Dadhaniya 1

Harshil Dadhaniya
Professor Lynda Haas
Writing 39C
May 27, 2016

Scientific Literature Review on Dolphin Cognition and Implication of Sonars on Dolphins

Introduction
The adroit inventor Leonardo Da Vinci was inspired to make his flying machine from
bats, kites and birds (Livescience, December 19, 2014). The Wright brothers, who made the first
controllable human flight, were galvanized to make a controllable glider by looking at the way
the birds use their wings and tail (Wright Brother's Invention Process -- Researched How
Things Fly). Humans have been learning from animals for a long time. Most of our
advancements have been from the knowledge that we have gained from studying animals.
Marine animals, like dolphins, were studied to devise more efficient methods of detecting objects
underwater, and to improve the speed of boats and submarines. Sophisticated devices, like sonar,
were developed from studying dolphins. After studying them and developing these devices, we
often disregard the implication it might have on these animals. We neglect the cognitive abilities
of these creatures which allow them to possess such incredible capabilities; and consider them
objects. Gary Yourofsky, animal rights activist and lecturer, in his video Through the eye of an
animal, describes, you should treat others like you would want to be treated. [Including
animals] You should onto others, as you would have done onto yourself, as the golden rule of
life. If we are truly ethical species we should apply the golden rule and acknowledge the
condition of animals. Nearly 900 dolphins died off the Northern Peruvian coast, because of
decompression sickness caused by acoustic trauma (Jolly). On July 3-4, 2004 approximately

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200 melon-headed whales, a species of dolphins, stranded the coast of Hawaii for over 28 hours
(Aljazeera America, October 26, 2015). At least 60 dolphins stranded along the coast of
Cornwall, England on June 9, 2008. The unrestricted use of sonar by the U.S. Navy would harm
marine mammals more than 30 million times over the next five years (LiveScience, May 10,
2013). These statistics raise a question, are we treating this specie as we would want us to be
treated? Dolphins are not just some mindless creatures that can be sacrificed to test midfrequency navy sonars. They possess cognition like other primate species. Although discoveries
regarding the ability to possess cognition by dolphins have been done in the last 30 years, the
research has been going on for even longer. In 1961, John C. Lilly, a neuroscientist and
psychonaut, made the first attempt to perform animal language research or ALR on dolphins to
prove they possess cognition (qtd by Ronald Schusterman 312-348). Despite the fact that Lillys
research was unsuccessful, it inspired many researchers to start investigating dolphin cognition.
Ill be establishing that dolphins possess cognition by chronologically analyzing the studies done
in the field by various esteemed scientist like Louis M. Herman, Lori Marino, Diana Reiss,
others; then analyze the effects of sonar on dolphins and propose a solution to this problem. First,
I will cover the different experiments which justify that dolphins possess cognition. Based on
these studies, I will be advocating the unethical injustice done to dolphins by the use of sonars;
who are directly responsible for their slow and painful death.
Dolphin Cognition
Lori Marino, senior Lecturer in Neuroscience and Behavioral Biology at Emory Center
for Ethics; and her colleague Toni Frohoff, behavior and wildlife biologist, in their article,
Towards a New Paradigm of Non-Captive Research on Cetacean Cognition, define cognition
as the thought processes of an individual; it typically comprises memory, problem-solving,

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concept formation, self-awareness, and other abilities that involve information processing at
various levels and in various domains (1).
Self-recognition
Self-recognition is the ability to recognize
oneself in a mirror. In 1970, Gordon Gallup Jr.,
Professor of psychology at University at Albany first
conducted the classic test of self-recognition in
animals, the "mirror test," in which a visible mark is
surreptitiously placed somewhere on an animals
body that can only be seen with a mirror (86-87).
After looking in the mirror, if the animal instinctively
touches the correct spot on its own body, then it is
Figure 1: Experimental set-up of MSR
in Marino and Reisss experiment.

taken as evidence of self-recognition. In May 2001,

Lori Marino and her colleague Diana Reiss, a

professor of psychology at Hunter College, in their research article, Mirror self-recognition in

the bottlenose dolphin: A case of cognitive convergence, showed self-recognition in dolphins
through an improvised mark test. The dolphins were either marked with a temporary ink or
sham-marked with water and their behavior was recorded using an experimental set-up shown in
Figure 1. They found that dolphins performed more orienting and repetitive behaviors when they
were marked in comparison to when they were sham marked. This behavior clearly shows that
they were aware of the changes done on their body. It shows that dolphins are conscious of their
body, just like humans. Therefore, dolphins show self-recognition. Only creatures who possess
cognition have the dexterity to show self-recognition.

