@anabolic Steroids - Pharmacology of Testosterone PDF

14
Pharmacology of testosterone preparations

H.M. Behre, C. Wang, D.J. Handelsman and E. Nieschlag
Contents
14.1
Historical development of testosterone therapy
14.2
General considerations
14.3
14.3.1
14.3.1.1
14.3.1.2
14.3.1.3
14.3.1.4
14.3.1.5
14.3.2
14.3.3
14.3.4
14.3.5
14.3.6
14.3.6.1
14.3.6.2
14.3.6.3
14.3.6.4
14.3.6.5
14.3.6.6
14.3.6.7
14.3.6.8
14.3.7
14.3.7.1
14.3.7.2
14.3.8

Oral administration
Unmodied testosterone
17-methyltestosterone
Fluoxymesterone
Mesterolone
Testosterone undecanoate
Sublingual application
Buccal application
Nasal application
Rectal application
Intramuscular application
Testosterone propionate
Testosterone enanthate
Testosterone cypionate and testosterone cyclohexanecarboxylate
Testosterone ester combinations
Testosterone buciclate
Testosterone decanoate
Testosterone microspheres
Subdermal application
Testosterone pellets
Testosterone microcapsules
Transdermal application
14.4
Key messages
14.5
References
14.1 Historical development of testosterone therapy

The rst experimental proof that the testes produce a substance responsible for
virility was provided by Berthold (1849). He transplanted testes from roosters into
405
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Downloaded fromBooks
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511545221.015
Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2011
406
H.M. Behre et al.
the abdomen of capons and recognized that the animals with the transplanted
testes behaved like normal roosters: They crowed quite considerably, often fought
among themselves and with other young roosters and showed a normal inclination
toward hens. Berthold concluded that the virilizing effects were exerted by testicular
secretions reaching the target organs via the bloodstream. Bertholds investigation
is generally considered the origin of experimental endocrinology (Simmer and
Simmer 1961). Following his observation various attempts were made to use testicular preparations for therapeutic purposes. The best known experiments are those
by Brown-Sequard (1889), who tried testis extracts on himself which can at best
have had placebo effects (Cussons et al. 2002). In the 1920s Voronoff transplanted
testes from animals to humans for the purpose of rejuvenation (Voronoff 1920), but
the effectiveness of his methods was disproven by a committee of the Royal Society
London. The rst testicular extracts with demonstrable biological activity were prepared by Loewe and Voss (1930) using the seminal vesicle as a test organ. Finally, the
groundstone for modern androgen therapy was laid when steroidal androgens were
rst isolated from urine by Butenandt (1931), testosterone was obtained in crystalline form from bull testes by David et al. (1935) and testosterone was chemically
synthesized by Butenandt and Hanisch (1935) and Ruzicka and Wettstein (1935).
Immediately after its chemical isolation and synthesis, testosterone was introduced into clinical medicine (unthinkable had it happened today) and used for the
treatment of hypogonadism. Since testosterone was ineffective orally it was either
compressed into pellets and applied subcutaneously or was used in the form of
17-methyltestosterone. In the 1950s longer-acting injectable testosterone esters
(Junkmann 1957) became the preferred therapeutic modality. In the 1950s and
1960s chemists and pharmacologists concentrated on the chemical modication
of androgens in order to emphasize their erythropoetic (Gardner and Besa 1983)
or anabolic effects (Kopera 1985). These preparations never played an important
role in the treatment of hypogonadism and were abandoned for purposes of clinical medicine. In the late 1970s the orally effective testosterone undecanoate was
added to the spectrum of testosterone preparations used clinically (Coert et al.
1975; Nieschlag et al. 1975). In the mid 1990s, transdermal testosterone patches
applied either to scrotal skin (Bals-Pratsch et al. 1986) or non-scrotal skin (Mazer
et al. 1992) were introduced into clinical practice. In 2000, a transdermal testosterone gel became available for treatment of male hypogonadism, rst in the US
and subsequently in other countries as well (Wang et al. 2000).
14.2 General considerations
Although testosterone has been in clinical use for almost 70 years, it has only
slowly attracted interest from clinical researchers. This is partly due to the fact that
hypogondal men requiring testosterone treatment constitute only a minority of all
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
407
patients and hypogonadism is not a life-threatening disease. Since development of

new preparations is mainly a task of the pharmaceutical industry and hypogonadal
patients did not promise to contribute a substantial economic prot, development
of testosterone preparations was slow. Only recently has the question of testosterone
treatment of senescent men (see Chapter 16) and, to a certain extent also the
search for a hormonal male contraceptive (see Chapter 23) spurred interest in the
pharmacology and application of testosterone.
Today oral, buccal, injectable, implantable and transdermal testosterone preparations are available for clinical use. There are only a few studies available comparing the various preparations with the goal of identifying the optimal preparation for substitution purposes (Conway et al. 1988). While the older injectable
preparations, which are still the predominant form for substitution, produce supraphysiological serum testosterone levels, newer preparations achieve levels closer
to the physiological range. We are only beginning to understand which serum levels
are required to achieve the various biological effects of testosterone and to avoid
adverse side-effects. In particular, very little is known about long-term effects of
testosterone therapy inherent to different preparations. Similarly, the role of the
androgen receptor polymorphism in modifying testosterone action individually
is becoming understood only slowly, but may lead to a pharmacogenetic concept
for the therapeutic application of testosterone (e.g. Zitzmann et al. 2003). Under
these circumstances it appears that the consensus reached by a Workshop Conference on Androgen Therapy organised jointly by WHO, NIH and FDA in 1990 still
provides the best therapeutic guidelines: The consensus view was that the major
goal of therapy is to replace testosterone levels at as close to physiologic concentrations as is possible (WHO 1992). Until other evidence is provided, all testosterone
preparations will best be judged by this principle.
An important question is which androgen preparation should be used for clinical
purposes. Numerous androgenic steroids have been synthesized and used clinically
in the past. The synthetic androgens were produced with the aim to enhance selectively certain aspects of testosterone activity e.g. the anabolic effect on muscles or
the hematopoietic effect. Some of these molecules proved to have toxic side-effects,
in particular upon long-term use (as required for substitution of hypogonadism) or
the desired efcacy and safety were inadequate in controlled clinical trials (as advocated by evidence-based medicine). In addition, some of these steroids cannot be
converted to 5-DHT or estrogen, as is testosterone, and therefore cannot develop
the full spectrum of activities of testosterone. The important biological signicance
of these conversions is described in Chapters 1 to 3 of this volume. For these reasons, synthetic preparations have almost disappeared from the market and testosterone as produced naturally is the prevailing androgen used in clinical medicine.
In its various preparations testosterone has been available for over six decades
and, as one of the oldest drugs in clinical use, has demonstrated its high safety.
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
408
H.M. Behre et al.
Fig. 14.1
Molecular structure of testosterone and clinically used testosterone esters and derivatives.
However, new insights into the molecular mechanisms of androgen action may
lead to the development of steroids suited for specic purposes (see Chapter 20).
7-methyl-19-nortestosterone serves as an example, as it is experiencing a renaissance due to its high androgenicity combined with low prostatotropic effects shown
in hypogonadal patients (Anderson et al. 2003). Whether such steroids may become
useful and safe for clinical use remains to be seen.
This chapter provides an overview of the various conventional and new testosterone preparations used in clinical medicine.
14.3 Pharmacology of testosterone preparations

As all other androgens, testosterone derives from the basic structure of androstane.
This molecule consists of three cyclohexane and one cyclopentane ring (perhydrocyclopentanephenanthrene ring) and a methyl group each in position 10 and 13.
Androstane itself is biologically inactive and gains activity through oxygroups in
position 3 and 17. Testosterone, the quantitatively most important androgen synthesized in the organism, is characterized by an oxy group in position 3, a hydroxy
group in position 17 and a double bond in position 4 (Fig. 14.1).
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
409

Table 14.1 Mode of application and dosage of various testosterone preparations
Preparation
Route of application
Full substitution dose
Transdermal testosterone patch

Transdermal testosterone patch
Transdermal testosterone gel
oral
buccal
intramuscular injection
implantation under the
abdominal skin
scrotal skin
non-scrotal skin
non-scrotal skin
24 capsules a` 40 mg per day

30 mg / twice daily
200250 mg every 23 weeks
4 implants a` 200 mg every
56 months
1 patch per day
1 or 2 systems per day
5 to 10 g gel per day
Under development
Testosterone cyclodextrin
Testosterone microcapsules
sublingual
subcutaneous injection
not yet determined

not yet determined
not yet determined
Obsolete
17-Methyltestosterone
Fluoxymesterone
oral
sublingual/oral
In clinical use
Testosterone tablets
Testosterone cypionate
Testosterone implants
To make testosterone therapeutically effective three approaches have been used:

1) different routes of administration,
2) esterication in position 17, and
3) chemical modication of the molecule.
In addition, these approaches have been combined. Since of practical clinical
relevance, the route of administration is used here for categorizing the various
testosterone preparations (overview in Table 14.1).
14.3.1 Oral administration
14.3.1.1 Unmodified testosterone
Unmodied testosterone as physiologically secreted by the testes would appear to

be the rst choice when considering substitution therapy. When ingested orally in
its unmodied form testosterone is absorbed well from the gut but is effectively
metabolized and inactivated in the liver before it reaches the target organs (rstpass-effect). Only when a dose of 200 mg is ingested which exceeds 30fold the
amount of testosterone produced daily by a normal man, is the metabolizing capacity of the liver overcome. With such doses an increase in peripheral testosterone
blood levels becomes measurable and clinical effects can be observed (Daggett
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
410
H.M. Behre et al.
et al. 1978; Johnsen et al. 1974; Nieschlag et al. 1975; 1977). The testosteronemetabolizing capacity of the liver, however, is age- and sex-dependent. An oral
dose of 60 mg unmodied testosterone does not affect peripheral testosterone levels in normal adult men, but produces a signicant rise in prepubertal boys and
women (Nieschlag et al. 1977). This demonstrates that testosterone induces liver
enzymes responsible for its own metabolism (Johnsen et al. 1976). When the liver
is severely damaged its metabolizing capacity decreases. Thus, in patients with liver
cirrhosis a dose of 60 mg testosterone (ineffective in normal men) produces high
serum levels (Nieschlag et al. 1977).
In hypogonadal men with normal liver function, 400600 mg testosterone must
be administered daily if the patient is to be substituted by oral testosterone (Johnsen
1978; Johnsen et al. 1974), a dose exceeding the testosterone production of a normal man almost 100fold. Aside from being uneconomical, the possibility of adverse
effects of such huge testosterone doses cannot be excluded, especially when given
over long periods of time as required for substitution therapy. However, in a small
group of patients treated for as long as seven years with oral testosterone no serious
side-effects were observed (Johnson 1978). Nevertheless, oral administration of
unmodied testosterone has not become a generally accepted method for therapeutic purposes.
As a relict of experiments performed last century (see 14.1), preparations containing animal testis or plant extracts or dried organ powder are still being manufactured
and are available on the market. Although synthesized in the testis, the testosterone
content of these preparations is negligible since the testis, in contrast to other endocrine glands (such as the thyroid), does not store its hormonal products (Cussons
et al. 2002). Moreover, the testosterone in these orally consumed products cannot
become effective for the reasons described above. Such preparations may at best
exert placebo effects and do not belong to a rational therapeutic repertoire. Similarly,
there is no evidence that ingestion of animal testes as food has endocrine effects.
14.3.1.2 17-methyltestosterone
Several attempts have been made to modify the testosterone molecule by chemical
means in order to render it orally effective, i.e. to delay metabolism in the liver.
In this regard, the longest known testosterone derivative is 17-methyltestosterone
(Ruzicka et al. 1935) which is a fully effective oral androgen preparation. 17methyltestosterone is quickly absorbed and maximal blood levels are observed 90
to 120 minutes after ingestion. The half-life in blood amounts to approximately
150 minutes (Alkalay et al. 1973).
Ever since this steroid was introduced for clinical use, hepatotoxic side-effects
such as an increase in serum liver enzymes (Carbone et al. 1959), cholestasis of the
liver (de Lorimer et al. 1965; Werner et al. 1950), and peliosis of the liver (Westaby
et al. 1977) have been reported repeatedly. It is of interest that humans are more
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
411
susceptible to the hepatotoxic effects of nethyltestosterone than rats (Heywood

