The Print & Production Manual

The Print and Production Manual
9th edition
Sean Smyth
Published by
Pira International Ltd
Randalls Road, Leatherhead
Surrey KT22 7RU
UK
T +44 (0) 1372 802080
F +44 (0) 1372 802079
E [email protected]
W www.piranet.com
The facts set out in this
publication are obtained from
sources which we believe to be
reliable. However, we accept no
legal liability of any kind for the
publication contents, nor any
information contained therein
nor conclusions drawn by any
party from it.
No part of this publication may
be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or
otherwise without the prior
permission of the Copyright
owner.
Copyright
Pira International Ltd 2003
ISBN 1 85802 995 3
Publisher
Annabel Taylor
[email protected]
Head of publications
and events
Philip Swinden
[email protected]
Customer services manager
Denise Davidson
[email protected]
T +44 (0) 1372 802080
Typeset in the UK by
Pantek Arts Ltd, Maidstone, Kent
For my father Leslie Smyth, who passed away during this project.
Thank-you for everything.
BEING IS NO SUBSTITUTE FOR DOING.
Contents
List of tables ix
List of figures x
Introduction and context 1
The context of printing 1
How to use the manual 2
Print buying and quality control 5
Print pricing and cost of production 5
Understand 6
Redesign 6
Implement 6
Detailed methodology 7
Production control 12
Appropriate machinery 13
Quality procedures and MIS 14
Capacity 14
Similar work 15
Location 15
Materials 16
Estimates and charges 16
Prepress 16
Printing and binding 17
Folding 17
Binding 17
Comparative estimating 17
Volume agreements 18
Contracts 19
Paper 19
Getting quotes 19
Three quotes 19
Specifications 20
Schedules 20
Analysing quotes 20
Terms of payment 21
Buying print 21
Using a print management company 22
Preferred suppliers 23
E-procurement 23
XML in web business applications 23
Print administration through XML 24
JDF in process control of prepress 24
Digital administration of print 25
Print workflows go digital 26
Administration systems go digital 27
Estimating/RFQ 30
Order processing 31
Purchasing 31
Warehouse and stock control 32
E-commerce for print 32
Controlling print quality 33
Prepress processes 33
Printing 33
Print production as a system 34
The print characteristic 34
Substrate 35
Print control images 39
Technical specifications 39
Solid colour fields 40
Secondary colour (trapping) fields 40
Tone transfer fields platemaking and
proofing 40
Microlines 40
Shadow and highlight dots 41
Tone transfer fields printing 41
Variable dot size elements 42
Halftone for measurement 42
Tone transfer fields slur and doubling 43
Star target 43
Concentric circles 43
Line tint areas 43
Grey balance fields 44
Process control instruments 44
The densitometer 44
The spectrophotometer 45
The colorimeter 45
The plate reader 46
Quality assurance for printers and
statistical process control 46
Quality assurance of printing 48
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The Print and Production Manual Contents
Examples of process control charts to
define colour printing conditions 50
Productivity improvement through SPC 56
Interpretation of runnability results 60
Printer supplier relationship 62
The printers purchasing function 62
Strategies for purchasing by printers 63
Printer and paper maker 63
Beneficial relationships 65
Actions if there are problems 66
Purchasing decision making 67
Just in time purchasing for printers 67
Industry practices 69
Standard conditions of contract for
printers 69
British paper and board trade customs,
1988 73
Part 1: General applying to all paper
and board 74
Complaints and claims 78
Part II: Customs specific to paper 79
Terms 79
Manufacturing variations, cutting
tolerances for graphic* papers only 80
Cutting tolerances for all other papers 81
Other manufacturing tolerances and
variations for all types of paper
(including graphic papers) 81
Part III: Scope of customs for boards 83
Terms 84
Manufacturing variations and
tolerances 85
Appendix A: British Standards
referred to in British Paper and
Board Customers 88
Appendix B: Guidelines for buying and
selling printing and writing papers on
the reel by area 89
Appendix C: Glossary for British Paper
and Board Customs 91
Customs of the trade for the production of
periodicals 93
Supply of materials for reproduction 101
FIPP specification for European gravure
printing of periodicals 101
Film separations and proofing 101
Annex A Information 105
Specifications for Web Offset Publications
(SWOP) 106
Guidelines for web production printing 106
Printers responsibilities 106
Viewing of proofs and printed
signatures 107
Printers colour control bar 107
Control of film, contacting/
platemaking 107
Positive vs negative platemaking
(analogue) 107
Computer-to-plate (CTP) 107
Copydot scanning 108
Tone value increase (total dot gain) 108
Production press tone value
guidelines 108
Screen angles 109
Printing inks 109
Solid ink density 109
Print contrast 110
Other publication papers 110
Supply of digital files 111
Background to imaging theory and
colour 123
Computer graphics 123
Bits and bytes 123
Fonts (founts) 126
Font technology 126
Font legality 131
Image printing 131
Screening 131
Colour reproduction basic principles 133
Human vision 133
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Additive colour 134
Subtractive colour 135
Making colour separations 137
Colour halftones and screen angles 138
Inks for process colour reproduction 139
Tone reproduction 141
Preparation for printing 144
Halftoning (screening) 144
Attributes of AM (conventional)
screening 147
Frequency modulated (FM), stochastic or
random screening 151
Calibration 152
Origination and prepress 155
Introduction 155
Background and history 156
Standard viewing conditions 160
Content acquisition 161
Image acquisition 162
Text acquisition 162
Content management and editing 164
Word processing 164
Proof stages 164
Proof marks 165
Images 165
Originals for reproduction 165
Photographic technical quality 169
Video 173
Digital conversion 174
Optical character recognition (OCR) 174
Image scanning 175
Choosing a scanner 175
The scanners influence on image
quality 178
Asset management 182
Page make-up and assembly 184
Structured documents, SGML and XML 185
Standard generalised mark-up language
(SGML) 186
Hypertext mark-up language (HTML) 187
Extensible mark-up language (XML) 187
Colour management 190
Proofing 193
Proofing methods and control 194
Stages of proofing 194
Progress proof 194
Target proof 194
Contract proof 194
Imposition proof 195
Methods of proofing to match the
production result 195
Production press proofs 195
Proofing press proofs 196
Analogue, off-press proofs 196
Photomechanical systems 196
Digital proofing systems 196
Calibration of proof to production 197
Formatting for output 197
Automatic make-up 197
Output file preparation preflight
checking 198
PostScript 200
Portable document format (PDF) 201
PDF/X 202
Imposition 202
RIP functions 203
Image output 203
Film imagesetters 204
Computer to plate 204
Computer to conventional plate 207
Economic considerations of prepress 208
Comparative costs of different methods
employed to make plates for offset 208
Imaged plate cost comparisons 209
Advantages of computer-to-plate
technology 213
Origination for digital printing 213
Printing processes 217
Print process recognition 217
Offset lithography 217
Flexography 218
Gravure 219
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Screen printing 219
Electrophotographic (laser) printing 220
Inkjet printing 221
Die-stamping 222
Thermographic printing 222
Introduction 222
Traditional printing methods 224
Letterpress 240
Flexography 243
Envelope machine production 249
Gravure 250
Production of image-carrier 251
Silk screen printing 257
Alternative imaging methods 262
Printing machines 262
Screen ink drying 264
Digital printing 265
Introduction 265
Digital print productivity 269
Equipment reliability and
maintenance 270
Materials for digital print 271
Customer understanding and
acceptance 271
Format of digital printing devices 272
Personnel skills 272
Finishing for digital print
applications 272
Data handling/front end 273
Spot colour capability 273
Lack of standardisation in digital
print 274
Cost issues of digital printing 274
Origination and prepress for digital
printing 275
Origination and design 276
Personalised print mark-up language
(PPML) 276
Technology in digital printing 276
Digital print considerations 277
Categories of digital printing 278
Novel printing systems 293
Die-stamping 297
Thermography 298
Choosing the appropriate print
process 299
Project specification 299
Product specification 299
Cost 300
Quality 300
Run length 301
Timescale for delivery 301
Influence of the substrate 302
Book printing 303
Magazine/catalogue printing 304
Litho sheetfed or webfed? 304
Long-grain or short-grain web
offset 305
Strengths/weaknesses of alternative
printing processes 306
Quality and technical process
specifications 306
Type matter 307
Fine lines 307
Tone reproduction 307
Solid areas of colour 308
Process colour reproduction 308
Economic comparison between short-run
colour litho, on-press (DI) and variable
digital printing 310
Printing inks 313
Basic ink formulation 313
Pigments 314
Vehicle 314
Additives 314
Printing process requirements 315
Gravure 315
Flexography 315
Screen 315
Digital printing 315
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Ink drying mechanisms 316
Chemical drying methods 316
Physical drying methods 317
Specific ink properties 318
Health and safety 319
Printers criteria for ink selection 320
Ink manufacture controls 322
Paper 325
The paper-making process 325
Fibrous components 325
Pulping 326
Stock preparation 328
The paper-making machine 330
Choosing a suitable paper 336
Paper characteristics 336
Paper varieties (furnishes) 336
Paper ordering 338
Paper finishes 338
Specialist papers 339
Boards 340
Alternative substrates 341
Litho printing on plastic, metal and
glass 341
Problem types and testing methods 341
Printing defects associated with
paper 341
Reel defects 344
Papers for digital print 344
Testing methods 346
Paper tests 346
Environmental commentary 351
Forest management 351
Pollution 351
Recycling 351
Measurements and calculation 352
The international ISO range 352
Useful metric units and symbols 353
Paper sizes 353
Weight and volume (metric system) 356
US measurement and calculation 360
Caliper calculations 360
Service properties of paper 364
Performance properties of paper 371
How the paper performs at the
customers site 371
Commercial properties of paper 373
Conditions of supply negotiated
between supplier and customer 373
Binding and finishing 375
Guillotining and cutting 375
Guillotines 375
Three-knife trimmers 377
Single-copy trimmers 377
Folding machines 377
Knife-folding machines 377
Buckle-folding machines 378
Combination folding machines 379
Quality control in folding
machines 379
Computer controls 380
Print enhancement additions 380
Soft cover binding 384
Saddle-stitching 385
Gathering and sequential section
binding 387
Adhesive (perfect) binding 387
Limp sewn binding 389
Stab- or side-stitching 389
Side-sewing 389
Selecting the process 390
Hardcover (cased) binding 390
Sequence of events 391
Variations on the sequence of events 391
Case-making 392
Specialist bookbinding 394
Mechanical binding 395
Plastic comb binding 395
Spiral binding 395
Wire O binding 395
Ring binding 396
Plastic welding 396
Varnishing and laminating 396
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Varnishing 396
Lamination 397
Specification and choice of materials for
varnishing and laminating 398
Blocking and embossing 400
Embossing and plate sinking 400
Hot foil stamping (blocking) 400
Packaging: carton and box making 401
Corrugated and fibreboard
containers 401
Rigid boxes 402
Cartons 402
