Understanding Human Behaviour Workbook

September 2012
F920: UNDERSTANDING HUMAN

BEHAVIOUR & DEVELOPMENT
Factors influencing human

development
Theories of human
development
Application of theories to aid
the understanding of human
behaviour and development
This unit provides an understanding of the influences that can affect growth
and development and of the concepts and theories that can be used to
explain human behaviour across different life stages.
Topics covered:
Factors influencing human development
Theories of human development
The application of theories to aid the understanding of

human behaviour and development
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis
[1]
FACTORS:
Human development is affected by many factors which may be

advantageous or detrimental. These factors may be biological or a
result of person who uses services experiences and/or the
influences of the environment in which individuals are raised.
This is the so-called nature versus nurture debate.
You need to have a broad understanding of how both nature and
nurture contribute to the development of individuals.
You will need to

know how each factor
affects the PIES
development of
children,
adolescents,
adults and the
elderly
1
Genetic influences (choose two):

Cystic fibrosis
Downs Syndrome
Tourettes Syndrome
Haemophilia
Huntingtons disease
Susceptibility to cancers and heart disease
Socio-economic influences:
Family
Education
Housing,
Culture
Access to health services
Nutrition
Income differences
Influences of the physical environment:

Water pollution
Air pollution
Noise pollution
Housing conditions/location
flooding
Nature
Hygiene
versus
Psychological influences:
Nurture
Self-concept
Concept of others
Useful link:
Fear
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/
Phobias
hi/health/5337580.stm
Anxiety
[2]
DEVELOPMENT:
NEEDS:
Task 1:
Give two example of
physical, intellectual,
emotional and social
development of the
following client groups:
Children
Adolescents
Adults
The elderly
Task 2:
Give two example of
physical, intellectual,
emotional and social needs
of the following client
groups:
Children
Adolescents
Adults
The elderly
Task 3:
For each of the factors on
page 2, explain the positive
and negative effects on the
PIES development of
children, adolescence,
adults and the elderly.
Useful
link:
Needs of the elderly: http://
www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/standard/
modern/changing_society/
needs_of_the_elderly/
revision/1/
[3]
THEORIES OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
Psychodynamic perspective
Biological perspective
Humanist perspective
Constructivist perspective
Behavioural perspective
Social learning perspective
Some theorists believe that human development proceeds in stages.

Others place emphasis on genetic, environmental and social influences
on development. You will need to outline and evaluate theories that can
be used to interpret and explain human development, at each life stage.
1

2
Psychodynamic perspective:
Freud
Erikson
Biological perspective:
Eysenck
Cattell
Humanist perspective:
Maslow
Rogers
Constructivist perspective:
Piaget,
Vygotsky
Behavioural perspective:
Pavlov,
Skinner
Social learning perspective:
Tajfel
Latane
Bandura
You will need to

know one theorist in
detail from each
perspective
[4]
The Psychodynamic Perspective: Erikson

Erikson (1963) argued that there is a fixed and predetermined sequence of stages in human
development. The genes dictate a timetable for development. It is human nature to pass through the
genetically determined sequence of the 8 psychosocial stages.
Eriksons first 5 stages of development are similar to Freuds theory. Freud argued that only early
experiences influence adult life. However, Erikson believed that personality development does NOT
stop in childhood. He argued that people continue to develop and change throughout life.
The stages are universal regardless of whether you are a male or female or where you are from.
However, Erikson argued that sociocultural environment as having a significant influence on our
behaviour and thinking.
Based on observations of patients in his psychoanalytical practice, Erikson proposed 8 stages of the
psychosocial stages of development.
Each stage centres around a crisis involving a struggle between two conflicting personality outcomes.
One of these outcomes is posi/ve (adap/ve), whilst the other is nega/ve (maladap/ve). According to Erikson
every personality has a mixture of both, but a healthy development involves adap/ve outweighing the
maladap/ve.
Previous childhood experiences have an impact on our later life and how we deal with certain
situations/ people. Unsatisfactory experiences can be compensated for in later life. Positive early
experiences can be reversed by later bad experiences.
According to Erikson, adolescence to be the key time to form self identity. At this age, the inability to
integrate the self into coherent whole means individual suffer a role confusion and low self-esteem.
As we grow older, our self-concept develops. From the ages 0-11, there is a significant person who
acts as the main role model.
[5]
Criticism
Eriksons theory was criticised for being too rigid.
Eriksons research was based on a small sample, mainly white, middle class males. Therefore,
cannot be generalised to the rest of the population, especially women (Gilligan 1982).
Also, it is hard to disprove/ falsify.
[6]
Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

1. The first stage of Eriksons theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one
year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.
2. Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability
and quality of the childs caregivers.
3. If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers
who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in
the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is
inconsistent and unpredictable.
Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
1. The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early
childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.2
2. Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However,
Erikson's reasoning was quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to
control ones body functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.
3. Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and
clothing selection.
4. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not
are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.
Psychosexual Stage 3- Initiative vs. Guilt
1. Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Eriksons theory of psychosocial development. This
stage occurs during the preschool years, between the ages of three and five. During the
initiative versus guilt stage, children begin to assert their power and control over the world
through directing play and other social interaction.
2. Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment by taking initiative by
planning activities, accomplishing tasks and facing challenges.
3. During this stage, it is important for caregivers to encourage exploration and to help children
make appropriate choices. Caregivers who are discouraging or dismissive may cause children
to feel ashamed of themselves and to become overly dependent upon the help of others.
4. Play and imagination takes on an important role at this stage. Children have their sense of
initiative reinforced by being given the freedom and encouragement to play. When efforts to
engage in physical and imaginative play are prevented by caregivers, children begin to feel that
their self-initiated efforts are a source of embarrassment. Success in this stage leads to a sense
of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt.
Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority
1. This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.
2. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.
3. Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a
feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no
encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their ability to be
successful.
[7]
Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion

1. During adolescence, children are exploring their independence and developing a sense
of self.
2. Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal
exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of
independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will
insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
3. Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed
that a strong sense of personal identity was important to developing intimate
relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to
have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation,
loneliness, and depression.
Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. isolation
1. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 19 and 40.
During this period of time, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with
other people.
2. While psychosocial theory is often presented as a series of neatly defined, sequential steps, it is
important to remember that each stage contributes to the next. For example, Erikson believed that
having a fully formed sense of self (established during the identity versus confusion stage) is
essential to being able to form intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a
poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional
isolation, loneliness, and depression.
3. Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people.
Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation
1. During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
2. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the
world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill
will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair

1. This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
2. Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted
and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness
and despair.
3. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general
feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting
death.
[8]
The Biological perspective: Eysneck

brain calm
chemistry extroversion
blood sugar levels stimulation
inherited
traits
change
introversion
instability
stability
aggressive
outgoing
excitement
Questionnaire risky
extroversion
low
Personality development is inuenced by the _____________ and body ______________. Biological

dierences may explain why some people become aggressive or depressed, whereas other people in similar
circumstances do not. This can be shown some/mes when uctua/ons in body aects behaviour e.g.,
____________________________________. He argued that intelligence is _____________.
According to Eysenck, we are born with dierent tendencies to react to the world in dierent ways this
means that we are born with certain______________ (characteris/cs) which will result in personality
development and these will not/cannot________________.
Eysenck believed that human personality could be described in terms of an individuals level of
_________________ versus _______________ (refers to a persons tendency to seek
_____________________); ________________versus instability (this refers to the persons
tendency to become emotionally upset); and tough minded versus tender minded. Level of
introversion, extroversion, stability and instability can be measured by Eysencks Personality
__________________ (EPQ).
A person who is highly extroverted is more likely to take risks, to have lots of friends and to be
______________, than someone who is introverted, whilst an introverted person is keen to avoid
________________. A stable person is usually ___________, whilst an instable individual is likely to
overreact to certain situations and can become _________________.
Stable extraverts are outgoing, talkative, responsive, easygoing, lively, carefree, leaders; unstable
extraverts are touchy, restless, excitable, changeable, impulsive, irresponsible; stable introverts
are calm, even-tempered, reliable, controlled, peaceful, thoughtful, careful, passive; and unstable
introverts quiet, reserved, pessimistic, sober, rigid, anxious and moody.
According to Eysenck criminal behaviour is particularly associated with high levels of

_________________and ______________. He argued that extroverts are born with low level of
arousal (they do not get excited very easily) and are constantly seeking to raise it through
excitement and taking part in ___________ behaviour.
[9]
However, introverts are born with ___________level of arousal and are likely to be over stimulated
by kinds of activity that extroverts find most comfortable. Introverts prefer quiet activities e.g.,
reading, painting, going to a quiet restaurant etc.
Evaluation:
simplistic effect
introvert elaborate
criminal label
extrovert
limit reductionist
cause
Eysencks theory was criticised for being too ____________. Heim (1970) criticised EPQ because
of being limited to yes and no answers, it does not give the individual a chance to
______________on their answers.
It is _____________, because it fails to address how issues such as motives, the unconscious,
environment, or beliefs about self affect personality development.
In regards to ___________ personality, it is hard to determin _________ and __________for

example, is it the unstable extroverted personality that leads to criminal bevaiour or the criminal
behavior that leads to unstable extroverted personality.
This theory can be used to _____________ individuals and __________ their experiences e.g., an
individual who is considered to be an ___________might just be provided with quiet activities and
__________ with active activities all the time. Thus not developing the other side of their personality.
[10]
The Humanistic Perspective: Maslow

hierarchy of needs pyramid
Life experiences
disrupted
Safety needs
lower level not generalizable
unrepresentative
self-actualization
fulfilment
subjective
growth needs
esteem, love and other social needs
human motivation
deficiency
Belongingness and Love needs
Physical and Physiological needs

