic flavor and sometimes
show antioxidant activity as well as antimicrobial
activity (Smid and Gorris, 1999). For centuries,
indigenous plants have been used in herbal
medicine for curing various diseases (Cowan, 1999).
Recently, the acceptance of traditional medicine
as an alternative form for health care and the
development of microbial resistance to the available

*Corresponding author
Email: [email protected]

antibiotics (Srinivasan et al., 2001; Kumarasamy

et al., 2002) have led authors to investigate the
antimicrobial activity of medicinal plants.

Zingiberaceae is among the plant families
that are widely distributed throughout the tropics,
particularly in Southeast Asia. It is an important
natural resource that provides man with many
useful products for food, spices, medicines, dyes,
perfume and aesthetics (Burkill, 1966). Thailand is
a country of high plant biodiversity as a result of its
geographical position in the tropics and the climatic
variation between north and south. There are 200
species of Zingiberaceae belonging to 20 genera
found in Thailand. In recent years, several reports
have been published concerning the composition
and/or the biological properties (antimicrobial,
antioxidant, anticancer and a stimulated effect
on the immune system) of Zingiberaceae extracts
(Negi et al., 1999; Scartezzini and Speroni, 2000;
Youko et al., 2000; Patricia et al., 2003; Jirovetz et al.,
2003; Bendjeddou et al., 2003; Nguefack et al., 2004).
These studies have emphasized the existence of
marked chemical differences among oils extracted
from different species or varieties. These variations
are likely to influence the antimicrobial activity of
the oil and are generally a function of three factors:
genetically determined properties, the age of the
plant and the environment.

338

Natta, L., Orapin, K., Krittika, N. and Pantip, B.

Extraction procedure
Hydrodistillation
Essential oils of five Zingiberaceae species were
extracted by hydrodistillation, and all operations
were carried out at room temperature. The fresh
rhizomes of Zingiberaceae were washed to remove
soil, peeled and sliced. Sliced rhizomes of fresh
Zingiberaceae (2 Kg) were mixed with distilled
water (5 L). The essential oils were extracted by
hydrodistillation using a vertical hydrodistillation
unit. A flask containing the homogenate was
heated during 24 h and the vapor condensed and
separated throughout an auto-oil/water separator.
Each essential oil extraction was running in
triplicate. Yield percentages were recorded as dry
basis material.

Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis

(GC-MS)
The volatile composition of plant extracts were
analyzed using GC-MS system (GC-8000, FISONS
Co., Italy), equipped with a 30 m x 0.25 mm i.d.
x 0.25 m film thickness, ZB-5 capillary column.
The electron impact technique (70 eV) was used.
The carrier gas was helium at flow rate of 1.3 ml/
min, and 1 l of sample was injected. The injector
and detector temperatures were 250C and 230C,
respectively. The other analytical conditions were
as follows:

Galanga, turmeric, kaempferia: Temperature
programming: 60C, as initial temperature, for
5 min, 8C/min to 180C, 10C/min to 240C,
holding for 5 min.

B a s t a r d c a r d a m o m : Te m p e r a t u r e
programming: 60C, as initial temperature, for
5 min, 8C/min to 180C, 10C/min to 240C,
holding for 15 min.

Ginger: Temperature programming: 50C, as
initial temperature, for 1 min, 3C/min to 240C,
holding for 2 min.

A mixture of C8-C25 n-alkanes used as standard
was previously separated under the conditions
mentioned in the Experimental section. Retention
indices (RIs) for all components were determined
from the results of the chromatography of these
mixtures and extracts according to the Van den Dool
method (Dool and Kratz, 1963). The identification
of compounds was based on a comparison of their
retention times with those of authentic standards,
by comparison of their mass spectra with data in
the Wiley 175 and National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) libraries and comparison
with literature data (Luger et al., 1996; Jirovetz et
al., 2003; Isidorov and Vinogorova, 2003; Acree and
Arn, 2004; Hochmuth, 2006; Alma et al., 2007).

