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JSMA
6,3

A new model of strategic

thinking competency
Polboon Nuntamanop

242

School of Management, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumtani, Thailand

Ilkka Kauranen
Industrial Engineering and Management, Aalto University, Aalto, Finland, and

Barbara Igel
School of Management, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumtani, Thailand
Abstract
Purpose This paper seeks to present new insights into strategic thinking, proposing a model of
strategic thinking competency.
Design/methodology/approach To find new knowledge, the research applies the Straussian
grounded theory research method using multiple sources and techniques of data inquiry: in-depth
interviews, observations, literature review, and related published documents. The sample cases are
business leaders of leading high growth companies in their respective markets, representing eleven
different industries in Thailand.
Findings Among many new knowledge, the study found seven characteristics of strategic thinking
that impacts strategy formulation, strategic actions, and business performance: conceptual thinking
ability, visionary thinking, analytical thinking ability, synthesizing ability, objectivity, creativity, and
learning ability. This set of abilities and skilled are termed strategic thinking competency.
Research limitations/implications In-depth interview data inquiry method has potential bias
towards positive information. Although the study covers many industries, the small number of sample
cases limits degree of generalization. A constraint of qualitative research method in interpretation of
the results is reduced by comparing empirical results to the literature.
Practical implications The strategic thinking competency model offers a framework for
developing strategic thinking of business leaders and managers which contributes to better strategy
and better business performance. Human resource developers may apply the model for designing
training programs to develop better strategic thinkers.
Social implications Better strategic thinking could help improving efficiency and effectiveness of
business and general management.
Originality/value The study introduces a model of Strategic Thinking Competency with seven
characteristics, proposing a new way of defining strategic thinking.
Keywords Strategic thinking, Strategic management, Strategy development, Management,
Competency, Business administration, Leadership
Paper type Research paper

Journal of Strategy and Management

Vol. 6 No. 3, 2013
pp. 242-264
r Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1755-425X
DOI 10.1108/JSMA-10-2012-0052

Introduction
Strategic thinking is important for strategy development and strategic management
(Andrews, 1980; Porter, 1987; Zabriskie and Huellmantel, 1991; Mintzberg, 1994a, b;
Mintzberg et al., 1998a, b; Liedtka, 1998; Macmillan and Tampoe, 2000; Saloner et al.,
2001; Bonn, 2001; Graetz, 2002; Abraham, 2005), and contributes to corporate outputs,
and profitability (Bowman and Helfat, 2001). The relationship between strategy and
performance is confirmed by the longitudinal case study of McAdam and Bailie (2002)
on business performance measures and impact on strategy. In addition, Kraus et al.
(2006), in their study of strategic planning in small enterprises, conclude that
formalization in strategic planning of firms is positively related to growth of the firm.
A recent extensive literature review by Steptoe-Warren et al. (2011) found that strategic

competencies are important to strategic management yet there is no agreement within

the literature on what those competencies are.
Despite a wide consensus on the importance of strategic thinking to business
performance, an extensive literature review has found few studies that define what
strategic thinking is or empirically verify how strategies and strategic actions business
leaders in practice take relate to strategic thinking.
To gain new insights, the study applies the Straussian grounded theory research
approach, using in-depth interviews as the primary source of empirical data. This
grounded-theory based study aims to find new knowledge about strategic
thinking, answering a research question what constitute strategic thinking that
impacts strategies leading to successful business, by empirically studying business
actions, applied strategies, and behaviors and thoughts of successful business leaders.
The empirical data were compared to the literature during the data analyzing and
synthesizing stage.
This paper proposes a model of strategic thinking competency, presenting new
insights about characteristics of strategic thinking that impact strategies and business
performance. This new model offers a new way of looking at strategic thinking
as a competency of business leaders, which has not been found in existing literature.
The result of the study can be used as a framework for developing strategic thinking
of individuals, through self-development or human resource development programs.
Strategic thinkers could help the organization to better respond to the challenges of the
changing business environment (Tavakoli and Lawton, 2005). The paper may trigger
further studies about the application of strategic thinking or about other competencies
of business leaders which impact business performance.
Literature review
This study is based on the basic concept of strategic management. Strategic
management is a set of decisions and actions that result in the formulation and
implementation of plans designed to achieve an organizations objectives (Pearce and
Robinson, 2000), and relates to business performance (Porter, 1987; Mintzberg,
1994a, b; McAdam and Bailie, 2002). To allow new insights to emerge, the groundedtheory-based study does not assume any theory in strategic thinking for the study
(Strauss and Corbin, 1998; Creswell, 1998). The different concepts and theories about
strategic management from the literature reviews provide inputs for designing
interviews and analyzing the empirical data.
Strategic management process
Strategic management is defined as a process of building capabilities that allows a
firm to create value for customers, shareholders, and society (Nag et al., 2007). Detailed
process is a way to achieve desired strategic outcomes (Whittington, 1996;
Jarzabkowski et al., 2007). Most general models of strategic management are similar
(Feurer and Chaharbaghi, 1997), they consist of: strategic vision formation; information
analysis; objective setting; strategy formulation; strategy implementation; and
performance evaluation (Thompson and Strickland, 1996; Pearce and Robinson, 2000;
Macmillan and Tampoe, 2000; Saloner et al., 2001). The general strategic management
process is used as a framework to empirically study the links between business
performances, business growth in this case, and strategic thinking which takes place
during the process.
The general strategic management process is illustrated in Figure 1.

