chapter

12
3

Volcanoes

1
section

Volcanoes and Earths Moving Plates

Before You Read

What Youll Learn

how volcanoes affect
people
what causes volcanoes
the relationship
between volcanoes and
Earths plates

Think about what happens to a wax candle after you light

it. On the lines below, describe what happens to the wax
and what it does. Then describe what happens to the wax
after the flame is blown out.

Read to Learn
Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

What are volcanoes?

A volcano is an opening in Earths surface that erupts
gases, ash, and lava. These materials pile up in layers around
the opening, forming volcanic mountains. Today, Earth has
more than 600 active volcanoes. An active volcano is one
that has erupted within recorded history.

Highlight Identify the key

terms and their meanings as you
read this section.

Which volcanoes erupt most often?

The most active volcano on Earth is in Hawaii. It is called
Kilauea (kee low AY ah). This volcano has been erupting for
hundreds of years, but its eruptions are slow, not explosive.
Since 1983, Kilauea has had a series of eruptions that
continue today. In May of 1990, it destroyed most of the
town of Kalapana Gardens. Because its lava flowed slowly,
people had time to escape and no one was hurt.
The country of Iceland is also famous for its active
volcanoes. This island country is located in an area where
Earths plates move apart. Because of its northern location
and active volcanoes, it is known as the land of fire and ice.

A Cause and Effect Make

a two-tab Foldable as shown. As
you read, take notes on the
causes and effects of volcanoes.

Causes

Effects

Reading Essentials

171

Effects of Eruptions
Volcanic eruptions have a serious impact on people who
live nearby. Their lives may be in danger. Even if people are
able to evacuate or escape, their property is often damaged
or destroyed. The lava flowing from a volcano destroys
everything in its path. Volcanic ash and dust falling from
the sky can collapse buildings and block roads. Ash can
cause lung diseases in people and animals.

What is a pyroclastic flow?

1.

Explain two effects of

volcanic eruptions.

Sometimes volcanic ash and other matter rush down the side
of a volcano. This is called a pyroclastic (pi roh CLAS tihk)
flow. Temperatures inside a pyroclastic flow can be hot
enough to catch wood on fire. If the flow is heavy, people in
nearby towns are forced to abandon their homes. Buildings,
roads and crops may be destroyed by the pyroclastic flow.

The Soufrire (sew FREE er) Hills volcano on the island

of Montserrat erupted in July of 1995. Geologists knew it
was about to erupt. They warned people living nearby to
evacuate. Two years after the eruption began, large pyroclastic
flows swept down the sides of the volcano. Cities and towns
were buried. Plant life was destroyed. Twenty people who
didnt evacuate were killed. This eruption was one of the
largest recent volcanic eruptions near North America.
Sulfurous gas is released during volcanic eruptions. When
these gases mix with water vapor in the atmosphere, acid
rain forms. On the island of Montserrat, the acid rain
destroyed the vegetation. Acid rain fell into the lakes and
streams and killed fish. As the vegetation died, the animals
living in the forests left or died. When a volcano erupts, it is
a danger to all living organisms and to the environment.

How do volcanoes form?

2.

Identify What two

factors work together to
melt rock into magma?

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Volcanoes

What happens inside Earth to create volcanoes? Why do

volcanoes occur in some places and not in others? Deep
inside Earth, heat and pressure melt rocks. The liquid rock
is called magma. Some rocks deep in Earth already are
melted. Other rocks are so hot, the smallest rise in
temperature or drop in pressure melts them into magma.
What makes magma come to the surface?

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

How do volcanoes affect humans and the

environment?

Why is magma forced upward?

Magma is not as dense as the rock around it. This
difference in density forces the magma to rise toward Earths
surface. You can see this process if you turn a bottle of cold
syrup upside down. The dense syrup will force the less
dense air bubbles to slowly rise.
After many thousands or even millions of years, magma
reaches Earths surface. Magma flows out through an
opening called a vent.
Once magma reaches Earths surface, it is called lava. As
lava flows out, it cools and becomes solid, forming layers of
igneous rock around the vent. Often the area around the
vent is bowl-shaped. The steep, bowl-shaped area around a
volcanos vent is the crater. The figure below shows magma
inside Earth being forced to the surface.

Picture This
3.

Determine Draw arrows

along the path the magma
travels from the magma
chamber, through the vent,
and out of the crater.

