Hull Form

Manuel Ventura
Ship Design I
MSc in Marine Engineering and Naval Architecture

Summary

1. Introduction
2. Types of hulls
3. Development of the form

Systematic series
Geometric modeling

4. Alteration of the form

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Alteration of the Prismatic Coefficient

Alteration of the LCB

Hull Form

Introduction
The hull form is a compromise resulting from the need to
satisfy a set of different types of requirements:

Capacity
Volume
Spatial distribution of the volume
Displacement

Stability

Hydrodynamics

Intact
Service speed (loaded / ballast)
Seakeeping
Maneuverability

Functionality
Aesthetical
Pleasant form

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Hull Form

Classification of Hulls
Type of Lift:
Displacement
Planning hulls
Semi-Planning
Hydrofoil
Hull Form:
Monohull
Multi-hull

Catamaran
Trimaran
SWATH

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Hull Form

Types of Lift

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Hull Form

Displacement Hulls (1)

Generally with round bottom and with a maximum displacement

speed that is determined by the length of the waterline

The displacement speed increases with the increase of the length

of the waterline.

At its displacement speed, the hull is kept totally immersed.

Length
[ft]

Length

Max. Speed
[knots]

Container carrier

950

30.8

31

Tanker

550

23.5

24

75

8.7

Type of Ship

America Cup

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Hull Form

Displacement Hulls (2)

Typical Form of Low Speed Displacement Hull

Typical Form of High Speed Displacement Hull (Series 64)

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Hull Form

Planning Hulls
Hull whose shape is characterized by a strong discontinuity
along the bottom, that may be planar or V-shaped.
The discontinuity has the shape of a hard chine
The objective is that the vessel plane in two small areas and
so the wetted surface can be reduced in 60% or more.

Typical form of a Planning hull (Series 62)

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Hull Form

Planning Hulls with Double Chine

There are also planning hulls with two chines.

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Hull Form

Semi-Planning Hulls

Some displacement hulls when submitted to higher power can

attain speeds higher than their displacement speeds.

In these conditions, the bow is raised above the waterline as

the speed increases and the hull is designated by semiplanning.

There are two main types:

With a narrow breadth and circular bilge (Nelson-style)
With hard-chines

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Hydrofoil

The application of foils under the hull in order to obtain a

lift that, at higher speeds, allows the hull to raise above the
water reducing the resistance.

The first hydrofoil was designed by the Italian Forlanini in

1906.

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Multi-Hulls

Catamaran
Trimaran
SWATH

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Catamaran
Types of Hull:
Tunnel
Displacement
Planning

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Types of Catamaran Hulls

Tunnel

Lift
High speed
High power
Bad sea keeping in waves due to the planar bottom

Displacement

Impulsion
Wetted surface, friction resistance
Maximum speed limited
Subject to slamming

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Trimaran

Ferry Trimaran Benchijigua Express built by the Austal shipyard (Australia) in

2005.
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Trimaran
Trimaran sailing craft

Hull Form
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EarthRace
Hull:
Wavepiercing Trimaran
Length: 24m (78ft)
Beam:
8m (24ft)
Draft: 1.3m (4ft)
Range: 3000nm (6000km)
Maximum speed: 45 knots (90km/h)*
Fuel:
B100 Biodiesel (100%)
Fuel Capacity: 10,000 liters (2500 gallons)
Displacement: 10 ton
Construction: Carbon , Kevlar composites
Crew:
4
Beds:
8
Engines: 2 x 350kW (540 hp) Cummins
Mercruiser
Gearboxes: ZF 305A (single speed)
Air intakes: top of wings to remain above
waves while piercing
Windscreen: 17mm laminated toughened glass
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Pentamaran

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Evolution of the Pentamaran

Patented on September 1996 - Patent expires on September 2016

Development and tank tests ADX 1996-1998

11 technical papers published (1997 - 2003)