Mailing, packing, distribution and
freight 405
Printing and inserting 405
Specifying bulk packing 405
Book packing for postal
distribution 406
Magazine and brochure wrapping for
postal distribution 406
Postal distribution services 408
Inland services 408
Service levels 409
International services 410
Export distribution 413
Shipping 413
Air freight 414
Methods of payment 416
Certified invoice 416
Consular invoice 416
Inspection certificate 416
Freight forwarding: agents and services 422
Choosing a freight forwarder 422
Functions of a freight forwarder 422
Consolidation 422
Insurance 423
Print supply chain impacts 424
Business process re-engineering
opportunities through the use of digital
printing 424
Production control systems 431
Commissioning 431
Manage production 431
Project completion and performance
monitoring 436
Use of management information
systems 436
Print-specific MIS suppliers 437
Electronic methods of production
control 439
General reference tables 447
Conversion metric to imperial 448
Typographical measurements 449
Paper sizes 450
Typography 453
Measurement and terminology 453
Systems of measurement 453
Terminology 454
Fonts and type families 456
Typeface characteristics 460
Typeface classifications 460
Typographic design and specification 468
Choosing typefaces 470
Standardisation 470
Specifying magazine and book work 471
Detailed points of typographic style 476
Punctuation setting 476
Spacing parameters 476
H&J/word breaks 476
Headlines and folios 477
Glossary 479
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2.1 Potential benefits of forming
relationship between a supplier and
printer 65
4.1 Binary values of alphanumeric
characters in 7-bit ASCII code 127
4.2 Character sets from several
TrueType font sets on a PC 129
4.3 Equivalent screen rulings 150
4.4 Typical halftone screen
rulings 150
4.5 Recommended FM spot sizes 151
5.1 General scanner specifications 176
5.2 Comparative costs of alternative
methods of platemaking 213
6.1 Detailed market distribution of
major print processes (excluding
packaging) 223
6.2 Mesh grades 259
6.3 The mesh count and grade for
typical applications 260
6.4 Forecast of market share of total
print (excluding packaging)
processes 268
6.5 Cost comparison between
conventional and DI printing 284
7.1 Cost implications of printing
processes 300
7.2 Typical density ranges of
substrate/process
combinations 302
7.3 Which process, books 303
7.4 Which process,
magazines/catalogues 304
7.5 Comparison between major print
processes 309
7.6 Unit costs of varying quantities of
a colour print job 311
8.1 Typical contents of conventional
oxidation drying sheetfed 313
9.1 Paper characteristics 336
9.2 Paper ordering 338
9.3 Typical opacity readings 348
9.4 A sizes 353
9.5 C series 354
9.6 RA sizes 355
9.7 SRA sizes 355
9.8 B series 355
9.9 The metric range of book
publishing papers 356
9.10 Recommendations for printers
board and covers 356
9.11 Spoilage allowance 359
9.12 Conversion factors for basis weights
and grammage 361
9.13 Weight (lb) per 1000 sheets of
standard sheet sizes and weights of
book papers 362
9.14 Weight (lb) per 1000 sheets of
standard sheet sizes and weights of
cover boards 363
9.15 American book sizes 363
9.16 A list of service properties of paper
and board 365
9.17 Some of the many available
printing papers 367
14.1 Conversion table: Anglo-American
and Didot point sizes to
inches/millimetres 453
List of tables
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List of figures
2.1 Outline of procurement process 31
2.2 Poor trapping results in a colour
bias towards that of the underlying
ink 37
2.3 The cumulative effect of dot gain 37
2.4 High dot gain requires lower inking
to match the density of the
halftone 37
2.5 Control strip of the primary printing
colours 40
2.6 The control strip showing
secondary, as well as primary,
colour fields 40
2.7 Microlines, such as the UGRA
Plate Control Wedge, PCW, may be
incorporated into a print control
strip 41
2.8 The GATF Star Target used for
control of tone transfer 41
2.9 FOGRA control strip and a System
Brunner control strip, combined
with microline targets 42
2.10 The GATF Mid-tone Dot Gain
Scale 42
2.11 Tone patches on a control strip are
normally limited to a mid-tone and
a shadow tone 43
2.12 Three examples of slur and
doubling targets 44
2.13 The basic measurement principle of
the densitometer 45
2.14 The measurement principle of a
spectrophotometer 46
2.15 Densitometer/spectrophotometer
calibration assurance record 51
2.16 Pass sheet quality assurance
record 52
2.17 Process control chart for monitoring
colour 53
2.18 On-press printed sheet quality
assurance record 54
3.1 SWOP Hi-Lo colour reference 110
4.1 Mono halftone TIFF image, 134kb
uncompressed 124
4.2 Portion of Figure 4.1 enlarged 15x,
showing pixelation effects 124
4.3 Comparison between raster
(bitmap) and vector font
characters 126
4.4 Halftone dots and the imagesetter
grid 132
4.5 Effect of chromatic induction 134
4.6 Additive colour 135
4.7 The subtractive process: yellow,
magenta and cyan are the primary
colours and red, green and blue
become the secondary colours 136
4.8 The principle of process colour 137
4.9 Screen angles 139
4.10 Ideal and real process colour
inks 140
4.11 Grey balance and colour
correction 140
4.12 Colour enhancement 141
4.13 Illustration of UCR and GCR 143
4.14 Application of grey component
replacement 143
4.15 In a watercolour painting, the tones
are related to the quantity of paint
on the papers surface 144
4.16 A line drawing is a bi-level
picture 144
4.17 Artists engraving. The similarity to
TV scan lines is apparent 146
4.18 A photomechanical halftone,
greatly magnified to show the dot
structure 146
4.19 Amplitude versus frequency
modulated screening. The strip in
the centre shows the tints produced
by either method 147
4.20 Dot percentage scale (round
dots) 148
4.21 Line screen 148
4.22 Square, elliptical and round
dots 149
4.23 Canvas effect generated
digitally 149
4.24 FM screening patterns 151
5.1 Typical publishing work
programme 158
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The Print and Production Manual List of figures
5.2 General proof correction
marks 166
5.3 CMOS and CCD sensor
architectures 172
5.4 Dynamic range and density
range 180
5.5 Schematic showing the position of
asset management 183
5.6 Rotating drum 205
5.7 Rotating polygon: the film is in
continuous motion beneath the
sweeping beam 206
5.8 Internal drum 207
5.9 Typical workflow for printers
receiving film 209
5.10 Typical workflow for printers with
a large-format imagesetter 211
5.11 Typical workflow for printers
operating a computer-to-plate
(CTP) system 212
6.1 Illustration of the characteristics
obtained when printing from an
offset and planographic plate 217
6.2 Flexographic print characteristics
218
6.3 Gravure print characteristics 219
6.4 Screen print characteristics 220
6.5 Xeikon print characteristics 221
6.6 HP-Indigo print characteristics 221
6.7 Inkjet print characteristics 222
6.8 Physical profiles of image carriers224
6.9 The application of ink and water
differentiates between image and
non-image areas 226
6.10 Negative- and positive-working
plates 228
6.11 The offset litho press 230
6.12 A small offset, sheetfed press 232
6.13 Situations in which tracking
problems can occur 232
6.14 A multi-unit sheetfed offset press
with inline coating and drying
units 233
6.15 A sheetfed, offset lithographic press
in which four printing cylinders
share a common impression
cylinder 234
6.16 An example of a coldset web
newspaper press 235
6.17 How the cylinders are aligned in
a blanket-to-blanket perfecting
unit 235
6.18 A typical heatset web press 237
6.19 Short-grain and long-grain press
formats 237
6.20 Schematics showing a ribbon folder
and a former folder 239
6.21 The three principles of letterpress
printing 240
6.22 Schematic of a reel-fed rotary
letterpress label machine 242
6.23 Offset letterpress for container
printing 242
6.24 The stages in conventional
photopolymer plate
production 245
6.25 Controlling the inking system in the
flexographic process: doctor blade
and chambered ink systems 247
6.26 A six-colour webfed stack press 248
6.27 The arrangement of the print units
on a common impression cylinder
press 249
6.28 The arrangement of the print units
on an inline press 249
6.29 Tonal gradation on a gravure image
carrier 251
6.30 An image carrier produced by
chemical etching the cells differ
in area 252
6.31 The basic principle of the
electromechanical engraving
method 252
6.32 Electromechanical cylinder
engraving with analysing drum 253
6.33 Principle of the gravure printing
unit 255
6.34 Schematic of a gravure publication
press 256
6.35 The principle of screen printing
257
6.36 Three grades of mesh, all with the
same thread count 259
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The Print and Production Manual List of figures
6.37 Two photo-stencil making
processes: indirect and direct 261
6.38 A flatbed hinged frame 262
6.39 A flatbed vertical lift machine 263
6.40 A cylinder-bed press 264
6.41 A rotary screen press 265
6.42 Processes involved in conventional
and digital printing 266
6.43 Collation capabilities of digital
printing systems 268
6.44 Typical prepress workflow for digital
printing 277
6.45 Schematic of different types of
digital printing 279
6.46 Technology map showing available
digital printing systems 280
6.47 Technology map showing relative
position of digital printing
processes 281
6.48 Mechanism of laser ablation for
on-press plate imaging 282
6.49 Illustration of a Quickmaster DI
printing press 283
6.50 Schematic of the DICOweb imaging
process 284
6.51 Cost comparison for conventional
and DI production 285
6.52 Schematic showing the mechanism
of laser printing 287
6.53 Schematic showing development of
image transfer in colour toner laser
printers 288
6.54 Schematic of the HP-Indigo printing
mechanism 289
6.55 Schematic of the two types of inkjet
printing 291
6.56 Schematic showing an array of
inkjet heads 293
6.57 Direct electron beam imaging
engine from Delphax 294
6.58 Schematic of the magnetography
printing process 295
6.59 Elcography system 296
7.1 Difference between long-grain and
short-grain web production 306
7.2 Unit cost comparison between
conventional offset, on-press DI
and variable digital print 312
9.1 Schematic of a Fourdrinier paper
machine 331
9.2 A series size relationships 354
9.3 Schematic representation of the
information capacity of a range of
publication printing papers 368
10.1 The principle of knife folding 378
10.2 The principle of buckle folding 379
10.3 The extra margins required when
laminating sheets. 399
11.1 The Incoterms used by the trade 421
11.2 Outline of conventional carton
packaging supply chain 425
11.3 On-demand manufacture of
product and carton/filling supply
chain 426
11.4 In-store printing and filling
operation 426
11.5 Conventional book supply chain 428
11.6 In-store production of books 429
12.1 Client online print ordering screen
for standard and bespoke jobs 440
12.2 Typical outline specification 441
12.3 Estimating screen from
supplier 442
12.4 Business card ordering routine,
selecting correct template 443
12.5 Entering personal details into
form 444
12.6 Viewing personalised card
details 445
12.7 Sending approved order to
supplier 446
14.1 The parts of a metal type
character 454
14.2 Typeface terminology 460
14.3 Type: oblique and vertical
stress 461
14.4 The weight of serifs in relation to
the main strokes of the letters 461
14.5 Type area and margins 469
Introduction and context
This ninth edition of the Print and Production Manual is designed as a reference book for
people who specify, buy and produce material. It contains a wealth of information that will
help make them aware of issues involved in the successful completion of print projects.
