2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 7

Periodic Properties
of the Elements
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Cottleville, MO
Lecture Presentation
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Development of Periodic Table
Dmitri
Mendeleev and
Lothar Meyer
independently
came to the
same conclusion
about how
elements should
be grouped.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Development of Periodic Table
Mendeleev, for instance, predicted the
discovery of germanium (which he called eka-
silicon) as an element with an atomic weight
between that of zinc and arsenic, but with
chemical properties similar to those of silicon.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Periodic Trends
In this chapter, we will rationalize observed
trends in
Sizes of atoms and ions.
Ionization energy.
Electron affinity.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Effective Nuclear Charge
In a many-electron
atom, electrons are
both attracted to the
nucleus and repelled
by other electrons.
The nuclear charge
that an electron
experiences depends
on both factors.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Effective Nuclear Charge
The effective nuclear
charge, Z
eff
, is found
this way:
Z
eff
= Z S
where Z is the atomic
number and S is a
screening constant,
usually close to the
number of inner
electrons.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
What Is the Size of an Atom?
The bonding
atomic radius is
defined as one-half
of the distance
between covalently
bonded nuclei.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sizes of Atoms
The bonding atomic
radius tends to
Decrease from left to
right across a row
(due to increasing Z
eff
).
Increase from top to
bottom of a column
(due to the increasing
value of n).
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sizes of Ions
Ionic size depends
upon
The nuclear
charge.
The number of
electrons.
The orbitals in
which electrons
reside.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sizes of Ions
Cations are
smaller than their
parent atoms:
The outermost
electron is
removed and
repulsions
between electrons
are reduced.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sizes of Ions
Anions are larger
than their parent
atoms
Electrons are
added and
repulsions
between electrons
are increased.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sizes of Ions
Ions increase in size
as you go down a
column:
This increase in size
is due to the
increasing value of n.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sizes of Ions
In an isoelectronic series, ions have the
same number of electrons.
Ionic size decreases with an increasing
nuclear charge.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ionization Energy
The ionization energy is the amount of
energy required to remove an electron
from the ground state of a gaseous
atom or ion.
The first ionization energy is that energy
required to remove the first electron.
The second ionization energy is that
energy required to remove the second
electron, etc.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ionization Energy
It requires more energy to remove each
successive electron.
When all valence electrons have been removed,
the ionization energy takes a quantum leap.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Trends in First Ionization Energies
As one goes down a
column, less energy
is required to remove
the first electron.
For atoms in the same
group, Z
eff
is
essentially the same,
but the valence
electrons are farther
from the nucleus.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Trends in First Ionization Energies
Generally, as one
goes across a row, it
gets harder to
remove an electron.
As you go from left to
right, Z
eff
increases.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Trends in First Ionization Energies
However, there are
two apparent
discontinuities in this
trend.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Trends in First Ionization Energies
The first occurs between
Groups IIA and IIIA.
In this case the electron is
removed from a p orbital
rather than an s orbital.
The electron removed is
farther from the nucleus.
There is also a small amount
of repulsion by the s
electrons.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Trends in First Ionization Energies
The second
discontinuity occurs
between Groups VA
and VIA.
The electron removed
comes from a doubly
occupied orbital.
Repulsion from the
other electron in the
orbital aids in its
removal.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Electron Affinity
Electron affinity is the energy change
accompanying the addition of an
electron to a gaseous atom:

Cl + e

Cl

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Trends in Electron Affinity
In general, electron
affinity becomes
more exothermic as
you go from left to
right across a row.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Trends in Electron Affinity
There are
again,
however, two
discontinuities
in this trend.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Trends in Electron Affinity
The first occurs
between Groups IA
and IIA.
The added electron
must go in a p orbital,
not an s orbital.
The electron is farther
from the nucleus and
feels repulsion from
the s electrons.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Trends in Electron Affinity
The second
discontinuity occurs
between Groups IVA
and VA.
Group VA has no
empty orbitals.
The extra electron
must go into an
already occupied
orbital, creating
repulsion.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Properties of Metal, Nonmetals,
and Metalloids
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Metals versus Nonmetals
Differences between metals and nonmetals
tend to revolve around these properties.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Metals versus Nonmetals
Metals tend to form cations.
Nonmetals tend to form anions.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Metals
Metals tend to be
lustrous, malleable,
ductile, and good
conductors of heat
and electricity.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Metals
Compounds formed between metals and
nonmetals tend to be ionic.
Metal oxides tend to be basic.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Nonmetals
Nonmetals are dull,
brittle substances that
are poor conductors
of heat and electricity.
They tend to gain
electrons in reactions
with metals to acquire
a noble-gas
configuration.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Nonmetals
Substances containing only nonmetals are
molecular compounds.
Most nonmetal oxides are acidic.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Metalloids
Metalloids have
some characteristics
of metals and some
of nonmetals.
For instance, silicon
looks shiny, but is
brittle and a fairly
poor conductor.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Group Trends
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Alkali Metals
Alkali metals are
soft, metallic solids.
The name comes
from the Arabic
word for ashes.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Alkali Metals
They are found only in compounds in nature,
not in their elemental forms.
They have low densities and melting points.
They also have low ionization energies.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Alkali Metals
Their reactions with water are famously exothermic.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Alkali Metals
Alkali metals (except Li) react with oxygen to form
peroxides.
K, Rb, and Cs also form superoxides:
K + O
2
KO
2

They produce bright colors when placed in a flame.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Alkaline Earth Metals
Alkaline earth metals have higher densities
and melting points than alkali metals.
Their ionization energies are low, but not as
low as those of alkali metals.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Alkaline Earth Metals
Beryllium does not react
with water, and
magnesium reacts only
with steam, but the
other alkaline earth
metals react readily with
water.
Reactivity tends to
increase as you go
down the group.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Group 6A
Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals.
Tellurium is a metalloid.
The radioactive polonium is a metal.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sulfur
Sulfur is a weaker
oxidizer than
oxygen.
The most stable
allotrope is S
8
, a
ringed molecule.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Group VIIA: Halogens
The halogens are prototypical nonmetals.
The name comes from the Greek words halos
and gennao: salt formers.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Group VIIA: Halogens
They have large, negative
electron affinities.
Therefore, they tend to oxidize
other elements easily.
They react directly with
metals to form metal halides.
Chlorine is added to water
supplies to serve as a
disinfectant.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Group VIIIA: Noble Gases
The noble gases have astronomical ionization
energies.
Their electron affinities are positive.
Therefore, they are relatively unreactive.
They are found as monatomic gases.