Pool Handbook

Pool Operators Handbook
Pool Operators
Handbook
Disclaimer
The information in this Handbook is advisory in nature. The Pool Operators Handbook
is intended to provide information and guidelines for the operation of swimming pools
used by the public. It is not intended to replace or override legislation.
Pool operators are required to adhere to and consult all relevant acts, regulations,
codes of practice, standards and guidelines, as well as industry publications,
for additional information. It is the pool operators responsibility to keep abreast of,
follow and have copies of relevant legislation and regulations. Many of these are listed
in the Bibliography, but operators should be aware that these may be under review at
the time of printing this Handbook. This Handbook should not be used in place of the
appropriate legislation, but alongside those statutes. Failure to meet reasonable
standards in the provision of a safe environment for the public may carry heavy
penalties, regardless of pool operators following the guidelines in
this Handbook.
Department of Human Services Victoria 2000
This work is copyright and if reproduced reference must be cited as follows:
Pool Operators Handbook. Victorian Government Publishing Service 2005.
ISBN 073 1160 703
This document has been published by the Department of Human Services Victoria,
August 2000. Reprinted September 2002, June 2005.
www.health.vic.gov/environment/water/swimming.htm
All rights reserved. Except for the purposes of education, fair dealing and
use within the intended environment, no portion of this document should
be reproduced or copied for any purposes, including general exhibition,
lending, resale and hire.
(0851000)
Pool Operators Handbook iii
Acknowledgments
The Pool Operators Handbook has been developed from the generous contributions
of a number of experts in the Victorian aquatic industry through a committee chaired
by the Victorian Aquatic Industry Council. The contributors are:
Geoff Bell
Leisure Management and Marketing
Joe Calello
Roejen Services
Nicky Crawshaw
Australian Physiotherapy Association
Kerry Crossley
Aqua Science Consultants
Laurence Duggan
MRW Australia
Norman Farmer
RLSSAV
Derek Lightbody
Department of Human Services, Environmental Health Division
Greg Leayr
Roejen Services
Colin Long
Local Government Professional Association
Darryn McKenzie
Aqua Science Consultants
Jenni Maclean
Victorian Aquatic Industry Council (VICSWIM)
James Nightingale
Leisure Management and Marketing
Warwick Waters
RLSSAV
The Pool Operators Handbook is based on the Pool Water Treatment Advisory Group
(PWTAG) 1995 Pool Water Guide. Where appropriate, text has been extracted from this
publication and the Development Committee acknowledges the permission granted
by the PWTAG for this use.
iv Pool Operators Handbook
Preface
What is a healthy swimming pool? A healthy swimming pool is obviously one that
contains water free from disease-causing organisms and bacteria, has clear and
sparkling water, with well-maintained surrounds. It should be pleasant to the senses.
Well-managed swimming pools are healthy environmentsthere is negligible risk of
infection or illness. But healthy pools are more than just that. Swimming pools are
deeply connected with our culture, our dreams of having a backyard pool, a poolside
holiday, achieving personal fitness or being an Olympic champion.
For many communities, particularly in rural areas, the public pool is in essence the
home pool, the place of meeting friends or of making a hot summers day bearable.
Pool users can receive many health and social benefits from recreational or therapeutic
bathing, as well as competitive swimming.
Holiday makers often choose a particular caravan park or a hotel because it has
a swimming pool or a spa pool. They expect to be able to use them at their leisure,
and that they will be in pristine condition. The operations of tourism accommodation
businesses are often judged by the way that their pools are managed.
In order to maintain healthy water and an inviting environment, maintaining the pool
structure, and ensuring there is reliable and efficient plant and equipment, is essential.
Pool operation and pool management is a challenging profession. The personnel are
entrusted with an important responsibility. Investment in staff development through
training is essential, and underpins sound plant and equipment.
Newer technologies are being demanded by pool users to improve the chemical
quality of pool water, particularly in the indoor environment. There are many new water
treatments being marketed, some of which may have a useful application-and others
which are either inappropriate or not effective.
The Department of Human Services approached the Victorian Aquatic Industry
Council in 1998 with a view to producing a document that would not only support
the achievement of water treatment standards required to comply with the Health
Regulations, but would be more holistic in its outlook. A diverse committee of
professionals with pool operations, pool management, public health, pool user and
pool service backgrounds was formed to collaborate and produce this Handbook.
We believe it will serve the industry well.
I hope that this Pool Operators Handbook will provide guidance on pool water
treatment and associated pool management issues to operators, owners, proprietors,
body corporate managers, local government authorities and the various pool industry
service providers.
Finally, I thank the contributing authors and their respective organisations, together
with the Chair and administrative support of the Victorian Aquatic Industry Council,
for bringing this Handbook together.
Dr Robert Hall
Director, Public Health/Chief Health Officer
Department of Human Services
Pool Operators Handbook v
Contents
Disclaimer
ii
Acknowledgments
iii
Preface
iv
1. Introduction
Background to the Handbook
Aims and Objectives
Who Should Use this Handbook?
What Types of Pools are Covered by this Handbook?
Staff and Responsibilities
Management Structure
Operating the Pool Environment
The Pool Operator
Acts, Regulations, Codes of Practice and Guidelines
A Brief List of Relevant Acts, Regulations and Codes of Practice
Safe Working Practices
Health (Infectious Diseases) Regulations 2001
Occupational Health and Safety Act 2004
Dangerous Goods Act 1985
SafetyMAP
10
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
10
Codes of Practice
11
Australian Standards
11
Guidelines for Safe Pool Operation (GSPO)
11
Audits
12
Environment Protection Authority
12
2. Infrastructure
13
Swimming Pool Design
14
Design Brief
14
Specialist Help
15
Choosing Water Treatment Specialists
17
Types of Pools
18
vi Pool Operators Handbook
3. Hygiene and Contamination
21
Pool Water Contamination
22
Sources of Contamination
22
Transmission of Infection
22
Infections and Conditions Associated with Pool Use
23
Summary
24
Emergency Procedures
25
Pool Hygiene and Cleaning
26
Public Education
26
Pool Users Personal Hygiene
26
Toilets
26
Hot Water Systems
26
Cleaning in and Around the Pool and Changing Rooms
27
Bottom of Pool
27
Emptying the Pool
27
4. Water Treatment
29
Choosing a Disinfectant
30
Choosing a Suitable Disinfectant
30
Chloramine Removal
33
Cyanuric Acid
34
Oxidation-Reduction Potential (ORP) as a Disinfection Parameter
35
Control of Algae
35
Unsuitable Disinfectants
35
Water Treatment Using Ozone and Ultraviolet Radiation
38
Ozone
38
Ultraviolet Radiation (UV)
40
Water Balance
41
pH
41
Total Alkalinity
41
Calcium Hardness
41
Temperature
41
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
41
Adjusting Water Balance Parameters
42
Calculating Water Balance
43
Dosage and Control Systems
44
Design of Dosage Systems
44
Points of Dosing
44
Control Systems
44
Safety
45
Sensors
45
Pool Operators Handbook vii
5. Monitoring Systems
47
Chemical Testing
48
Test Kits
48
Test Methods
48
Dilution of Samples
49
Chemical Limits
49
Keeping Records
49
Example Log Sheets
50
Chemical Limits Worksheet
50
Sample Pool Operator Log Sheet
51
Microbiological Monitoring
52
Appropriate Microbiological Testing
53
Assessing Microbiological Quality
53
Sampling Procedure
Documentation
54
6. Physical Management of Water
55
Water Circulation
56
Surface Water Draw-Off
56
Inlets and Outlets
57
Circulation Design
57
Filtration
59
Filtration Principles
59
Types of Filters
59
Specifications
60
The Sand Bed
60
The Limits of Filtration
60
Coagulation and Flocculation
61
Backwashing
61
Maintenance
62
Heating and Air Circulation
63
Pool Water Heating
63
Temperature
64
Pool Hall Ventilation and Air Circulation
64
Separate Areas
65
Sources of ventilation
65
Energy Management
65
viii Pool Operators Handbook
7. Maintenance
67
Maintenance Systems
68
Winterisation
68
Unattended Pools
69
Winter/Seasonal Maintenance Program
69
Problem Sorter
70
8. References
77
Glossary
78
Bibliography
80
Index
81
Pool Operators Handbook ix
Figures
Figure 1 Location of Safety Showers and Eye Wash Facilities
Figure 2 An Example of Hazchem Signage for Packaged Dangerous Goods
Figure 3 An Example of Hazchem Signage Bulk Dangerous Goods
Figure 4 Backwash Tank
12
Figure 5 Instantaneous Hot Water Systems
26
Figure 6 Chlorine Gas, Weight Scales and Regulator
31
Figure 7 Bulk Sodium Hypochlorite Container in Bun
31
Figure 8 Pool Water Treatment with Chlorine Disinfectant
32
Figure 9 Pool Water Treatment with Ozone and Hypochlorite
39
Figure 10 ORP Probes
39
Figure 11 Ozone Leak Detector
40
Figure 12 Ozone Off-Gas Destructor
40
Figure 13 Carbon Dioxide Tank
42
Figure 14 The Hazards of Poor Labelling
42
Figure 15 Metering Pump
44
Figure 16 Carbon Dioxide Controller
44
Figure 17 Erosion Canister (Erosion Feeder)
44
Figure 18 Pool Control Panel and Chemical Measuring Station
44
Figure 19 Chemical Sensors Installed in a Side-Stream Loop
46
Figure 20 Photometer
48
Figure 21 Comparator
48
Figure 22 Dry Reagents
48
Figure 23 Test Strips
48
Figure 24 Microbiological Sampling Technique
54
Figure 25 Wet Deck on a Modern Indoor Pool
56
Figure 26 Overflow Channel on an Older Outdoor Pool
56
Figure 27 Skimmer Box and Lint Trap
57
Figure 28 Three Circulation Options for a 25 m Pool
57
Figure 29 Medium Rate Pressure Filter for Larger Pool
59
Figure 30 Plant Room with Multiple Filters
59
Figure 31 High Rate Sand Filter For Spa or Small Pool
59
Figure 32 Old Style Gravity Sand Filter Beds and Backwash Channel
59
Figure 33 Filter Off-Gas Bleed and Collectors
60
Figure 34 Medium Rate Pressure Sand Filters Pressure Differential Gauges
60
Figure 35 Dosing Tanks with Mixers for Adding Coagulant
61
Figure 36 Pressure Differential Gauges
61
x Pool Operators Handbook
Tables
Table 1 Example Hazchem Codes
Table 2 Classes of Common Dangerous Goods Kept at Pools
10
Table 6 Four Main Sections of the MSDS
11
Table 7 Australian Standards
12
Table 8 Summary of the Characteristics of a Range of Pool Water Disinfectant
36
Table 9 SI Index of Factors
43
Pool Operators Handbook 1
1. Introduction
2 Pool Operators Handbook
Background to
the Handbook
Swimming in pool water or relaxing in a
spa should be a healthy and pleasant
exercise. A clear, safe, sparkling
swimming pool, without unpleasant
smell or taste, and free from harmful
microorganisms is the right of all users
and should be the objective of every
manager. However, in practice, achieving
this can be difficult. A multitude of
physical, chemical and microbiological
states change in a busy poolsome
in seconds, others in hours or days.
Only a trained pool operator can identify
and manage these changes.
This is the first edition of the Pool
Operators Handbook published for
use within Victoria. This Handbook
was originally modelled on the United
Kingdom Pool Water Guide produced by
the Pool Water Treatment Advisory Group
(PWTAG) in 1995. Where appropriate,
some text from that Guide has been
retained where it is currently applicable
to the Australian environment. Other
sections have been substantially
reworked to meet the needs of
Victorian operators.
This Handbook recognises the unique

needs of Victorian pool operators, and
has been written in consideration of the
types of equipment and treatment used,
the local regulatory environment and the
experience and expertise of the Victorian
Aquatic Industry Council (VAIC)
committee.
This Handbook has been prepared
in association with the VAIC by a
committee of industry professionals.
These professionals have backgrounds in
pool management, water treatment, pool
maintenance and service, hydrotherapy,
pool user groups and public health.
Aims and Objectives

The purpose of the Handbook is to
provide advice on the issues of pool
operation and water treatment, so that
pool operators will be encouraged to:
Follow safe working procedures
Maintain plant and equipment so that
it achieves its desired service life
Achieve regulatory compliance
and
Provide the best swimming or bathing
experience possible for the pool user.
Who Should Use this

Handbook?
This Handbook is intended to provide
advice and guidance on pool operation
and water treatment for a range of
managers and staff. These include:
Location of the Pool

The following sites are examples of
situations where the information in this
Guide should be applied to the pool:
Resorts hotels and motels
Caravan and camping parks
Pool operators
Backpackers hostels
Pool owners
Apartments
Pool managers
Retirement villages
Committees of management
Hospitals and hydrotherapy centres
Pool designers and consultants

Pool service companies
Gymnasiums, health and fitness

studios
Contract managers
Private clubs
Environmental health officers.
Schools and universities
What Types of Pools are

Covered by this Handbook?
This Handbook is intended for use
and application to all pools where
public are admitted to a poolas a
primary or additional service.
The Handbook is also intended to give
guidance to body corporates, retirement
village operators and private clubs whose
pools have similar operational demands
and water treatment requirements as a
public pool.
Much of this Handbook is based on the
workings of a medium-sized community
pool. However, the principles and
practices of monitoring and control apply
equally to all pools. The only difference
may be that the size of the plant is scaled
according to the size of the pool and
treatment needs.
Workplaces
Prisons
Swim schools
Sports and leisure centres
Community and municipal pools.
This Handbook is not aimed at
domestic backyard pools of single
dwelling properties used by the
occupying family.
Staff and
Responsibilities
Overview
Management Structure
There are many factors critical to

pool water quality and these are
studied in more detail later. They fall
into three groups: human contamination,
environment and design, construction
and operation.
Staff Needs Vary with Pool Size
Given these factorsany of which can

affect bathing conditions and become
a hazard to health-a pool or spa requires
proactive water quality management.
Human Contamination
Skin, throat and faecal bacteria,
body oils, cosmetics, ammonia and
nitrogenous matter from sweat, urine,
dirt, food, saliva and open infections.
Environment
Physical and chemical composition of
pool water, algae and fungi, gases formed
from chemical reactions, air and water
quality and pollution, humidity, sunlight,
evaporation.
Design, Construction and

Operation
Pool bathing load, turnover, dilution,
hydraulics, construction materials,
chemical conditioning, disinfectants,
dosing control, flocculants, filtration,
testing and interpretation.
The actual management structure will

vary according to the type of facility.
For example, a small hydrotherapy,
community or hotel pool will require
a small number of multi-skilled staff.
A large community swimming pool
complex will require a team of
specialised staff.
Training is Required for all Staff

Whether large or small, the maintenance
of the pool requires that all staff be
trained to understand and interpret
pool operations and water conditions.
Personnel should be trained in plant
operation and water treatment required
to maintain water quality. Where possible,
a manager or other person responsible
for water quality should be professionally
qualified.
As the size and complexity of the pool
increases, specialist staff are required.
In a large multi-facility site, the services
of qualified staff for day-to-day plant
operations are indispensable. Their
actions should be guided by documented
plant operation manuals, and
maintenance inspections schedules.
Peripheral Staff are

Also Important
Understanding the pool water treatment
process should not stop with the
appointment of management staff.
The actions of lifeguards and supervisors
also have an effect on the pool water.
Relevant staff should have an appropriate
understanding of basic water chemistry
to testing, water treatment, plant
operation and the general procedures
required to maintain good quality water.
Lifeguards may be required to conduct

regular and accurate water tests, provide
an hygienic pool area, ensure pre-swim
hygiene and respond to a soiling
incident. The supervisor should be
sufficiently familiar with water quality to
be able to correct a condition that could
lead to water quality deterioration. If the
pool water begins to lose clarity or fall
below the relevant standards set out in
the Regulations, the on-site supervisor
should be able to decide if bathing
should cease.
Management Responsibility
Managers responsible for large,
multi-purpose facilities may delegate
some of the day-to-day pool operation
to team members with appropriate skills.
Nevertheless, the manager still carries
the ultimate responsibility. Whether or
not the managers have hands-on skills,
they must have a good understanding
of the pool operations and be able to
spot problems and institute remedies.
For instance:
Water can be a vehicle for transmission
of diseasesee the chapter on
Pool Water Contamination.
Many microorganisms prefer a warm,
moist environment with an adequate
food source. A swimming pool with
poorly maintained water is a perfect
breeding ground.
Careless management of flocculants,
filtration, disinfection and chemical
balances can produce a degree of
turbidity (cloudiness) that obscures
swimmers and lifeguards vision of
the pool floor, even in shallow water.
Operating the
Pool Environment
The Pool Operator
Cost Pressures
A pool operator should be appointed

at each facility. This person should take
responsibility for the overall operation
of the pool plant and equipment and
ensure that appropriate operational and
maintenance activities are undertaken.
The pool operator should have a
comprehensive knowledge of relevant
statutes, regulations, codes and other
standards.
With increasing demands on public

and private expenditure, the competitive
tendering of public services and
increased awareness of conservation
issues, there is pressure to find more
cost-effective ways of operating
swimming pools. The costs of water,
energy, water treatment and disposal of
waste water are very real concerns for
managers; but where the consequences
of alterations and adaptations to limit
these costs are not fully understood,
disaster can follow.
Poor Training and Techniques

Can Increase Costs
In terms of capital expenditure, energy,
maintenance and day-to-day operation,
a swimming pool is an expensive item.
Managers and staff should be trained to
obtain maximum life from their facilities
and to operate them cost-effectively.
Lack of training and knowledge about
energy conservation and water treatment
systems can actually increase the cost
of operations dramatically. Poor use of
chemicals and methods may mean that
major items of plant, equipment and
buildings require early replacement.
This can even lead to the closure of
the facility.
Poor maintenance and operation
can often be attributed to a lack of
professional expertise or knowledge
(or possibly resources). Either way, it
represents a failure of management, and
may require the owners of pools, local
authorities, schools or private operators
to spend large amounts of money on
pool refurbishment, sometimes within
less than ten years of operation. This may
include new filters, plumbing, pumps,
tiling, grouting, calorifiers, steelwork in
the pool hall, heating and ventilation
plant, lighting and electrical work.
Responsibilities
In some pools that are open for long

hours each week, responsibility for the
daily operation of the plant may be
shared. The pool operator should ensure
that those left in charge have a working
knowledge of the Regulations and can
ensure that the treatment plant
continues to provide pool water that
meets these requirements. They should
also be able to identify problems and
know how to obtain corrective advice.
Additional training may be required to
ensure adequate understanding of the
statutory requirements.
Pool managers and owners should
ensure that appropriate staff
involved in water quality and plant
operation all have relevant training
and are competent to carry out the
required responsibilities.
Acts, Regulations,
Codes of Practice
and Guidelines
Overview
Information in this Handbook is advisory,
not mandatory. However, there may be,
in the future, a statutory requirement that
pool operators adhere to all relevant
guidelines and standards. In this case,
the Handbook would qualify as relevant.
Failure to meet reasonable standards in
the provision of a safe environment for
the public itself may carry heavy
penalties. Therefore, it is sound practice
to follow closely the guidelines contained
in this Handbook.
Much of the guidance is intended to
assist those responsible to meet the
requirements of the Health (Infectious
Diseases) Regulations, the Occupational
Health and Safety Act and the Dangerous
Goods Act. In the event of an accident,
the extent to which pool operators have
adhered to accepted guidelines will
determine the level of vulnerability to legal
action for negligence or public liability.
A Brief List of Relevant Acts,

Regulations and Codes of
Practice
Please note that some of these statutes
and regulations are under review.
They may in fact have their names or
titles changed. It is the responsibility of
the pool manager/owner to keep up to
date with the relevant Acts.
Health (Infectious Diseases)
Regulations 2001
Occupational Health and Safety Act
2004
SafetyMAP
Dangerous Goods (Storage and
Handling) Regulations 2000
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
Codes of Practice
Australian Standards.
These are discussed in detail below.
Pool operators are advised to

consult all appropriate acts,
regulations, codes of practice,
standards and guidelines, as well as
industry publications for additional
information. Many of these are listed
in the Bibliography, but operators
should be aware that these may be
under review at the time of printing
this Handbook. It is the pool
operators responsibility to keep
abreast of changes to legislation
and regulations.
Safe Working Practices

Apart from adherence to relevant Acts
and regulations, employers should
establish their own safety policy. This
should include written safe work practices,
in consultation with employees. The
written safety policy should include an
assessment of hazards associated with
all aspects of operation of the plant,
and precautions to control the risks.
Some hazards associated with pool
operation include:
Risks to employees or pool users
from chemicals used in disinfection
systems. These include: irritation of
skin or eyes; enhanced flammability
of materials due to disinfectants being
strong oxidising agents; and leaks of
toxic gases. The most serious risk is
of an uncontrolled escape of chlorine
gas following the incorrect fitting of
chlorine gas lines or the inadvertent
mixing of chlorine-based disinfectant
with acid.
Risks from murky water. As well as
indicating that water treatment and
quality is inadequate, murky water is a
safety hazard because it may harbour
microbiological contaminants that
cause disease and obscure
observance of pool users in difficulty.
Miscellaneous risks to employees,
including from work in confined spaces
or the use of electrical equipment.
Figure 1 Location of Safety Showers

and Eye Wash Facilities
Training Employees
Adequate training should be provided
to employees about all safety measures
and hazards. Records should be kept of
content and attendance at courses or
in-services. Training should:
Be related specifically to the operation
of the particular plant, hazards
associated with it and substances
used. Employees attention should
be drawn to any manufacturers
instructions, and copies made
conveniently available (for example,
they may be affixed to the plant itself).
Be provided for enough employees
to ensure that plant need never be
operated by untrained staff.
Include the use, care and maintenance
of personal protective equipment
(PPE).
Safety showers and eye wash facilities should

be located immediately adjacent to the
hazardous area, but not within the hazard.
Require those who have been trained

demonstrate that they can operate and
maintain the plant safely.

Regulations 2001
The Health (Infectious Diseases)
Regulations 2001 sets out the parameters
within which pools and spas where the
public are admitted must be maintained
to ensure safe water conditions for pool
users. This includes chemical and
microbiological levels, as well as
testing and recording requirements.
The Regulations also prescribe minimum
levels of water clarity.
Pool managers should ensure that
all staff involved in water quality and
plant operation have an appropriate
knowledge of and access to the
current Health Regulations.
A copy should be kept on-site.
Occupational Health and

Safety Act 2004
The objectives of the Occupational Health
and Safety Act are:
To secure the health, safety and
welfare of employees and other
persons at work.
To eliminate, at the source, risks to the
health, safety or welfare of employees
and other persons at work.
To ensure that the health and safety of
members of the public is not placed at
risk by the conduct of undertakings by
employers and self-employed persons.
To provide for the involvement
of employees, employers, and
organisations representing those
persons, in the formation and
implementation of health, safety
and welfare standards.
Adhering to the Occupational Health and
Safety Act includes protecting staff and
the public who work at or use a pool.
The manager should have the necessary
authority to implement reasonable
measures to ensure the premises are
safe, and all plant and substances are
operated, stored and used safely without
risks to health.
Identifying the hazards and by taking
precautions to control the risks helps
managers to reduce their liability.
Training, certification and record
keeping are fundamental in providing
a safe, healthy environmentand they
are the managers key to safeguarding
legal requirements and producing a
successful operation.
Obligations and Duties

Employers
The Occupational Health and Safety Act
sets out a number of specific duties for
employers. These include:
Providing and maintaining safe plant
and systems of work (for example,
regulating the pace and frequency
of work).
Arranging safe systems of work
in connection with the plant and
substances (for example, toxic
chemicals).
Providing a safe working environment
(for example, by controlling noise
levels).
Providing adequate welfare facilities
(for example, washrooms, lockers,
dining areas).
Providing adequate information on
hazards, as well as instruction, training
and supervision to employees, to
enable them to work safely.
Pool managers should ensure that
all staff, including those involved in
water quality and plant operation,
have an appropriate knowledge
of the requirements of the
Occupational Health and Safety Act.
Employees
Employees are required to:
Take reasonable care of their own
health and safety.
Take reasonable care for the health
and safety of anyone else who may be
affected by their acts or omissions at
the workplace.
Cooperate with their employer
with respect to any action taken
by the employer to comply with any
requirements imposed by or under
the Act.

