ST

1 ASSIGNMENT

NAME:
MUHAMMAD RIZWAN

SUBMITTED TO:
DR.MUHAMMAD IMRAN ARSHAD

SUBMISSION DATE:
31-04-2020

PROGRAMME:
M. PHIL (PURE PHYSICS)

INSTITUTE:
 GOVERNMENT COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY FAISALABAD
Q1: Review Diamagnatism and Para-magnatism?
The story of magnetism begins with a mineral called magnetite “
Fe3 O4 ”. The first truly scientific study of magnetism was made by
William Gilbert.In 1600, his book “On the Magnet” was published.In
1905 Langevin proposed the theory of diamagnatism and para-
magnetism.

Diamagnatism:
Diamagnatism is a quantum mechanical effect that occurs in all
materials; when it is the only contribution to the magnetism, the
material is called diamagnetic.A diamagnetic substance does not have
unpaired electrons and is not attracted to a magnetic field.It is a
property of being repelled by both poles of a magnet.Most substances
commonly considered to be nonmagnetic,such as water,are actually
diamagnetic.It is weak form of magnetism that is only observed in the
presence of an external magnetic field; due to an induced magnetic field
in an opposite direction.It is an atomic
phenomenon.
In general, diamagnatism has negative
susceptibility ( χ <0 ).A simple rule of thumb is
used to determine whether a particle is para-
magnetic or diamagnetic.if all electrons in the
particle are paired , then the substance made of this particle is
diamagnetic.The principal source for diamagnetic contribution is
“Change in the orbital moment induced by an applied magnetic field”.

para-magnetism:
para-magnetism is a form of magnetism whereby some materials are
weakly attracted by an externally applied magnetic field, and form
internal, induced magnetic fields in the
diretion of magnetic field.
Due to their spin , unpaired
electrons have magnetic dipole
moment and act like a tiny magnets.It
is the property of the certain materials
that are weakly attracted to magnetic field when exposed to external
magnetic field.
Para-magnetism varies linearly with applied magnetic field.para-
magnetic materials such as aluminium, platinum etc are slightly
magnetized in magnetic field but they lose their magnetism when field is
removed.para-magnetism is a molecular phenomenon.It is due to
presence of unpaired electron in the materials,so most atoms with
incompletely filled atomic orbitals are para-magnetic.An external
magnetic field causes the electrons spins to align parallel to the field,
causing a net attraction.A simple rule of thumb is used to determine
whether a particle is para-magnetic or diamagnetic.if not all electrons in
the particle are paired , then the substance made of this particle is para-
magnetic.In the absence of external magnetic field,para-magnets do not
retain any magnetization because thermal motion randomizes the spin
orientation.

Q2: Briefly describe Magnetic moment?

Magnetic moment is a determination of its tendency to get arranged
through a magnetic field. As we all know , a magnet has two poles i-e,
North and South.
Magnetic moment can be defined as:
Magnetic strength and orientation of a magnet or other object that
produces a magnetic field.
Magnetic moment is a vector relating torque of an object to the
magnetic field.This is mathematically represented as:
τ =m×B
Where, τ is the torque acting on the dipole
m is the magnetic moment
B is the external magnetic field
Unit:
In the definition for the current loop, the magnetic moment is the
product of the current flowing and the area
through which it is passing
 μ=IA
2
So the unit conferring to this definition is articulated by Amp- m .
It can also be suggested in terms of torque and moment. Conferring
to that, the torque is measured in Joules (J) and the magnetic field is
−1
measured in Tesla (T) and thus the unit is JT . So these two units are
equivalent of each other and is provided by :
2
1 Amp- m = 1 J T
−1

Q3: Briefly describe Magnetic dipole?