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

How a Volcano Forms

Pressure forces
magma up the main
pipe and any branch
pipes that
have formed.

After magma reaches the

surface, it is called lava.
Ash, lava, and gases
erupt from the crater
of the volcano.

Magma collects in a magma

chamber underground before it
is forced toward the surface.

Reading Essentials

173

Volcanoes, Hot Spots, and Plate Boundaries

Hot spot
Active volcano
Plate boundary

4.

Analyze Highlight plate

boundaries on the map.
Notice the volcanoes along
the way. Now look for hot
spots. Describe where
they are found.

Where do volcanoes occur?

Volcanoes often form where plates are moving apart,
where plates are moving together, and in areas called hot
spots. Plates are large sections of Earths crust and upper
mantle. Plate boundaries are the areas where there is
movement of plates. The map above shows the locations
of volcanoes, hot spots, and plate boundaries around
the world.

What are divergent plate boundaries?

Iceland is a large island in the North Atlantic Ocean.
Iceland has volcanic activity because it is part of the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a divergent
plate boundary. A divergent plate boundary is an area where
Earths plates are moving apart.
When plates move apart, they form long, deep cracks
called rifts. Lava flows from these rifts and is cooled quickly
by the seawater. As more lava flows and hardens, it builds
up on the seafloor. Sometimes, the volcanos and rift eruptions
rise above sea level. Islands such as Iceland formed in this
way. In 1963, another island, Surtsey, formed nearby.

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Volcanoes

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Picture This

Convergent Plate Boundaries

Magma is less dense
than rock, so it is forced
upward and eventually
erupts from the volcano.

Picture This
As the oceanic plate slides
downward, rock melts
and forms magma.

5.

Interpret Circle the plate

that is going underneath
the other plate.

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

What occurs at convergent plate boundaries?

Areas where Earths plates are pushing together are
convergent plate boundaries. Sometimes an oceanic plate slides
under a continental plate. Other times, an oceanic plate slides
under another oceanic plate. The figure above shows how
volcanoes can form where plates collide and one plate slides
below the other. The Andes mountain range in South America
began forming when an oceanic plate started sliding under a
continental plate. Volcanoes that form on convergent plate
boundaries usually have more explosive eruptions than other
volcanoes. Magma forms when the plate sliding below another
plate gets deep enough and hot enough to melt partially. The
magma is forced to rise slowly to Earths surface, forming
volcanoes like Soufrire Hills on the island of Montserrat.

What are hot spots?

The Hawaiian Islands are forming as a result of volcanic
activity. But they havent formed at a plate boundary. They
are in the middle of the Pacific Plate, far from its edges.
Scientists think there are areas between Earths core and
mantle that are unusually hot. Hot rock in these areas is
forced toward the crust where it partly melts to form a
hot spot.

How were the Hawaiian Islands formed?

The Hawaiian Islands sit on top of a hot spot under the
Pacific Plate. Magma has broken through the crust to form
several volcanoes. The volcanoes that rise above the ocean
form the Hawaiian Islands.

6.

Identify What is an
unusually hot area
between Earths mantle
and core called?

Reading Essentials

175

After You Read

Mini Glossary
crater: steep, bowl-shaped area around a volcanos vent
hot spot: unusually hot area between Earths mantle and core
that forms volcanoes when melted rock is forced upward
and breaks through the crust

vent: opening where magma is forced up and flows out onto

Earths surface as lava, forming a volcano
volcano: opening in Earths surface that erupts sulfurous
gases, ash, and lava; can form at Earths plate boundaries,
where plates move apart or together, and at hot spots

1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Then write a sentence that
describes the materials that erupt from a volcano and the path they take.

2. Write the following events in the order in which they occur.

Magma slowly rises to Earths surface.
Lava hardens to rock.
Heat and pressure deep inside Earth cause rock to melt.
Magma erupts through a vent.
Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

First

Second

Third

Fourth

End of
Section

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chapter

12
3

Volcanoes

2
section

Types of Volcanoes

Before You Read

Imagine you have two balloons. One balloon is twice the
size of the other. If you popped both balloons, which one
would you expect to have the loudest bang?

Read to Learn

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

What controls eruptions?