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Vision formation
Internal
information
(company
resources)

244

Information
analysis
Objective setting

External
information
(industry and
competition)

Figure 1.
General strategic
management process

Business
performance
evaluation

Strategy
formulation
Strategy
implementation
and evaluation

Strategy formulation
Strategy formulation is a continuous process involving different levels of decisions
(Pettigrew, 1977, p. 49). This study recognizes different views of Quinn (1980a, b) and
Lindblom (1959, 1979) on incrementalism, which declares that strategies are logically
incremental, emerging from an iterative process rather than through formulations of
total strategies; and views of Whittington (1996) which proposes a concept of
strategy-as-practice viewing strategy formulation at the micro level as an on-going
activity. An empirical study by Miller (1987) about strategy making and implication of
performance found that innovative and successful firms have the strongest structureand-strategy relationships.
Based on different views of strategy formulation found in the literature review, this
empirical research studied the behaviors and thoughts of business leaders: how they
determine the basic goals and objectives of their companies, how they adopt courses of
action, and how they allocate resources necessary for carrying out these goals
(Chandler, 1962 in Feurer and Chaharbaghi, 1997). The study also aims to learn more
about how the business leaders identify opportunities and risks, how they determine
the companys resources, the roles of their personal values, and how they acknowledge
the non-economic responsibilities towards the society (Andrews, 1980).
This study also acknowledges different views of creating corporate strategy; the
market-based view, and the resource-based view (RBV), which shares a common aim
to maximize the performance of an organization (Feurer and Chaharbaghi, 1997, p. 58).
The market-based view of corporate strategy creation states that strategy is about
unique positioning and unique activities for competitive advantages and sustainability.
It emphasizes identifying attractive markets to compete in and creating competitive
advantages for superior performance (Porter, 1985, 1996). The RBV emphasizes the
internal resources of the firm to conceive and implement strategies (Barney, 1991).
Supporting the market-based view, Hart (1992, p. 121) introduces an integrative
framework for the strategy making process, stating that high-performing firms appear
capable of blending competing frames of reference in strategy making.
Strategic decision, strategy implementation, and business performance
Strategic decision making is a fundamental capability leading to superior performance.
Firms with high performance as regards to profitability, growth, and market place

reputation have a superior strategic decision-making process (Eisenhardt, 1999, p. 72).

This study looked into the actual strategic actions and the results of strategic decisions
that relate to business growth, recognizing that strategic planning itself is not strategic
but a rational decision-making process (Hamel, 1996; Porter, 1996; Andrews (1980, in
Mintzberg et al., 1998a, b, p. 54).
Strategy implementation includes the organization structure and relationships,
organizational processes and behavior, and top-management leadership (Andrews,
1980). This empirical study recognizes the components of strategy implementation as
communication, adoption, interpretation, and action (Aaltonen and Ikavalko, 2002),
as well as organizational alignment, complexity reduction, and issue resolution system
(Freedman, 2003). Sterling (2003) proposes a checklist for successful strategy
implementation: align organization design and capabilities with the strategy, consider
potential competitors reactions to the strategy, involve managers in the strategy
development process, exercise consistent and persistent communication, implement
careful action planning and budgeting, take care of appropriate monitoring, and plan
for accountability.
Strategic thinking
Most reviewed literature about strategic thinking either emphasizes the roles of
strategic thinking in strategic management or proposes different dimensions
of definitions. However, a common definition of strategic thinking in terms of its
characteristics is not found. Hanford (1995) suggests that the ability to think
strategically requires developing of: thinking concepts, thinking skills, thinking styles,
and thinking techniques. A study by Tavakoli and Lawton (2005) signifies that the
greater the sum total of strategic thinking and strategic thinkers in the organization,
the more readily and effectively the organization can respond to take advantage of
changes occurring in todays business environment.
The common characteristics of strategic thinking mentioned by a number of literatures
are: visionary, creative, and synthetic. Other characteristics mentioned by some literature
are analytical, conceptual, divergent, and systematic. Rowe et al. (1986, p. 23) define
strategic thinking as a process of thinking about an organization and how to go about
developing a strategy which includes vision, creativity, flexibility, and entrepreneurship.
Mintzberg (1994a, b) describes strategic thinking as being creative, synthesis, and
intuitive. Similarly, Heracleous (1998) describes strategic thinking as synthetic, creative,
and divergent. Thompson and Strickland (1996) explained strategic thinking as
analytical, conceptual, and visionary. They also add that thinking strategically requires
knowledge and synthesizing skills. Our literature review has found only four papers
specifically discussed about strategic thinking. Liedtka (1998) conceptualizes that
strategic thinking includes five elements: having a system perspective, being intentfocussed, thinking in time, being hypothesis-driven, and acting in an intelligently
opportunistic manner. Graetz (2000, p. 457) suggests the role of strategic thinking as
seeking innovation and imagining new and very different futures that may lead a
company to redefine its core strategies and its industry. Graetz (2002) combines the
attributes of strategic thinking suggested by Mintzberg (1994a, b) and Heracleous (1998)
and added innovative thinking. Bonn (2001) proposes strategic thinking as a core
competency of an organization. Bonn (2005) defines strategic thinking as a way to solve
strategic problems, combining a rational and convergent strategic approach with a
creative and convergent thought process and proposes a conceptual framework of
strategic thinking which consists of system thinking, creativity, and vision.