Esteem needs
unscientific
cognitive needs
spiritual needs
Aesthetic needs
Maslow (1954) presents a -------------------------- which can be divided into basic needs or
-------------------------------- (e.g. physiological, safety, love, and esteem) and ------------------------(cognitive, aesthetics and self-actualization).
One must satisfy-------------------------- basic needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth
needs. Once these needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest
level called --------------------------------------.
---------------------------------------- Maslow believed that humans have the need to increase their intelligence and
thereby chase knowledge. Cognitive needs is the expression of the natural human need to learn, explore,
discover and create to get a better understanding of the world around them. This growth need for selfactualization and learning, when not fulfilled leads to confusion and identity crisis. Also, this is directly
related to need to explore or the openness to experience.
-------------------------------------based on Maslows beliefs, it is stated in the hierarchy that humans need beautiful
imagery or something new and aesthetically pleasing to continue up towards Self-Actualization. Humans need
to refresh themselves in the presence and beauty of nature while carefully absorbing and observing their
surroundings to extract the beauty that the world has to offer. This need is a higher level need to relate in a
beautiful way with the environment and leads to the beautiful feeling of intimacy with nature and everything
beautiful.
Self-transcendence needs or -----------------------: This is the desire to help others reach self-actualization.
This need when fulfilled, leads to feelings of integrity and take things to another level of being.
Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of selfactualization. Unfortunately, progress is often ------------------------------by failure to meet lower level
needs. ------------------------------- including divorce and loss of job may cause an individual to fluctuate
between levels of the hierarchy. Maslow noted only one in a hundred people become fully selfactualized because our society rewards motivation primarily based
on----------------------------------------------------------------------
[11]
Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of selfactualization. Unfortunately, progress is often ------------------------------by failure to meet lower level
needs. ------------------------------- including divorce and loss of job may cause an individual to fluctuate
between levels of the hierarchy. Maslow noted only one in a hundred people become fully selfactualized because our society rewards motivation primarily based
on----------------------------------------------------------------------
Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that --------------------------------------is based on

people seeking ------------------------------------ and change through personal growth. Maslow described
self-actualized people as those who were fulfilled and doing all they were capable of.
1. ------------------------------- air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.
2. ------------------------------- protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc.
3. --------------------------------- work group, family, affection, relationships, etc.
4. - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial
responsibility, etc.
5. Cognitive needs human desire for growth motivates them to want to learn
6. Aesthetic needs need for beauty etc
5. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfilment, seeking personal growth and
peak experiences.
Criticisms
His methodology is very ----------------------------------------- because his research method was
-----------------------------------. He looked at the biographies and writings of 21 people he identified as
being self-actualized. From these sources he developed a list of qualities that seemed characteristic
of this specific group of people, as opposed to humanity in general. This means that his sample was
too small, thus his findings are --------------------------------------- and
---------------------------------------------------------------------.
Not all needs are met in these ways, e.g. large numbers of people living in poverty in India have their
belonging needs met because of the closeness of the community. Also many creative people lived in
poverty be throughout their lives yet they self-actualized. E.g. include artists such as Rembrandt and
Van Gough.
[12]
The Constructivist Perspective: Vygotsky

community Culture
language
social interaction
socio-cultural
mental processes/strategies
culture
biological strategy
countries
remembering
better
learner
peers
Zone of Proximal
Development
independently
guidance
skilled
withdrawal
scaffolding increase collaborative
co-operative!
Vygotsky saw children as curious, problem-solving beings who play an active part in their own
development. Vygotsky places emphasis on ____________, _________________ and
____________ _______________ affecting/contributing to cognitive development.
!
Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental (important) role of social interaction in the
development of cognition (Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed strongly that _______________
plays a central role in the process of "making meaning".
Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic materials/abilities for intellectual
!
development.
Eventually, through interaction within the __________________ environment,
these are developed into more sophisticated and effective
_______________________________ which he refers to as Higher Mental Functions.
For example, memory in young children this is limited by ______________ factors. However,
how we develop our memory will be determined by our ______________e.g., the type of
memory ___________ that is promoted/ used in different cultures/ _________________. For
example, in our culture we learn note-taking to aid memory, but in other cultures/countries they
might have a different method of _______________________ e.g., repetition.
According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social
!
interaction with a more knowledgeable other (MKO). The MKO may model behaviours
and/or provide verbal instructions for the child. A more knowledgeable other refers to
someone who has a _______________understanding or a higher ability level than the
___________ it can be their teacher, parent, siblings, older children or ____________.
Vygotsky refers to this as co-operative or collaborative dialogue. The child tries to understand
the actions or instructions provided by the MKO (often the parent or teacher), then internalizes
the information and uses it to guide their own learning.
!
Vygotsky developed the concept of "the ________________________________," or ZPD. This
! an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can achieve
is
________________ and what a child can achieve with ________________and encouragement
from a ___________ partner (it can be their teacher, parent, siblings, older children or peers).
This sort of assistance has been called _______________________. An important aspect of
scaffolding is that there is a gradual _____________ of support as the childs knowledge and
! confidence _______________.
He argued that MKO plays an important role in the ZPD. Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a
!young girl who is given her first jigsaw. Alone, she performs poorly in attempting to solve the
puzzle. The father then sits with her and describes or demonstrates some basic strategies,
such as finding all the comer/edge pieces and provides a couple of pieces for the child to put
together herself and offers encouragement when she does so. As the child becomes more
competent, the father allows the child to work more independently. According to Vygotsky, this
type of social interaction involving _________________ or _______________________
dialogue promotes cognitive development.
For example, the child could not solve the jigsaw puzzle (in the example above) by themselves
and would have taken a long time to do so (if at all) if left on their own, but was able to solve it
following interaction with the father, and has developed this skill that will be applied to future
jigsaws.
[13]
MKO
less
instruction
mental functions
different
capable
increases
more
interaction
Assessment
pair work
prompts
withdraw
scaffolding
In fact, the _________ need not be a person at all. Some companies, to support employees in their learning
process, are now using electronic performance support systems. Electronic tutors have also been used in
educational settings to facilitate and guide students through the learning process. The key to MKOs is that
they must have (or be programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner
does.
Evidence for Vygotsky and the ZPD
Freund (1990) conducted a study in which children had to decide which items of furniture should be placed in
particular houses of a dolls house. Some children were allowed to play with their mother in a similar situation
before they attempted it alone (zone of proximal development) whilst others were allowed to work on this by
themselves (Piaget's discovery learning). Freund found that those who had previously worked with their
mother (ZPD) showed greatest improvement compared with their first attempt at the task. The conclusion
being that guided learning within the ZPD led to greater understanding/performance than working alone
(discovery learning).
Application of Vygotskys theory

Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most sensitive
_______________ or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop skills they will then use on their
own - developing higher ____________ ________________.
Vygotsky also views ________________with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies.
He suggests that teachers use co-operative learning exercises e.g., ________ _________, where
__________ able children work with ___________able children to develop different skills and knowledge within the zone of proximal development.
Cooperative learning activities can be planned with groups of children at _______________ levels who can
help each other learn.
According to Vygotsky, for the curriculum to be developmentally appropriate, the teacher must plan activities
that include not only what children are _____________ of doing on their own but what they can learn with
the help of others (Karpov & Haywood, 1998).
Instruction can be planned to provide practice in the zone of proximal development for individual children or for
groups of children.
_________________should be carried out to find out what the child knows already and identify what they need
help with and what kind of instructions, hints and ___________ can be developed to help the children within
the ZPD.
The teacher should gradually _______________ (limit) their support as the childs knowledge and
confidence___________________ (the process of ___________________).
[14]
The Behavioural Perspective: Skinner

Outline and evaluate Skinners theory.
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[15]
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[16]
Social Learning approach

consequences Vicarious
high
watching
observational
model
observing
self-efficacy
give up
environment
biology
laboratory
environment reinforced
imitate
low masculine
antisocial media
ecological
generalise
models
aggressive
feminine
positive
In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) states behaviour is learned from the
______________through the process of _______________learning. He argued that people can learn
new information and behaviours by ___________ other people. Children observe the people around
them behaving in various ways. Whether behaviour is imitated depends on the ____________and the
____________________ of the observed behaviour.
This is illustrated during the famous bobo doll experiment.
Bandura demonstrated that children learn and ___________ behaviours they have observed in other
people. The children in Banduras studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When
the children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the
_____________actions they had previously observed.
Individuals that are observed are called __________. In society we are surrounded many influential
models, such as parents within the family, characters on childrens TV, friends within their peer group
and teachers at school. These models provide examples of_______________ and
________________behaviour to observe and imitate.
Steps in observational learning:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Behaviour is modelled by a role model, e.g. parent, friend or celebrity

Observer identifies with the role model
Behaviour is observed and noted
Behaviour is imitated and learned
Whether the behaviour is repeated depends on reinforcement and rewards
According to Banduras social learning theory we are more likely to imitate a person who is
______________for their behaviour. _____________reinforcement is, therefore, a reinforcement
which is received indirectly by ________________ another person who is being reinforced.
Self efficacy refers to the beliefs of what we are capable of achieving. Bandura argued that people with
___________ self-efficacy beliefs (they are confident and have high self esteem) for a specific task
make more effort to achieve results whereas people with_________ self-efficacy beliefs (not
confident and have low-self esteem) for a particular task will show a tendency to give up
quickly. Bandura (1989) argued that self-efficacy beliefs are important, because they determine what
we will try to do things.
[17]
Also, individuals with high __________________ are more likely to aspire to be like their role model, set
challenging goals for themselves and believe that they will be able to achieve them e.g., I will make
sure I get good grades at school to go to university and become a teacher, just like my dad; I will train
really hard and will become a successful athlete, just like Hussein Bolt.
Individuals with low self-efficacy beliefs are less likely to set goals because they think that they will not
be able to achieve them and are likely to ________ ____ really easily. They are more likely to follow
others and give in to peer pressure and take part in ______________________behaviour e.g.,
committing crime etc.
Evaluation:
Research into the social learning theory has led to concerns about ___________ violence and the possibility of
children imitating aggressive role models on television. This theory has highlighted the need for ___________
role models in the media.
The social learning theory concentrates on how behaviour that is learnt from the ________________ and ignores
the role of ____________ e.g., children with ADHD.
Most of the experiments have been conducted in a ______________, therefore, lack _____________ validity. It is
difficult to _______________ the findings to the real world.
[18]
APPLICATION OF THEORIES TO HEALTH, SOCIAL CARE

AND EARLY YEARS SETTINGS
Application of Banduras Social
Learning theory to care settings
Banduras modification of behaviour
Reward any positive behaviour that this

role model carries out. The child is then
more likely to copy behaviours which are
rewarded.
Try to ensure that the role models

