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Magnetization and Magnetic Susceptibility

Magnetization M is a magnetic moment per unit volume (units of A/m or T).


Individual subatomic charges such as protons and electrons can be
thought of as tracing out tiny circuits and behaving as tiny magnetic
moments. They respond to external magnetic fields and give rise to an
induced magnetization.
The relationship between the magnetization induced in a material M and
the external field B is defined as:
M = cB/0 = cH
The unitless parameter c is the bulk magnetic susceptibility of the
material (per unit volume).

Some materials are more easily magnetized than others


c is a function of orientation, temperature, state of stress, time scale of

observation and applied field.

Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism


Positive c Paramagnetism, Negative c Diamagnetism
The magnetic moment of a free
atom has three principal
sources:
(1) the spin of the electron,
(2) their orbital angular
momentum about the nucleus
and
(3) the change in orbital
momentum induced by an
external magnetic field.
(1) and (2) give rise to
paramagnetism and
(3) gives rise to diamagnetism.

Diamagnetism
Associated with the tendency of electrical charges partially to shield
the interior of a body from an applied magnetic field

Lenz's law states that the emf induced in an electric circuit always
acts
in such a direction that the current it drives around a closed circuit
produces a magnetic field which opposes the change in magnetic flux.
In other words, the magnetic field of the induced current is opposite of
the applied field, leading to a diamagnetic moment.
All materials exhibit diamagnetic behavior.
cd is fairly weak, but measurable
and temperature independent
Examples:
quartz (-0.62 x 10-8 m3/kg) and
calcite (-0.48 x 10-8 m3/kg)

Langevin Diamagnetism Equation


Larmor theorem:
For e-s around nucleus ,
Motion in presence of B = Motion in absence of B + precession of e-s

eB
Larmors frequency
2m
Application of B will cause finite average current around the nucleus which
is equivalent to a magnetic moment with direction opposite to that of B

I charge revolutions per unit time Ze

current area of the loop I r

If N is the number of atoms per unit volume,

0 M
B

0 N
B

0 NZe 2
6m

r2

1 eB
2 2m

Ze 2 B 2

r
4m

Paramagnetism
Paramagnetism is the partial alignment of permanent atomic magnetic
moments in the direction of an applied field B.
Substances with odd #s of electrons, metals, and atoms with partially filled
inner shells (transition elements) normally exhibit paramagnetism.
Thermal disorder resists the tendency of the field to orient the moments.
Magnetization in thermal equilibrium is given by Langevin equation
M N L ( x ),

1
where x B / kBT , and the Langevin function L( x ) is L ( x ) ctnh x .
x
N 2B
For x 1, we have L ( x ) x /3 M
3kBT

C
B
T

Curie Law

N 2
where the Curie constant C
.
3kB

N 2 B C
M
B,
3k BT T

Langevin Description (summary)


Diamagnetism
M N

0 N
B

0 NZe2
6m

Paramagnetism
M NL(x)

N 2 B C
M
B,
3k BT T

r2

Quantum theory of Paramagnetism


The magnetic moment of an atom or ion in free space is given by
J g B J,
where J L S,

gyromagnetic ratio or magnetogyric ratio


g B
g g factor or spectroscopic splitting factor (~2.00 for e- spin)

J ( J 1) S (S 1) L ( L 1)
For a free e with L, g 1
.
2 J ( J 1)
-

e
The Bohr magneton B
.
2m

Energy levels in magnetic field E mJ g B B.

Case L = 0
1
mJ , and g 2
2

C
If x
B,
kBT T

N1
ex
x
N e e x

M ( N1 N 2 )

For x 1, tanh x x

E mJ g B B B B

and

e x e x
N x
e e x

N2
e x
x
.
x
N e e
N tanh x.

B
M N

k
T
B

Curie Law

N 2 B
M
k BT

General Case
M NgJ B BJ ( x),

( x gJ B B / k BT )

where the Brillouin function BJ is defined by


2J 1
(2 J 1) x 1
x
ctnh

ctnh

.
2J
2J
2J
2J
1 x x3
For x 1, ctnh x ,
x 3 45
BJ

M Ng 2 ( J 1) B2 Np 2 B2 C

.
B
3k BT
3k BT
T

p g[ J ( J 1)]1/ 2 , is the effective number of Bohr magnetons

M Np 2 B2 C

B
3k BT
T

Hund Rules to fix configurations

L is quenched
3d shell experiences intense inhomogeneous electric field (Crystal field)
produced by neighbouring ions.
LS coupling is broken & sublevels split due to crystal field

In a noncentral field the plane of the


orbit will move about and hence the
angular momentum components are
no longer constant and may
average to zero.
When Lz averages to zero then L is
said to be quenched.

Ferromagnetism
Curie Temperature
TC

M decreases rapidly
with H
Beyond the Curie
temperature it behaves
like a paramagnetic
substance
Examples : iron, cobalt,
nickel

Behaves like a paramagnet

M decreases rapidly with H

Antiferromagnetism
like paramagnets above
a critical temperature
TN called Nel
temperature.
Below TN c is small &
T-dependence is
different from
paramagnets.
Example : Cobalt

Ferrimagnetism
Like ferromagnets, but
the effect tends to be
smaller.
The 1/c curve is very
close to zero below a
critical temperature,
also called Nel
temperature.
Examples : magnetite
(Fe3O4) and spinel
ferrites

Novel Magnetism
SPIN GLASS : A random orientation of frozen spins.
CLUSTER GLASS : spins make small clusters with
magnetic order but no order between clusters
METAMAGNET: Field induced magnetic transition
from a low magnetization state to a relatively much
higher magnetization state
SUPERPARAMAGNET when the size of the
magnetic particle is very small domains are not
formed . Each magnetic particle behaves a giant
paramagnetic ion.

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