The Dangerous Goods Act,
and in particular the Dangerous
Goods (Storage and Handling)
Regulations, apply to employers
whose business involves substances
hazardous to health.
Substances which are hazardous
to health include microorganisms,
by-products and any substances which
create the sort of hazard that might
come from a classified chemical.
Pool operators should therefore include
specific consideration of bacteria and
viruses, other pollutants and disinfection
by-products in planning storage and use
of dangerous goods. This includes many
disinfectants and other chemicals used
in and around a pool.
Employers and employees should have
easy access to copies of the relevant
legislation on the premises, as well as
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS).
A formal assessment of the dangerous
goods held at the workplace should
be conducted, and the health risks to
employees and anybody using the
premises assessed. This assessment
must be regularly reviewed and updated
if circumstances changefor example,
a change in the type of disinfectant
used, or method of its application.
Pool and contract managers should
ensure that all staff, including those
involved in water quality and plant
operation, have an appropriate
knowledge of the requirements of
the Dangerous Goods Act and the
Handling) Regulations.
Signage
The Dangerous Goods (Storage and
Handling) Regulations replaces the
Dangerous Substances (Placarding
of Workplaces) Regulations and the
Hazchem legislation made under the
Occupational Health and Safety Act.
These types of acts and regulations are
under constant review, and at the time
of printing this Handbook may have
changed, or had their names changed.
The purpose of the Hazchem part of the
Regulations is to ensure that in the event
of a fire or spillage involving dangerous
goods, the emergency services will be
better prepared and equipped to combat
any such incident.
The Regulations require that notices be
displayed at all workplaces if the quantity
of various classes of dangerous goods
that are kept exceed a prescribed
aggregate amount. This includes schools,
shops, factories, warehouses, laboratories,
hospitals and swimming pools.
Managers should ensure that an
assessment of their signage has been
conducted, so that they are confident
it meets current requirements. This will
depend on the quantity and type of
chemicals stored on the site.
Notices Required
Entrance Notices
If the prescribed aggregate quantity
of ANY one class of dangerous
goods at a workplace is exceeded,
then the workplace must be
provided with an outer warning
notice (HAZCHEM) at every road
and rail entrance to the workplace.
(See listing below.)
The are a number of exceptions.
These are:
1. In the case of a farm, or primary
or secondary school, the notice
is required only at the main road
entrance.
2. If the only dangerous goods which
exceed the prescribed aggregate
quantity is Liquefied Petroleum
Gas (LP Gas), in cylinders and kept
outside a building and connected
to consuming appliances within
the building.
3. If the only dangerous goods which
exceed the prescribed aggregate
quantities are substances stored in
or within the vicinity of a dwelling at
the workplace and are for use in or
on the dwelling.
Composite Warning Notices
If a workplace requires notices under the
above definition, then a Composite
Warning Notice is required for all storage
of dangerous goods. The Notice must be
one of the following:
a) At the entrance to any building or

room in which dangerous goods
are kept
and
b) Adjacent to any storage of
dangerous goods kept in the open.
2. In the case of bulk dangerous goods,
that is, a storage tank or bulk container,
a notice of the form shown in Figure 3
must be displayed on or adjacent to
the tank or bulk container.
Table 1 Example Hazchem Codes
Hazchem
Code
Meaning
2XE
Chlorine gas
Indicates that the emergency

services should use Fog to
combat the spill.
Indicates that emergency

services should use full
protective equipment,
including breathing
apparatus. They should
contain the dangerous goods
on-site, and seek to avoid
spillage into drains and
waterways.
Indicates that the officer in

charge of the emergency
should consider evacuation
of the site.
Hazchem Codes
1. The Hazchem Code provides advisory
information to the emergency services
personnel to enable them to take the
appropriate action to combat the
incident.
For example, the Hazchem Code for
chlorine gas is 2XE.
2. The Dangerous Goods Class Labels
are an international system of
identifying the primary hazard of
various substances. That is, whether
the substance is a gas, a flammable
liquid, a poison or corrosive
substance, etc. The class labels are
shown in the diamond on the right
hand side of any composite labels.
(See Figure 3 for an example.)
Figure 2 An Example of Hazchem

Figure 3 An Example of Hazchem
Signage for Packaged Dangerous Goods Signage Bulk Dangerous Goods
1. In the case of a storage of packaged

dangerous goods, a notice of the form
shown in Figure 2 must be displayed:
Hazchem codes must be displayed at the

entrance to any building or room in which
dangerous goods are kept and adjacent to any
storage of dangerous goods kept in the open.
Hazchem codes must be displayed on or

adjacent to the tank or bulk container.
Quantities of chemical
Schedule 2 of The Dangerous Goods
(Storage and Handling) Regulations
outlines the quantities of chemicals
stored that trigger the enforcement of
placcarding and manifest requirements.
The prescribed quantities may depend
on the packaging class.
How Close Together Should

Chemicals be Stored?
Separation Distances
Many chemicals can be dangerous if
stored too close to other dangerous
goods, or near public places. There may
be interactions and hazards involved.
For information on appropriate separation
distances, refer to the Dangerous Goods
(Storage and Handling) Regulations and
Workcover. A risk assessment approach
is prescribed by the Regulations.
SafetyMAP
The Victorian WorkCover Authority has
developed SafetyMAP as an audit tool
designed to assist organisations of all
sizes and functions improve their
management of health and safety.
The audit criteria within SafetyMAP
enable an organisation to:
Measure the performance of its health
and safety program
Implement a cycle of continuous
improvement
Benchmark its health and safety
performance
Gain recognition for the standards
achieved by its health and safety
management system.
Material Safety Data Sheets

(MSDS)
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) are
a key to working safely with chemicals.
MSDS are prepared by manufacturers
and importers for the chemicals they
produce or supply and are the key to
protecting the health and safety of
employees working with hazardous
chemicals.
An MSDS describes the chemical, and
any health hazards and precautions for
safe handling and use. The purpose of
the data sheet is to provide information
needed to safely use the substance in
the workplace. If the chemical is also a
dangerous good, an MSDS also provides
information about its classification,
United Nations numbers, packaging
group, chemical and physical properties,
storage, incompatible substances and
procedures for handling leaks or spills.
Are MSDS Compulsory?

Occupational Health and Safety
(Hazardous Substances) Regulations
require manufacturers and importers
of hazardous substances to ensure that
an MSDS is prepared for the substance
before it is first supplied for use at a
workplace. A supplier and manufacture
is also required to supply an MSDS
on request.
Employers must obtain an MSDS for
each hazardous substance they use.
The MSDS can be used to develop
ways of minimising exposure when
using the substance in workplace.
Worksafe Australias National Code of

Practice for the Preparation of Material
Safety Data Sheets provides guidance
on the format and content of an MSDS.
Pool managers and operators
should ensure that all appropriate
dangerous goods signage is
displayed. It is recommended that
signage be inspected by a qualified
OH&S Auditor to determine its
compliance.
Pool managers are encouraged to

develop and monitor systems of
operation which provide quality
management involving water quality
and plant operation.
Table 2 Classes of Common Dangerous Goods Kept at Pools
Class
Description
Common chemical
Class 2.2
Non Flammable, Non Toxic Gas
Carbon dioxide gas
Class 2.3
Toxic Gas
Chlorine Gas
Class 3
Flammable Liquids
Petrol
Class 5.1
Oxidising Substances
Calcium hypochlorite
Trichloroisocyanuric acid
Class 8
Corrosive substances
Hydrochloric acid
Sodium hypochlorite
What if More Information is

Needed?
If employers require additional data or
advice about a substance to help protect
employees, it may be useful to contact:
The manufacturer or importer
Codes of Practice
A range of other Codes of Practice exist

with which pool managers should be
familiar. These include a number of
Codes published by Health and Safety
Victoria and include:
Pool operators may find further valuable

information relating to the aquatic
industry in a number of key publications
from the Standards Association of
Australia. Table 7 Australian Standards
lists some which may be of value.
Those experienced with handling the

substance safely
First Aid in the Workplace
WorkCover offices
Noise
Health and safety professionals in

industry to trade organisations
Plant.
Manual Handling
Guidelines for Safe Pool

Operation (GSPO)
Generally, an MSDS has four main

sections. These are described in Table 6.
The Royal Life Saving Society Australia

Guidelines for Safe Pool Operation
(GSPO) were first released in 1991 and
a second edition was released in 1996.
As guidelines the GSPO are secondary
to any Act, Regulation or Code of
Practice. However, they provide invaluable
information on many aspects of public
swimming pool operation. Topics include:
Table 6 Four Main Sections of the MSDS
Technical operations
Occupational hygienists or occupational

health and safety specialists.
The Four Main Sections of

the MSDS
Information contained in these Codes

may affect pools, and management and
owners of facilities should be familiar
with them and follow them if they apply.
First aid
Section
Description
Example
Facility design
Identification
This section describes the product,

its ingredients and its physical
and chemical properties.
Flashpoint
The lowest temperature at which
there is enough vapour to ignite.
Petrol has a flashpoint of about
minus 40C. Therefore, in all normal
situations there will be enough vapour
released from liquid petrol to ignite.
Supervision
Health Hazard
Information
This section describes known health

effects from acute (immediate) and
chronic (long-term) exposures to the
substance. First aid information
is also given for acute exposures.
Acute Exposure
Inhalation of mists may produce
respiratory irritation and coughing.
Inhalation of high concentrations
may cause death due to respiratory
collapse.
Precautions
for Use
Any exposure standards, engineering

controls, such as mechanical ventilation
isolation, and suitable protective
equipment for use with a substance
is given here.
Personal Protective Equipment

PVC gloves should be used when or
handling this substance.
Engineering and Other Controls
Capture the substance at the source
for safe disposal using local exhaust
ventilation.
Safe Handling
Information
This section details how the substance

should be stored and transported,
how to clean up spills and what may
happen to the substance in a fire or
when mixed with incompatible
substances.
Response to a Fire
Some substances release toxic
vapours when they burn,
others may explode. In these cases,
staff and others should know how to
evacuate the area and not attempt
to put out a fire involving the
substance without assistance
from authorities.
Learn to swim
General operations.
The GSPO provides advice on bather
loads for public swimming pools, wave
pools and aquatic competitions. They
should be used as the industry guide to
the supervision of aquatic facilities. Other
areas which may affect bather load and
supervision are special design features
and activities undertaken in the pool
type, for example, hydrotherapy pools,
water flumes (slides), inflatables and
other water play equipment.
Audits
Audits of aquatic facilities can be
carried out to assess and report on
compliance with:
Compliance with the Occupational
Health and Safety Act
Handling) Regulations
Regulations.
Owners and operators of aquatic facilities
should ensure that the audit covers all
appropriate aspects of their situation.
Environment Protection
Authority
The Environment Protection Authority
(EPA) is responsible for protecting
Victorias environment from pollution
by minimising and controlling waste and
noise. It does this through a range of
statutory and non-statutory processes
and programs.
SEPPs
The Environment Protection Act 1970
provides for the formulation of State
Environmental Protection Policies
(SEPPs). By the end of the 1980s SEPPs
had been declared for air, water and
noise. Of most interest to pool operators
is the SEPPWaterways of Victoria, 2003.
This policy applies to all government
organisations, private and individuals in
Victoria. It identifies beneficial uses of
Victorian surface waters to be protected,
specifies indicators to measure and
define environmental quality, sets
environmental quality objectives and
details a program to attain and maintain
these objectives.
Discharge of Waste from Pools

In the SEPPWaters of Victoria, minimum
requirements for discharge from municipal
and commercial swimming pools are
given. The discharge of wastes from
municipal and commercial swimming
pools are required to conform to several
requirements relating to filter backwash
and pool content.
Filter Backwash
According to the SEPPs, the filter
backwash may be discharged to land,
sewer, treated via a solids settling tank,
with the supernatant recycled back into
the pool or treated and discharged to
surface waters. When filter backwash or
pool contents are discharged to surface
waters, the water must have total residual
chlorine less than 0.1 ppm (parts per
million) and suspended solids less than
10 ppm. When re-used in the pool,
TDS and combined chlorine levels
will rapidly accumulate in pool water.
Figure 4 Backwash Tank
Table 7 Australian Standards

AS14701986
Health and safety at workprinciples and practices.
AS1668.22002
The use of mechanical ventilation and air-conditioning in buildings:

ventilation design for indoor air contaminant control.
AS1885.11990
Code of practice for recording and measuring work injury experience.
AS2610.11993
Spa pools Public Spas.
AS/NZS28652001 Safe working in a confined space.

AS/NZS29272001 Storage and handling of liquefied chlorine gas.
AS/NZS36331989 Private swimming poolswater quality.
AS37801994
The storage and handling of corrosive substances.
AS39791993
Hydrotherapy pools.
AS/NZS43602004 Risk management.
The backwash tank should be appropriately sized

to retain the entire contents of the backwash.
Discharge Water
Discharge water should be analysed
by an accredited laboratory to ensure
conformance with the SEPPWaterways
of Victoria. The results of the analysis
must be submitted to the EPA within
28 days of the samples being taken
and the volume of the discharge must
also be recorded.
2. Infrastructure
Swimming Pool Design

Overview
Design Brief
Pools are complicated structures and

make serious demands on design,
construction, operation and
maintenance. The Pool Operators
Handbook is principally concerned
with operation; however, design and
construction are critical to successful
operation. Design is the first issue to
be considered for new and existing
structures and should be addressed in
collaboration with all parties responsible
for design, construction and operation.
Water treatment is just one factor within

the design of what may be a multi-use
leisure complex. The starting point for
design is a full assessment of community
needs and potential demands, which
also takes into account existing facilities.
Depending on the particular project,
there may have been a strategy
prepared, a multi-discipline project
team appointed, a feasibility study
commissioned, and decisions made
on location and finance. The end of this
stage should result in the appointment
of a pool manager and an architect
qualified in pool design retained. The
pool manager and architect should work
together to produce a design brief that
will consider the type of facility proposed.
The design brief should consider:
Water treatment systems are an integral

part of the architectural, structural and
mechanical design, and should be
addressed from the very start of the
project. Water treatment plant design
must, initially and crucially, take into
account potential bathing load,
circulation rate, turnover and dilution,
choice of treatment system, filtration,
circulation hydraulics, plant room and
operation. Overall, the design must
conform to the appropriate standards
or guidelines for maintaining safety and
the chemical and microbiological quality
of the water.
Although this chapter cannot give advice
on the details of design, it does indicate
the areas that need to be covered in
a design brief. Finally, there is advice
about obtaining specialist design and
contracting help.
The type and amount of use envisaged,

for example: swimming, therapy,
education or leisure.
Structural features, such as moveable
floors or booms to convert competition
or diving pools into teaching or leisure
pools.
Bathing Load, Circulation Rate

and Turnover
Bathing load dictates the rate of
circulation or turnover period required.
Bathing load and pool volume should be
considered together to determine the size
of filtration plant and the choice of water
treatment system, which makes these
issues central to good water quality.
Water Treatment
From a design perspective on water
treatment, the following factors should
be considered:
Pool type (recreation, hydrotherapy,
toddlers, spa and so on)
Pool temperature
Method of removal of suspended and
colloidal matter
Oxidising agents
Disinfection system
Coagulants
pH adjustment
Water balance
Fresh water dilution
Joint-use arrangements.
Effects on air quality
Possible shared treatment plant for

different pools.
Plant size and operation
Changing rooms and their accessibility.

Street access to the facility.
Fire and emergency evacuation.
It is uncommon for one person
consultant, architect, manager, pool
operator or other staffto be familiar with
or have expertise in all these technical
issues. However, persons responsible for
a new building or alteration do need to
be aware of the following important
areas, and take them into account when
working on the design of a pool complex.
Plant personnel; training

Water testing and recording
Plant monitoring and control
Energy and operation costs
Chemical storage and handling.
Hydraulics
Plant room
Specialist Help
The design of water movement demands

attention to:
Many issues need to be considered at

the design stage:
Pool size and shape (including profile).
Size and location of plant room, taking

into account filter specifications, the
scale of other water treatment plant,
flooded pump conditions and short
suction pipework lines.
Successfully building or substantially

refurbishing a swimming pool demands
a full understanding of the distinction
between design and installation. It is
also important that the responsibility
for issues of design and installation is
clearly identified.
Size, number and location (including

safety considerations) of pool water
inlets and outlets.
Design and correct sizing of the
filtration plant, including filters and
filtration rates (see the chapter on
Chemical Testing).
Size and routing of circulatory
pipework.
Size and location of balance tank.
Water circulation within the balance
tank.
Location of other plant items and

ductwork.
Plant layout for ease of operation and
maintenance.
Interfaces and coordination with other
building elements including ventilation
intakes (well away from plant room and
chemical stores).
Transfer channels.
Access for plant

replacement/refurbishment.
Pumping and location of sump pump.
Access for chemical deliveries.
Integration of water features.
Special bunded storage areas for

chemicals.
Moving floors and booms.

Effect of evaporation (normal and
induced by water features) on relative
humidity in the pool complex.
Waste water and drainage

requirements.
Effect of water movement on noise

levels.
Plant room environment relating to

temperature, humidity, ventilation and
noise.
Pool location.
Health and safety requirements.
Builders work requirements.

Electrical requirements.
Who Designs the Pool?

Water treatment design requires
specialist engineering knowledge,
which needs to be recruited together
with the architect and structural and
environmental service engineers.
This knowledge, which is critical to
producing a satisfactory design,
is available from two sources:
Consultantswho can provide
independent specialist advice and
who are appointed as full members
of the design team.
Contractorswho can work to the
consultants brief and specifications,
to their own schedule or a clients.
Bathing Load and Circulation

Rate
Bathing load is a difficult issue in
pool water management. There may
be pressure to maximise income by
overloading the pool. For a new pool,
at least, there is no excuse for not
planning and maintaining a realistic
relationship between bathing numbers
and pool and treatment plant capacity.
The pool capacity should be determined
at the design stage. Unlike some other
countries, Australia does not have set
formulas relating to water turnover or
square metres per pool area to regulate
bather loads. However, the Health
Regulations require a half-hour turnover
for spas. Australian Standards (AS3979)
recommend a two-hour turnover for
hydrotherapy pools.
Choice of Treatment System
Circulation Hydraulics
Plant Room
When choosing a water treatment

system, these areas should be
considered:
A well-designed circulation system within

the pool will ensure that treated water
reaches all parts of the pool and
contaminated water is removed from
areas most used by bathers. If effective
circulation is not achieved, water
treatment may not necessarily provide
good water quality. Conversely, first-rate
circulation hydraulics may allow an over
stretched water treatment system to
produce decent pool water.
Plant room design should take into

consideration four key issues: location,
size, access and segregation.
The nature of the water supply

The type of pool
Likely bathing loads
Desired water quality
The pool hall atmosphere
The skills required to operate
the system.
Those responsible for deciding on a
treatment system should call on the
experience of other managers and
operators of similar facilities.
When a system is chosen, an
assessment should be made of the
types and amounts of chemicals required
and how they are stored, to adhere to
regulations and guidelines on storage.
The testing chemicals may also need
to be assessed.
Filtration
Filters should operate for 24 hours a
day to deal with the pollution arising
from pool users. If water quality can be
maintained, it may be possible to reduce
the flow rate overnight. If the filters are
not effective, turbidity (generally meaning
suspended solids) will not be adequately
reducedwhatever the turnover period.
In some circumstances an inefficient
filter yielding an effluent containing
suspended matter may in fact increase
turbidity, rather than improve the clarity
of the water. Effective filtration,
well-maintained filter media and a
short turnover period will ensure
that suspended solids are removed.
(More information about filtration
operation is provided in the
chapter Filtration.)
Inlets, outlets and surface water

withdrawal are crucial. A wet deck
system (where pool water level is with the
surrounds) with a balance tank and pool
surround collecting channels, is
particularly efficient. In this way, 50100
per cent of the total circulation volume
can be removed from the surface, where
pollution is greatest. Leisure pools,
particularly if they are to have a
freeboard area for water features such as
waves, may allow only a partial wet deck
system. (For more information on
circulation, see the chapter on
Microbiological Monitoring.)
Location
The location of the filtration and water
treatment system, in relation to the
pool, critically affects hydraulic design.
Circulation pumps should, ideally, operate
under flooded suction conditions and be
situated near the balance tank and near
extraction points from the pool. If the
pumps have to be some distance from
the balance tank, increasing the
suction pipe size may improve pump
performance. If the plant room has to
be at pool surround level, the pump can
be installed in a well to provide flooded
suction conditions. If there is no balance
tank, the connection between pool water
and pumps must be designed to keep air
out of the circulation.
Size and Access
The size of the plant room (water
treatment plant only) will typically be
between 15 and 30 per cent of the pool
water area. It should be sized to ensure
good access, both to the plant room
itself and for plant room equipment
operation, maintenance and
replacement. When designing a plant
room, maintenance and replacement
of major plant components should be
considered. Filter media will need to
be replaced periodically.
Segregation
Certain equipment needs to be
segregated. For example, chemical
storage and dosing units should ideally
be housed in separate, secure storage
rooms. (See also the section on How
Close Together Should Chemicals be
Stored? and Separation Distances.)
Electrical control panels, chemical
control units and ozone generators
should be in clean, dry areas away
from chemical stores.
Operation
The water treatment contractor should
provide training for the plant operator
both during commissioning of the
plant and once it is operating. The
management and operator should
be present for the critical process of
commissioning. Commissioning should
incorporate system checking for health
and safety requirements, including
plant room and the safety of any
water features.
The water treatment design brief should
require the provision of operation and
maintenance manuals (including plant
and pipe layout drawings and electrical
circuits). It should also detail how the
system is to be operated. These briefs
should list the necessary daily, weekly,
monthly and annual checks.
Choosing Water Treatment

Specialists
The Consultant
A water treatment consultant should
develop the brief, produce a competent
design, detailed drawings and
specification, and monitor the installation
work on-site. When competitive tenders
are needed, the consultant will be
particularly valuable in ensuring that
they are based on an equivalent level
of specification and scope of work.
It is important that the consultant has
appropriate qualifications and experience
for the project being undertaken and
does not limit specifications to any one
particular manufacturers equipment.
Purchasers of the consultants services
and owners of the facility should pursue
references, and verify the consultants
skills and experience by interview.
The Contractor
A water treatment contractor can be
appointed to design as well as install
the plant if the client has a good design
brief/specification. The choice of
contractor then becomes particularly
important.
In any case, the contractor should be
responsible for the supply, installation
and commissioning of the system, and
for installing equipment from reputable
manufacturers. There is no single method
for finding the right contractor; however,
the following guidelines may be useful for
selecting contractors and manufacturers:
Consider members of trade and
professional associations first.
Contractors may offer some form
of quality assurancesee ISO9000.
Where contractors provide a design
warranty, they should be qualified to
Part 1 of this standard. This should
imply a quality system, though not
necessarily a quality product.
Check previous work by visiting
installations and by utilising references
from clients, architects and engineers.
References should comment on: design
ability; performance during contract;
reliability of equipment recommended
and used; commissioning and staff
training record; standard of operating
and maintenance manuals; and
after-sales service.
A long and successful record of
quality work is a positive indication.
Good contractors, like good
consultants and good suppliers,
will be familiar with this Handbook.
Types of Pools
Overview
Adjustable (Flexible) Pools
Hydrotherapy Pools
The Pool Operators Handbook has

been compiled to provide advice to
all non-domestic pool operators.
The majority of pools are rectangular
swimming pools that have no extra
water features and are used by people
of all ages. The following list describes
a range of conventional pools in specific
applications as well as a number of
non-conventional pools.
These pools incorporate a moveable floor

and/or bulkhead (boom). The moveable
floor gives infinitely variable depth.
The semi-submerged bulkhead divides
the pool into two, in any proportion.
Perforated panels allow water flow
between pools. It is important that
the turnover period should cope with
the largest bathing load possible.
Competition Pools
Two or more different types of customer

use these pools at different times.
The term is usually applied to a school
pool that is also opened to the public for
some sessions. If a new pool is planned
for dual use, the design (circulation,
filtration, disinfection and so on)
should accommodate the demands
of a higher bather load.
These are generally smaller pools

specifically designed for physiotherapy
and gentle exercise. Operating
temperatures of over 32C are
recommend. Specific design and
construction requirements are outlined
in AS39791993. Pool users and staff
use these types of pools for long periods.
As a result, they are more demanding
to manage than conventional poolsor at
least the consequences of basic mistakes
can be more immediate and dramatic.
For short-courses (championships) the

pool should be 25 m long, ideally with
eight lanes at least 2.0 m wide, with
two spaces of at least 0.2 m outside
the first and last lanes. The minimum
required depth is 1.0 m.
Olympic and World Championship pools
should be 50 m long by 25 m wide, with
a minimum depth of 2.0 m, with at least
eight lanes 2.5 m wide, with two spaces
2.5 m outside lanes one and eight.
Diving Pools
For steep-entry dives from springboards
and fixed platforms, a specially designed
pool is needed. The depth and area
of water for a diving pool or pit is
determined by FINA regulations.
A one metre springboard requires
water 3.5 m deep and a ten-metre
platform requires a depth of 5 m.
Further information regarding
specifications for competition pools
are described in the FINA (International
Swimming Federation) Handbook.
Dual Use Pools/School Pools
If an existing school pool is to be opened

to the public, care should be taken to
ascertain its design, particularly bathing
load, and not exceed it. In either case,
serious consideration should be given to
the training and qualifications of those
responsible for the operation and
management.
Adequately trained non-specialist staff
using simple disinfection and filtration
systems may manage school pools that
are only ever used by pupils in controlled
swimming sessions quite successfully.
But if the public uses them, or if there is a
real possibility that this will happen in the
future, then the guidance above for dual
use pools should be followed. In any
case it is better, if practicable, to follow
the guidelines given in this Handbook
for conventional pools.
Lazy and Rapid Rivers

