Electronics- theory and question booklet

RESISTORS

Resistors determine the flow of current in an electrical circuit.

Where there is high resistance then the flow of current is
small, where the resistance is low the flow of current is large.
Resistance, voltage and current are connected in an electrical
circuit by Ohms Law.

Resistors are used for regulating current and they resist the current flow and the extent to which
they do this is measured in ohms (). Resistors are found in almost every electronic circuit.
The most common type of resistor consists of a small ceramic (clay) tube covered partially by a
conducting carbon film. The composition of the carbon determines how much current can pass
through.

Electronics- theory and question booklet

Resistors are too small to have

numbers printed on them and so
they are marked with a number of
coloured bands. Each color stands
for a number. Three colour bands
show the resistors value in ohms
and the fourth shows tolerance.
Resistors can never be made to a
precise value and the tolerance
band (the fourth band) tells us,
using a percentage, how close the
resistor is to its coded value. The
resistor on the left is 4700 ohms.
The value of a resistor can be written in a variety of ways. Some examples are given below:
47R means 47 ohms
5R6 means 5.6 ohms
6k8 means 6800 ohms
1M2 means 1 200 000 ohms

1. Resistors in SERIES - When resistors are connected in

series, their values are added together:

For example:

total

=R1+R2

1K+1K+3K9=5K9 (total value)

2. Resistors in PARALLEL -When resistors are connected in

parallel, their total resistance is given as:

1/Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2

1/Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2

Electronics- theory and question booklet

Questions
1. What is the resistance of 2 resistors in series of 100 and 1500 ohms?
2. What is the resistance of the same resistors in parallel?
3. From the table below calculate the resistance of a resistor with the colors of red,
black, orange, gold?

Color 1st band 2nd band 3rd band (multiplier) 4th band (tolerance) Temp. Coefficient

Black 0

100

Brown 1

101

1% (F)

100 ppm

Red

102

2% (G)

50 ppm

Orange 3

103

15 ppm

Yellow 4

104

25 ppm

Green 5

105

0.5% (D)

Electronics- theory and question booklet

106

0.25% (C)

Violet 7

107

0.1% (B)

Grey

108

0.05% (A)

White 9

109

Blue

Gold

0.1

5% (J)

Silver

0.01

10% (K)

None

20% (M)

CAPACITORS

Capacitors are components that are used to store an electrical charge and are used in timer
circuits. A capacitor may be used with a resistor to produce a timer. Sometimes capacitors
are used to smooth a current in a circuit as they can prevent false triggering of other
components such as relays.

Electronics- theory and question booklet

A capacitor is composed of two conductors separated by an insulating material called a

DIELECTRIC. The dielectric can be paper, plastic film, ceramic, air or a vacuum. The
plates can be aluminum discs, aluminium foil or a thin film of metal applied to opposite
sides of a solid dielectric. The CONDUCTOR - DIELECTRIC - CONDUCTOR
sandwich can be rolled into a cylinder or left flat

When the circuit is switched on, the light dependent resistor emits light and the capacitor
charges up. When the switch is turned off the LED stills emits a light for a few seconds
because the electricity stored in the capacitor is slowly discharged. When it has fully
discharged its electricity the LED no longer emits light. If a resistor is introduced to the
circuit the capacitor charges up more slowly but also discharges more slowly. What will
happen to the light?

Electronics- theory and question booklet

Electrolytic capacitors are polarized which means they have a positive and negative
lead and must be positioned in a circuit the right way round (the positive lead must go to
the positive side of the circuit).
They also have a much higher capacitance than non-electrolytic capacitors.
Non-electrolytic capacitors usually have a lower capacitance.
They are not polarized (do not have a positive and negative lead) and can be placed
anyway round in a circuit.
They are normally used to smooth a current in a circuit.
CAPACITANCE - means the value of a capacitor.

Notice the electrolytic capacitors above. They all have two polarized leads, in other words they have a
positive and negative leg. This type of capacitor is used with ICs such as the 555 timer chip and it is the
capacitors and resistors that determine the timing sequence.

Electronics- theory and question booklet

Look carefully at the photographs of the two types of capacitors. Can you work out which
one is electrolytic and which is non-electrolytic?

The simple circuit below is basically a switch which is connected to a computer. When
the switch is pressed the computer detects that the relay is closed and then turns on a
motor.
However, there is a problem. When the switch is pressed it only closes the relay for a
split second and this is not enough time for the computer program to detect that it has
been pressed in the first place. A time delay is the obvious answer and this can be
achieved by adding a capacitor in parallel to the switch. If the relay is held closed for 3/4
seconds then the computer program will have time to detect it - A capacitor provides the
time delay.