et al. 1977a) or dogs (Heywood et al. 1977 b). Later, an association between long-term
methyltestosterone treatment and liver tumors was found (Bird et al. 1979; Boyd
and Mark 1977; Coombes et al. 1978; Falk et al. 1979; Farrell et al. 1975; Goodman
and Laden 1977; McCaughan et al. 1985; Paradinas et al. 1977). While these sideeffects appear to be clearly related to methyltestosterone administration, the isolated
observation of a seminoma in a 36-year old man on high-dose methyltestosterone
seems incidental (Vogelzang et al. 1986).
The hepatotoxic side-effects are due to the alkyl group in the 17 position and
have also been reported for other steroids with this conguration (Kruskemper and
Noell 1967). Because of the side-effects methyltestosterone should no longer be used
therapeutically for hypogonadism, in particular since effective alternatives are available (Nieschlag 1981). The German Endocrine Society declared methyltestosterone
obsolete in 1981 and the German Federal Health Authority ruled that methyltestosterone should be withdrawn from the market (Methyltestosterone 1988). In other
countries, however, methyltestosterone is still in use, a practice which should be
terminated.
14.3.1.3 Fluoxymesterone
The androgenic activity of uoxymesterone was enhanced over that of testosterone

by the introduction of uorine and the addition of a hydroxy group into the steroid
skeleton of testosterone. This substance also contains a 17-methyl group and
accordingly there is a risk of hepatotoxicity with long-term use. Therefore, this
androgen has disappeared from the market.
14.3.1.4 Mesterolone
Mesterolone can be considered a derivative of the 5-reduced testosterone metabolite 5-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) which is protected from rapid metabolism in
the liver by a methyl group in position 1 (Gerhards et al. 1966) and thus becomes
orally active. It is free of liver toxicity. Unlike testosterone, mesterolone cannot
be metabolized to estrogens (Breuer and Gutgemann 1966) and at a molecular
level acts like DHT. Because of its limited effectiveness in suppressing pituitary
gonadotropin secretion (Aakvaag and Stromme 1974; Gordon et al. 1975) it can
only be considered an incomplete androgen. Altogether, mesterolone is not suited
for the substitution of hypogonadism. Nevertheless, in 2001 it still represented 12%
of all androgen sales in Germany.
14.3.1.5 Testosterone undecanoate
When testosterone is esteried in the 17-position with a long fatty acid side
chain such as undecanoic acid and given orally, its route of absorption from the
gastrointestinal tract is slightly shifted from the vena portae to the lymph and
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
412
Fig. 14.2
H.M. Behre et al.
Single-dose pharmacokinetics of testosterone undecanoate after oral administration of

120 mg of the ester to 8 hypogonadal patients. Because of high interindividual variability of
testosterone serum concentrations after administration of testosterone undecanoate, individual curves were all centralized about the time of maximal serum concentrations (time
0). Asterisks indicate significantly higher testosterone serum concentrations compared to
pretreatment values (basal) (mean SEM).
reaches the circulation via the thoracic duct (Coert et al. 1975; Horst et al. 1976;
Shackleford et al. 2003). Absorption is improved if the ester is taken in arachis oil
(Nieschlag et al. 1975) and with a meal (Frey et al. 1979; Bagchus et al. 2003). After
oral ingestion of a 40 mg capsule, of which 63% i.e. 25 mg is testosterone, maximum
serum levels are reached two to six hours later (Nieschlag et al. 1975). Thus, with 2 to
4 capsules (80 to 160 mg) per day substitution of hypogonadism can be achieved.
Testosterone undecanoate pharmacokinetics after single-dose administration
were tested in eight hypogonadal patients and twelve normal men (Schurmeyer
et al. 1983). Directly before and at hourly intervals after oral application of three
times 40 mg of testosterone undecanoate in arachis oil taken together with a standardized breakfast, matched saliva samples, as a parameter for free testosterone at
the tissue level, and blood samples were collected hourly for up to 8 h. After administration of testosterone undecanoate, serum and saliva testosterone always showed
a parallel rise and fall, as demonstrated by a constant saliva/serum testosterone
ratio. On average maximum levels could be observed ve hours after testosterone
undecanoate administration. However, the serum testosterone prole showed high
interindividual variability of the time when maximum concentrations were reached,
as well as of the maximum levels themselves that ranged from 17 to 96 nmol/l. When
the individual serum concentration versus time curves were centralized about the
time of maximal serum concentrations, serum concentrations signicantly different from basal values were seen only two hours before and one hour after the time
of maximal serum concentrations in hypogonadal patients (Fig. 14.2) (Schurmeyer
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
413
et al. 1983). Based on this observation it can be deduced that even with administration of testosterone undecanoate 3 times daily, only short-lived testosterone peaks
resulting in high uctuations can be obtained.
This judgment is in agreement with the data of a two-month multiple-dose
study with testosterone undecanoate for replacement therapy in hypogonadal men
(Skakkebaek et al. 1981). Applying a double blind cross-over design, serum testosterone levels were studied in 12 hypogonadal patients to whom 80 mg of testosterone undecanoate had been administered twice per day 12 hours apart. Whereas
four hours after administration of testosterone undecanoate a signicant increase
of testosterone serum levels was observed compared to the placebo group, twelve
hours after administration no signicant difference in testosterone serum levels
between treatment and placebo control group was seen. Even four hours after
administration, in four of twelve patients testosterone levels were still below the
lower level of the normal range after both one month and two months of treatment.
A signicant marked variability between subjects as well as within the same subjects
has also been observed in other clinical studies (Cantrill et al. 1984; Conway et al.
1988).
The original preparation of oral testosterone undecanoate had to be refrigerated
(28 C) in the pharmacy for reasons of stability, whereas patients must store it at
room temperature to ensure optimal absorption. The shelf-life at room temperature
is only three months. Therefore, a new, more stable pharmaceutical formulation of
testosterone undecanoate was developed in which the oleic acid solvent was replaced
by castor oil and propylene glycol laurate. This new formulation can be stored at
room temperature (1530 C) for three years (Bagchus et al. 2003). According to an
unpublished randomized multicenter study in 49 hypogonadal men, oral administration of 2 80 mg or 3 80 mg of the reformulated testosterone undecanoate
might result in more physiological and stable serum testosterone levels.
14.3.2 Sublingual application
17-methyltestosterone was found to be more effective when applied sublingually

than when ingested orally (Escamilla 1949). This type of substitution should, however, not be practised because of the liver toxicity of methyltestosterone summarized
above. The solubility of the hydrophobic testosterone molecule can be enhanced
by incorporation into hydroxypropyl--cyclodextrins (Pitha et al. 1986) which
are macro-ring structures consisting of cyclic oligosaccharides. When testosterone
incorporated into such cyclodextrins is administered sublingually steep increases
in serum testosterone occur lasting for one or two hours (Stuenkel et al. 1991).
Hypogonadal men treated with three daily doses for 60 days showed improvement
of their condition (Salehian et al. 1995; Wang et al. 1996). This is an interesting
approach to testosterone substitution, but unless more constant serum levels can
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
414
H.M. Behre et al.
Testosterone (nmol/l)
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
0
12
16
20
24
Time (hours)
Fig. 14.3
Mean (SD), baseline-adjusted serum concentrations of testosterone after application of

placebo (solid line), 10 mg (squares), 20 mg (triangles) and 30 mg (diamonds) of buccal
testosterone at steady state (day 10 of dosing). Broken lines indicate normal range of
testosterone (adapted from Baisley et al. 2002, reproduced by permission of the Society
of Endocrinology).
be achieved this therapy would require repeated daily applications and would have
the same disadvantages as conventional oral testosterone undecanoate therapy.
14.3.3 Buccal application
Administration of testosterone via the buccal mucosa bypasses the liver and avoids
rst-pass clearance by delivering the drug directly into systemic circulation. Compared to sublingual administration, buccal mucosa is less permeable and potentially
better suited for sustained delivery systems. An initial randomized, double-blind,
placebo-controlled study in hypogonadal patients receiving 10 mg testosterone or
placebo buccal tablets showed unfavourable pharmacokinetics with serum levels of
testosterone far above the upper normal range and returning to baseline as soon as
four to six hours after administration (Dobs et al. 1998).
Signicantly improved pharmacokinetics were obtained with newly formulated
buccal tablets. In a randomized, double-blind, crossover design 24 healthy men
received a GnRH agonist for suppression of endogenous testosterone (Baisley et al.
2002). Buccal tablets containing 10, 20 or 30 mg testosterone were taken daily at
8.00 h for 10 days. Steady state was reached by day 5. Peak total and free testosterone
were reached eight to nine hours after tablet application (Fig. 14.3). Hormone concentrations increased with the testosterone dose of the tablets, but this increase was
less than dose-proportional. Whereas the average concentration of testosterone did
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
415
not exceed the normal range, some individual blood samples still showed supraphysiological testosterone concentrations. About half of the volunteers reported
local discomfort at the buccal application site, in most subjects during the rst treatment period. The advantage of this buccal testosterone preparation seems to be the
mimicking of the physiological circadian testosterone rhythm, however, long-term
studies in hypogonadal patients including evaluation of acceptability are awaited.
A new testosterone bioadhesive buccal system was designed to adhere rapidly to
the buccal mucosa and gellify for delivering testosterone steadily into the circulation.
The pharmacokinetics were evaluated in 82 hypogonadal men. The tablet (30 mg
testosterone) was applied twice daily to the upper gums for three months. 73%
of the patients reached an average testosterone concentration over 24 hours within
the physiological range. Local problems associated with tablet use were transient
and minimal. This bioadhesive buccal system is approved for use in hypogonadal
men in the U.S.A. and approval in Europe is expected.
14.3.4 Nasal application
The rst-pass effect of the liver can also be avoided by applying testosterone to the
nasal mucosa (Danner and Frick 1980). However, unreliable absorption patterns
and short-lived serum peaks prevent this form of application from becoming a
desirable option for long-term substitution therapy and it has never passed the
experimental state.
14.3.5 Rectal application
In order to avoid the rst-pass effect of the liver, testosterone can be applied rectally
in suppositories (Hamburger 1958). Administration of a suppository containing
40 mg testosterone results in an immediate and steep rise of serum testosterone
lasting for about four hours. Effective serum levels can be achieved by repeated
applications (Nieschlag et al. 1976). This therapy, however, never gained much
popularity probably because the patients nd it unacceptable to use suppositories
three times daily on a long-term routine basis.
14.3.6 Intramuscular application
The most widely-used testosterone substitution therapy is the intramuscular injection of testosterone esters. Unmodied testosterone has a half-life of only ten minutes and would have to be injected very frequently. Esterication of the testosterone
molecule at position 17, e.g., with propionic or enanthic acid, prolongs the activity of testosterone in proportion to the length of the side chain when administered intramuscularly (Junkmann 1952; 1957). The deep intramuscular injection
of testosterone esters in oily vehicle is generally safe and well tolerated, but can
cause minor side-effects such as local pain (Mackey et al. 1995).
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
416
H.M. Behre et al.
Studies applying gas chromatography-mass spectrometry that allow discrimination between endogenous testosterone and exogenously administered deuteriumlabelled testosterone propionate-19,19,19-d3 and its metabolite testosterone19,19,19-d3 were able to show that after intramuscular administration, the
testosterone ester is slowly absorbed into the general circulation and then rapidly
converted to the active unesteried metabolite (Fujioka et al. 1986). The observation that the duration at the injection site is the major factor determining the
residence time of the drug in the body agrees with pharmacokinetic studies in
rats showing that the androgen ester 19-nortestosterone decanoate, when injected
into the musculus gastrocnemius of the rat in vivo, is absorbed unchanged from
the injection depot in the muscle into the general circulation according to rstorder kinetics with a long half-life of 130 h (van der Vies 1965). Comparisons
of the absorption kinetics of different testosterone esters clearly show that the
half-lives of the absorption of the esters increase when the esteried fatty acids
have a longer chain (van der Vies 1985). In addition, pharmacokinetics are inuenced by the oily vehicle, the injection site and the injection volume (Minto et al.
1997).
After absorption from the intramuscular depot, the testosterone ester is rapidly
hydrolysed in plasma, as could be shown by in vitro rat studies (van der Vies 1970)
and in vivo human studies (Fujioka et al. 1986). The rate of hydrolysis again depends
on the structure of the acid chain, but this process is much faster than release from
the injection depot (van der Vies 1985). The metabolism of the testosterone ester to
the unesteried testosterone occurs rapidly so that testosterone enanthate or testosterone have nearly identical intravenous pharmacokinetics (Sokol and Swerdloff
1986). Similarly, the duration of action of the orally effective ester testosterone
undecanoate seems to be dependent on the duration of absorption of the uncleaved
lipophilic testosterone undecanoate via the ductus thoracicus from the gut (Maisey
et al. 1981; Schurmeyer et al. 1983).
In men treated with testosterone, the testosterone concentration measurable
in the serum is the sum of endogenous testosterone and exogenous testosterone
hydrolysed from the injected ester. Hypogonadal patients are characterized by
impaired or absent endogenous testosterone secretion; exogenous testosterone
administration can further suppress endogenous testosterone secretion only to
a limited degree, if at all. Accordingly, in hypogonadal patients the serum concentration versus time prole is mainly a reection of the pharmacokinetics of
exogenously administered testosterone ester alone. In this chapter the evaluation
of pharmacokinetic parameters for different testosterone esters is based on the
increases of testosterone serum concentrations over basal levels in hypogonadal
patients.
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
417