Lazy and rapid rivers are sometimes
referred to as moving water. In rapid
rivers, pumps and jets under the water
surface create a rapid water flow.
Because the water flow is rapid,
circulation hydraulics is not a problem.
However, lazy rivers with large volumes
of water that are not continually flowing
may cause some water contamination
problems. Pool operators will need to
monitor the water quality carefully in
this type of application or ensure that
a constant flow is created.
Splash Pools
These are specially designed areas of
water in which a rider safely completes
the descent of a water slide or water
flume. If the splash pool shares its water
circulation with that of a main pool, the
turnover must be able to cope with the
highest bathing load possible. Bather
pollution will tend to be high for the
amount of water involved, so hydraulics
is important.
Salt Water Pools
Teaching Pools
Treatment of saline pools should be the

same as for fresh water pools, except
that the materials of filters, pipe and
pumps should be resistant to salt water
corrosion.
These are separate pools with a depth of

less than 1.0 m, that is, they have a large
surface-area-to-volume ratio. Pollution
is likely to be high when young children
use them, so bathing load control is
particularly important. Turnover periods
should be short and filtration standards
as effective for conventional pools.
Spa Pools
There are many types of spa pools, but
they all have in common their use: they
are for sitting in, rather than swimming,
and contain water usually between
32C and 40C, which is filtered and
chemically treated. A pool with untreated
water that is replaced after each user,
and water agitation of some sort,
is spa bath.
Bathing loads may be high in spas.
Combined with the high temperatures,
this can make it difficult to maintain
satisfactory disinfectant residuals, pH
values and microbiological quality. In
general, good water quality can be
maintained by control of bathing loads
and intervals between sessions (both of
which can be specified in the design),
turnover periods of less than 20 minutes,
adequate filtration, and emptying at least
once a week, or daily when loading is
high. Refer to Australian Standard for
Public Spas AS 2610.11993.
Spas may have particular difficulties over
the safety requirements for inlets and
outlets. The main criterion for designers,
manufacturers and operators is to take
all reasonable precautions to prevent a
bather, or part of a bathers body,
becoming trapped. This should be
based on the principles and methods
given for swimming pools.
Particular attention should be paid

to design where a teaching pool is to
share filtration plant with other pools:
there should be separate disinfectant
monitoring, controls and heating.
Leisure Pools
There are many different types of leisure
pools, and many conventional pools are
becoming leisurised. They tend to have
in common an irregular shape and more
shallow areas than a conventional pool.
This makes for less predictable hydraulics
and disinfectant dynamics. Therefore,
circulation patterns and inlet/outlet
positions should be carefully designed.
Bather loads and turnover periods need
to be taken into account during the
design phase. In general, turnover
periods will have to be less than
90 minutes.
The unusual water volumes involved,
and a tendency to high-localised
concentrations of bathers, can also
result in contamination problems.
Water features will tend to distort
the dynamics of water treatment.
Disinfection systems should be as
sophisticated (in terms of automatic
dosing and monitoring) as the pools are
in terms of features. It is recommended
that water features use water directly
from the treatment plant.
Access to the pool from areas such as

artificial beaches and lawn areas, and
varied use of the pool, can all introduce
novel forms of pollution.
At the very least, it is wise to have a
realistic regime of pre-swim hygiene.
Good showers and toilets, well signposted,
with encouragement to use them, will
assist with water quality maintenance.
Outdoor Pools
Outdoor pools inherit special problems
due to changes in the weather.
In summer sudden sunshine may bring
a large increase in bathers and a
degradation of the chlorine disinfectant
by ultraviolet light. Chlorine can be
stabilised by adding cyanuric acid.
The often large volumes of water in
outdoor pools should help the pool
cope with increases in bathing load,
but if the turnover of the large volume
is slow, it may be difficult to maintain
the appropriate disinfectant residual
throughout the pool.
Appropriate management and testing
will accommodate pools that are
sensitive to fluctuating demands.
Toddler Pools
Plunge Pools
Toddler pools are likely to need the

same sort of attention described above
for outdoor pools. They may be highly
polluted relative to their volume, because
children will tend to urinate in them and
introduce other forms of pollution.
These are used in association with a

saunas and spas, to cool bathers by
immersion in unheated water. They may
be big enough for just one person, or
large enough to swim in. The water
should be disinfected and filtered like a
conventional pool. Special consideration
should be given to the introduction of
body fats and other contaminants.
Good surface water draw-off and
regular water replacement are key
considerations.
Disinfectant residuals should be

maintained as for conventional pools.
This may be more difficult if the pool
is outdoors due to pollution for other
sources, for example, birds and other
foreign matter blown in. In this case the
water may need to be changed regularly
daily if practicablebut this depends on
filtration efficiency and build-up of
chloramine and total dissolved solids.
If for any reason circumstances make
proper hygiene standards impossible to
maintain, pool managers should consider
closing the toddler pool altogether.
Wave Pools
These are usually incorporated in a
free-form leisure pool. Waves are
generated at one end, which requires
a high free board. The waves cross
the pool to dissipate on a beach area.
Surface water draw-off needs attention,
as does water quality in the wave
generation chambers.
3. Hygiene and
Contamination
Pool Water
Contamination
Overview
Sources of Contamination
Transmission of Infection
Swimming pools present no special

infection risk, provided they are properly
managed and disinfected.
Contamination is introduced
predominantly via pool users, but also via
the environment, including source water.
Pool users are the primary cause of

contamination. Therefore, management
of their numbers, according to
maintenance capabilities, is necessary.
Overcrowding in the pool, in change
rooms and at the poolside is to be
avoided. Sensible hygiene rules, such as
nappy changing in change rooms rather
than at poolside, should be encouraged.
Environment
Many microorganisms are harmless

and normally present in healthy people.
However, if they are swallowed in large
numbers by a bather who is unwell or
has altered immunity (which may be
the case during pregnancy or illness),
then infection and sickness can result.
For this reason the entire pool
environmentthat is, the change
rooms, toilets, concourse, as well as
pool watershould be adequately
cleaned and managed at all times.
Contamination is defined as any

addition to the water that makes it
dirty or impure. If pollution is present
there is a risk of bather contamination.
This has legal, ethical and health
implications. Effective maintenance
of water chemistry, balance and
quality associated with adequate
hygiene standards will counteract
most pollutants.
The following principles need to be fully
understood by pool maintenance staff.
Environmental contamination is
especially relevant to outdoor pools
where there is dust, soil, sand, leaves and
grass constantly around and in the pool.
Pool Users
Pool users contaminate the pool in
three different ways:
From bodily fluids, solids and wastes
urine, mucus from the nose and chest,
saliva, sweat, hair, scales from skin and
faecal matter. These are pollutants
in themselves, but may also contain
harmful microorganisms which could
cause illness in other pool users.
From dirtcollected on the body
before bathing, for example, on the
feet from the pool concourse, on
skin from clothes.
From cosmeticsperfumes, oils,
hairspray, lotions, sunscreen and
creams.
Hygiene Standards
Minimum hygiene standards should be
met for all change rooms, toilets and
showers. The pool concourse should
be cleaned at least daily. Pool users
should be encouraged to shower prior
to entering the pool to rinse off dust
and body oils.
Disinfectants
Some infections can be transmitted
through the pool water from one
bather to another if there is inadequate
disinfectant. Other potential infections
are through contamination with spilt
blood, vomit or faecal matter. In these
cases immediate action is necessary
and all pools should have emergency
response procedures documented.
Refer to the Department of
Human Services website, which
is updated every three months.
The website address is:
http://www.health.vic.gov.au/
environment/water/swimming.htm
Infections and Conditions

Associated with Pool Use
Gastro-Intestinal Infections,
Including Cryptosporidium
Generally speaking, most microorganisms
responsible for gastrointestinal infections
will be inactivated by the disinfectant
residual and removed by the filtration
system. Therefore, correct maintenance
levels of disinfectant and filtration are
necessary. However, two problem
organismsCryptosporidium and
Giardiaremain. These cause watery
diarrhoea and abdominal cramping,
associated with symptoms of fatigue,
fever, loss of appetite, nausea and
vomiting. In the healthy individual these
symptoms are usually mild, but they can
cause severe, chronic, debilitating illness
if the recipient is unwell or has a reduced
immune system.
Cryptosporidium is resistant to the
usual maintenance levels of disinfectant
and can remain in the pool system for
several months. Normal filtration
processes may be ineffective in removing
Cryptosporidium parasites due to their
tiny size. Because normal disinfectant
residuals and filtering processes are not
effective in eliminating Cryptosporidium,
special care is needed in cases of
suspected contamination. Disinfection
levels need to be raised to 14 ppm and
kept at that level for 12 hours. The
addition of coagulant and frequent
backwashing of filters is also advisable.
The Department of Human Services
is evaluating the use of other
chemicals, such as chlorine dioxide
and ozone for the treatment of
Cryptosporidium. Check the
Department of Human Services
website for up-to-date information
at http://www.health.vic.gov.au/
Infected Users
Pool users suspected of being infected
with either Cryptosporidium or Giardia
are advised to avoid attending a pool
for one month after symptoms cease.
As the recommended maintenance
level for disinfectant is less than
8 ppm, the pool must remain closed
until water samples prove no evidence
of the microorganism. If a pool is closed
due to suspected contamination by
Cryptosporidium, signage is advisable
to warn infected persons not to visit
or potentially contaminate other pools.
Patrons who have suffered a
gastrointestinal illness or diarrhoea
should be advised not to use the
pool until at least one week after
symptoms cease.
Foot Infections
Usual maintenance levels of disinfection
in the pool water will kill fungi or bacteria
associated with foot infections. However,
two common conditions can be caught
from the damp environment of pool
surrounds, change rooms or showers.
Tinea Pedis (Athletes Foot)
Tinea pedis is a fungal infection causing
an itchy scaling between the toes. This
is hard to distinguish from soggy skin
caused by inadequate drying between
the toes. Tinea is spread by contact on
damp floor surfaces, such as showers
or poolside, where there are infected
fragments of skin. Adequate floor
cleaning reduces the number of
infective particles. Wearing pool shoes
or thongs in showers and at the poolside
reduces skin contact with a potentially
contaminated floor. Exclusion from
the pool is not necessary.
Plantar Warts (Verrucae)

Plantar warts are caused by a virus,
and may be picked up from contact
with contaminated fragments of skin on
the surrounds of the pool. As with tinea,
adequate cleaning of pool surrounds is
necessary and users should wear pool
shoes or thongs around the pool.
Carriers are advised to cover warts to
prevent contamination of pool surround
surfaces but exclusion from the pool is
not necessary.
Viruses
Viruses are not spread in the pool if
adequate sanitiser levels are present.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
and hepatitis are viruses carried in the
blood and other body fluids. They are
inactivated by the disinfectant residual
at normal maintenance levels. Blood,
vomit or faecal spills from swimmers
with these viruses are treated as above.
Ear and Sinus Problems

Wetting, de-waxing and degreasing of
the outer ear may cause swimmers ear
(otitis externa). This may result in skin
drying and damage, with or without
infection caused by the usual bacteria
found on normal, healthy skin. It is most
common in endurance and competitive
swimmers. High numbers of
Pseudomonas aeruginosa present in
the water may cause an unusually
high incidence of this condition
(as well as skin infections). Normal
sanitation levels should eliminate the
presence of Pseudomonas.
Infection of the middle ear (otitis media)
and sinusitis following swimming are
usually caused by infected mucus forced
into the nose and throat while swimming.
People are encouraged not to swim if
they have an upper respiratory tract
infection, but need not be excluded.
Meningitis
Skin Irritations and Rashes
Meningitis associated with swimming

is extremely rare in Australia and has
not been detected in Victorian pools
that are properly treated and maintained.
The free-living amoeba naegleria fowleri
causes it. In each case associated with
swimming, the pool has been found to
be receiving polluted, warm spring
waterand to be inadequately
disinfected. Normal disinfection levels
are necessary. Pool make-up water must
be clean and come from secure sources.
Circulation systems, including balance
tanks, should be designed to avoid
prolonged periods of stagnation. Any
debris should be removed regularly.
Skin irritation and rashes can be

associated with pool use. Good water
management and adequate dilution will
keep these to a minimum. Skin rashes
associated with pool use are usually
due to one of the following factors:
Legionnaires Disease
These factors contribute to common skin

conditions, such as pool rash, bromine
itch and folliculitis.
Legionella pneumophila bacteria cause

a severe form of pneumonia known as
legionnaires disease. For it to be spread
there must be an infected spray, such as
with spray humidifiers or cooling towers.
Legionnaires disease has not been
associated with conventional swimming
pools. However, it is easily spread in
poorly maintained and disinfected spa
pools due to the fine spray (aerosols)
generated at the turbulent water surface.
Careful maintenance, frequent filter
backwashing and close attention to
disinfectant levels are critical.
Drying of the skin due to a reduction

in natural body oilscommon with
prolonged immersion and warm water
in hydrotherapy pools and spas.
Residual disinfectant left on the skin.
Infection (more common in spas due to
higher bather loads) skin abrasion from
the aerated water jets and higher water
temperature.
Pool Rash
Pool rash is essentially a mild dermatitis
caused by prolonged immersion and
the effect of the disinfectant creating
a dry, irritated skin. It responds well
to unperfumed moisturising creams
and/or reduced exposure to the pool.
Bromine Itch
Bromine itch is another form of
dermatitis caused by sensitisation to
bromine and its by-products used to
disinfect the pool. Incidence increases
with age and exposure, particularly with
prolonged immersion. It is intensely itchy
and occurs within 12 hours of exposure.
It often recurs with repeated exposure
to brominated pools.
Folliculitis
Folliculitis is an infection of the hair follicle
caused by the bacteria Pseudomonas
aeruginosa. A combination of intense
skin wetting and high levels of the
bacteria is necessary for the infection
to occur. It is most common in spas,
where there are higher temperatures
(over 35C), longer exposure times
(one to two hours) and inadequate
disinfection. Unlike bromine rash,
it tends not to be itchy.
Respiratory Complaints
Generally speaking, the warm, humid air
around a pool assists respiration. High
levels of chloramines, the by-product of
chlorine disinfection, may trigger asthma
attacks. These levels can be high
because the pool is poorly designed,
overloaded or poorly maintained.
Chloramines themselves, and other
substances in the air, do not cause
asthma, but may provoke an attack.
Summary
The bather load generally introduces
pollution to a pool. If this is controlled
to avoid overcrowding, at the same
time as maintaining standard hygiene
procedures and normal pool disinfectant
levels, then cross-contamination of pool
users is minimised. When appropriate,
emergency procedures are established
and used in conjunction with regular
maintenance, cross-contamination is
unlikely to then occur.
People suffering from diarrhoea or
gastroenteritis should not use a pool until
at least one week after the symptoms
have cleared. Faecally incontinent people
should not use a pool or spa unless their
condition is managed by a health
professional. Signage to this effect
should be displayed.
Emergency Procedures
Exposure of Pool Water to
Faecal Matter
The treatment required will depend
upon the condition of the faecal matter
introduced. Loose faecal matter
(diarrhoea) requires greater treatment
than a firm stool, as it is more likely
to contain a large number of
microorganisms, will spread rapidly
over a large area and is not easily
retrieved from the pool.
Pool operators will need to assess
each situation and make a judgment
about the exact action to be taken.
Loose Stool
The following are guidelines for
responding to loose faecal matter
in the pool:
1. The pool, in the vicinity of the faecal
accident, should be cleared of people.
2. The faecal matter should be removed
as thoroughly as possible using a
fine mesh scoop net or vacuumed
to waste.
3. The pool should be superchlorinated,
with the bulk of the disinfectant
added to the immediate vicinity
of the accident.
4. The pool should be superchlorinated
that night.
5. The pool filters should be backwashed
that night.
6. Details of the accident and
treatment should be noted in
the pool operation log.
7. Patrons should only be allowed back
into the water when disinfectant and
pH levels are within recommended
ranges and all faecal matter has been
removed from the water.
Firm Stool
A firm solid stool requires the following
action:
The pool in the vicinity of the faecal
accident should be cleared of people.
Disinfection of Contaminated
Surfaces
Any contaminant on the pool deck
should not be washed into the pool
water circulation system.
3. If the water meets the Regulations,

patrons may be allowed to re-enter
the water.
Chlorine based disinfectants are

commonly used for dealing with blood
or body fluid spills. For example, a
1:10 dilution of sodium hypochlorite
in water can be used. Dangerous Goods
(Storage and Handling) Regulations
should be consulted before preparing
chemical dilutions.
Contamination of the Pool Water

by Blood or Vomit
The procedure for dealing with a

contaminated surface is:
If blood or vomit contaminates the

pool water, the following action should
be taken:
1. Wear rubber gloves and remove

excess contaminant using disposable
paper towels or similar.
1. The pool in the vicinity of the accident

should be cleared of people.
2. Wipe non-porous surfaces with hot

water and detergent and then flood
with a chlorine based disinfectant
and leave for ten minutes.
1. The stool should be removed.

2. Water should be tested to ensure
compliance with the Health
Regulations.
2. Large particles should be removed

using a fine mesh scoop net,
vacuumed to waste.
3. Allow and assist any remaining
contaminant to disperse.
4. Water should be tested to ensure
compliance with the Health
Regulations.
5. If the water meets the Regulations,
patrons may be allowed to re-enter
the water.
3. Porous surfaces, such as the pool

deck, are more difficult to clean.
Wash the area thoroughly with
detergent and allow the run off to
go down the drain. Flood with a
chlorine based disinfectant and
leave for ten minutes.
4. Towels, gloves, excess contamination
and other items should be placed in a
bag and sealed. All contaminated items
should be disposed of appropriately.
Pool Hygiene
and Cleaning
Overview
Good pool water management and
adequate hygiene procedures will prevent
pollution and cross-contamination in
most cases. The next chapter, Pool Water
Contamination, deals with types of
contamination, and the following chapter,
Disinfection, deals with maintaining
appropriate disinfectant levels. This
chapter concentrates on cleanliness
and hygiene in the pool surrounds and
in the pool itself.
Public Education
Swimmers need to understand the
importance to them of pre-swim hygiene;
it helps provide more comfortable water.
Posters, pool rule handouts and informal
education all help to inform the public
of their part in keeping the pool clean.
However, if the toilet and shower facilities
do not accommodate swimmer numbers,
or they are inaccessible or dirty, no
amount of education will encourage
swimmers to use them.
Pool Users Personal Hygiene

The pre-swim shower will remove
most potential contaminantsdead
skin cells, fibres from clothes, dirt,
body oils and sweatbefore the
swimmer enters the pool water.
In Australia it is not compulsory to
shower, wear a swimming cap or walk
through a footbath before entering a
pool, as it is in some other countries.
However, there seems to be some sense
in encouraging the pre-swim shower.
Footbaths were once considered
invaluable for preventing contamination
with tinea and plantar warts but this no
longer appears to be the case. Showers
clean the feet more effectively and bring
extra benefits of rinsing the body at the
same time.
Swim showers should be supplied

with fresh water and run to waste.
The frequency of cleaning showers
will depend on number of swimmers
using them, but regular inspection and
at least daily cleaning should be part
of routine management.
Figure 5 Instantaneous Hot Water

Systems
Toilets
These need to be placed so they can be
conveniently used prior to entering the
pool. Public education is necessary,
especially with children, to minimise
involuntary urination in the pool. Babies
should be in bathers rather than nappies,
and be encouraged to empty bladders
before entering the pool. Frequency of
cleaning will depend on numbers
attending, but toilets should be cleaned
at least once daily, and more frequently
in times of heavy use. Sanitary and
nappy disposal units should be made
available. Regular inspection should be
part of routine management.
Hot Water Systems

Hot water systems serving showers
and hand basins should deliver water
at less than 43C to prevent scalding.
The main boilers should be maintained
at temperatures not below 60C to
prevent the colonisation of Legionella
bacteria. The temperature reduction
required can be achieved by mixing
valves. Tepid water systems or modified
tepid water systems that maintain water
below 50C must be maintained in
accordance with the Standards
prescribed by the Health (Infectious
Diseases) Regulations to minimise
colonisation by Legionella bacteria.
Instantaneous hot water systems can
be controlled to provide water at these
ranges without the need for storage or
mixing valves.
Instantaneous hot water systems can be set to

provide warm water without mixing valves or
having to store hot or warm water.
Cleaning in and Around the

Pool and Changing Rooms
From a hygiene perspective to prevent
transmission of infection, the pool
surrounds and change rooms need
to be cleaned regularly. Frequency
will again depend on the number of
swimmers attending but should be
monitored and inspected as part of
routine management. Minimising dirt
from shoes can be controlled with good
design. The use of cleaning agents needs
to be strictly controlled and storage
should comply with the Dangerous
Goods (Storage and Handling)
Regulations 2000.
Floors need to be hosed, mopped,
washed or scrubbed at least once each
day. Keeping cleaning products out of
the pool water is almost impossible,
particularly with wet-deck pool. For this
reason, pool water can be used as the
cleaning solution, as it already has a
disinfectant in it. On the sides of the
pool, deposits of dirt just above the water
line can be cleaned off with a scourer,
using sodium bicarbonate solution.
Goggles and gloves should be worn.
Tanks and channels should be inspected
and cleaned periodically.
It is extremely important that
commercial products used for
cleaning in and around the pool area
are compatible with pool water and
chemicals used for disinfecting it.
Care needs to be taken that cleaning
chemicals do not affect residual
levels or interfere with monitoring.
Chlorine and pool chemicals interact
with other chemicals in a way that
can be hazardous. Care should
be taken to avoid outright
incompatibility between cleaning
and pool chemicalsparticularly
potentially explosive reactions
between acids and alkalis.
Bottom of Pool
There should be some method of
cleaning debris and algae from the floor
of the pool. The simplest method is to
use a long-handled, wide, weighted brush
and sweep the debris to the deepest
outlet grating. Algae or staining requires
suction to remove it. There are a number
of suction vacuum units on the market
that may require manual handling or may
be remote controlled. Some will pump
out through the pools filtering system;
some have built-in filters that need
cleaning after each use. All electrical
systems need to comply with Australian
Standards (AS3000).
Emptying the Pool

Generally speaking the pool should not
be emptied unless absolutely necessary,
due to potential structural damage.
Detailed information about this
process is included in the chapter
on Maintenance.
When emptied, the walls and floor can
be assessed for cracked, broken or
loose tiles or vinyl and these should be
mended or replaced. The surfaces can
then be cleaned with a chlorine-based
disinfectant. Acid washing may be
necessary to get the tiles cleanrefer
to the manufacturers advice as this
can damage the grouting. In either case,
the solution needs to be neutralised
then rinsed to waste prior to the pool
being refilled.
4. Water Treatment
Choosing a Disinfectant
Overview
Other Disinfection Treatments
Disinfection occurs when sanitation of

the pool water is achieved. This means
that transmission of infections between
persons or from the pool is minimised
and that growth of algae and other
nuisance organisms is inhibited.
There are other disinfectant systems that

are marketed in Australia, which involve
the use of mechanical or other chemical
methods. These systems generally have
no application to public pools and should
be avoided. If in doubt contact the
regulatory authority for advice.
Chlorine and Bromine Based

Disinfectants
Disinfectants need to kill bacteria very
quickly, and free chlorine or bromine are
the most effective treatments available
that can be safely used in swimming
pools. These disinfectants have another
advantage because they also oxidise
bather wastes, such as sweat, skin
particles, mucus and urine in the
pool water.
Chlorine and bromine based
disinfectants are the only
disinfectants suitable for use in
public pools as their levels can be
established on-site with relatively
simple test kits.
Ozone or UV Treatments
Disinfectants should be of a residual
nature and be present in the main
pool water body to encounter
microorganisms as they are introduced
to the water. Off-line treatment systems,
such as ozone or UV, are not regarded
as disinfection systems alone, as
neither can prevent person-to-person
transmission of disease, nor sanitise
pool surfaces.
Ozone is excellent for oxidation and
destruction of chemical pollutants
or disinfection by-products within
the circulation and filtration plant.
UV has been shown to be beneficial
in the breakdown of chloramines.
The chapter Water Treatment Using
Ozone and Ultraviolet Radiation
provides more information about
the use of ozone and UV.
Choosing a Suitable
Disinfectant
Type of Pool
The type of disinfectant chosen depends
on these factors:
Indoor or outdoor situation
Swimming pool or spa pool
Best Practice Model
The chemical characteristics of the

water supply
Design disinfectant dosing

systems for all pools to cope
with a range of bathing loadings.
The bather loadings that have to

be treated
Use automatic monitoring and
dosing of disinfectant and pH
in all spa pools and other pools
that are subject to inconsistent
chlorine demand.
Circulation capacity and pool design

Chemical handling and safety issues
Supervision and maintenance issues
Pool water temperature.
Maintain disinfectant residuals at

the lowest end of the regulatory
scale, where possible. Pools with
poor circulation rates or dosing
systems may need to maintain
higher residual levels to
accommodate demand from
the influx of pool users.
Chlorine Based Chemicals
Ensure that cyanuric acid is

present in all outdoor pools to
minimise chlorine loss to sunlight.
Chlorine tablets (calcium hypochlorite)
Conduct superchlorination at least

weekly to disinfect filters, control
algae and oxidise bather pollution.
Maintain a stable pH when
using automatically controlled
disinfectant dosing to avoid
fluctuations in disinfectant levels.
Dilution reduces bather pollution,
disinfection by-products,
excessive TDS and cyanuric
acid build-up.
Chlorine based chemicals available

include:
Elemental chlorine gas
Liquid chlorine (sodium hypochlorite)
Granular chlorine (calcium and lithium
hypochlorite)
Electrolytic generation of chlorine from

saline salt (salt chlorination)
Stabilised chlorine granules/tablets
(dichloroisocyanurate and
trichloroisocyanurate).
Bromine Based Chemicals

Bromine based chemicals available
include:
Tablet (BCDMH)
Sodium bromide with an activator
(hypochlorite or ozone).
Chlorine Gas
Hypochlorites
Salt Chlorination
Chlorine gas is one method available to

professional pool operators to disinfect
large community pools. It usually requires
dosing with an alkali, such as sodium
bicarbonate or soda ash to maintain pH,
as hydrochloric acid is formed when
elemental chlorine gas is added to water.
Sodium hypochlorite is the most versatile

pool disinfectant and is widely used.
It does pose chemical handling risks,
however, particularly in a bulk handling
and storage situation. Sodium
hypochlorite is strongly alkaline and
tends to keep high pH levels. It is
generally used in combination with acid
or carbon dioxide dosing. It is easily
dosed by metering pump, therefore
it is flexible in meeting demand. It is
stabilised in a caustic solution, thereby
having a shelf life of some weeks.
Salt chlorinators use a low voltage

electric current to convert chloride
salt contained in the pool water into
free chlorine. Salt-water pools involve
minimal chemical handling and daily
maintenance, are low in complexity
and are therefore recommended for
hotels and motels, caravan parks and
apartment blocks where professional
pool operators are not usually employed.
A timer or an automatic sensor and
control system can control the operation
of a salt chlorinator. A residual of
between 2,0008,000 ppm of salt
is maintained in accordance with
manufacturers specifications which
requires periodic topping up to
maintain chlorine production rates.
The Dangerous Goods (Storage and