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Marino and Reiss conclude that these results, represent a striking case of cognitive
convergence in the face of profound differences in neuroanatomical characteristics and
evolutionary history (5942). It proves that dolphins are not just some mindless creatures, who
always have a smile on their face; theyre beings who possess complex cognitive capabilities
attributable to more general characteristics such as a high degree of encephalization and
cognitive ability (5942). To confirm that dolphins possess cognition, we need more evidence;
which can be found from their use of cross-modal abilities.
Cross-modal abilities and Passive Learning
Recent studies have shown that dolphins possess cross-modal invidious abilities
involving optical and onomatopoeic stimuli, suggesting that the dolphin has an object based
representational system, and that functional integration of these two senses is a fundamental
characteristic of dolphin perception(164-74). In March 1995, Louis M. Herman, emeritus
professor at University of Hawaii at Manoa; and his colleague Adam A. Pack, associate
professor at University of Hawaii at Manoa, in their research article, Sensory integration in the
bottlenosed dolphin: Immediate recognition of complex shapes across the senses of echolocation
and vision, showed the cross-modal abilities of the 8-yr-old bottlenosed dolphin Elele. Elele
was capable of promptly recognizing most of the novel objects through echolocation alone and
through vision alone. Herman and Pack conclude that, Her performance accuracy in E-E [only
echoic sense] recognition suggests that shape recognition may be a fundamental property of the
dolphin's echolocation perceptual system (728). To remember something one has to possess
intelligence. This study showed that not only are dolphins capable of memorizing and
understanding incidents, but also have complete control over their senses and abilities. This
behavior is human-like; and gives the most solid evidence that dolphins possess cognition.

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Ethical Question
Dolphins are not different from humans. They have the cognitive ability to recognize themselves
in the mirror, and use their natural abilities like echolocation for shape recognition. All of these
experiments support the idea of them having one of the highest encephalization quotient, which
ultimately supports that dolphins have cognition. If all species are related biologically through
the process of evolution; and if theres so much similarity between human and dolphin specie,
then why does speciesism exist? Speciesism is the discrimination based on species. Dr. Richard
Ryder, psychologist and animal rights advocate, coined the term speciesism; he coined it for the
purpose of showing, prejudices against the other species and to draw the analogy with other
prejudices like racism and sexism (Ryder, What is Speciesism?). Racial discrimination gave
unethical authoritative power to light skinned people over dark skinned people. Species
discrimination, in a similar way, is giving unethical authoritative power to Homo sapiens over
other species. This bigotry compels us to question our ethics. How fiendish is it to not show any
consideration to these animals, who possess such complex cognitive capabilities, and kill them
using devices like Sonar; which cause them severe suffering and slow death?
Sonar and Their effects on Dolphins
The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines Sound Navigation and Ranging as, a method
or device for detecting and locating objects especially underwater by means of sound waves sent
out to be reflected by the objects, more commonly known as sonar. Sonar are used worldwide
by most of seas and oceans based automobiles, like ships. A few animals like Aye, Bats, and
Dolphins also possess sonar. The two major difference between navy sonar and animal sonar are
given in the Table 1.
Table 1: Shows the difference between Navy sonar and Animal Sonar

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Navy sonar

Animal Sonar

Sonar is 100% mechanical.

Sonar is purely biological, based on the voice

emitted by the sound of the animal.

The operation frequency range from 50kHz to

Operation frequencies are in the range of

1GHz.

0.2kHz to 50khz.

Dolphins are of particular concern regarding the effects of

noise as they typically have sensitive underwater hearing
and they use sound [echolocation] for important activities
such as communicating, orienting and finding prey
(Mooney et. al 565). It has been suggested that
overexposure to noise could induce permanent
physiological damage and deleterious behavioral
alterations (Tyack et. al).
Recent work has shown that sonar exposure could
induce a variety of effects in marine mammals including
changes in dive profile, acoustically induced bubble
Figure 3: The results of Mooneys
experiment

formation or decompression sickness (Tyack et. al). Aran T.

Mooney, of Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, and his team in the article Sonar-induced
Temporary Hearing Loss in Dolphins, talk about the effects to sonar on dolphins. Mooney and
his team measured the temporary threshold shift (TTS) for a five kilohertz tone before and after
exposure to noise using a physiological method of auditory evoked potentials (Mooney et. al
565). Figure 3 shows the various condition under which Mooney and his team conducted his

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experiments; we notice that as the duration of exposure and sound pressure level increased the
temporary threshold shift increased. It is evident from these scientific studies that exposure of
sonar to dolphins can cause temporary hearing loss, and longtime exposure can even cause
permanent deafness (Mooney et. al 567). These studies have established that sonar is harmful for
dolphins, but that didnt stop the navy from using mid-frequency sonar in oceans.
Voice of America, an external
broadcast institution of the US federal
government, was the first to cover this
problem over media. The article talked
about the connection between the mass
beaching of dolphin in Florida and the
naval maneuvers involving a sonarequipped submarine. The article said, A