This is a major update of the Print and Production Manual. The scope has been
broadened to include a wider range of printed products and develops the book/publishing
theme of previous editions. Particular changes have been made in the coverage of recent
digital technological innovations and working practices. Digital prepress, workflows and
administration are now the norm and have largely superseded traditional analogue
methods. The printing section has been modernised and includes a considerable amount of
material on the digital technologies that are becoming increasingly common. There is more
emphasis on which is the best technology to use for a particular requirement, rather than a
separate description of the potential methods that could be used. Finishing and
distribution are also covered, along with mailing and export freight forwarding.
The context There is a bewildering array of ways for people and organisations to promote, teach,
of printing inform, entertain or do business with each other. Those are the basic functions of printed
products, and now print faces stiff competition from alternative media as well as other
print suppliers within a wider communication market. This manual aims to help produce
the most effective products in the most efficient manner.
People have used technology to communicate from the days of cave painting.
Before the invention of movable type in the late 15th century, a small army of scribes
produced written proclamations and unique illustrated manuscripts for the clerics,
professionals and aristocrats who controlled society. Then print became industrialised and
created a manufacturing juggernaut that could publish multiple identical copies of books,
newspapers, pamphlets and all sorts of promotional, educational, transactional and
entertainment products.
The strength of print has been its ability to produce many copies of a document
at a low unit cost. This mindset of trying to reduce costs has driven the industry for many
years and is difficult to change. It is, however, important that a change is made. The final
consumers of print products are people, and it is the changing needs and wishes of
individuals that are driving the rapidly changing world of print. People are no longer
content to be treated as part of a large group, and they demand to be treated as
individuals. The strength of print is now a concern because a generic document may not
be sufficient to engage individuals. Conventional print has undergone some changes, and
there has been relentless decline in average run length of most print over the last 20 years.
Prepress and make-ready developments have helped make short runs economic, and
manufacturers have looked toward innovative new technologies to make the print run of
just one copy, personalised for an individual consumer, an economic option. This is the
wider context of the development of digital printing: making short run and customised
print economically viable.
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The Print and Production Manual Introduction and context
The printing industry is changing because people, the final consumers of print,
are changing. Their requirements and needs are developing and changing for all products
and services including print. The pressure is for cheaper print products that are produced
in less time. There is also the demand for products to be better targeted at individuals
resulting in drops in run length and increasing personalisation.
New printing technology has developed to take time and cost out of the process.
Digital administration and e-commerce applications allow closer, faster communication
between buyer and supplier to specify and track enquiries through to delivery. Digital
workflows have smoothed the transition between the creative process, prepress production,
printing and distribution. New printing presses have become increasingly efficient at
reducing make-ready to cut the number of passes and to optimise the use of materials.
The quality achievable, particularly from flexo and digital, has improved while litho has
developed with more colours and special effects such as varnishing.
New technology has opened up the range of products that can economically be
printed, and digital technology allows very short runs of the highest quality. Distributed
engines allow simultaneous production in multiple locations while database technology,
which can identify the requirements of individuals and print bespoke products, has enabled
the growth of personalisation and helped to develop the customer relationship marketing
programmes of many companies.
The arrival of the internet and worldwide web means that print now has real
competition from an alternative media for the permanent publication of information. Parts
of the printing industry are being absorbed into a wider communications industry taking in
computers and telecommunications. Publishers can use multiple channels to get their
message to consumers: print, internet, email, digital TV and SMS text messaging. For print
to remain a leading channel, it is important to be able to use the most appropriate
methods and suppliers.
How to use The content has been arranged into three main sections:
the manual print buying issues
production
general reference section (including customs of the trade).
The print buying section aims to explain the issues other than price that people need to
understand to make the best purchasing decision. Understanding the alternative processes
will lead to the most appropriate production method being chosen, and considering the
overall process might lead to re-engineering opportunities reducing time and cost. The need
for clear specification and requests for quotation is explained along with the reasons why the
capabilities of potential suppliers must be examined when deciding which quotes to accept.
The development of e-commerce to help all aspects of buying are discussed
along with the emerging JDF standard, which speeds up the acceptance of the new
systems. Quality control and assurance techniques for prepress, printing and materials are
examined and electronic process control charts are provided. A range of industry-standard
The Print and Production Manual Introduction and context
contract terms and conditions are provided with specifications for supply of files, proofs
and film separations.
The production section considers all aspects of modern reproduction and printing,
and concentrates on the digital technologies that dominate the industry. There is a primer
(or a reminder) covering the basics of digital graphics and colour theory. Origination and
prepress are covered with emphasis on digital photography and workflow based on PDF
technology. The emerging use of media independent XML techniques is covered with the
supply of certified print-ready files for direct conversion by printers CTP technology.
The printing section has been significantly revised and gives details of the main
technologies commonly used including litho, flexo, gravure, screen and digital printing. A
new section on choosing the most appropriate print process has been added giving details
of the strengths and weaknesses of the different technologies for particular applications.
Sections on inks and substrates, including plastics and paper, are included. A variety of
binding and finishing processes are discussed, and despatch and distribution, including
mailing and exporting, are covered. The impacts on the print supply chain provided by new
digital technology, with several examples of how time, waste and cost can be reduced by
changes in the overall approach, are discussed. The final part of the production section
covers a range of production control forms and check lists together with examples of the
emerging electronic methods of specification and workflow that are increasingly employed.
The general reference section contains a range of useful information. An
appendix on typography and a detailed glossary covers the terms widely used in the
printing and allied industries.
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Print buying and quality control
In a manual that covers a broad range of production disciplines, advice on print buying or
buying services from production companies is little more than a summary of principles.
Particularly where innovative methods of production are concerned and where new media
services are involved, there will be unique trading arrangements and pricing agreements
that cannot be predicted here.
This section should be read in conjunction with other appropriate sections of The
Print and Production Manual and particularly with the quality control advice given in the
printing section.
Print pricing and Although buying print is apparently an entirely commercial activity, there is a strong case
cost of production for claiming it is, in some degree, part of the technical process. The basis for this is the
fundamental print-buying maxim: the best price will come from the supplier who is best
qualified to do the job. As print is bought to accomplish something, there is always
pressure to achieve the lowest price. In some cases, the lowest price may not necessarily
represent the best value.
The corollary of this is that the best print buyer is the one who makes decisions
based, at least in part, on a technical evaluation of the circumstances. The starting point,
therefore, is to understand the techniques involved in producing the product by
understanding the processes of origination and replication, and by understanding any
processes required for the job.
Many printers tend to be production-led. Their concern is to obtain the best
returns on their high levels of investment, so it is worth exploring the service and support
of potential print suppliers.
The print industry has concentrated its efforts on minimising the unit cost of
production through the reduction of make-ready and waste. In many cases, the supply of print
is not a high enough priority for the customer to spend a great deal of time or money to
provide benefits. The supplier can work with the customer to develop a strategy to re-engineer
the chain on behalf of the client, offering a more efficient, reduced-cost solution. This approach
is one of the major drivers for the growth of the specialist print management companies, able
to apply their expertise across a range of suppliers. They tend to operate with larger print users
where both parties can benefit from a strategic approach to print procurement.
The change will address the normally hidden costs of administration, wastage,
warehousing and distribution. There are the client costs involved with print buying, salaries
and overheads for staff dedicated to procurement, costs of receiving, storing and holding
printed materials. Aspects to be examined will include all elements from raw materials to
distribution:
Paper and raw material souring
Authoring, design and prepress
Printing, finishing and binding
Archiving (preparing and managing a digital asset management system)
Warehousing and stock management
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The Print and Production Manual Print buying and quality control
Distribution
Detailed customer service and helpdesk operation
Fulfilment and support activities (database management, response handling).
There would be total activity reporting for all parties through improved administration
systems, developed to provide maximum efficiency. The process re-engineering programme
involves a three-stage approach: understanding current processes, designing appropriate
alternatives and implementing the solution. It is a strategic review on the use of print and
allied products.
Understand The first stage involves a consultation exercise to understand the current situation and
determine objectives to take out cost and time. It determines the total range of print and
related communication products in use, with the scope of activities to be included (e.g. is
mailing included, what about website design and e-commerce requirements?). The
document audit aims to identify all current print products. It will include details of
materials, processes, activities and stages involved, quantities and run lengths, delivery
points, and waste and redundancy levels.
To provide the best business benefit, it is necessary to understand the business
processes relevant to communication and documents. Client procurement systems and
document use will be explored, covering administration procedure and detailing costs (if
available). Key personnel and suppliers across the supply chain would be involved.
Marketing objectives and CRM activities will be explored to determine any requirement for
supporting technology.
Redesign The process formally identifies costs and time in document usage. Process maps indicate
opportunities to reduce cost and time. Printers will explore the application of appropriate
technology to make improvements with the client exploring existing production processes
and emerging new technologies.
The supplier will research the possibilities and typically run some from a
workshop involving their staff, client personnel and any third-party stakeholders (design
agencies, specialist finishing, distribution companies). An action plan for improvement
should be generated from this.
Implement Detailed plans setting out the business justification of the proposed differences should be
formally documented, costed and justified for the client to consider. When approved, a
contract between the parties will be drawn up and procedures changed.
The contract will incorporate a formal service level agreement and regular
ongoing project reviews. Like any project, the individual responsibilities on named
personnel (at service provider and client) should be named, together with the proposed
timescale. The costs would be negotiated as part of the agreement, normally initial costs
would be borne by the supplier, amortised into a supply agreement, or a different
agreement reached.