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The attributes of strategic thinking mentioned in the reviewed literature are

summarized in Table I.
Other pieces of literatures showing different thoughts on strategic thinking are
summarized by the years of publication as follows.
Tregoe and Zimmerman (1980, p. 12) proclaim that corporate survival lies in the
clarity of strategic thinking, facing the future knowing what the company wants to
be and how to get there. Porter (1987, p. 19) emphasizes that, to be effective, strategic
planning must use a proper process and that strategic thinking is essential for
strategic planning. Zabriskie and Huellmantel (1991) claim that it is necessary to
identify the real substance of strategic thinking. They point out that it is important
to know what the capabilities the senior management should have. Mintzberg
(1994a, b, pp. 381-382) and Hanford (1995) propose a concept of the differences
between strategic and operational thinking which include: longer term vs short
term; conceptual vs concrete; reflective/learning vs action/doing; identification of
key issues/opportunities vs resolution of existing performance problem; breaking
new ground vs routine/on-going; effectiveness vs efficiency; hands-off approach vs
hands-on approach; and helicopter perspective vs on-the-ground perspective.

Strategic managerial tasksa

Abilities and skills mentioned in the literature

1. Vision formation

Visionary and conceptual skills (Thomson and Strickland, 1996)

Industry foresight (Hamel and Prahalad, 1994)
Conceptual thinking (Herrmann, 1996)
Visionary thinking (Bonn, 2001)
Intuitive and innovative thinking (Graetz, 2002)
Knowledge, analytical skills, synthesizing skills (Thomson and
Strickland, 1996)
Conceptual thinking (Herrmann, 1996)
An ability to see opportunities and to conceptualize new markets
(Kim and Mauborgne, 2005)
Having a system perspective, intent-focussed thinking,
hypothesis-driven thinking (Liedtka, 1998)
System thinking (Bonn, 2001)
Intuitive and innovative thinking (Graetz, 2002)
Analytical and conceptual abilities (Andrews, 1980)
Synthesizing skills (Mintzberg, 1994a, b)
Conceptual thinking (Herrmann, 1996)
Knowledge, analytical skills, synthesizing skills (Thomson and
Strickland, 1996)
Ability to think in time, being intelligently opportunistic
(Liedtka, 1998)
Creativity (Bonn, 2001)
Synthesizing, divergent thinking, creative, intuitive, and
innovative thinking (Graetz, 2002)
Ability to synthesize knowledge concerning company resources
and activities (Kim and Mauborgne, 2005)
Learning ability (Brown, 2005)
Administrative skills (Andrews, 1980)
Learning ability (Brown, 2005)

2. Information analysis

3. Strategy formulation

Table I.
4. Strategy implementation and
Abilities and skills
evaluation
required for performing
strategic managerial tasks Note: aKey managerial tasks of strategic management presented by Thomson and Strickland (1996)

Macmillan and Tampoe (2000) emphasize that strategic thinking is closely

related to strategic actions and is an important part of strategic management.
Mintzberg (1994a, b, in Mintzberg et al., 1998a, pp. 126-127) introduced a concept
of strategic thinking as seeing: seeing ahead and behind, seeing above and
below, seeing beside and beyond, and seeing it through. Boar (2000) points out
that strategists think about multiple issues concurrently and that synthesis lies
at the heart of strategic thinking. According to Herrmanns (1996, pp. 6-8) whole
brain model, strategic thinking is largely a process which deals with futures,
patterns, trends, and nuances that require ability to sense emerging opportunities.
Macmillan and Tampoe (2000) stress that strategic thinking is a central part of the
strategy formulation process composing of strategic intent, strategic choices, and
strategic assessment. Saloner et al. (2001) depict strategic thinking as the ability to
develop and maintain conceptual maps of a business, and the ability to tie together
changes initiated outside the firms context, actions, and performance. Strategic
thinking first requires the conceptualization of a new strategy and later thinking
through how changes in the external and internal environment will impact the
strategy, they added.
In addition, in the strategic management literature, there are a number of other
studies related to strategic thinking. Williamson (2003) proposes a concept of
strategic innovation consisting of a set of abilities and skills: strategic intent, analytical
skills, synthesizing skills, and portfolio of ideas. Kim and Mauborgne (2005) introduce
the blue ocean strategy, which supports the need for strategic thinking, and
propose that strategic thinkers should be able to see emerging new opportunities
and to conceptualize new markets. Looking from knowledge management view,
a study by Tavakoli and Lawton (2005) concludes that knowledge management
has a significant role in increasing and improving strategic thinking. A study related to
management competency by Brown (2005) indicates that the involvement of different
levels of management in the strategy formulation of the organization can enhance
the potential for strategic management development. An empirical study by Evans
et al. (2009) emphasizes the importance of strategic thinking in evaluating and
leveraging new technologies. Goldman (2012) points out that one of the common
leadership practices in organizations is human resource development as regards to
strategic thinking.
To observe strategic thinking, the study also follows the suggestion by Tovstiga
(2010) that strategic thinking process includes developing strategic questions, forming
issues, developing insight using strategic analysis, assessing competitive landscape,
and generating strategic options.
Strategic managerial tasks, abilities, and skills
The first stage of data analysis indicated that strategic thinking is part of the
abilities and skills required to perform strategic managerial tasks and that
business leaders abilities and skills have an impact on strategy formulation
and strategy implementation. This is in line with the suggestion of Sveiby (2001)
that knowledge-based strategy formulation starts with the competence of people.
Therefore, more literature was reviewed focussing on abilities and skills required
to perform strategic management tasks. Using the general strategic management
process as a framework, a summary of abilities and skills required suggested in
the reviewed literature for performing strategic managerial tasks is presented
in Table II.