Select an appropriate role model. This
role model will be a more effective if the
behaviour is noticeable, that your
child sees them as:
rewards are noticeable and that the
o someone with similar values
behaviours can be easily copied.
o more powerful
o warm and loving
o liked and
Psychodynamic perspective
respected
Biological perspective
Humanist perspective
Constructivist perspective
Behavioural perspective
Social learning perspective
Application of Maslows Humanistic

approach to Care Settings
The hierarchy of needs allows service providers
to understand what client/childrens needs are.
It also encourages service providers to see
clients/children as individuals who are striving
to meet these needs. Assessment and planning
can help clients/children meet these needs.
The care values can be related to the
triangle:
Promote equality and diversity all
clients still have to have their needs met
despite their age! So if a care worker is
carefully applying this value then this can
help the resident to feel appreciated and
respected.
Promoting rights and beliefs - Although
staff may have to follow strict routines
they should also encourage residents to

make decisions for themselves where
possible.
Confidentiality This is very important
for trust building and so can help meet
the sense of belonging and self esteem
needs.
Services will not be appropriate if they do
not meet the needs of the individual who
uses them, therefore they must be
planned and designed so that they do
meet users needs. We all have the same
basic needs. Maslow represented these
needs in the form of a pyramid showing
which needs must be met first before
others could be satisfied.
[19]
Complete the table below

H&SC SETTING
CLIENT GROUP THEY

CATER FOR
HOW THEY MEET THE PIES NEEDS OF THE CLIENT GROUPS
Pre-schools
Schools
Nurseries
Childminding
services
Childrens
centres
Day-care
centres
Support daycare centres
Residential
homes
Hospices
Respite care
Foster care
Nursing homes
Childrens
homes
[20]
Application of Banduras Social Learning theory to care settings

Provision for needs to be met in early
years settings
Provision for needs to be met in

Day care settings

Residential and nursing homes
Personal support, supervision, advice, chiropody,

aids and adaptations, meals.
Early years workers are often role models
for children so should lead by example e.g.
the language they use between each other
will be imitated. Research shows that
children imitate vocab and accent as well as
actual words.
Day care centres encourage independence in

personal hygiene and the SLT can be applied here
e.g. a service user says that they are able to
shower themselves today to the care worker and
gets praised for this by the care worker. Another
service user is watching this and when it is his turn
for a shower he says actually I think I can do it
myself today
Certain powerful residents can encourage antisocial behaviour through SLT e.g. a popular
male resident flirts with the nurses so other
residents start to do it e.g. a resident is
bulling another resident and some residents
begin to imitate the bully and join in.
The way the early years workers eat their

lunch is likely to be imitated by the children
therefore they should display good table
manners i.e. eating with mouth closed,
knife and fork in correct hands.
At day care centres intellectual stimulation is

SLT can be applied to pro-social behaviour
encouraged. SLT can be applied here e.g. the
e.g. residents in lounge A always share the
carers sit down to play chess. Service users see this remote, so residents in lounge B start to do
and start their own chess group.
this too.
EYWs need to be trained to provide

reinforcement via praise for good behaviour.
When children see their friends being
reinforced for good behaviour, they are
likely to copy that good behaviour too.
Physiotherapy takes place in day care centres and

e.g. of SLT can be applied here Fred and Bert
both have arthritis. One is having physiotherapy for
the condition and one isnt. Freds arthritis is
getting better and Bert can see this, so Bert now
decided to have physiotherapy.
A service user may act aggressive towards the

care worker due to previous experience of
visiting their parent/s in a home where they
were also aggressive towards the care worker
which helped them get what they wanted
When a child behaves poorly in the setting

an EYW must deal with it appropriately i.e.
negative punishment time out on a chair.
They cannot ignore this otherwise other
children will imitate the bad behaviour
because they feel they will not get told off
for it by the EYW.
One of the services that is provided by a day care

centre is advice giving. An example of this within
the SLT is: a service user is stubborn and has
problems with money, which makes him very
worried and not nice to be around. He agrees to
get help with this and over a period of time
everyone can see a substantial difference in his
behaviour showing happiness and being friendlier.
One of his friends sees how much happier he is and
decides to seek advice for his own financial
matters.
If a service user is in a home where a lot of

the other service users acted in a particular
manner e.g. depressed/angry/happy then they
may model this behaviour.
A child is most likely to copy someone with

similar values, someone who is more
powerful than them, someone who is warm
and loving and someone who is liked and
respected. In short, a child will copy
someone who they admire and want to be
like.
At day centres advice is given. An example of the

SLT here would be Mary tells her friend Ann about
seeking advice today about her financial problems.
Ann also has financial problems and therefore
suggests to Mary that she also wants to seek
financial advice and therefore asks to go with her.
One of the elderly ladies has a routine of

changing the sheets that she still carries over
from being at home. Therefore she always
takes off her dirty sheets before the maid
comes round in order to help her out. As a
result of this, the maid chats to her and
smiles. The lady across the hall sees this and
Barbara may come into the day care centre and say decides to do the same as she has never been
that she is going to see the chiropodist about some talked to by the maid before.
problems with her feet. Elizabeth overhears this
and decided to go along with Barbara because she
also has problems with her feet.
Bandura would say that if a child observes

behaviour of another child who, for
example, generally shares well and takes
turns they will notice that this behaviour is
rewarded by being popular. The child will
then copy this behaviour and in turn will
internalise it and it will then take on that
behaviour as normal.
[21]
Application of Eysencks personality theory to care settings

Provision for needs to be met in early years settings

Day care settings
Personal support, supervision, advice, chiropody, aids
and adaptations, meals.
The biological approach argues that aggression must The biological approach argues that aggression
be discharged due to it being innate for some must be discharged. Aggression is likely to
children. In nurseries the EYWs must make sure occur at a day care centre as they are away
they allow children to channel their aggression from their main carer (who they would not
appropriately e.g. kicking a ball against a wall. want to be aggressive to). It is important that
Squezzing playdough. Give them the message that it service providers respond to this aggression
is ok and natural to be angry but they need to appropriately in order to stop a confrontation
control it acceptably. EYWs must ensure that there from escalating e.g. when facing a potentially
are appropriate activities for aggressive energy.
aggressive person, do not stand face to face,
do speak calmly and softly and use slow,
relaxed movements.

The biological approach argues that aggression must be

discharged. Care workers at a residential home will need to
be trained to deal with this. This is due to residents being in
care for 24/7. They do not get the opportunity to vent this
frustration in their own home (like you or I may do). Care
workers must realise this and recognise that they may need
to be left alone or use their own unique ways for discharging
their aggression i.e. being pushed around the garden in a
wheelchair to rant and rave about a resident who has been
annoying them.
One of the possible outlets for aggression is sport. Service providers in these type of settings will When a resident is getting aggressive (which some are
This is called channelled aggression, if it is not be trained to look for signs of extroversion,
biologically pre-determined to be), make sure there are no
accompanied by anger. Early years settings with instability and neurotiscism and are now able to aggressive environmental cues about i.e. another resident
aggressive children should use a lot of sport to make a professional referral for the client to
that winds them up, a certain uniform like the security
channel aggression or suggest this to the parents to receive medication to control the unsocial
guard patrolling the building
implement outside of the setting e.g. tackling in characteristics of the extremes of these
rugby, boxing clubs. Sport can provide a safe outlet dimensions.
for aggression according to biological theory.
We know through the biological perspective that Service providers should try to manage an Service providers in these type of settings will be trained to
children with downs syndrome (chromosome 21) are elderly person with a predisposition to anger by look for signs of extroversion, instability and neurotiscism and
friendly, easy to get along with, caring, loving and reinforcing positive social behaviour and not are now able to make a professional referral for the client to
approval seeking. The care for these children must reinforcing aggression e.g giving praise for receive medication to control the unsocial characteristics of
take account of these characteristics and promote positive social conversation and ignoring angry the extremes of these dimensions.
them. These are tender minded characteristics outbursts
according to Eysenck.
Service providers should try to manage an elderly person with
EYWs should try to manage a child with a When a resident is getting aggressive (which
a predisposition to anger by reinforcing positive social
predisposition to anger by reinforcing positive social some are biologically pre-determined to be
behaviour and not reinforcing aggression e.g according to eysenck), make sure there are no behaviour and not reinforcing aggression e.g giving praise for
positive social conversation and ignoring angry outbursts
providing praise for hugging other children and not aggressive environmental cues about i.e.
another resident that winds them up, a certain
providing attention for snatching toys.
uniform like the security guard patrolling the
building
EYPs need to be able to manage children on the Under Eysencks theory a service provider may
extremes of the extroversion-introversion scale e.g. label a person depending on their innate traits
for a child who is quiet and shy we would need to e.g. there would be a tendancy to label
purposely involve them in group work. For an someone as aggressive who shows these
extrovert make sure they are always challenged and behaviours. This is a disadvantage of applying
that they do not take over.
Eysencks theory as it does not give the client
much room for improvement techniques
would not be taught to manage angry
outbursts because it is biological and therefore
nothing can be done about it!
A service user may act neurotic and have a
moody, changeable, and restless response to
life events and will therefore show less
optimism when it comes to taking part in
activities. Taking part in activities is
characterstic of a day care centre so service
providers will need experience/training in
dealing with this type of personality.
If a resident was an extrovert, displaying behaviour that was

very dominant, e.g. not letting people help them in any way
and not letting other people talk or contribute, the care
worker will need to control the situation and calm them
down, explaining they would benefit from help and also
giving other people the chance to talk. Care workers need to
be aware of the extroversion/introversion scale in order to
manage behaviour and enable daily living for other residents
to be comfortable it is their home and they should feel at
ease.
The care worker should consider that the clients behaviour
may be due to low blood sugar level, illness or stress. Care
workers should try to fulfil their duties in an effective manner
in order to support their clients; this could involve tasks such
as helping the client maintain their personal hygiene, making
sure that they have a healthy balanced diet, encouraging
them to take part in light exercise, providing access to health
care services etc.
A clients behaviour is influenced by their

A clients behaviour is influenced by their personality so some
personality so some actions may simply be due actions may simply be due to their inherited traits. Some
to their inherited traits. Some behaviour could behaviour could even be the result of a physiological issue.
even be the result of a physiological issue.
The care worker should consider that the
clients behaviour may be due to low blood
sugar level, illness or stress. Care workers
should try to fulfil their duties in an effective
manner in order to support their clients; this
could involve tasks such as helping the client
maintain their personal hygiene, making sure
that they have a healthy balanced diet,
encouraging them to take part in light exercise,
providing access to health care services etc.
[22]
Application of Maslows Humanistic approach to Care Settings

Stages of hierarchy (bottom of table =
bottom of the pyramid)
Self-actualisation
According to Maslow children cannot self-actualise. This happens