Figure 4: Images reported by Daily mail, on

mass beaching of dolphins in 2013

few weeks [talking about January 2008]

later 60 rough-tooth dolphins beached themselves in Florida [When this happened] U.S. Navy
vessels were nearby, conducting training exercises in the use of deep-water sonar, about the
death of dolphins caused by sonar (Connection Between Whale Beachings and the Use of Sonar
Gets Contentious). In 2012, an online article by Seattle Post-Intelligencer, an online newspapers
from the metropolitan area of Seattle and DC, said that, Sound penetrates an animals body
when immersed in water. Essentially all of acoustic energy goes into a body immersed in
water. This effect, which can cause tissue rupture and hemorrhage, has not been adequately
addressed in the Navys [environmental impact statement] about the effect of sonar on the body
of dolphins. Sonar causes, hemorrhage in the lungs and ulceration of the gastro-intestinal tract,

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of dolphins. This gives us more knowledge about how lethal the use sonar by navy is (Seattlepi,
March 8, 2012). Figure 4 show the news provided by Daily Mail, a London based newspaper
agency, in May 2013. It is an infographic which provides information about the way 26 dolphins
died because of sonar (Daily Mail, May 4, 2013). Because of these incidences the population of
dolphins is decreasing at an alarming rate. There are barely 1000 dolphins left on the Western of
the U.S. It can be clearly inferred, from the social media articles and scientific studies stated
above, that the use of mid-frequency sonar can lead to slow and painful deaths of dolphins.
Considering this as a major threat, there has to be some effective solutions the government has
come up with.
Existing Solutions and Propositions
The three major acts that already exists for the protection of these animals: Marine
Mammal Protection Act, Endangered Species Act, and National Environmental Policy Act.
The Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) was enacted in 1972. One of the reasons,
the Marine Mammal Protection Act was issued for is that, certain species and population stocks
of marine mammals are, or may be, in danger of extinction or depletion as a result of man's
activities. The U.S. navy has been killing thousands of animals since then and has been
violating the policies of this Act directly. Furthermore, such species and population stocks
should not be permitted to diminish beyond the point at which they cease to be a significant
functioning element in the ecosystem of which they are a part, and, consistent with this major
objective, they should not be permitted to diminish below their optimum sustainable
population (Marine Mammal Protection Act). The US navy has destroyed many natural
habitats of dolphins since this act has been passed, and havent claimed responsibility for it even
once. They have deployed sonars in areas, like the breeding place of dolphins and the hunting

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place of dolphins, which are important for their survival. Certainly the authorities responsible for
enacting this act have not been responsible enough, as the US navy has been causing so much
destruction. This act has been failing to its job; and has caused the specie of dolphins to come on
the verge of extinction. Which brings us to the next act: Endangered Species Act.
The Endangered Species Act (ESA) was enacted in 1973 for the conservation of species
that are endangered or threatened throughout all or a significant portion of their range, and the
conservation of the ecosystems on which they depend (Endangered Species Act). This act has
been working to safeguard the dolphins. Under the protection of this act certain species of
dolphins have been classified endangered and hence an effort is being made to protect them from
all possible dangers.
Lastly, the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), which was enacted in 1969, is
one of the first and most significant pieces of environmental legislation enacted in the U.S. This
act is plighted to ensure that information regarding environmental effects of an agency's
development proposal and alternative actions are available to inform agency decision makers and
the public. (National Environmental Policy Act) According to this act, any new technological
advancements have to be invented in such a way that the environment is not harmed. Clearly, the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, responsible for the enforcement of the act have not been doing
there jobs as the U.S. has been still killing many dolphins. Until recently, the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, responsible to enforce the policies of MMPA and ESA, didnt
consider the mid-frequency navy sonar a major threat to dolphins. These existing laws werent
enough to solve the problem.
Finding a solution for this problem is particularly difficult, as we are appraising between
the national security of a nation and the animals of nature. If the U.S. navy is favored then,

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almost 10 million would suffer temporary hearing loss or have their normal routines and
behaviors disrupted (US Navy to Kill, Injure 'thousands' of Whales, Dolphins during Drills
Activists). On the other hand, if dolphins are favored then the national security of a whole
nation is at risk. As one of the most superior species on this planet, it is one of our duties to take
care of other species.
Organizations like the National
Resources Defense Council and
Earthjustice have been fighting for
the rights of dolphins for a long
time. They took their case to the
federal court against the use of
mid-frequency sonars by the navy;
and, they reached a settlement.

Map 1: The restrictions imposed on the navy of the coast of

southern California. Earthjustice.