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Andrews
(1971)

Rowe
et al. (1986)

Mintzberg
(1994a, b)

Analytical
Conceptual

248

Vision
Visionary
Creativity
Creative
Flexibility
Entrepren eurship
Synthesis

Thomson and
Strickland
Heracleous
(1996)
(1998)

Graetz
(2002)

Bonn
(2005)

Creative

Creative

Vision
Creativity

Synthetic

Synthetic

Divergent

Divergent

Liedtka (1998)

Analytical
Conceptual
Visionary

Synthesizing
skills
Knowledge

System perspective

Table II.
Key elements of strategic
thinking suggested
in the literature

System
thinking

Intent-focus
Thinking on time
Hypothesis-driven
Acting in intelligent
manner
Intuitive

Intuitive
Innovative

Research methodology
The study is designed to answer a research question, what constitutes strategic
thinking that impacts strategies leading to successful business. During the process, the
study also aims to answers three research sub-questions:
RQ1. How are business growth, strategic actions, and strategies related?
RQ2. How strategies are practically formulated and implemented?
RQ3. What do successful business leaders require to formulate and implement
strategies effectively?
Method
The review of literature indicates a gap of knowledge in definition and attributes of
strategic thinking in strategic management.
To gain new insights and fresh point of view about strategic thinking, the study
applied the qualitative research approach (Kothari, 1996; Creswell, 1998, p. 17; Denzin
and Lincoln, 2000, p. 3), using the grounded theory methodology originally developed
by Glaser and Strauss ( Jones and Noble, 2007). Grounded theory method was chosen
because it provides a reflection of the reality, insights, and enhanced understanding of
the actions under investigation (Strauss and Corbin, 1998). To follow the methodology,
the study set aside theoretical ideas or notions about strategic thinking so that a new
analytic concept or theory can emerge (Creswell, 1998, p. 59).

Of the two schools of thought, Glaserian and Straussian grounded theory, this study
applies the Straussian method, using various sources of ideas and data (Strauss and
Corbin, 1998) including in-depth interviews, observation, review of related literature,
analysis of published documents, and prior experience and knowledge of the
researchers. The study applied the four principles of grounded theory summarized by
Jones and Noble (2007) and Gurd (2008, pp. 127-128): iterative data collection,
theoretical sampling, constant comparison, and explicit coding and new concept
building.
As strategic thinking is an important part of strategic management (Porter, 1987;
Mintzberg, 1994a, b) which is defined as a set of decisions and actions that results in
the formulation and the implementation of plans designed to achieve an organizations
objectives (Pearce and Robinson, 2000), this grounded-theory based study adopts the
strategic management process, illustrated in Figure 1, as a theoretical framework.
Studies by Whittington (1996) and Jarzabkowski et al. (2007) suggest that detailed
process is a way to achieve desired strategic outcomes. The study also applies
the conceptual analysis and the pattern matching model (Trochim, 1989) for data
analysis.
This study was designed to learn from business leaders of successful companies, in
terms of revenue growth, linking business growth to strategic actions, strategic actions
to strategies and to strategy formulation, and strategy formulation to strategic
thinking. The study did not presume that the interviewed business leaders follow any
particular school of thought.
Data collection
In-depth interviews were the primary source of data, supported by observations
and related published information. Multiple techniques were used to collect and
validate data to ensure reliability of the qualitative approach (Patton, 1999; Saldana,
2009).
Following the general principles of the grounded theory in using a purposive and
theoritical sampling method (Strauss and Corbin, 1998; Charmaz, 2006), the interview
respondents were business leaders of leading high-growth companies in their
respective market segments. Qualified companies had a higher sales growth rate than
the GDP or the average growth of their respective industries for three consecutive
years, specifically the years 2006 through 2008. The 12 sample cases represent 11
different industries in Thailand (out of the 25 industries listed in the Thai government
statistics of national industries): agriculture, auto-parts, bakery, beverage, books and
publishing, entertainment, food, furniture, real estate, retail stores, and restaurants. To
avoid bias caused by extraordinary growth in demand, high-technology-related
industries were excluded. Having sample cases from different industries gives a better
chance to find disconfirming cases in grounded theory research (Goulding, 2005). Each
qualified interview respondent met two criteria: being the leader of a high-growth
company, and actively taking part in growing the businesses.
Open-ended questions were used to allow the business leaders to openly share their
views and thoughts (Rubin and Rubin, 1995), without mentioning the terms strategic
thinking during the first part of the interviews. Data collection and analysis were done
simultaneously (Charmaz, 2006; Strauss and Corbin, 1998).
To collect the empirical data, the first interview question, how the respondent had
built his or her business, was intentionally broad to allow free flow of thoughts. Based
on the answers to the first question, the follow-up questions were asked without any