A Magnetic dipole comprises two unlike poles of equivalent strength
and parted by a small distance. i-e, the needle of a compass, the bar
magnet etc are magnetic dipoles.we shall show that a current loop
works as a magnetic dipole.
Magnetic dipole moment:
It is described as the product of pole strength and distance between
two poles.The distance between two magnetic poles is named as
magnetic length and is given as 2L.
If m is the power of any magnetic pole then the magnet dipole
moment of magnet is signified by the vector M and it is represented as:
m
M= 2l
The magnetic dipole moment is a vector and it has direction from
south pole of the magnetic to north pole of the magnet.
Magnetic dipole force:
The force on a magnetic dipole is because of both the poles of
magnet and we consider the magnetic dipole of a bar magnet and
assume that the magnet is kept in an unbroken magnetic field B. In that
situation, the force on the separate poles is articulated as

¿ mB which is along the magnetic field B=Force on the N-Pole

¿mB and this is opposite to magnetic field B=Force on the S-Pole

 These forces are equivalent in magnitude,but opposite in direction
and they form a parallel couple which rotates the magnet clockwise and
creates a net torque on the magnet because of individual force in a
couple, thus we have torque acting on the bar magnet.
τ = Moment of couple
τ = mB×2 L sinθ
Where θ is the angle between the magnet and the magnetic field,
therefore,from the above discussion we have
M=m ¿ 2L
Thus,magnetic dipole moment is articulated by:
ττ =MB sin θ
In vector form it can be rephrased as
τ =M ×B
This is required expression for Magnetic dipole force.

Q4:Magnetic Parameters and their relation?

Parameter:
Parameter is any characteristic that can help in defining or classifying
a particular system.It is a constant or variable term in a function that
determines the specific form of the function but not its general nature.
Magnetic Parameter:
In many para-magnetic materials such as in hydrated salts,as the
temperature is raised the thermal agitation of spins reduces even this
small amount of alignment.Pierre curies show that in these case the
susceptibility χ which is defined as:
M
χ=
H
 M=magnetization
H=magnetic field strength
χ =susceptibility
Follows the curie law given as:
c
χ=
T
C=curie constant
T=temperature in degree kelvin
The temperature dependence of the inverse of the susceptibility in a
para-magnetic. In ferromagnetic materials the alignment of magnetic
moments in a magnetic field at higher temperature is decreased.Since a
much greater degree of alignment occurs in ferro-magnetism the effect
is even more pronounced with further temperature increase the thermal
agitation will exceed the exchange force and at a certain temperature
called the curie point ferro-magnetism disappears.From complete
alignment at 0’k to zero alignment at the curie point a curve of reduced
M
temperature or magnetization M ∘ plotted against reduced
T
temperature T c follow a similar pattern.
Above the curve point the ferromagnetic material becomes para-
magnetic,the susceptibility of which decreases with temperature.If the
reciprocal susceptibility is plotted against T,the curve obeys the curie
weiss law
1 1
=
χ [c (T −T c )]

C=curie weiss constant

T c =curie point

In ferro-magnetism the interaction of atomic spin moments was a

positive one meaning that the exchange interaction aligned neighboring
spin parallel in a magnetic domain.The para-magnetic susceptibility of
certain alloys Neel noticed that they did not follow the curie
temperature but did obeys the curie weiss law at high temperature.
c
χ=
(T +θ )
θ =Experimentally determined constant

c
χ=
(T −T N )

T N =Neel temperature

Ferro-magnetic also have a curie point and one would expect some
type of para-magnetic behaviour above the curie temperature.However
because of the negative interaction such as found in antiferro-
1
magnetism the curve of χ vs T will be concave approaching an
asymptotic value with would extrapolate to negative value which again
was found in antiferro-magnetic.This type of behaviour is strong
1
confirmation of Neel’s theory.The χ vs T curve is found in para-
magnetic,ferromagnetic and ferromagnetic materials.