Detailed methodology The initial product survey is a communication audit, determining the total range of printed
and related communication products in use. These may typically include:
Business cards
General stationery (letterheads, compliments slips, envelopes)
Business forms (pre-printed base forms, individual numbered/barcoded forms, multi-
part sets, pads, A4 sheets)
Labels
Internal documentation
Bills/statements (pre-printed base stock and personalisation)
Marketing collateral material
Brochures/catalogues
Corporate brochure, report and accounts, corporate literature
Security print
Special/bespoke material
Point-of-sale
Packaging
Distribution
Mailing
Fulfilment (if applicable).
Any communication audit should aim to identify all the currently used printed products for
internal processes, communication with potential and existing customers, business to
business, and to business to consumer. The use of any transactional documents and
transactional mailing will be explored. Are any multi-version, multi-language editions
required? Does the client need multi-media versions, repurposing for website?
To add value to the client, it is necessary to understand the business processes
relevant to communication. This would involve detailed examination of the customers
business processes that are relevant to the use of print. An understanding of the structure
of the client is vital, identifying key personnel and suppliers across the supply chain.
Organisation structure
Individual companies/business units
Departmental structure
Marketing requirements
Identify key personnel and decision makers
Explore purchasing systems and structures
Explore administration systems
Explore IT systems
Identify key capabilities and strengths
Requirements for EDI and existing systems
E-commerce requirements
Cooperation with other sources to fulfil complete service needs.
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In most cases for significant users of print, supporting information is required. Is there
any formal brand manual providing a corporate specification to promote the branding
consistency? If so, a copy is required to detail all spot colours, typefaces and layouts.
For each of the products identified, the following is ideally needed:
Quantities required annually
Number of individual orders, quantity per order
Number of deliveries and points of delivery (addresses of individual departments
within the same site/building)
Average stock holdings (centrally and at users)
Re-order trigger process, level and monitoring mechanism
Procedure for replacement/update
Waste levels (spoilage and document redundancy)
Out of stock situations
Cost and financial information (prices if available, cost of handling communication
at the client)
Order generation and invoice handling procedure, use of consolidated invoicing
Material specification
Paper grade and grammage
Inks/toners (any special colours/effects/security features)
Varnish/sealer/spot varnish
Lamination
Production methods
Number of suppliers
Processes involved (web/sheet, litho/digital, finishing, mailing)
Personalisation (PDF, PostScript, Mainframe Linecode, XML)
Design/prepress
Design agency contact
Map workflow (PostScript/PDF)
Supply of files/films
Wastage levels (process and redundancy)
Mailing procedures and consolidation.
This may yield a great deal of data and, to make it meaningful, it is translated into a series
of business process maps and flowcharts. This process quantifies the processes, costs and
time in document usage in a graphical manner. The diagrams are useful tools to identify
activities where there are inefficiencies and opportunities for improvement.
Design approval cycle
Prepress workflow
Material specification and purchase procedure
Specification requirement (e.g. APACS regulations, mailpack weights)
Specific end use (personalisation requirements, type of inserter)
Paper supplier(s)
Is the paper branded? Does it need to be?
Grade and basis weight
Ink/toner/varnish
Production methodology.
Process maps will identify times involved and generation of waste for production:
Design process
File approval and transfer
Prepress
Proofing and proof approval cycle
Platemaking
Print make-ready
Printing
Finish/bind
Store and hold stock
Distribute
Mailing.
For administration of standard products:
Order entry at customer
Initial trigger for reorder
Stock monitoring and consolidation
Raise order
Receive order/check validity/provide confirmation
Determine optimal reorder quantities
Receipt of film/file
Proofing needs
Delivery notes
Raise and send invoice
Payment
Reporting and trends.
For administration of new or updated bespoke products:
Decision for new document
Estimate
Design and prepress
Order entry at customer
Raise order
Receive order/check validity/provide confirmation
Determine optimal reorder quantities
Receipt of file
Proofing needs
Delivery notes
Raise and send invoice
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Payment
Reporting and trends.
When the current situation has been determined, the opportunities for process re-
engineering will be examined. These will depend on the range of products involved and
the objectives of the project. The business process maps indicate opportunities to reduce
cost and time. At this stage the potential of new technology and IT developments will be
considered to explore:
Consolidation of existing document product range
Supplier rationalisation
Improvement in usage of materials/processes
Paper choice
Prepress
Provide multi-version optimised media and format independent data
Colour management
CIP4 (or above) capability and link with administration systems
Optimise workflow
Remote proofing
Administration
Economic order quantities
Use of MIS/IT
Invoice consolidation
E-commerce opportunities
E-procurement, catalogue and shopping basket
Workflow management
Production which print process is appropriate
Batching
Personalisation/DP capability
Stock and warehousing
Pick and pack
Distribution
Mailing.
These are the normal areas that can be changed to lead to improvements in the supply
of printed products. The process should then explore areas where new technology can
improve the business process of client, removing time and cost from the document cycle.
Keeping in touch with the market developments will be repaid by being able to offer
increased efficiencies to clients.
Consolidation of documents, optimal order quantities
Develop improved marketing communications
Direct mail
Direct marketing
Digital printing
Database management client profiles
Fulfilment
E-commerce offering.
The potential changes will be evaluated and new methods proposed as a presentation to
the client management. This document should outline the potential benefits and detail
how the process will be managed. The supplier will work with the client and its agents to
achieve the best service levels for the communications solution. When required, a printer
manages the service (taking a facilities management approach) where it acts as outsourcer
or partner wherever appropriate.
Provide expertise
Design improvements and solutions
Agree objectives, budget and time-scale
Prepare and agree detailed contract
Agree guarantees of service and quality
Negotiate supply of equipment and services
Implement
Manage.
The supplier should aim to provide the widest range of products to minimise transaction
costs for the client. This will involve working with approved design agencies, outside
printers for services not available in-house and client-appointed service providers (mailing,
distribution, warehousing) to provide a total service package. The additional activities
often outside the remit of suppliers may include:
Design
Production
Database management
Website design and operation (updates and handling enquiries)
Mailing and distribution
Help-desk
Call centre
Warehousing
Pick, pack and deliver
Provide invisible back-office functionality.
This approach demonstrates the much wider scope of print procurement rather than being
only a simple choice based on lowering the print prices from suppliers. The opportunity for
lowest cost is to become a partner with the supplier(s), developing improved systems to
provide a better and wider service. This will inevitably involve use of all types of printing
technology and continual reviews should be carried out to check that the most effective
process is being used.
Just as some printers are using statistical process control (SPC) programmes to
objectively determine their quality and to operate a continual improvement culture, so
customers can rank their suppliers. The client will prepare a list of important criteria such
2
as colour fidelity, pack appearance, lack of common print faults, on-time delivery and score
the performance objectively.
Production control Any printers qualifications do not reside simply in the machinery owned. They include all
the practical considerations that will affect the ability to produce the product required to
the schedule set by the buyer, and will enable him to produce the necessary balance of
price, quality and service.
The following factors will go towards building up the equation:
skilled management
production control
appropriate machinery
appropriate systems, quality procedures and MIS
skilled labour force
capacity
experience of similar work
geographical location
suitable communications
appropriate transport
availability of materials.
Good management in a printing organisation encompasses sales, production and
administration. On the shop floor, it shows up as tight production control. With the
customer, it results in good service.
Service from a print supplier is not simply a question of keeping to an agreed
production schedule. The communication of information at every stage and quick and
effective response to queries and requests is equally important. The increasing use of
e-enabled systems allows clients to interrogate job status, request estimates and examine
capacity directly, providing real-time information and reducing the overhead on the
printer. It is the improvement in administration that is the real benefit of e-commerce
systems for printing.
It is usually possible to get some idea of a printers service from the first contact.
If it is simple to establish communications, if estimates are quickly obtained, sensible
questions are asked and good explanations are given about the resources and facilities of
the supplier, then that augurs well for the future. If it is difficult to get an initial response
from the printer, if it takes too long to estimate a job and the quotation is then confusing
or does not match the specification, proceed no further. Such problems are symptomatic of
deficiencies between the sales and marketing side of the organisation and the production
side, not just between the salesman and client.
Naturally, this assumes that there is a tight and exact specification for the job to
be placed. Use forms wherever possible to achieve this since they give authority to the
request and act as a checklist to ensure all aspects of the job are specified. The production
control system provides sample forms suitable for obtaining estimates.
If large quantities of work are to be placed with the supplier, it may be worth
asking for a meeting at the factory and a brief tour of the printers resources. Most printers
who are proud of their work would be happy to accommodate this request. If you visit a
factory, take the following steps:
Ask to look over the production control area and be shown how the company monitors
scheduling;
Meet line management, talk to them and form your own view about their competence
and enthusiasm;
Ask about quality control and check who is responsible. Is work examined by the
production office on the shop floor and, if so, by whom? Maybe there are no checks at
all (that may be acceptable if you have implicit faith in an experienced workforce).
Does the company operate a formal quality management system?
Look over the machinery. Is it new or old? Does it appear well maintained? Is the
housekeeping efficient? Many experienced buyers have noted that an untidy factory
almost invariably produces untidy work;
Try to assess the attitude of the workforce. Are they keen and enthusiastic or bored
and indifferent? Do they want to impress you? If they dont, their work wont either;
Above all, discuss work with staff and management as freely as possible.
You will quickly form an impression of the type of company you are dealing with, how keen
they are to work with you and how they perceive their working relationship with you. This
is not necessary for you or them if you are placing one small job but, if you are to establish
a longer-term relationship dealing with any quantity of work, the supplier should be
pleased to show you his facilities and discuss his working methods.
Appropriate A convention of printing companies is to produce a plant list. This lists all the machines in
machinery the factory and gives an indication of their purpose (e.g. maximum sheet size taken by the
machine and number of stations on a binding line). It is important to appreciate that,
however competitive the quotation, the printer is at best a short-term solution to your
problem if he does not have what you know to be the correct machinery for the purpose. It
may suit him to do your work on an inefficient basis at that moment, but in due course he
will either find more suitable work or go bust.
When placing a job, request information on the machines to be used in its
production and satisfy yourself that they are appropriate. Appropriate does not necessarily
mean the latest, state of the art, gleaming piece of equipment. It simply means that the
machine is a sensible choice for the type of work planned, and is not so old and decrepit
that it is incapable of achieving either decent quality or productive speeds.
Suitability for purpose is the issue. For example, a short-run job could be run on
either offset or colour digital so long as the quality is sufficient. It is the suppliers decision
which machine is used.
2
Quality procedures Many printers, particularly large ones, have successfully implemented formal quality
and MIS systems with external auditing such as the ISO9000 series. These demonstrate the
commitment of management to examine and understand all aspects of the company activities,
and to undertake a systematic process improvement programme. Even if the organisation does
not hold a formal certificate of quality, it should be able to demonstrate sensible procedures to
prove their staff know the systems well enough to efficiently fulfil orders.