Table 14.2 Comparative pharmacokinetics of different testosterone
esters after intramuscular injection to hypogonadal patients
Fig. 14.4
Testosterone ester
Terminal elimination half-life (d)
Testosterone propionate
0.8
4.5
29.5
33.9
Single-dose pharmacokinetics of testosterone propionate in seven hypogonadal patients.

Closed circles, mean SEM of testosterone serum concentrations actually measured; curve,
best-fitted pharmacokinetic profile.
14.3.6.1 Testosterone propionate
Single-dose pharmacokinetics of 50 mg testosterone propionate after intramuscular

injection to seven hypogonadal patients and the best-tted pharmacokinetic prole
are shown in Fig. 14.4 (Nieschlag et al. 1976). Maximal testosterone levels in the
supraphysiological range were seen shortly after injection (40.2 nmol/l, tmax =
14 h). Testosterone levels below the normal range were observed following day 2
(57 h) after injection. The calculated values for AUC were 1843 nmol h/l, for MRT
1.5 d and 0.8 d for terminal half-life (Table 14.2).
Based on single-dose pharmacokinetic parameters, a multiple-dose pharmacokinetic simulation was performed. Expected testosterone serum concentrations after
multiple dosing of 50 mg testosterone propionate twice per week (e.g. injections
Mondays and Thursdays, 8.00 h) are shown in Fig. 14.5. Shortly after injection
high supraphysiological testosterone serum concentrations of up to 45 nmol/l are
observed. At the end of the injection interval (three and four days, respectively)
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
418
Fig. 14.5
H.M. Behre et al.
Multiple-dose pharmacokinetics of testosterone propionate after injection of 50 mg testosterone propionate twice per week (e.g. Mondays and Thursdays). Solid curve, pharmacokinetic simulation; broken lines, range of normal testosterone values.
testosterone serum concentrations below the lower range of normal testosterone

values are projected (7 nmol/l and 3 nmol/l, respectively).
Judged by the data from pharmacokinetic analysis and simulation, administration of testosterone propionate is not suitable for substitution therapy of male
hypogonadism because of its short-term kinetics resulting in wide uctuations of
testosterone serum concentrations and maximal injection intervals of three days
for the 50 mg dose.
14.3.6.2 Testosterone enanthate
Single-dose pharmacokinetics of testosterone enanthate after intramuscular administration of 250 mg testosterone enanthate to seven hypogonadal patients and the
best-tted pharmacokinetic prole are shown in Fig. 14.6 (Nieschlag et al. 1976).
Maximal testosterone levels in the supraphysiological range were seen shortly
after injection (39.4 nmol/l, tmax = 10 h). Testosterone levels below the normal range were observed following day 12 after injection. The calculated values
were 9911 nmol h/l for AUC, 8.5 d for MRT and 4.5 d for terminal half-life
(Table 14.2).
Based on the pharmacokinetic parameters of single-dose pharmacokinetics
multiple-dose pharmacokinetic simulations for equal doses of 250 mg testosterone
enanthate and injection intervals of one to four weeks were performed. With weekly
injection intervals supraphysiological maximal testosterone serum concentrations
up to 78 nmol/l are observed at steady state shortly after injection and supraphysiological minimal testosterone serum concentrations up to 40 nmol/l just before
the next injection (Fig. 14.7). Injecting 250 mg of testosterone enanthate every two
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
419
Fig. 14.6
Single-dose pharmacokinetics of testosterone enanthate in seven hypogonadal patients.

Closed circles, mean SEM of testosterone serum concentrations actually measured; curve,
best-fitted pharmacokinetic profile.
Fig. 14.7
Multiple-dose pharmacokinetics of testosterone enanthate after injection of 250 mg testosterone enanthate every week (upper panel ), every second week (upper middle panel ),
every three weeks (lower middle panel ) and every four weeks (lower panel ). Solid curves,
pharmacokinetic simulations; broken lines, range of normal testosterone values.
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
420
H.M. Behre et al.
weeks results in maximal supraphysiological testosterone serum concentrations

of up to 51 nmol/l shortly after injection and testosterone serum levels at the
lower range for normal testosterone serum concentration shortly before the next
injection. If the injection interval is extended to three weeks, testosterone serum
concentrations below the normal range are observed 14 days after injection. With
injection intervals of four weeks, testosterone serum concentrations are in the
subnormal range at week three and four and effective testosterone substitution is
not guaranteed (Fig. 14.7).
The calculated testosterone serum concentrations at steady state obtained by
computer simulation correspond well to the results of published studies describing multiple-dose testosterone enanthate pharmacokinetics. In a clinical trial for
male contraception 20 healthy men were injected with 200 mg/wk of testosterone
enanthate for 12 weeks (Cunningham et al. 1978). Minimal serum concentrations of testosterone at steady state, i.e. the testosterone serum concentration
just before the next injection, were measured at 31.2 nmol/l to 39.5 nmol/l after
weekly injections of 200 mg testosterone enanthate. Very similar data were obtained
in further contraceptive studies when normal men received 200 mg/wk testosterone enanthate injections for 18 months (Anderson and Wu 1996; Wu et al.
1996). The data of these studies t well with the computer-calculated minimal
testosterone serum concentrations of 40 nmol/l and maximal testosterone levels 78 nmol/l after multiple injections of testosterone enanthate at a dosage of
250 mg/wk.
Snyder and Lawrence (1980) administered 100 mg/wk (n = 12), 200 mg/2 wks
(n = 10), 300 mg/3 wks (n = 9) and 400 mg/4 wks (n = 6) testosterone enanthate to hypogonadal patients during a study period of three months. Blood was
drawn during the last injection period, when steady state had been reached, every
day (100 mg/wk) up to every fourth day (400 mg/4 wks). Similar to the computer simulation described above for 250 mg testosterone enanthate and injections
intervals of one to four weeks, initial supraphysiological testosterone serum levels
were seen shortly after injection. In the 100 mg/wk treatment group, where daily
blood sampling was performed, mean peak serum concentrations were seen 24 h
after injection. Comparable to the results of the computer simulation, after injection of 200 mg/2 wks testosterone enanthate, following initial supraphysiological
testosterone serum levels, values fell to progressively lower values before the next
injection, eventually reaching the lower normal limit (Snyder and Lawrence 1980).
Similar results were described after injection of 300 mg/3 wks or 400 mg/4 wks
testosterone enanthate. The authors conclude that the testosterone enanthate doses
of 200 mg have to be injected every two weeks or doses of 300 mg every 3 weeks to
guarantee effective substitution therapy.
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
421
Fig. 14.8
Comparative pharmacokinetics of 194 mg of testosterone enanthate and 200 mg of testosterone cypionate after intramuscular injection to 6 normal volunteers. Closed circles,
mean SEM of testosterone enanthate kinetics; open circles, mean SEM of testosterone
cypionate kinetics.
14.3.6.3 Testosterone cypionate and testosterone cyclohexanecarboxylate
Testosterone cypionate (cyclopentylpropionate) pharmacokinetics were compared