Handling) Regulations limit the use of
chlorine gas to pools that have sufficient
buffer distances from residences and
places of public gathering to minimise
the risk of injury, should there be a
chlorine gas leak. For this reason gas
cylinders and injection points are located
within external buildings and not within
the pool hall or attached plant rooms.
Refer to AS29272001.
Figure 6 Chlorine Gas, Weight Scales
and Regulator
Calcium hypochlorite is widely available

and suitable for manually dosing pools
following closure. It is useful for soft
waters in maintaining hardness levels
lost by dilution and backwashing. It is
generally not used for metered dosing.
Tablets are also available which have a
number of applications.
Lithium hypochlorite is shelf stable,
non-scaling and highly soluble in water.
It is ideal for use in spa pools.
In outdoor situations, cyanuric acid
should be used with hypochlorites to
reduce chlorine loss from sunlight.
Figure 7 Bulk Sodium Hypochlorite
Container in Bund
The output of the chlorinator is related

to the size or number of the electrode
plates. As the chlorine output is fixed,
careful consideration of bather loads
and chlorine consumption should be
considered when installing systems.
Scaling of the electrode plates may
occur if there is too much calcium
hardness in the water, however this
should be considered in line with
protecting the pool surfaces. The
plates should be cleaned with acid
periodically in accordance with
manufacturers directions.
In outdoor use, cyanuric acid should be
present in salt chlorinated pool water.
Chlorinated Isocyanurates
ChlorineChlorine Dioxide
Bromine
This type of disinfectant (for example,

trichlor, dichlor) combines chlorine with
cyanuric acid stabiliser and is therefore
suited to pools exposed to direct
sunlight. In outdoor use a start-up
concentration of 25 ppm of cyanuric acid
is recommended. When levels of cyanuric
acid increase to 100 ppm, more frequent
dilution of the pool water is indicated to
control cyanuric acid levels.
Chlorine dioxide is also an effective

disinfectant and oxidant and is not
affected greatly by pH. Stabilised
chlorinous oxide solutions that form
chlorine dioxide when added to water
are beginning to be used at low levels
(0.20.3 ppm) in swimming pools to
supplement chlorination.
Bromine has been popular for some

years, particularly in warm water pools
(notably for hydrotherapy), but is losing
popularity in some circles. Bromine has
been associated with instances of skin
irritation, and some pools have had
difficulty remaining within regulatory
limits for total bacteria count.
Trichlor is used in many pools because

of the ease of chemical storage and the
simple dispensing methods using erosion
feeders. It is suitable for hard, alkaline
water, as it does not contain calcium and
helps keep pH down. It is suitable for
outdoor hotel/motel and caravan park
pools as the tablets are easily handled.
It has also been used in community pools
but is not as flexible as gas/hypochlorite
systems. Care should be taken to ensure
that cyanuric acid does not reach
excessive levels. This can be corrected
by backwashing or draining the pool on
a regular basis.
Chlorine dioxide must be used in

conjunction with free chlorine under
tight supervision. The presence of
chlorine dioxide may affect the
operation of automatic chlorination
equipment and specialist advice
should be sought before use.
A potentially problematic by-product is
chlorite formation or reconversion, which
is controlled by continued free chlorine
addition and periodic superchlorination.
Chlorine dioxide may also be generated
on-site by mixing hydrochloric acid with
sodium chlorite.
Chlorine dioxide treatments have been
proposed as a treatment for pools
affected by Cryptosporidium
contamination.
Bromo-chloro-dimethyl-hydantoin
(BCDMH) has been popular in
hydrotherapy pools, due to better
retention of disinfectant in heated
situations and the absence of chlorinous
odours. Brominated pools do have a
particular odour. Like trichlor, BCDMH
is dispensed by erosion feeders and is
acidic. Bicarbonate buffering is usually
adequate to control pH where BCDMH
is used.
Bromide-oxidant activator systems use a
reserve of sodium bromide in the body of
the pool with an activator. In this system
sufficient bromide ions are maintained
in the pool water. Sodium hypochlorite,
or ozone, when injected into the water
forms hypobromous acid. After reaction
with contaminants, the hypobromous
acid reverts back to bromide and so the
cycle restarts.
Check the Department of

Human Services website
http://www.health.vic.gov.au/
for latest recommendations.
Figure 8 Pool Water Treatment with Chlorine Disinfectant

chlorine and pH measurement
balance
tank
pool
chlorine and pH
measurement
vent valve
pressure
sand filter
coagulant
dosing
acid dosing
calorifier/heat exchanger
circulating
pump
hypochlorite
injection
air scour
Bromine can be purchased as a

preformed hypobromite/hypochlorite
liquid. It can also be manufactured
on-site by pre-mixing sodium bromide
with sodium hypochlorite in line prior to
injection into the water stream. These
solutions invariably form a chloramine
build-up after continued use. Hence, the
sodium bromide/sodium hypochlorite
system relies on dilution with fresh water
to reduce chloramines.
Problems with Bromide/Ozone Pools
Bromide/ozone pools have had problems
because the rate of bromine production
is related strictly to the ozone production
capacity. Reserve bromide ions react
with ozone to form free bromine. As the
system relies on the bromide reaction
to prevent ozone getting into the pool,
it may be unsafe to add chlorine to
supplement bromine production while
the ozone generator is on because
ozone could escape into the pool.
If the ozone system breaks down and
it becomes necessary to add sodium
hypochlorite to activate the bromide,
problems with chloramines and other
compounds may emerge. A minimum
bromide level must be maintained within
the system. The use of this type of
system has been discontinued in
some pools because of these issues.
Chloramine Removal
Chloramines are formed by a
reaction between hypochlorous
acid and nitrogen based products
from pool users. Chloramines can
be reduced by a number of processes.
Superchlorination/shock dosing,
ozonation and dilution are three
conventional methods of chloramine
reduction.
Continuous dilution is the best way
to minimise the build-up of combined
chlorine, particularly the stable
organicnitrogen complexes formed
from nitrogen-based compounds
present in sweat and urine. The
continuous maintenance of a free
chlorine residual, which is at least
50 per cent (but preferably 75 per cent)
of the total chlorine residual during
normal pool operation, should control
the accumulation of simple inorganic
chloramines.
Superchlorination
Superchlorination is an industry term
for a periodic maintenance procedure
where the free chlorine residual is raised
24 times the normal operating level
to prevent algae, remove colour and
maintain clarity. Superchlorination also
assists in reducing combined chlorine,
in most circumstances. It also assists
in keeping the pool water within
bacteriological requirements during
normal operation by periodically
removing biofilms (bacterial harbourages)
that resist normal chlorine levels.
Superchlorination should be
conducted when the pool is closed
to bathers (for example, overnight).
This will prevent the introduction of
pollution that may hinder the
superchlorination process.
Superchlorination must be carried
out with the pH between 7.6 and
7.8. If the pH drops below 7.5,
nitrogen trichloride may be
formed, which is a stable
compound that causes chlorinous
odours and irritates eyes.
Under most circumstances
superchlorination is achieved at
chlorine levels around 68 ppm.
This level is sufficient to remove
chloramine and will return to
normal operating levels by the
next morning.
It is generally recommended that
superchlorination is conducted
at weekly intervals. Some pools
may require more frequent
treatment, depending on their
pollution profile.
Chloramine concentrations may

also be increased if make-up water
supplies contain chloramines. Periodic
superchlorination is recommended in
these circumstances as the best method
of removing inorganic chloramines.
For pools using chlorinated isocyanurates
as their regular disinfectant,
superchlorination using these products
may elevate cyanuric acid levels over
time. Operators should consider using
a hypochlorite for superchlorination
purposes when cyanuric acid is at the
preferred concentration.
Shock Dosing
Dechlorination
Cyanuric Acid
Shock dosing is an industry term used to

describe the process of superchlorination
when it is specifically used to solve
problems such as destroying algae
blooms and treating colour and clarity
problems. The chlorine dose is usually
higher than that used for preventative
superchlorination.
Dechlorination can be achieved by

adding sodium thiosulphate to the pool
water if chlorine levels are above the
regulatory limits. This will enable the
operator to reduce chlorine levels and
allow bathing.
Cyanuric acid is a granular compound

which, when dissolved in pool water,
shields a percentage of chlorine from
sunlight, thereby significantly reducing
chlorine loss. It is an essential ingredient
in outdoor pools, but has reduced benefit
for indoor pools.
Situations that require

dechlorination should be avoided.
A slightly higher level of disinfection

residual should be maintained within the
pool water body because some studies
have suggested that the speed of
disinfection is slower when cyanuric acid
is present. Oxidation is also impaired
by the use of cyanuric acid as the
oxidation-reduction potential is reduced,
particularly in still water conditions. This
can be demonstrated by measuring the
oxidation potential of a chlorine solution
of equal chlorine concentration and pH
when cyanuric acid is absent or present.
Shock dosing to 1015 ppm, or around

57 times the normal free chlorine
residual, may be used to help correct a
serious problem, however dosing above
this level would lead to excessive waste
of chlorine.
Shock dosing immediately after refilling
an empty pool from a town water supply
that is heavily chloraminated will remove
the chloramine present. In this situation,
the free chlorine should not be raised
by more than ten times the combined
chlorine residual, otherwise nitrogen
trichloride will form.
pH should be maintained between
7.6 and 7.8 when shock dosing, for
the same reasons as for
superchlorination.
Shock dosing good quality pool
water will not change the water
quality, and is simply a waste of
chemical.
More serious problems, such as
persistent combined chlorine, can
be solved by dilution through
backwashing and by the
introduction of fresh water.
Consideration must always be
given to the Regulations and
bather comfort, as well as the
levels of chemical in the water
when the pool is open for use.
If chlorine levels are too high to
allow bathing even after allowing
sufficient time for the process to
work (for example, overnight), then
dechlorination may be required
prior to reopening the pool.
When using sodium thiosulphate, it is

important to fully dissolve the crystals
before adding them to the pool, as
inadequate dissolution may prevent
satisfactory chlorine neutralisation.
Overdosing may result in a higher
residual of sodium thiosulphate than
required and this may prevent adequate
chlorine levels being achieved.
Approximately 10 g of sodium
thiosulphate per 10,000 litres
(10 m3) of pool water is required
to lower chlorine levels by 1 ppm.
Ozone and UV
Ozone is an effective oxidant and
ozonated pools have reduced need for
superchlorination. Superchlorination is
still periodically required to sanitise pool
surfaces and prevent algal colonisation.
UV light from both natural and unnatural
sources has a positive benefit in
chloramine reduction. (See the chapter
on Water Treatment Using Ozone and
Ultraviolet Radiation for a fuller
description.)
Oxygen Based Oxidisers

Oxygen based oxidisers are available,
but they are difficult to control.
Expert advice should be sought prior
to application. They have no application
in ozonated pools, as ozone works in a
similar manner.
At least 25 ppm of cyanuric acid is

needed for it to work efficiently but there
is no advantage increasing levels above
50 ppm except to allow for a drop-off in
levels, due to backwashing and water
losses on the pool deck.
Disinfectants that contain isocyanurate
continue to add cyanuric acid through
the swimming season, so there is no
need to top up cyanuric acid levels.
High levels of cyanuric acid may
contribute to water cloudiness and are
controlled by dilution with fresh make-up
water. In these pools a start up dose of
25 ppm is recommended after refilling.
Cyanuric acid is extremely difficult to
dissolve, and the gradual addition of
chlorinated isocyanurate disinfectants
to bring up the level may be the easiest
method for some operators.
Oxidation-Reduction
Potential (ORP) as a
Disinfection Parameter
Oxidation-Reduction Potential (ORP,
redox) measurements are a reliable
indicator of the condition of the water,
as they measure the relative oxidative
properties that are immediately available.
Research has shown that in chlorinated
water, ORP values in excess of 720
millivolts (mV) using a silver/silver
chloride electrode or 680 mV, using a
Calomel electrode, should guarantee
water that is in good microbiological
condition. Values in excess of 750 mV
can be achieved in good pools with
excellent filtration and supplementary
oxidation processes. However, the action
of other chemicals, pH and temperature
may affect ORP values. Therefore,
desirable ORP control settings are
site-specific to a degree.
If ORP is used as a water quality
parameter in its own right, then
comparing the sensor response using
Lights solution is necessary before
interpreting the reading. The desirable
ORP values above are based on a
Calomel sensor reading 435 mV or
a silver/silver chloride sensor reading
475 mV respectively when placed in
Lights solution. Lights solution is
available from scientific instrument
suppliers.
ORP measurements themselves do not
guarantee the capacity of the system to
disinfect or oxidise a minimum quantity
of contaminants per litre of water, so
regulatory authorities prescribe that
minimum free disinfectant residuals
need to be measured by other means.
Control of Algae
Unsuitable Disinfectants
Algae are a single-celled green plant

which thrives in water and sunlight.
Spores are introduced into water via
raindrops, wind-borne dust and on the
feet of water birds, and can grow rapidly.
Conditions conducive to algae growth
include high pH, low chlorine, sunlight,
warm water and mineral content
particularly phosphates and nitrates.
Some pool disinfectants sold are not

suitable disinfectants for public pool
use. This is usually because the rate
of disinfection (biocidal efficacy) is
insufficient to prevent infectious disease
in public pool situations. Some of these
include:
In a pool that is subject to regular use

and is maintained in accordance with
the Regulations using best practice,
algae problems should never occur.
Regular superchlorination should be all
that is required to oxidise algae spores.
Algacides should not be present in
pool water during the swimming season
unless permission to do so has been
obtained from the Department of Human
Services (Victoria) for exceptional
circumstances.
Most algacides are toxic to plants and
stream life. Some algacides, particularly
those containing metal ions or residual
herbicides, have residual properties that
last for many months and are harmful
to the environment, even if discharged
to sewer. EPA policies require all
unnecessary chemicals be avoided
and that commercial pool operators
undertake waste minimisation practices.
Most algacides actually increase the
rate of chlorine consumption as metallic
compounds and other complexes are
oxidised by chlorine. The presence of
metallic or other compounds may alter
the oxidation profile of the pool water
and can inhibit chloramine destruction
and disinfection. Algicidal compounds
generated from ionising electrodes have
no fundamental difference from residual
metal-based algacides obtained from
liquid or powder.
Hydrogen peroxide
Silver/copper ions
Polymeric biguanides
Quarternary ammonium compounds
Ionisers
Electromagnets
Energy polarisers.
Granules
Granules
Tablets
Sodium
dichloroisocyanurate
(dichlor)
Trichloroisocyanurate
(trichlor)
Years
Tablets
Lithium
hypochlorite
Years
Granules
Calcium
hypochlorite
Years
Years
Years
412
weeks
Liquid
Sodium
hypochlorite
Years
Shelf life
Gaseous
cylinder
Form
Chlorine gas
Chemical
or process
8590%
5863%
35%
6570%
65%
12.5%
100%
Typical
concentration
of active
ingredient
2.4
6.8
10.5
11
pH when
made into
solution
Decreases
Nil
Increases
Increase
Increase
Increases
Decreases
Effect
on total
alkalinity
Table 8 Summary of the Characteristics of a Range of Pool Water Disinfectant
Nil
Nil
Nil
Increases
Increases
Nil
Nil
Effect on
calcium
hardness
No
contains
stabiliser
No
contains
stabiliser
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
S
tabiliser
required
for outdoor
use
Yes
(erosion
canister)
No
No
Can be used
in erosion
feeders but
solubility
is poor
No
Yes
Yes
Suitable
for in line
dosing
General use in all pools.

Usually requires acid dosing.
Flexible in dosage requirements.
High operational maintenance.
Shelf life depends upon storage
conditions.
Small pools with low/medium
bather load.
Good for hard water areas.
Not suitable for pools with variable

bather loads or long operating seasons.
Must monitor cyanuric acid levels.
Mostly used in outdoor spa pools.
Has little effect on pH/alkalinity.
Must monitor cyanuric acid levels.
Mostly used in indoor spa pools.
Used for shock dosing.

Can be used in manual dosing for
lightly loaded pools prior to
pool opening.
Good for soft water.
Useful for winterising.
Mostly used in large pools with

trained pool operators.
Dangerous Goods Regulations
restrict the siting of gas plant.
Usually requires alkali dosing.
Low operational maintenance.
Comments
See label
directions
also see
chlorine
Years
412
weeks
Years
Years
Shelf life
Manufacturers
specifications
limited
by ozone
output
Depends on
formulation.
822%
chlorine
equivalent.
Can be
manufactured
on-site.
90%
Depends
on the
size of
electrodes,
flow and
operating
time
Variable
n/a
11
4.5
mildly
alkaline
pH when
made into
solution
Adapted from AS36331989 Private Swimming PoolsWater Quality.
Stabilised
liquid
plus any
form of
chlorine.
Chlorine
chlorine
dioxide
Liquid
Bromine
(sodium
bromide/
sodium
hypochlorite)
Liquid and
corona
discharge
ozone
generator.
Tablets
Bromine
(BCDMH)
Sodium
bromide/
ozone
Electrode
plate
using
salt in
saline
pool
Form
Salt
chlorinator
Chemical
or process
Typical
concentration
of active
ingredient
Variable
n/a
Increase
Decrease
Increase
Effect
on total
alkalinity
Nil
n/a
Nil
Nil
Decrease
Effect on
calcium
hardness
Table 8 Summary of the Characteristics of a Range of Pool Water Disinfectant (continued)
Yes
Not
suitable
Not suitable
Not
suitable
Yes
S
tabiliser
required
for outdoor
use
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
(erosion
canister)
Yes
Suitable
for in line
dosing
Must be used with chlorine.

Regular superchlorination required
to reduce chlorite build-up.
Suitability currently under
investigation by the Department
of Human Services.
System has been demonstrated to

be not practical in many working
situations. Does not cope well
with varied bather loads.
Is not compatible with chlorination.
Bromine residual difficult to control.
If ozonator breaks down, pool has to
be closed or chlorine substituted as
activator.
Mostly used in indoor spa pools.

Chloramine can form and be a
problem and is not easily
removed.
The presence of bromide inhibits
chlorine oxidation and
superchlorination/shock dosing
is not practical.
Mostly used in indoor spa pools and

hydrotherapy pools with elevated
temperatures.
Slow to respond to sudden large
increases in bather loads.
Low maintenance system suitable

for non-professional operators
Good where chemical handling and
storage are issues of concern.
Not suitable for pools that are
subject to sudden large increases
in bather load.
Comments
Water Treatment
Using Ozone and
Ultraviolet Radiation
Overview
Chemistry
Dealing with Contaminants
Ozone and ultraviolet radiation water

treatment systems are different from the
other methods discussed because they
purify the pool water as it passes through
the plant room. Both deal with water
contaminants without providing a
disinfectant residual, and allow the
water in the pool itself to operate with
a lower level of conventional residual
disinfectant than it otherwise would.
Ozone is a bluish/purple gas.

Chemically, it is three oxygen atoms
(O3), as opposed to two in the oxygen
molecule (O2). It can appear naturally
around electrical equipment, for example,
photocopiers, but for pool water
disinfection it is generated on-site.
The chemistry of the relationship

between ozone and pool contaminants
is complex. Ozone interferes with the
reactions that produce contaminants,
moreso than actually destroying urea,
amino acids or trihalomethanes.
And there are also significant reactions
that allow subsequent filtration of the
organic molecules by a process of
microfloccuation. A slow reaction with
chloramine to form chloride and nitrate
also occurs, thus enhancing breakpoint
chlorination and the removal of
ammonia. The filtersespecially granular
activated carbon (GAC)that remove
ozone from the water before it returns
to the pool, also remove some
contaminants (activated carbon filters
will also remove chlorine). The effect
of ozonation and GAC filtration is to
remove most of the chloramine, so the
purity of the water is enhanced before
it re-enters the pool.
Both ozone and ultraviolet radiation

are potentially hazardous and attention
should be paid to the safety of plant
room operators, particularly during
maintenance. Ozone plant rooms
should be ventilated to Occupational
Health and Safety Regulations.
Of the two, ozone is the more
established in Australian pools.
Ultraviolet radiation is beginning
to be explored in commercial pools.
Ozone
Until recently, the prime objective of
chemical treatment of a pool was to
create a body of water that was clean
and healthy in which one could swim
with safety. An additional concern of
pool operators and health authorities
was to have a water and pool hall
environment that looks appealing
to the pool customer.
With the increasing demand for improved
water quality, ozone is now being used
with a measure of success and is being
more widely used in public pools. Its use
results in vastly improved water quality,
both from health and aesthetic aspects
where water quality problems exist.
Ozone is produced in a generator when

high voltage electricity is passed across a
discharge gap. When dried air containing
oxygen passes through this gap, the
oxygen molecule is activated up to an
ozone molecule. Only a small percentage
of the oxygen in air is converted to ozone.
As ozone is relatively unstable, it cannot
be manufactured somewhere else and
transported to the pool in cylinders like
chlorine. As it is unstable, ozone is an
extremely strong oxidant, and therefore
a good disinfectant. As it decomposes
into oxygen, no new chemicals are added
to the water. However, it is also toxic in
significant atmospheric concentrations,
so excess (unreacted) ozone must be
removed within the treatment system.
As a result, the low dose of chlorine

added to the water after filtration is
completely available as a free chlorine
residual for the pool. Well-managed
ozone pools are generally odour free.
Dosing with Ozone
De-Ozonation
There are two different ways in which

ozone can be used. In each case the
contact time between ozone and water
should be two minutes or more; and
the O3 concentration during this
period 0.81 ppm.
The de-ozonation stage immediately

follows ozonation; all traces of ozone
must be removed from the treated
water before it enters the pool.
Granular activated carbon (GAC),
activated heat-treated anthracite
and thermal destruction methods
are commonly used for de-ozonation.
On new installations all the water to

the pool should be dosed with O3 at
a concentration that depends on what
specific system is used. Ozone acts
best in contact with filtered water,
so systems with separate filtration,
ozonation and de-ozonation are best;
all-in-one systems are an acceptable
compromise.
ORP probes (above) installed detect the

oxidation level of the pool water before
de-ozonation and after de-ozonation.
These probes check the effectiveness
of the ozonation and de-ozonation
processes.
Figure 10 ORP Probes
On existing installations where,

due to space restrictions, it is not
possible to install equipment to
ozonate the total flow rate of the system,
treatment of a percentage of this flow
rate may be considered. This so-called
slipstream ozonation should dose a
minimum of 20 per cent of the flow rate.
The benefits of slipstream ozonation will
be proportional to the percentage of
water ozonated; but installation costs will
not be. Therefore, cost-effective benefits
are likely to be difficult to achieve.
ORP probes can be installed to detect the oxidation

level of the pool water pre and post de-ozonation.
These probes check the effectiveness of the
ozonation and de-ozonation process.
Figure 9 Pool Water Treatment with Ozone and Hypochlorite

chlorine and pH measurement
circulating
pump
balance
tank
pool
ozone
generator
vent valve
pressure
sand filter
coagulant
dosing
acid dosing
chlorine and pH
measurement
air scour
booster pump
de-ozonising filter
vent
valve
hypochlorite
injection
water trap
bypass line
calorifier/
heat
exchanger
ozone
control
vent
valve
de-ozonising
vessel
contact
vessel
eductor
ozone
in-line
mixer
water trap
ozone/air
sample
point
Plant Safety
Bacterial Colonisation
Ultraviolet Radiation (UV)
Ozone in concentration is a dangerous

gas and leakage into the plant room
presents a serious occupational health
risk. Ozone has a distinctive smell,
however, an ozone leakage detector
should be installed within the plant room.
Ozone carrier pipes need to be fully
sealed and pressure tested periodically
to ensure that the installation can
withstand the pressures involved.
Where air containing ozone is bled off
the top of filters (degassing), the air
should be passed through a carbon
destructor to destroy ozone gas prior
to discharge outside the plant room.
Chlorine is removed with the ozone.

If it is totally removed, there may be
bacterial colonisation of the filter.
Therefore it is important to maintain
some degree of residual disinfection
throughout de-ozonation. Bed depth and
filter velocity appears to be critical here.
Recent experience has indicated that
colonisation is likely in the de-ozonation
media (particularly GAC) if the bed depth
exceeds the levels recommended above,
or if the velocity through the media is
too low.
The disinfectant ability of radiation

from the ultraviolet section of the
electromagnetic spectrum is well
established. UV treatment has been
used in drinking water, industrial and
effluent applications.
Figure 11 Ozone Leak Detector
Residual Dosing
After ozonation and de-ozonation, the
water should be essentially free from
bacteria, and the majority of the organic
matter oxidised. It does not, however,
contain enough residual disinfectant
to prevent cross-infection within the
pool itself. A disinfectant residual
must therefore be provided, normally
sodium hypochlorite.
pH Value
Figure 12 Ozone Off-Gas Destructor
In all cases the pH value should be

maintained within the Regulations.
The agent for pH control should be
selected according to the nature of the
fresh water supply and disinfection type.
The primary action of UV is to kill

bacteria, viruses, moulds and spores,
thus reducing the risk of transmission
of stomach, skin and respiratory tract
infections to pool users. UV has an
important secondary action: it initiates
photochemical and photo-oxidation
reactions which destroy chloramines.
This is particularly important in leisure
pools where features such as water slides
and waves give a greater surface area for
the release of chloramines into the air.
UV reduces the burden, making the
atmosphere safer and more pleasant.
The limiting factor tends to be the water
clarity, as dissolved and suspended
material inhibits UV penetration.
Filtration will remove some of these
solids from swimming pool water; but
to optimise the effectiveness of the UV
it is important that the full flow of water
returning to the pool is exposed to the
ultraviolet radiation. This will ensure the
pool water is treated on a regular and
continuous basis. An automatic wiper
removes solids that settle onto the
quartz thimble around the UV arc tube.
A chlorine or bromine based disinfectant
must be used in conjunction with UV
systems to maintain a disinfectant
residual in the pool. UV radiation
inactivates bacteria and helps break
down chloramines and other pollutants.
Water Balance
Overview
Water balance is a term that describes
the scale or corrosion activity of pool
water. These aspects must be controlled
while remaining within correct pH for
disinfection efficacy and bather comfort.
Water balance is affected by four factors:
pH
Total alkalinity
Calcium hardness
pH change in pools is caused by the

addition of disinfectants, which can be
strongly acidic or alkaline, and the acids
present on pool users skin. Aeration in
spa pools tends to drive the pH up by
removing acidic gases. Dilution water
may affect the pH in extreme cases.
See Table 8 Summary of the
Characteristics of a Range of Pool
Water Disinfectant for the pH effect
of disinfectants.
Temperature.
Total Alkalinity
These factors are discussed individually

below.
Total alkalinity is a measure of the

amount of alkaline salts present in the
water. Total alkalinity works as a shock
absorber to reduce pH fluctuation when
alkalinity is above regulatory limits.
Conversely, total alkalinity above
200 ppm can make any necessary
pH adjustment difficult.
pH
pH is a measure of the relative acid/alkali
strength of a solution. pH is measured
on a scale from one to 14, with 7.0
being neutral. Correct pH is essential
for three reasons:
Equipment protection
Bather comfort
Sanitiser (disinfection) efficiency.
When pH is too high (relative to the other
water balance parameters), water is more
likely to have scale-forming properties.
When pH is too low, water will become
corrosive to pool equipment and
surfaces. The pH of the eye fluid is
around 7.4, so good quality water within
the prescribed pH range should not
cause eye irritation.
As pH increases, free chlorine loses
oxidative activity. At a pH of 8.0,
only 20 per cent of free chlorine is
immediately available as hypochlorous
acid to kill germs; whereas, at a pH of
7.5, about 50 per cent is immediately
available.
Higher total alkalinity is appropriate

when using acidic disinfectants, such
as chlorine gas, trichlor or BCDMH.
To increase total alkalinity, the number
of dissolved alkaline substances should
be increased.
Calcium Hardness
Calcium hardness is a measure of the
amount of calcium salts present in the
water. Relative to the other water balance
parameters, if calcium hardness is too
high, scaling of heaters and pool finishes
may occur. If calcium hardness is too
low, etching of cement and tiles and
corrosion of heating and circulation
components may occur.
Calcium behaves differently from most
chemicals as it becomes less soluble
as temperature rises.
In areas of high calcium source water,
specialist advice should be sought prior
to the establishment of recommended
water balance parameters and choice
of disinfectant and pH chemicals.
Temperature
The higher the temperature, the more
likely scaling is to occur, because
calcium solubility is lowered. At a lower
temperature the water can absorb more
calcium. Concrete, marblesheen or tiled
pool surfaces may become etched,
particularly at low temperatures.