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pre-specified order: What were the important key factors behind the growth? What
actions had driven the business in the past five years? What were the key business
challenges in the past five years and how had they been addressed? What other
activities had the respondent done in addition to managing the routine business? How
were these strategies formulated and implemented at the company? The interview
ended with the question: What would be an ideal successors qualifications for
carrying on sustainable growth of their company?
The answers were specific to each case. Despite the differences, the answers provide
a number of common elements underlining the actions, and contains explanations of
how business growth of companies link to the actions and the strategies behind those
actions. The answers also reflect patterns of behaviors and the abilities and skills of the
business leaders.
Coding and analysis
The study applied conceptual analysis which establishes the existence of frequency
of concepts (such as words, themes, or characters) in a text, and analyzes text by coding
the text into manageable contents categories (Sekaran and Bougie, 2010, pp. 385-386).
Using conceptual analysis technique, the key statements, drawn from the descriptive
interviewed data, were coded in words and short phrases that systematically assign a
summative, essence-capturing, or evocative attribute of the data.
The data from the interviews went through three steps of coding (Charmaz, 2006):
initial coding of statements (open coding), categorizing, and selective coding within a
category after additional reviews of literature (Saldana, 2009, p. 3), and then analyzed
to reveal common structures, patterns, and coherence.
The results of second step coding are categorized as: managing for growth, patterns
of behaviors, and abilities and skills.
The study also utilizes the pattern matching model which links two patterns, the
theoretical pattern and the observed or operational pattern (Trochim, 1989) in order to
identify gaps in knowledge. Theoretical patterns refer to those found in the literature;
the observed patterns are empirical patterns identified from the research data. The
concept of pattern matching model was applied to code the abilities and skills of the
business leaders.
Limitation of the research
Qualitative approach has a potential weakness in interpretations of statements. The
weakness is reduced by constantly comparing the analyzed data to the literature.
Recognizing the weakness of the in-depth interview data inquiry in terms of potential
bias towards positive information, the study also uses information from published
documents. The research designed to learn from business leaders of three-consecutiveyear high-growth companies of different industries has resulted a small number of
sample cases, 12 companies representing 11 industries, which somewhat limits the
generalization of the finding.
Results
Towards the model development
The second step of coding revealed three dimensions of empirical data; managing for
growth, patterns of behaviors, and abilities and skills.
Managing for growth. The empirical data from interviews were coded and
structured to see how the business growth practically linked backed to the strategies,

the strategy formulation, and the strategic thinking, comparing to the general strategic
management process. Without asking about the process how the business leaders
manage their business, their actions fall into a pattern of strategic formulation and
strategy implementation. Information is the most important thing in managing
business. The business leaders utilized both competitive market information and
resources information (existing resources and obtainable resources) in crafting
business strategies. The choice depends on the circumstances. Personal values and
personal qualities are found to have influences on strategic decision making, which
strategies to choose among the options.
The strategies and strategic actions identified from the interviews were compared to
the information from the company profiles and the published information of the
corresponding companies. Conceptual analysis and relational analysis were used to
systematically evaluate the content of different forms of information (Sekaran and
Bougie, 2010, pp. 385-386).
The pattern of actions of business leaders and how the business growth related to
strategic action, strategies, and strategic thinking is presented in Figure 2.
Patterns of behavior. Though having different management styles and approaches,
different motivations, objectives, and constraints (pattern coding, Saldana, 2009), this
study found common patterns of behavior related to developing business growth. The
list of patterns of behaviors derived from the codes (phrases) obtained from the data is
presented below:
(1)

Strategic
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251

Constant learning:
.

attending seminars;

commissioning market research and consumer research;

discussing issues and new information with management team;

having competitive information report system;

hiring experts;
Strategy
implementation

Strategy
formulation

Market

Resources

Strategic actions
Set strategic
measures

Personal
qualities

Information

Strategic
objective

Personal
values

Communicate
Execute strategies
(actions)
Strategy
options

Chosen
strategy

Monitor/evaluate
/ take corrective
actions

+ Management skills

Manage
changes

Strategic
thinking

Team/staff
motivation
Adjust work
process

Business
growth

Figure 2.
The pattern of
actions of studied
business leaders

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learning from past experiences or mistakes of others;

meeting with people in the same and related industries;

reading;

seeking advice from experienced individuals;

searching for new knowledge; and

visiting exhibitions.

(2) Analyzing information:

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

asking strategic questions;

examining causes of changes;

identifying additional information to obtain; and

interpreting the industry market research.

Synthesizing information:
.

combining information from different sources;

exploring opportunities identified from various information;

finding a new solution to a problem from combining various suggestions;

forming new ideas from a combination of ideas proposed by subordinates; and

identifying new information derived from obtained information.

Networking:
.

being active in social clubs;

having casual meetings with suppliers and business partners;

joining business associations or clubs; and

participating important national events.

Assessing opportunities:
.

being responsive to new information;

conceptualize potential opportunities;

getting information for new potential businesses; and

paying attention to macroeconomic information.

Generating ideas:
.

creating new product ideas;

creating new ideas for obtaining more revenues; and

suggesting new solutions to day-to-day business issues.