with those of testosterone enanthate in a cross-over study involving six healthy
men aged 2029 years. Three subjects received 194 mg of testosterone enanthate, followed seven weeks later by 200 mg of testosterone cypionate and vice versa (amount
of unesteried testosterone 140 mg in both preparations). The serum testosterone
proles were identical after injection of both preparations in equivalent doses, both
in terms of maximal concentrations and in terms of duration of elevation above
basal levels (Fig. 14.8) (Schulte-Beerbuhl and Nieschlag 1980).
In a subsequent clinical study the pharmacokinetics of testosterone cyclohexanecarboxylate were compared to the pharmacokinetics of testosterone enanthate
in a single-blind cross-over study in seven healthy young men (Schurmeyer and
Nieschlag 1984). After injection of either testosterone enanthate or testosterone
cyclohexanecarboxylate, testosterone concentrations in serum increased sharply
and reached maximum levels, 45 times above basal, 824 h after injection.
During following days a parallel decay of testosterone levels occurred after injection of either ester preparations, with testosterone serum concentrations slightly,
but signicantly lower after testosterone cyclohexanecarboxylate injection compared to testosterone enanthate injection two, three and seven days after administration. Basal serum levels were reached seven days after testosterone cyclohexanecarboxylate administration and nine days after injection of testosterone
enanthate.
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
422
H.M. Behre et al.
Because testosterone cypionate, testosterone cyclohexanecarboxylate and testosterone enanthate had comparable suppressing effects on LH and consequently on
endogenous testosterone secretion, it can be concluded from these studies in normal
volunteers that all three esters with similar molecular structure possess comparable
pharmacokinetics of exogenous testosterone serum concentrations. Testosterone
cypionate or testosterone cyclohexanecarboxylate do not provide a more advantageous pharmacokinetic prole than testosterone enanthate. This observation is in
agreement with a clinical study of replacement therapy with single-dose administration of 200 mg of testosterone cypionate in 11 hypogonadal patients (Nankin
1987).
14.3.6.4 Testosterone ester combinations
Testosterone ester mixtures have been widely used for substitution therapy of
male hypogonadism (e.g. TestovironR Depot 50: 20 mg testosterone propionate and
55 mg testosterone enanthate; TestovironR Depot 100: 25 mg testosterone propionate
and 100 mg testosterone enanthate; SustanonR 250: 30 mg testosterone propionate,
60 mg testosterone phenylpropionate, 60 mg testosterone isocaproate and 100 mg
testosterone decanoate). These combinations are used following the postulate that
the so-called short-acting testosterone ester (e.g testosterone propionate) is the
effective testosterone for substitution during the rst days of treatment and the
so-called long-acting testosterone (e.g. testosterone enanthate) warrants effective
substitution for the end of injection interval. However, this assumption is not
supported by the pharmacokinetic parameters of the individual testosterone esters.
Both testosterone propionate and testosterone enanthate cause highest testosterone
serum concentrations shortly after injection (Fig. 14.4 and Fig. 14.6). Accordingly,
addition of testosterone propionate to testosterone enanthate only increases the
initial undesired testosterone peak and worsens the pharmacokinetic prole that
ideally should follow zero-order kinetics (Fig. 14.9). The computer simulation
agrees well with the limited published single-dose testosterone values that have
been measured in hypogonadal patients treated with the combination of testosterone propionate and testosterone enanthate. Maximal increases of approximately
40 nmol/l testosterone over basal values are described one day after intramuscular
administration of a testosterone ester combination of 115.7 mg testosterone enanthate and 20 mg testosterone propionate to three hypogonadal patients (Fukutani
et al. 1974).
A comparison of computer-simulated testosterone serum concentrations after
multiple-dose injections of TestovironR Depot 100 (110 mg testosterone enanthate
and 25 mg testosterone propionate = 100 mg unesteried testosterone) every 10 d
and 139 mg testosterone enanthate (= 100 mg unersteried testosterone) every
10 d is shown in Fig. 14.10. As can be expected by the single-dose kinetics of the
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
423
Fig. 14.9
Pharmacokinetic profile of TestovironR Depot 100 (110 mg testosterone enanthate and

25 mg testosterone propionate) in comparison to the pharmacokinetics of the individual
testosterone esters of the mixture. Curves, pharmacokinetic simulations.
Fig. 14.10
Multiple-dose pharmacokinetics of the testosterone ester mixture TestovironR Depot 100

(110 mg testosterone enanthate and 25 mg testosterone propionate = 100 mg unesterified
testosterone, upper panel) every 10 d in comparison to 139 mg testosterone enanthate
(= 100 mg unersterified testosterone, lower panel) every 10 d. Solid curves, pharmacokinetic
simulations; broken lines, range of normal testosterone values.
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
424
H.M. Behre et al.
individual esters, injection of the testosterone ester mixture (upper panel) produces
a much wider uctuation of testosterone serum concentrations relative to injection
of testosterone enanthate alone (lower panel). This simulation shows that injections
of testosterone enanthate alone produce a more favourable pharmacokinetic prole
in comparison to injections of testosterone propionate and testosterone enanthate
ester mixtures in comparable doses. For treatment of male hypogonadism there is
no advantage in combining the available short- and long-acting testosterone esters.
14.3.6.5 Testosterone buciclate
The disadvantage of all esters described so far is that they produce initially supraphysiological testosterone levels which may exceed normal levels severalfold and
then slowly decline, so that before the next injection pathologically low levels may
be reached. Some patients recognize these ups and downs of testosterone levels
in parallel variations of general well-being, sexual activity and emotional stability. Despite these disadvantages testosterone enanthate and cypionate are still the
standard therapy for male hypogonadism.
Because of these shortcomings of the available esters the World Health Organization (WHO) initiated a steroid synthesis programme (Crabbe et al. 1980) out of
which a series of new testosterone esters was developed. When tested in laboratory
rodents a specic ester was identied that showed greatly prolonged activity, namely
testosterone-trans-4-n-butylcyclohexyl-carboxylate, generic name testosterone buciclate. This preparation is injected intramuscularly in an aqueous solution, in contrast to the other testosterone esters which are dissolved in oily solution.
A rst study on the pharmacokinetics of the new WHO/NIH androgen ester
testosterone buciclate was performed in two groups of orchiectomized cynomolgus monkeys (Weinbauer et al. 1986). Intramuscular injections of testosterone
enanthate resulted in supraphysiological serum levels of testosterone for eight days,
followed by a rapid decline with levels lower than the physiological limit after three
weeks. In contrast, testosterone buciclate produced a moderate increase of serum
testosterone levels into the physiological range, and serum levels remained in this
range for a period of four months. These favourable results on the pharmacokinetics
of testosterone buciclate were conrmed in castrated rhesus monkeys (Rajalakshmi
and Ramakrishnan 1989).
To assess the pharmacokinetics of testosterone buciclate in men the rst clinical study was performed in eight men with primary hypogonadism (Behre and
Nieschlag 1992). The men were randomly assigned to two study groups and were
given either 200 (group I) or 600 mg (group II) testosterone buciclate intramuscularly. Whereas in group I serum androgen levels did not rise to normal values,
in group II androgens increased signicantly and were maintained in the normal range up to 12 weeks with maximal serum levels (cmax ) of 13.1 0.9 nmol/l
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
425
Fig. 14.11
Single-dose pharmacokinetics of testosterone buciclate after intramuscular injection of

600 mg of the ester to four hypogonadal patients. Closed circles, mean SEM of
testosterone serum concentrations actually measured; curve, best-fitted pharmacokinetic
profile.
(mean SEM) in study week 6 (tmax ). No initial burst release of testosterone

was observed in either study group. Pharmacokinetic analysis revealed a terminal
elimination half-life of 29.5 3.9 days (Fig. 14.11) (Table 14.2).
Because of the promising results of the rst clinical study with testosterone
buciclate, a follow-up study was initiated. After complete wash-out from previous therapy all hypogonadal men received a single intramuscular injection of
1000 mg testosterone buciclate. As in the previous study with lower doses, no initial
burst release of testosterone was observed. Maximal testosterone serum levels were
observed nine weeks (tmax ) after injection with a mean value of 13.1 1.8 nmol/l
(cmax ). Following peak concentrations, testosterone serum levels gradually declined
and remained within the normal range up to week 16. This study demonstrated that
an increase of the injected dose of testosterone buciclate from 600 to 1000 mg prolongs the duration of action signicantly, but does not lead to signicantly higher
maximal serum levels of testosterone.
The long duration of action of testosterone buciclate was also demonstrated in
a contraceptive study with this new testosterone ester. After a single intramuscular
injection of 1200 mg testosterone buciclate at a concentration of 400 mg/ml to
eight normal men, serum levels of testosterone remained within the normal range,
whereas gonadotropins and spermatogenesis was signicantly suppressed for at
least 18 weeks (Behre et al. 1995). These studies demonstrate that the long-acting
testosterone buciclate is well suited for substitution therapy of male hypogonadism
as well as for male contraception. However, this compound has not been developed
into a marketable product and is currently not available.
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
426
H.M. Behre et al.
14.3.6.6 Testosterone undecanoate
While testosterone undecanoate has been available for oral substitution for more
than two decades, it was rst demonstrated in China that intramuscular administration of testosterone undecanoate in tea seed oil (125 mg/ml) has a prolonged
duration of action (Wang et al. 1991). Therefore the pharmacokinetics of testosterone undecanoate in comparison to testosterone enanthate were tested in two
groups of orchiectomized cynomolgus monkeys (Partsch et al. 1995). After injection of 10 mg/kg body weight of the respective esters serum levels of testosterone
remained above the lower limit of normal for 108 days, compared to 31 days
after testosterone enanthate injection. Pharmacokinetic analysis revealed a terminal
half-life of 25.7 4.0 days for testosterone undecanoate, compared to 10.3 1.1
days for testosterone enanthate. The maximal testosterone concentration of 72.6
11.7 nmol/l after testosterone undecanoate injection was signicantly lower than
177.0 21.3 nmol/l after testosterone enanthate injection.
In a recent monkey study it was demonstrated that biological effects of testosterone esters are determined by the pharmacokinetics and degree of aromatization
rather than the total dose administered (Weinbauer et al. 2003). Twenty adult
male cynomolgus monkeys were randomly assigned to treatment for 28 weeks with
either testosterone enanthate every four weeks, testosterone buciclate every seven
weeks, or testosterone undecanoate every ten weeks. Each injection delivered 20 mg
pure testosterone per kilogram body weight. Despite a smaller total dose of testosterone, increase in body weight or lowering effects on serum lipids were signicantly
stronger with the long-acting testosterone undecanoate or buciclate compared to
testosterone enanthate.
In a clinical study in Asian hypogonadal men, eight patients received one intramuscular injection of 500 mg and 7 of the initial 8 hypogonadal patients one injection of 1000 mg testosterone undecanoate (in eight milliliters tea seed oil) in a
cross-over design (Zhang et al. 1998). Follow-up blood samples were obtained
weekly up to week 9 after injection. In both study groups, mean serum levels of
testosterone were above the upper limit of normal during the rst two weeks after
injection. Thereafter, mean serum concentration remained in the normal range
up to week 7 after injection in the 500 mg-dose group and at least up to week 9
in the 1000 mg-dose group. The terminal elimination half-lives were 18.3 2.3
and 23.7 2.7 days for the 500 mg-dose und 1000 mg-dose groups, respectively.
Administration of 500 mg of this testosterone preparation every four weeks, after
an initial loading dose of 1000 mg, for up to 12 months to 308 healthy men for male
contraception maintained serum levels of testosterone in the normal range when
measured directly before the next injection (Gu et al. 2003).
In the rst study in Caucasian men, intramuscular injections of 250 mg or
1000 mg testosterone undecanoate in tea seed oil were given to 14 hypogonadal
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
427
Fig. 14.12
Serum concentrations (mean SEM) of testosterone after single-dose intramuscular injections of 1000 mg testosterone undecanoate in tea seed oil in 7 hypogonadal men (squares)
or castor oil in 14 hypogonadal men (circles). Broken lines indicate normal range of testosterone (adapted from Behre et al. 1999a, reproduced by permission of the European Journal
of Endocrinology).
patients (Behre et al. 1999a). Follow-up examinations were performed 1, 2, 3, 5 and