(where an individual meets the ultimate goal in life; around middle age. Prior to this all their needs are still being met. In
this is where they are free from pressures which are childhood they will not have developed a full identity/personality.
attached to previous levels/stages of dev and they are
now free to explore who they have become they
are likely to be more independent, feel emotionally
fulfilled, have positive social development as they will
have a greater acceptance of others and realistic
perception of self)
Self-esteem Needs
EYWs should respect children so they feel they are being listened to
(need to be recognised and acknowledged. Need to and valued e.g. set aside time to listen to their worries and views.
feel respected. This need is met by success being Answer questions that they pose. Staff must be trained and aware of
recognised too. Self-esteem is part of an individuals cultural differences so that they respect these in the children. Praise is
so important for self-esteem. Encouragement to complete tasks so as
emotional development )
they can see that they succeed. Group recognition of interests/
(Cognitive needs we require stimulation/activities to achievements can be seen through activities such as show and tell and
promote knowledge and understanding; success here circle time.
A good way to relax the children and start a circle time session, is by
will affect an individuals self-concept)
teaching and gradually building up to a simple game. The objective is
(Aesthetic needs the need to experience beauty, to arrive at a situation where everyone gets the chance to speak, and
truth etc this will have a direct effect on our to provoke an open discussion, to give time to celebrate achievements
and then to provide time to calm down and bring closure to the
emotional development)
setting.
Love and Belongingness
EYWs should build up a relationship with children to prevent children

(attachment to primary carer, feeling socially included. from feeling isolated and that they belong. Lots of group activities
There is a need for love and affection to be shown should be planned to build group cohesion. Activities to promote
towards the service user. Individual can then build on friendships between children should also be encouraged e.g. board
games, role-play. Good working relationships with parents are also
both their social and emotional development)
important between EYW and parent. Child needs to see this in order to
feel they are loved and belong at the setting.
Safety/security Needs
EYWs should keep dangerous objects e.g. scissors. away from

(freedom from threat, danger, intimidation. To feel children. The doors should be locked at all times (staff have an access
safe physically and emotionally this allows for code/key). Risk assessments should be carried out on a daily basis to
development of skills such as independence and maintain standards of the build and equipment. Emotional safety
should also be maintained e.g. the key worker system is used so as a
emotional security)
child can form a special bond with a carer to enable them to feel
secure. Carers should maintain a healthy emotional atmosphere e.g.
bullying must be stopped and disputes resolved.
Many children are anxious about making the move from nursery to
primary school. Circle time, buddies and mentors are some of the ways
of calming anxieties and answering questions.
Physical Needs
EYWs should provide children with activities so that their basic needs
(food, warmth, shelter generally understood to be can be met e.g. nap time, food, frequent drinks, play equipment to
basic needs which need to be met before individual enhance physical development. Hygiene standards to prevent illness
for the children. Advice would be provided for parents on
can progress onto higher levels/stages)
immunisations and vaccinations and the appropriate age for each one.
It is the responsibility of the EYW to suggest a child sees a doctor if
illness is suspected.
[23]
Stages of hierarchy (bottom of

table = bottom of the pyramid)
Provision
for needs to be met in

Day care settings
Personal support, supervision, advice, chiropody, aids and adaptations, meals.

Self-actualisation
Care workers need to prevent barriers from occurring so that residents are able to achieve
(where an individual meets the ultimate self-actualisation
goal in life; this is where they are free from
pressures which are attached to previous Care workers need to provide opportunities for service users so that they can self-actualise.
levels/stages of dev and they are now free Self actualisation is something that occurs when all our other needs are met. This involved
to explore who they have become they accomplishing something wed never thought we could achieve due to not having the physical
are likely to be more independent, feel or emotional space because of meeting our other needs. This will be things like providing
emotionally fulfilled, have positive social services outside of the centre that will meet their searching needs i.e. playing a musical
development as they will have a greater
acceptance of others and realistic instrument, learning to cook Indian food, learning to jive.
perception of self)
Self-esteem Needs
Service users need to feel respected. They need to be provided with independence and treated as an
(need to be recognised and acknowledged. individual. We need to value people for who they are e.g. use their name when addressing them,
Need to feel respected. This need is met by respect their cultural beliefs and needs.
success being recognised too. Self-esteem A day care centre provides advice as a service therefore listening to service users worries and views is
is part of an individuals emotional
paramount in meeting this need.
development )
Encouragement to complete tasks so as they can see that they succeed. Group recognition of interests/
(Cognitive needs we require stimulation/ achievements can be seen through activities such as appropriate awards at a presentation evening i.e.
activities to promote knowledge and best chess player of the year. They could also celebrate achievements through exhibition art and
understanding; success here will affect an gardening. It is very important to help them feel as if they have a purpose in life i.e. making necklaces
individuals self-concept)
or knitting baby clothes to sell at the village fete. Apply the care values efficiently so that the individual
develops or maintains a healthy self-esteem. Giving them options so that they can choose things for
(Aesthetic needs the need to experience themselves (promoting individual rights and beliefs)
beauty, truth etc this will have a direct

effect on our emotional development)
Care workers need to provide safe, supportive relationships for service users. This is encouraged
(attachment to primary carer, feeling through group activities. Service users are usually encouraged to be involved in planning the care and
socially included. There is a need for love development of themselves as well as the day care centre as a whole. Day care centres need to be
and affection to be shown towards the involved in the wider community and market themselves as a nice place to be as well as this it is
service user. Individual can then build on
important for the service users so as they too can become part of the wider community and feel as if
both their social and emotional
they belong in the community. Service providers need to be in contact with the family of service users so
development)
as the user feels as if s/he is loved and valued as they communicate about him/her. Older people need
to be able to talk to professional care workers about their interests and problems too in order to feel
they belong at the day care centre.
Keeping information on the service user confidential so that the individual can build a trusting
relationship with the care worker and allow them to feel that what they tell the care workers are going
to be kept confidential
Care workers should try to understand the service users challenging behaviour by encouraging them to
talk about their needs and worries. Care workers should recognise that personal development comes
from the love and respect from others. So to put that into practise the care worker should make sure
that the client is treated in a way that they would treat someone they loved or respected regardless of
their behaviour.
Care workers need to provide a secure and safe environment for service users.
(freedom from threat, danger, intimidation. Physical security = the building is safe and risk assessments are carried out on this by the
To feel safe physically and emotionally thi
allows for development of skills such as staff. A key system so if necessary strangers cannot get in or service users wander off. Able
residents will have their own access/departure arrangements i.e. a swipe card to enter and
independence and emotional security)
exit the building.

The resources in the building need to be up to a required standard e.g. the hoists are charged
before use, the wheelchairs have sufficient breaks. The activities provided to meet physical
needs have to be safe and risk assessed before using. Supervision is a role of a day care
centre residents will feel safer if you are supervising them walking down the corridor to go
to toilet by themselves for example.
Emotional safety = All staff are trained and CRB checked service users know this and this
contributes to their sense of safety. There will be equal ops and bullying policies to monitor
and evaluate any issues which should arise for the service users and providers. As part of
their job role service providers encourage relationships between the service users this aids
in making service users feel safe once they have developed bonds with others.
Counselling can be offered in a day care setting to reduce anxiety and help the client to feel
emotionally safe.
Physical Needs
Care workers need to provide basic needs for service users, such as meals. Day care centres
(food, warmth, shelter generally provide this as part of their service. They also provide other health care e.g. chiropody, maybe a
understood to be basic needs which need
to be met before individual can progress hairdresser, some may provide baths i.e. some service users may not bath themselves at home
due to being unable to get in and out of the bath, so they will come to a day care centre for this.
onto higher levels/stages)
Activities to maintain physical health are also paramount e.g. armchair yoga, walking round the
gardens; carers may help with exercises specific to their condition i.e. a stroke patient. Careful
assessment and care planning can help service users to meet their physical needs.
[24]
Stages of hierarchy (bottom of

table = bottom of the pyramid)

Self-actualisation
(where an individual meets the
ultimate goal in life; this is where
they are free from pressures which
are attached to previous levels/stages
of dev and they are now free to
explore who they have become
they are likely to be more
independent, feel emotionally
fulfilled, have positive social
development as they will have a
greater acceptance of others and
realistic perception of self)
Care workers need to prevent barriers from occurring so that residents are able to achieve self-actualisation
Care workers need to provide opportunities for service users so that they can self-actualise. Self actualisation is
something that occurs when all our other needs are met. This involves accomplishing something wed never
thought we could achieve due to not having the physical or emotional space because of meeting our other
needs. This will be things like providing services outside of the home that will meet their searching needs i.e.
playing a musical instrument, learning to cook Indian food, learning to jive.
Self-esteem Needs
Service users need to feel respected. They need to be provided with independence and treated as an individual.
(need to be recognised and We need to value people for who they are e.g. use their name when addressing them, respect their cultural
acknowledged. Need to feel beliefs and needs. When people live in a setting one must actually provide for cultural needs rather than just
respected. This need is met by respect it e.g. a room to pray would be essential as they live there and cannot go home to do it.
success being recognised too.
A residential setting should provide emotional support for service users; therefore listening to service users
S e l f- e s t e e m i s p a r t o f a n
i n d i v i d u a l s e m o t i o n a l worries and views is paramount in meeting this need.
Encouragement to complete tasks so as they can see that they succeed. Group recognition of interests/
development )
achievements can be seen through activities such as appropriate awards at a presentation evening i.e. best
(Cognitive needs we require chess player of the year. They could also celebrate achievements through exhibition art and gardening. It is
stimulation/activities to promote very important to help them feel as if they have a purpose in life i.e. making necklaces or knitting baby clothes to
knowledge and understanding; sell at the village fete. Good working relationships need to be developed with service provider and user a balance
success here will affect an of being friendly and professional is required to meet the self-esteem needs of somebody residing in a setting.
individuals self-concept)
Apply the care values efficiently so that the individual develops or maintains a healthy self-esteem. Giving them
(Aesthetic needs the need to
experience beauty, truth etc
this will have a direct effect on
our emotional development)
options so that they can choose things for themselves (promoting individual rights and beliefs)