The role of the management information system at printers is increasingly
important. The system will provide access to costing, estimating, scheduling, production
control, work in progress, stock and distribution functions. Customers will have access to
parts of the system.
Capacity Both buyer and supplier can be opportunistic where a small, one-off job is concerned.
The supplier may be able to quote a competitive price because there is a low point in
production. The buyer may be able to take advantage of that price because his job will
not be repeated and, if circumstances change later, there is no problem. However, if
serious amounts of work are involved, both parties should satisfy themselves that the
capacity really exists to produce this work to the schedules required by the buyer. This
is obviously and undeniably the responsibility of both parties where regular productions
such as periodicals are concerned, but it is also necessary if a continuing stream of work
is envisaged.
Talk of priorities of jobs in printing companies should not be necessary other
than in the context of balancing tightly scheduled production with work on longer
schedules. In this context, it is the responsibility of the buyer to give a fair estimate of the
volumes of work and the timings of that work likely to materialise. It is the responsibility
of the printer to ensure he has the capacity to handle the work. He must allow for the
inevitable machine downtime caused by breakdowns and servicing requirements, and
hiatuses in labour supply caused by holidays.
It is the responsibility of both parties to ensure that they have understood the
agreed production schedules and the implications of these schedules on the printers
loadings. Production schedules and capacity are, after all, one and the same thing. The
purpose of a schedule is to ensure that the capacity is available to produce the work as
and when agreed. Both parties should be clear whether the schedule they have agreed
is stated in terms of working days or calendar days, and should remember to take into
account national holidays and other unavoidable interruptions.
Refer to the production control system for forms that can be used to work out
project schedules. A supplier producing a steady stream of work similar to the jobs to be
placed is the most reassuring guarantee.
It is in any event sensible to check samples of the suppliers work. Dont expect
him to give you the last leather-bound multi-volume encyclopaedia printed as a sample,
but you should be able to keep and examine at your leisure spare copies of printed sheets,
prepress samples and printed examples of repro work.
Similar work If a supplier is already producing your sort of work for several customers, it is likely it is
doing a reasonable job. In any event, never hesitate to check a suppliers reputation with
other customers.
No one has an unblemished record, but any reputable organisation will have at
least a few delighted customers who will be happy to endorse their claims. This is perfectly
normal practice in the trade and will not be considered unreasonable.
If the supplier has not produced your type of work before, you must make a
decision based on the importance of the job you are placing. If it is a large and significant
project, you might be advised to place it with someone who has experience of similar work.
If it is relatively low value and on a loose production schedule, you may be prepared to
take a risk, especially if the supplier has the appropriate resources.
Location There are some 14,000 printers in the UK, almost 100,000 across Europe. A good starting
point in the process of refining your needs is to decide whether there is a geographical
limitation involved. Usually this depends on the type of work being placed, the amount of
communication involved in its production and the delivery requirements. To many buyers,
however, there is a tyranny of distance whether real or imagined.
Clients who want to now and again visit the printers office to chat with him can
suffer bad attacks of nerves if long distances are involved. In practice, the limitation tends
to be self-defining. If the work being placed is substantial, the savings that may be
possible by choosing one supplier in preference to another, wherever he is located, may be
more significant than the inconvenience of distance or the expense of communication.
If the work is more limited, it will either be so straightforward that little
communication is required (in which case it can be printed anywhere with the minimum of
fuss) or so little cost will be involved that it is hardly worth casting too wide a net in the
hope of saving a few pence on the quotation.
The situation changes if the customer is in a large city. Most of the major printing
companies have representatives based in, or frequently visiting, the main towns and cities.
If the job is large enough to justify it, it may be worth buying print in another country. Two
conditions must be satisfied if a buyer is to trade successfully with overseas suppliers:
there should be enough work to justify the additional overhead that will inevitably
result from communications taking place over a long distance;
he must have the administrative resources to deal with the extended lines of
communication.
The work might need additional administration and the degree of this depends on the way
in which the print buyer is trading with his overseas supplier. The common scenarios are:
direct with the printer with no intermediaries
through a sales office in ones own country run by the printer
through a specialist print management intermediary
through the customers buying office in the country of supply.
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The type of arrangement most appropriate will depend on the resources of the buyer and
the supplier he is using. Clearly, much of the administrative work will be taken off the
buyers shoulders if his supplier has a local office prepared to handle all communication
and transport of materials.
Sometimes, as relationships evolve, a buying organisation may begin trading
through a local office but may, in due course, strike up such reliable contact with the
factory that direct overseas trading becomes quicker and more effective. Other more
adventurous systems may follow on from this.
Currency is an issue. Depending on the volume of work you are buying and the
agreement you have with your printers, you will either be quoted in the currency of the
printer or in your local currency.
If it is necessary to trade in the overseas currency, you must decide if you will
need to cover yourself for this risk. If so, specialist financial advice will be needed.
Materials Disappointment over paper, board or other materials is a common source of problems in
the relationships between buyers and suppliers. Although it is possible to prepare
rigorous technical specifications for paper and board that should ensure predictability,
this is a risky business.
In almost every case, it is better to see a sample of the material to be used and
preferably a printed sample than to rely on a specification. Indeed, it is inadvisable even
to make a decision on the basis of a similar sheet of paper or sample of card since small
variations in shade, substance or bulk can lead to bitter disappointment. This is a
particular problem where overseas production is involved because the characteristics of
materials considered significant in different parts of the world vary considerably.
Volatility of supply is also more acute in some areas of the world than in, for
example, the UK or the US, and it may be more difficult to ensure consistency of supply in
some overseas locations. The print buyer should, therefore, consider security of a consistent
supply to be as important as the initial decision.
Estimates and Printers will normally respond to a request for a quotation with an estimate containing a
charges clearly defined outline specification that details quantities and delivery dates. For a regular
relationship, the printer will often present a fixed-price menu allowing the client to do a
ready-reckoner for costs. While convenient, it is good practice to obtain benchmark prices
from several suppliers to ensure costs are under control.
Prepress With the changes in technology being rapidly adopted, there is no standard way of
estimating commercial prepress work except in cases where similar jobs such as books and
periodicals are run. There will typically be a menu of prices for activities not directly
provided by the client. Be particularly careful when examining a quote for the cost of
additional proofs (if required) and for corrections. These are a popular way for printers and
prepress houses to generate revenue.
A minimum charge is often invoked for small jobs, then bespoke activity charged
at a set hourly rate. It is important that jobs are produced correctly according to industry
standard for delivery to a printer. The production of contract and imposition proofs is a
significant cost and it is often best to get the final printer to produce these to match their
printing conditions.
Printing and binding When final files (or films) are passed to the printer, it is the accepted ethic in the trade that
the price quoted for printing is fixed according to the specification. Any technical
complications leading to extra costs met along the way are the printers problem. Issues
rising from incorrect files are the responsibility of the customer, and significant additional
costs will be passed to the customer. Printers normally:
quote for prepress activities, including final proofing from suitable files. They will also
highlight additional charges that may result from problems and delays due to
prepress faults;
quote a price for printing and binding a number of copies of the finished job, maybe
with a run-on and run-back price for fewer or more copies, or;
provide a quotation that identifies the consistent elements in the job and how they
will be printed and bound, and specifies individual prices for each process.
The fixed method is suitable for simple, straightforward work where the specification is
unlikely to change. The menu approach is preferred in the case of work where the buyer
then needs a ready-reckoner to estimate the cost of change.
In essence, it is necessary to know the cost of printing each sheet that comprises
the section of the job in permutations of colour required and the cost of binding those
sheets. A minimum quantity likely to be needed is used as the basis for the calculation,
and a price per hundred or per thousand copies of the sheet is given as the run on. Since
the printed sheet will comprise a number of pages of the final job, this is often quoted as,
for example: 500 per 16 pages black on one side of the sheet, four colours on the reverse.
Folding In the case of web-fed printing, where the folding is in line with the printing process, the
cost of the folding will be included in the printing price. With sheetfed work, there will
usually be an additional and identifiable cost for sheet handling and folding.
Binding If a complicated binding method is involved, it is sensible for this also to be broken down
into the constituent operations so that the cost of improving or reducing the specification
can be estimated. If you are interested in the costs of alternative binding methods, this must
be made known at the outset since in some instances it will affect the printing process.
Comparative It is desirable to persuade suppliers to present their quotations in a way that allows them
estimating to be easily be compared, hence requiring adequate detail within your printers quotation.
Additionally, a detailed response reveals the processes at which the supplier is most and
least competitive. This helps to refine the choice of supplier, depending on the type of work
you are placing and the processes involved in creating it.
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Agreed price scales for repetitive work are a useful idea. They are a suitable basis
for negotiation because the absence of continuous re-quotation can result in lower overheads.
The production control section includes a range of typical forms for
specifications. Various suppliers now provide expert help in their e-commerce systems to
aid building up a specification from scratch, or have details of previous and standard jobs
that can be modified to provide the specification. There is no industry standard for this
type of function so there is a tendency for buyers to write short letters.
Forms are a better idea because they remind the specifier of the points to be
covered.
There are three major advantages to a supplier in dealing with a few customers
placing large volumes of work rather than a proliferation of smaller projects:
it becomes easier to plan good utilisation of labour and machine capacity
sales overhead is reduced
provided the customer is financially sound, less financial control is required.
These savings, which essentially amount to a better utilisation of overhead, are real
enough provided the major customer is professional and efficient. However large and
influential the customer, if his working methods resemble a chimps tea party, it will cost
the printer more, rather than less, to run his account.
But if he is efficient and is prepared to agree to place a large and predictable
volume of work with a supplier, then good prices should follow. In this context, remember
that the good buyer is also a good salesman: he needs to sell the supplier the concept of
the deal he is proposing.
This sort of discussion needs to be conducted at the appropriate level within the
suppliers organisation. Do not attempt to bypass your usual rep with whom you place the
one-off jobs but if you are proposing something on a grander scale, ask him if he will
involve his sales director or managing director in such discussions. If he is sensible, he will
be happy with this proposal. It will:
avoid the complications of selling on your scheme at second-hand
help to cement the supplier-buyer relationship
lead to further suggestions about how the suppliers capacity can be taken up by
the buyer.
Volume agreements In areas of print buying where large volumes are the order of the day, it is not unusual for
deals that represent millions of pounds worth of work to be agreed and for this agreement
to be used by the supplier as the basis for significant future investment plans.
Both parties must, of course, ensure that they can fulfil their contract whether it is
legally binding or not. The supplier must have available the capacity he is selling with the
flexibility he and his customers have agreed is necessary. The customer must be sure that
the volumes of work he is predicting will come through according to the schedules agreed.