7 days after injection and then weekly up to study week 8. Whereas no prolonged
increase of testosterone was observed in the 250 mg-group, serum levels of testosterone in the higher dose group increased from 4.8 0.9 nmol/l (mean SEM) to
maximum levels of 30.5 4.3 nmol/l at day 7 (tmax ). Testosterone levels remained
within the normal range up to week 7 (13.5 1.2 nmol/l). Non-linear regression
analysis revealed a terminal elimination half-life for intramuscular testosterone
undecanoate of 20.9 6.0 days (Fig. 14.12).
Similar to the preclinical study in monkeys, the clinical study in hypogonadal
men demonstrated favourable pharmacokinetics of intramuscular testosterone
undecanoate. Because of the relatively low concentration of 125 mg testosterone
undecanoate per milliliter tea seed oil, however, administration of the 1000 mg
dose requires an injection volume of 8 ml which renders intramuscular administration impracticable. Therefore, the preparation was reformulated and testosterone undecanoate dissolved in castor oil at a higher concentration of 250 mg/ml.
14 hypogonadal patients received one intramuscular injection of 1000 mg of the
reformulated testosterone undecanoate preparation (Behre et al. 1999a). Maximal
serum levels with the reformulated preparation were lower than with the Chinese
preparation and remained within the mid-normal range (Fig. 14.12). Pharmacokinetic analysis revealed a long terminal elimination half-life of 33.9 4.9 days
(Table 14.2).
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
428
Fig. 14.13
H.M. Behre et al.
Serum concentrations (mean SEM) of testosterone after multiple intramuscular injections of 1000 mg testosterone undecanoate in castor oil in 13 hypogonadal men. Broken
lines indicate normal range of testosterone (adapted with permission from Nieschlag et al.
1999, copyright 1999, Blackwell Publishing).
Due to these favourable pharmacokinetics a rst, prospective, open-label study

with repeated intramuscular injection was initiated (Nieschlag et al. 1999).
13 hypogonadal men received four intramuscular injections of 1000 mg testosterone undecanoate in castor oil at six-week intervals. Following the rst injection,
mean serum levels of testosterone were never found below the lower limit of normal
(Fig. 14.13). However, peak and trough serum concentrations of testosterone
increased during the six-month treatment, with testosterone levels above the upper
normal limit after the third and fourth injection. Therefore, in seven of the 13
hypogonadal men injections were given at gradually increasing intervals between
the fth and tenth injection, and from then on every 12 weeks (von Eckardstein and
Nieschlag 2002). During steady state, serum levels of testosterone remained in the
normal range with maximal concentrations of 32.0 11.7 nmol/l (mean SD) one
week after injection and nadir levels before the next injection of 12.6 3.7 nmol/l
(Fig. 14.14). As this preparation has been approved for clinical use in Europe,
intramuscular testosterone undecanoate in castor oil will become a signicantly
improved testosterone preparation for treatment of male hypogonadism as well as
for male contraception (see Chapter 23).
14.3.6.7 Testosterone decanoate
Testosterone decanoate differs from testosterone undecanoate by one carbon atom

in the ester side chain. It has been widely administered for many years as part of a
mixture with shorter-action testosterone esters, however, it has not been available
as a single preparation. To date there are no detailed studies published on the pharmacokinetics of administration of testosterone decanoate to hypogonadal men.
Recently, intramuscular injections of 400 mg of testosterone decanoate were given
four times every four weeks to normal men in a contraceptive study (Anderson et al.
2002). Endogenous testosterone was suppressed by concomitant administration
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
429

40
35
Testosterone
(nmol/L)
30
25
13th injection
20
15
1st Injection
10
5
0
0
14
21
28
35
42
49
59
63
70
77
84
days
Fig. 14.14
Serum concentrations (mean SD) of testosterone after single injection of 1000 mg testosterone undecanoate in castor oil in 14 hypogonadal men (open circles) and during multiple
injections with the same dose every 12 weeks. Broken lines indicate normal range of testosterone (adapted with permission from von Eckardstein and Nieschlag. 2002).
of etonogestrel implants. Nadir testosterone levels before the next injection were
in the lower normal range, whereas serum levels were at the upper normal limit
one week after injection. From these limited data it can be concluded that testosterone decanoate seems to have an improved pharmacokinetic prole over testosterone enanthate, but does not allow similar prolonged injection intervals of about
12 weeks, as demonstrated for testosterone undecanoate in hypogonadal men.
14.3.6.8 Testosterone microspheres
Drugs can be incorporated into biodegradable microspheres. When injected intramuscularly, such drug-loaded microspheres provide controlled release of the substance for several weeks or even months. As an example, microencapsulated GnRH
agonists have become a valuable modality in the treatment of prostatic carcinoma.
Testosterone has been incorporated into poly(DL-lactide-co-glycolide) microspheres. When rst tested in castrated monkeys single injections resulted in an
elevation of serum levels above the lower limit of normal for several months (Asch
et al. 1986). When similar microsphere injections containing 315 mg of testosterone
were given to eight hypogonadal men, serum testosterone levels slowly increased to
peak levels at about eight weeks and fell thereafter to reach pathological levels again
by 11 weeks (Burris et al. 1988). In a later study the size-range and the testosterone
loading of the microspheres were adjusted so that in hypogonadal men single intramuscular injections resulted in relatively constant serum levels within the normal
range for about 70 days (Bhasin et al. 1992). These two clinical studies demonstrated
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
430
H.M. Behre et al.
that the microspheres can be adapted to the required needs and the results were
encouraging. However, this formulation of microspheres is technically difcult to
manufacture consistently and requires two painful, large-volume intramuscular
injections that limits its appeal for long-term therapy.
14.3.7 Subdermal application
14.3.7.1 Testosterone pellets
Subdermal testosterone pellet implantation was among the earliest effective modalities employed for clinical application of testosterone which became an established
form of androgen replacement therapy by 1940 (Deansley and Parks 1938; Vest and
Howard 1939). With the advent of other modalities, e.g. intramuscular testosterone
ester injections, they went out of general use. However, investigations in the 1990s
redened the favourable pharmacokinetic proles and clinical pharmacology of
testosterone implants (Handelsman et al. 1990; Jockenhovel et al. 1996).
The original testosterone implants were manufactured by high-pressure tableting of crystalline steroid with a cholesterol excipient. These proved brittle, hard to
standardize or sterilize and exhibited surface unevenness and fragmentation during
in-vivo absorption to produce an uneven late release rate. These limitations were
overcome in the 1950s by switching to high-temperature moulding whereby molten
testosterone was cast into cylindrical moulds to produce more robust implants.
These have more uniform composition, resulting in a more steady and prolonged
release and reduced tissue reaction. Sterilization is achieved by a combination of
high-temperature exposure during manufacture together with surface sterilization
or, more recently, gamma-irradiation. The testosterone implants are currently available in two sizes with a common diameter of 4.5 mm: 6 mm length for the 100 mg
and 12 mm length for the 200 mg implant. Pellets are usually implanted under
the skin of the lower abdominal wall under sterile conditions using a trochar and
cannula.
The estimated half-life of absorption of testosterone from subdermal implants is
2.5 months. On average, approximately 1.3 mg of testosterone are released per day
from the 200 mg pellet. Testosterone implants demonstrate a minor and transient
accelerated initial burst release, which lasts for 12 days (Jockenhovel et al. 1996).
The most comprehensive pharmacokinetic evaluation of testosterone implants was
done in a random-sequence, cross-over clinical study of 43 androgen-decient men
with primary or secondary hypogonadism (Handelsman et al. 1990). Patients were
treated sequentially with 3 regimens six 100 mg, three 200 mg or six 200 mg
implants at intervals of at least six months. Implantation of testosterone pellets
resulted in a highly reproducible and dose-dependent time-course for circulation
of total and free testosterone. Testosterone concentrations reached baseline by six
months after either of the 600 mg dose regimens but remained signicantly elevated
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
431
Testosterone (nmol/l)
40
30
20
10
0
0
Time (months)
Fig. 14.15
Blood total testosterone in 43 hypogonadal men receiving four 200 mg pellets (800 mg)
implanted either under the skin of the lateral abdominal wall (in 4 tracks [filled circles], n = 9;
or in 2 tracks [open circles], n = 16) or in the hip region (filled squares, n = 18) (adapted
with permission from Kelleher et al. 2001, copyright 2001, Blackwell Publishing).
after six months following the 1200 mg dose. The standard dose for hypogonadal
men is 800 mg every six months, which can be titrated individually (Fig. 14.15).
Pellet implantation has few side-effects and is generally well tolerated. Adverse
events after implantations were extrusions (8.512% per procedure), bruising
(2.38.8%) and infections (0.64%) (Handelsman et al. 1997; Kelleher et al. 1999).
Due to the long-lasting effect and the inconvenience of removal, preferably pellets
should be used by men in whom the benecial effects and tolerance for androgen
replacement therapy have already been established by treatment with shorter-acting
testosterone preparations.
14.3.7.2 Testosterone microcapsules
Testosterone can be encapsuled in a biodegradable matrix composed of lactide/glycolide copolymer which is suitable for subcutaneous injection. The pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of this microcapsule formulation were tested
in fourteen hypogonadal men in an open-label, prospective study (Amory et al.
2002). Patients received either 267 mg (n = 7, injection of 2.5 ml of the formulation) or 534 mg of testosterone (n = 7, two injections of 2.5 ml). Peak serum
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
432
H.M. Behre et al.
concentrations were already seen at the rst follow-up examination on day 1. In the
higher-dose group, mean serum concentrations were at the upper limit of normal at
this time-point. Thereafter, testosterone levels declined rapidly in both groups with
mean serum levels below 10 nmol/l after 5 and 7 weeks, respectively. In the higherdose group, serum levels of free testosterone, bioavailable testosterone, estradiol
and DHT exceeded the normal range for at least the rst week after injection.
Two subjects complained of transient tenderness and fullness at the injection sites.
Multiple-dose studies are still outstanding, and therefore the appropriate injection
interval for long-term therapy has not yet been determined. One disadvantage of
the testosterone microcapsule formulation seems to be the early burst release of
testosterone, which limits the clinically acceptable dose and shortens the maximal
injection interval.
14.3.8 Transdermal application
The skin easily absorbs steroids and other drugs and transdermal drug delivery has
become a widely used therapeutic modality. The scrotum shows the highest rate of
steroid absorption, about 40-fold higher than the forearm (Feldmann and Maibach
1967). This difference in absorption rates has been exploited for the development
of a transdermal therapeutic system (TTS) to deliver testosterone. 40 and 60 cm2
large polymeric membranes loaded with 10 or 15 mg testosterone when attached
to the scrotal skin deliver sufcient amounts of the steroid to provide hypogonadal
men with serum levels in the physiological range (Bals-Pratsch et al. 1986; 1988;
Findlay et al. 1987; Korenmann et al. 1987). The application of the patch to scrotal skin requires hair clipping or shaving to optimize adherence. The membranes
need to be renewed every day. When applied in the morning and worn until the
next morning the resulting serum testosterone levels resemble the normal diurnal
variations of serum testosterone in normal men without supraphysiological peaks
(Bals-Pratsch et al. 1988). Long-term therapy up to ten years with daily administration of the scrotal patch in 11 hypogonadal men produced steady-state serum
levels of testosterone and estradiol in the normal range and serum levels of DHT at
or slightly above the higher limit of normal without signicant adverse side-effects
(Fig. 14.16) (Behre et al. 1999b).
While testosterone is readily absorbed by genital skin, transdermal systems for use
on non-genital skin require enhancers to facilitate sufcient testosterone passage
through the skin. The permeation enhanced testosterone patch delivers 2.5 mg/day
testosterone when applied to non-scrotal skin. If one or two such systems are worn
for 24 hours physiologic serum testosterone levels can be mimicked, as with scrotal
patches (Fig. 14.17) (Brocks et al. 1996; Meikle et al. 1996). Due to the alcoholic
enhancer used and the occlusive nature of the systems, the application is associated
with skin irritation in up to 60% of the subjects, with most users discontinuing
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
433
Fig. 14.16
Serum concentrations (mean SEM) of testosterone (squares) and DHT (circles) in 11

hypogonadal men before and during treatment with transscrotal testosterone patches. Broken lines indicate normal range of testosterone, dotted line upper normal limit of DHT
(adapted with permission from Behre et al. 1999b, copyright 1999, Blackwell Publishing).
Fig. 14.17
Serum concentrations (mean SD) of testosterone during and after nighttime application
of two non-scrotal testosterone systems to the backs of 34 hypogonadal men. Shaded area
indicates normal range of testosterone (adapted with permission from Meikle et al. 1996,
copyright 1996, The Endocrine Society).
application because of the skin irritation (Jordan 1997; Parker and Armitage 1999).
Preapplication of corticosteroid cream to the skin has been reported to decrease the
severity of skin irritation, although the effects on pharmacokinetics of testosterone
are unclear. Another larger non-scrotal patch causes less skin irritation (about 12%
itching and 3% erythema) but may create adherence problems (Jordan et al. 1998).
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
434
H.M. Behre et al.
Nevertheless, both transdermal modalities through either scrotal or non-genital