MARAD (USA) Sealift Development and tank tests 1998

Fast sealift ship DER on 1998

Project ADX Express 1999-2000 Fast Transatlantic container

service

IZAR signs license on September 2001 license exclusive for RoRo and Ro-Pax in Europe

2003 first contract for ship in IZAR with Buquebus building

started on 2004

July 2003 concept of frigate F5

September 2003 IZAR renews license

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SWATH
Small Waterplane Area Twin Hull

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Hovercraft
Commercial designation patented in 1955
The first hovercraft was built by Sir Christopher Cockrell in
1959

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http://www.hovercraft-museum.org
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Surface Effect Ship (SES)

Concept of hull that has simultaneously an air cushion, such
as na hovercraft, and two hulls, such as a catamaran
The USA Navy began
model testing in 1961
In the 1960s two
prototypes were built
with about 100 t of
displacement, designated
by SES 100-A/B that
attained speeds between
the 60 and the 100
SES 100-B
Currently, some SES are used in small ferries and in military
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applications (mine-sweepers and fast patrol vessels)

Skjold SES

Fast patrol vessel built in 1997,

at Umoe Mandal shipyard, for
the Norwegian Navy

Propulsion by two gas turbines, 2

x 8160 Hp driving two waterjets

The air cushion is pressurized by

ventilators driven by two Diesel
engines 2 x 735 KW
Speed of 47in Beaufort 3 sea
state and 55 in still waters

www.knmskjold.org
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Air-Lubricated Ship (ALS)

Concept patented by Donald E. Burg (2005)
Air Lubricated Lifting Body Ship
A lifting body ship that has a blower pressurized air layer
disposed in the underside of its lifting body such that the
air layer reduces wetted area friction and hence the
propulsive power required is greatly reduced.
Further, a water propulsor is supplied that takes in water
through transversely oriented water inlets in the top of the
lifting body to thereby reduce turbulence and its associated
drag that would normally occur over the top of the lifting
body.
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US Patent No.
- 2005-05-31
Hull6899045
Form

24

SWEEP Hull (1)

Don Burg invented a new concept
of hull form designated SWEEP
(Ship with Wave Energy Engulfing
Propulsors)

Combines the advantages of the

bulbous bow with those of a ALS
(Air-Lubricated Ship)

Reduces the wave resistance of

displacement hulls

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The
Naval
Hull
Form Architect, February 2006

25

SWEEP Hull (2)

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Form

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Development of the Hull Form

Development of the Hull Form

Methods of hull form development:
Systematic Series
Direct development from main lines
Alteration of parent hull form

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Systematic Series (1)

Taylor Series, 1933

Hull based on the British cruiser LEVIATHAN, 1900

Original shape with a ram (esporo), cruiser stern and 2
propellers

SSPA (Swedish State Shipbuilding Experimental Tank)

High speed ships, 2 propellers (1951)
Fast cargo ships, 1 propeller (1948/1950)
Tankers
Cb = 0.725 ~ 0.80
B/T= 2.30 ~ 2.50
L/B= 7.20 ~ 8.10
Cargo ships, 1 propeller
Cb = 0.525 ~ 0.750

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Systematic Series (2)

Series 60, DTMB, 1953

Tested 62 models

Circular bilge, without deadrise

Hulls without bulb, U shaped sections

Cb = 0.60-0.65-0.70-0.75-0.80

B/T = 2.50 ~ 3.50

L/B = 5.50 ~ 8.50

8 L.A. (0, 0.075, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, 1.25 e 1.50 T)

25 Sections (numbered from bow to stern):

AR: 20, 19.5, 19, 18.5, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11
AV: 10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1,0.5,0

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Contours AFT and FWD (7 L.A- at the center plane)

Fillet radius of the WLs, FWD
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Systematic Series (3)

BSRA (British Ship Research Association)
Hulls with/without bulbous bow and deadrise
Original 1961:
Cb = 0.65 ~ 0.80
B/T= 2.10 ~ 3.45
L/B= 7.27
Extended in 1965:
Cb = 0.65 ~ 0.85
B/T= 2.10 ~ 3.20
L/B= 5.80 ~ 8.40