TDS is a measure of all solids and salts
dissolved in pool water. TDS is increased
by the addition of chemicals and salts
from pool users and concentrated further
by the evaporation of water. Salt in salt
chlorinated pools constitutes the bulk of
TDS and must be accounted for when
measuring TDS.
Adjusting Water Balance

Parameters
Figure 13 Carbon Dioxide Tank
Figure 14 The Hazards of Poor

Labelling
Increase Total Alkalinity

Add 1 kg sodium bicarbonate per
10,000 L of pool water to increase
the total alkalinity by 50 ppm.
Decrease Total Alkalinity

Dilution of pool water will lower
alkalinity in most situations. If
consistently high total alkalinity is
creating problems, expert advice
should be sought on the choice
of disinfectant and pH correction
chemicals.
Decrease pH
Before adjusting pH, ensure the total
alkalinity is appropriate and stable.
Add 100 mL of hydrochloric (muriatic)
acid or 120 g of sodium bisulphate
(dry acid) per 10,000 L of pool water
for a decrease in pH by approximately
0.10.3. Always dilute the acid in fresh
water before adding it to the pool.
No more than 100 mL of hydrochloric
acid or 120 g of sodium bisulphate
should be added at once. Otherwise,
the pH may be lowered dramatically.
The pH should be retested after
a turnover period before adding
further acid.
Carbon dioxide gas can also be used
to decrease pH and can be injected
automatically.
Hydrochloric acid and sodium
bisulphate should be diluted according
to the manufacturers instructions
when dispensed via automatic dosing
equipment. Otherwise, a dilution of at
least one in ten should be prepared
before manually adding it to the pool
water. Never add acid to the water
body of the pool while it is in use.
Putting the wrong white powder in the pool can

spell disaster. Have a system of storage that all
staff can understand.
Increase Calcium Hardness

Carbon dioxide is often used in preference to
acid to lower pH.
For safe handling, always add acid

to water when making a dilution and
use personal protective equipment.
Add 110 g of calcium chloride,

or 140 g of calcium sulphate, per
10,000 L of pool water to increase
calcium hardness by 10 ppm.
If calcium hardness is consistently too
low, consider using calcium-based
disinfectants.
Increase pH
Decrease Calcium Hardness
Before adjusting pH, ensure the total

alkalinity is appropriate and stable.
If pH is not corrected by setting the
total alkalinity level, it can be further
raised by the addition of more sodium
bicarbonate (pH 8.2). However, this will
cause a further increase in alkalinity.
Dilution of pool water is the only

practical way of lowering calcium
hardness. If calcium hardness is
high, disinfectants containing calcium
should be substituted with those
containing sodium.
In most pools, pH can be effectively

controlled by using sodium bicarbonate
without increasing alkalinity excessively.
Sodium carbonate, also known as soda
ash (pH 12.1) is sometimes used but is
more dangerous to handle than sodium
bicarbonate and contributes to scale
formation. The addition of sodium
hydroxide, also known as caustic soda
(pH 14) to correct pH will cause high
pH problems and should not be use.
To Lower Total Dissolved Solids

(TDS)
Dilute pool water usually by
backwashing and refilling with fresh
water. Regular dilution according to
bather loading and backwashing
should eliminate high, unaccountedfor TDS from occurring.
Calculating Water Balance

Water balance can be calculated
using a number of indexes or tables.
The Saturation Index below is the
most universally accepted method.
Table 9 SI Index of Factors
Temp
Total
(C) TF Alkalinity AF
Calcium
Hardness
CF
0.0
0.7
0.3
0.1
25
1.4
25
1.0
0.2
50
1.7
50
1.3
12
0.3
75
1.9
75
1.5
16
0.4 100
2.0
100
1.6
19
0.5
150
2.2
150
1.8
1. pH
24
0.6 200
2.3
200
1.9
2. Total Alkalinity (TA)
29
0.7 300
2.5
300
2.1
34
0.8 400
2.6
400
2.3
41
0.9 800
2.9
800
2.5
51
1.0 1,000
3.0
1,000
2.6
Saturation Index (SI)

SI is also referred to as the Langelier
Scale. SI is a formula used to determine
whether water is balanced and is
determined by the following factors:
3. Calcium Hardness (CH)

4. Temperature (T(C)
5. Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS Constant = 12.1).
If the balance of these factors is too low,
water will be corrosive to fittings and
finish. These corrosive conditions occur
when SI is less than 0.5 (for heated
water, SI should not be less than 0.2).
When the balance of these factors is too
high, water will cause deposits to form on
fittings and finish. These scale-forming
conditions occur when SI is more than
+0.5.
The formula for Saturation Index is:
SI = pH + TF + AF + CF 12.1
Best Practice Model

Pool water should be appropriately
balanced to prevent scaling and
corrosion of fixtures and fittings.
Automatic monitoring and dosing of
pH correction chemicals should be
used in all spa pools and other pools
that are subject to fluctuating pH.
Maintain total alkalinity levels that
are appropriate to the type of
disinfectant used.
Maintain pH within tight tolerances
when using automatically controlled
disinfectant dosing.
Excess Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
should be diluted with fresh water.
Dosage and
Control Systems
Overview
Figure 15 Metering Pump
All pool disinfection systems should be

designed to match the expected rate of
disinfectant consumption at the worst
conditions expected. For some pools this
may be bright sunshine at 40C and
standing room only.
The higher the pool turnover rate, the
easier it is to circulate the disinfectant,
measure and respond to demand. Some
systems, such as chlorine gas and liquid
chlorine, are quite flexible in the amount
that can be injected per hour. Systems
such as salt chlorinators and erosion
feeders (BCDMH, trichlor) must be
correctly sized on the basis of pool
volume, flow rate and anticipated
bather load and have a reserve capacity
to cope with peak situations.
There are varying arguments about the

merits of where chemicals should be
dosed.
Metering pump mounted on liquid container.
Figure 16 Carbon Dioxide Controller
Gas systems (chlorine and carbon

dioxide) use valves and an injector into a
circulation loop. The feed rate can be set
using a sight glass valve on the cylinder.
Disinfectants, when dosed before the

filter, have the advantage of continuously
disinfecting the filter media preventing
colonisation of organisms, such as
Pseudomonas and Legionella. The
disadvantage is that more chloramines
may be created and disinfectant
consumption may increase. However,
if disinfectant is injected after filtration,
regular superchlorination will also control
filter colonisation. Where ozonation is
present, disinfection should take place
after the removal of ozone.
Control Systems
Design of Dosage Systems

Metering pumps are used to dispense
liquid systems at pressure into the
circulation system. Usually the stroke
volume and frequency can be adjusted
to change feed rates. These pumps
require priming to ensure that air bubbles
are not present in the lines, which may
cause ineffective pumping.
Points of Dosing
Tablets are dosed by installing a flow

through an erosion canister (feeder)
where the circulation flow passes
through eroding the tablets within.
This is usually done in-line or on a
side-stream basis where flow is
controlled by a valve.
Figure 17 Erosion Canister
(Erosion Feeder)
Control systems analyse disinfectant and

pH levels using a sensor and electronic
meter, and when outside the set
parameters, sends a signal to the
pump or solenoid valve to allow more
chemical to be injected or released.
Controllers are divided into two types:
1. Proportional controllers that
feed faster when the measured
concentration is far away from the
set point. Conversely, the addition
rate slows when the pool condition
is close to the set point.
2. Feed wait control. Chemical addition
is performed at the same rate when
away from the set point.
Figure 18 Pool Control Panel and
Chemical Measuring Station
Either type of controller should have

facilities to minimise controller bounce
(that is, dampening of signal variations).
The pumps should be adjusted
accordingly to deliver chemical at an
appropriate rate per hour given the
pool turnover characteristics in order
to minimise overdosing.
Some control systems can also measure
electrical conductivity and operate a
dump valve to ensure dilution of pool
water and control of TDS.
Safety
Relevant markings to Australian
Standards or international standards
prescribed by Standards Australia should
be present on the controller. The units
should be mounted in a safe area and
not directly subject to accidental water
splashes, such as may happen when
cleaning electrodes. The mains power
supply to the controller should have
safety circuit breakers fitted, both for the
pool operator safety and to provide some
protection of the controller electronics.
Disinfectant and acid should not be
added simultaneously. The controller
system itself, or some other means,
should prevent acid and disinfectant
contact.
Pumps and other chemical delivery units
should be constructed from materials
rated for use with the pool chemicals
being delivered. Close attention should
be paid to tubing used for disinfectant
and acid. Chemical delivery tubing
should be inspected at least weekly.
Sensors
pH
pH is measured by a glass electrode
that selectively measures the relative
hydrogen (acid) activity and sends
a reading in millivolts to a pH
meter/controller. The meter/
controller converts this into pH units.
Disinfection
There are two commonly used methods
of automatically analysing disinfection:
Direct Chlorine Residual Measurement
(Amperometric) and Oxidation-Reduction
Potential Measurement (ORP, Redox, Rh).
Direct Chlorine Residual
Measurement (Amperometric)
This method uses a chlorine sensor to
estimate the actual concentration of free
chlorine by measuring the hypochlorous
acid component. Because pH affects the
ratio of hypochlorous acid/ion, it should
be kept constant so that the free chlorine
is measured accurately.
Oxidation-Reduction Potential
Measurement (ORP, Redox, Rh)
This method uses a platinum electrode to
measure the relative oxidative strength of
the water. When the pH is kept constant,
there is generally a close relationship
between free chlorine and ORP readout.
Because pH affects the ratio of
hypochlorous acid/ion, it should be
kept constant so that the free chlorine
effect is measured accurately.
At higher levels of free chlorine residual
(> 3 ppm) ORP becomes less sensitive.
Accordingly, disinfectant residual
becomes increasingly difficult to control
at higher levels using ORP controllers.
Other factors may also affect ORP

measurements. For example, the
presence of cyanuric acid lowers the
ORP value. Other substances in the
water may also have an effect, but where
these factors are constant, they will not
adversely affect the operation of the
system. The values selected for the
control will reflect these factors.
Changes in concentration of combined
chlorine can influence ORP readings.
At a given free chlorine concentration
and pH, water without combined chlorine
will have a higher ORP than water with
combined chlorine. It is therefore better
to set minimum ORP readings when there
is no combined chlorine in the water and
when bather loads are low. The free
chlorine residual must also be set to
at least above the minimum regulatory
limit when setting ORP. When combined
chlorine is formed during the course of
the day, extra free chlorine residual will
be then maintained in the system until
the combined chlorine is destroyed.
The free chlorine level should not drop
below the original set point when ORP
control equipment is set up this way.
Analyser Cell/Probe Buffering

Both ORP and direct chlorine residual
methods of measurement or control
work best when the pH is kept stable
below 7.6 in chlorinated pools. Where
this is not possible, and precise chlorine
control is required, buffered cell
analysers can be used. Buffered cell
analysers inject a pH buffer into the
water at the point of measurement
to give a stable pH reading (usually
around pH 6), which ensures accurate
measurement of free chlorine. Most
pools should not need buffered cells.
Brominated Pools
Location of Sensors
ORP sensors are often used to control

bromine levels. Because bromine is
less sensitive to pH change, automatic
systems should work well throughout
the normal pH range for swimming
pools. For direct bromine residual
measurements, some chlorine sensors
can also measure bromine. Check with
the manufacturer for the compatibility.
Operators should also note that bromine
might affect the response of a
silver/silver chloride sensor.
Sensors should be located at a point

that is indicative of the actual swimming
conditions. Sensors can be inserted
directly into the circulation loop,
subject to manufacturers specifications
on pressure and flow velocities.
Alternatively, a loop can be created
which side-streams a small flow to
a wall mounted sensor installation.
Figure 19 Chemical Sensors Installed
in a Side-Stream Loop
Calibration of Sensors
pH
Primary calibration of a pH sensor should
be done with two standard solutions.
Standard solutions should cover the
swimming pool pH range. These standard
solutions can be obtained from scientific
suppliers. Solutions commercially
available as pH 7.01 and pH 9.01 are
recommended, as this will produce an
accurate response in the desired range.
Measuring the pool water with a separate
pH meter or phenol red indicator and
adjusting the controller accordingly can
be used to make secondary calibration
of controllers.
Disinfectant dosing systems for all

pools should be designed to cope
with a range of bathing loadings.
Continuous dosing that matches
consumption rates should be
aimed for.
Automatic monitoring and dosing
of disinfectant should be used in
all spa pools and other pools that
are subject to inconsistent chlorine
demand.
Regular calibration of control
systems is necessary to ensure
accurate results.
Chlorine
Because it is difficult to obtain stable
chlorine solutions, primary calibration
of equipment is usually not done.
Comparing the readout with the result
obtained from a DPD photometer or
comparator, and realigning the readout to
match the DPD test, is all that is required.
ORP
Calibration is not required for ORP
sensors that are used to control
disinfection, as the individual readings
are electrode- and site-specific. Finding
the correct minimum ORP setting for
each pool requires monitoring of pool
performance and correlation with
measured water quality and disinfection
parameters with ORP readings measured.
Best Practice Model
Dosing systems should be

designed so that disinfectants do
not come in contact with acids.
Cleaning Sensors
Sensors should be regularly inspected,
cleaned and calibrated in accordance
with manufacturers directions or when
fouling or faulty operation is suspected.
As a general rule, sensors should be
cleaned regularly if an accurate readout
is required. Sensors that have not been
cleaned for several months may prove to
be extremely inaccurate. Comparing the
controller readout with pool test results
will indicate the necessary cleaning
frequency. After cleaning sensors,
recalibration is required.
5. Monitoring Systems
Chemical Testing
Overview
Figure 21 Comparator
Figure 23 Test Strips
The successful use of a comparator may

be affected by the ability of the operator
to discern colour intensities or colour
difference. The background against which
a comparator is held may also affect the
colours observed.
Test Methods
Best Practice Model

Photometers or comparators
should be used for all manual
chemical tests.
Operators should prescribe
their desired range of operating
parameters within the
Regulatory range.
Operators should be competent
in the use of test kits.
Test Kits
Photometers or comparators, for
commercial applications, using tablet or
powdered reagents are recommended for
all chemical tests and provide reasonable
accuracy. Most test kits use solid (tablet
or powdered) reagents as they have
advantages in ease of storage, transport
and prevention of spillage. The use of
pre-measured packages eliminate the
need to dispense precise amounts of
reagent to each test.
Figure 20 Photometer
All equipment should stored away

from direct sunlight and kept clean,
as inaccurate measurements may
result from faded comparator discs or
plates, dirty glassware and suspended
matter in the sample.
Figure 22 Dry Reagents
The following test methods are

recommended for those tests required
by regulatory authorities: free chlorine/
total bromine, total chlorine, combined
chlorine, pH, alkalinity, cyanuric acid,
calcium hardness and some others.
Free Chlorine/Total Bromine
Dry reagents are shelf stable and reliable.
Dip strips may be of use to indicate that

a pool is somewhere within regulatory
range. However, it is nearly impossible to
quantify the reading accurately because
the scale intervals are too far apart. Dip
strips containing syringaldezine are the
only ones suitable for indicating free
chlorine concentrations.
Always follow the manufacturers
instructions when using a test kit.
Further training in the proper use of
test kits is strongly recommended to
ensure competency and to identify
problems with the use of test kits.
The DPD (dimethyl-phenylene diamine)

test developed by Palin is the most
universally accepted test method for
measuring disinfectant concentrations
within the swimming pool industry. DPD
No 1 reagent is used for both free
chlorine and total bromine tests. Total
bromine should be recorded as free
chlorine equivalent.
Total Chlorine
A DPD No 3 tablet is added to
the completed free chlorine test to
obtain total chlorine concentration.
(DPD 1+3). The use of a DPD No 4 tablet
also gives total chlorine concentration,
but without obtaining the free chlorine
concentration first.
Combined Chlorine
This is obtained by subtracting the free
chlorine/total bromine (as free chlorine
equivalent) concentration from the total
chlorine concentration.
The formula is:
DPD 4 DPD 1 or (DPD 1+3) DPD 1
pH
Dilution of Samples
Keeping Records
Phenol red indicator is used as the colour

range operates across that of a properly
operating swimming pool. A properly
calibrated pH electrode may also be
used.
When a test result is at the top of the

range of a test kit, samples that are
measured in ppm may be diluted with
distilled water before adding the reagent
to obtain a reading that is on scale. The
result is multiplied by the dilution factor.
Operators are required by law to maintain

records. A suggested logbook is provided
in the section Example Log Sheets:
Sample Pool Operator Log Book.
Logbooks should be kept for at least
12 months after the last date of entry
to made available on demand to an
authorised officer of the Health Act.
The records should then be archived
for a further six years.
Alkalinity
Any commercially available pool water
colorimetric test method can be used.
Most indicator tests use a colour range
from yellow through green to blue.
Cyanuric Acid
Melamine test reagent can be used and
forms a cloudy suspension. Accuracy is
dependent on concentration and
equipment factors.
If chlorine is excessively high, the

chlorine may bleach the tablet and
make it appear that there is no chlorine
in the water. This result may cause pool
operators to add more chlorine to the
pooland finally realise that excessively
high levels have been reached. This can
be avoided by crushing a tablet in a small
volume of pool water before completely
filling the sample cell with pool water and
observing the pink colour turn clear.
All Other Tests

Colorimetric, titration based reagents or
electrochemical methods are available
for most other test parameters.
Date
Time
Free chlorine/total bromine
Calcium Hardness
A colorimetric tablet method is
commonly available to estimate
hardness. Hardness is calculated
based on the number of tablets
required to reach the required colour
change, or a photometer may be used.
Records should cover the following tests

and be carried out to at least the
frequencies prescribed by Regulatory
Standards:
Dilute the sample so that the
reading is within the range and
multiply that reading accordingly to
measure the actual concentration.
Refer to test kit instructions to
improve this description.
pH measurement samples cannot be

diluted. If the reading is off the scale,
use another indicator or a pH meter to
determine the correct value.
Total chlorine
Combined chlorine
pH
ORP (where fitted)
Electronic pH (where fitted)
Total alkalinity
Cyanuric acid
Calcium hardness
Comments
Chemical Limits
Actions
Proprietors should set their own desired

chemical limits for operationwithin
the range prescribed by the Regulations.
A table suitable for recording this type
of information is provided in the section
Example Log Sheets: Chemical Limits
Worksheet. Operators should ensure
that they refer to the most up-to-date
Regulations when completing the table.
Initials of recording operator

Pool water temperature.
See the following Example Log Sheets.
Example Log Sheets

Chemical Limits Worksheet
Pools
Levels
Free chlorine
Total bromine
(ppm)
minimum
Regulations
Recommendations
Combined
chlorine (ppm)
Regulations
Recommendations
Total chlorine
(ppm)
Regulations
Recommendations
pH
Regulations
Recommendations
Total alkalinity
(ppm)
Regulations
Recommendations
Cyanuric acid
(ppm)
Regulations
Recommendations
Redox (mV)
Recommendations
Recommendations
Calcium
hardness (ppm)
Temperature of
operation (C)
Recommendations
maximum
Spas
minimum
maximum
Frequency
of testing
Sample Pool Operator Log Sheet

Date
Time
Measurements
Free Cl2
Combined Cl2
pH
Redox (mv)
Electronic Cl2
Electronic pH
Temperature
Total Alkalinity
Calcium Hardness
TDS
Langeliers Index
Cyanuric Acid
Adjustments/Additions
Disinfectant
pH Correction
Bicarbonate
Alum/Coagulant
Others
Others
Observations
Filter Pressures
Backwashes Done
Clarity
Make Up
No. of Bathers
Water Meter Reading
Backwash (litres)
Dilution (litres)
Operators Initials
Actions/Comments
Pool
Microbiological
Monitoring
Overview
As described in the chapter Pool
Water Contamination, certain infections
have been associated with the use of
swimming pools and spa pools. These
usually result from poor management of
water treatment leading to the survival
of pathogenic organisms introduced by
pool users.
Cryptosporidium is the only organism
of pathogenic significance that can
withstand properly treated pool water.
However, as pool water can provide
optimal conditions for growth, other
microorganisms of environmental origin
can multiply in poorly managed pools.
Most organisms capable of living in water
grow best at temperatures between
20C and 45C. Those normally
associated with the human body grow
well at 37C. Most pool bacteria tests
are incubated at 37C for this purpose.
Each viable bacterium multiplies to
form a colony and is therefore called a
colony-forming unit (CFU). Bacterial
results are reported as CFU per millilitre
or CFU per 100 mL of sample (CFU/mL
or CFU/100mL).
Microbiological monitoring for pool
operators is a quality assurance activity.
Good water treatment practices
and control of critical physical and
chemical parameters is quality control.
Microbiological standards for pools are
used by health authorities to establish
the seriousness of non-compliance
with chemical parameters and identify
causes. A short-term fall in chlorine
residual may not be enough to allow the
growth of Pseudomonas or rise in plate
count within pool water. Such growth
may be present if a pool was not
chlorinated adequately over many
hours or days.
Deficiencies in microbiological
parameters resulting from poor
management practices can
contribute to serious illness and
are grounds for prosecution by
health authorities.
Frequent monitoring of chemical
parameters is necessary to ensure
that critical limits of disinfection are
not breached. Close attention to filter
performance is also required.
Microbiological problems should be
insignificant in a well-managed pool
with an adequate disinfectant
residual, a pH maintained at the
recommended level and regular
filtration and backwashing.
When occasional, minor deviations
from the Regulatory limits occur and are
identified and corrected promptly, health
or water quality problems seldom occur.
All pools are required to be closed
while chemical and physical
parameters are outside
Regulatory limits.
Occasionally, microbiological problems
develop in pools because there is poor
circulation and turnover caused by
design inadequacies. These may occur
in certain parts of the pool, such as
entrance steps, which are cut away
from the side of the pool. When there
is a gathering of colloidal matter or a
lowering of chlorine levels in these areas,
microbiological contaminants may be
present and pool operators should satisfy
themselves that the water treatment
regime is satisfactory by conducting
microbiological testing.
Best Practice Model

Only pool operators who have a
microbiological sampling program
can achieve verification of the
effectiveness of their everyday
quality control parameters.
The frequency of monitoring should
reflect the relative microbiological
risk that each type of pool presents.
Quarterly monitoring is regarded as
sufficient for most pools.
Where there is a significant
deviation in disinfection below
regulatory limits microbiological
tests should be undertaken and the
data recorded for future reference.
Where microbiological samples
do not comply with accepted
Standards, re-sampling should be
undertaken to ensure that corrective
actions have been effective in
restoring microbiological quality.
Document all observations,
results and findings.
Appropriate Microbiological
Testing
Microbiological samples should be
submitted for analysis at a laboratory
that is NATA accredited for the particular
tests required.
Assessing Microbiological
Quality
Taken together, the standard plate count
test, the coliform test and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa test provide the simplest
means of assessing the microbiological
quality of swimming pool water.
Chemical parameters, such as pH,
disinfectant residual, ORP, TDS and
cyanuric acid, should be tested and
recorded at the time of sampling.
Any other relevant observations,
such as bather loading or plant failure,
should be noted.
Standard Plate Count

The standard plate count grows a
number of different bacterial species
without differentiating between them.
It gives a good indication of the overall
bacterial population within the pool
environment. The result is normally
reported as colony forming units per
millilitre of water (CFU/mL). A standard
plate count of less than 10 CFU/mL
and the absence of coliforms and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa can be
expected from most well-managed pools.
A standard plate count in excess of
100 CFU/mL clearly indicates that
operating conditions are unsatisfactory
and require investigationregardless of
the disinfectant used. It may be related
to filter performance or physical matter
present in the pool.
Coliform Count
Coliform bacteria, particularly Eschericia
coli (E. coli), are normal inhabitants of
the intestinal tract of humans and other
warm-blooded mammals where they are
present in great numbers.
The coliform test is extremely important
in assessing the immediate efficacy
of the disinfection process, especially
when bathers are using the pool at the
time of testing.
If coliforms are found to be present there
is likely to have been a serious failure in
the disinfection process at the time of
sampling, and a risk of gastric illness to
pool users from bacteria and viruses
found in the intestines.
Pseudomonas Aeruginosa
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a pathogenic
organism and often the cause of ear and
skin infections, particularly folliculitis.
Pseudomonas is an inhabitant of drains
and slimes and can often colonise in
filter media, particularly where there
is not frequent backwashing,
superchlorination or other oxidising
processes that penetrate the filters.
The presence of Pseudomonas may
indicate the possible presence of other
environmental pathogens, such as
Legionella, which, if unchecked, can
thrive in warmer pools.
Other Organisms
Provided satisfactory results are obtained
for these three specified tests, it is not
recommended that other organisms be
routinely tested unless a particular health
problem has been associated with a pool.
Staphylococcus is often found

where pool users are present and
its distribution within the water tends
to favour the surface. It is associated
with flaking skin, dandruff and nasal
secretions because chlorine sometimes
cannot immediately penetrate some
particles. Staphylococcus is further
controlled by effective water removal
at the surface by skimmers and spill
gutters and subsequent filtration.
Cryptosporidium is an issue of
importance to the pool operator.
It is a complex issue as it has wider
implications to pool management.
Refer to the Department of Human
Service Pool Fact Sheets located
at http://www.health.vic.gov.au/
for further advice on
Cryptosporidium.
Health authorities may be required to
sample pool water and test for specific
pathogens when investigating specific
illnesses. Generally, in the absence
of notified cases, testing for other
organisms other than required by
the Regulations is unwarranted. Pool
operators should seek advice from the
public health authority prior to taking
samples for specific pathogens.
Sampling Procedure
Sampling Location
Documentation
About 250 mL of sample is required

to conduct all recommended tests.
Sterile plastic bottles are recommended
because of the risk of glass breakage.
Bottles should be pre-treated with
sodium thiosulphate to neutralise
chlorine or bromine, thereby giving
a true indication of the water quality
experienced at the time of sampling.
Laboratories will normally prepare
these for their pool users.
A study commissioned by the