The settlement aims to manage

the siting and timing of Navy activities, taking into account areas of vital importance to marine
mammals, such as reproductive areas, feeding areas, migratory corridors, and areas in which
small, resident populations are concentrated. This settlement will protect, habitat for the most
vulnerable marine mammal populations resident whale and dolphin populations off Hawaii,
for which the islands are literally an oasis, their only home (Navy Agrees to Limit Underwater
Assaults on Whales and Dolphins). Map 1 shows the restricted areas on the coast of southern
California where the navy cannot use its mid-frequency sonar. They are prohibited to produce
noise pollution near the breeding, hunting, migration and colonized area of dolphins. As this
problem mostly persists in the United States, it was adopted here.

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The solutions proposed are not perfect. As the solution of this problem is very novel,
there are not many counters to this solutions. One must consider the security of the nation and
dolphins at the same time. What if the navy has to necessarily deploy this sonar in areas of high
population to prevent instances like terrorism? In that case it'll be a difficult choice in deciding
which animal species to protect. Another situation where this solution could not be efficient, is
that a device like sonar will always be upgraded such that its range can always be increased
efficiently. If those developments keep increasing, then the navy will soon run out of land to test
their devices. The dolphins won't be able to swim around freely in all parts of the ocean, instead
they will be constricted to a particular part of the ocean. A few parts of the ocean will feel like
mine field, where the navy sonars are the mines. However, these situation have a very low
possibility of occurrence. Hence, for the time being the macro solution passed by the court is the
most accurate and ideal solution to the problem.
Social Media and its Importance
On a smaller scale we can spread awareness via social media to come up with a more
efficient solution. Social media plays a very important role in the 21st century as it is the
information era. In the words of Clay Shirky, a consultant on the social and economic effects of
the Internet technologies, we're starting to see a media landscape in which innovation is
happening everywhere, and moving from one spot to another (Shirky, How social media can
make history). The currency in the new world is information. Information is shared via many
platforms, one of them being social media. As we saw above, many of the articles that I refereed
to were from various newspapers. Those incidences took place in some part of the world, and
still I was able to read them from here; that is the power of social media. Using the tool of social
media, masses can be reached in an instance with a click of a button. The harmful effects of

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sonar on dolphin are spread through social media in a similar way. Organizations like NRDC and
Earthjustice have reached people all over the world, and become their voice against the cruel
injustice done to dolphins. An online petition on moveon.org got 78,241 signatures on their
petition, Stop the Navy's War on Whales and Dolphins Now! This petition got signatures from
not only United States, but also people from different part of the world. 10-15 years ago, the way
to get support of the public on a certain problem was getting signatures on paper, but now weve
modernized; we use websites to do the job paper did. There are many websites up on the internet
that are solely dedicated to this problem, and are collecting signatures and donations from people
worldwide to tackle this problem.
All in all, the government can officiate ethics through making this law permanent (as it is
only valid till 2018), and individually the people can spread this information to raise awareness
against the harmful effects of mid-frequency navy sonar on dolphins through various social
media tools.

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Works Cited
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America. 2009. voanews.com. 15 May 2016.

"Endangered Species Act (ESA)." NOAA Fisheries. Web. 23 May 2016.

Flanagan, Padraic. "Navy Sonar 'did Cause Mass Dolphin Deaths' Say Scientists Who Blame
War Games Exercise off Cornish Coast for Strandings." Daily Mail. 4 May 2013. Web.
15 May 2016.

Gallup, Gordon G., Jr. "Chimpanzees: Self-recognition." Science 167 (1970): 86-87. Web. 22
Apr. 2016.

Harley, Heidi E., H. L. Roitblat, and P. E. Nachtigall. "Object representation in the bottlenose
dolphin (Tursiops truncatus): Integration of visual and echoic information." Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 22.2 (1996): 164-74. Web. 22
Apr. 2016.

Henkin, David. "NEW NAVY AGREEMENT MEANS DOLPHINS WONT DIE IN VAIN."
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Herman, Louis M. "Vocal, Social, and Self-imitation by Bottlenosed Dolphins."MIT

Press (2002): 63-108. Web. 22 Apr. 2016.

Jolly, David. Expert Links Dolphin Deaths to Sonar Testing. Green. The New York Times, 28
May 2012. Web. 18 May 2016.

Lyte, Brittany. "In Hawaii, Dolphins Caught in Fight over Sonar." Aljazeera America. 26 Oct.
2015. Web. 18 May 2016.

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"Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA)." NOAA Fisheries. Web. 23 May 2016.

Marino, Lori, and Toni Frohoff. "Towards a New Paradigm of Non-Captive Research on
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<http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/5/4/565>.

"National Environmental Policy Act." Ecological Services. Web. 23 May 2016.

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Pack, Adam A., and Louis M. Herman. "Sensory Integration in the Bottlenosed Dolphin:
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Palermo, Elizabeth. "Flying Machines? 5 Da Vinci Designs That Were Ahead of Their
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Reiss, Diana, and Lori Marino. "Mirror Self-recognition in the Bottlenose Dolphin: A Case of
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