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Systematic Series (4)

Series 62 (Series de Clemens), DTMB, 1963
Planning hulls
Constant deadrise (12.5)

Series 64, DTMB, 1965

L/B = 8.45

Ship Research Institute of Japan, 1966

Cb = 0.80 ~ 0.82
B/T = 2.60 ~ 3.06
L/B = 5.50 ~ 6.70

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Systematic Series (5)

FDS (Forschungszentrum des Deutschen Schiffbau), 1968
Cb = 0.85
B/T = 2.70
L/B = 6.60

NSMB (Netherlands Ship Model Basin), 1970

Cb = 0.80 ~ 0.85
B/T = 2.65
L/B = 6.50

HSDHF (High-Speed Displacement Hull Forms), 1984

Project sponsored by the Royal Netherlands Navy, United

States Navy, Royal Australian Navy e MARIN
40 models tested
Results never published

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Systematic Series (6)

NPL Series, 1976 (National Physical Laboratory)

Displacement hulls, with circular bilge

L/B = 3.33 ~ 7.50
Stern panel
Forward sections with flare near the design waterline
High speed ships

NPL Extended

10 hulls with Cb = 0.397

Application to catamarans

USCG Systematic Series of High Speed Planing Hulls

Dina H. Kowalyshyn and Bryson Metcalf (2006), SNAME
Transactions, pp.268-309.
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Systematic Series (7)

MARAD Systematic Series of Full-Form Ship Models, 1987

Low value of L/B

High value of B/T
Cb = 0.80 ~ 0.875
B/T = 3.00 ~ 4.75
L/B = 4.50 ~ 6.50

AMECRC (Australian Maritime Engineering Cooperative

Research Centre), 1998

Based on the HSDHF

Cb = 0.395 ~ 0.5
L/B = 6.0 ~ 8.0
B/T = 2.5 ~ 4.0
Used in multi-hulls

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Systematic Series Sailing Vessels

Delft Systematic Series, Modern Yacht Conference (1998) or

Chesapeake Symposium (1999) ????

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Example: Taylor Series

idetaylo
Dimensions in M ?
LPP
B
T
DISV ?
90, 18.5, 6.5, 6500
AreaF, M2
LCB, M
4.8, 0.1

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Example: Series 60
ideser60
Dimensions in M ?
LPP
B
T
DISV ?
90, 20, 6.5, 6800
Area, M2
LCB, M
1.5, -0.5

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Example: BSRA Series (1)

idebsra
chose without bulb, 0 or with bulb, 1
Dimensions in M ?
LPP
B
T
DISV ?
120,
22.0, 7.0,
12500
Standard areas of sections at FWD and AFT and LCB
With bulb: AreaF= 9.90 M2 AreaR=1.70 M2 LCB, M=0.034
AF, M2 AA, M2 LCB, M ?
10.0, 1.80, .05

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Example: BSRA Series (2)

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Example: Taylor Series (1)

idetaylo
Dimensions in M ?
LPP
B
T
DISV
160, 24, 7.5, 22500
Standard areas of sections FWD and AFT PP and LCB(M)
AreaF, M2
LCB, M
7.164
0.022
7.2, 0.05

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Example: Taylor Series (2)

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Direct Development of the Hull Form

Manuel Ventura
Ship Design I
MSC in Marine Engineering and Naval Architecture

Data for Hull Form Development

The hull form can be defined from a set of parameters and a set
of main curves
The parameters are the main dimensions and some hydrostatic
characteristics (Ex.: , Lcb, form coefficients, etc.)
The main dimensions are:
Length between perpendiculars (Lpp)
Breadth, molded (B)
Depth (D)
Design draught (T)
The form coefficients are:
Block Coefficient
(CB)
(CP)
Prismatic Coefficient
(CM)
Midship Section Coefficient
(CWP)
Waterplane Area Coefficient