Residential care workers need to provide safe, supportive relationships for service users. This is encouraged
(attachment to primary carer, through group activities. Service users are usually encouraged to be involved in planning the care and
feeling socially included. development of themselves as well as the running of the home. Residential settings to be involved in the wider
There is a need for love and community and market themselves as a nice place to live, as well as this it is important for the service users so
a f f e c t i o n t o b e s h o w n as they too can become part of the wider community and feel as if they belong in the community. Service
towards the service user. providers need to be in contact with the family of service users so as the user feels as if s/he is loved and valued
Individual can then build on as they communicate about him/her. Often in a residential setting residents will have their own responsibilities
b o t h t h e i r s o c i a l a n d that contribute to the running of the home e.g. Marj does the tea and coffees of an evening, Fred waters the
emotional development)
plants and so on. This helps them to feel as if they live in the home and belong to it.
Keeping information on the service user confidential so that the individual can build a trusting relationship with
the care worker and allow them to feel that what they tell the care workers are going to be kept confidential
Care workers should try to understand the service users challenging behaviour by encouraging them to talk
about their needs and worries. Care workers should recognise that personal development comes from the love
and respect from others. So to put that into practise the care worker should make sure that the client is treated
in a way that they would treat someone they loved or respected regardless of their behaviour.
Residential care workers need to provide a secure and safe environment for service users.
( f r e e d o m f r o m t h r e a t , Physical security = the building is safe and risk assessments are carried out by the staff. A key system is used to
danger, intimidation. To feel prevent strangers getting in or service users wander off. Able residents may have their own access arrangements
s a f e p h y s i c a l l y a n d i.e. a swipe card to enter and exit the building.
emotionally thi allows for The resources in the building need to be up to a required standard e.g. the hoists are charged before use, the
development of skills such as wheelchairs have sufficient breaks. The activities provided to meet physical needs have to be safe and risk
independence and emotional assessed before using. Supervision is a role of residential care staff residents will feel safer if you are
security)
supervising them walking down the corridor to go to toilet by themselves for example.
Emotional safety = Most staff are trained and CRB checked service users know this and this contributes to their
sense of safety. There will be equal ops and bullying policies to monitor and evaluate any issues which should
arise for the service users and providers. As part of their job role service providers encourage relationships
between residents this aids in making service users feel safer once they have developed bonds with others.
Each resident has their own bedroom where they can feel safe to have solitary time and quality sleep (residents
who do not get enough sleep are often tearful and moody).
Counselling can be offered in a day care setting to reduce anxiety and help the client to feel emotionally safe.
In a residential home you need trusting relationships with the care workers as you have to trust them to meet
your needs day and night. This will contribute to your feelings of emotional safety.
Physical Needs
Residential homes will meet service users basic needs. Basic needs will include; meals, clothing and washing
(food, warmth, shelter facilities. Residential homes provide this as part of their service, but it should be tailored to meet the individuals
generally understood to be needs. They also provide other health care e.g. chiropody, hairdresser. Activities to maintain physical health are
basic needs which need to also paramount e.g. armchair yoga, walking round the gardens, carers may help with exercises specific to their
be met before individual can condition i.e. a stroke patient. Resources e.g comfortable beds and routines that promote quality sleep are
progress onto higher levels/ important to services users physical wellbeing e.g. Bill goes to bed at 7 and Ethel at 8 as Bill needs a bit more
stages)
sleep than Ethel. Medication routines need to be followed day and night by the nursing staff. A check on personal
hygiene daily is paramount. Opportnities for intimate relationships will be provided in their own personal living
space. Aids and adaptations in the home will be provided to meet a variety of physical needs.
[25]
Application of Skinners behaviourist approach to Care Settings
P r i n c i p l e s Description
of operant of principle
conditionin
In the past, most settings chose to control the behaviour of their children by using positive and negative
g
punishment (misbehaving or disregarding school rules resulted in punishments). Today, many school systems and
other childhood authorities are inclined to provide positive and negative reinforcement to encourage good
behaviour, reserving punishment techniques only as a last resort. While the results are not usually as immediate,
they are typically seen as healthier, providing children with appropriate behavioural guidelines while allowing them
their dignity a nice intro to an application answer
P o s i t i v e This is where
reinforcem you add
ent
something
pleasant to
strengthen a
behaviour
If behaviour is rewarded then it will probably be repeated. Therefore, in childcare settings, only good behaviour
should be rewarded e.g. Praising children using house points or stickers (adding something pleasant) when they
have been good (behaviour strengthened)
Children need an appropriate reward for good behaviour e.g. for tidying the toys away. Every time a child behaves
in an appropriate way then they should be rewarded. This will establish an appropriate behaviour pattern. It should
then be rewarded occasionally to ensure it is repeated.
Occasionally bad behaviour will be rewarded and this should be avoided in a childcare setting i.e.giving them
constant attention (adding something pleasant) when they are behaving badly i.e. screaming. E.g. if a child has a
temper tantrum to get what they want and the adult gives in, then this will reinforce the childs behaviour.
Positive reinforcement should be used to encourage the child to change their behaviour e.g. praise, smiles, house
points or merit stickers. This is to encourage them to behave. Bad behaviour should be ignored as Skinner says that
behaviour that is not rewarded is unlikely to be repeated.
Ideas for positive reinforcement in a setting:
Prompt feedback on work acts as a positive reinforcer e.g. good girl for colouring a picture will make the child want
to sit down and colour another picture straight away.
Plenaries (a discussion at the end of a set activity) are a good way to share ideas, provide praise and listen to each
other all of these are positive reinforcers
Question and answer sessions would be encouraged by skinner. They are an opportunity to quickly give
reinforcement to children
Evaluative point:
Note: for positive reinforcement to work, it must be consistent this is hard to remember when EYWs are preoccupied with other duties/children/activities to prepare
From these examples you can see that positive reinforcement can be used to strengthen good and bad behaviour
and should be discussed like this when you are asked to evaluate
Negative This is where There is one child who is always fidgeting on the carpet. The EYW may use negative reinforcement as a technique
reinforcem you take
for combating this e.g. if you sit still (behaviour you want to strengthen) you do not have to do your tidying up
ent
away
duties today (taking away something unpleasant for the child). The result will be that the child will sit still
something
negative reinforcement has worked.
unpleasant to
strengthen a Negative reinforcement is used in settings to prevent behaviour being repeated e.g. a child is naughty you do not
behaviour
respond with your usual punishment naughty step (taking away usual punishment which is something unpleasant)
and instead you ignore the behaviour, which in theory will make it go away (this is the result you want).
P o s i t i v e This is where Punishment should only be used when necessary and should be outweighed by reinforcement i.e. a child should be
punishmen you add
reinforced far more than it is punished (Skinner).
t
something
unpleasant to An example of when positive punishment is necessary would be in the case of physical aggression e.g. if a child is
weaken a
hitting and kicking another child you cannot ignore this. You would have to show your disappoint in this child and
behaviour
also tell their parents (both of these actions are adding something to the situation). This may reinforce the child not
to be aggressive again i.e. they will fear that you will tell their mum.
After this punishment you would need to watch the child for prosocial behaviours like hugging the boy he beat up 2
days previous you would then reward him for this with praise and maybe even a sticker! The rewards for prosocial
behaviour would need to be consistent to stamp out the aggressive behaviour.
N e g a t i v e This is where Punishment should only be used when necessary and should be outweighed by reinforcement i.e. a child should be
punishmen you take
reinforced far more than it is punished.
t
away
something
An example of when negative punishment is necessary would be in the case of a child swearing e.g. if a child is
pleasant to using obscene language in the setting it can not be ignored. You could provide negative punishment for this e.g.
weaken a
putting him on the time out spot (this is taking away his time). This may reinforce the child not to swear again i.e.
behaviour
they will fear that you will put them in the time out spot
After this punishment you would need to watch the child for prosocial vocab like using other words to show
frustration e.g. naughty teddy you would then reward him for this with praise and maybe even a sticker! The
rewards for prosocial vocab would need to be consistent to stamp out the swearing.
[26]
Provision for needs to be met in early years settings cont...

Behaviour Basically, you start with a very Skinner said that parents reward infant babbling by giving the infant attention and
shaping low criteria and gradually shaping. This increases vocalization. Parents shape the childs language behaviour
increase your criteria until you e.g. a smile from EYW when baby makes a sound, a cuddle and a smile when they
reach your target behavior. For say their first word, praise when they string a sentence together and so on.
example, you could first teach
a horse to approach a trailer, Behaviour shaping of language is a natural process and is not intentional by the
and then teach it to put 2 feet parents.
in the trailer, then 4 feet, and Criticism
Some parents pay little attention to their children but language still
then walk to the front of the
trailer. By breaking the behavior
develops
In the second year of life language development is rapid and shaping is
down into small steps, you can
create a new behavior without
such a lengthy process. The two dont go together!
Parents rarely reinforce correct grammar in a childs speech this makes it
anything ever becoming too
difficult or scary for the horse.
less likely that shaping enables children to learn grammar (Brown and
Hanlon, 1970)
Behaviour shaping has helped improve the communication skills of autistic children
in a childcare setting. This is the process:
The therapist first identifies an activity that the child enjoys e.g. playing
with a special toy.
Every time the child looks at the therapist, she gives him the toy
Eventually the child will look at the therapist in anticipation of the toy, but
she withholds it until the child reaches for the toy.
Now, when he reaches for the toy he is given it and at the same time the
therapist says please
When reaching has become established, the toy is withheld until the child
himself makes a sound when he reaches. Then he is given the toy.
This process continues, reinforcing the behaviour until it is established and
then withholding reinforcement until a more specific behaviour becomes
established.
IF THE TECHNIQUE IS SUCCESSFUL, THE CHILD MAY EVENTUALLY SPEAK

SPONTANEOUSLY.
This has been found to be an effective technique, but reinforcement usually needs
to be maintained in order for the child to continue the behaviour.
Generalis In generalization, a behavior The child saying please when they want something due to them being rewarded for
ation
may be performed in more saying it before e.g. being rewarded in a nursery for saying please when they ask
than one situation.
For for a drink, means that they will generalise this to other situations where please will
example, the rat who receives be necessary.
food by pressing one lever, may
press a second lever in the
cage in hopes that it will
receive food.
Discrimin Learning that a behavior will be EYPs will provide praise only for activities they want children to show. E.g. in the
ation
rewarded in one situation, but playground children may be praised for saying hello to friends parents but they will
not another e.g. children will not be praised for saying hi to every adult at the playground.
be rewarded when greeting
friends and family but not
strangers
Extinction The elimination of the behavior Children who are not reinforced consistently will end up extinguishing their
by stopping reinforcement of behaviours e.g. Tim is interested in a musical instrument. He gets lots of praise and
the behavior. For example, a passes exams in the first year of playing it (both act as reinforcers). In the second
rat who received food when year he only passes one exam and people are not praising his playing of the
pressing a bar, receives food no instrument anymore. Tim gives up playing the instrument.
longer, will gradually decrease
the amount of lever presses From this we learn that behaviours we want to encourage in early years settings
until the rat eventually stops must always be reinforced.
lever pressing.
[27]
Provision for needs to be met in day care settings

Principles of Description of
operant
principle
conditioning
Personal support, supervision, advice, chiropody, aids and adaptations, meals.