Department of Human Services in
1995 showed that in most pools there
is no significant difference between
sampling points when it comes to water
quality parameters, provided samples
are not taken from a return point.
Documentation is an essential part

of a quality assurance program.
Data recorded from a quality assurance
program will be of assistance in the
future in making operational decisions
based on objective evidence.
Take a microbiological sample by

removing the cap with one hand and
making sure nothing touches the inside
of the cap or bottle. The bottle is
immersed neck down in the water to
about 30 cm below the surface and tilted
to face horizontally away from the hand
and allowed to fill. The bottle can be
moved away from the sampling hand
until it is sufficiently full. It is then
removed and the cap is replaced.
The sample should be refrigerated
immediately and transported to the
laboratory without delay. Ideally testing
should be commenced within six hours
of sampling. Testing that is commenced
after 24 hours of sampling cannot yield
reliable information.
Figure 24 Microbiological Sampling
Technique
It is recommended that water samples

be taken from near a suction point in
the pool where users have not been
swimming nearby in the previous
60 seconds. This should ensure that
the tester is assessing the efficacy of
the residual treatment process and
has allowed a reasonable time for any
immediate contamination to be treated.
Sampling Frequency
It should not be necessary to take
frequent samples for microbiological
examination when appropriate
disinfectant residual and pH range is
maintained, the pool has good clarity
and is free from extraneous matter.
For quality assurance purposes, sampling
at the beginning of a season for seasonal
pools, commissioning of new pools and
at periodic intervals thereafter, is usually
enough to confirm that the disinfection
regime is adequate and the pool is
functioning adequately.
Quarterly bacteriological testing is
recommended as a guide for most pools.
Specialty pools, such as toddler pools,
hydrotherapy pools and spa pools can
be considered a higher risk because of
temperature, high bather loading and
pollution sources, and can justify more
frequent monitoring. Pools with variable
water quality or poor circulation and
hydraulics can also justify more frequent
monitoring.
6. Physical Management
of Water
Water Circulation
Overview
The purpose of circulating water is simply
to make sure that filtered, disinfected
water reaches all areas of the pool,
and polluted water is removed efficiently.
This requires an understanding of the
circulation patterns within the pool.
Like the circulation rate and turnover
period (see the chapter on Filtration),
circulation patterns are influenced by
the depth, volume and shape of the pool.
Other factors also include the purpose
of the pool, for example, free play, lap
swimming, wave pools and rivers, since
each will have inherent demands on
water circulation.
Effective circulation requires attention to
overall design; surface water draw-off;
inlets and outlets; circulation pumps;
flow rates; turnover; and the associated
interconnecting pipework.
Surface Water Draw-Off

Unsightly, unhealthy particulate matter
will tend to remain on the surface of
the water and the majority of organic
pollution and contamination is
concentrated at or near the surface
irrespective of the mixing effects of
the circulation system. Body fats,
oils, sunscreens and other oil-based
contaminants do not mix with water,
and tend to remain at or near the
surface. This is also a source of potential
infection, and can result in the formation
of a scum line around a pool.
It is recommended that pools with
low bather loads be constructed so that
20 per cent of the surface water is drawn
off for filtration. In leisure pools, or those
with a higher bather load, this may need
to be increased to as high as 80 per
cent. Spas, which have a particularly
high bather load for the volume of water
they contain, should almost always be
designed with the higher figure.
There are three basic systems for

removing surface waterin decreasing
order of efficiency (best to worst): deck
level, overflow channels, and skimmers.
Deck-Level (Wet Decks)

This system is becoming increasingly
common. The water in the pool is at
the same level as the pool surround
(wet deck). Some water always floods
over the edge and through a grill into a
perimeter channel. The water entering
these channels is transferred to a
balance tanksome balance tanks
utilise the perimeter channelling as well.
The balance tank acts as a reservoir,
storing any excess, and keeping an
amount available for when it is needed,
such as when the pool users get out, or
when a backwash is undertaken, thereby
preventing air from being drawn into the
filtration plant. Wet decks also reduce
wave action and enable maintenance of
a stable water level.
Overflow Channels
These are also known as scum gutters
and are common in older pools. Sills
around the pool perimeter allow surface
water entering them to flow through
connecting pipes to the filtration plant.
The sills should be uniformly level
throughout their length to avoid problems
with variations in water level from bather
displacement.
A number of refinements are available to
ensure that the water remains at the
optimum level for effective overflow
action. Water displaced by pool users can
be accommodated in a balance tank
from which it can be returned to the
circulation system. The balance tank
must be sized to suit requirements for
water displacement and backwashing
volumes.
Care in the design of the channelling

can substantially reduce the noise
created by the water flowing into the
channel. Attention should also be placed
on ensuring that contaminants from
the wet deck are not washed into the
filtration systemthere should be an
alternative means of cleaning the wet
deck, with suitable drainage.
An automatic make-up system can be

incorporated into a balance tank system,
topping up to a given level to keep a
minimum amount of water in the system.
The automatic make-up system must not
be set to fill to the capacity of the
balance tankotherwise it may fill when
there are no users, and when users enter
the pool, therefore displacing water, the
system will be overfull. Overflow
channels can be renovated to
incorporate a modified wet deck system.
Figure 25 Wet Deck on a Modern

Indoor Pool
Figure 26 Overflow Channel on an

Older Outdoor Pool
Skimmers
Outlets
Circulation Design
This basic device is installed at intervals

around the side of the pool. These act
as short, self-adjusting weirs which deal
with variations in water level arising
from bather displacement. Since their
efficiency is far less than the other
methods described, their use is only
recommended for domestic and low
bather loads pools.
These must be arranged so that there

is no risk of pool users being drawn
towards them, or trapped by them.
All suction pipes that are capable of
being connected to the full suction
pressure of the pump should be
connected to at least two separate
outlets at least two metres apart,
and three metres from the side walls.
The velocity of the pumped outlet
water should not exceed 0.5 m/s.
Outlet covers should be fitted to
prevent body parts from being
caught by the suction from outlets.
Figure 28 shows three basic circulation

designs for a traditionally shaped pool
tank. Each has advantages and
disadvantages, and careful consideration
must be given before choosing the
appropriate option and building a pool;
changes are often not possible once a
pool has been built. Each option is
discussed below.
Figure 27 Skimmer Box and Lint Trap
Figure 28 Three Circulation Options for a 25 m Pool
balance tank
deep end
shallow end
balance tank
deep end
shallow end
Inlets and Outlets

It is critical for safety reasons that inlets
and outlets should be strong enough
to withstand any likely impact, and be
fixed securely.
return
supply
Inlets
to
plant
room
from
plant
room
balance tank
Inlets carry water to the pool and must

be arranged so as to ensure that each
takes only its required proportion of flow.
There should be enough inlets to ensure
that the velocity of the water entering
the pool does not generally exceed
1.52 m/s at depths less that 1.8 m.
This should perhaps be as low as
0.5 m/s in shallow or sensitive areas,
for example around steps, where
turbulence might be a problem.
Procedures for dealing with inlets,
which are also water features (geysers,
sprays and jets), are usually dedicated
for the purpose. These are not regarded
as an integral part of the circulation
system, since they often do not run
constantly, but as intermittent features
of a centre.
deep end
shallow end
return
supply
base outlets
wall inlets
collection channel
Floor Inlet, Surface Outlet
Combination Inlet, Surface Outlet
Multiple Pools in a Complex
This common arrangement offers good

circulation. However, it can be a long
distance between the supply and return,
where circulation dead spots can occur.
Skimmers usually run around the whole
pool, providing consistent recovery of
soiled water. A recent improvement
has been to introduce a second row of
supply outlets along the pool, improving
circulation to all points. However this
also increases construction costs.
Supply water enters the tank from both

the floor and the walls, in a strategic
combination aimed at minimising dead
spots. This is by far the most effective
method of circulation, often used in less
regularly shaped poolshowever it is also
the most expensive.
It is increasingly common for facilities to

offer a combination of pools, each with a
separate filtration plant.
Side Inlet, Surface Outlet

Filtered water is supplied through the
wall at one end of the pool, and taken
from the opposing or adjacent edge
(skimmer), which often does not go
around the whole pool. This can lead
to large dead spots in the area furthest
from the supply and scum lines on walls
without skimmers.
Floor returns can also be used to return

water to the treatment plant. These are
often located at the deepest part of the
pool tank, and double as drains to allow
for maintenance of the tank itself.
Valves can be installed to control the
amount of supply and return water where
there is a particular need, such as for
pools with variable depth floors,
moveable bulkheads, or other changes
which might affect circulation.
It is recommended that pool tests be
periodically undertaken at several
locations (at the same time) to provide
the operator with some knowledge about
the circulation patterns occurring within
the pool. A higher concentration in one
area than another may indicate either a
lower bather load, or a lower flow of
treated water to that point.
Older facilities often have multiple pools

operating with only one filtration plant.
A single system for two or more pools
is quite common. Care should be taken
to ensure the hydraulics, chemical
monitoring and dosing are properly
designed and managed in each pool,
not in the overall plant.
Filtration
Overview
Filtration Principles
Types of Filters
Several key areas are important here:
In general, the greater the velocity of

water through the filter, the lower the
filtration efficiency. In practice, efficiency
falls off rapidly at high velocities.
Pressure Filters
Clarity
Turbidity
Filtration
Backwashing
Flocculation or coagulation.
Clarity of pool water is critical for
customer safety. It should be possible
to see the bottom of the pool at its
deepest point. If not, there is a physical
danger to anyone in distress below the
water surface. Lack of clarity may also
increase bather discomfort and reduce
disinfection. In practice, it must be
possible to see a small child on the
bottom of the deepest part when the
pool is being used.
Poor clarity is caused by turbidity,
colloidal or particulate matter suspended
in the water. It is important to establish
the cause of turbidity, so that it may be
dealt with directly. The most likely remedy
however, will be correct filtration and
backwashing, coupled with flocculation
or coagulation. This will convert the
particulate and colloidal matter into
filterable flocculus, or floc.
There are a number of factors to be

taken into account when specifying
filters. However, the baseline is that
there must be enough filtration capacity,
(that is, filter area), circulation rate
and turnover period, to cope with the
heaviest expected load. It is prudent to
over-specify, rather than under-specify
filtration capacity. This will allow for
a future increase in patronage without
loss of water quality.
Sand filters are recommended for

all non-domestic swimming pools.
Cheaper alternatives, such as cartridge
filters and pre-coat or diatomaceous
earth filters demand more care and
attention than sand filters. They cannot
always be relied on to cope with the
bathing conditions that public pools
may expect at certain times.
Figure 29 Medium Rate Pressure
Filter for Larger Pool
The capacity of the filtration system

should be based on expected maximum
bathing load, operating 24 hours a day.
Pools will benefit greatly from the
increased flexibility and the safeguards
of having more than one filter. Through
isolation of one or more filter units, a
restricted turnover rate can enable the
pool to be used during backwash,
maintenance or repair. This flexibility
permits and encourages a planned
inspection and maintenance program,
which is essential for filter efficiency.
Figure 30 Plant Room with
Multiple Filters
Pressure sand filters vessels are usually

constructed from fibreglass, glass
reinforced plastic, prefabricated mild
steel or stainless steel. These may be
medium and high rate, and are
commonly used in conjunction with
flocculants and coagulants for
commercial pools and spas, as well as
hotel, hydrotherapy and school pools that
are subject to variable bather loading
demands.
Figure 31 High Rate Sand Filter For
Spa or Small Pool
Low-Rate Filters
These may include vacuum sand, open
bed gravity fed filters. Though very
efficient, they are rarely utilised in indoor
pools because they tend to be large and
expensive. Gravity feed filter vessels are
usually constructed from concrete and
operate by gravity rather than pressure.
They have been used in many older
outdoors pools and are also used in
town drinking water treatment systems.
Figure 32 Old Style Gravity Sand Filter

Beds and Backwash Channel
Specifications
The Sand Bed
The Limits of Filtration
A filter should be designed to the

appropriate Australian Standards for
the type of filter and material used in its
construction, and it is recommended that
the following quality and performance
standards should be specified.
The normal grade of filter sand size for

conventional pool filtration is 0.45 to
1 mm. The bed depth should be at least
0.5 m. Depths have tended to increase
from 0.75 m on average up to about 1 m.
A common rule of thumb is: two-thirds
filter space for the media bed, leaving
one-third for expansion during backwash.
The average pore size of a pool sand filter

is 100 microns. There is no lower limit to
the size of particle that can be removed
given the many passes common in pool
circulation. With the aid of a coagulant,
a single pass at an appropriate flow
rate can almost completely remove all
suspended matterincluding colour and
other colloidal matter of sub-micron size.
A pressure or loss of head gauge

should be fitted to indicate the
operating pressure of the filter.
An automatic air release/vacuum
breaker and a safe, manually operated
quick air release mechanism should be
fitted to each filter.
A flow meter should be fitted (and
regularly serviced) to indicate filtration
water and backwash water flow rates.
A sight glass should be incorporated
into the outlet water pipe to observe
backwash effluent.
Figure 33 Filter Off-Gas Bleed and
Collectors
Sand filters can have either single or

multi-grade beds. An advantage of multi
grade beds is that in the event of minor
collector failure, the large-grade substrate
will prevent the finer sand from entering
the pool and operation will be
uninterrupted. In the event of failure with
single-grade media filters, collector failure
will usually result in sand entering the
pool. Whichever bed design is used, the
specification and minimum depth of the
filter sand recommended by the filter
manufacturer must be maintained.
Figure 34 Medium Rate Pressure Sand Filters Pressure Differential Gauges
460 mm minimum dia. access hole

bulk and auto
air release
viewing window
inlet
filter sand
250 mm
minimum dia.
sand hole
coarse media
(various grades)
slotted or perforated
lateral system
outlet
collection system
support (concreted)
Multi-grade bed design

460 mm minimum dia. access hole
bulk and auto
air release
viewing window
inlet
filter sand
250 mm
minimum dia.
sand hole
coarse media
lateral system
with slotted nozzles
outlet
Single-grade bed design
collection system
support (concreted)
Coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulants enhance the removal
of dissolved, colloidal or suspended
material by bringing it out of solution
or suspension as solids (coagulation).
These solids then clump together
(flocculation), producing a floc, which
is more easily trapped in a filter.
Coagulants will be less effective where
pH values are above the recommended
operating range. A minimum alkalinity
of about 75 ppm as calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) is required for effective
flocculation. Operators should follow
the manufacturers recommendations
for the use of a particular product to
achieve best results.
Ozone Treatment
Ozone treatment breaks down colloids
and encourages microflocculation.
A coagulant may not be needed.
Certainly, if the water is turbid, dull or
not sparkling, alum (aluminium sulphate),
or PAC (poly-aluminium chloride or
aluminium hydroxychloride) can be used.
Dosing Coagulants and

Flocculants
Dosing can be by means of chemical
dosing pumps or by manual hand dosing.
Where they are dosed continuously, the
pumps must be capable of accurately
dosing the small quantities required.
Within a swimming pool circulation
system, it is important that coagulants
do not build up or reach the pool in any
appreciable concentration. It is also
important that the gelatinous floc does
not impair filtration by creating blockage.
This can be achieved by applying the
correct dosage rates and by frequent
backwashing, which also contributes to
dilution. Increases in pH should also be
avoided to prevent the coagulant from
disassociating and returning to the pool.
Figure 35 Dosing Tanks with Mixers

for Adding Coagulant
Backwashing
Reversing the flow of pool water back
through the filters (to flush the trapped
material to waste) is essential in caring
for the filters and maintaining water
quality. It should be conducted whenever
the differential between the filter inlet
pressure and the filter outlet pressure
reaches the level identified by the filter
manufacturer.
Figure 36 Pressure Differential Gauges
Injection
The injection point should ensure that
coagulant mixes well with the circulation
water before the water reaches the filter
media. Injection points should also be
located well away from sampling points
for chlorine residual, pH value or ORP
determinations. Contamination of the
sensors by the localised high
concentrations may give a false picture
of water quality and adversely affect the
sensors themselves. For safety reasons,
they should also be sited away from
other chemical dosing points.
Backwashing should be conducted from

daily to weekly, depending on bathing
load. If users are present at this time,
care must be taken not to significantly
reduce the depth of the water in the
pool. Consideration should also be given
to the effect cold make-up water may
have on pool users. This may be of
particular significance for people with
disabilities, pre-school swim lessons and
hydrotherapy pool operators. Therefore, it
is advisable to schedule backwash for the
end of day.
Period
Flow
Maintenance
The various filter types may differ in

backwash duration. The duration
recommended by the manufacturer may
only seem to clean the filter. However,
a viewing window or clear sight glass
on the backwash discharge pipe is the
only way to positively check progress.
It should be possible to observe the
clarity of the effluent water throughout
the period of filter backwash. Ideally,
backwashing should continue until
the backwash water is clear. After
backwashing, there should be a brief
pause before normal flow is restarted
this will allow the expanded filter bed
to settle. Some backwash systems
have a rinse cycle for this purpose.
The backwash flow must be fast

enough to expand the media bed without
losing any media to waste, so the
manufacturers recommendations are
critical. Air scouring heavy filter beds first
can help separate the media particles
and coagulated material, thereby
increasing the efficiency of backwash.
A viewing window to show the top of the
media bed will allow operators to check
that correct expansion is achieved.
Backwash flow rates should not be so
high that the bed expands beyond the
overflow level, resulting in loss of filter
media to waste. The backwash water pipe
must be large enough to discharge the
wastewater without a build-up of pressure
inside the filter tank. The pump(s) must
therefore be able to supply the correct
amount of water for the correct amount
of time, to achieve effective backwash.
A word of caution: it was common

practice in filter construction prior to
1970 to use asbestos. This includes
pressure sand as well as vacuum sand
(gravity fed) filters. Accordingly, any
remedial work will need to be conducted
by experts in this area.
Figure 37 Multiport Valve on a Large,

Open Gravity Filter
Filters should be opened up and

inspected internally at least once per
year by an expert, familiar with the
problems that can arise. This means
attention to sand quality/quantity,
collector condition, corrosion and
structural integrity. Any unusual signs
fissures, an uneven bed, mud balling
and channellingneed investigation.
Changing filter media is periodically
required and depends upon a range
of factors including:
Pool volume
Turnover
Pool water temperature
Bather load
Water balance
Cleaning regime
Location (indoor/outdoor)
Type of filter media
Type of filter.
Discharge
Backwash water must be discharged
according to the requirements of
the local water authorities and the
Environment Protection Authority.
The volume, quality and frequency
of the backwash water discharge
may be regulated.
Professional advice may be required
to assist with decisions to replace
filter media.
Heating and
Air Circulation
Overview
Pool Water Heating
Maintaining satisfactory environmental

conditions in the pool hall and all other
areas of the building is essential for
the comfort of pool users, staff and
spectatorsand for the pool to operate
successfully over a reasonably extended
working life.
The actual heating of the pool water is a

relatively simple operation. It is generally
carried out by either a closed-loop heat
exchange system, or through direct
heating of the pool/spa water using a
pool/spa heater (and/or solar energy).
Sometimes heat recovery systems are
used as the primary source of heat.
The heating and ventilation of the pool

hall needs to take into account a wide
range of factors. These include: bathing
load; water temperature and quality;
plant room location; integration with
the building structure; materials and
insulation of the pool hall envelope;
capital; operating; and life cycle costs.
The temperature of the air and the
water need to be linked and balanced so
as to get the right humidity, optimise user
comfort and minimise evaporation from
the pool water. It is also necessary to
ensure that the air circulation system
distributes the air effectively over the
whole of the pool hall area. This is
necessary in order to:
Provide comfortable conditions for
occupants
Remove any chlorinous odours
Reduce the risk of condensation
Control air movement within the
occupied area so it does not produce
uncomfortable draughts.
Figure 38 Closed Loop Heat Exchanger
The heater is generally sized on the basis

of raising the pool water temperature by
0.5C per hour. If a pool is being heated
from cold, the rate must be no more than
0.25C per hour, otherwise rates of
expansion of materials may cause
problems to the pool structure or lining.
Particularly in a new pool, designers
need to determine the precise rate of
temperature rise.
The heating control system must be
capable of coping accurately with a wide
range of temperatures. It may be
possible, through the use of mixing
valves and associated equipment, to
serve different pools at different
temperatures from a single heat
exchanger. But it is recommended that a
separate heat exchanger and controls be
provided for each separate pool water
area, so that different temperatures can
be more easily achieved.
Figure 39 Gas Fired Direct Pool

Water Heater
Figure 40 Heavy Duty Gas or

Electric Boilers
Heavy duty gas or electric boilers supply water

to heat exchanger closed loop.
Temperature
There has been a consistent trend
towards higher water temperatures
in recent years, encouraged by the
substantial growth in aquatic leisure
activities. The temperatures of
multi-function indoor pools, however,
need to reflect the aquatic activities
being undertaken. Outdoor heated
pools tend to operate within a range
of 2629C.
People with limited mobility may require
higher water temperatures to gain
therapeutic benefits from aquatic
based activity. However, operators
tempted to join the move towards higher
temperatures should bear in mind that
they do create a number of problems:
Microorganisms multiply faster so
filters are increasingly likely to become
colonised.
Pool users get hotterlimiting more
vigorous swimming and increasing
bather pollution through sweat and
body oil contamination in the water.
Energy costs, direct and indirect,
are higherwhatever efficiency or
conservation methods are used.
Air temperatures, which are linked to
those of the water, rise toomaking the
atmosphere less comfortable for staff
and others (as can the higher moisture
levels).
There is more moisture in the pool
atmosphere, even when relative
humidity is controlled at the
same level. This carries a risk of
condensation, and possibly corrosion
and deterioration of the building
fabric, structure and equipment.
Chloramines tend to form more rapidly.
With an increasingly wide variety of

pool uses, and operators attempting to
program more flexible pool operations,
it is difficult to select a single appropriate
or optimum operating temperature for
any particular pool. Rather than catering
to any single user group, it may be better
to seek a happy medium. The large
volumes of water involved make it
impossible to vary water temperatures
rapidly in any one water area. This means
that the selection and accurate control of
the optimum water temperature for each
pool is essential to maintain operational
efficiency and customer satisfaction.
The temperature of the pool hall air
should normally be maintained at around
the water temperatureno more than
1C above. However, it is recommended
that an air temperature of 29C or more
should generally be avoided. However,
there may have to be compromises
where, for example, the elderly or parents
and toddlers have to be accommodated
in the same area as fitness swimming.
Pool Hall Ventilation and

Air Circulation
This is a complex and critical area.
It is generally recommended that air
is well distributed over the whole area,
and that air movement within the
occupied zone is maintained within
acceptable conditions for bather comfort.
The ventilation system is normally the
primary means of removing
contaminants from the air. It also
controls pool hall air quality, temperature,
humidity, evaporation from the pool
surface and condensation to maintain
comfortable environmental conditions.
It is generally recommended that the
relative humidity be maintained between
50 per cent and 60 per cent throughout
the pool hall area. Levels higher than
60 per cent produce a risk of discomfort
and condensation, and levels lower than
50 per cent can increase evaporation
and energy use.
The ideal ventilation rate for a pool hall,
taking into account varying external
conditions, bather loads, evaporation
rate and water quality, is very difficult
to estimate. It will, by necessity, change
with varying circumstances. Effective,
well-distributed mechanical supply and
extraction ventilation systems are,
however, essential to maintain
satisfactory internal environmental
conditions under all potential variations.
The Australian Standard AS1668.22002
can offer some guidance in this area.
But it is generally recommended that
advice is sought from a design engineer
with experience in swimming pool and
handling systems.
Separate Areas
Energy Management
Areas for eating and drinking within the

pool building are a potential problem.
Their individual requirements should
be assessed carefully. These areas do
not necessarily need to be physically
separated from the pool hall, but
environmental conditions which are
different from those around the pool
should be considered.
Swimming pools are one of the

few building types operating at high
temperature and humidity throughout
the year. This results in potentially high
heat losses and means that all pool
buildings should be well insulatedabove
basic building regulation standards if
possible. They should also be well sealed
from the outside and surrounding areas.
Sources of Ventilation
Heating the ventilation air will generally

be one of the major energy loads for a
pool. A simple heat exchange device,
such as a plate heat exchanger or
run-around coils, should generally be
provided to reclaim as much energy as
possible from the exhaust air, in order
to optimise energy efficiency.
The best source for ventilation is fresh air.