Some volcanic eruptions are explosive. These eruptions are
rapid, powerful, and destructive, like the eruption that took
place at the Soufrire Hills volcano. Other volcanic eruptions are
quiet. The lava flows slowly from the vent, like the eruptions
at the Kilauea volcano. What causes these differences?
Two factors determine whether an eruption will be
explosive or quiet. One factor is the amount of water vapor
and other gases trapped in the magma. The other factor is
how much silica is in the magma. Silica is a compound
made of the elements silicon and oxygen.

How do trapped gases affect eruptions?

What happens if a can of soda is shaken up and then
opened quickly? Pressure from the gas in the drink is released
suddenly, and the drink sprays everywhere. Something
similar occurs with volcanoes. Gases, like water vapor and
carbon dioxide, are trapped in magma by the pressure of the
surrounding magma and rock. As magma nears the surface,
it is under less pressure. This allows the gas to escape from
the magma. Gas escapes easily from some magma during
quiet eruptions. However, gas that builds up to high pressures
causes explosive eruptions.

What Youll Learn

what determines the
explosiveness of
volcanoes
about three types of
volcanoes

Study Coach

Two-Column Notes As you

read, organize your notes in two
columns. In the left column,
write the main idea. Next to it,
in the right column, write
information to support the
main idea.

1.

Explain What
determines how a volcano
will explode?

Reading Essentials

177

How does water vapor affect eruptions?

2.

Explain Why does some

magma contain a lot of
water vapor?

The magma at some convergent plate boundaries contains

a lot of water vapor. This happens because an oceanic plate
and some of its water slides under other plate material at
some convergent plate boundaries. The trapped water vapor
in the magma can cause explosive eruptions.

Composition of Magma
The second major factor that affects the nature of
eruptions is the composition of magma. Magma can be
divided into two major typessilica poor and silica rich.

3.

Determine Is basaltic
magma low or high
in silica?

Magma that is low in silica is called basaltic (buh SAWL tihk)

magma. It is fluid and produces quiet eruptions like those
at Kilauea. This type of lava pours from the volcanic vents
and runs down the sides of a volcano. This is called
pahoehoe (pa HOY hoy) lava. When pahoehoe lava cools, it
forms a ropelike structure. If the same lava flows at a lower
temperature, it forms stiffer, slower moving lava called
aa (AH ah) lava.
Quiet eruptions form volcanoes over hot spots, which is
how the Hawaiian volcanoes formed. Basaltic magma also
flows from rift zones, which are long, deep cracks in Earths
surface. Many lava flows in Iceland are from rift zones.
Basaltic magma is so fluid that when it is forced upward
in a vent, the trapped gases can escape easily. As a result, the
explosion is quieter, sometimes forming lava fountains. Lava
that flows underwater forms pillow lava formations. Just as
their name suggests, they are shaped like pillows.

What causes explosive eruptions?

4.

Cause and Effect Why

does granitic magma cause
explosive eruptions?

178

Volcanoes

Magma that contains a lot of silica, or granitic magma,

produces explosive eruptions, like those at Soufrire Hills
volcano. This magma sometimes forms in areas where
Earths plates are moving together and one plate slides
under the other. As the sinking plate goes deeper, some rock
melts. The magma is forced upward because it is less dense
than the rock around it. As it moves up, it comes in contact
with Earths crust, and becomes enriched in silica. Silica-rich
granitic magma is thick. As a result, gas gets trapped inside,
causing pressure to build up. When an explosive eruption
occurs, the gases expand quickly, often carrying pieces of
lava in the explosion.

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

What causes quiet eruptions?

What is andesitic magma?

There is another type of magmaandesitic magma.
Andesitic magma contains more silica than basaltic magma,
but less than granitic magma. It often forms at convergent
plate boundaries where one plate slides under the other.
Because of the higher silica content, andesitic magmas erupt
more violently than basaltic magmas.
The word andesitic comes from the Andes mountain
range located in South America. These mountains contain
many andesite rocks. Many of the volcanoes that circle the
Pacific Ocean also are made up of andesite.

5.

Compare and
Contrast Of the three
types of magmas, which
causes the least explosive
eruptions?

Forms of Volcanoes
All volcanoes do not look alike. The shape of a volcano
depends on whether it was formed by a quiet or explosive
eruption. The shape also depends on what type of lava it is
made ofbasaltic, granitic, or andesitic. The three basic
types of volcanoes are shield volcanoes, cinder cone
volcanoes, and composite volcanoes.