skin provide physiologic serum testosterone levels and have been shown to reverse
the signs and symptoms of male hypogonadism with only minor systemic sideeffects (Behre et al. 1999b; Dobs et al. 1999).
In 2000, a 1% colourless hydroalcoholic gel containing 25 or 50 mg testosterone
in 2.5 or 5 g gel was approved for clinical use in hypogonadism. The gel dries
in less than 5 min without leaving a visible residue on the skin. About 9 to 14%
of the testosterone in the gel is bioavailable. Application of the testosterone gel
increased serum testosterone levels into the normal range within one hour after
application (Wang et al. 2000). Steady-state serum levels are achieved 4872 hours
after initiation of therapy, whereas pre-treatment serum testosterone levels are seen
four days after stopping application. The application of the testosterone gel at four
sites (application skin areas approximately four times that of one site) resulted
in an area under the curve of testosterone which was 23% higher compared to
application of the same amount of gel on one site. However, this difference did
not achieve statistical signicance in the nine hypogonadal men tested (Wang et al.
2000).
Long-term pharmacokinetics of the transdermal testosterone gel were evaluated
in 227 hypogonadal men (Swerdloff et al. 2000). Patients were randomly assigned
to application of 5 or 10 g of the testosterone gel or two patches of a non-scrotal
testosterone system. After 90 days of testosterone gel treatment, the dose was titrated
up (5 to 7.5 g) or down (10 to 7.5 g) if the preapplication serum testosterone levels
were outside the normal adult male range. During long-term treatment mean serum
levels of testosterone were maintained in the mid normal range with 5 g of gel and
in the upper normal range with 10 g of gel (Fig. 14.18). Testosterone gel application
resulted in dose-proportionate increases in serum DHT and E2 as well as doseproportionate decreases of gonadotropins.
The advantages of the testosterone gel over the testosterone patch are a lower
incidence of skin irritation, the ease of application, the invisibility of the dried gel,
and the ability to deliver testosterone dose-dependently to the low, mid or upper
normal range. A potential adverse side-effect of testosterone gel application is the
transfer of testosterone to women or children upon close contact with the skin.
Transfer of transdermal testosterone from the skin can be avoided by applying
gel to skin covered by clothing or showering after application. This preparation
has gained a signicant market share of androgen formulations in Europe and the
United States, although it is marketed at a slightly higher price than the patches and
at a much higher price than injectable testosterone.
Currently, a number of other testosterone gels and creams are being developed.
Two recent randomized controlled studies demonstrated a dose-dependent increase
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
435
Fig. 14.18
Serum concentrations (mean SEM) of testosterone before (day 0) and after transdermal
testosterone applications on days 1, 30, 90, and 180. Time 0 was 0800 h, when blood
sampling usually began. On day 90, the dose in the subjects applying testosterone gel 50
or 100 mg was up- or down-titrated if their preapplicaton serum testosterone levels were
below or above the normal adult male range, respectively. Dotted lines denote the adult
normal range (adapted with permission from Swerdolff et al. 2000, copyright 2000, The
Endocrine Society).
of testosterone serum levels to the normal range in hypogonadal men after 90 days
of application of 5 g/d or 10 g/d of another hydroalcoholic topical gel containing 1%
testosterone compared to non-scrotal testosterone patches (n = 208, McNicholas et
al. 2003) or compared to non-scrotal testosterone patches and placebo gel (n = 406,
Steidle et al. 2003). Application of 5 g/d of a 2.5% hydroalcoholic gel increased serum
levels of testosterone to the normal range in 14 gonadotropin-suppressed normal
men (Rolf et al. 2002a). Washing of the skin after 10 min. did not inuence the
pharmacokinetic prole. No interpersonal testosterone transfer could be detected
after evaporation of the alcohol vehicle of this testosterone gel (Rolf et al. 2002b).
This gel preparation can also be administered at a dose of 1 g/d to the scrotal
skin. Ongoing randomized controlled studies in hypogonadal patients indicate the
efcacy and practicability of administration of this gel to normal or scrotal skin.
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
436
H.M. Behre et al.
14.4 Key messages

r Oral, buccal, injectable, subdermal implantable and transdermal testosterone preparations are
available for clinical use. The best preparation is the one that replaces testosterone serum levels
at as close to physiologic concentrations as possible.
r Oral administration of the currently available testosterone undecanoate preparation results in high
interindividual and intraindividual variability of serum testosterone values.
r Daily or twice daily buccal administration of testosterone tablets increases serum testosterone to
the normal range. Acceptability of this application form has yet to be determined.
r The available testosterone esters for intramuscular injection (testosterone propionate,
testosterone enanthate, testosterone cypionate, testosterone cyclohexanecarboxylate) are still
widely used but suboptimal for the treatment of male hypogonadism. Doses and injection
intervals most frequently used in the clinic lead to initial supraphysiological testosterone levels
and subnormal values before the next injection. To obtain testosterone serum concentrations
continuously in the normal range, unacceptably frequent small doses would have to be injected.
r Intramuscular injection of 1000 mg testosterone undecanoate to hypogonadal men maintains
serum levels of testosterone within the normal range for up to 12 weeks. Recently approved for
clinical use, intramuscular testosterone undecanoate will become a valuable preparation for
depot substitution therapy of male hypogonadism and for male contraception.
r A single implantation procedure of testosterone pellets provides serum levels of testosterone in
the normal range for up to six months. Pellet extrusion occurs in about 10% of the implantation
procedures. Due to the long-lasting effect and the inconvenience of removal, preferably pellets
should be used by men in whom the beneficial effects and tolerance for androgen replacement
therapy have already been established.
r Subcutaneous injection of testosterone microcapsules in hypogonadal men increases serum
testosterone levels to the normal range for five to seven weeks. One disadvantage of the
testosterone microcapsules formulation seems to be the early burst release of testosterone.
r Transdermal application of testosterone by scrotal or non-scrotal patches increases serum levels
of testosterone to the normal range and even mimics the physiological circadian testosterone
rhythm. Non-scrotal testosterone patches cause skin irritations in up to 60% of patients, or might
have adherence problems.
r Daily administration of testosterone gel increases serum levels of testosterone in hypogonadal
patients dose-dependently to the normal range. Acceptability of the gel is high and it has become
a standard replacement therapy within the first years following its approval.
14.5 R E F E R E N C E S
Aakvaag A, Stromme SB (1974) The effect of mesterolone administration to normal men on the
pituitary-testicular function. Acta Endocrinol 77:380386
Alkalay D, Khemani L, Wagner WE, Bartlett MF (1973) Sublingual and oral administration of
methyltestosterone. A comparison of drug bioavailability. J Clin Pharmac 13:142151
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
437

Amory JK, Anawalt BD, Blaskovich PD, Gilchriest J, Nuwayser ES, Matsumoto AM (2002) Testosterone release from a subcutaneous, biodegradable microcapsule formulation (Viatrel) in
hypogonadal men. J Androl 23:8491
Anderson RA, Wallace AM, Sattar N, Kumar N, Sundaram K (2003) Evidence for tissue selectivity of the synthetic androgen 7alpha-methyl-19-nortestosterone in hypogonadal men. J Clin
Endocrinol Metab 88:27842793
Anderson RA, Wu FC (1996) Comparison between testosterone enanthate-induced azoospermia
and oligozoospermia in a male contraceptive study. II. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of once weekly administration of testosterone enanthate. J Clin Endocrinol Metab
81:896901
Anderson RA, Zhu H, Cheng L, Baird DT (2002) Investigation of a novel preparation of testosterone decanoate in men: pharmacokinetics and spermatogenic suppression with etonogestrel
implants. Contraception 66:357364
Asch RH, Heitman TO, Gilley RM, Tice TR (1986) Preliminary results on the effects of testosterone
microcapsules. In: Zatuchni GI, Goldsmith A, Spieler JM, Sciarra JJ (eds) Male contraception:
advances and future prospects, Harper & Row, Philadelphia, pp 347360
Bagchus WM, Hust R, Maris F, Schnabel PG, Houwing NS (2003) Important effect of food on
the bioavailability of oral testosterone undecanoate. Pharmacotherapy 23:319325
Baisley KJ, Boyce MJ, Bukofzer S, Pradhan R, Warrington SJ (2002) Pharmacokinetics, safety and
tolerability of three dosage regimens of buccal adhesive testosterone tablets in healthy men
suppressed with leuprorelin. J Endocrinol 175:813819
Bals-Pratsch M, Knuth UA, Yoon YD, Nieschlag E (1986) Transdermal testosterone substitution
therapy for male hypogonadism. Lancet ii:943946
Bals-Pratsch M, Langer K, Place VA, Nieschlag E (1988) Substitution therapy of hypogonadal
men with transdermal testosterone over one year. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 118:713
Behre HM, Nieschlag E (1992) Testosterone buciclate (20 Aet-1) in hypogonadal men: pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the new long-acting androgen ester. J Clin Endocrinol
Metab 75:12041210
Behre HM, Baus S, Kliesch S, Keck C, Simoni M, Nieschlag E (1995) Potential of testosterone buciclate for male contraception: endocrine differences between responders and nonresponders. J
Clin Endocrinol Metab 80:23942403
Behre HM, Abshagen K, Oettel M, Hubler D, Nieschlag E (1999a) Intramuscular injection of
testosterone undecanoate for the treatment of male hypogonadism: phase I studies. Eur J
Endocrinol 140:414419
Behre HM, von Eckardstein S, Kliesch S, Nieschlag E (1999b) Long-term substitution therapy
of hypogonadal men with transscrotal testosterone over 710 years. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf)
50:629635
Berthold AA (1849) Transplantation der Hoden. Archiv fur Anatomie, Physiologie und wissenschaftliche Medicin, Berlin, 4246
Bhasin S, Swerdloff RS, Steiner B, Peterson MA, Meridores T, Galmirini M, Pandian MR, Goldberg
R, Berman N (1992) A biodegradable testosterone microcapsule formulation provides uniform
eugonadal levels of testosterone for 1011 weeks in hypgonadal men. J Clin Endocrin Metab
74:7583
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
438
H.M. Behre et al.