Planning for growth:

.

identifying business constraints;

identifying required resources;

(8)

(9)
(10)

(11)

(12)

identifying options of how to go about achieving the goals;

setting long-term objectives based on desired outcome and potential

resources;

setting goals, long-term, short-term; and

visioning long-term potential of the business.

Finding solutions to problems:

.

identifying problems;

identifying possible causes of problems; and

identifying solutions.

Making decisions.
Taking timely actions:
.

setting timeframe for actions; and

valuing a sense of urgency.

Directing implementation and motivating staff:

.

communicate;

emphasizing on objectives;

giving feedbacks;

having an open-communication channel with staff;

having a human resource development plan; and

having an performance incentive scheme.

Following-up projects (being persistent):

.

applying a KPI (key performance indictor) system;

having measurements for important projects;

having a monitoring system; and

having a performance evaluation system.

Abilities and skills. In relation to the managing for growth and the pattern of
behaviors, the study identified a list of abilities and skills (codes) used in transforming
information into strategies and actions. Using pattern matching model (Trochim,
1989), the derived codes were compared to those mentioned in various literature
(Table II). The study found that most literature generally mentions about abilities and
skills without specify how the abilities and skills might be used. The study has
structured the abilities and skills using the general strategic management process as a
framework to see which abilities are used by business leaders at what stage of strategic
management.
The 25 codes representing abilities and skills required for performing different steps
of strategic management are summarized in Table III.

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Table III.
Summary of abilities and
skills performed by the
interviewed business
leaders

Vision formation
Information analysis
Identifying important information
and understanding the business
environment
Analysis (written or unwritten) of
strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats to the
business
Identifying, recognizing,
developing business
opportunities
Strategy formulation
Translating the vision into
measurable strategic objectives
Crafting strategic options
Selecting and deciding on the
strategy
Translating strategy into
operation direction
Formulating performance targets
and measurement criteria
Strategy implementation
Communicating the strategy,
aiming for strategy adoption
Leading development of action
plans and taking actions
Evaluating performance
Initiating new developments
or corrective actions during
implementation

254





































Strategic managerial tasksa

Analytical
Creativity, creative
Conceptual Communication Decision Entrepreneurial Forefront
Holistic
thinking ability thinking ability thinking ability
skill
making skill
thinking
thinking Imagination Inspiration Intuition thinking

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Notes: Shaded column are the selected elements related to thinking. General strategic management process (Thomson and Strickland, 1996; Pearce and
Robinson, 2000). Sub-processes were derived from the interviews.  , abilities and/or skills

Vision formation
Information analysis
Identifying important information
and understanding the business
environment
Analysis (written or unwritten) of
strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats to the
business
Identifying, recognizing,
developing business opportunities
Strategy formulation
Translating the vision into
measurable strategic objectives
Crafting strategic options
Selecting and deciding on the
strategy
Translating strategy into operation
direction
Formulating performance targets
and measurement criteria
Strategy implementation
Communicating the strategy,
aiming for strategy adoption
Leading development of action
plans and taking actions
Evaluating performance
Initiating new developments
or corrective actions during
implementation

Objectivity,
Knowledge Knowledge Learning Learning
Problem- being
Systematic,
Visionary,
of business,
of
ability, from
from
Leadership Logical Persuasion solving objective,
Positive Synthesizing systematic Technical visionary
context management information experiences
skill
thinking
skill
skill focus
thinking ability
thinking
skills
thinking

Strategic managerial tasksa

Strategic
thinking
competency
255

Table III.

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Strategic thinking competency model

The third step of coding, selective coding, revealed that within the 25 abilities and
skills practically applied in strategic management process, there are elements related to
thinking, separated from behavior, traits, and other qualifications of individuals.
Embedded in the list of abilities and skills are the characteristics of strategic thinking:
conceptual thinking ability, visionary thinking, creativity, analytical thinking ability,
learning ability, synthesizing ability, and objectivity, which enable business leaders
to strategically formulate vision, analyze data, formulate strategies, and implement
strategies. The weight of different elements differs from person to person. The seven
characteristics were compared to the literature (Table I) to see similarities and
differences. Some of the attributes mentioned by different authors at different times
in the literature were conceptual, visionary, analytical, creativity, and synthesizing.
The closest ones are the proposal of Heracleous (1998) and Graetz (2002) which
describe strategic thinking as being creative, synthetic, and divergent, and the study
by Bonn (2001, 2005) which proposes that strategic thinking consists of system
thinking, creativity, and vision.
The emerged set of abilities and skills related to thinking is termed strategic
thinking competency.
The model of strategic thinking competency which relates to strategy formulation,
strategic actions, leading to business performance is illustrated in Figure 3.
Competency is defined as the underlying attributes of a person such as his or her
knowledge, skills, or abilities (Boyatzis, 1982). Hamel and Prahalad (1994, p. 202) define
competence as a bundle of skills and technologies rather than a single skill.
Conclusions and discussions
The answers to the research questions
As a result of the study, strategic thinking is defined as a set of competency that
impacts strategy formulation and strategic actions leading to business performance,
of which characteristics include: conceptual thinking ability, visionary thinking,
creativity, analytical thinking ability, learning ability, synthesizing ability, and
objectivity:
RQ1. How are business growth, strategic action, and strategies related?
This grounded-theory-based empirical study, using inductive approach, found close
relationships among business growth, strategic actions, strategies, and competencies
of business leaders. The study indicates that continued business growth is the outcome