B Take Notes Make a

layered book Foldable using two

sheets of notebook paper. As
you read, take notes on the
three kinds of volcanoes.

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

What is a shield volcano?

Types of
Volcanoes
shield
cinder cone
composite

Quiet eruptions of basaltic lava spread out in flat layers.

These layers build up and form a broad volcano, as shown
in the figure below. A broad, gently sloping volcano formed
by quiet eruptions of basaltic lava is a shield volcano. The
Hawaiian Islands are examples of shield volcanoes.

Vent

Picture This
6.
Magma

Determine Use your

pen or pencil to draw how
lava erupts out of the shield
volcano in the figure.

Reading Essentials

179

Flood Basalts The same basaltic lava that forms shield

volcanoes also forms flood basalts. Basaltic lava can flow out of
Earths surface through large cracks called fissures (FIH zhurz).
This type of eruption does not form volcanoes. It forms
flood basalts and accounts for the greatest amount of
erupted volcanic material. The basaltic lava flows over
Earths surface, covering large areas with thick deposits of
basaltic igneous rock. The Columbia Plateau, located in the
northwestern United States, is a flood basalt. Much of the
new seafloor that begins at mid-ocean ridges forms as
underwater flood basalts.
Describe What type of
lava forms flood basalts?

Picture This
8.

Illustrate Use your pen

or pencil to draw how lava
erupts from the cinder cone
volcano in the figure.

What is a cinder cone volcano?

Explosive eruptions throw lava and rock high into the air.
Bits of rock and solidified lava dropped from the air during
an explosive volcanic eruption are called tephra (TEH fruh).
Tephra comes in different sizes from small pieces of volcanic
ash to large rocks called bombs and blocks. Cinder cone
volcanoes are steep-sided, loosely packed volcanoes formed
when tephra falls to the ground. The figure below shows the
tephra layers and steep sides of a cinder cone volcano.
Tephra layers
Steep sides

Magma

What is a composite volcano?

Sometimes the same volcano has both quiet and explosive
eruptions. How it erupts depends on the trapped gases and
how much silica is in the magma. An explosive period can
release gas and ash, forming a tephra layer. Then, the eruption
can become a quieter type, erupting lava over the top of the
tephra layer. A composite volcano is built by alternating
explosive and quiet eruptions that produce layers of tephra
and lava. Composite volcanoes are found mostly where Earths
plates come together and one plate sinks beneath the other.

180

Volcanoes

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

7.

Layers of tephra
and lava

9.

Identify Name the

two kinds of alternating
layers that form a
composite volcano.

Magma

Forming a Composite Volcano Soufrire Hills volcano is a

composite volcano like the one shown in the figure above.
This volcano formed when the ocean floor of the North
American Plate and South American Plate slid under the
Caribbean Plate. Magma was formed. The alternating
eruptions of lava and tephra produced the composite volcano.

Where were other volcanic eruptions?

Soufrire Hills volcano is listed and described in the table
below. As you read about some well-known volcanic eruptions,
compare the types of volcanoes with their erupting force.

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Thirteen Selected Eruptions

Volcano and
Location

Magma
Content

ucts
ption

Mount Etna, Sici

ash

Tambora, Indon

s, ash

Krakatau, Indon

s, ash

Mount Pele,
Martinique

ash

Vesuvius, Italy

ash

Mount Katmai, A

h, gas

Paricutn, Mexic

nders

Surtsey, Iceland

ash

Mount St. Helen

Washington

ash

Kilauea, Hawaii

Mount Pinatubo
Philippines

ash

Soufrire Hills,
Montserrat

ash,
ks

Popocatpetl, M

ash

10.

Interpret What kind of

volcano is Krakatoa? What
was its eruptive force?

Reading Essentials

181

After You Read

Mini Glossary
cinder cone volcano: steep-sided, loosely packed volcano
formed when tephra falls to the ground
composite volcano: volcano built by alternating explosive
and quiet eruptions that produce layers of tephra and lava

shield volcano: broad, gently sloping volcano formed by

quiet eruptions of basaltic lava
tephra (TEH fruh): bits of rock and solidified lava dropped
from the air during an explosive volcanic eruption

1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Then write a sentence
explaining which two kinds of volcanoes are likely to erupt tephra.

2. Read the sentence in the box below labeled cause. Think of what happens as a result of
this. Choose a sentence listed below that tells what will probably occur next and write it
in the box labeled effect.
CAUSE:

EFFECT:

At a convergent boundary, plates collide.