The period over which such agreements can run and prices can be fixed is subject to a
variety of influences outside the printing trade and must, therefore, be a matter for debate.
Caution is needed. Apart from external economic factors that the buyer and the
supplier have no control of (e.g. inflation, price of raw materials, cost of power), the
development of printing technology goes on apace and changes the economics of many of
the processes year by year. You may, therefore, be reluctant to enter into agreements that
extend beyond a year unless there are clearly understood clauses that are equitable but
provide a means of escape for both parties in changing circumstances.
Contracts Complicated legal contracts tend to be self-defeating. The subject matter is too volatile
and legal restraints are unnecessary because it is a matter of fact that few trading
relationships in the printing industry ever become the subject of litigation. By industrial
standards, the financial sums involved are not huge, and the cost of establishing a legal
basis for agreement, let alone activating it, is normally out of ratio to the business value.
In addition, the reputation of buyers and suppliers is widely known in the
industry and the trader who misbehaves seriously is ill-advised. Not all professional buyers
agree on this subject and, in some government departments in particular, there are quite
complicated contractual arrangements for print buying.
One may make an exception in the case of magazine printing where both sides
are entering into a substantial commitment over a potentially lengthy period and where
levels of service may need to be specified with corresponding penalties for failure.
Paper Methods of charging for paper are dealt with in the section on paper where weight is still
the governing factor in any given quality. The paper trade realises that the man in the
street finds the mathematics of paper calculation and charging systems somewhat
daunting, and the helpful merchant or printer expects to need to provide his estimates and
costs in an intelligible form.
Getting quotes The first step in getting quotes is to contact suppliers. When seeking quotations for a
standard type of work that you are familiar with, and for which you know the range of
responses likely, there is really no point in putting more than a handful of suppliers
through the hoop of providing competitive quotes. With unusual work, or work that you do
not normally handle, it may be worth talking to several potential suppliers in general terms
before drawing up a shortlist of those with whom you wish to proceed further.
Three quotes Three quotations on a job that requires competitive tendering is a comfortable number to
work with, provided you believe each supplier is seriously capable of handling the work
and is enthusiastic to get it. The type of work also determines the method by which you
proceed to select the supplier.
In the case of straightforward printed matter, especially when only one type of
supplier is involved, the whole business can probably be conducted by correspondence.
With more complex jobs, you will need to see a representative and go through the work in
some detail to ensure both parties understand everything.
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It is worth noting a few basic tenets of communication at this preliminary stage.
The first, and most important, rule is to ensure that each supplier is quoting on the same
specification and, as far as you can control it, presenting his quote in the same way.
Your responsibility is to provide a concise, complete specification for the work
along with any notes that may affect its production and, depending on circumstances, to
dictate or agree a schedule.
Specifications Specifications come in as many shapes, sizes and colours as butterflies and, given the volatile
nature of printed matter, are almost as transient. However, it is essential that an initial firm
specification is the subject of the comparative quotation analysis, and the printers estimates
are presented a way so that deviations from the specification can be calculated.
It is fruitless to attempt to dictate a format for the preparation of specs. They can
be narrative or tabular, general or technical, depending on the style and technical skills of
the buyer, and all this does not really matter provided the job has been properly described.
There is a set of sample specification forms in the production control section.
These present the bare minimum of information necessary about each job but are as basic
as possible to avoid confusion and technical jargon. In a covering letter (on simple work) or
face to face (on more complex material), make sure the supplier understands the
specification and the schedules.
Schedules Schedules, like specifications, can be presented in a variety of ways. The only vital
qualification is that they must be unambiguous, with required changeover dates
clearly defined.
Analysing quotes If you have required conformity in the presentation of quotes, the task of comparing them
will be relatively straightforward. Check that the service being offered by each supplier is
comparable (and is at the level you require) and check that various incidentals are covered
or quoted. In particular, watch out for:
delivery charges
packing charges
additional sets of proofs beyond an agreed minimum
charges for authors corrections on typesetting
machine standing time due to late delivery of artwork
a line that says subject to sight of copy.
All these are perfectly reasonable items in some circumstances. What the buyer and
supplier must agree on is the nature of those circumstances. There is no advantage to
either partner in having an agreement to see how it goes. There must be explicit
understanding on what is and what isnt to be charged, or there could be problems when
the invoice arrives.
If an analysis of three quotations shows widely varying bottom lines, and if you
believe you have sensibly chosen suppliers who specialise in the type of work you are
placing, something is probably wrong. Something has been misunderstood, or something
has been omitted. Geographical location can result in significant variations in cost due to
varying overheads (sometimes mitigated by lower delivery costs) but, as a general rule,
variations in quotations of more than 1012% for run-of-the-mill work need further
investigation.
Terms of payment Print suppliers should not be expected to be bankers. However, nearly all business is
conducted on credit and to achieve a reasonable, commercial balance the cost of this
facility needs to be estimated.
In the printing industry, terms of payment range from money up front for the
small and unknown customer to 90 days or more to large and influential buyers. Whatever
the arrangement, it is important to quantify its value. Supplier A quoting the same price as
supplier B but on different credit terms is not quoting the same price at all.
The supplier might say that the variation in price is the cost to him of borrowing
the money to finance the credit. In fact, although this is true enough, the way the price
looks to the customer will be determined by what it costs the buyer to borrow money or, if
he is a cash-rich operator, what he is getting in the way of interest on his cash. The relative
advantages of credit will, therefore, depend on the cash flow position of the organisation
that is buying.
Take into consideration whether paper is involved in the arrangement. Some of
the printers cash flow is current, as he works on your project. However, if you are obtaining
your paper supplies through him, then this element will probably have been paid for either
well in advance, in the case of paper held in stock, or at relatively high prices in the case of
rapid delivery. It is not uncommon, therefore, to negotiate different payment terms for
materials and print work.
Buying print For many organisations, there are multiple ordering points for small printed items.
Instead of an ad hoc buying process, many organisations use a print management
company to streamline their purchases, obtaining a high degree of control and often
significant cost savings.
Such savings are improved when the internal costs at the client staff time,
value of stock and duplication of production are considered. Instead of employing
specific print buyers, the function is outsourced to specialist service providers. With many
organisations realising that a consistent branding approach is required, it makes sense to
have a single point of control providing visibility of the purchases. The growth in print
management is testament to these benefits.
There are several print market sectors, particularly business forms, where there is
a high proportion of trade printing. These companies do not have the overhead of
expensive direct sales and marketing teams, instead they sell to print managers or brokers.
The lower overhead at suppliers is passed on to the broker, the client generally obtaining
better prices than an open market approach where suppliers have the sales overhead. This
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allows the supplier to concentrate on manufacturing excellence and not involve so much
management resource in promoting the sales of the company. The print management
company might also take responsibility for warehousing and distribution, making the
manufacturing simpler.
Successful print managers employ dedicated buyers and print supply chain logistics
personnel to understand the suppliers and ensure an enquiry is sent to the most efficient
supplier. Even the largest printers do not have the necessary equipment and capabilities to
handle all types of job efficiently. Print managers do not have the burden of having to fill
their printing capacity and can take a more objective view of the overall process.
Using a print Many people are not employed as professional print buyers but buy relatively small
management company amounts of printed material for promotions, marketing purposes or internal office use.
The principles involved in this type of activity are much the same as for the full-time,
professional print buyer, but the style is different.
The office print buyer will adopt one of two methods of working. He will use
a print broker or settle on one or two suppliers capable of handling 90% of the work
required. What is certainly a bad option is to shop around for every small job to get the
best price on each small item. The administration and complication of working this way
would almost certainly be out of proportion to the benefits achieved and, as a part-time
enterprise, would be unrealistic.
Print brokers, also known as print farmers, get a mixed press in the print-buying
trade. They can appear as unnecessary middlemen skimming margin off an already tight
profit, or they are informed experts who save time and avoid mistakes by using specialist
knowledge and buying power to achieve good prices and efficient relationships. Many will
offer online systems to improve the specification and supply of printed items, controlling
the branding and offering real-time information to the client. For a contract, the
management company will prepare service level agreements (SLAs) for stock and bespoke
items according to their complexity.
For the part-time print buyer who is required to operate in an unfamiliar market
with limited knowledge of suppliers and prices, a print broker can be useful. The
responsibilities of the print manager should include:
representing the buyer to develop appropriate quality and schedule requirements
through defined SLAs;
handling the administration and all financial transactions, including the invoicing
and credit control;
providing transparency for comparative quotes if required;
making the specification and ordering of stock and bespoke items straightforward;
controlling the design and prepress work;
providing real-time information on the status of jobs.
Provided the buyer understands the basis of the relationship, this can be an effective way
of buying print.
Preferred suppliers The alternative is to select one or two printers who can reliably offer a service that caters
for most of the buyers needs. For example, the part-time buyer who needs to order a range
of small jobs A4 leaflets, business cards, stationery, and occasionally needs a brochure,
four-colour leaflet, or display card may decide that his first range of material can be
quickly and cheaply produced by the instant print shop in the local high street. However,
a local jobbing printer with a more extensive range of equipment can handle his more
sophisticated needs.
Alternatively, he may feel that using two similar suppliers and splitting his work
between them will ensure that he keeps them on their toes when it comes to price and service.
There are various scenarios that can work. The instant print shop has an apparent
deficiency in that its range of products may be restricted. However, some instant print
shops will act as a print broker and put those jobs that are too big for them to handle out
to external suppliers.
E-procurement A major trend that is changing the nature of print buying is the e-enablement of the process.
This allows communication between buyer and seller(s) using standardised communication
protocols to integrate administration into production. There are several emerging standards.
It is likely (early in 2003) that JDF may become the winner but whatever system does will be
based on XML that is being used in many other business areas.
XML in web The huge increase in e-commerce demands many disparate computers to communicate
business applications with each other. XML is widely used to enable business-to-business communication. Any
computer is able to receive XML-tagged data from another system, and send XML-tagged
data to any other computer. Neither has to know how the others system is organised. If
another partner or supplier teams up, it is not necessary to write code to exchange data
with their system. They simply follow the document rules defined in the DTD.
It is possible to provide additional functionality and use an agent to make sense of
incoming data. A good agent interprets information intelligently, then responds to it. If the
data sent to an agent is structured with XML, its much easier for the agent to understand
exactly what the data means and how it relates to other pieces of data it may already have.
Many of the leading MIS and Enterprise Computing system suppliers are
developing their solutions in XML, such as SAP, Great Plains and Navision. This makes it
fairly easy for suppliers and integrators to provide functionality at relatively low cost and
develop industry-specific standard methods for communication. XML makes it easier for
two computers to exchange data with each other, and is the webs language for data
interchange. Not only can XML make the publishing production process easier, it can also
incorporate much administrative and process information that can smooth the business of
print/publishing. In the case of print/publishing, this has led to the development of the
job description file format, the JDF, as lingua franca designed to allow information to be
easily exchanged between customer and supplier. There is even the capability for real-time,
bi-directional links into specific manufacturing equipment.