Q5:Pauli para-magnetism.Wave function of magnetic

ions (3d, 4f)?
Pauli para-magnetism:
The different derivation of the para-magnetism susceptibility of free
electron taking Fermi statistics into account.we will find this contribution
to χ to be positive and is called pauli paramagnetism,in honour of the
man who first explained the effect successfully.
The first derivation of pauli paramagnetism susceptibility is hand
waving.Although it can hardly qualify as a derivation.It nevertheless
provide us with a very nice physical picture of pauli paramagnetism.
Suppose that the free electron form as electron gas with all energy
states occupied up to the Fermi level only these state near the Fermi
surface can contribute to the susceptibility for it is only states which
have unoccupied states nearby in energy.Thus the fraction of eletron
T
that can contribute to χ is on the order of T F where the Fermi
temperature T F is related to the Fermi energy E F through the
EF
T F=
Boltzman constant K B by K B .This argument then indicates that
the free electron density which is effective in contributing to χ is
T
fraction n( T F ) so that
n μ^ μ2B T n μ^ μ2B
χ free−electron ≃ ( )≃
KB T T F KB T F

T F >>T for metals at room temperature,the pauli paramagnetism

is expected to be small compared with the contribution from the bound
electron and χ is essentially independent of T in agreement with
experiment.
We will now gibe a second derivation of this result that is still quite
physical but some what more rigorous that the hand waving
approach.The second derivation given here is the basis for many
arguments you will see in the literature in the field of magnetism and is
based on a density of states picture for spin down bands.The spin
__ __
angular momentum S has a direction opposite to μ .To see the
familiar density of states curve for nearly free electrons in 3D space
1

ρ( E )∝ E 2 hold.
The two side of the picture spin
up and spin down bands in gig
the energy E at band edge is
either ±μB B relative to the
energy in zero magnetic
field.Thus the electron with spin
along the magnetic field go into the ↓ band on the right hand side of
__ __
the figure while the electron with S anti-parallel to B into the band
on the left hand side.
Let us now calculate the average number of electron in the spin up and
spin down bands.This average number will be roughly of the total carrier
concentration x.In carrying out the calculation we note that because of
the negative sign of the electron charge μB is negative quantity.we
therefore use μ^ B to denote the absolute value| μB |.Then we write
1 E
F
n+ = ∫ dEf ( E) ρ( E+ μ^ B B )
2 − μ^ BB → (a)

Where n+ is the electron density with the magnetic directed along the
field f(E) is the Fermi function and ρ( E+ μ^ B B) is the density of states
for the ensemble for which the magnetic moment is directed along the
magnetic field.To carry out the integral equation (a) expand the density
of states
∂ p ( E)
ρ( E+ μ^ B B)=ρ( E )+ μ^ B B( )
∂E +……
The value substitution into eq(a)
∞ 0 ^μ B B ∞ '
n+ =1 2∫0 dEf ( E) ρ( E )+ 1 2∫−μ B dEf ( E ) ρ( E)+ ∫ dEf ( E )ρ ( E )
B 2 μB
B

The second term on the right hand side vanishes because ρ (E)=0 for
E<0.The last term on the right hand side is handled through integration
by parts
∞ ∞
∫− ^μ B dEf ( E) ρ' ( E )=f ( E) ρ( E )|−∞μ^ B−∫−^μ B dEf ' ( E) ρ( E )
B B B

And therefore obtain

n+ =1 2 n∘+ 1 2 μ^ B B ρ E F

Similarly we can carry out the corresponding calculation for n− to

obtain
∞ 1 −1
n− =1 2∫+ μ^ B dEf ( E ) ρ( E− μ^ B B )= n∘ ^ μB Bρ ( EF )
B 2 2

The magnetic moment per uni volume is proportional to the net number
of electrons contributing to the magnetic moment time μ^ B and can be
written as
M= μ^ B ( n+ −n− )= μ^ 2B B ρ E F
So that
2
χ=μ B ρ(E F )