Strategic thinking
competency
Conceptual thinking ability
Visionary thinking
Creativity
Analytical thinking ability

Figure 3.
Model of strategic
thinking competency

Learning ability
Synthesizing ability
Objectivity

Strategy
formulation

Strategic
actions

Business
performance

of a series of strategic actions. Strategies and strategic actions are the outputs of
strategic thinking.
The relationship of the business performance to strategic actions, strategies, and
strategic thinking as derived from the answers to the interview questions and actions
of business leaders is presented in Figure 2.
Many implemented strategic actions are based on a few key bold strategies.
Information is the most mentioned as the important inputs for formulating
strategies and in implementing strategies. Strategic thinking competency contributes
to the quality of the strategies and strategic directions. The strategic actions taken by
the successful business leaders were implemented with business objectives in mind.
Some actions follow the pre-set strategies; some were strategically planned considering
objectives, competition, culture, and accessible resources; and some were spontaneous
reactions based on business opportunities, and the context of competition:
RQ2. How strategies are practically formulated and implemented?
To develop strategies, the interviewed business leaders put heavy emphasis on
sourcing and utilizing information. From a pool of information, choices of different
opportunities were conceptualized and identified, written, and not written. Some were
discussed among the management team. Strategic decisions were based on information
from different sources and influenced by the corporate structure, capability, culture, as
well as the business leaders values. More aggressive business leaders put more
emphasis on future possibilities.
Despite being based on different motivations, objectives, and constraints of
different businesses, the study found common patterns of behaviors, of the studied
business leaders, which contribute to formulating and implementing strategies
(pattern coding, Saldana, 2009): constant learning, analyzing information, synthesizing
information, networking, assessing opportunities, generating ideas, planning for
growth, finding solutions to problems, making decisions, taking timely actions,
directing and motivating staff, and following-up projects. Different companies have
different ways of doing all these things.
During data collection and analysis, the importance of the knowledge, abilities
and skills, and leadership traits of individuals surfaced. Using the general strategic
management process as a framework, 25 abilities and skills have been identified and
listed in Table III.
Due a high volatility of the business environment, business leaders emphasized that
staying focussed on the goal and corporate strategy for a certain period is essential,
while operational strategies and strategic actions may change according to the market
circumstances, competition, and resources available. The findings indicate that each
business leader applies both approaches of corporate strategy: the market-based view
(Porter, 1985) and the resource-base view (Barney, 1991). This observation is in line
with the study of Gioia and Chittipeddi (1991) which points out that top management
plays an important role in the initiation of strategy changes.
The empirical data revealed that at the corporate level, each company applied few
bold key strategies during a certain period of time. Each strategy was transformed into
many strategic actions, based on specific operational objectives. Different key
strategies were applied at different times based on the stages of business development
and market situation. An interesting finding is that all companies saw quality of their
products and services as a priority for business sustainability. With these values, some

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257

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companies strategically focussed on quality assurance systems (e.g. auto parts);

others focussed on acquiring raw materials and developing processes; and some on
research and development work. The findings are in line with the conclusion of a
longitudinal case study by McAdam and Bailie (2002) whichs states that there is
a close relationship between strategy and performance. Furthermore, the study gives
support to the finding by French (2009a, b) that better strategies can be generated if
answers to quality questions are found.
According to the findings strategy formulation as well as strategy implementation
was mainly done by the business leaders themselves. The assessment of a chosen
strategy was started as soon as the implementation of the new strategy started. Speed
is an important factor of decision making which was emphasized by most business
leaders. This supports Eisenhardts observation about strategic decision making
that high-growth firms have fast, high quality, and widely supported decision-making
processes (Eisenhardt, 1999, p. 72).
The study revealed that successful business leaders did not leave strategy
implementation to their management teams. The leaders personally guided the
implementation either directly or through their management teams. This supports
the study by Campbell et al. (2010) that to have effective strategy implementation, top
management needs to be involved in executing new strategies. In companies with
formal quality assurance systems, the study found that the performance evaluation
was done systematically:
RQ3. What do successful business leaders require to formulate and implement
strategies effectively?
The way the leaders answered interview questions demonstrates their systematic
thinking, a habit of constantly reassessing objectives, and continuously learning
from reflecting on their past decisions and on the strategic rationales behind those
decisions. The study has identified seven abilities and skills related to thinking
applied in developing and implementing strategies: conceptual thinking ability,
visionary thinking, creativity, analytical thinking ability, learning ability, synthesizing
ability, and objectivity. This set of abilities and skilled is term strategic thinking
competency.
In addition, the important characteristics of desired business successors noted from
the interviews include: being good hearted, caring about the society; ability to adapt to
change; ability to develop strategic options for a specific opportunity; ability to lead
and coach others; having knowledge of modern management tools which is especially
important when the firm grows larger and more complicated; paying attention to
details; having forefront thinking and mind-set; having good interpersonal skills;
having self-awareness and self-confidence; and being self-motivated.
The study reveals that the same competencies used for strategy formulation are
also used for identifying and making strategic actions during implementation. Other
key success factors of building business growth shared by the interviewed business
leaders were: opportunities, teamwork of managers and staff, network, knowledge of
the business context, experiences, technology, being socially responsible. The business
leaders share a pattern of timely analyzing and synthesizing abilities. The process of
analyzing and synthesizing information, and setting operational strategies happens
constantly. The study complements leadership qualities proposed by Forgie and
DeRosa (2010): action orientation, building teams, and critical and analytical thinking.

