Causing Treble 1

Running Head: CAUSING TREBLE

Causing Treble: How Music Impacts Child Development

Katie C. New
Glen Allen High School

Causing Treble 2

Introduction
Music has and continues to be an extremely prominent part of human life. As the internet,
mobile phones, and streaming sites such as Spotify and Pandora have increased in popularity,
music has become more and more accessible to people no matter where they are. While many
people view listening to music as merely an enjoyable past time, this seemingly innocent activity
can have significant consequences, especially within children and adolescents. According to one
survey, for example, teenagers listen to an average of 40 hours of music each week (Committee
on Communications, 1996). At this rate of consumption, any impact a song could cause to a
young listeners development is amplified. The different genres and content of the music a child
listens to throughout his or her development contributes to cognitive ability, personality traits,
and patterns of behavior.
Cognitive Development
The Misconception of the Mozart Effect
Since 1993, the idea of the Mozart Effect has created a particularly lucrative business,
claiming that having infants (in or out of utero) listen to classical music, such as that composed
by Mozart, will improve their cognitive abilities. In the original study by researchers Rauscher,
Shaw, and Ky, college students showed greater improvements in spatial-temporal reasoning after
listening to the first ten minutes of Mozart Sonata K.448 than after sitting in silence or listening
to relaxation instruction (Catterall, Rauscher, 2008). However, the results of this study have been
very difficult to replicate, and according to E. Glenn Schellenberg, the original creators of the
now famous theory were incorrect in their observations: the arousal caused by listening to the
music is what caused the improvement in the infants cognition, not solely listening to music

Causing Treble 3

(Schellenberg, 2005). Listening to Mozart for ten minutes, rather than sitting in silence,
encourages more optimal levels of arousal and a more positive mood, which causes performance
with ones spatial abilities to improve (Schellenberg, 2004). Nevertheless, the idea of a
correlation between listening to music and increased mental abilities sparked interest in many,
leading to much more research on the topic being conducted ever since, especially in regards to
children and adolescents.
Music Lessons vs. Listening to Music
Despite the inaccuracy of the Mozart effect, music has been proven to have significant
impacts on different areas of cognition when a child actively participates in music lessons rather
than simply listening to music passively. For example, one of Schellenbergs studies tested the
theory that music could improve a childs cognitive abilities overall when it came to both
listening to music and practicing and playing music on an instrument. The results showed that
while the observed cognitive benefits of listening to music were only temporary, those observed
in children who actively take music lessons could last for long periods of time (Schellenberg,
2005). Continuing with the idea that creating music has a stronger impact on a childs cognitive
development, Schellenberg also conducted a study focusing on the childs IQ in particular. The
study involved a large group of children participating in keyboard or voice lessons, as well a
group participating in drama lessons and a group not participating in any lessons (the control
group). What Schellenberg found at the conclusion of the study was those who participated in
music lessons showed the greater increases in full-scale IQ (Schellenberg, 2004).
Along with IQ, playing musical instruments have also been proven to have a positive
effect on visual-motor integration. In a study conducted by Orsmond and Miller in 1999, three-

Causing Treble 4

to six-year old children were assessed through the use of a speaking task to measure receptive
vocabulary, a melody recognition task, and three spatial tasks, which incorporated visual-motor
integration. Twenty-nine of children were enrolled in professional music programs while the
other twenty-nine children received no music lessons. The results indicated that the children who
received music lessons showed significant improvements in visual-motor integration and melody
recognition tasks (Catterall, Rauscher, 2008). Along the same lines, researchers such as Lamb
and Gregory have supported the idea that childrens aural skills are improved when actively
participating in music practices. When a child has strong aural skills, he or she can distinguish
between different pitches, melodies, rhythms, chords, and other musical elements, and these
skills are also applicable to written and spoken language. In their study conducted in 1993, Lamb
and Gregory proposed that phonetic awareness, a critical skill when learning to read, can be
affected by the aural skills necessary for learning music. The results of their study revealed that
the ability to distinguish musical pitch was significantly correlated with reading scores and
phonemic awareness, which were also associated with each other (Catterall, Rauscher, 2008).
The final area of cognition that has been shown to improve after a child practices a
musical instrument for a certain period of time is verbal memory, another ability necessary for
language. Researchers in one study analyzed children from the ages of six to fifteen years old
who had received zero to five years of music lessons and conducted visual and verbal memory
tests on each child. What they found was that the children who had received more music training
scored higher on the verbal memory test than those who had received less music training or none
at all (Catterall, Rauscher, 2008). Through these and other research studies, more people now
realize how childrens cognition can be positively impacted when participating in regular music
lessons throughout their development.