P o s i t i v e This is where you
reinforceme add something
nt
pleasant to
strengthen a
behaviour
Prosocial behaviours develop because they are rewarded e.g. residents who help
with daily duties in a day care centre will receive praise and likeability. This will
make them feel good and they will want to help with the daily duties next time they
come.
Calm and cooperative behaviour is rewarded in day-care settings with positive
responses from the care workers such as praise and thanks.
Older people can be reinforced with activities which they enjoy e.g. bingo or playing
cards.
Some people reward antisocial behaviour e.g. an old man who makes comments of
a sexual nature towards a service provider may get laughs from his friends. The
laughs that he gets will reinforce this form of anti-social behaviour. For this to stop
he would have to mix with people who did not find this impressive he would then
not receive the attention required to repeat this behaviour.
This perspective helps carers to understand antisocial behaviour and helps them to
be able to manage it i.e. rewarding pleasant behaviours and ignoring or punishing
unpleasant ones If the cooperative behaviour is rewarded, then the antisocial
behaviour is unlikely to return.
N e g a t i v e This is where you

reinforceme take away
nt
something
unpleasant to
strengthen a
behaviour.
Negative reinforcement is less likely to be used at a day care setting , but here is an
example of how it could be implemented:

punishment add something
unpleasant to
weaken a
behaviour.
Positive punishment is even more unlikely to be used. The only form of positive
punishment would be disappointment from a service provider to a service user if
they have acted inappropriately e.g. having a food fight. Any other form of positive
punishment in a day care setting would be regarded as abuse.

punishment take away
something
pleasant to
weaken a
behaviour
E.g. Did not help clean away the dinner plates so they had to wash up.
Ethel loves gardening and the gardening needs to be done at the day-care setting
by service users (as one of the activities offered at the setting). They key worker
says to Ethel you dont have to do the washing up (taking away something
unpleasant) if you help Miriam with the gardening today (something that you want
doing and Ethel likes)
See column to the left positive punishment will only be effective if it is

outweighed with reinforcement i.e. next time the service user is eating properly
they get praised for it. This praise will need to be consistent to stop the food fight
from happening again.
Because they are adults the negative punishment cannot be applied often. If they
were to apply it frequently they would be bordering on abuse. (The practitioner can
only take away their time and if it is appropriate to the behaviour being punished)
[28]
Provision for needs to be met in day care settings cont...

B e h a v i o u r Basically, you start with a very low The behaviour of service users can be changed by behaviour
shaping
criteria and gradually increase your modification techniques.
criteria until you reach your target
behavior. For example, you could first The key to successful reinforcement behaviour modification
teach a horse to approach a trailer, and techniques is consistency. It is necessary for the teacher to
then teach it to put 2 feet in the trailer, follow through on the established reinforcement schedule
then 4 feet, and then walk to the front without exception.
of the trailer. By breaking the behavior
down into small steps, you can create a Behaviour modification techniques could be used with teaching
new behavior without anything ever a service user to knit.
becoming too difficult or scary for the The person who is the leader (the service provider), must
horse.
define clearly what it is the service user needs to learn and
how the individual is to show that the learning has taken place.
The stages that take place in this type of learning are:
Setting the goal i.e. making a scarf

Establishing the students operant level (what do they
need to learn and what do they already know)
Using reinforcement to strengthen or condition
behaviour i.e. always reinforce new steps in the
knitting process
Withhold reinforcement until new things are learnt in
the knitting process or extinguish other individual
behaviour i.e. do not reinforce mistakes in the scarf by
providing attention to them.
Generalisati In generalization, a behavior may be When the service user cuddles another service user and gets a
on
performed in more than one situation. welcoming response they may then try and cuddle all service
For example, the rat who receives food users (the problem with this is that some people do not like to
by pressing one lever, may press a be tactile.
second lever in the cage in hopes that it
will receive food.
Discriminati Learning that a behavior will be Service users will seek financial help at a day acre setting and
on
rewarded in one situation, but not will receive the help they require, this will reinforce them to
another e.g. children will be rewarded seek advice again. The problem is that day care centres do not
when greeting friends and family but provide advice on all life matters and service users need to
not strangers
learn this.
Extinction
The elimination of the behavior by Service users who are not reinforced consistently will end up
stopping reinforcement of the behavior. extinguishing their behaviours e.g. Ethel is scared of having her
For example, a rat who received food feet done but has been praised for visiting the chiropodist in
when pressing a bar, receives food no the last two weeks every day at the day care centre. The
longer, will gradually decrease the following week she receives no praise or encouragement and
amount of lever presses until the rat decides to stop going.
eventually stops lever pressing.
From this we learn that behaviours we want to encourage in
day care settings must always be reinforced.
[29]
Provision for needs to be met in residential and nursing homes

Principles of
o p e r a n t
conditioning
Description of
principle

reinforcement add something
pleasant to
strengthen a
behaviour
Positive behaviour like acting independently is rewarded greatly in residential homes.

Prosocial behaviours develop because they are rewarded e.g. residents who help with
living duties i.e. washing clothes in a residential setting will receive praise and likeability. This will make them feel good and they will want to help with the living duties
on a weekly basis.
Calm and cooperative behaviour is rewarded in day-care settings with positive
responses from the care workers such as praise and thanks.
The residents are rewarded with days out when they are being cooperative which
reinforces this behaviour.
Older people can be reinforced with activities which they enjoy e.g. bingo or playing
cards.
Some people reward antisocial behaviour e.g. an old man who makes comments of a
sexual nature towards a service provider may get laughs from his friends. The laughs
that he gets will reinforce this form of anti-social behaviour. For this to stop he would
have to mix with people who did not find this impressive he would then not receive
the attention required to repeat this behaviour.
This perspective helps carers to understand antisocial behaviour and helps them to be
able to manage it i.e. rewarding pleasant behaviours and ignoring or punishing
unpleasant ones If the cooperative behaviour is rewarded, then the antisocial
behaviour is unlikely to return.

reinforcement take away
something
unpleasant to
strengthen a
behaviour.
Negative reinforcement is less likely to be used at a residential setting , but here is an

example of how it could be implemented:

punishment
add something
unpleasant to
weaken a behaviour.
Positive punishment is even more unlikely to be used. The only form of positive
punishment would be disappointment from a service provider to a service user if they
have acted inappropriately e.g. having a food fight. Any other form of positive
punishment in a residential setting would be regarded as abuse.
Ethel loves gardening and the gardening needs to be done at the by service users (as
one of the activities offered at the setting). They key worker says to Ethel you dont
have to do the washing up (taking away something unpleasant) if you help Miriam
with the gardening today (something that you want doing and Ethel likes)
See column to the left positive punishment will only be effective if it is outweighed
with reinforcement i.e. next time the service user is eating properly they get praised
for it. This praise will need to be consistent to stop the food fight from happening
again.
punishment
take away
something pleasant
to weaken a
behaviour
e.g. Taking away their leisure activity because they attacked the practitioner.
Because they are adults the negative punishment cannot be applied often. If they
were to apply it frequently they would be bordering on abuse. (The practitioner can
only take away their time and if it is appropriate to the behaviour being punished)
[30]
Provision for needs to be met in residential and nursing homes cont...
B e h a v i o u r Basically, you start with a Token Economy

shaping
v e r y l o w c r i t e r i a a n d Behaviour is rewarded with tokens. These can be exchanged
gradually increase your for something the individual wants. Used mostly in
criteria until you reach your institutional settings e.g. the psychiatric section in a
t a r g e t b e h a v i o u r. F o r residential home e.g. taking a shower is rewarded with 5
example, you could first tokens and washing up is rewarded with 5 tokens. The
teach a horse to approach a service user can now watch a video which costs 10 tokens.
trailer, and then teach it to This is very effective for managing patients and improving
put 2 feet in the trailer, then their self-care and social skills.
4 feet, and then walk to the Evaluation
front of the trailer. By

Requires close monitoring of patient behaviour for it
breaking the behaviour
to work sometimes this is not possible.
down into small steps, you

The patients tend to become very dependant on the
can create a new behaviour
system, making it difficult for them once they leave
without anything ever
the institution
becoming too difficult or
scary for the horse.
Generalisati I n g e n e r a l i s a t i o n , a When the service user cleans and organises all the lounges
on
b e h a v i o u r m a y b e as they were rewarded with some flowers for cleaning and
performed in more than one tidying the lounge they usually sit in.
situation. For example, the
rat who receives food by
pressing one lever, may
press a second lever in the
cage in hopes that it will
receive food.
Discriminati Learning that a behaviour Care workers could praise service users for sticking to
on
will be rewarded in one routines and going to sleep at bedtime although they should
situation, but not another not be praised for sleeping in the day.
e.g. children will be
rewarded when greeting
friends and family but not
strangers
Extinction
The elimination of the Residents who are not reinforced consistently will end up
b e h a v i o u r b y s t o p p i n g extinguishing their behaviours e.g. Jack is scared of having a
r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e bath (due to a recent hip operation) but has been praised for
behaviour. For example, a having a bath twice a week every day in the home. The
rat who received food when following week he receives no praise or encouragement and
pressing a bar, receives food decides to stop having a bath his fear of damaging his hip
no longer, will gradually returns.
decrease the amount of
lever presses until the rat From this we learn that behaviours we want to encourage in
e v e n t u a l l y s t o p s l e v e r residential care settings must always be reinforced.
pressing.
[31]
Application of Vygotskys constructivist approach to Care Settings

Task: use the information on page 13-14 to apply Vygotskys theory to an early years
setting.
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[32]
Application of Eriksons psychodynamic approach to Care Settings

Task: use the information on page 5-8 to apply Eriksons theory to health, social
care and an early years setting.
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[33]
ATTACHMENT
You need to understand the importance of bonding