Capacitors were once specified by their values in either microfarads or picofarads, which
meant that both very small (such as 0.01 F) and very large (such as 10,000 pF) numbers
were in common use. Nowadays, it is considered preferable to use the nanofarad as well,
and specify all values in the numeric range 1 - 999 only; this makes the examples given
above equal to 10 nF (yes, they are both the same!). Above 999 F, the practice is not yet
in common use; capacitors are not usually specified in millifarads (mF), probably
because it would be too easily confused with microfarads (for which mF was once an
acceptable abbreviation).
A table giving translations of previous commonly used multiples is as follows:

Electronics- theory and question booklet

Capacitor

Polarized
Capacitor

Variable
Capacitor

Capacitor symbols
1.
2.
3.
4.

What is a ploarised capacitor?

Draw a simple capacitor with a dielectric in the middle and plates on the outside?
What can capacitors are made from?
Draw a polarized capacitor showing positive and negative.

BATTERIES and LEDs

Batteries come in all shapes and sizes. They store electrical charge and as we all know
when they are put into an electronic device such as a portable radio, they provide the
8

Electronics- theory and question booklet

power. The usual battery sizes are seen opposite. These are the type used in school
projects and range from 1.5 volts to 9 volts.
School projects are powered by batteries because they are safe, easily bought and safe.

QUESTION
This shows one of the most simple circuits. When the switch is pressed, the LED (further
information below) lights. Resistors are used in circuits because LEDs can be destroyed
by voltages over 3 volts. Why do you think the circuit opposite does not have a resistor to
protect the LED ?
ANSWER

THE LED

Light Emitting Diodes (LED) are very rugged, they last a very long time and they are an
optical source. (A LIGHT SOURCE)

Electronics- theory and question booklet

LEDs produce red, green, yellow, or orange light. They are used in a range of products.
Can you name any ?
Infrared LEDs are also available although light from this type cannot be seen by the
human eye. These are used in security devices.
LEDs are part of the diode family, consequently they must be connected the right way
round or current will not pass through. They are usually protected by a resistor. (See
DIODE information sheet).

Current
flow

A typical led runs on 15-20mAmps of current.

1. Which is the positive leg on a LED?
2. Why do LEDs need resistors?

10

Electronics- theory and question booklet

SWITCHES - 1
Some common switches are shown on this information sheet. Basically switches bring contacts
together in different ways but they do the same switching job.
Typical Switch Symbols

KEY SWITCH

This switch is available in different forms. They provide

limited security as a key is required to switch them on
and off.

PUSH SWITCH

These can be push to make (push the switch to allow the

circuit to work) or push to break (push the switch to turn
off the circuit).

ROCKER SWITCH

11

Electronics- theory and question booklet

This switch is common on many electrical devices. For

example they are found on computer units for turning
them on and off.

12

Electronics- theory and question booklet

TOGGLE SWITCH

These are available in miniature and standard sizes. The advantage of the toggle switch is
that they can be extended and operated by a lever.
SLIDE SWITCH

Can be stiff to operate and does not operate smoothly. Available in a range of size
1. Name a push to make (or normally open) switch use?
2. Name a push to break (or normally closed) switch use?

13

Electronics- theory and question booklet

Current Law and Flowrate

For any circuit, fluid or electric, which has multiple branches and parallel elements, the
flowrate through any cross-section must be the same. This is sometimes called the
principle of continuity.
Volume
flowrate in
liters/min,
cm3/sec,
m3/sec, etc.

Electric current
flow in
coulombs/sec =
amperes.
A large pipe offers very
little resistance to flow, as
shown by Poiseuille's law.

A wire offers very little

resistance to charge flow
according to Ohm's law.

14

Electronics- theory and question booklet

DC Circuit Water Analogy

This is an active graphic. Click any part of it for further details.

In a direct current (DC) electrical circuit, the voltage (V in volts) is an expression of the
available energy per unit charge which drives the electric current (I in amperes) around a
closed circuit. Increasing the resistance (R in ohms) will proportionately decrease the
current which may be driven through the circuit by the voltage.
Each quantity and each operational relationship in a battery-operated DC circuit has a
direct analog in the water circuit. The nature of the analogies can help develop an
understanding of the quantities in basic electric ciruits. In the water circuit, the pressure P
drives the water around the closed loop of pipe at a certain volume flowrate F. If the
resistance to flow R is increased, then the volume flowrate decreases proportionately. You
may click any component or any relationship to explore the the details of the analogy
with a DC electric circuit.

15

Electronics- theory and question booklet

Voltage-Pressure Analogy
A battery is analogous to a pump in a water circuit. A pump takes in water at low pressure and does
work on it, ejecting it at high pressure. A battery takes in charge at low voltage, does work on it and
ejects it at high voltage.