Causing Treble 5

Personality Development
The Correlation between Music Preference and Child Development
The idea that listening to certain genres or styles of music is correlated with an
individuals personality traits is believed by many to be true. Does this mean there is a
connection between a persons music preferences and their personality? A multitude of studies
have been conducted in order to test this theory specifically, including those which focus
specifically on children and adolescents, but what should be addressed first are why children and
adolescents have different music preferences and how these preferences relate to their overall
development. Researchers believe that adolescence is a foundational stage for the development
of music preferences and that a childs music preferences solidify during this time (Delsing, Ter
Boft, Engels, Meeus, 2008). To explain the reasons for the heterogeneity of the music
preferences of children and adolescents, individual factors such as personality and social factors
including social class and ethnicity have been cited (Delsing, Ter Boft, Engels, Meeus, 2008).
Besides these basic factors, two theories have been developed and tested to prove the
same phenomenon: the Uses and Gratification Approach and the Model of Optimal
Stimulation. The uses and gratification approach, developed by Rosengran, Wenner, and
Palgreen in 1985, focuses on why individuals consume the music they do. According to these
researchers, individual choice is the main culprit as well as how people intentionally participate
and select media messages from communication alternatives (Delsing, Ter Boft, Engels,
Meeus, 2008). As a result of additional research, those who support the approach believe that
people develop certain music preferences in order to satisfy particular personality traits an
individual identifies with (Delsing, Ter Boft, Engels, Meeus, 2008). On the other hand, according

Causing Treble 6

to the model of optimal stimulation, which was developed by Zukerman in 1979 and modified by
Eysenck in 1990, people develop certain music preferences in order to move[] them[selves]
toward their optimal arousal level (Delsing, Ter Boft, Engels, Meeus, 2008). While both
theories are valid and employ strong evidence, the uses and gratification approach more
effectively proves the correlation between a childs music preference and personality
development.
The Correlation between Music Preference and Personality
With the possible reasons why a child or adolescent have the music preferences they do,
what are the connections between these music preferences and a childs personality
development? Many researchers have conducted studies to answer this question, especially
within specific areas of personality including extraversion, sensitivity to feelings, intuition,
anxiety, emotional intelligence, and empathy. To start with, extraverts are known to enjoy
socializing and like spending time with others and as a result tend to enjoy music that
facilitates social interactions with peers (Delsing, Ter Boft, Engels, Meeus, 2008). In addition,
the average extravert naturally experiences low levels of cortical arousal and develop music
preferences which have the potential to increase these levels (Delsing, Ter Boft, Engels, Meeus,
2008). Taking these two observations into consideration, it isnt surprising to hear that children
who prefer more high-energy music such as pop, electronic, hip-hop, or rock music are more
likely to be extraverted, just as introverts, who naturally experience high levels of arousal, tend
to prefer less stimulating music (Delsing, Ter Boft, Engels, Meeus, 2008).
In regards to sensitivity to feelings, a group of researchers who tested the relationship
between personality characteristics and music preferences through the use of the Myers Briggs

Causing Treble 7

Type Indicator found that the thinking-feeling dimension correlated with liking country and
western music. In order to explain these results, the researchers claimed that the correlation may
be a result of the emotional pull that many songs in these genres employ (Pearson, Dollinger,
2004). From these results, the conclusion can be made that children who are exposed and prefer
country or western music are likely to develop a stronger sensitivity to others and their own
emotions. In the same research article, Pearson and Dollinger also found that those with higher
intuition scores had a preference for classical, jazz, folk, and soul music and were more likely to
have undergone greater music training and been more involved in music throughout their lives.
The researchers concluded that these factors found in those who scored as more intuitive could
influence their breadth of musical enjoyment (Pearson, Dollinger, 2004). By analyzing these
results, researchers can also conclude that children who are exposed to and prefer classical, jazz,
folk, or soul music are likely to develop a stronger reliance on gut feelings and their intuition
rather than on facts and logic.
The music genres that can invoke anxiety in children were studied by Nstas and
Ionescu in 2015. Of the genres tested, the researchers results found that those who avidly listen
rap or hip-hop are more likely to develop high levels of anxiety. However, the results also
revealed that those who avidly listen to these genres are able to use this anxiety-inducing music
in order to support understanding and personal development (Nstas, Ionescu, 2015).
Additionally, these individuals have the ability to effectively manage their emotions, which
requires acceptance, awareness, and problem-solving skills (Nstas, Ionescu, 2015). The same
two researchers also studied how preferred music genres impact a childs emotional intelligence,
which describes an individuals ability to identity and manage the emotions of ones self and
other and is a critical skill in regards to interpersonal relationships. The results of the study found