Bird D, Vowles K, Anthony PP (1979) Spontaneous rupture of a liver cell adenoma after long term
methyltestosterone: report of a case successfully treated by emergency right hepatic lobetomy.
Br J Surg 66:212213
Boyd PR, Mark GJ (1977) Multiple hepatic adenomas and a heptatocellular carcinoma in a man
on oral methyl testosterone for eleven years. Cancer 40:17651770
Breuer H, Gutgemann D (1966) Wirkung von 1alpha-Methyl-5alpha-androstan-17-ol-3-on
(Mesterolon) auf die Steroidausscheidung beim Menschen. Arzneimittelforschung 16:759
762
Brocks DR, Meikle AW, Boike SC, Mazer NA, Zariffa N, Audet PR, Jorkasky DK (1996) Pharmacokinetics of testosterone in hypogonadal men after transdermal delivery: inuence of dose. J
Clin Pharmacol 36:732739
Brown-Sequard CE (1889) Des effets produits chez lhomme par des injections souscutanees
dun liquide retire des testicules frais de cobaye et de chien. C R Seanc Soc Biol 1:420430
Burris AS, Ewing LL, Sherins RJ (1988) Initial trial of slow-release testosterone microspheres in
hypogonadal men. Fertil Steril 50:493497
Butenandt A (1931) Uber

die chemische Untersuchung des Sexualhormons. Z Angew Chem
44:905908
Butenandt A, Hanisch G (1935) Uber

Testosteron. Umwandlung des Dehydroandrosterons in
Androstendiol und Testosteron; ein Weg zur Darstellung des Testosterons aus Cholesterin.
Hoppe-Seylers Z Physiol Chem 237:8998
Cantrill AJ, Dewis P, Large DM, Newman M, Anderson DC (1984) Which testosterone replacement therapy? Clin Endocrinol 21:97107
Carbone JV, Grodsky GM, Hjelte V (1959) Effect of hepatic dysfunction on circulating levels of
sulphobromopthalein and its metabolites. J Clin Invest 38:19891996
Coert A, Geelen J, de Visser J, van der Vies J (1975) The pharmacology and metabolism
of testosterone undecanoate (TU), a new orally active androgen. Acta Endocrinol 79:789
800
Conway AJ, Boylan LM, Howe C, Ross G, Handelsman DJ (1988) Randomized clinical trial of
testosterone replacement therapy in hypogonadal men. Int J Androl 11:247264
Coombes GB, Reiser J, Paradinas FJ, Burn I (1978) An androgen-associated hepatic adenoma in
a trans-sexual. Br J Surg 65:869870
Crabbe P, Diczfalusy E, Djerassi C (1980) Injectable contraceptive synthesis: an example of
international cooperation. Science 209:992994
Cunningham GR, Silverman VE, Kohler PO (1978) Clinical evaluation of testosterone enanthate for induction and maintenance of reversible azoospermia in man. In: Patanelli DJ (ed)
Hormonal control of male fertility. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. National
Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md, Publ No (NIH) 781097, pp 7187
Cussons AJ, Bhagat CI, Fletcher SJ, Walsh JP (2002) Brown-Sequard revisited: a lesson from
history on the placebo effect of androgen treatment. Med J Aust 177:678679
Daggett PR, Wheeler MJ, Nabarro JDN (1978) Oral testosterone: a reappraisal. Horm Res 9:121
129
Danner C, Frick G (1980) Androgen substitution with testosterone-containing nasal drops. Int J
Androl 3:429431
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
439
David K, Dingemanse E, Freud J, Laquer E (1935) Uber

krystallinisches mannliches Hormon aus
Hoden (Testosteron), wirksamer als aus Harn oder aus Cholesterin bereitetes Androsteron.
Hoppe-Seylers Z physiol Chem 233:281282
Deansley R, Parkes AS (1938) Further experiments on the administration of hormones by the
subcutaneous implantation of tablets. Lancet ii:606608
de Lorimer AA, Gordan GS, Lowe RC, Carbone JV (1965) Methyltestosterone: related steroids
and liver function. Arch Intern Med 116:289294
Dobs AS, Hoover DR, Chen MC, Allen R (1998) Pharmacokinetic characteristics, efcacy, and
safety of buccal testosterone in hypogonadal males: a pilot study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab
83:3339
Dobs AS, Meikle AW, Arver S, Sanders SW, Caramelli KE, Mazer NA (1999) Pharmacokinetics,
efcacy, and safety of a permeation-enhanced testosterone transdermal system in comparison
with bi-weekly injections of testosterone enanthate for the treatment of hypogonadal men. J
Escamilla RF (1949) Treatment of preadolescent eunuchoidism with (methyl)testosterone
linguets. Amer Pract 3:425
Falk H, Thomas LB, Popper H, Ishak KG (1979) Hepatic angiosarcoma associated with
androgenic-anabolic steroids. Lancet ii:11201123
Farrell GC, Joshua DE, Uren RF, Baird PJ, Perkins KW, Kronenberg H (1975) Androgen-induced
hepatoma. Lancet i:430432
Feldmann RJ, Maibach HI (1967) Regional variation in percutaneous penetration of 14C cortisol
in man. J Invest Dermatol 48:181183
Findlay JC, Place VA, Snyder PJ (1987) Transdermal delivery of testosterone. J Clin Endocrinol
Metab 64:266268
Frey H, Aakvaag A, Saanum D, Falch J (1979) Bioavailability of oral testosterone in males. Eur J
Clin Pharmacol 16:345349
Fujioka M, Shinohara Y, Baba S, Irie M, Inoue K (1986) Pharmacokinetic properties of testosterone propionate in normal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 63:13611364
Fukutani K, Isurugi K, Takayasu H, Wakabayashi K, Tamaoki B-I (1974) Effects of depot testosterone therapy on serum levels of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone in
patients with Klinefelters syndrome and hypogonadotropic eunuchoidism. J Clin Endocrinol
Metab 39:856864
Gardner FH, Besa EC (1983) Physiologic mechanisms and the hematopoietic effects of the
androstanes and their derivatives. Curr Top Hematol 4:123195
Gerhards E, Gibian H, Kolb KH (1966) Zum Stoffwechsel von 1alpha-Methyl-5alpha androstan17-ol-3-on (Mesterolon) beim Menschen. Arneimittelforschung 16:458463
Goodman MA, Laden AMJ (1977) Hepatocellular carcinoma in association with androgen therapy. Med J Aust i:220221
Gordon RD, Thomas MJ, Poyntin JM, Stocks AE (1975) Effect of mesterolone on plasma LH,
FSH and testosterone. Andrologia 7:287296
Gu YQ, Wang XH, Xu D, Peng L, Cheng LF, Huang MK, Huang ZJ, Zhang GY (2003) A multicenter
contraceptive efcacy study of injectable testosterone undecanoate in healthy Chinese men. J
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
440
H.M. Behre et al.

Hamburger C (1958) Testosterone treatment and 17-ketosteroid excretion. Acta Endocrinol
28:529536
Handelsman DJ, Conway AJ, Boylan LM (1990) Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of
testosterone pellets in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 70:216222
Handelsman DJ, Mackey MA, Howe C, Turner L, Conway AJ (1997) Analysis of testosterone
implants for androgen replacement therapy. Clin Endocrinol 47:311316
Heywood R, Hunter B, Green OP, Kennedy SJ (1977a) The toxicity of methyl testosterone in the
rat. Toxicology Letters 1:2731
Heywood R, Chesterman H, Ball SA, Wadsworth PF (1977b) Toxicity of methyl testosterone in
the beagle dog. Toxicology 7:357365
Horst HJ, Holtge WJ, Dennis M, Coert A, Geelen J, Voigt KD (1976) Lymphatic absorption
and metabolism of orally administered testosterone undecanoate in man. Klin Wschr 54:
875879
Jockenhovel F, Vogel E, Kreutzer E, Reinhard W, Lederbogen S, Reinwein D (1996) Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of subcutaneous testosterone implants in hypogonadal man.
Clin Endocrinol 45:6171
Johnsen SG (1978) Long-term androgen therapy with oral testosterone. In: Patanelli DJ (ed)
Hormonal control of male fertility. DHEW publication No (NIH) 781097. Bethesda,
pp 123143
Johnsen SG, Bennet EP, Jensen VG (1974) Therapeutic effectiveness of oral testosterone. Lancet
2:14731475
Johnsen SG, Kampmann JP, Bennet EP, Jorgensen F (1976) Enzyme induction by oral testosterone. Clin Pharmacol Ther 20:233237
Jordan WP (1997) Allergy and topical irritation associated with transdermal testosterone administration: a comparison of scrotal and nonscrotal transdermal systems. Am J Cont Dermat
8:108113
Jordan WP, Atkinson LE, Lai C (1998) Comparison of the skin irritation potential of two testosterone transdermal systems: an investigational system and a marketed product. Clin Ther
20:8087.
Junkmann K (1952) Uber

protrahiert wirksame Androgene. Arch Path Pharmacol 215:8592
Junkmann K (1957) Long-acting steroids in reproduction. Rec Progr Horm Res 13:389419
Kelleher S, Conway AJ, Handelsman DJ (1999) A randomized controlled clinical trial of antibiotic impregnation of testosterone pellet implants to reduce extrusion rate. Eur J Endocrinol
146:513518
Kelleher S, Conway AJ, Handelsman DJ (2001) Inuence of implantation site and track geometry
on the extrusion rate and pharmacology of testosterone implants. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf)
55:531536
Kopera H (1985) The history of anabolic steroids and a review of clinical experience with anabolic
steroids. In: Eikelboom FA, van der Vies J (eds) Anabolics in the 80s. Acta endocrinol suppl
271:1118
Korenman SG, Viosca S, Garza D, Guralnik M, Place V, Campbell P, Stanik Davis S (1987)
Androgen therapy of hypogonadal men with transscrotal testosterone system. Am J Med
83:471478
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
441

Kruskemper HI, Noell G (1967) Steroidstruktur und Lebertoxizitat. Acta endocrinol 54:7380
Loewe S, Voss HE (1930) Der Stand der Erfassung des mannlichen Sexualhormons (Androkinins).
Klin Wschr 9:481487
Maisey NM, Bingham J, Marks V, English J, Chakraborty J (1981) Clinical efcacy of testosterone
undecanoate in male hypogonadism. Clin Endocrinol 14:625629
Mackey MA, Conway AJ, Handelsman DJ (1995) Tolerability of intramuscular injections of
testosterone ester in oil vehicle. Hum Reprod 10:862865
Mazer NA, Heiber WE, Moellmer JF, Meikle AW, Stringham JD, Sanders SW, Tolman KG, Odell
WD (1992) Enhanced transdermal delivery of testosterone: a new physiological approach for
androgen replacement in hypogonadal men. J Control Release 19:347362
McCaughan GW, Bilous MJ, Gallagher ND (1985) Long-term survival with tumor regression in
androgen-induced liver tumors. Cancer 56:26222626
McNicholas TA, Dean JD, Mulder H, Carnegie C, Jones NA (2003) A novel testosterone gel
formulation normalizes androgen levels in hypogonadal men, with improvements in body
composition and sexual function. BJU Int 91:6974
Meikle AW, Arver S, Dobs AS, Sanders SW, Rajaram L, Mazer N (1996) Pharmacokinetics and
metabolism of a permeation-enhanced testosterone transdermal system in hypogonadal men:
inuence of application site a clinical research center study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:1832
1840
Methyltestosteron-Monographie (Anonymous) (1988) Bundesanzeiger 40:51405141
Minto CF, Howe C, Wishart S, Conway AJ, Handelsman DJ (1997). Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of nandrolone esters in oil vehicle: effects of ester, injection site and injection
volume. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 281:93102
Nankin HR (1987) Hormone kinetics after intramuscular testosterone cypionate. Fertil Steril
47:10041009
Nieschlag E (1981) Ist die Anwendung von Methyltestosteron obsolet? Dtsch med Wschr
106:11231125
Nieschlag E, Mauss J, Coert A, Kicovic P (1975) Plasma androgen levels in men after oral administration of testosterone or testosterone undecanoate. Acta endocrinol 79:366374
Nieschlag E, Cuppers HJ, Wiegelmann W, Wickings EJ (1976) Bioavailability and LH-suppressing
effect of different testosterone preparations in normal and hypogonadal men. Horm Res 7:138
145
Nieschlag E, Cuppers EJ, Wickings EJ (1977) Inuence of sex, testicular development and liver
function on the bioavailability of oral testosterone. Euro J Clin Invest 7:145147
Nieschlag E, Buchter D, von Eckardstein S, Abshagen K, Simoni M, Behre HM (1999) Repeated
intramuscular injections of testosterone undecanoate for substitution therapy in hypogonadal
men. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 51:757763
Paradinas FJ, Bull TB, Westaby D, Murray-Lyon IM (1977) Hyperplasia and prolapse of hepatocytes into hepatic veins during longterm methyltestosterone therapy: possible relationships
of these changes to the development of peliosis hepatis and liver tumours. Histopathology
1:225246
Parker S, Armitage M (1999) Experience with transdermal testosterone replacement therapy for
hypogonadal men. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 50:5762
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
442
H.M. Behre et al.