Decision-making styles of the interviewed business leaders differ. The study found
that important strategic decisions for the future are made mainly by the business
leaders themselves. Other managerial problem-solving decisions are made by or with
the involvement of the management team.
Without subscribing to any school of thought, this study found that an overall
business strategy is created from synthesized information based on an objective and
a set of constraints in market context and resources. The key strategies developed at
different times may change according to the market circumstances which include
the competitive situation as well as according to the changes of existing and future
resources. The results of this empirical study support the original strategy formulation
model proposed by Andrews (1980, in Mintzberg et al., 1998a, b, p. 54) that strategy
formulation includes identification of opportunities and risks, determination of the
companys resources, personal values and aspirations of senior management, and
acknowledgement of non-economic responsibility of the company to the society. The
study also confirms that strategy formulation happens at different levels of decision
making (Pettigrew, 1977), and that the operational strategy is incremental (Quinn,
1980a, b). How the business leaders process information depends on their background
knowledge, styles, values, and the combination of the individuals abilities and skills
related to thinking.
Beliefs, philosophy, values, and principles were often mentioned by the business
leaders during the interview. Some business leaders mentioned using intuition in
identifying some business opportunities or making some operation decisions.
Literature reviews on business process management and culture by Brocke and
Sinnl (2011) found that culture is an under-researched topic in business management.
An empirical study by Waal et al. (2012) found that personal values and belief, of
an individual, which are part of the personal qualities, play important roles in
effectiveness of managers, and that personal values of the business leaders influences
their decision making and in the directions of the strategies that they pursued.
Some business leaders indicated that high growth was not the goal per se, but
a result of pursuing the vision, possibilities, or the opportunities. These qualities
conform to the key characteristics of entrepreneurship in terms of recognition,
discovery, and creation of opportunities (Sarasvathy, 2002; Mitchelmore and Rowley,
2009; Kraus et al., 2011).
Contributions and recommendations
A novelty this study brings to the field of strategic management is the empirical-based
model of strategic thinking competency with seven characteristics, considering
strategic thinking from individual competency point of view, for better strategy
and better business performance. The set of seven characteristics of strategic thinking
is a new insight not found in the existing literature.
This paper offers four contributions to the academic world and the societies. First,
the study introduces a new way of looking at strategic thinking in terms of competency
of business leader that impact business performance. This may lead to new studies
of other aspects of abilities and skills that impact business performance. Second, the
result of the study provides a framework for developing better strategic thinking
in people or increase a number of strategic thinkers. More strategic thinkers could
allow organizations to better respond to the challenges of the changing business
environment (Tavakoli and Lawton, 2005). Third, other findings, based on the
grounded-theory empirical data, complement many of the previous studies which

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emphasize the importance, and the impacts of strategic thinking. Better strategic
thinking could contribute to improving efficiency and effectiveness, not only in
managing business but also in managing any kind of projects. Fourth, the study
can be a base for further studies about strategic thinking or other competency required
for effective strategic management.
The new grounded-theory-based model of strategic thinking competency can be
confirmed for better generalization by a quantitative research. Further study on
the impact of personal values on the strategic decisions and the direction of strategies
would be very useful.
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About the authors
Polboon Nuntamanop is a management consultant. She is presently an advisor to the President
of a leading private university; an advisor to a large insurance company; a member of the
advisory board of an agriculture product company; and an advisor to a few consumer goods
companies. Polboon Nuntamanop has worked for medium to large multinational companies in
Thailand, Indonesia, and China. She has a Master of Public Administration (MPA) from Harvard
University, USA; a Master of Business Administration (MBA); and a Bachelors degree in
Economics from Thammasat University, Thailand. Polboon Nuntamanop is the corresponding
author and can be contacted at: [email protected]
Ilkka Kauranen is Professor of Development and Management in Industry at Aalto
University, Department of Industrial Engineering and Management in Helsinki, Finland.
Professor Kauranens research and teaching activities focus on the areas of technology-based
companies, commercialization of new technologies, research and development management, and
entrepreneurship. In addition to his academic career, Professor Kauranen has vast experience in
the top management of companies. He has been a board member in several publicly traded
companies and entrepreneurial private companies. He has been a co-founder of several
knowledge-intensive companies. He has worked as full-time management consultant, acting as
the president and one of the senior partners in the company.
Barbara Igel is the Dean of the School of Management and an Associate Professor at the Asian
Institute of Technology. She is coordinating new Technology Ventures activities at the School of
Management, and has been several times Visiting Professor at the Helsinki University of
Technology where she conducted executive management courses. Her research projects deal with
the management of innovation in complex technology systems, knowledge management, and
entrepreneurship in new, technology-based firms in Asia. Her papers have been published in
international peer reviewed journals such as Technovation, International Journal of Technology
Management, International Journal of Entrepreneurship & Innovation Management, International
Journal of Learning & Intellectual Capital, International Journal of Quality & Reliability
Management, Asian Case Research Journal and Journal of Asian Business, among others.
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