Solvent extraction
Plant material was oven dried at 50C for 24 h to
reduce water content. Extracts were prepared by
blending preserved plant material (approximately
200 g dry weight) in 99% ethanol and petroleum
ether (1:3 w/v ratio). After 24 h, the mixture was
filtered through Whatman filter paper (No.1) using
a Buchner funnel. The solvent was removed with a
rotary vacuum evaporator at 40C (30 mmHg). The
oil was stored in dark vials at 4C before analyzing.
The waste or residue after extracted by petroleum
ether of plant materials was repeated once with
ethanol, called secondary extraction, similar to the
above condition.

Preparation of bacteria strain

Four different food-borne bacteria were used.
Three species of Gram positive bacteria, S. aureus, B.
cereus and L. monocytogenes, and one Gram negative
bacteria, E. coli, were obtained from stock cultures
of the Department of Applied Microbiology, King
Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi,
Thailand. Bacteria were sub-cultured on nutrient
agar at 37C prior to being grown in nutrient
broth overnight. All overnight (ON) cultures were
standardized by matching to the McFarland 0.5
turbidity standard using sterile saline to produce
approximately 1.5x108 colony forming units (cfu)
per ml.

The objectives of this study were to compare
the antimicrobial activity of the essential oils and
extracts from Zingiberaceae against common
food-borne pathogen and/or spoilage bacteria,
including Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus,
Bacillus cereus and Listeria monocytogenes. Evaluating
minimal inhibitory concentrations and the main
components of the extracts by GC/MS, in an
attempt to contribute to the use of these as
alternative products for microbial control and food
preservation were determined.
Materials and methods
Plant material
Fresh rhizomes of five Zingiberaceae (ginger,
galanga, turmeric, kaempferia, bastard cardamom)
were purchased from a local vegetable and
fruit market of the Tungkru District, Bangkok,
Thailand.

International Food Research Journal Vol. 15, 337-346

Essential oil from five Zingiberaceae for anti food-borne bacteria

Antibacterial screening
The antibacterial activity of the plant extracts was
carried out by disc diffusion assay that was used to
screen (Kumar et al., 2001; Gulluce et al., 2003).
Muller Hinton agar (MHA) plates were swabbed
with the respective broth culture of the organisms
(diluted to 0.5 McFarland Standard with saline)
and kept for absorption to take place. Sterile 6 mm
diameter filter paper discs were impregnated with
100 mg/ml of plants extract that dissolved in sterile
dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO). Negative controls
were prepared using the same solvents employed
to dissolve the plant extracts. Streptomycin (5
g/ml) was used as positive reference standards
to determine the sensitivity of one strain in each
bacterial species tested. The plates were incubated
overnight at 37C. The antimicrobial activity was
evaluated by measuring the zone expressed as mm
of inhibition against test organism. Five discs per
plate and three plates were used, and each test was
run in triplicate.
Determination of minimum inhibitory concentration
(MIC)
The minimum inhibition concentration (MIC)
values were also studied for the bacteria which
were determined as sensitive to the extracts in disc
diffusion assay. The inoculated bacteria as prepared
from 24 h nutrient broth cultures and suspensions
were adjusted to 0.5 McFarland turbidity standard.
Plant extracts dissolved in DMSO were first diluted
to the highest concentration (50 g/ml) to be