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Print administration The communications between print buyer and printer are cost-sensitive, time-sensitive,
through XML ambiguous and prone to error. Most large printers operate sophisticated management
information systems to handle their administration, but these are difficult to integrate
into customers and partners in the manufacturing process.
A few years ago, all production and administration was manual. Then came
mechanisation of digital prepress, press and bindery control and computerised MIS,
allowing developments in automation. Automation permitted equipment operators
to pre-set separate machines. Equipment manufacturers offered control systems for
multiple devices such as MAN Rolands PECOM and Heidelbergs CPC systems.
The devices were not always connected and most often only part of the overall
process was involved, but the opportunities offered by automation were identified. Once
production automation was accepted, administration followed with a standardised job
ticket format the next logical step.
Printers used the formats to segment larger sections of the print job and run
each more efficiently. The CIP3 committee developed PPF to create a way for jobs to flow
between equipment from several different suppliers across pre-press, press and post-press
processes. Adobes PJTF offered limited, but precise, control of pre-press processes such as
layout, imposition, trapping and RIPping as well as significant widespread control over a
variety of press processes.
This is where the Job Definition Format, JDF, is important. It is a data exchange
standard aimed to act as a universal electronic job ticket for printing. It contains the
process data needed from print specification and buying, print estimating, customer
service, pre-press, printing, finishing and despatch. JDF contains production and
administration information, not content data. The key feature of JDF is the ability to carry
a print job from creation to completion. JDF is able to link the production function and
admin MIS at printers, under nearly any precondition. JDF is designed to be extremely
versatile and comprehensive for businesses of all sizes.
JDF offers the promise of controlling and managing each job with less effort. It
is comprehensive across the range of processes that make up print production and makes
automated production control easier. Most importantly, the customer benefits because
systems will work accurately and consistently together to produce the product the customer
wants. Production will be better controlled so that printers can accurately estimate and
fairly assess the costs involved. JDF is an open standard with most significant equipment
and system vendors signed up to provide compatible components. It is based on XML.
JDF in process control Many of the problems seen in distributed digital workflows are caused by non-standard
of prepress practices, non-conforming file structures and application incompatibilities. Developments
that make the connections across a multi-contributor workflow more robust (as PDF has
done to an extent in print) benefit everyone. Standard methods of controlling the process
will profit both the tool developers and end-users.
The production function of prepress has been effectively a totally digital process
for some time. However, except in some rare cases, the administration and control is still
manual. There will be more control data inbuilt into the data streams making up prepress
files. It will be a development from the JDF and CIP4 systems that exist today, probably a
subset of XML developed into a standard accepted by the major software and hardware
vendors. The Job Definition Format (JDF) is favourite to be accepted. Its objectives are:
To provide consistent definition of the process, involving the whole workflow from
commission to delivery;
To develop the work already done with PJTF, CIP4 and IFRAtrack;
To create a flexible and extensible way of interfacing between processes defined by
different suppliers, and the equipment involved to streamline production processes;
To exchange data with management information systems (MIS) and e-commerce
systems.
In future, the working JDF is most likely to be based on open XML that will be useful for
cross-platform transportability. It may be a new participant from the e-business sector that
provides the solution, in a similar way to the entry of Adobe Systems into the printing
industry with their revolutionary PostScript during the mid-1980s.
Digital administration Print production is now largely digital. Page make-up systems, digital artwork applications,
of print digital proofing, digital file transfer, computer to plate and computer to press have all
dramatically improved the overall productivity of print production. To complement this new
efficiency in graphics workflows, there is a revolution taking place in the way the print
supply chain is administered. Now administration systems, the IT applications that support
the management of the process, are posing new questions of how the industry will respond
to the development of e-procurement. Now, for the first time the successful integration of
front and back office with the digital production workflow will allow organisations to truly
manage their print expenditure across their enterprise. Quotes can be requested online,
suppliers selected by benchmarking cost, quality and delivery criteria, progress monitored
and reports generated highlighting performance against key performance indices.
The demand for integrated workflow and administration systems is growing now
that organisations are recognising the commercial benefits. The challenge for the print
industry is who will be best placed to offer the service. The product specifications for print
vary greatly, from business cards to letterheads, complex business forms, transactional
documents, promotional literature, direct mail and point of sale. No single printer has
either the capital investment or knowledge to produce all of a single clients requirements.
There is an increasing trend for the appointment of a print-managed service provider who,
while not printing the product directly, is responsible for implementation of the workflow
and administration systems, buying print separately and managing the supply chain.
This move is challenging the traditional dynamics of the print industry. The
managed service provider is becoming more powerful in the competitive matrix. Their value
proposition is one of lower cost, an improvement in operational efficiency and the
provision of the necessary management information.
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Whatever the eventual impact of the increasing digitisation of print and
administration processes on the competitive dynamics of the industry, the ultimate
consequence, as with all industries, will be lower prices and shorter lead-times. Failure by
companies to recognise this unavoidable consequence will mean a loss of competitiveness
and ultimately jeopardise their commercial livelihood.
Many organisations pay too much for printed material. There is a great deal of
unnecessary duplication with one department re-creating work that others have done: the
re-drawing of logos, the re-shooting and scanning of imagery and the production of graphic
material when an acceptable alternative already exists as an asset of the organisation.
Purchases of paper or styles of printing are not consolidated and used to
negotiate lower prices. Lack of knowledge of the print process among buyers results in
printers being retained to do work that can be more economically and better produced
elsewhere. The disjointed characteristics of the print value chain (marketing departments,
agencies, pre-press studios and printers) means that errors are common. Without an
efficient system to administer the process, errors can occur at every handover: between
client and designer, designer and artwork studio, studio and printer.
Organisations can start to both reduce their costs and improve efficiency by
treating print as a line item in the P&L, developing strategies for the business as a whole
and managing component parts on an ongoing basis. The key to achieving this new level
of control is the increasing digitisation of both the workflow for print (the business process)
and the administration systems (the management process).
Print workflows All commercial printing is digital. At some stage it is edited and created on a computer,
go digital only becoming analogue as a proof or a plate just before the reproduction process. With
Moores Law still holding true and even accelerating (computer processing power doubles
every 18 months at the same cost) and with the increasing affordability of broad
bandwidth, the print process will continue to become less artisan and more of a series of
IT applications. Today there are automatic page make-up systems, colour management
systems, digital cameras, on-screen and digital proofing systems, computer to plate and
computer to press. It is feasible that the total process can be conducted in the electronic
world, from the point of design through to the point of distribution.
For most, this move from manual to electronic activities has meant a lowering of
unit cost, but not necessarily an attack on overall process costs. While prices have reduced,
print is often still bought on limited criteria. Quality is a given. We do not choose printers
who cannot do the job, delivery times need to be met and unit costs need to be
competitive. Often though, inertia rules and print is placed with those who have delivered
the product last. The key criterion appears to be trust. Service is so variable and errors so
common, clients value the ability to delegate responsibility and be confident that the end
product will meet their specification.
Today, however, assured quality within the print production process need not be
left to the black art of printing. Using on-screen and digital proofing and electronic file
transfer, imaging hubs can be created that are single entities controlling a clients entire
artwork requirements. A single imaging entity can ensure effective management to the
style-guide, and colour management is in the hands of people who understand both the
brand attributes and the fingerprint of the press the work is going to. With on-screen and
digital proofing, clients can be in any corner of the world. With digital file transfer and
computer to plate, printers too can be close to their markets.
The essential element of this single managing entity is the digital asset
management system. The management of content will become key, to provide, prepare and
manage a centralised asset management database. This becomes the repository for all
graphic elements of the clients within a relational database. The result can be a new level
of visibility and control of the print process. The numbers of suppliers can be reduced, with
benchmarks for quality being set and managed. While the digitisation of the production
processes now enables a more co-ordinated supply chain, the key to delivering control is
the extent to which administration systems can provide visibility of the component
activities. The emergence of internet-based e-procurement has, however, solved many of
the issues of promoting visibility and maintaining control. It is this second development as
a result of broad bandwidth telecommunication and IT applications that is bringing a true
revolution to the way in which print is procured and managed. Where expenditure was
never called out as a line item, strategies are now being developed to bring down costs
and develop genuine competitive advantage.
Administration systems The first entrepreneurial response to the internet was to develop portal systems bringing
go digital buyers and sellers together across a global market. The dot.com bubble was an initial foray
into the commercial benefits of this new way to communicate. What many failed to
predict, however, was the lack of true added value, particularly when quality assurance was
vital (as it is with print) and co-ordinated management across businesses was key. Limited
functionality was available for the supply of bespoke (or personalised) print products.
Workflow management sites are closed, letting the print buyer shepherd the job
through the design, bidding and production processes of printers who are signed up and
have the necessary capabilities. Of these, the winners seem to be the closed, bespoke sites
of the workflow managers (or tailored e-procurement systems). These business-to-business
channels offer a tailored solution for print consumers, with features adding additional
value over the standard functions of stock and workflow channels.
The advantage closed systems offer is that they form a bridge between the
customers workflow and the printers workflow. Solutions are found to accommodate
approved suppliers and organisational structures. An extranet is built that recognises types
of purchase and the authority levels necessary. This initial mapping of the business and
management processes then demands visibility of performance against the clients key
performance indices.
E-procurement or enterprise resource management (ERM) has become the next
Holy Grail for IT services businesses. Established companies such as Oracle have now been
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joined by new names such as Ariba and Commerce One to deliver this new level of control.
The issue for the print industry, however, is that product specifications are not standard
and do not fit the highly structured ERM systems that rely on packaged purchases. The
product specification of print, and in particular print for marketing, is highly variable. Each
purchase, therefore, needs to be individually tendered, with many elements making up the
cost (design, imaging, paper, printing, warehousing and distribution). If printing is to fit
into this new world of online efficiency, then a way needs to be found to accommodate
this variability and variety of cost elements.
The key to this is a third criterion: integration.
E-procurement provides an effective front end for services that are deemed non-
core to an organisation. Access to products and prices are provided via the internet in
catalogue form. Orders can be placed, spend monitored and indirect costs reduced. For
printing, however, the loop needs to be closed between the initial requisition and the
tendering, selection and subsequent information regarding the work in progress. The key
to developing acceptance of the service is visibility of the downstream activities. Is the
product in stock? What is the lead-time? Where is it now? What is the departmental spend?