(attachment) between a child and their primary carer as
initially studied by Bowlby and how this may relate to the
psychological perspective of Freud and Erikson.
Attachment is an emotional bond to another person.
Psychologist John Bowlby was the first attachment
theorist, describing attachment as a "lasting
psychological connectedness between human
beings" (Bowlby, 1969, p. 194). Bowlby believed that
the earliest bonds formed by children with their
caregivers have a tremendous impact that continues
throughout life.
According to Bowlby, attachment also serves to keep
the infant close to the mother, thus improving the
child's chances of survival.
The central theme of attachment theory is that
mothers who are available and responsive to their
infant's needs establish a sense of security in their
children. The infant knows that the caregiver is
dependable, which creates a secure base for the child
to then explore the world.
Problems with Attachment

What happens to children who do not form secure
attachments? Research suggests that failure to form secure
attachments early in life can have a negative impact on
behavior in later childhood and throughout the life. Children
diagnosed with oppositional-defiant disorder (ODD), conduct
disorder (CD) or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
frequently display attachment problems, possibly due to early
abuse, neglect or trauma. Clinicians suggest that children
adopted after the age of six months have a higher risk of
attachment problems.
While attachment styles displayed in adulthood are not
necessarily the same as those seen in infancy, research
indicates that early attachments can have a serious impact on
later relationships. For example, those who are securely
attached in childhood tend to have good self-esteem, strong
romantic relationships and the ability to self-disclose to others.
As adults, they tend to have healthy, happy and lasting
relationships
[34]
When secure attachment is formed, this means:

More confidence to explore, solve problems and maintain interests
Enthusiasm persistence and cooperation
Greater happiness
Attentiveness
Willingness to participate in class
Higher grades at school
Greater empathy towards others
Social competence and skills
Higher self-esteem
Ability to form meaningful relationships with peers
Trusting in the world as a good place
Greater self-respect
Greater self-confidence and self-concept
Task: Explain how Bowlbys attachment theory relates to

the psychological perspective of Freud and Erikson.
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[35]
NATURE VS
NURTURE
People behave the way they do because they are animals who
act in accordance with their animal instincts and are determined
by their biology.
People behave the way they do because they are determined by
the things other people teach them, the things they observe
around them, and because of the different situations they are put
in.
Factors that affect the development of:
Behaviour
Personality
Language
Gender Roles
Behaviour:
Anti-social Behaviour
Pro-social behaviour
Cooperation
Working together
Helping and caring behaviours
In children this includes
sharing,
Taking turns, responding to the
needs of others
Difficulty in getting on with

others
Aggressive & disruptive, in
children this includes hitting,
bullying, teasing, verbal abuse.
Hostile
Uncooperative
Gender:
Skills & spatial ability (map

reading!)
Boys
More risk taking
More aggressive
More physical
Rough & tumble play
Better mathematical
Girls
Higher verbal ability
Higher spelling conversational
ability.
Less Physical
Caring less aggressive.
Gender cont:
Clear Biological differences
Occupational choice differs
Playtime differs in children
To what extent do media stereotypes affect the
Personality:
A unique set of characteristics
Relatively stable over time
What factors affect how our personality is shaped?
[36]
Nature Vs Nurture cont...

Nature: Genetics
Family traits, physical appearance, similarities, height, hair colour, eye colour
Genotype
The genetic pattern an individual inherits.
Every human has 23 pairs of chromosomes, half inherited from the mother and half from the
Father. These combine to form a UNIQUE gene pattern known asyour GENOTYPE.
Evidence to support the nature argument:
Dr Thomas Bouchard of the Minnesota Centre for Twin Adoption Research concluded that genetic
factors play a huge part in human behaviour. The study focussed on identical twins who had been
raised apart from each other.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0yTCShemS_0&feature=player_embedded (2.30 mins)
http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/09/27/sunday/main3304885.shtml (paper article)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1gwnzW4jOMI (10 mins)
Genetic patterned behaviour behaviours we are born with.
Genetic patterned behaviour:Attachment in humans, Imprinting in

animals both behaviours promote survival
MATURATION a timetable of development built into a persons genotype

Walking
Language
Puberty
These are all UNIVERSAL and happen
at roughly the same time. Variation in
timings may be due to environmental
influences e.g. nutrition.
[37]
Genes alone do not predict development.

Mental illness & Environment
Cognitive Development &
Deprivation
Obesity & Envirnoment
Environmental Factors:
Please see the previous sections to recap on how these
factors affect human development.
Income
Housing
Nutrition (pre and post natal)
Education
Access to health facilities
Parenting Styles
Play Opportunities
Weather
Interaction with others
PARENTING STYLE:
FEATURES
Authoritarian
Cold
Child has little choice
Unaffectionate
Strict rules
Frequent punishment
Democratic
Emotionally Warm
Encourages Self-reliance
Frequent guidance
Explains rules
Punishes serious wrong-doings
Shares decision making
Permissive
Little guidance
Emotionally warm
Does not apply rules or allows the child to do what he/she wants
Inconsistent
[38]
Summary
Because someone is born into a low income environment, does NOT mean they will
grow up to be poor & disadvantaged.
It is important to understand that a persons sense of SELF influences their
development and the CHOICES they make gives them more CONTROL over their
environment.
A persons ability is strongly influenced by their GENOTYPE and the ENVIRONMENT.
Task: CASE STUDY

Rachels parents have always been interested in music. Her mother is a music teacher at the local
school and teaches the piano to pupils at home. Rachels father has a large collection of records
and CDs of all kinds of music and conducts a local choir in his spare time. There is always music
playing in the house, coming from the CD player or the piano. Rachel, at 6 is already showing a real
interest in music. When listening to music, she can repeat the rhythm and comments on changes in
tone and pitch. She can already play a few simple tunes on the piano and is interested in the way
that tunes can be written down on sheet music
1)
Do you think Rachels musical ability is genetically determined?
2) What factors in Rachels nurture do you think contributed to her enjoyment of music?
3) What factor do you think is the most important?
4) Thinking of two more possible examples write down arguments for
and against both the nature
& nurture argument
5) Why do you think the nature-nurture debate is relevant to those who work in health and social
care?
[39]
LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT
In order to further appreciate the nature vs. nurture debate, you

need to understand the role of the behavioural and social learning
perspectives in the development of language and how theorists
such as Chomsky and Lennerberg view language development
biologically.
You need to know the study of feral/severely deprived

children.
THE STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
As children we learn to speak in stages with increasing complexity.

Below are the stages (copied from a mark scheme):
Stages
The pre-linguistic
Sounds, noises, gurgling etc. Baby listens intently, responds to tone of
voice, recognises familiar voices. By 9 months repeats sounds, uses
appropriate gestures. Babbling takes on tune of language they are
hearing.
Holophrase (to approx 12 months)
Single words with a range of meanings, used with purpose. Cooperation develops in conversations and in following instructions.
Tuneful babble develops into expressive jargon voice goes up and
down appropriately
Telegraphic (to approx 2 years)
Abbreviated phrases used with meaning e.g. doggie gone.
Understands wide range of vocabulary and uses around 50 words.
Uses own name and names objects and actions. Rapid development
of vocabulary and understanding. Enjoys songs, conversations,
rhymes etc.
Developing grammar (between approx 2-3 years)
Plurals, pronouns, adjectives, tenses etc. Complex sentence structure,
examples of virtuous errors e.g. I goed to the park. Enjoys
conversations and asking questions.
Extended use of language (between 3-4 years)
Can use past, present and future more easily. Enjoys jokes, nonsense
words etc. Will imitate swearing. Will learn their address, age etc.
Creative and fluent language (from 4 years)

The immediate culture influences the use of language adapting to
conventions, roles of language etc. Children are beginning to
understand that different audiences and situations require different
ways of talking.
[40]
Language Theories
Nature Nurture Debate: A look at Language Development
The nature nurture debate surrounds whether human behaviour is the product of inherited factors or the
result of social inuences. Many theorist put forward evidence to support their claims, for nature they
examine language development and other hormonal and chemical processes in the body and inherited
tendencies. Proponents of the nurture side of the argument make reference to the eects of the
environment on human development, they support view by examining cases of isola/ons such as the feral
children, the impact of socializa/on, language development etc. A more sound approach seem to be a
combina/on of biology and the environment of human development be it language or other aspects of our
development.
Nature: Biological Theory

This theory was popularized by Noam Chomsky who proposed at language learning is biological.
Chomsky proposed that all humans have a language acquisition device (LAD). The LAD contains
knowledge of grammatical rules common to all languages (Shaffer, et.al, 2002).The LAD also
allows children to understand the rules of whatever language they are listening to. Chomsky also
developed the concepts of transformational grammar, surface structure, and deep structure.
Transformational grammar is grammar that transforms a sentence. Surface structures are words
that are actually written. Deep structure is the underlying message or meaning of a sentence.
(Matlin, 2005). In essence his theory suggest that the ability to learn language is biological, he
supports this argument by noting that the brain structure of babies helps them to be receptive to
learn language easily. In other words people (babies) are wired to learn language.
This theory is supported by Lenneberg (1964), who states that rst /me language acquisi/on is
matura/onal or dependent on age; he calls this the cri/cal period hypothesis. This theory suggests that
people could only acquire or master language at a certain age. For example, he states that because of the
way in which the brain works, it is only possible for language to be mastered before puberty, aQer this
period language may be learned but it will not be fully mastered. [The cri(cal period hypothesis states that
the rst few years of life is the crucial (me in which an individual can acquire a rst language if presented
with adequate s(muli. If language input doesn't occur un(l a=er this (me, the individual will never achieve a
full command of language especially gramma(cal systems.]
This theory is supported by using cases of isolaCon, feral children etc. An interes/ng example of this is the
case of Genie, also known as "The Wild Child". A thirteen-year-old vic/m of lifelong child abuse, Genie was
discovered in her home on November 4, 1970, strapped to a po^y chair and wearing diapers. She appeared
to be en/rely without language. Her father had judged her retarded at birth and had chosen to isolate her,
and so she had remained un/l her discovery. It was an ideal opportunity to test the theory that a nurturing
environment could somehow make up for a total lack of language past the age of 12. She was unable to
acquire language completely, although the degree to which she acquired language is disputed.
Further support for Lennebergs view that language learning is biological is found in second language
acquisi/on, which explains that children learn second language at a faster rate than adults. In fact, children
will master a second language, while and adult may never be able to do so. Children who learn second
language are generally more uent than adults.
[41]
CriCcisms of the biological theory:

Robertson (2002) noted that factors other than age may prevent adults from learning a second language
as uently as children. These factors are environmental and may include: levels of personal mo/va/on,
anxiety, /me etc.
Theories like Skinner also maintain that language acquisi/on is social and learned through reinforcement.
Nurture: The Behaviourist theory

This theory have consistently attack the view that language acquisition is biological. The Learning
perspective argues that children imitate what they see and hear, and that children learn from
punishment and reinforcement. (Shaffer,Wood,& Willoughby,2002).
The main principle of operant conditioning, as defined by Skinner is positive and negative
reinforcement. Reinforcement is the process in which a behaviour is strengthened, and thus,
more likely to happen again. Positive Reinforcement is making a behaviour stronger by following
the behaviour with a pleasant stimulus. For example, a rat presses a lever and receives food.
Negative Reinforcement is making a behaviour stronger by taking away a negative stimulus. For
example, a rat presses a lever and turns off the electric shock.
Skinner viewed babies as empty vessels which language had to be put in to. He said children
learn language from their environment and consequences of their actions (a nurture view of
language). According to Skinner (1957), children initially produce sounds at random and the
reinforcement of appropriate sounds results in the production of recognisable words.
Skinner accepted pre-linguistic vocalisations such as cooing and babbling were probably
inborn, he argued that adults shape the babys sound into words by reinforcing those which
resemble real words. He would suggest that the child will not progress from babbling to
language unless the parents shape the childs language behaviour.
Methods of reinforcement includes: touch, attention and feeding e.g., mum can I have a
glass of water please
After rewarding vocalisations for a while, parents become used to a childs babbling and pay less
attention to it. This motivates the infant to vary the babbling. Sometimes, by accident, the child
produces more recognisable speech sounds e.g. if an infant suddenly said Dadadada, parents
might respond excitedly to this, thinking that the child is trying to say the word Daddy. The
response reinforces the childs production of this type of speech sound. Other sounds that are
less like actual speech tend to be ignored.
However, parents soon get bored by repetitions of Dadadada, and this motivates the child to
modify such sounds until the shaping process results in recognisable words. This process
continues, resulting in sentences of increasing complexity and grammatical correctness.
In addition, the use of language is rewarded when a child asks for something and as a result,
succeeds in getting it.
[42]
Another important feature of Skinners theory is the idea that children imitate speech sounds and
words spoken by caregivers and, provided this imitation is rewarded, learning will take place.
This is how children learn new words. However, this theory assumes that without reinforcement,
imitation will not result in learning. This is a rather unconvincing explanation for several reasons:
Some parents pay very little attention to the vocalisation of their infants, who still develop
language despite this could use Chomsky (the biological approach here)
Shaping (as described above) is a very lengthy process, whereas a childs language
development, particularly during the second year of life is rapid
Observational studies of parent-child conversations (Brown and Hanlon, 1970) show that
parents rarely reinforce correct grammar in a childs speech, but instead tend to focus on
the truthfulness or accuracy of statements. This makes it less likely that shaping enables
children to learn grammar.
The theory assumes that imitation without reinforcement will not lead to learning (explain
Banduras theory of language to show that this is unlikely)
Nurture: Bandura
Social learning theory suggests that learning can take place in several ways. As a result of
reinforcement, by modelling or/and by extracting cognitions from observed examples of
behaviour.
Children clearly observe and imitate the language behaviour they hear. An infants use of
vocabulary, for example, is similar to that of parents and siblings. Accent too, is strongly
influenced by the accent a child most commonly hears. For example, a child who grows up
speaking English with a Welsh accent and then moves to Somerset at the age of 10 is likely to
develop a West Country accent through contact with peers at school (imitation).
Young children begin to use grammar in the telegraphic speech stage. However, they are not
taught the rules of grammar. Instead, they extract from them examples they hear. Foe example
one simple grammatical rule is that nouns can be nade plural by adding an s. Children hear
adults refer to one house and several houses, one car and several cars. Childrens extraction of
this rule is most noticeable when they apply it to that small group of nouns to which the rule does
not apply, such as sheep, mouse man and woman. If a child says look sheeps, adults might
laugh at this apparently silly mistake. However, the mistake only occurs because the child is
applying the usual rule for making plurals (extracting cognitions).
There is no doubt that social learning makes an important contribution to language acquisition.
However, it is not a complete explanation. The speed at which infants acquire language suggests
that there is a genetic predisposition for this. Furthermore, the sequence of stages of language
development are similar in children all over the world again supporting the language
acquisition is innate.
[43]
Complete the table below:

Theory
Nature
1. Chomsky - LAD
Examples
Evidence for Both
1. Children everywhere say mama or da 1. Evidence from twin studies suggests

da as their rst words
that even if children are born with the
ability to develop language they s/ll have
to be taught.
2.
2.
2.
3.
3.
3.
A p p l i c a C o n o f
Theories
Nurture
1.Skinner
1. Skinner- children learn language 1. Within the family parents praise

because it is reinforced through children when they speak correctly. E.g. 2 Applica/on of Banduras theory in
they may say well done.
praise.
residen/al care sekng. (How might new
.
2.Bandura:
observa/on and imita/on/copying of
behaviour
2.
- choose role models who can be
iden/ed with
- low self esteem can lead to greater
imita/on
- vicarious reinforcement increases
3.
likelihood of imita/on
- reward must be no/ceable
- experimental work based on Bobo
doll
3. Vygotsky:
! emphasises social interac/on/
importance of adults or more
knowledgeable others
! language is the driving force
behind cogni/ve development
! pre-intellectual language and pre-
intellectual thought operate
separately before 2 3
! social linguist stage - language
only used for social reasons (mee/ng
needs)
! at age 2 3 language and thought
interact - controlling own
behaviour and thinking crea/ng
self-talk (oQen spoken out loud,
occurs during play)
! from age 7 self- talk becomes
silent inner speech
! social processes shape language/
language shapes thought
! sensa/on and a^en/on are innate
! the process of learning s/mulates
a mo/ve to learn more
! zone of proximal development
the distance between the childs
current and poten/al ability
residents change their behaviour?)
observe behaviour of others

par/cularly that which receives
approval of those in charge
iden/fy those they are most

like, those they wish to be like/
be friends
with
imitate behaviour that gains

approval e.g. from carers/
other residents
iden/fy with in-group e.g.

popular residents who have
friends/take
part in social ac/vi/es
iden/fy the out-group e.g.

residents who are aggressive/
rude/selsh/uncoopera/ve
(or vice versa resident may

wish to iden/fy with the
unsocial residents)
wait to see what others will do

before taking ac/on e.g.
making a complaint -
bystander apathy
Changes in behaviour:
t in with rou/ne
take part in social ac/vi/es
co-operate with others carers

and other residents
join in group ac/vi/es/

conversa/ons e.g. following
par/cular TV programmes/
discussing families/health etc
take up new hobbies/ac/vi/es

to become part of group
become more nega/ve/

complaining/argumenta/ve/
aggressive if others take this
approach
3.PuOng Vygotsky into pracCce:
Useful:
! emphasises role of teacher in being
able to interact
[44]
Factors that promote Language Development

Babies need to be spoken to and communicated with. Use of Baby Talk Register (BTR), (motherese/
fatherese) high pitched, slow and repetitive with a pattern of conversation ie pausing for
response from baby (smile, frown, quietening, waving) then responding and continuing babies need
to hear speech, language, conversation going on around them
Language needs to be put into context use of gestures, commentary on what is happening
Babies need to be encouraged to respond positive feedback given to early attempts
Babies need to have opportunities for individual focus and attention eye contact, facial expression
etc (hearing TV etc does not stimulate language development)
Children need to be given opportunities to practice language in a supportive environment, listened
to, allowed to make mistakes, encouraged to ask questions etc
Children need to be given opportunities to practice language in a supportive environment, listened
to, allowed to make mistakes, encouraged to ask questions etc
Social factors influence language development through exposure to wide vocabulary, different uses
of language etc Bernsteins restricted and elaborated language codes
Reading and story telling contributes to development of understanding of grammar, use of language
etc
Factors that promote Language Development

Lack of stimulation not being spoken to, listened to, read to
Deprivation and neglect extreme cases of isolation, poor parenting,
Disruption, frequent changes of carer linked to being in foster care
Lack of opportunity to practice noisy environment, surrounded by TV,
music, lack of specific conversation with child
Excessive correction, stress, pressure leading to anxiety in use of language
Disability visual and hearing impairment. Learning difficulties. Facial
deformity, poor muscle control et
[45]

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September 2012

F920: UNDERSTANDING HUMAN

Factors influencing human

The application of theories to aid the understanding of

Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis

Human development is affected by many factors which may be

You will need to

Genetic influences (choose two):

Influences of the physical environment:

Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis

Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis

Some theorists believe that human development proceeds in stages.

Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis

You will need to

The Psychodynamic Perspective: Erikson

Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis

Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion

Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair

The Biological perspective: Eysneck

Personality development is inuenced by the _____________ and body ______________. Biological

According to Eysenck criminal behaviour is particularly associated with high levels of

Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis

In regards to ___________ personality, it is hard to determin _________ and __________for

Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis

The Humanistic Perspective: Maslow

esteem, love and other social needs

Physical and Physiological needs

Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis

Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that --------------------------------------is based on

1. ------------------------------- air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.

Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis

The Constructivist Perspective: Vygotsky

Application of Vygotskys theory

Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis

The Behavioural Perspective: Skinner

Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis

Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis

Social Learning approach

Steps in observational learning:

Behaviour is modelled by a role model, e.g. parent, friend or celebrity

Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis

APPLICATION OF THEORIES TO HEALTH, SOCIAL CARE

Banduras modification of behaviour

Reward any positive behaviour that this

Try to ensure that the role models

Application of Maslows Humanistic

Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis

they should also encourage residents to

Complete the table below

CLIENT GROUP THEY

HOW THEY MEET THE PIES NEEDS OF THE CLIENT GROUPS

Application of Banduras Social Learning theory to care settings

Provision for needs to be met in

Provision for needs to be met in

Personal support, supervision, advice, chiropody,

Day care centres encourage independence in

The way the early years workers eat their

Personality development is inuenced by the _ and body __. Biological

In regards to _______ personality, it is hard to determin _ and ______for