339

tested, and then serial two fold dilutions were

made in a concentration range from 6.25 g/
ml to 50 g/ml. The least concentration of each
extract showing a clear of inhibition was taken as
the MIC levels.
Statistical analysis
Analysis of variance of antibacterial activities of
plant extracts from ginger, galanga, turmeric,
kaempferia, bastard cardamom were analyzed using
SAS Program. Mean separation was performed by
Protected LSD method at p 0.05 (SAS, 1991).
Results and discussion
Volatile compounds of the plant extracts
Essential oils and extracts of Zingiberaceae obtained
from four extraction method (A; hydrodistillation,
B; extracted by petroleum ether, C; secondary
extraction or waste of plant extracted by ethanol
and D; extracted by ethanol), were analyzed using
GC-MS system. The component of ginger are
given in Table 1, zingiberene (A; 30.7%, B; 51.4%,
C; 46.0%, D; 41.5%) was found as main constituent
in all essential oils, that according with reported by
Kelly et al. (2002). The second major component
was identified as -farnesene (A; 15.2%, B; 16.0%,
C; 17.6%, D; 22.8%).

The main constituent of galanga extracted
by hydrodistillation was methyl chavicol (37.9%),
whereas in galanga extracted by solvent as it was

Table 1: % Relative peak areas and RIs of volatile compounds in ginger extracts
Compound

RIs

% Relative peak area

A

calminol

1233

1.4

3.3

neral

1247

10.2

4.8

1.3

1.1

chavicol

1249

1.2

geranial

1261

15.1

1.9

0.6

linalool acetate

1277

0.5

curcumene

1471

6.3

3.3

4.2

2.9

zingiberene

1489

30.7

51.4

46.0

41.5

-farnesene

1491

15.2

16.0

17.6

22.8

-bisabolene

1518

6.9

7.3

9.0

6.9

-sesquiphellandrene

1560

11.3

12.2

15.1

17.6

guaiol

1589

0.7

0.6

1.3

0.9

gingerone

1718

0.5

1.1

3.6

5.7

A, B. C and D refer to the different extraction methods used (A: hydrodistillation; B: extraction with petroleum ether; C: secondary
extraction with ethanol of plant residue after extraction by method B and D: extraction with ethanol).

International Food Research Journal Vol. 15, 337-346

340

Natta, L., Orapin, K., Krittika, N. and Pantip, B.

ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate (B; 49.8%, C; 68.2%, D;

74.6%) (Table 2). For the main constituents of this
plant differences were observed with that obtained
in India (Jirovetz et al., 2003). These discrepancies
may be explained by factors such as soil and climatic
conditions (Baydar et al., 2004).

The result obtained by GC-MS analysis of
turmeric is presented in Table 3. Fifteen compounds
were identified. The oil profile shows turmerone as
the main compound (A; 50.0%, B; 58.5%, C; 66.7%,
D; 64.7%); other major compounds were curlone,
-farnesene and -zingiberene, respectively.

Table 2: % Relative peak areas and RIs of volatile compounds in galanga extracts
Compound

RIs

% Relative peak area

A

1,8-cineole

1029

33.6

4.1

2.4

3.3

methyl chavicol

1033

37.9

Camphor

1139

4.5

16.0

9.8

5.0

-thujene

1158

0.7

2.4

-caryophyllene

1432

4.2

5.9

7.4

1.5

-farnesene

1491

4.2

4.6

4.8

1.8

-elemene

1494

1.2

3.5

0.3

-selinene

1497

3.0

2.4

2.2

1.6

-farnesene

1500

5.9

6.7

2.4

5.3

-selinene

1503

4.2

4.3

2.0

2.4

-cadinene

1507

0.8

0.5

ethyl p-methoxy-cinnamate

1711

49.8

68.2

74.6

eugenol acetate

1935

0.8

4.2

A, B. C and D refer to the different extraction methods used (A: hydrodistillation; B: extraction with petroleum ether; C: secondary
extraction with ethanol of plant residue after extraction by method B and D: extraction with ethanol).