Partsch CJ, Weinbauer GF, Fang R, Nieschlag E (1995) Injectable testosterone undecanoate has
more favourable pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics than testosterone enanthate. Eur
J Endocrinol 132:514519
Pitha J, Harman SM, Michel ME (1986) Hydrophilic cyclodextrin derivatives enable effective oral
administration of steroidal hormones. J Pharm Sci 75:165167
Rajalakshmi M, Ramakrinshnan PR (1989) Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of a new
long-acting androgen ester: maintenance of physiological androgen levels for 4 months after
a single injection. Contraception 40:399412
Rolf C, Kemper S, Lemmnitz G, Eickenberg U, Nieschlag E (2002a) Pharmacokinetics of a new
transdermal testosterone gel in gonadotrophin-suppressed normal men. Eur J Endocrinol
146:673679
Rolf C, Knie U, Lemmnitz G, Nieschlag E (2002b) Interpersonal testosterone transfer after topical
application of a newly developed testosterone gel preparation. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 56:637
641
Ruzicka L, Wettstein A (1935) Synthetische Darstellung des Testishormons, Testosteron
(Androsten 3-on-17-ol). Helv chim Acta 18:12641275
Ruzicka L, Goldberg MW, Rosenberg HR (1935) Herstellung des 17-Methyl- testosterons und
anderer Androsten- und Androstanderivate. Zusammenhange zwischen chemischer Konstitution und mannlicher Hormonwirkung. Helv Chim Acta 18:14871498
Salehian B, Wang C, Alexander G, Davidson T, McDonald V, Berman N, Dudley RE, Ziel
F, Swerdloff RS (1995) Pharmacokinetics, bioefcacy, and safety of sublingual testosterone
cyclodextrin in hypogonadal men: comparison to testosterone enanthate a clinical research
center study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80:35673575
Schulte-Beerbuhl M, Nieschlag E (1980) Comparison of testosterone, dihydrotestosterone,
luteinizing hormone, and follicle-stimulating hormone in serum after injection of testosterone
enanthate or testosterone cypionate. Fertil Steril 33:201203
Schurmeyer T, Nieschlag E (1984) Comparative pharmacokinetics of testosterone enanthate and
testosterone cyclohexanecarboxylate as assessed by serum and salivary testosterone levels in
normal men. Int J Androl 7:181187
Schurmeyer T, Wickings EJ, Freischem CW, Nieschlag E (1983) Saliva and serum testosterone
following oral testosterone undecanoate administration in normal and hypogonadal men. Acta
endocrinol 102:456462
Shackleford DM, Faassen WA, Houwing N, Lass H, Edwards GA, Porter CJ, Charman WN (2003)
Contribution of lymphatically transported testosterone undecanoate to the systemic exposure
of testosterone after oral administration of two Andriol formulations in conscious lymph
duct-cannulated dogs. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 306:925933
Simmer H, Simmer I (1961) Arnold Adolph Berthold (18031861). Zur Erinnerung an den
hundertsten Todestag des Begrunders der experimentellen Endokrinologie. Dtsch med Wschr
86:21862192
Skakkebaek NE, Bancroft J, Davidson DW, Warner P (1981) Androgen replacement with
oral testosterone undecanoate in hypogonadal men: a double blind controlled study. Clin
Endocrinol 14:4961
Snyder PJ, Lawrence DA (1980) Treatment of male hypogonadism with testosterone enanthate.
J Clin Endocrinol Metab 51:13351339
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
443

Sokol RZ, Swerdloff RS (1986) Practical considerations in the use of androgen therapy. In:
Santen JR, Swerdloff RS (eds) Male reproductive dysfunction. Marcel Dekker, New York,
pp 211225
Steidle C, Schwartz S, Jacoby K, Sebree T, Smith T, Bachand R; North American AA2500 T Gel
Study Group (2003) AA2500 testosterone gel normalizes androgen levels in aging males with
improvements in body composition and sexual function. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:2673
2681
Stuenkel CA, Dudley RE, Yen SC (1991) Sublingual administration of testosterone hydroxypropyl-cyclodextrin inclusion complex simulates episodic androgen release in hypogonadal men. J
Swerdloff RS, Wang C, Cunningham G, Dobs A, Iranmanesh A, Matsumoto AM, Snyder PJ, Weber
T, Longstreth J, Berman N (2000) Long-term pharmacokinetics of transdermal testosterone
gel in hypogonadal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:45004510
van der Vies J (1965) On the mechanism of action of nandrolone phenylpropionate and nandrolone decanoate in rats. Acta endocrinol 49:271282
van der Vies J (1970) Model studies in vitro with long-acting hormonal preparations. Acta
endocrinol 64:656669
van der Vies J (1985) Implications of basic pharmacology in the therapy with esters of nandrolone.
In: Eikelboom FA, van der Vies J (eds) Anabolics in the 80s. Acta endocrinol, suppl 271,
110:3844
Vest SA, Howard JE (1939) Clinical experiments with androgens. IV: a method of implantation
of crystalline testosterone. J Am Med Assoc 113:18691872
Vogelzang NJ, Arnold JL, Chodak GJ, Schoenberg H (1986) Androgen and germ cell testicular
cancers. JAMA 255:906906
von Eckardstein S, Nieschlag E (2002) Treatment of male hypogonadism with testosterone undecanoate injected at extended intervals of 12 weeks: a phase II study. J Androl 23:419425
Voronoff S (1920) Testicular grafting from ape to man. Brentanos Ltd., London
Wang C, Eyre R, Clark D, Kleinberg C, Newman I, Iranmanesh A, Veldhuis R, Dudley RE, Berman
N, Davidson T, Barstow TS, Sinow R, Alexander G, Swerdloff R (1996) Sublingual testosterone
replacement improves muscle mass and strength, decreases bone resorption and increases bone
formation markers in hypogonadal men a clinical research center study. J Clin Endocrinol
Metab 81:36543662
Wang C, Berman N, Longstreth JA, Chuapoco B, Hull L, Steiner B, Faulkner S, Dudley RE,
Swerdloff RS (2000) Pharmacokinetics of transdermal testosterone gel in hypogonadal men:
application of gel at one site versus four sites: a general clinical research center study. J Clin
Endocrinol Metab 85:964969
Wang L, Shi DC, Lu SY, Fang RY (1991) The therapeutic effect of domestically produced testosterone undecanoate in Klinefelter syndrome. New Drugs Mark 8: 2832
Weinbauer GF, Marshall GR, Nieschlag E (1986) New injectable testosterone ester maintains
serum testosterone of castrated monkeys in the normal range for four months. Acta Endocrinol
113:128132
Weinbauer GF, Partsch CJ, Zitzmann M, Schlatt S, Nieschlag E (2003) Pharmacokinetics and
degree of aromatization rather than total dose of different preparations determine the effects
of testosterone: a nonhuman primate study in Macaca fascicularis. J Androl 24:765774
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.
444
H.M. Behre et al.

Werner SC, Hamger FM, Kritzler RA (1950) Jaundice during methyltestosterone therapy. Am J
Med 8:325331
Westaby D, Ogle SJ, Paradinas FJ, Randell JB, Murray-Lyon IM (1977) Liver damage from longterm methyltestosterone. Lancet ii:261263
World Health Organization, Nieschlag E, Wang C, Handelsman DJ, Swerdloff RS, Wu F, EinerJensen N, Waites G (1992) Guidelines for the use of androgens. WHO, Geneva
Wu FCW, Farley TMM, Peregoudov A, Waites GMH, WHO (1996) Effects of testosterone enanthate in normal men: experience from a multicenter contraceptive efcacy study. Fertil Steril
65:626636
Zhang GY, Gu YQ, Wang XH, Cui YG, Bremner WJ (1998) A pharmacokinetic study of injectable
testosterone undecanoate in hypogonadal men. J Androl 19:761768
Zitzmann M, Depenbusch M, Gromoll J, Nieschlag E (2003) Prostate volume and growth in
testosterone-substituted hypogonadal men are dependent on the CAG repeat polymorphism
of the androgen receptor gene: a longitudinal pharmacogenetic study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab
88:20492054
Cambridge
Online
by
Cambridge
University
Press,
2009
Cambridge
Books Online
IP 165.228.159.224
on Wed Mar 30
00:57:13 BST
2011.

@anabolic Steroids - Pharmacology of Testosterone PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

@anabolic Steroids - Pharmacology of Testosterone PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

@anabolic Steroids - Pharmacology of Testosterone PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

14

Pharmacology of testosterone preparations

Historical development of testosterone therapy

Pharmacology of testosterone preparations

14.1 Historical development of testosterone therapy

H.M. Behre et al.

Pharmacology of testosterone preparations

patients and hypogonadism is not a life-threatening disease. Since development of

H.M. Behre et al.

14.3 Pharmacology of testosterone preparations

Pharmacology of testosterone preparations

Full substitution dose

Transdermal testosterone patch

24 capsules a` 40 mg per day

not yet determined

To make testosterone therapeutically effective three approaches have been used:

Unmodied testosterone as physiologically secreted by the testes would appear to

H.M. Behre et al.

Pharmacology of testosterone preparations

susceptible to the hepatotoxic effects of nethyltestosterone than rats (Heywood

The androgenic activity of uoxymesterone was enhanced over that of testosterone

H.M. Behre et al.

Single-dose pharmacokinetics of testosterone undecanoate after oral administration of

Pharmacology of testosterone preparations

14.3.2 Sublingual application

17-methyltestosterone was found to be more effective when applied sublingually

H.M. Behre et al.

Mean (SD), baseline-adjusted serum concentrations of testosterone after application of

Pharmacology of testosterone preparations

H.M. Behre et al.

Pharmacology of testosterone preparations

Terminal elimination half-life (d)

Single-dose pharmacokinetics of testosterone propionate in seven hypogonadal patients.

14.3.6.1 Testosterone propionate

Single-dose pharmacokinetics of 50 mg testosterone propionate after intramuscular

H.M. Behre et al.

testosterone serum concentrations below the lower range of normal testosterone

Pharmacology of testosterone preparations

Single-dose pharmacokinetics of testosterone enanthate in seven hypogonadal patients.

H.M. Behre et al.

weeks results in maximal supraphysiological testosterone serum concentrations

Pharmacology of testosterone preparations

14.3.6.3 Testosterone cypionate and testosterone cyclohexanecarboxylate

Testosterone cypionate (cyclopentylpropionate) pharmacokinetics were compared

H.M. Behre et al.

Pharmacology of testosterone preparations

Pharmacokinetic profile of TestovironR Depot 100 (110 mg testosterone enanthate and

Multiple-dose pharmacokinetics of the testosterone ester mixture TestovironR Depot 100

H.M. Behre et al.

Pharmacology of testosterone preparations

Single-dose pharmacokinetics of testosterone buciclate after intramuscular injection of

(mean SEM) in study week 6 (tmax ). No initial burst release of testosterone

H.M. Behre et al.

14.3.6.6 Testosterone undecanoate

Pharmacology of testosterone preparations

patients (Behre et al. 1999a). Follow-up examinations were performed 1, 2, 3, 5 and

H.M. Behre et al.

Due to these favourable pharmacokinetics a rst, prospective, open-label study

Testosterone decanoate differs from testosterone undecanoate by one carbon atom