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Midship Section Coefficient (CM)

Typical midship sections and corresponding CM values

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Main Curves

Midship Section
Sectional Area Curve (SAC)
Load Waterline (LWL)
Deck at Side Line (DKL)
Flat of Bottom (FOB)
Flat of Side (FOS)
Profile (Centerline plane contour)

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Midship Section

R = 2.33 (1 CM ) B T

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B T (1 CM ) 0.5h ( B 2b )
K
2 1.5711
4 ( B 2b )
K=
2
h

R=

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Sectional Area Curve

L1 entry body
Lx parallel body
L2 run body
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Am area of midship section

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Length and Extent of Parallel Middle

Body (1)
Length of the Parallel Body (Lx)
Cb 0.80

0.30 Lpp Lx 0.35 Lpp

0.70 Cb < 0.80

0.15 Lpp Lx 0.20 Lpp

Cb < 0.70

L = L1 + LX + L2
L.C = L.Cp + L + L .Cp
P

Baker Criterium (Hydrodinamics)

L2 = 4.08 B T CM
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Length and Extent of Parallel Middle

Body (2)
Full Shaped Hulls

0.75 L2 L1 0.95 L2

L B= 0.1 1%
L

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p/ (L/B) = 7
p/ (L/B) < 7

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50

Load Waterline (1)

2D Line (planar curve)

Influences
Hydrostatic equilibrium (LCF)
Intact stability (transverse and longitudinal metacentric radius)
Propulsive resistance

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Load Waterline (2)

Values of the semi-angle of entrance (P2) recommended (Pophanken,

1939) as a function of the Prismatic Coefficient (CP):
Cp

0.55

0.60

0.65

0.70

0.75

0.80

0.85

P2

9-10

10-14

21-33

33

37

The values shown must be multiplied by the factor

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Hull Form

(L

B)
52

Deck Line at Side

The actual line is 3D and results from the intersection of

the deck with the side shell
Influenced by the requirements of work area on deck
It is easier to start with a sketch of a planar deck line at
depth level, based on the cargo area requirements
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Profile

Planar line, resulting from the intersection of the hull with the
centerline plane
Composed by 4 segments

Keel line
Stem contour
Stern contour
Sheer line

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Body Plan and Stem/Stern Contours

The shape of the stem and stern contours is mostly related

with the propulsion performance and with the configuration of
the propulsion and maneuvering systems.

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Stern Contour
The figure represents some of the evolutions of the stern
lines, from the spoon type (1) to the stern panel (2).
The shape of the
contour has changed
from the solutions with
stern post (cadaste)
until the bulbous bow
which is now standard
in most ships.
In ships with POD
propulsion the stern
shape becomes much
more simplified
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Influence of the Propulsion and

Maneuvering Systems in the Hull Form

Some parameters related with the Propulsion System:

Type of propulsor (Propeller, POD)
Number of propulsors
Existence of nozzle (tubeira)
Vertical position of the propeller shaft
Propeller diameter
Propeller clearances
Diameter of the propeller shaft
Diameter of the propeller boss

Some parameters related with the Maneuvering System:

Type of rudder
Dimensions of the rudder
Longitudinal position of the rudder (distance to the propeller)

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Propeller Clearances (1)

Det Norske Veritas

a 0.2 R [m ]
b (0.7 0.04 Z p ) R

c (0.48 0.02 Z p ) R
e 0.07 R

[m ]
[m ]

[m]

with:
R : radius of propeller [m]
Zp: number of blades

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Propeller Clearances (2)

Lloyds Register of Shipping
No. of Blades

0.12 D

1.800 KD

1.20 KD

0.12 D

1.500 KD

1.00 KD

0.12 D

1.275 KD

0.85 KD

0.12 D

1.125 KD

0.75 KD

tR

0.15 D

0.10 D

Min. value

with: tR = rudder thickness, measured at 0.7R

above the axis of the shaft line [m]