Table 3: % Relative peak areas and RIs of volatile compounds in tumeric extracts
Compound

RIs

% Relative peak area

A

1,8-cineole

1025

1.1

1.4

-terpinene

1055

5.5

1.7

isocaryophyllene

1409

1.8

0.7

0.5

-caryophyllene

1449

1.1

0.4

0.4

ar-curcumene

1471

2.9

1.2

1.3

1.3

-zingiberene

1489

7.8

3.6

1.8

3.5

-bisabolene

1494

1.7

0.5

0.5

-farnesene

1500

10.8

4.1

2.5

4.1

cubenol

1602

3.1

0.9

1.4

1.1

ar-turmerol

1610

0.9

1.9

2.5

2.1

turmerone

1643

50.0

58.5

66.7

64.7

curlone

1645

12.9

20.9

21.4

20.1

(6S,7R)-bisabolene

1666

0.9

-atlantone

1669

0.5

1.3

0.9

0.7

(E)--atlantone

1689

1.8

1.1

1.0

A, B. C and D refer to the different extraction methods used (A: hydrodistillation; B: extraction with petroleum ether; C: secondary
extraction with ethanol of plant residue after extraction by method B and D: extraction with ethanol).

International Food Research Journal Vol. 15, 337-346

Essential oil from five Zingiberaceae for anti food-borne bacteria

The profile of kaempferia in Table 4 shows
-terpinene (44.0%), which was only found most
in this essential oil by hydrodistillation. The other
major compounds of kaempferia extracts were
geraniol (A; 20.6%, B; 55.3%, C; 37.2%, D; 40.7%)
and 6-camphenone (A; 18.7%, B; 29.6%, C; 25.2%,
D; 31.3%).

341

The most abundant compound in rhizome
of bastard cardamom obtained by hydrodistillation
and petroleum ether was methyl chavicol (93.1%
and 48.7%, respectively), whereas in the ethanol
extract and secondary extraction with ethanol was
anethole (Table 5).

Table 4: % Relative peak areas and RIs of volatile compounds in kaemferia extracts extracts
Compound

RIs

% Relative peak area

A

limonene

1025

0.7

1,8-cineole

1029

12.8

1.8

3.6

5.2

-terpinene

1055

44.0

3.5

1.9

4.7

linalool

1090

0.8

1.2

0.8

1.2

terpineol

1135

0.3

6-camphenone

1141

18.7

29.6

25.2

31.3

borneol

1154

0.3

0.4

nerol

1234

0.6

0.6

citral

1254

0.3

geraniol

1276

20.6

55.3

37.2

40.7

methyl cinnamate

1320

2.1

2.6

3.7

4.2

-farnesene

1448

0.8

0.2

0.3

nerolidol

1543

0.3

0.4

11-dodecen-1-ol

1692

2.2

1.1

1.1

pinostrobin chalcone

2502

2.7

25.1

10.1

A, B. C and D refer to the different extraction methods used (A: hydrodistillation; B: extraction with petroleum ether; C: secondary
extraction with ethanol of plant residue after extraction by method B and D: extraction with ethanol).

Table 5: % Relative peak areas and RIs of volatile compounds in bastard cardamom extracts
Compound

RIs

% Relative peak area

A

methyl chavicol

1175

93.1

48.7

5.2

19.2

anethole

1282

0.3

44.2

79.4

63.4

-copaene

1378

1.0

1.1

0.5

aromadendrene

1443

0.2

0.3

0.8

0.2

-himachalene

1450

0.2

caryophellene

1432

0.4

-farnesene

1448

0.3

0.3

0.6

-selinene

1494

0.6

0.5

1.0

0.8

-cadinene

1508

3.3

4.2

4.8

13.5

-chamigrene

1547

0.3

0.3

1.0

0.5

-farnesol

1697

0.2

0.5

bornyl benzoate

1766

1.5

0.3

eugenolacetate

1935

6.4

1.1

A, B. C and D refer to the different extraction methods used (A: hydrodistillation; B: extraction with petroleum ether; C: secondary
extraction with ethanol of plant residue after extraction by method B and D: extraction with ethanol).

International Food Research Journal Vol. 15, 337-346

342

Natta, L., Orapin, K., Krittika, N. and Pantip, B.