Causing Treble 8

that in children and adolescents who prefer and avidly listen to rock music, there is a moderate
correlation between social behavior and emotional intelligence, along with extraversion and
emotional intelligence. Also, the results found that in children and adolescents who prefer and
avidly listen to electronic music, there is a strong correlation between emotional intelligence and
anxiety, personal potential, social behavior, and extraversion (Nstas, Ionescu, 2015). From
these results, the conclusion can be made that children and adolescents who are exposed to and
prefer rock and especially electronic music are more likely to develop a stronger confidence
when it comes to making new relationships and interacting with other people in social settings.
The final personality trait proven to be impacted by music preference is empathy. Another
group of researchers studied this personality trait and found that empathy levels were the greatest
in children and adolescents who prefer more mellow genres such as soul, soft rock, and
contemporary music and the lowest empathy levels were the greatest in children and adolescents
who prefer more intense music such as heavy metal, heavy rock, and punk music (Greenberg,
Baron-Cohen, Stillwell, Kosinski, Rentfrow, 2015). By analyzing these results, researchers can
also conclude that children who are exposed to and prefer soul, soft rock, or contemporary music
are likely to develop a stronger sense of empathy towards others, while children who are exposed
to and prefer heavy metal, heavy rock, and punk music are likely to develop a stronger sense of
apathy towards others. What used to be considered a casual correlation between a child or
adolescents music preferences and their personality traits is now respected as the serious
relationship it is, and this change emphasizes how significant the music a child is exposed to is in
regards to his or her personality development.
Behavior Development

Causing Treble 9

Musics Negative Impact on Child Behavior

Like other media outlets, music is seen by many as extremely influential over a child or
adolescents behavior patterns. However, this powerful influence can be harmful depending on
the genre, lyrics, and music video of a song. The two genres most commonly associated with
invoking bad behavior from children are heavy metal and rap/hip-hop music. According to
Gardstrom, metal music is known for high-pitched vocals, an intense beat, and distorted
instrumentation, and the lyrics of metal songs normally focus on extreme and dangerous topics
such as substance abuse, perversion, sexual promiscuity, Satanism, and rebellion (Gardstrom,
1999). Professionals such as Arnett in 1991 argue that children and adolescents who actively
listen to and involve themselves with metal music have a greater chance of participating in
reckless or life-threatening behavior such as assault and drunk driving than those who do not
expose themselves to metal music (Gardstrom, 1999). Also, many other studies agree with
Gardstroms viewpoint, stating that children and adolescents who prefer heavy metal music are
more likely to abuse drugs, commit suicide, commit sex-role stereotyping, have psychiatric
disorders, and be very risk-taking overall (Committee on Communications, 1996). Rap or hiphop music, on the other hand, is known for sharp and driving rhythms, staccato beats, and trendy
lyrics. Critics argue that the explicit nature of the genres lyrics promote violence in children and
adolescents against whites and women, as well as encourages the degradation of women and
dangerous sexual practices (Gardstrom, 1999).
In order to test the impact of aggressive and harmful music on child and adolescent
behavior, researcher Susan C. Gardstrom led an investigation on a group of male felony
offenders who were 12-17 years old in order to find the impact rap music had on their deviant

Causing Treble 10

behavior. Different theories are used to explain this phenomenon, including reflection-rejection
theory (rather than being the cause of their behavior, music reflects the adolescents lives), drive
reduction theory (music is used as an outlet for pent-up aggression rather than violence), and
excitation-transfer theory (music is only harmful when accompanied by negative arousal that is
already present in an individual).
A majority of the time, teenagers do not know the actual lyrics to the songs they listen to
or fully comprehend their meaning, and [i]n some cases, lyrics communicate potentially
harmful health messages (Committee on Communications, 1996). In addition to this, the
potential impact of violent and explicit lyrics are amplified to children and adolescents when
illustrated in music videos (Committee on Communications, 1996). Music videos are also selfreinforcing: after watching a graphic music video to a song, children and adolescents can
immediately flash back to the visual imagery from the music video (Committee on
Communications, 1996). As a result, watching music videos to songs which already contain
music that can invoke anger or violence and explicit lyrics can cause the negative impact on a
childs behavior to be magnified even further.
Musics Positive Impact on Child Behavior
Although the information previously mentioned proves the idea that music can cause bad
behavior in children and adolescents, music can also serve as a positive influence on behavior
(Gardstrom, 1999). When still an infant, it is common for parents to sing to their children in
order to calm them down and make them fall asleep. Lullabies and singing in general is
recognized as one of the earliest and most prevalent ways parents utilize music in order to
strengthen parent-child relationships. Parents engaging in music with their children creates a