This should be the first consideration for
new pools. A system with a high ratio of
recirculated pool air increases the
potential for deterioration of equipment
and components made of metal or nylon
(for example, structural steelwork, roof
and ceiling fittings, air handling plant
and equipment). Therefore, if an air
recirculation system is used for energy
efficiency, it should be possible to vary
the ratio of fresh air to recirculated air.
During periods of very high bather loads
or if high levels of contaminants are
present in the pool atmosphere, 100 per
cent fresh air may be required. Air intakes
should be located away and upwind from
exhaust outlets.
Other heat recovery devices and energy

sources can be considered, such as
thermal wheels (rotary heat exchanger),
heat pumps, combined heat/power
units, geothermal and solar energy.
These should be carefully evaluated
over the projected life cycle of the
building services installation.
It may be necessary to run the pool
ventilation system when the pool is
not in use, to maintain environmental
conditions within the pool hall and
prevent condensation and possible
building or equipment damage.
An effective pool cover may reduce
condensation, evaporation and pool
water heat loss and minimise the
need for the ventilation system to
operate out of hours. This will also
substantially reduce energy use.
Figure 41 Pool Covers
Pool covers save on heat and prevent leaves

and windblown debris from entering during
closure.
7. Maintenance
Maintenance Systems
Overview
The maintenance of equipment should
only be undertaken by suitably qualified
persons and in strict accordance with
manufacturers recommendations.
Incorrect maintenance can not only
lead to a shortened equipment life span,
but in some circumstances may place
operator and public safety at risk.
There are two philosophies regarding
maintenance. The first is a reactive
approach. This involves waiting until
equipment is faulty before taking action.
This approach is fraught with peril, as
there is also the risk of damage to
ancillary equipment in event of total
failure. For example, circulation pump
bearing failure may result in damage to
the pump motor. Managers should also
consider the unscheduled interruption
to operations and customer service.
A more responsible attitude toward
equipment maintenance is the proactive
or preventative approach. This involves
periodical, or programmed, maintenance
of equipment within set timeframes
monthly, quarterly and annually. The
primary advantage to this approach is
that any interruption to operation can be
scheduled for a time that will have the
least impact on customer service.
Manufacturers are a good source of
information as to when and what
maintenance is required to keep
equipment operational, as well
as a budget estimate of cost.
The following plant and equipment

should be considered in a periodical
maintenance schedule:
Circulation pumps
Dosing pumps/feeders
Heating hot water pumps
Filters
Control panels
Sample cells
Heat exchanger/calorifier
Disinfection system
Pipes and valves
Sensors
Heaters/boilers
Air handling units
Meters and gauges.
Winterisation
Winter and off-season care of a
swimming pool is important to prevent
potential damage to the pool structure
and equipment.
If a pool must be emptied, it is advisable
to do so for the minimum amount of time
possible. When full, there is equal
pressure exerted on the pool structure
from the water within as well as from
groundwater and the surrounding earth
on the outside. When emptied there is no
longer the support of the water within the
pool. This can lead to movement and
subsequent damage to the pool structure
and can result in water leakage when
refilled. The result can be excessive water
usage, inability to maintain temperature
(if heated) and a drop in water quality.
It is therefore safer, easier and more
economical to keep the structure
protected from temperature and
pressure changes that may cause
cracking and straining of the pool
structure and expansion joints by
leaving the pool filled.
General Procedure for

Winter Care
Traditionally, in Australia, outdoor pools
are left full of water and unattended
during winter or the off-season. This
results in a significant build-up of
contamination from organic material
(leaves, algae, etc). This is usually dealt
with by draining the pool and scrubbing
the walls and floor, before re-filling and
treating in preparation for usage.
Alternatively, utilise a winter/seasonal
maintenance program. This involves
periodical water turnover, testing,
chemical addition, including
superchlorination, and vacuuming to
minimise debris, algae and corrosion.
This should result in minimum expense
and preparation time before reopening
for the new season. Algae can be
prevented by maintaining good
disinfectant residuals and avoiding
excessive cyanuric acid levels, as this
may reduce the effectiveness of the
chlorine in controlling algae. It is
important that any chemicals used
during a winterisation program do
not leave any undesirable residues.
Chlorine is an effective chemical
to use in a winterisation program.
It is readily available, easy to use,
prevents algae growth and leaves
no undesirable residue.
Unattended Pools
Chemical Dosage Pumps
If the pool is left unattended, the

following action should be taken:
Flush the head by placing the suction

hose of the pump into a bucket of fresh
water and manually operate the pump
for a short period.
Pumps
Power should be disconnected.
Surface corrosion should be removed.
The shaft of the pump should be
periodically rotated.
Gas Chlorinators
Decommissioning and servicing should
be according to the manufacturers
recommendations and only by suitably
qualified personnel.
Incorrect servicing of this equipment
can be life-threatening.
Erosion (Tablet) Feeders

Decommission and flush clean
according to the manufacturers
recommendations.
Adequate safety precautions should
be taken when opening the feeder,
as chlorine gas may have formed.
Sensors
Sensors should be removed, cleaned
and stored in an appropriate wetting
solution.
The manufacturer will usually be able to
supply instructions, as well as wetting
solution and bottles, for this purpose.
Sensors should not be left to dry out,
as this will cause irreparable damage.
Clean the exterior with warm soapy

water (with the power disconnected!)
to remove any build-up of chemical
residue.
Pumps and injectors should also
be serviced at this time by qualified
personnel.
Replace any worn or damaged
chemical delivery tubing.
Heaters/Boilers
Maintenance and decommissioning/
recommissioning should be carried
out according to the manufacturers
recommendations and only by suitably
qualified personnel.
Winter/Seasonal
Maintenance Program
In addition to the actions described
for the above equipment, the following
procedure should also be carried on a
regular basis by operators utilising a
winter/seasonal maintenance program:
Add fresh water to the pool to restore
the volume to the normal operating
level.
Turn on the circulation system and
allow it to run for at least one turnover
period. Pumps may need to be primed.
Vacuum the pool.
Backwash the filters.
Measure and manually adjust the water
chemical parameters (disinfectant,
pH, alkalinity, cyanuric acid, calcium
hardness, etc).
Shut down the circulation system.
Problem Sorter
Overview
This problem sorter should be treated as a guide only. The possible causes listed may not necessarily be the correct, or only, ones.
Misdiagnosis or inappropriate action can exacerbate some problems to a point where patron and staff safety is at risk. Accordingly,
only suitably qualified or experienced staff should endeavour to diagnose or undertake corrective action. If there is any doubt
whatsoever, it is best to seek professional advice.
Problem
Possible Cause(s)
Total alkalinity too high
Initial Response
Re-test and confirm reading.
In some instances high supply water

levels can cause this problem.
Overuse of carbon dioxide can also
contribute to this problem.
pH too high
Backwash pool (or dilute) and re-test next day.

Repeat until the correct level is attained.
Alternatively, reduce the level with dry acid.

If the pH is above statutory requirement, close the
pool/spa until within range.
Ensure that the pH correction system is turned on
and operating normally.
The pH correction agent (CO2 or
acid whichever is applicable) storage
tank may be empty.
Check the pH correction agent storage tank level.
No sample stream flow.
Check that there is no flow restriction to the

sensor sample water.
The pH sensor may be fouled, out of

calibration or faulty.
Clean/calibrate/replace sensor.
Some disinfectants can cause the pH

level to rise (sodium hypochlorite) and
may be an indicator of disinfectant
over dosage.
Test the disinfectant level. If above statutory

requirements take action as per Disinfectant
High in this Problem Sorter.
Re-test and confirm reading. If the pH is outside

statutory requirement, the pool/spa must be
closed to pool users until within range.
pH too low
Ensure that the pH correction system is operating

normally.
Check the system components for malfunction.
An interruption to sensor sample
stream flow may cause inaccurate
readings.
Check that there is no restriction to the sensor

sample stream flow.

Clean/calibrate/replace sensor.
Check frequency and quantity of pH correction

agent, dosage.
pH erratic
The total alkalinity level may be

incorrect for the pH level required.
Check the total alkalinity level.
Problem
pH difficult to change
Calcium hardness too high
Possible Cause(s)
Initial Response

Clean/calibrate/replace the pH sensor.
Electrical, electromagnetic or radio

interference may be causing the
sensor reading to fluctuate.
Seek technical advice.
The total alkalinity may be too high.

This may be due to high source water
levels.
Check the total alkalinity level.
High levels of calcium are uncommon

in source water. It is normally
attributable to inadvertent excess
dosage of calcium chloride or calcium
hypochlorite.
Check that the pH correction system is operating

normally (pumps, injectors, controller set point, etc).
Backwash (or dilute) the pool and retest the next

day. Repeat backwashing (or dilution) until the
correct level is attained.
Discontinue use of calcium-based products.
Scale build-up appearing
Hardness salts may coming out of

solution.
Test chemical levels and adjust according

Langeliers Saturation Index.
Disinfectant too low
High disinfectant levels may cause

the test reagent to bleach and
mistakenly appear to be low.
Re-test and confirm the reading with a 10:1 dilution

test. If the disinfectant level is outside statutory
requirement, the pool/spa must be closed to pool
users until within range.
Check the level in the disinfectant storage tank.
The disinfectant sensor may be

fouled, out of calibration or faulty.
If the solenoid fails in the closed
position it will prevent water from
delivering disinfectant.
Clean/calibrate/replace the sensor.

Check that the dosage control and delivery
system are operating normally.
For sodium hypochlorite systems:

Check that the power supply to the dosage pump
is turned on and there is power available.
Check for airlocks in the chlorine pump head and
delivery tubing.
Check also the suction/discharge valves for
contamination and the delivery tubing for leakage.
Check the chlorine pump pressure relief valve for
discharge. If there is discharge, this may indicate
a blocked delivery line or injector.
Ensure that the dosage controller is turned on and
has power.
Check the dosage controller set point. (If the
controller is at, or above set point, no dosage will
occur). The set point may require adjustment.
Problem
Possible Cause(s)
Initial Response
For erosion feed systems:
Ensure that the dosage controller is turned on
and has power.
Check the dosage controller set point. (If the
controller is at, or above set point, no dosage
should occur).
Check that the solenoid valve is working
correctly.
Disinfectant too high
The disinfectant sensor may be

fouled, out of calibration or faulty.
Check that there is no restriction to the sensor

sample stream.
A lack of sample stream flow may be

causing incorrect readings.
Re-test and confirm the reading with a 10:1 dilution

requirement, the pool/spa must be closed to pool
users until within range.
The system may be siphoning due to

contamination of the dosage pump
valves or pressure retention (antisiphon) valve.
The solenoid valve may be stuck open
and delivering disinfectant
continuously.
If necessary, reduce disinfectant levels with sodium

thiosulphate.
Check that the dosage control and delivery system
are operating normally and
clean/calibrate/replace the sensor.
For liquid chlorine systems:
Check the dosage pump suction and discharge
valves for contamination, as well as the
diaphragm of the pressure retention (antisiphon) valve for contamination.
For erosion feed systems:
Check that the solenoid valve is operating
correctly.
ORP too low
Disinfection low, pH too high, cyanuric

acid too high.
The ORP sensor may be fouled, out of
ORP too high
Disinfectant level is
difficult to maintain
Disinfectant too high, pH too low.

The ORP sensor may be fouled, out of
In pools not stabilised with cyanuric

acid, the sunlight can rapidly reduce
disinfectant levels.
If the level is outside statutory requirement, the

pool/spa must be closed to pool users until within
range.
Check the disinfectant delivery and control
systems.
Add cyanuric acid to at least 30 mg/L.
Excessive contamination may be

overloading the disinfection system.
Check the bather load history and look for a

correlation.
Problem
Possible Cause(s)
Initial Response
Cannot get test kit

readings for free chlorine
residual
The reagent may be bleached by

excessive chlorine level.
Test the disinfectant level with a 10:1 dilution test.

If the disinfectant level is outside statutory
requirements, the pool/spa must be closed to
pool users until back within range.
The reagent may have deteriorated.

They have a limited life span,
particularly in a warm environment.
Contact the supplier for more
information on shelf life.
Check the reagent use-by date.
This may be attributable to high

combined chlorine levels caused
by excessive bather load or
contamination from other sources.
Quaternary ammonia based
chemicals, for instance, are
sometimes inadvertently used for
concourse clean down. These
ammonia based chemicals combine
with chlorine to form the offensive
compounds.
Test the combined chlorine level.
A build-up of organic material in

overflow channels and/or balance
tanks can also contribute to the
problem.
Cleaning of overflow channels and balance

tanks should occur as periodical maintenance
(if practical).
If the growth is green/black in colour,

it may be algae. If not, it may be
biofilm of a bacteria colony.
Superchlorinate during closure, scrub the affected

area and vacuum to waste. Backwash and add
coagulant.
The water has an offensive

odour and is causing eye
and/or throat irritation
Slimy growth on the pool

walls, floor or grouting
Superchlorinate during closure, then backwash and

add coagulant. It may be necessary to repeat this
course of action on a regular basis, as a proactive
measure.
If the problem persists it may be necessary to
undergo continuous dilution of the pool/spa water.
Alternatively, it may be necessary to re-evaluate
the filtration systems efficacy in managing the
bathing load.
If the problem persists it may be worthwhile

having a sample analysed to help identify the
organism.
Cyanuric acid High
Cloudy water
High levels of cyanuric acid may

reduce the effectiveness of chlorine.
This may result in algal blooms.
The circulation pumps may have

failed, or flow may be restricted by
clogged lint screens/baskets.
Check the circulation pump(s) and lint

screens/baskets.
The filter(s) may be dirty and require

cleaning.
Check the filter(s) pressure differentials.

Backwash the filter(s).
The bathing load may be too high for

the filtration system capabilities.
Reduce the bathing load, allow the water

to recover.
The filter media may be old and

clogged. This may result in
channelling and ineffective filtration.
Superchlorinate the filter media during closure.

If symptoms persistent, inspect the filter vessel.
Backwash (or dilute) the pool and re-test the next

day. Repeat until the correct level is attained.
Problem
Water clarity generally

poor
Possible Cause(s)
Initial Response
If the filtered water collector system is

broken, contaminants and filter media
may enter the pool.
Inspect and replace if necessary the filtered water

collector system.
Mineral salts may be coming out of

solution.
Check and where necessary correct pH, alkalinity

and calcium hardness according to Langeliers
Saturation Index.
A high pH may cause coagulant to be

present in the water. This is usually
characterised by a white
discolouration.
Check for coagulant overdose and/or high pH.
The discolouration could be due to

contamination by algae.
Superchlorinate during closure, backwash and add

coagulant. Maintain disinfectant levels at all times.
High cyanuric acid levels may reduce

the effectiveness of the chlorine, to a
level that allows an algae bloom.
If symptoms persist, check for high levels of

cyanuric acid. If high levels of cyanuric acid are
present, dilute the pool water until normal levels
are attained. It will then be necessary to take
action as per above.
In high concentrations chlorine and

bromine (especially) may cause a
green coloration of water.
Test the disinfectant level with a 10:1 dilution

requirement, the pool/spa must be closed to
pool users until within range. Action as per
Disinfectant High in this Problem Sorter.
In full-stream ozone/chlorine
systems, it is very common to
experience green coloration if the
ozone is off-line for extended periods.
Coagulation with poly-aluminium-chloride may

assist in the removal of this coloration.
Systems utilising anthracite or other

carbon products in the filters can also
experience a green discolouration.
Coagulation with poly-aluminium-chloride may

assist in the removal of the coloration in this
instance also.
Although uncommon, copper

presence in the water may also cause
the green discolouration.
Particularly if the saturation index is tending toward

scale forming according to Langeliers Saturation
Index. If the discolouration persists it may be
necessary to test for copper presence.
Check for a pattern to the problem.

For example, is it only during periods
of heavy usage? Does it clear after
backwash?
Check disinfectant residual levels. If an outdoor

pool, check stabiliser level is not too high, or too
low.
Ensure correct backwash frequency and coagulant
dosage.
Check the filter media for contamination,
deterioration or for the need to flocculate
or add media.
Problem
Possible Cause(s)
Temperature Low
Initial Response
Check that the heating thermostat is set at the
normal temperature.
Check that the circulation pump(s) are operational.
If not, refer to Circulation failure in this Problem
Sorter.
Check that the Boiler is operational. If not refer to
Heater malfunction in this Problem Sorter.
Temperature High
Dilution with cold make-up water after

backwashing may cause a temporary
drop in temperature.
Check when the last backwash was performed.
Wrong temperature setting. Solenoid

or valve failure.
Check that the thermostat is set at the normal

temperature.
Check that the heating valve is not stuck open.
Heater malfunction
The heating hot water pump may have

failed.
Note: in some installations the
heating hot water pump is interlocked
with the heater operation and will
automatically shutdown with the
heater and therefore may not be at
fault.
Check that the heating hot water pump is

operational. If not, call service personnel.
Reset the heater once only.
If still unresolved, call service personnel.
There may have been a power failure

and the heater did not restart
automatically.
Circulation failure
Incorrect valve positions on pump(s)

or filter(s) can cause extensive
damage to any filtration system.
Check that there is sufficient water for the

circulation pump(s) to operate. If the water level is
low, ensure that the make-up system is functioning
correctly.
Check that the circulation pump is turned on at the
power supply and control panel. Check suction and
discharge pressure gauges (as well as any other
flow indicators) for normal pump operation.
Check the valve positions on the pump and filters.
Filter inlet pressure is

high and the outlet
pressure is low
Filter is dirty.
Backwash filter.
If the problem persists, it may indicate

that the filter is blocked and the
media requires replacement. It may
also indicate that there is not enough
water flow to backwash effectively.
Check the quantity of coagulant utilised. Excessive

coagulant may cause the filter media to become
clogged and result in poor filtration.
Problem
Possible Cause(s)
Initial Response
Filter inlet and outlet

pressures are both high
If a valve on the discharge side of the

filter is closed past its normal
position, the water flow may be
restricted and cause an increase in
filter pressure.
Check the valve positions on the discharge

pipework of the filter.
Poor air quality
Check that the air-handling system is operating

normally. Check the air filters and clean or replace
as required.
If necessary, check damper operation.
8. References
Glossary
Acid A chemical which lowers pH value
when added to pool water.
Acidity A measure of the acid content of
water; generally expressed in mg/L or
ppm; important for pH value control.
Activated carbon Carbon treated for use
as an adsorption filter medium for
removing chlorine, ozone and
contamination.
Air scour Air forced up through a filter
bed prior to backwash for the purpose of
expanding the filter media and loosen dirt
particles.
Algacide A chemical that aids in killing,
controlling and preventing algae.
Algae Simple form of microscopic plant
life that contains chlorophyll and thrives
on sunlight.
BCDMH Bromo-chloro-dimethyl
hydantoin. It produces hypobromous
acid when dissolved in water.
Cyanuric acid A stabiliser that can be

added to pool water to reduce chlorine
loss due to sunlight.
Boiler Heats water or air via a heat

exchange device, that is, a closed
loop boiler.
Decommissioning The process of

ceasing the operation of equipment.
Breakpoint chlorination The point at

which the combined chlorine level in
the pool, rising as chlorine is added, falls;
it indicates that nitrogenous pollution is
being successfully oxidised.
Bromamines Products of the reaction
between bromine and ammonia.
Buffer A combination or weak acids,
weak alkalis and their salts that resist
changes in pH.
Calcium chloride Used to increase
calcium hardness.
Alkali A chemical which raises pH value
of pool water, also called a base.
Calcium hardness A measure of the

calcium salts dissolved in pool water.
Alkalinity A measure of the alkaline
content of water; generally expressed
in mg/L or ppm; a measure of the
resistance to change in pH value.
Calorifier A heat exchanger used to heat

pool water indirectly.
Aluminium sulphate (alum)

A coagulant, usually supplied in a
granular form.
Ammonia A chemical that forms from
the breakdown of urea in urine and
sweat.
Amoeba Single-celled organism.
Amperometric sensor Pool water
analysers that measure hypochlorous
acid and calibrated to monitor free
chlorine.
Backwashing Cleaning of the filter by
reversing the direction of water flow up
through the filter media to waste.
Balance tank A reservoir of water
between the pool itself and the rest of
the circulation system on the return side
of the pump. It maintains a constant pool
water level and supply to the pumps, and
holds water displaced by bathers.
Bather load A measure of the number
of bathers in a pool over a set period of
time; it should be linked to the capacity
of the treatment system and pool safety.
Carbon dioxide Gas used to lower pH.

Chloramine Produced when free
available chlorine combines with
ammonia and other nitrogenous wastes.
Chloroform A product of the reaction
between chlorine and organic nitrogen
compounds; one of the trihalomethanes.
Coagulant A material which forms a
gelatinous precipitate in water and
causes the agglomeration of finely
divided particles into larger particles.
De-humidifier A device for removing

moisture for the air.
De-ozonation Removing ozone
disinfectant from water before it returns
to the pool.
Diatomaceous earth A powder
consisting of fossilised skeletal remains
of microscopic marine plant life that is
capable of filtering extremely small
particles.
Dichlor Short for dichloroisocyanuric
acid. A type of stabilised pool chlorine.
E. coli A bacterium in faecesone of the
coliform organisms routinely monitored
for signs of pollution.
Erosion feeder A simple device that
allows a steady flow of water to erode a
stick or tablet of disinfectant liberating
the active ingredient. Adjusting the flow
rate through the feeder can control the
erosion rate.
Flocculant A chemical compound
(commonly alum) added to some sand
filters that aids filtration by forming a
gelatinous mass on the surface of the
filter bed to trap fine particles.
Flocculus/floc The gelatinous mass that
forms with the addition of a flocculant.
Coliforms Bacteria of the intestine,

of which E. coli is a common example.
Flooded suction Describes the process

of introduction of supply water to the
pump where the level of the supply water
is above the level of the pump inlet.
Collectors (laterals, filter nozzles)

Interior bottom part of the filter that
collects the filtered return water.
Fluidisation of sand filter beds

Suspending the sand by backwashing
force and sometimes air scouring.
Colloids Very fine suspended matter in

water that contributes to turbidity.
Folliculitis An infection of the hair follicle

caused by bacteria.
Combined bromine A measure of the

bromamines in pool water.
Free chlorine A measure of the chlorine

(the sum of hypochlorous acid and
hypochlorite ion) that is available for
disinfection.
Coagulation The action of a coagulant.
Combined chlorine A measure of the

chloramines in pool water.
Gas chlorinator A device that controls

the release of chlorine gas from bulk
supply.
Oxidation-Reduction Potential (ORP)

A measure of the oxidative powers of the
water which is measured in millivolts.
Halogen The chemical family that

includes chlorine and bromine (and
iodine).
Ozone (O3), ozonation A gas generated

on-site and used to purify pool water by
oxidation.
Hardness A measure of all the calcium

and magnesium salts in pool water (total
hardness). See also calcium, permanent
and temporary hardness.
PAC Poly aluminium chloride

a commonly used liquid coagulant.
Heat pump A refrigerant-based heat

pumping system.
Humic acid A constituent of water that
reacts with halogen disinfectants to form
trihalomethanes.
Hydrochloric acid (muratic)
An acid used (with care) to lower
pool water pH value.
Hypobromous acid The main active
factor in all bromine disinfectants.
Hypochlorite Ionic base of hypochlorous
acid.
Hypochlorite based disinfectants
(hypo) Sodium hypochlorite (liquid pool
chlorine); calcium hypochlorite (granular
pool chlorine).
Permanent hardness That part which

does not precipitate from the water on
heating; it consists of calcium and
magnesium salts other than carbonates
and bicarbonates.
pH A measure of the acidity, alkalinity or
neutrality of water on a logarithmic scale
of 1.014.0. A pH below 7.0 is acidic and
above 7.0 is alkaline.
PPE Abbreviation for personal protective
equipment which may include breathing
respirator, safety goggles, hearing
protection, gloves and coveralls.
ppm Abbreviation for parts per million.
A measurement that indicates the
amount of chemical by weight in
milligrams per litre of water (mg/L).
Sodium bisulphate (dry acid)

Used to lower pH.
Sodium carbonate (soda ash)
Used to raise pH.
Sodium chloride Commonly referred
as pool saltadded to pools with salt
chlorinators.
Sodium thiosulphate A neutraliser
used for dechlorination and in the
microbiological testing of water
disinfected with halogen.
Superchlorination Routine preventative
dose of chlorine to control algae and
maintain clarity.
Temporary hardness That part of the
total hardness which precipitates from
the water on heating; it consists of
calcium and magnesium carbonates
and bicarbonates.
Thermal wheel (rotary heat exchanger)

A heat recovery device that recovers
heat from the pool hall return air, and in
the process, also de-humidifies the pool
hall air.
Total alkalinity Measure of alkalinity to
used to determine pH buffering capacity
of pool water.
Hypochlorous acid The main active

factor in all chlorine disinfectants.
Redox (ORP) sensors Pool water

analysers that measure only the oxidative
power of the water. See OxidationReduction Potential.
Injector Fitting enabling a chemical
liquid or gas to be injected into the water
circulation loop.
Salt chlorinator An electronic device

that produces free chlorine from salt
(chloride) present in the pool water.
Ions Electrically charged chemical
particles.

A measure of all the solids dissolved
in the pool water.
Scaling The deposition (usually calcium

carbonate) on pool walls, pipework, etc.
Langelier Index One measure of
balanced water.
Trichlor Short for trichloroisocyanuric

acid. A type of stabilised chlorine.
Sensor An electrical or electronic device

for measuring a specific parameter.
For example, pH, water flow, chlorine,
ORP, temperature and so on.
Trihalomethanes Compounds formed

by reaction between chlorine or bromine
and humic acid or certain components
of human waste.
Shock dosing Reactive dose of excess

chlorine to combat an algae bloom or
other form of contamination.
Turbidity Cloudiness, murkiness or lack

of clarity in water caused by colloidal or
particulate matter in suspension.
Nitrogen trichloride The most irritant of

the chloramines.
Slipstream ozonation A system that

ozonates a proportion only of the total
pool water.
Oxidation The process of by which
disinfectants destroy pollution.
Sodium bicarbonate (bicarb)

Used to raise pH and raise total alkalinity.
Turnover period The time taken for

a volume of water equivalent to the
entire pool volume, to pass through the
filtration and circulation system once.
Loss of head Describes the loss of
operating pressure (at the filter or pump
outlet).
Make-up water Fresh water used to fill
or top up pools, particularly after
backwashing.
Total chlorine A measure of free plus

combined chlorine.
Bibliography
AS2610.11993 Spa Pools - Public Spas
Protection in Practice Infection Control

Guidelines on HIV and Hepatitis for Health
Care Workers and Emergency Service
Workers. Department of Health and
Community Service Victorian and
Ministerial Advisory Committee on
HIV/AIDS, 1994
Survey of 25 metre, heated indoor

metropolitan municipal swimming pools
using sodium hypochlorite disinfection
residuals, Aquascience Consultants Pty
Ltd on behalf of Department of Health
and Community Services Victoria,
November 1995
AS/NZS28652001 Safe Working in a

Confined Space
Public Swimming Pool and Spa Guidelines.