Antibacterial activity
The antibacterial activity of essential oils and
extracts from five Zingiberaceae species against
the microorganisms considered in the present
study were qualitatively and quantitatively assessed
evaluating the presence of inhibition zone and
zone diameter (Table 6). Among Gram-positive
bacteria, B. cereus was the most sensitive organism
to plant extracts that this finding is in agreement
with a previous report (Alzoreky et al., 2003). Gramnegative bacteria showed resistance (no inhibition
zone) to the 18 extracts of plant. Water-distilled
essential oils of kaempferia (%yield = 0.26 dry
basis (d.b.)) and bastard cardamom (%yield = 0.27
d.b.) were only inhibitory for E. coli. Kaempferia

produced an average zone of inhibition (ZOI)

of 9.0 mm while bastard cardamom produced an
average ZOI of 10.0 mm, from triplicate assays.
On the growth of B. cereus, ginger extracted by
hydrodistillation was most effective to inhibitory,
that average ZOI of 20.0 mm. Furthermore, S.
aureus was inhibited by ginger as well as kaempferia.
L. monocytogenes was the bacterium most sensitive
to essential oil of ginger, that the largest inhibition
zone diameter was 22.0 mm. Based on these results,
it is possible to conclude that the essential oil has a
stronger activity and broader spectrum than those
of solvent extracts. As emphasized elsewhere, Grampositive bacteria are more sensitive to plant oil and
extracts than Gram-negative bacteria (Cosentino

Table 6: Results of the antibacterial tests of the investigated plants in agar diffusion assay

S. aureus

B. cereus

E.coli

L. monocytogenes

Inhibition zones (mm)* against

Hydrodistillation

16a

20a

0c

22a

Ethanol

9hi

10h

0c

10i

Petroleum ether

10g

12f

0c

11h

Secondary extraction with ethanol after

extraction by petroleum ether

8j

11g

0c

8l

Hydrodistillation

8k

9hi

0c

11h

Ethanol

12e

13d

0c

9k

Petroleum ether

12e

12f

0c

9k

Secondary extraction with ethanol after

extraction by petroleum ether

13

14

10i

10h

0c

16c

Plants species

Zingiber officinale (ginger)

Alpinia galangal (galanga)

Curcuma longa (turmeric)

Boesenbergia pandurata
(kaempferia)

Amomum xanthioides
(bastard cardamom)

Extract

Hydrodistillation

9i

cd

Ethanol

11fg

12f

0c

13f

Petroleum ether

10

10

10i

Secondary extraction with ethanol after

extraction by petroleum ether

11fg

11e

0c

11g

Hydrodistillation

15ab

16b

9b

19b

Ethanol

11f

14c

0c

15d

Petroleum ether

14b

12cf

0c

13f

Secondary extraction with ethanol after

extraction by petroleum ether

14b

16b

0c

14e

Hydrodistillation

12c

13d

10a

13f

Ethanol

0l

8i

0c

0m

Petroleum ether

8j

9hi

0c

0m

Secondary extraction with ethanol after

extraction by petroleum ether

0m

24

26

22

24

Streptomycin, 5 mg/ml
* Inhibition zone including the diameter of the paper disc (6 mm).
a,b,c,the letters in the same column are significant difference at p 0.05.

International Food Research Journal Vol. 15, 337-346

Essential oil from five Zingiberaceae for anti food-borne bacteria

et al., 1999; Karaman et al., 2003). The basis of

varying degree of sensitivity of test organisms of
bacteria may be due to the intrinsic tolerance of
microorganisms and the nature and combinations
of phytocompounds present in the essential oil.
The bioassay guided fractionation procedure
showed that the plant essential oil was rich in
terpenes (monoterpene, oxygenated monoterpene
and sesquiterpene). At present, however, the mode
of action of terpenic constituents on microorganism
is not fully understood. Nevertheless, in view of
their hydrophobicity, it is generally considered
that they are involved in such mechanism as
cytoplasmic membrane, coagulation of cell contents
and disruption of the proton motive force (Burt,
2004).