P = SHP [kW]
R = propeller radius [m]
L 3.48 Cb P

+ 0.3
K = 0.1 +

3
D = propeller diameter [m]
3050
L

Cb = block coefficient [-]

L = rule length of the ship [m]

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Propeller Clearances (3)

Germanischer Lloyd

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Stern Shape

Propeller Clearance

Round poop
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Stern Panels

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Stern Panel

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Bow Contour (Stem)

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Bow

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Knuckles (1)

Knuckles are used to obtain some required

characteristics, such as the increase of
the local deck width, without the creation
of mores areas of double curvature or of
very high curvature.
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Knuckles (2)
In general, knuckles
are used above the
load waterline, and
therefore without a
negative impact in the
hydrodynamic
performance
However, sometimes
they are used under
the design waterline,
for instance in the
transition between the
bulb and the hull, when
addition bulbs are used
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Knuckles
Knuckles can be created to:
Enable a high angle of flare to be used in the lower part of the
sections, without this carrying on become too extreme in the
upper part
Avoid the end of forecastle deck projecting in a way that might
cause contact with dockside cranes or similar
Improve sea keeping (although there is disagreement over this)
by the detachment of waves from the shell
Reduce shipbuilding cost by increasing the number of plates
that do not need to be rolled in two directions.

For economical reasons in manufacture, knuckles are

generally best positioned at a short distance above a deck
(due to block assembly reasons).
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Elliptical Bow (1)

Characteristics:
No bulb
Maximum produceability
Sections with vertical sides
Small bilge radius
Waterlines between the bilge and the knuckle with elliptical
extremities at the bow contour
Transition bottom/bow shaped as a quarter circle
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Elliptical Bow (2)

Production:
Area with a double curvature quite reduced
Web frame structure very simplified
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Conical Bow (1)

Characteristics:
Bulb shaped a conical section of large size covered by a
semi-spherical area, extending forward of the bow contour
Bulb with good hydrodynamic characteristics with a
significant reduction of the profile of the wave generated
by the ship
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Conical Bow (2)

Production:
Increase of abt. 175% of plates with a double curvature in the
forebody by comparison with the elliptical bow
Complex shaped transverse structure
Increase of costo of abt. 21% in relation to the elliptical bow
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Spoon Type Bow (1)

Characteristics:
Bow without bulb
Similar to the elliptical bow bit modified to improve the flow
Bilge radius increasing forward
Softer profile
Transition bottom/bow with elliptical shape of large size
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Spoon Type Bow (2)

Production:
Increase of abt. 142% of plates with double curvature in the
forebody by comparison with the elliptical bow
Transverse structure with more complex shape
Increase of the cost of abt. 12.5% in relation to the
elliptical bow
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Bow with Bulb Simplified for Production (1)

Characteristics:
Bulb simplified for production, built from conical shaped
components
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Bow with Bulb Simplified for Production (2)

Production:
Increase of abt. 112% of number of plates with double curvature
in the forebody by comparison with an elliptical bow
Reduction of abt. 30% by comparison with a spoon bow
Reduction of abt. 63% by comparison with a conical bow
Transverse structure relatively simple
Increase the cost of abt. 14.1% in relation to the elliptical bow
Increase the cost of abt. 7.1% in relation to the conical bow
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Direct Development of the Hull Form

Main steps:
Sketch a load waterline
Draw a midship section and locate one copy in each end of
the parallel middle body

Draw three sections in the forebody and three sections in

the aftbody in such a way to obtain for each one the area
defined in the Sectional Area Curve

Create 2 waterlines from the intersections with the existing

sections and fair the lines obtained
Proceed with modifications of the initial sections until
satisfactory faired lines are obtained
Draw a longitudinal section and fair the line
Continue to create sections and waterlines by the same
process described above
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Creation of the Main Deck

To generate the deck its is needed to to define first two
types of lines:
Sheer line
Camber line(s)

Decks other than the main one (exposed) have a simpler

planar form, resulting from the intersection of an horizontal
plane with the shell