Causing Treble 11

warm and comfortable setting for the two parties to strengthen their bond. This atmosphere
provides music therapists with an ideal environment to assist parents to develop the necessary
skills to help enhance their parent-child relationships and promote the childs developmental
skills (Nicholson, Berthelsen, Abad, Williams, Bradley, 2008).
Supporting the idea that music exposure can have a positive impact on a children, a group
of researchers created a 10-week group music therapy program in order to test how music can
improve the behavioral, communicative, and social development of children 0-5 years old who
are significantly disadvantaged in some way (social disadvantage, young parents, and children
with disabilities). What the researchers discovered at the end of their study was that
improvements were made over the ten weeks in parenting behaviors, child outcomes, and parent
mental health (Nicholson, Berthelsen, Abad, Williams, Bradley, 2008). These results are
significant because it proves that although music can have an obvious negative impact on a
childs behavior, music is still a fantastic tool for music therapists and parents to use in order to
improve the behavior of their child. To summarize, there is noteworthy evidence through the
work of these and other researchers that music is a powerful influencer over the behavioral
development of children and adolescents, whether the outcomes are positive or negative.
Conclusion
A childs cognitive abilities, personality traits, and patterns of behavior are significantly
impacted by the different genres and content of the music a child is exposed to throughout their
development. Music has and will continue to play a unique and special role in the lives of both
children and adolescents, especially considering the significant amount of time they spend
listening to and creating music. Because of this, parents should pay more attention to what music

Causing Treble 12

their child is actively listening to and taking notice of the significant developmental affects music
can cause. Assisting a child with choosing the songs they listen to or play allows parents and
experts to identify the child according to the music that they identify themselves with, providing
parents and experts with a new perspective of the child to assist with his or her development
(Nstas, Ionescu, 2015). Ultimately, because of the prevalence of music in the everyday lives of
children, especially during adolescence, and the noteworthy interest they have in music at this
stage in their lives, taking note of how the music children listen to influences different aspects of
their lives is a critical task that must not be overlooked.

Causing Treble 13

References
Catterall, James S., Rauscher, Frances H. (2008). Unpacking the Impact of Music on
Intelligence.

Neurosciences

in

Music

Pedagogy,

171-201.

Retrieved

from

https://www.uwosh.edu/psychology/faculty-and-staff/frances-rauscherph.d/CatterallRauscher_2008.pdf
Committee on Communications. (1996). Impact of Music Lyrics and Music Videos on Children
and Youth (RE9144). PEDIATRICS, 98(6), 1219-1221. Retrieved from
http://www.public.asu.edu/~dbodman/candv/aap_musiclyrics_videos.pdf
Delsing, Marc. J. M. H., Ter Bogt, Tom F. M., Engels, Rutger C. M. E., Meeus, Wim H. J.
(2008). Adolescents Music Preferences and Personality Characteristics. European
Journal of Personality, 22, 109-130. Retrieved from http://devpsychopathologyru.nl/wpcontent/uploads/2012/12/2008-Adolescents-music-preferences-and-personalitycharacteristics.pdf.
Gardstrom, Susan C. (1999). Music Exposure and Criminal Behavior: Perceptions of Juvenile
Offenders. Journal of Music Therapy, 36(3), 207-221. Retrieved from
http://www.chinamusictherapy.org/file/file/doc/Music%20Exposure%20and%20Criminal
%20Behavior_%20Perceptions%20of%20Juvenile%20Offenders.pdf
Greenberg, D. M., Baron-Cohen, S., Stillwell, D. J., Kosinski, M., Rentfrow, J. R. (2015).
Musical Preferences are Linked to Cognitive Styles. PLoS ONE, 10(7). Retrieved from
http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0131151

Causing Treble 14

Nstas, L., Ionescu, E. (2015). Favorite Musical Styles, Emotional Intelligence and Adolescent
Personality. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 187, 83-87. Retrieved from
http://ac.els-cdn.com/S1877042815018091/1-s2.0-S1877042815018091-main.pdf?
_tid=3797a3fa-f038-11e5-811700000aab0f6b&acdnat=1458656174_92116d5ba24720c4e4f31253916ea16c
Nicholson, J. M., Berthelsen, D., Abad, V., Williams, K., Bradley, J. (2008). Impact of Music
Therapy to Promote Positive Parenting and Child Development. Journal of Health
Psychology, 13(2), 226-238. Retrieved from
http://static1.squarespace.com/static/512176bee4b0b5151b73112a/t/55654052e4b084a5f
8885d1e/1432698962239/Nicholson+2008.pdf
Pearson, Jodi L., Dollinger, Stephen J. (2004). Music preference correlates of Jungian types.
Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 1005-1008. Retrieved from
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886903001685
Schellenberg, E. G. (2005). Music and Cognitive Abilities. Current Directions in Psychological
Science, 14(6), 317-320. Retrieved from
http://gopher.nypl.org/sites/default/files/music_brain.pdf
Schellenberg, E. G. (2004). Music Lessons Enhance IQ. Psychological Science, 15(8), 511-514.
Retrieved from
https://www.msu.edu/course/psy/401/snapshot.afs/Readings/WK5.PresentB.Schellenberg
%20(2004).pdf