NSW Department of Health, 1996
AS/NZS29272001 Storage and

Handling of Liquefied Chlorine Gas
SAA HB1121998. Residential spa pools
selection, maintenance and operation.
Standards Australia
Swimming Pool Management Manual.

Pennsylvania Department of Community
Affairs Harrisburg, 1995
AS 14701986 Health and Safety at

WorkPrinciples and Practices
AS1885.11990 National Standard for
Workplace Injury and Disease Recording
Standard
AS37801994 The Storage and Handling

of Corrosive Substances
AS1668.22002 The use of mechanical
ventilation and air-conditioning in
buildings - ventilation design for indoor
air contaminant control
AS/NZS43602004 Risk Management
Breakpoint chlorination of swimming
pools, 1980, ICI Australia
Broadbent, C, 1996, Guidance for the
Control of Legionella. National
Environmental Health Forum
Monographs, Water Series 1, South
Australian Health Commission
Clinical Standards for Physiotherapists
Working in Hydrotherapy, Australian
Physiotherapy Association, 1995
Guidelines for Safe Pool Operation,
RLSSA Melbourne, 199X
Guidelines for the Control of
Legionnaires Disease, Health
Department Victoria, 1989
Handbook of Sports and Recreational
Building Design Volume 11, UK Sports
Council
Infection Control Guidelines.
Australia National Council on Aids
and Department of Community Services
and Health, 1990
Palin AT, 1973, Chemistry to control of
modern chlorination
SAA HB651998. Residential swimming

poolsselection, maintenance and
operation. Standards Australia
Salvato JA, 1992, Environmental
Engineering and Sanitation, 4th edition).
John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Water Purification Standards for Public

Swimming Pools and Spa Pools.
Health Department Victoria, 1990
White GC, 1992, The Handbook of
Chlorination and Alternative Disinfectants.
Third Edition. Van Nostrand Reihold,
New York
AS3979-1993 Hydrotherapy pools
Standard for the inspection and

maintenance of swimming pools and spa
pools in South Australia. South Australian
Health Commission, 1992
Pool Water GuideThe treatment and

quality of swimming pool water, PWTAG,
1995
Standard for the operation of swimming

pools and spa pools in South Australia.
South Australian Health Commission,
1991
Focus on water treatment for aquatic

facilitiesFiltration and hydraulics
Part A, Ministry of Sport and
Recreation WA, 1999

pools and spa pools in South Australia
Supplement A. Waterslides. South
Australian Health Commission, 1992
Focus on water treatment for aquatic

facilitiesDisinfection Part B, Ministry
of Sport and Recreation WA, 1999

Supplement B. Hydrotherapy Pools.
South Australian Health Commission,
1992
Supplement C. Bromine Disinfection of
swimming pool, spa pool, hydrotherapy
pool and waterslide pool water. South
Australian Health Commission, 1992
Stewart A., 1992, Swimming Pools.
Lothian Publishing Co, Port Melbourne
Penny, 1983, Swimming Pool Dermatitis
Index
A
acid
mixing of chlorine-based disinfectant
with, 6
corrosives, 11
explosive reaction with acids, 27
in measuring pH, 31-36
dry acid, 42, 70, 79
acidity, measuring, 78, 79
activated carbon
dealing with contaminants, 38
filters that remove ozone, 39
adjustable pools (moveable floors), 18
air scouring of filter beds, 62
algacides, 35, 78
algae
cleaning from bottom of pool, 27-35
winter care, 68
discolouration arising from, 74
alkali
explosive reaction with acids, 27
dosing, 31, 36
in pH value, 41
alkalinity
total alkalinity, 36-37, 50
in water balance, 43
affecting pH change in pools:
increasing, 42
decreasing, 42
in SI index, 53
test methods, 48-49
minimal level required for effective
flocculation, 61
winter/seasonal maintenance
program, 68
alum
see aluminium sulphate
in ozone treatment, 61
aluminium hydroxychloride
ammonia
human contamination, 4
class of gas, 10
removal of, 38
quaternary ammonia based
chemicals, 73
amoeba
naegleria fowleri, 24
amperometric sensor
direct chlorine residual
measurement, 45
used to measure hypochlorous
acid, 78
anthracite
used for de-ozonation, 39
in filters, 74
athlete's foot, 23
list of relevant standards, 12
for spas, 15
electrical systems, 27
on control systems, 45
filter specifications, 60
see also references
B
babies, 26
backwashing
to eradicate infections, 12, 23-25
when cyanuric reaches excessive
levels, 32
used for dilution, 34
to lower total dissolved solids, 42
to manage microbiological
problems, 52
and the balance tank, 56-57
and filtration, 59
dosing coagulants and flocculants, 59
rates, 60
procedure, 61-62
causing a drop in temperature, 75
bacteria
from human contamination, 8
substances which are hazardous to
health, 8
foot infections, 23
ear and sinus problems, 23
legionnaire's disease, 22, 26
folliculitis, 24
in hot water systems, 26
disinfectants that can kill, 30
regulatory limits, 32
biofilms, 33
colonisation, 40
using UV to kill, 30
temperature at which incubated, 52
standard plate count, 53
coliform count, 53
causing slimy growth on the pool
walls, floor or grouting, 73
baking soda
see sodium bicarbonate
to clean sides of the pool, 27
as an alkali, 31
to increase total alkalinity, 42, 79
balance tank
in hydraulics and circulation

systems, 15, 16
in wet decks, 16
overflow channels, 56
bathing load
in pool design, 4, 14
and circulation rate, 14-15
in various types of pools, 16-20
in designing disinfectant dosing

systems, 30, 45
BCDMH (bromo-chloro-dimethyl
hydantoin), 31, 32, 36
an acidic disinfectant, 41
biofilms
bacterial harbourages, 33
as a slimy growth on the side

of pool, 73
blood spillage, 22, 24, 25
boiler
maintaining temperature in, 26
in maintenance schedule, 68-69, 78
breakpoint chlorination
enhancing, 38
description, 78
bromamines, 78
bromine
itch and rash, 24, 25
-based disinfectants, 30
-based chemicals, 30
using, 32
tablets, 30, 36
full description, 33
residual, 37
used in conjunction with

UV systems, 40
ORP sensors are often used

to control, 45
sensors, 46
test methods, 48, 54
tests required by regulatory

authorities, 49, 50
total bromine, 48, 49
causing a green coloration of water, 74
combined bromine, 78
buffer
distances between storage of
chemicals, 31
bicarbonate buffering, 33
analyser cell/probe buffering, 45
definition, 78
bulk storage of chemicals
signage, 8
storage of sodium hypochlorite, 31
C
calcium chloride
to increase calcium hardness, 42
when calcium hardness is too high, 71
calcium hardness
scaling of the electrode plates, 32
in water balance, 41
definition, 41
increasing and decreasing, 41-42
in SI Index of Factors, 43
test methods, 48-49
and regulatory standards, 50
in winter/seasonal maintenance
program, 69
calcium hypochlorite (granular pool

chlorine)
as a dangerous good, 10
one of the chlorine based
chemicals, 31
characteristics, 36
excess dosage, 71
manually dosing pools
after closure, 31
not used for shock dosing, 31
as a cause of high calcium
hardness, 71
calcium salts
calcium hardness, 41
description, 78
capacitysee bathing load

carbon dioxide
used in combination with
sodium hypochlorite, 31
to decrease pH, 42
in dosage systems, 44
as a cause of too high total
alkalinity, 70
certification
providing a safe, healthy
environment, 8
changing rooms
in designing the facility, 14
cleaning of, 27
chemical reagents
for measuring, 48-49
mistakes in measuring caused by, 71
bleaching, 73
chloramines
build-up and formation, 20, 33, 64
affecting respiratory complaints, 24
removal and control of, 33-34, 35, 38
UV breaks down, 30, 40
fresh water in the breakdown of, 33
when the ozone system breaks
down, 33
formation of, 38
produced by disinfectants, when
dosed before the filter, 44
production of related to
temperature, 76
description, 78
nitrogen trichloride as most irritant
form, 79
chloride
converted by salt chlorination, 36
formation during superchlorination, 33
silver/silver chloride electrode, 35, 45
formed from reaction with
chloramine, 38
to increase calcium hardness, 42
chlorine
free, 30, 33-34, 38, 41, 78
direct chlorine residual measurement,
45
close relationship between free
chlorine and ORP readout, 45
using dip strips containing
syringaldezine for measuring
accurately, 48
test methods, 48-49
in record keeping, 49
chemical limits, 50
sampling, 54
dosing, 62
used to control algae, 68
in winterisation, 68
chlorine gas, 69
liquid chlorine systems, 72
chlorine residual, 73
excessive levels, 73
as an eye irritant, 73
cyanuric acid affects, 73, 74
causing green discolouration, 74
removing, 78
monitoring free, 78
reaction between chlorine and organic
nitrogen compounds, 78
combined chlorine, 12, 33.34. 45, 48
reducing combined chlorine, 33
influence on ORP readings, 45
test measures, 48
chemical limits, 49
definitions, 78
chlorite
as a by-product, 33
reducing build-up, 37
circulation feeder-see erosion feeder

circulation pumps
in the plant room, 16
in design of facility, 56
maintaining, 68
as a cause of cloudy water, 73
circulation ratesee turnover rate

coagulant, coagulation
in design, 14
in eradication of Cryptosporidium, 23
in filtration methods, 59-62
use after superchlorination
coal (anthracite) filters, 39, 74
coliforms
using a standard plate count
to detect, 53
definition, 78
collectors (laterals, filter nozzles), 78
colloids, colloidal matter
on steps, 52
as a cause of poor clarity, 59
removal of with coagulants and
flocculation, 61
breakdown using ozone, 61
definition, 78
comparators
photometers, 48
contractors
using and hiring, 15, 17
controllers, 45-46
copper
testing for presence of, 74
copper/silver ions
unsuitable disinfectants, 35
Cryptosporidium, 23, 33, 52, 53
cyanuric acid
to counter the degradation of the
chlorine disinfectant by ultraviolet
light, 19, 31, 32, 72
reducing build-up of, 30, 32
monitoring levels, 32, 33, 36
description, 34, 49, 78
affecting ORP levels, 45
tests, 48
too high levels, 72, 73, 74
cylinders
storing LP Gas in, 9
location of, proximity of and
transport of, 31, 38
D
Dangerous Goods (Storage and Handling)
Regulations, 6, 8-10, 25, 27, 31, 36
Dangerous Substances (Placarding of
Workplaces), 8
Regulations, OH&S, 7. 38
Regulations, 7, 15, 25, 27, 34
adhering to, 15, 25-26, 35, 49
FINA, 18
chemical regulations, 40, 49
dechlorination, 34
decommissioning
of equipment, 69
definition, 78
de-humidifier, 78
de-ozonation
process of, 39-40
definition, 78
dermatitis, 24
diarrhoea
caused by Cryptosporidium and
Giardia, 23
pool users suffering, 23, 25
procedures for removing from pool, 25
diatomaceous earth filters, 59
dichloroisocyanuric acid (dichlor)
a chlorine based chemical, 32
characteristics of, 36
definition, 78
dilution of pool water
in design of pool, 4, 14, 24
to reduce bather pollution, 24, 31, 73
loss of chemicals from, 31
to correct hardness levels, 71
to decrease calcium hardness, 42
to control cyanuric acid levels, 32, 34

in the sodium bromide/sodium
hypochlorite system, 33
in chloramine and combined chlorine
reduction, 33, 34
affecting pH levels, 41, 42
to decrease total alkalinity, 42
to lower total dissolved solids, 44
affecting temperature, 75
dilution of samples, 49
dip strips, 48
discharge (backwash, pool emptying),
12, 35, 61, 62
discharge valves and gauges,
71, 72, 75, 76
disinfectants, 18-33
in design of pool, 4, 30
risks in mixing, 6
regulations covering, 8
residuals, 19-24
used for blood spill and faeces, 25
choosing, 30
diving pools, 14, 18
dosing
segregation from chemical storage, 17
in design, 19
dosing pumps, in coagulants and
flocculants, 61
in maintenance systems, 68
DPD test (dimethyl-phenylene diamine),
45, 48-49
drinking water
use of gravity feed filter vessels for, 59
disinfection compared to pool
water, 33
UV treatment of, 40
dry acidsee sodium bisulphate
dry chemicals
used in manual chemical tests, 48
E
ear infections, 24, 53
eating and drinking areas, 65
education
public, 26
electrical
equipment and employees, 5, 6
in design of pools, 15, 17
regulations, 27
conductivity, 45
interference, 71
ions, 79
electrolytic generation
of chlorine from saline salt, 31
electromagnets
an unsuitable disinfectant, 35
emergency procedures
emergency services, 9
Hazchem regulations 9
responses and procedures, 14, 22, 25
contamination by faecal matter, 25
emptying pools, 19, 27, 34
energy management, 65
energy polarisers
Environment Protection Act 1970
in SEPPs, 12
regarding discharge, 35, 62
erosion feeder
using trichlor, 32
using BCDMH, 32
using calcium hypochlorite, 35
correct size, 44
definition, 78
Eschericbia coli (E. coli), 78
eye irritation, 6, 34, 41, 73
F
faeces
in water, 25
E coli in, 78
filter backwash
regulations concerning, 12
frequent, 24
observations during, 61
filter sand, 59-61
filtration, water
in design, 4-6, 14, 18, 25
operation, 16-25, 59-65
GAC filtration, 38
separate systems best, 39
removing pollutants and
bacteria, 40, 53
preventing air from being drawn into
the filtration plant, 56
and wet decks, 56
ineffective, 73, 75
filtration plant, 14, 15, 19, 30, 56, 58
first aid
in the MSDS, 11
in codes of practice, 11
in the GSPO, 11
flocculation, 59, 60
flocculants
in design and management, 4
using sand filters in conjunction
with, 59
dosing coagulants and flocculants, 60
definition, 78
fluidisation of sand filter beds, 78
folliculitis, 24-25, 53
definition, 78
footbaths, 25
G
gas chlorinator, 59, 79
gastro-intestinal illness, 23
Giardia, 23
granular activated carbon
(GAC), 35, 38-40
grout problems, 5, 27, 73
(GSPO), 11
H
halogen, 79
hardness-see calcium hardness
Hazchem, 8-9
Health (Infectious Diseases) Regulations,
7, 16, 25, 27, 34
heat exchanger and heat pumps
achieving different pools at different
temperatures, 64
reclaiming energy, 65
in maintenance schedules, 68
calorifier, 78
thermal wheel, 79
hepatitis, 24
hot water systems, 26, 27
human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV), 24
humic acid, 79
humidity
in design, 4
effect on hydraulics, 15
in considering heating and air
circulation, 63-64
hydrochloric acid (muriatic)
formed when elemental chlorine
gas is added to water, 31
to form chlorine dioxide, 33
to decrease pH, 42
definition, 79
hydrogen peroxide
hydrotherapy pools
Australian Standard, 14, 20
description, 18
use of BCDMH in, 32, 37
as high risk pools, 24
backwashing, 61
hydroxychloridesee PAC aluminium
sulphate (alum)
hypobromous acid
formed when sodium hypochlorite or
ozone injected into the water, 33, 92
hypochlorite based disinfectants, 10
hypochlorous acid
forming chloramines, 33
to kill germs, 41
in direct chlorine residual and ORP
measurement, 45
measuring, 78
definition, 78
I
infection
sources of, 4, 56
risk, 22-24
cleaning to avoid transmission, 27
cross-infection, 40
injectors
suitable operators, 69
as cause for pH level difficult to
change, 71
inlets and outlets
description, 56-58
in hydraulics design, 15, 16
particularities for spas, 19
in circulation, 56
L
Langelier Index, 43, 71, 74, 79
Legionella bacteria, 26, 27, 44, 53
legislation, 6-12
need for operators and employers to
consult, 6, 8
Hazchem, 8
see also references
Light's solution, 35
log sheets, 50-51
loss of head gauge, 59, 79
M
make-up water, 24, 33, 62, 75, 79
material safety data sheets
(MSDS), 6, 10-11
melamine test reagent, 49
meningitis, 24
microbiological testing of water, 52-54
required by Health (Infectious
Diseases) Regulations 1990, 7
in design, 4
using sodium thiosulphate, 79
microflocculation, 61
monitoring, 52-54
motels, pools in
using salt chlorination in, 32
moveable floors, 14, 18, 58
mucus, 22, 24, 30
multi-grade filters, 61
N
Naegleria fowleri, 24
nappies, 22, 26
nitrogen trichloride
formation of, 33, 79
nose/throat (nasopharyngeal)
infection, 24
O
Occupational Health and Safety Act
(OH&S), 6-8
meeting the requirements of, 10-12
in audits, 17
ventilation and, 38
off-season care, 68-69
see also winterisation
otitis externa (swimmer's ear), 24
outdoor pools, 19, 22, 30, 31, 34, 35, 59,
64, 68, 74
overflow channels, 56, 73
oxidation, 30, 34-35, 36, 40, 79
oxidation-reduction potential (ORP)
measuring for disinfection, 34, 45-46
probes, 40
in sampling, 54
too low/too high, 72
definition, 79
ozone (O3)
use of in pools, 38-39, 61
generators, 17, 33, 36, 38
for the treatment of
Cryptosporidium, 23
as an unsuitable disinfectant, 30
as an activator, 31, 33
use of in the circulation and
filtration plant, 30
removingsee de-ozonation
problems with bromide/ozone
pools, 33
and UV, 34, 38
sodium bromide and, 33, 36
ozonation
as a method of chloramine
reduction, 33, 38-40
in points of dosing, 45
definitions, 79
ozonation, slipstream, 39
definition, 79
ozone removal, 35
P
pathogens, 52-53
permanent hardness, 79
personal hygiene (pool users), 4, 19
personal protective equipment ,
7, 9, 11, 41, 79
pH, 40-46
in design of water treatment, 14
in spa pools, 19
after removal of stools, 25
automatic monitoring and dosing, 30
maintaining when using
chlorine gas, 31
high levels when using sodium
hypochlorite, 31
trichlor helps keep pH down, 32
chlorine dioxide not affected by, 32
controlling where BCDMH is used, 32
in superchlorination, 33
in shock dosing, 34
when using cyanuric acid, 72
when using ORP, 34
conditions conducive to algae
growth, 34
pH too high/too low, 41-42, 70
pH erratic, 41, 70
maintaining, 43, 52
control systems, 45
testing, 49
pH difficult to change, 71
acid and alkali, 78
definition, 79
phenol red reagent, 45
photometers
types, 45
comparators, 48-49
pipework
in design, 14
in water circulation, 56
problems with, 76
scaling on, 79
plantar warts, 23, 26
plate count, 52-53
pollution, 4, 12, 16, 19-22, 25, 26, 30, 34,
54, 56, 64
polyaluminium chloride (PAC), 61, 79
polymeric biguanides
pool cover, 65
Pool Water Treatment Advisory Group
(PWTAG), 2
pre-coat filterssee diatomaceous earth
problem sorter, 70
pseudomonas aeruginosa, 24, 25, 53
Q
quality assurance, 17, 52, 54
R
records
of safety measures and
staff training, 7, 17
code of practice for keeping, 11, 49-54
necessary, 11
logbook entries, 50
redoxsee ORP
Regulations, OH&S, 7
Regulations, 7, 15, 25, 27, 34
adhering to, 15, 25-26, 35, 49
replacing pool water with mains
see make-up water
respiratory complaints, 11, 24-25, 40
S
safety, safe working practices,
safety policy, 4-8, 10-12
SafetyMAP, 6, 10
saliva, 4
salt chlorination, 31
salt water
pools, 19
corrosion, 19
sampling
who should sample, 53
essential for quality control, 53
what to sample, 53-54
sampling points, 54
scale
size of the pool and treatment
needs, 4, 14
scales from skin and faecal matter, 22
disinfectant residual regulatory
scale, 30
water balance as the scale or
corrosion activity of pool water, 41
pH scale, 41, 49, 79
scale formation, 41-42, 71, 74
Langelier Scale and Saturation
Index, 42
poor scale intervals, 48
readings within the scale, 49
pH scale definition, 49
sensors
automatic, 32
ORP sensor, 35
and controllers, 45
types of, 35, 45-46
cleaning and contamination,
46, 62, 70
maintenance, 68-70
shock dosing (superchlorination)
as a method of chloramine
reduction, 33
destroying algae blooms and treating
colour and clarity problems, 35
pH in, 35
chemicals used for, 36
where not practical, 36
definition, 79
showers
as part of pre-swim hygiene, 19, 23, 26
hygiene and design standards, 26
as source of infection, 23
silver
silver/silver chloride electrodes, 35
silver/copper ions as unsuitable
disinfectants, 35
silver/silver chloride sensor response
affected, 45
sinus infection, 24
skimmers, 57-58
skin
contamination by, 4, 22, 23, 26, 30
irritation of, 6, 22-24, 33, 40, 42
slipstream ozonation, 39, 79
soda ashsee sodium carbonate
sodium bicarbonate (bicarb)
as a scourer, 27
as an alkali, 31, 33, 42, 79
definition, 79
sodium bisulphate (dry acid)
to lower pH, 42
definition, 79
sodium bromide, 31
and ozone, 33
sodium carbonate (soda ash)
to increase pH, 42
definition, 79
sodium chloride (pool salt), 79
sodium dichloroisocyanurate (dichlor)
see dichlor
sodium hydroxide (caustic soda)
as unsuitable for increasing pH, 42
sodium hypochlorite
to deal with blood or body fluid, 25
a class of chlorine based
chemicals, 31
as a widely used disinfectant, 31-33
characteristics, 36, 37
for residual dosing, 40
may be an indicator of disinfectant
overdosage, 70
definition, 93
sodium thiosulphate
used for dechlorination, 34
to neutralise chlorine or bromine, 54
definition, 79
source water, 22, 41, 71
Staphylococcus aureus, 53
State Environmental Protection Policies
(SEPPs), 12
stools, in water, 25
sunlight
effect on disinfection, 4, 30-32, 34, 72
effect on equipment, 48
superchlorination-see shock dosing
supervisors, 4
syringaldezine, 48
T
temperature, 41, 64
flashpoint, 11
in design, 14, 15
in hydrotherapy pools, 18
in spa pools, 19
effect on skin irritations and
rashes, 24
affecting folliculitis, 25
in hot water systems, 26
in choosing disinfectants, 30
affecting ORP values, 34
affecting water balance, 41
affecting calcium hardness, 41
Saturation Index, 43
in records, 49, 50
in microbiological monitoring, 52, 54
in maintenance, 62
environment and air temperature,
63-64
water heating, 63-64
energy management, 65
in winterisation, 58
test kits, 30, 48-49
operators using, 48
tinea pedissee athlete's foot
toddler pools, 14, 20, 54, 64
toilets, 19, 22, 26
total dissolved solids (TDS)
in filter backwash, 12
dilution to eliminate, 30, 43, 45
description, 42
to lower, 42
Saturation Index, 43
testing, 53
training, staff, 4-8, 15, 17, 18, 48
trichloramine (nitrogen trichloride)
formation of during
superchlorination, 33
definition, 79
trichloroisocyanuric acid (trichlor)
characteristics, 36
a chlorine based chemical, 31, 32
in alkalinity, 41
definition, 78
trichloride, 33
trihalomethanes (THMs), 38, 79
turbidity
in management, 4
filtration, 17, 59
and colloids, 79
definition, 79
turnover period
in design, 4, 14, 17-20
and water balance, 42
in dosage and control, 44-45
and circulation, 56
and filtration, 59
in microbiological monitoring, 51
in winterisation, 68-69
U
unsuitable disinfectants, 35
urea
destroying, 38
ultraviolet radiation
degrades disinfectants, 19
as a water purifier, 30, 38-40
urine, 4, 22, 30, 33
V
ventilation
in design, 5
in using dangerous chemicals, 11
Australian Standard, 12
in plant room, 14
pool hall ventilation and air circulation,
63-65
viruses, 8, 23-24, 40, 53
vomit, 22-24, 25
W
warts (papillomas, verrucas), 23
water balance
in design, 14
achieving, 41-42
in maintenance, 62
water level, 17, 56, 75
wet decks, 17, 56, 57
winterisation, 68-69

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Pool Operators Handbook

used by the public. It is not intended to replace or override legislation.

codes of practice, standards and guidelines, as well as industry publications,

appropriate legislation, but alongside those statutes. Failure to meet reasonable

penalties, regardless of pool operators following the guidelines in

Department of Human Services Victoria 2000

This work is copyright and if reproduced reference must be cited as follows:

Pool Operators Handbook. Victorian Government Publishing Service 2005.

ISBN 073 1160 703

August 2000. Reprinted September 2002, June 2005.

use within the intended environment, no portion of this document should

be reproduced or copied for any purposes, including general exhibition,

lending, resale and hire.

Pool Operators Handbook iii

Leisure Management and Marketing

Australian Physiotherapy Association

Aqua Science Consultants

Department of Human Services, Environmental Health Division

Local Government Professional Association

Aqua Science Consultants

Victorian Aquatic Industry Council (VICSWIM)

Leisure Management and Marketing

iv Pool Operators Handbook

Pool Operators Handbook v

Background to the Handbook

Aims and Objectives

Who Should Use this Handbook?

What Types of Pools are Covered by this Handbook?

Staff and Responsibilities

Operating the Pool Environment

The Pool Operator

Acts, Regulations, Codes of Practice and Guidelines

A Brief List of Relevant Acts, Regulations and Codes of Practice

Safe Working Practices

Health (Infectious Diseases) Regulations 2001

Occupational Health and Safety Act 2004

Dangerous Goods Act 1985

Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)

Guidelines for Safe Pool Operation (GSPO)

Environment Protection Authority

Swimming Pool Design

Choosing Water Treatment Specialists

vi Pool Operators Handbook

3. Hygiene and Contamination

Pool Water Contamination

Infections and Conditions Associated with Pool Use

Pool Hygiene and Cleaning

Pool Users Personal Hygiene

Hot Water Systems

Cleaning in and Around the Pool and Changing Rooms

Emptying the Pool

Choosing a Suitable Disinfectant

Oxidation-Reduction Potential (ORP) as a Disinfection Parameter

Water Treatment Using Ozone and Ultraviolet Radiation

Ultraviolet Radiation (UV)

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Adjusting Water Balance Parameters

Calculating Water Balance

Dosage and Control Systems

Design of Dosage Systems