At a divergent boundary, plates pull apart.
There will be a violent eruption.
There will be a quiet eruption.

3. Did this study strategy of writing your notes in two columns help you learn the concepts
in this section? Why or why not?

End of
Section

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Magma is thick and traps gases.

chapter

12
3

Volcanoes

3
section

Igneous Rock Features

Before You Read

You have learned about magma that is forced up and out of
a volcano. Think about what happens to magma that
remains under Earths surface. On the lines below, describe
how magma that cools underground might look.

Read to Learn
Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Intrusive Features
You can see volcanic eruptions because they occur at
Earths surface. However, a lot more volcanic activity occurs
underground. In fact, most magma never reaches Earths
surface to form volcanoes or to flow as flood basalts. Most
magma cools underground and produces underground rock
bodies. Over time, these rock bodies may be seen at Earths
surface if erosion exposes them. These underground rock
bodies are called intrusive igneous rock features. There are
several different types of intrusive features. The most
common types are batholiths (BATH uh lihths), sills, dikes,
and volcanic necks.

What are batholiths?

Batholiths are the largest intrusive igneous rock bodies.
They can be many hundreds of kilometers wide and long.
They can be several kilometers thick. Batholiths form when
magma bodies cool slowly and solidify before reaching
Earths surface. Some batholiths have been exposed at Earths
surface after millions of years of erosion. The remains of a
huge batholith can be seen in Yosemite National Park.

What Youll Learn

how igneous rock
features form
how volcanic necks and
calderas form

Study Coach

Think-Pair-Share Work
with a partner. As you read the
text, discuss what you already
know about the topic and what
you learn from the text.

C Write Definitions Make

the Foldable shown below. Write

the definition of each word
under the tab.
Batholith

Dike

Sill
Volcanic
neck

Reading Essentials

183

What are dikes and sills?

Magma sometimes squeezes into cracks in rock below the
surface. This is like squeezing toothpaste into the spaces
between your teeth. Magma that is squeezed into a crack
that cuts across rock layers and hardens underground is a
dike. Magma that is squeezed into a crack parallel to rock
layers and hardens underground is a sill. These two igneous
rock features are shown in the figure below. Most dikes and
sills run from a few meters to hundreds of meters long.

1.

Determine Color red

any features that form
above ground. Color blue
any features that form
underground.

Volcanic neck

When a volcano stops erupting, the magma hardens

inside the vent. Erosion begins to wear away the volcano.
Because the cone is softer than the igneous rock in the vent,
it erodes first, leaving behind a volcanic neck. A volcanic
neck is the solid igneous core of a volcano that is left
behind after the softer cone erodes.

Lava flow
from fissure

Composite
volcano

Batholith
Magma
chamber
Sill
Dike

184

Volcanoes

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Picture This

Other Features

What are calderas?

Sometimes after an eruption, the top of a volcano
collapses. A caldera (kal DUR uh) is a large depression, or
bowl shape, created when a volcano collapses. The figure
below shows the process that forms a caldera. Crater Lake in
Oregon is a caldera that filled with water and is now a lake.
Crater Lake formed about 7,000 years ago when Mount
Mazama erupted violently and then collapsed.

How Calderas Form

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Magma chamber

Picture This
2.

Identify In the first

figure, circle the area where
the caldera later formed.

Magma chamber

Magma chamber

Reading Essentials

185

After You Read

Mini Glossary
batholith (BATH uh lihth): large intrusive igneous rock
body that forms when magma moving upward cools
slowly and hardens underground
caldera (kal DUR uh): large depression, or bowl shape,
formed when a volcano collapses

dike: magma squeezed into cracks that cut across rock layers
and hardens underground
sill: magma that is squeezed into a crack parallel to rock
layers and hardens underground
volcanic neck: solid igneous core of a volcano left behind
after the softer cone has been eroded

1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Then write a sentence
explaining the difference between a sill and a dike.

2. Details are listed in each box. In the first box, write a sentence telling the main idea
related to all the details given.

Detail 1: sill and dike

Detail 2: batholiths

Detail 3: volcanic necks

3. Did the Think-Pair-Share partnering study strategy help you understand what you were
reading? Why or Why not?

End of
Section

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games, and projects to help you learn more about igneous
rock features.

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Main Idea: