EMI & AC

BASIC CONCEPTS AND FORMULAE

and
A

. If magnetic field is not uniform, then

where integral extends for whole area A.

and
A

.
2. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
a. Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a coll changes, an emf is induced in the coll. The Induced
emf lasts so long as the change in magnetic flux lasts. This phenomenon is called electromagnetic
induction.
3. FARADAYS LAWS
(i) Whenever there is a change in magnetic flux linked with of a coll, an emf is induced in the coll.
The induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the coil.
(ii) Emf induced in the coll opposes the change in flux, i.e.,
Where k is a constant of proportionality.
In S.I. system | is in weber, t in second, e in volt, then k=1,so e=-
t
| A
A
If all coil contains N-turns, then e=-N
t
| A
A
4. INDUCED CURRENT AND INDUCED CHARGE
If a coil is closed and has resistance R, then current induced in the coil,
i=
e
R
=-
N
R T
| A
A
ampere
Electromagnetic induction and Alternating Current
Induced charge, q=I
T A
=
N
R
| A
=
Totalfluxlinkage
Resistance
5. LENZS LAW
If sates that the direction of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current which opposes the
change in magnetic flux producing it.
6. EMF INDUCED IN A MOVING CONDUCTING ROD
EMF induced in a conducting rod of length I moving with velocity v in a magnetic field of induction B.
such that B, I and v are mutually perpendicular, is given by
7. SELF INDUCTANCE
When the current in a coil is changed, a back emf is induced in the same coil, Tis phenomenon is called
self-induction. If L is self-inductance of coil, then
Symbol of inductor
Also induced emf e=-L
t
I A
A
The unit of self inductance is henry (H). the self inductance acts as intertia in electrical circuits; so it is
also called electrical inertia.
The self inductance of a solenold consisting core of relative permeability
r
u is
L=
2
r 0
u u n AI
Where n=
N
I
is the number of turns per metre length.
8. MUTUAL INDUCTION
When two coils are palced nearby and the current in one coil (often called primary coil) is changed, the
magnetic flux linked with the neigh bouring coil (often called secondary coil)
Changes; due to which an emf of two coils, then
Definition of mutual inductance:
2
2
M
l
|
=
The mutual infuctance of two coils is defined as the emf induced in the secondary coil when the rate of
chage of current in the primary coil is 1A/S.
The unit of mutual inductance is also henry (H). The mutual inductance of two coils does not depend on
the fact which oil carries the current and in which coil emf is induced i.e.,
12 21
M =M =M
If
1
L AND
2
L are self inductances two coils with 100% fulx linkage between them, then
M=
1 2
L L , otherwise M=k
1 2
L L
Where K is coefficient of flux linkage between the coils. Mutual inductance of solenoid-coil system
M=
0 1 2
u N N A
I
Solenoid
Where A is area of coil, I is length of solenoid.
1
N is nuber of turns in solenoid and
2
N is number of turns
in coil.
9. EDDY CURRENTS
When a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field the magnetic flux linked with the conductor
changes, so induced current are induced in the body of conductor,






Conductor
Varifying
Magnetic field
Which causes heating of conductor.
The current in induced in the comductor are called the eddy currents. In varying magnetic field,
the free electrons of conductor experience Lorentz force and traverse closed paths; which are equivalent
to small current loops. |These currents are the eddy currents; they cause heating effect and sometimes
the conductor becomes red-hot.
Eddy current losses may be reduced by using laminated soft iron cores in galvanometers, transform-
ers. Etc. making holes in conductor.
10. NEED FOR DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
Amperes circuital law for conduction current during charging of a capacitor was found inconsistent.
Therefore Maxwell modified Amperes circuital law by introducing displacement current. It is given by
dt
E d
E l
0 d
|
=
dodified Amperes Circuital law is |
|
.
|

\
|
c + =
}
dt
d
l l d . B
E
0 0

where f
E
= electric flux.
2T
T
l
0
t l
11. ALTERNATING CURRENT
Alternating current is one which changes in magnitude and direction periodically. The maximum value of
current.
is called current-amplitude or peak value of current
If f=
2
e
t
is frequency of alternating current, then it is expressed as Similarly alternating voltage (or emf) is
I = I
0
sin e t
Similarly alternating voltage (or emf) is
V=
0
V sint
12. MEAN AND RMS VALUE OF ALTERNATING CURRENTS
The mean value of alternating current over complete cycle is zero
(I
mean
)
full cycle
= 0
While for half cycle it is
( )
0
0
cycle half mean
6361 . 0
l 2
I =
t
=
An instrument read root mean square values as
( )
0
0
mean
2
rms
7071 . 0
2
l
1 1 = = = =
Electromagnetic induction and alternating current
13. PHASE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
Area may be controlled by resistance, inductance and capacitance. Due to the presence of inductance
and capacitance, current is usually not in phase with applied voltage. In general
V = V
0
sin e t
l = l
0
sin (et+ |)
Where | is the phase difference.
14. IMPEDANCE AND REACTANCE
The hindrace offered by a circuit to flow of AC is called impedance. It is denoted by z.
ohm
l
V
l
V
z
0
0
= =
Reactance: the hindrance offered by inductance and capacitance in ac circuit is called reactance. It is
demoted by X.
The hindrance due to inductance alone is called the inductive reactance while that due to capacitance
alone is called the capacitive reactance.
Inductive reactance, X
L
= et
Capacitive reactance,
C
l
X
c
e
=
15. PURELY RESISTIVE CIRCUIT
If a circuit contains pure resistance, then phase =oi.e., | current and voltage are always in the same
phase. Impedance, Z=R
16. PURELY INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT
If a circuit contains pure inductance, then
, .
2
ie
t
| =
current lags behind the applied voltage by an
angle
. . .,
2
i e
t
V = V
0
sin e t
0
n
I=I sin t
2
| |
|
\ .
V
L
V
L
l l
2
t
X
L
or f
(a)
Phase diagram
(b)
In this case z=inductive reactance,
1
X =L The inductive reactance increases with the increase of fre-
quency of AC linearly (fig.b.)
17. PURELY CAPACITIVE CIRUIT
If circuit contains pure capacitance, the
=
2
t
|
, i.e. current leads the applied voltage by angle
/ 2 t
.
0 0
n
i.e.V=V sint.I=I sin t+
2
| |
|
\ .
2
t
V
C
(a)
Impedance =capacitance reactance,
1
X
C
C e
=
Clearly capacitance reactance (
c
X ) is inversely propor--
tional to the frequency f (flg.b).
X
C
(b)
18. LC OSCILLATION
A circuit containing inductance L and capacitance C is called a resonant ciruit. If capacitance is charged
initially and ac source is removed. Then electrostatic energy of capacitor (
2
0
q / 2C ) ) is converted into
magnetic energy of inductor
2
1
LI
2
| |
|
\ .
and vice versa periodically; such oscillation of energy are called LCC
oscillation. The frequency is given by
0
e =
1
LC
19. LCR SERIES CIRCUIT
If a circuit contains inductance L, capacitance C and resistance R, fed by AC voltage V=
0
V sin e t then
impedance
R
L
C
( )
2
2 x
c L
Z R X

= +
And phase
-x
c L
-1x
=tan
R
|
V
c
V
R
V
L
V -
c
V
L
90
90
l
Phase diagram of LCR circuit
Net voltage
( )
2
2
R C L
V V V V = +
20. RESONANT CIRCUITS
(i) Series LCR circuit: In series LCR Circuit, when phase (| ) between current and voltage is zero,,
the circuit is said to be resonant circuit. In resonant circuit
Electromagnetic induction and Alternating Current
1
=
LC
Resonant angular frequency 2
1 1
(linear) frequencyf
2 2
r
r
LC LC
e
e
t t
= = =
At resonant frequency |
1 R
=0 V=V
Quality factor (Q)
The quality factor (Q) of a series LCR circuit is given by the ratio of resonant frequency to frequency
band width of the resonant 0.707
0
I curvee
l
0
0.701l
0
i.e. Q=
2 1
r r
L
R
e e
e e
=

Clearly, smaller the value of R. larger is the quality factor and sharper the resonance. Thus
quality factor. Determines the nature of sharpness of resonance.
(ii) Parallel Resonant circuit: A circuit containing inductance L and capacitance C in parallel and
fed by ac voltage is called parallel resonant circuit. In parallel resonant circuit
C L C L
i i X X = = frequency
1
LC
r
e =
21. POWER DISSIPATION IN AC CIRCUIT IS
P =
0 0
1
cos cos
2
rms rms
V I V I | | =
(Where Cos| =
R
Z
is the power factor.) .)
22. WATTLESS CURRENT
In purely inductive or purely capacitive circuit, power loss is zero. In such a circuit current flowing is
called wattles current. In LCR circuit at resonace, the power loss is maximum.
Wattless component of current =I sin
rms
|
Power component of current =
rms
I cosf
23. AC GENERATOR
It is a device to vonvert mechanical energy into electrical energy based on the phenomenon of electro-
magnet induction. If a coil of N turns, area A is rotated with frequency f in uniform magnetic field of
induction B, then motional emf in coil ( If initially it is perpendicular to field ) is
e= NBA
sin t with =2f
Peak emf,
0
e =NBA.
24. TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a device which converts low ac voltage into high ac voltage and vice versa. It works on
the principle of mutual induction. If N
p
and
s
N are the number of turns in primary and secondary coils,
V
P
and
P
I are voltage and current in primary coil, then voltage ( V
s
)and current (
S
I ) in secondary coil
will be
S
S p
P
N
V = V
N
| |
|
\ .
and
P
S P
S
N
I = I
N
| |
|
\ .
Step up transformer increases the voltage while step down transformer decreases the voltage.
For step up transformer
In step down transformer
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. What is meant by impedance? Give its unit. Using the phasor diagram or otherwise,
derive an expression for the impedance ofan ac circuit containing L,C and R in series. Find the
expression for resonant frequency?
Sol. Impedance: The hindrance offered by a circuit to the flow of ac is called impedance. Mathemati-
cally it is the ratio of rms voltage applied and rms current produced in circuit i.e.,Z=
V
I
its unit is ohm
(
O
).
Expression for Impedance in LCR series circuit: Suppose resistance R, inductance L and
capacitance C are connected in series and an alternating source of voltage V=
0
V sin et is applied across
it (flg. a) on account of being in series, the current (f) flowing through all of them is the same.
R
L
C
V
c
(b)
(a)
V
R
V
L
V
-
c
V
L
90
90
l
Suppose the voltage across resistance R is
R
V , voltage across inductance L is V
L
and voltage
across capacitance C is
C
V . The voltage V
R
and current I are in the same phase, the voltage
L
V will lead
the current by angle
0
90
(flg. b) Clearly
C
V and
L
V are in opposite directions, therefore their resultant
difference =
C L C L
V -V if (V >V )
Thus V
R
and
C L
(V -V ) are mutually perpendicular and the phase difference between them is
0
90
. As
applied voltage across the circuit is V, the resultant of
R
V and ( V
C L
V ) will also be V. From fig.
2 2 2
( )
R C L
V V V V = +
2 2
( )
R C L
V V V V = + (i)
But
R C C L L
V =Ri,V =X iandV =X i (ii)
Where
C
1
X =capacitance
C
=
reactance and
L
X =L= inductive reactance
( )
2
2
( )
C L
V Ri X i X i = +

Impedance of circuit, Z=
2 2
( )
C L
V
R X X
i
= +
i.e., Z=
2 2
( )
C L
R X X + =
2
2
1
R L
C
e
e
| |
+
|
\ .
Resonant frequency: The phase difference (| ) between current and voltage | is given byy
tan | =
C L
X X
R

For resonance | =0,so

2
1 1
L
C LC
e e
e
= =
Resonant frequency
1
r
LC
e =
2. Describe briefly the principle, construction and working of a transformer. Why is its
core laminated?
Sol. Transformer: Transformer is a device by which an alternating voltage may be decreased or in-
creased. This is based on the principle of mutual induction.
Construction: It consists of laminated core of soft iron, on which two coils of insultated copper wire are
separately wound. These coils are kept insulated from each other and from the iron-core, but are
coupled through mutual induction. The number of turns in these coils coil. The terminals of primary
co8is are connected to AC mains and the terminals of the secondary coil are connected to external
circuit in which alternating current of desired voltage is required. Transformers are of two types :
Secondary
laminated
iron core
Transformer
Primary Primary
(A.C. mains)
Core
(a) Step up (b) Step down
Secondary Secondary
Primary
Primary
1. Step up Transformer: It transforms the alternating low voltage to alternating high voltage and in
this the number of turns in secondary coil is more than that in primary coil.
(i.e., )
S
N N >
2. Step down Transformer: It transforms the alternating high voltage to alternating low
voltage and in this the number of turns in secondary coil is less than that in primary coil (i.e., )
S P
N N <
Working: When alternating current source is connected to the ends of primary coil, the
current changes continuously in the primary coil; due to which the magnetic flux linked with the second-
ary coil changes continuously, therefore the alternating emf of same frequency is developed across the
secondary.
Let
p
N be the number of turns in primary coil,
S
N the number of turns in secondary coil and
| The magnetic flux linked with each turn. We assume that there is no leakage of flux so that the
flux linked with each turn of primary coil and secondary coil is the same. According to Faradays
laws the emf induced in the primary coil
P P
N
t
|
c
A
=
A
(i)
And emf induced in the secondary coil
S S
N
t
|
c
A
=
A
(ii)
From (1) and (2)
s s
p p
N
N
c
c
=
(iii)
If the resistance of primary coil is negligible, the emf (
P
c ) induced in the primary coil, will be equal to
the applied potential difference
S
V across its ends will be equal to the emf (
S
c ) induced in it; therefore
S S S
P p P
V e N
= =
V e N
=r(say) (iv)
Where r=
S
P
N
N
is called the transformation ratio. If
P
i and
S
i are the instantaneous currents in
primary and secondary coils and there is no loss of energy; then
Power in primary= Power in secondary
P P S S
V i =V i
S P P
P S S
i V N 1
= = =
i V N r
(V)
In step up transformer,
N 2;
S P
N r > >
So
S P S P
V >V andi <i ]
i.e., step down transformer decreases the voltage, but increases the current.
Laminated core: The core of transformer is lamented to reduce the energy losses due to eddy currents,
so that its efficiency may remain nearly 100%
3. Show diagrammatically two different arrangements used for winding the primary and
secondary coils in a transformer. Assuming the transformer to be an ideal one, write the
expression for the ratio of its
(i) output voltage to input voltage
(ii) output current to input current.
Mention two reasons for energy losses in an actual transformer.
Sol. Arrangements of winding of primary and secondary coil in a transformer are shown in figure (a)
and (b)
N
p
N
s
P
r
i
m
a
r
y
P
r
i
m
a
r
y
S
e
c
o
n
d
a
r
y
S
e
c
o
n
d
a
r
y
Soft iron-core
(a) Two coils on top of each other (b) Two coils on separate limbs of the core
(i) Ratio of output voltage to input voltage
S S
P P
V N
=
V N
(ii) Ratio of output current to input current
s P
p S
I N
=
I N
Reasons for energy losses in a transformer
(i) Joule Heating: Energy is lost in resistance of primary and secondary winding as heat (
2
I Rr
).
(ii) Flux Leakage: Energy is lost due to coupling of primary and secondary coils not being perfect.
i.e., whole of magnetic flux generated in primary coil is not linked with the secondary coil.
4. Explain with the help of a labeled diagram, the principle and working of an a.c. gen-
erator ? write the expression for the emf generated in the coil in terms of speed of rotation.
Can the current produced by an a.c. generator be measured with a moving coil galvanometer.
Sol. AC generator: A dynamo or generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electri-
cal energy. It is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
Construction: It consists of the four main parts:
(i) Field magnet: It produces the magnetic field. In the case of a low power dynamo, the magnetic
field is generated by a permanent magnet, while in the case of large power dynamo, the magnetic field
is produced by an electromagnet.
(ii) Armature: It consists of a large number of turns of insulated wire in the soft iron drum or ring.
It can revolve rebound an axle between the two poles of the field magnet. The drum or ring serves the
two purposes: (i) it serves as a support to coils and (ii) It increases the magnetic field due to air core
being replaced by an iron core:
(iii) Slip Rings: The slip rings
1
R and
2
R are the two metal rings to which rotates the armature coil so
that the rings also rotate along with the armature.
(iv) Brushes: These are two flexible metal plates r carbon rods (
1
B and
2
B ) which are are fixed and
constantly touch the revolving rings. The output current in external load
L
R is taken through these
brushes.
Working : When the armature coil is rotated in the strong magnetic field, the magnetic flux
linked with the coil changes and the current is induced in the coil, its direction being given by Flemings
right hand rule. Considering the armature to be in vertical position and as it rotates in anticlockwise
direction, the wire ab moves upward and cd downward, so that the direction of induced current is shown
in fig. in the external circuit, the current flows along
1 2
.
L
B B B the Direction of current remains unchanged
during the first half turn of armature. During the second half revolution, the wire ab moves downward
and cd upward, so the direction of current is reversed and in external circuit if flows along
2 1 L
B R B . Thus
the direction of induced emf and current ch anges in the external circuit after each half
Revolution.
Brushes Slip rings
R
1
R
2
B
2
B
1
Load
R
L
Field magnet
N
S
d
a
b
c
B
Armature Coil
If N is the number of turns in coil, f the frequency of rotation. A area of coil and B the magnetic
induction, then induced emf
( (cos 2 )
d d
e NBA ft
dt dt
|
t = =
Obviously, the emf produced is alternating and hence the current is also alternating Current produced
by an ac generator cannot be measured by moving coil ammeter, because the average value of ac over
fully cycle is zero.
5. A jet plane is travelling west at 450
1
ms

. If the horizontal component of earths

T and the angle of dip is

T..
u
=
0
30
V=
-4 0 -4 -4
1 4
(4.010 T)tan30 =410 = 10 T
3 3
Induced emf across the wing
Given v= 450
1
ms , 30 I m

=
-4
4
= 10 (450)30=3.12V
3
| |
|
\ .
6. A bulb of resistance 10
O
connected to an inductor of inductance L, is in series with
an ac source marked 100 V, 50Hz. If the phase angle between the voltage and current is
4
t
radian, calculate the value of L.
Sol . Given R=10
O
E=100V , f=50Hz,
4
t
| =
In Rl circuit
Phase angle| is given byy
L
X L 2fL
tanf= = =
R R R
L =

10tan
Rtanf 101
4
= = =0.0318A
2f 23.1450 314
7. An inductor of unknown value, a capacitor of 100uF and a resistor of 10
O
are connected in
series to a 200 V, 50 Hz a.c. source. It is found that the power factor of the circuit is unity.
Calcualte the inductance of the inductor and current amplitude.
Sol. For power factor unity,
2 2 2 2
1
1 1 1
(2 ) 4
L C
X X L
C
L
C f C f C
e
e
e t t
= =
= = =
Given f = 50Hz, C=100uF= 100
6
10

F=
4
10

F
L= 2 2 4
1
0.10
4 (3.14) (50) 10
H H

=

s
Current amplitude,
0
0
V
I
Z
=
At resonance,
0
0
200 2
20 2 20 1.414 28.3
10
V
I A A A
R
= = = = =
Unsolved Problems
Exercise I
1. Sate Lenzs Law. How is it useful to find the direction of current in a circuit?
2. Discuss oscillations in LC circuit.
3. Show that the energy stored in a inductor L when a current I
0
is established through it is
2
0
Ll
2
1
U =
4. Find an expression for phase difference between current and voltage in (i) purely inductive
circuit and (ii) purely capacititve circuit.
5. Expain construction and working of an ac generator.
6. What are eddy currents? How can they be minimised? Write two advantage of these currents.
7. The rate of change current 2 A/S induces and emf 40 mV in a solenoid, what is the self induc-
tance of this solenoid?
8. A 40 O resistor, 3 mH inductor and 2F capacitor are connectd in series to a 110 V, 50 Hz as
cource. Calculate the current in the circuit.
9. The self-inductance of a coil is 10 H. If the induced emf in the coil be 120 volt, find the rate of
change of current in the coil.
10. Determine the impedance of a circuit if reactance of C and L and 340 O and 300 O respectively
and R is 30 O.
11. An a.c. generator consists of a coil of 100 turns and cross- sectional area, 3m
2
, rotating at an
angular frequency of 60 rad/second in a uniform magnetic field of 0.04 T. The resistance of the coil is
500 ohm. Calculate (i) the maximum current drawn from the generator and (ii) the maximum power
dissipated in the coil.
Board Problems
Exercise-II
1. Calculate the (i) impendance (ii) wattless current of the given ac circuit. [2008]
l=2A 40 V 30 V
R
1 C
2. An inductor 200 mH, capacitor 500 F, resistor 10O are connected in series with a 100 V, variable
frequency as source. Calculate the [2008]
(i) frequency at which the power factor of the circuit is unity.
(ii) current amplitude at his frequency,
(iii) Q-factor
3. A circular copper disc 10 cm in radius rotates at 20t rad/s about an axis through its centre and
perpendicular to the disc. A uniform magnetic field of 0.2 T acts perpendicular to the disc.
(i) Calculate the potential difference developed between the axis of the disc and the rim.
(ii) What is the induced current in the circuit whose terminals are connected between centre of
disc and point of rim and the resistance of the circuit is 2O. [2007, 2001]
4. The instantaneous current from an source is I = 5 sin (314 t) ampere. What are the average and
rms value of an alternating current? [2007]
5. A resistor of 200 O and a capacitor 40 F are connected in series to a 220 V ac source with
angular frequency w = 300 Hz. Calculate the rms voltages across the resistor and the capacitor. Why is
the algebraic sum of these voltage more than the soure voltage? How do you resolves this paradox?
[2007]
[Hint : Due to phase diff. of
2
t
between V
C
and V
R
Hence
V 220 V V
2
C
2
R
= +
]
6. Calculate the current drawn by the primary coil of a transformer which steps down 220 V to 20 V
to operate a device of resistance 20 O. Assume the efficiency of the transformer to be 80%.
[2007]
7. A rectangular coil of area A, number of turns N is rotated of f rev S
-1
in a uniform magnetic field
B, the field being perpendicular to coil. Prove that the maximum emf induced in the coil is 2tf NBA.
[2006]
8. A 0.5 m long metal rod PQ completes the circuit as shown in the figure. The area of the circuit is
perpendicular to the magnetic field of flux density 0.15 T. If the resistance of the total circuit is 3 O,
calculate the force needed to move the rod in the direction as indicated with a constant speed of 2 ms
-1
.
[2006]
9. When an inductor L and a resistor R in series are connected across a 12 V, 50 Hz supply, a current
of 0.5 A flows in the ciruit. the current differs in phase from applied voltage by
3
t
radian. Calculate the
value of R. [2005]
10. A small piece of metal wire is dragged across the gap between the pole poiece of a magnet in 0.5
s. The magnetic flux between the pole pieces is known to be 8 10
-4
Wb. Estimate the induced emf in
the wire. [2004]
11. The instantaneous voltage from an ac source is given by V = 300 sin 314 t. What is the rms value
of the source? [2000]
12. An a.c. source of frequency 50 Hz is connected to a 50 mH inductor and a bulb. The bulb glows
with some brightness. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor to be connected in series with the
circuit, so that the bulb glows with maximum brightness. [2000]
13. A 200 V variable frequency ac source is connected to a series combination of L = 5 H, C = 80 F
and R = 40 O Calculate (i) angular frequency of source to get the maximum current in the circuit (ii)
current amplitude at resonance and (iii) power dissipation in the circuit. [2002]
14. An inductor L, a capacitor 20 F, a resistor 10 O are connected in series with an ac source of
frequency 50 Hz. If the current is in phase with the voltage, calculate the inductance of the inductor.
[2000]
15. How does the mutual inductance of a poir of coils change when
(i) distance between the coils in increased and
(ii) number of turns in the coils in increased? [2013]
16. A light metal disc on the top of an electromagnet is thrown up as the current is switched on why?
Give reason. [2013]
17. (a) For a given a.c., i = i
m
sin et, show that the average power dissipated in a resistor R over a
complete cycle is 1/2 i
2
m
R.
(b) A light bulb is rated at 120 W for a 240 V a.c. supply. Calculate the resistance of the bulb.
[2013]