343

In this study, the major compounds in five
Zingiberaceae essential oils were terpenes which
effect on membrane of bacteria (Gram positive
and negative), as shown in Figure 1. Terpenes in
ginger, galanga, turmeric, kaempferia, bastard
cardamom were zingiberene and farnescene;
methyl chavicol and ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate;
tumerone, farnescene, curlone and zingiberene;
terpinene, geraniol, and 6-camphenone; methyl
chavicol, respectively.
Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)
The MICs of each plant extracts are presented
in Table 7. Of the 7 plant extracts tested, ginger,
turmeric, and bastard cardamom extracted
by hydrostillation, kaempferia extracted by

Figure 1: Structures of major components in essential oils from five Zingiberaceace sp.

International Food Research Journal Vol. 15, 337-346

344

Natta, L., Orapin, K., Krittika, N. and Pantip, B.

Table 7: Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of plant extracts against bacteria

Minimum inhibitory concentration (mg ml - 1)
Bacterial
species

Secondary extraction with

ethanol after extraction by
petroleum ether

Hydrodistillation

Ethanol

ginger

turmeric

kaempferia

bastard
cardamom

galanga

kaempferia

kaempferia

S. aureus

12.5

none

12.5

none

100

50

12.5

B. cereus

6.25

none

12.5

none

25

12.5

12.5

E. coli

none

none

50.0

25

none

none

none

L. monocytogenes

6.25

25

6.25

none

none

6.25

6.25

hydrodistillation and ethanol, waste of kaempferia

and galanga extracted by ethanol seem to be
the most efficient plant extracts against the four
pathogenic bacteria tested. The results demonstrate
a wide range of activities of the different herbs and
extracts against the bacteria tested. Relatively high
levels of activity (MIC of 12.5 6.25 g/ml) against
this pathogen were present in plants extracts from
all herbs except galanga. The MIC values indicate
that the oil of ginger was more efficient than that
of others. By minimum concentration to inhibit B.
cereus and L. monocytogenes was 6.25 g/ml. As was
the case with the water extracts, L. monocytogenes
proved to be most sensitive of the tested bacteria.
The ethanolic extracts of kaempferia showed better
growth inhibition against L. monocytogenes than B.
cereus and S. aureus. Numerous herbs, spices and
plants have been reported to be potential sources
of antimicrobial agents but not many have been
studied with respect to levels and range of activity
(Hsieh et al., 2001). In particular, plants of limited
distribution, such as those restricted to particular
regions or countries, are poorly studied.

The results demonstrate a wide range of activities of

the different herbs and extracts against the bacteria
tested. Relatively high levels of activity (MIC of 6.2512.5 g/ml) against these bacteria were observed
for plant extracts from all herbs except Alpinia
galangal. The MIC values indicated that ginger
oil from hydrodistillation was more efficient than
the others at which MIC values for inhibition of B.
cereus and L. monocytogenes were 6.25 g/ml. The
ethanolic extracts of kaempferia showed better
growth inhibition against L. monocytogenes than B.
cereus and S. aureus. Among the tested bacteria,
L. monocytogenes was the most sensitive bacteria
when it was subjected by oils obtained from various
extraction methods.

Conclusion

References

Volatile compounds of all extracts were analyzed by

GC-MS, were terpenes. Most abundant terpenes in
ginger, galanga, turmeric, kaempferia, and bastard
cardamom were zingiberene and farnescene; methyl
chavicol and ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate; tumerone,
farnescene, curlone, and zingiberene; terpinene,
geraniol, and 6-camphenone; methyl chavicol,
respectively. Essential oil of kaempferia and bastard
cardamom obtained by hydrodistillation extraction
could inhibit growth of all tested bacteria. Essential
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