16

Electronics- theory and question booklet

Resistance to Flow
The resistance to flow represented by a severe constriction in a water pipe is analogous to the resistance to
electric current represented by a common electric "resistor".

The severe constriction will have more resistance than the remainder of the pipe system. Likewise a resistor
in an electric circuit will generally have much more resistance than the wire of the circuit. If the single
elements represented are the only resistances in the circuit, then essentially all the pressure or voltage will
drop across these single elements. The fact that essentially all the voltage drop appears across a resistor or
an ordinary electrical appliance makes possible the operation of such appliances from an extension cord, or
the operation of several appliances in parallel on a single circuit in your home.

Ohm's Law-Poiseuille's Law

Ohm's law for electric current flow and Poiseuille's law for the smooth flow of fluids are
of the same form.

17

Electronics- theory and question booklet

Conventional current

Scheme of a discharging galvanic cell: The electric current is carried by electrons outside
the cell (electric current going the opposite way of the electrons), and is carried by
positively charged cations inside the cell (electric current going in the same way as the
anions)
Conventional current was defined early in the history of electrical science as a flow of
positive charge. In solid metals, like wires, the positive charge carriers are immobile, and
only the negatively charged electrons flow. Because the electron carries negative charge,
the electron current is in the direction opposite that of the conventional (or electric)
current.

Diagram showing conventional current notation. Electric charge moves from the positive
side of the power source to the negative.
In other conductive materials, the electric current is due to the flow of charged particles
in both directions at the same time.

18

Electronics- theory and question booklet

Electromagnetism
Electric current produces a magnetic field. The magnetic field can be visualized as a
pattern of circular field lines surrounding the wire.
Electric current can be directly measured with a galvanometer, but this method involves
breaking the circuit, which is sometimes inconvenient. Current can also be measured
without breaking the circuit by detecting the magnetic field associated with the current.
Devices used for this include Hall effect sensors, current clamps, current transformers,
and Rogowski coils.

According to Ampre's law, an electric current produces a magnetic field.

SERIES CIRCUITS
The circuit opposite shows
three bulbs placed in
series. This is a called a
series circuit. Current
flows through each of the
bulbs in sequence. Current
flows through bulb A, then
bulb B and finally bulb C.
The more bulbs that are
added, the less bright they
shine. It is possible to
added so many bulbs that
they do not light at all.
This is due to the
resistance in each bulb. If
any of the bulbs fail,
current cannot flow
through the circuit and the

19

Electronics- theory and question booklet

other components will not

work.

The circuit (right and left) is another example of a series circuit. When the switch is
turned on current flows through the bulb first, then the solenoid and last the motor. This
causes the bulb to light, the solenoid to be activated and the motors spindle to rotate.
However, the more components that are added in series means the less current is
available for all. Eventually, each component will fail to work as too much current is
being drained from the circuit.

20

Electronics- theory and question booklet

PARALLEL CIRCUITS
The circuit below shows three bulbs placed in parallel. This is a parallel circuit. Current can flow
through each of the bulbs without first having to flow through any others. If any of the bulbs fail the
others will still work as current can still flow through the rest of the circuit.

The circuit below is another example of a parallel circuit. When the switch is turned on
current flows through the bulb, solenoid and motor simultaneously. This causes the bulb
to light, the solenoid to the activated and the motors spindle to rotate, all at the same time.

21

Electronics- theory and question booklet

PICTORIAL DRAWING OF THE SAME PARALLEL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Crocodile Technology software is very useful when simulating this type of circuit
diagram.
QUESTIONS:
1. Draw a simple parallel circuit and explain how it works.
2. Draw the same components but this time arranged as a series circuit. How do the two
circuits differ?
3. What will happen if one of the components fails in a parallel circuit?

Voltage Law
The voltage changes around any closed loop must sum to zero. No matter what path you
take through an electric circuit, if you return to your starting point you must measure the
same voltage, constraining the net change around the loop to be zero. Since voltage is
electric potential energy per unit charge, the voltage law can be seen to be a consequence
of conservation of energy.
The voltage law has great practical utility in the analysis of electric circuits. It is used in
conjunction with the current law in many circuit analysis tasks.

22

Electronics- theory and question booklet

Current Law
The electric current in amperes which flows into any junction in an electric circuit is
equal to the current which flows out. This can be seen to be just a statement of
conservation of charge. Since you do not lose any charge during the flow process around
the circuit, the total current in any cross-section of the circuit is the same. Along with the
voltage law, this law is a powerful tool for the analysis of electric circuits.

Resistor Combinations
The combination rules for any number of resistors in series or parallel can be derived
with the use of Ohm's Law, the voltage law, and the current law.

23