We note that since χ depends on the square of μB there is no

2 2
distinction between μ^ B and μB .It is to be noted that derivation of
χ given here does not take into account the effect of the magnetic
field on the electronic states.This effect is in fact of significant
importance but beyond the scope of simple discussion presented
here.For free electrons we can easily evaluate the density of states at
the Fermi level ρ( E F ) to obtain
3n 3n
ρ( E F )= =
2 EF 2 K BT F

So that
3 nμ2B B
M=
2 K BT F

So that from which we obtain

2
3 n μ^ μ B
χ=
2 K BT F

Which except for numerical factor is the same result as was obtained by
the hand waving approach given by eq A in the first derivation of pauli
paramagnetism susceptibility measurements of the pauli paramagnetic
contribution are difficult to carry out and interpret because of difficulties
in separating the various physical contribution to the experimentally
determined χ(T ) .The most effective method to measure the pauli
contribution is a comparison between the susceptibility implied by
electron spin resonance and nuclear magnetic resonance.

Q6:Spin orbit coupling?

The spin angular momentum of electrons can interact with its orbital
angular momentum.This lead to splitting of different energy levels which
can lead to different transition energies.This effect is known as spin orbit
coupling.In simple words we can explain it a how a particle spin and
orbital angular momentum interact together.
 The total angular momentum is obtained due to the interaction
between spin and orbital angular momentum.The value of this total
momentum is maximum when both the spin and orbital momentum is
parallel.We can get the total angular momentum due to the following
coupling equation:
J=(L+S),(L+S-1),…..,(L-S)
Here, J represents the total angular quantum number, L gives the
orbital quantum number and S represents spin quantum number.
We can observe splitting in hydrogen atom emission spectra due to
the spin orbit coupling.The electron here has an intrinsic spin given as:
1 1
, ms=±
S= 2 2

The orbital spin of electron is,

l=-l …….+l
Both the spin and orbital momentum couple together and the total
angular momentum can be obtained in hydrogen atom.This lead to the
splitting in its emission spectra.Spin orbital coupling also has many other
application.The magneto crystalline anisotropy caused due to this
interaction.
The spin orbit coupling of electrons in semiconductor is found have
variety of technological applications.The neutrons and protons spin
orbital coupling in atom is of great importance as it gives a great
contribution towards the total interaction energy.
The neutral particles can also show spin orbit coupling since it has
both the spin orbital angular momenta.

Q7:Crystal field effects?

Crystal field theory was developed by Bethe and Vleck and is widely
accepted theory than the valence band theory.This theory describes the
breakage of the degeneracy of the d-orbital due to the electrostatic field
produced by the approaching ligand.
It assumes that the interaction between the metal ion and the ligand
is purely electrostatic.
 The postulates are:
1. The ligands approaching the metal are considered as a point
charge.
2. The metal orbitals and ligand orbitals do not interact.
3. The d-orbitals of the metal has same energy levels, i.e.
degenerate, however, the degeneracy is lost when the ligand
approaches the metal ion.
In symmetrically surrounded metal ion, the ligands are present all
around the metals.This would result in equals repulsive forces exerted to
the ligands and hence,the degeneracy of the d-orbital is not lost.
In an isolated gaseous metal atom,the degenracy of the d-orbital is
conserved ,however, raised up to a certain extent due to repulsion
between the ligand field and metal orbital.

In general, the central metal is surrounded by the negatively charged

or neutral metal atom and metal remains positively charged.

In case of neutral ligand such as NH 3 ,the negative dipole of the

ligand would face the metal ion.
In case of octahedral complex, there are six ligands around the metal
ions.The dx 2 − y 2 and dz 2 feels more repulsion than the dxy,dyz and
dzx.

Hence the e g orbitals are higher in energy than the t 2g orbital in

an octahedral splitting.The energy gap between the two sets of orbital is
represented by Δo .
 The splitting of the d-orbital into two sets depends on:
i. Nature of Ligand (strong field ligand and weak field ligand).
ii. Metal oxidation state.
iii. The arrangement of the ligands.