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Sheer Line

Standard sheer line,

in accordance with
the definition from
the International
Load Lines Convention

Polygonal sheer line,

used in most current
merchant ships
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Camber Line

Parabolic camber line

Polygonal camber line

The purpose of the camber is to facilitate the discharge

overboard of water eventually on deck.
The value of the maximum camber on the centerline plane is
generally
defined as a functionHull
ofForm
the ships breadth. Example:
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f = B/50

80

Generation of the Deck Surface

Sweep 1 Rail (1 section)

Trim
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Deck Line at Side

Curve From Objects/ Intersection

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Openings on the Shell

The small openings, such as those from sea chests (caixas

de mar), are not relevant for the Lines Plan
The openings of larger sizes shell be located in the Lines
Plan

Thrusters tunnels
Intersection of the hawse pipes (escovns) with the shell

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Thruster Tunnel (1)

O tnel do impulsor deve estar
localizado o mais a vante possvel
para maximizar o momento, e o
mais abaixo possvel
O topo do tnel deve estar pelo
menos um diametro abaixo da
linha de gua

A linha de eixo do cilindro

deve ser normal ao plano de
mediania
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Thruster Tunnel (2)

The intersection of the tunnel with the

shell can be chamfered (chanfrada) or
to have a circular fillet (concordncia
circular)

Near the intersection with the

shell the tunnel changes from
cylindrical to conical shape to
improve the characteristics of
the flow (reducing the
turbulence) and decreasing the
negative influence in the
propulsive resistance.
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Thruster Tunnel (3)

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Generally the openings are

protected by grids

The grids shall be manufactured

with bars with rounded edges,
equally spaced

The bars shall be oriented in

direction parallel to the main
direction of the water flow.

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86

Hawse Pipes (Escovns)

The orientation of the
hawse pipe and the shape
of the shell opening are
conditioned mainly by the
need to facilitate the
in/out movements of the
anchor.

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Bibliography (1)

Abt, C., Bade, S., Birk, L. E Harries, S. (2001), Parametric Hull

Form Design A Step Towards one Week Ship Design, Proceedings
of PRADS2001.

Abt, C., Harries, S., Heiman, J. e Winter, H. (2003), From

Redesign to Optimal Ship Lines by Means of Parametric Modeling,
COMPIT2003.

Bailey, D. (1976), "The NPL High Speed Round Bilge Displacement

Hull Series", Maritime Technology Monograph, No. 4, RINA
Publications. (** PROCURAR **)

Bedi, S. and Vickers, G.W. (1989), Surface Lofting and Smoothing

with Skeletal-Lines, Computer Aided Geometric Design, Vol.6,
pp.87-96. (CD-ROM#34)

Calkins, Dale E.; Theodoracatos, Vassilios E. ; Aguilar, Glenn D. and

Bryant, Dennis M. (2009), "Small Craft Hull Form Surface
Definition in a High-Level Computer Graphics Design Environment",
SNAME

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Bibliography (2)

Celniker, George and Welch, Will (1992), Linear Constraints for

Deformable B_Spline Surfaces, ACM Symposium on Interactive
3D Graphics, pp.165-170, Cambridge. (CD-ROM#34)

Gerritsma, J. ; Kerwin, J. E. and Newman, J. N. (1962), "Polynomial

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Simplified Hull Forms Defined

Mathematically

93

Wigley Hull Form

Simplified hull form, defined mathematically (Wigley, 1934)
Used in hydrodynamic studies and in optimization processes

z
1
L
T

x distance from mid-ship (positive FWD)

y half-breadth in point (x,z)
z distance measured from the base line (positive in the
direction of the keel)
Wigley, W.C.S. (1934), "A Comparison of Experiment and Calculated Wave
Profiles and Wave Resistance for a Form Having Parabolic Waterlines",
Proceedings of Royal Society, Series A.
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Wigley Hull Form

Hull Symmetric FWD/AFT and with

Parabolic Waterlines

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