To close the loop of procuring product, and manage both the business process
of production and the management process of administration, front end e-procurement
systems need to be integrated both with production systems and enterprise information
systems.
While few examples exist within the print industry to provide this integrated
service, the solutions are available to achieve it. There are already a number of turnkey
front end systems being marketed delivering the benefits of competitive tendering and
management information. These systems fall short, however, of fully integrating with the
print workflow, or reporting on key financial data. From a clients perspective, when
logging online to buy an item that should be in stock I want to know if it is in stock and
what the lead times are. If I am procuring an item that is bespoke, I want to know where
it is in the production process (design, awaiting approval, prepress, out for proof, being
printed, in the bindery, at a mailing house or on its way).
The next piece of work is to ensure these turnkey e-procurement solutions can
integrate with the workflow and information systems of the business.
Vision of the integrated administration system
A key feature will be the integration of business process with graphic arts production
through a sophisticated digital asset management system. The system will allow many
new functions to smooth the print production supply chain from the initial customer
idea to the reconciliation of the final invoice. Clients will have access to the system to
initiate enquiries. A new job will have the specification built up from scratch or by
changing an existing product. Simple expert systems advise print novices on areas that
can create difficulties or ambiguity further down the chain. When completed, the
detailed specification can be sent to a range of qualified suppliers to provide quotes
and delivery dates. The system will have the capability of integrating directly into the
suppliers JDF-compliant MIS, so avoiding the need for printers staff to input the job
details (and possibly keying in an error). The response can be electronically sent to the
system where competitive quotes can be examined on a like-for-like basis, and the
purchase decision made. When an order is placed, it will be a simple execute file
sending purchase details directly into the printers system as well as preparing and
providing the necessary files.
If required, customers can have access to the competitive tendering process
ensuring that work is placed according to their key criteria (price, quality, delivery,
turnaround of quotes). The system will log the print specification of the production
equipment, and the job files will be prepared and optimised for the chosen production
route. Colour management and pre-flight checking will be carried out and application
or print-ready PDF files submitted ready for output according to the printers needs.
Hard-copy proofs or previously printed samples will be sent separately. The progress of
jobs can be monitored when suppliers implement JDF and CIP4 compliant production
equipment, and the customer is aware of the progress. Invoices are easy to reconcile
and the whole experience is smoothed and there are fewer places to introduce errors.
The following detail shows the extent of integration that is requirement for a
system to deliver the significant improvement available.
The activities to be covered by the system include:
Finance
General ledgers
Sales order processing
Purchase order processing
Management and statutory reports
Estimating
Costing of internal prepress and design, printing and finishing, warehousing,
logistics and despatch
Fixed price matrices
RFQs to third-party suppliers
Stock control
Raw materials
Part and finished goods
Multiple locations multi-bin, consignment and at third parties
Purchasing
Specification of goods
Supplier categorisation
Supplier ratings
Invoicing
Consolidation, part invoices, to specific customer requirements
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Production and project planning
Scheduling
Control
Project management
E-commerce
Customer interface
Administrator interface
Supplier interface
Specific graphics functionality
Digital asset management
Workflow management tools to allow improvements in productivity of prepress
and collaborative working with customers (e.g. remote proofing)
Access by account managers, sales, customers and their agents to varying
content and capabilities
Project management and administration
Sophisticated dynamic document creation from templates for branded items.
The key is to provide graphics functionality to the business process for the range of clients
involved, to simplify the print/communications supply chain and provide easier use for
customers through controlled access.
Print buyers and print management companies will use these tools to find ways
to improve the supply chain of any printed items, and reduce the costs and lead-time to
improve the client performance. Additionally, the system will be used to provide a
managed imaging service, encompassing prepress and design. The prepress function will
involve a digital asset management system holding all content for clients. This will support
re-use of material for different media ensuring speedy response and guaranteeing the
correct version to maintain brand integrity.
One of the key areas for all print users and suppliers is the way that orders can
be developed and subsequently processed. The system will be used to manage the process
in the following manner:
Estimating/RFQ The system will handle estimates for work produced internally and by third-party suppliers
(either as a bespoke request for quotation or from an agreed price matrix). The greatest
complexity will be for items bought externally where multiple estimates will be requested
and analysed as part of the vendor management programme.
Specific jobs might consist of multiple separate elements and components (of
prepress and print), from multiple suppliers that must be consolidated into a single
estimate and then throughout manufacturing and despatch to multiple locations. The
system should allow estimates to be produced from scratch, to allow revisions to an
existing product or to enable standard products or processes to be combined.
Estimating performance, in terms of time taken to generate a response, must be
included. This should provide prompts to estimator/customer service personnel of due
dates to ensure service level agreements (SLAs) are exceeded.
Order processing Each order is provided with a unique reference (cross-referenced to customer order number)
and the system generates works instruction and job bags or purchase orders to approved
suppliers. The MIS provides internal production planning and capacity loading system for
the prepress, printing and finishing operations and will be able to link to external
suppliers, in time through standard JDF. The system will thus provide real-time job tracking
with updates manually entered or linked to real-time data collection, according to the
manufacturers capabilities. Potential delivery problems will be highlighted well in
advance. Contracted service level agreements for different customers and products will
be monitored against actual performance.
Purchasing Effective print product sourcing and purchasing will become critical success factors for
users of print. The system will provide transparency of the reverse tendering/estimating
process with suppliers as shown in Figure 2.1.
2
Totally new
item
Fills in details
(basic product
spec, quantity,
etc.)
Finds similiar
on system
and changes
Client iniates
new bespoke
order
Submit
details to
system
Complete
specification
and details
System alerts
customer
services
Client iniates
new bespoke
order
Client
informed of
improvements
Receive
quotes, enter
onto system
Track work in
progress
(prepress, print,
finish, distribute)
Supplier
prepares detailed
estimates
Supplier
prepares detailed
estimates
Supplier
prepares detailed
estimates
Supplier
prepares detailed
estimates
Review
supplier
performance
Place
order
Prepare printer
RFQ and
submit to
suppliers
FIGURE 2.1 Outline of procurement process
Source: Pira International Ltd
Approved supplier capabilities and product specifications will be maintained on the system
with performance ratings (on price, quality, on-time delivery and specific criteria). The use of
standard JDF-compatible MIS systems at printers will greatly ease integration, but there are
few printers with such capability in general print markets. The system will support a vendor
management system to monitor and rank suppliers on criteria of response to RFQ, technical
capabilities, price, delivery performance, quality and other attributes to be agreed.
Warehouse and Stock lifecycle management, and warehouse management, are important for managing
stock control print supply contracts. The MIS must be able to manage complex warehouse structures
and a range of warehouse facilities such as box storage, pick and pack storage, fixed bin
storage and high rack storage. Stock control is important, particularly the capability of
linking to the e-commerce function at customers so allowing them to view a thumbnail
of the document during ordering. Other important functions include:
expected delivery date for items ordered not yet delivered
acceptance of part-deliveries
identify significant receipt of overs/unders
multiple stock locations (some at suppliers, some at customers), in some cases for
same items
batch control and tracking, ability to identify supplier and order for stock items that
may have more than one supplier
stock consumption, reordering at agreed levels for stock items
pick, pack and deliver notes, capability for part order fulfilment and fulfilment from
multiple locations.
One potential feature to take cost out of the chain is the ability to link closely with preferred
print suppliers to allow more efficient manufacturing. This might involve the system
interrogating the technical specification of a stock item to be re-ordered. It might then suggest
that similar items, which could be manufactured at the same time (e.g. using spot colours on
similar sheet size and substrate, same drop for specific forms), are added to the order.
E-commerce for print The system should be accessible remotely via a web browser by approved personnel, clients
and suppliers. For print service customers, there will be full stock item catalogues and
ordering facility linked to graphic displays of the documents and content involved. The
system will allow the customer to determine who has the authority to spend at what order
levels, and it will provide specific views of available items configured according to client
requirements.
Distributed collaborative workflow capabilities will be provided to smooth the
creation of graphic art elements, allowing remote proofing and soft proofing, electronic
approval and sign off. As well as the specific graphics flavour of the system, there will
be a central, robust financial and accounting capability. The various ledgers will be
used to provide management information, and the reporting capabilities will be opened
up to customers.
Such systems are being installed to allow customers more ease of access and
transparency across the print supply chain. This drives out cost and builds quality into the
production methods. The digitisation of administration in print offers considerable benefit
to clients. The benefits of significantly lower cost, higher quality and better management
information are creating a demand for these services that the industry is not yet placed to
serve. What will be key over the next few years will be the ability of competing businesses
to adopt the new technology and combine this with their more traditional print knowledge.
The initial response of a number of companies has been to implement turnkey
solutions that offer a front-end solution. Yet the true value of digitisation of administration
will be felt only once companies have integrated these front-end systems with the digital
workflow and the management information systems. Having the e-procurement system
without the back office functionality will not deliver the benefits.
Controlling Print production comprises a combination of creative and technical processes. There are
print quality many factors that influence the perceived quality of the product. The approach taken to
control these factors must recognise this within three distinct areas of influence:
graphic design and original materials
prepress processes
production printing.
Graphic design and the original materials
Graphic design and the generation of original materials is essentially the creative part of
the print production process, and judgements of quality are subjective. But they should
also be influenced by technical considerations: how a design will be affected by the
limitations of the printing process (see under quality and technical process specifications
in the section on printing and inks). The selection of original materials that include
consumable materials, such as paper, as well as artists or photographic originals, requires
as much technical as creative consideration.
Prepress processes Judging quality in the prepress area is related primarily to the standards applied when
processing an original design into the final films and plates that will be used for
production printing. Judgement cannot be made in isolation since the output must be
suitable for, and take account of, the characteristics of the printing process. Although
quality control in the prepress area is defined by technical processes, there is inevitably
some degree of subjective interpretation.
Printing Quality in the production printing area is judged primarily on the ability to transfer ink
from plate to substrate consistently, without defects, while complying with certain
technical specifications. This area is least influenced by subjective judgements and is
more capable of being controlled and specified by measurable parameters.
The final printed job can be judged to be of poor quality if acceptable standards
are not simultaneously met in all these areas. Poor print quality can be due simply to poor
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design, prepress or printing, but it is just as likely to arise from work that, though excellent
in all areas in its own right, has been carried out without consideration of the process as a
whole. For example, the graphic designer may produce fabulous work but, ignoring
limitations of the printing process, might provide material that will not reproduce well.
Equally, separations and proofs may be produced that, although good, do not match the
characteristics of the printing process. Both situations might result in poor final quality and
dissatisfaction with the end product.
The three areas are often the responsibility of different departments or
companies. This makes it is easy for one to blame another for a quality failure, but
achieving acceptable results (the best quality that the process and materials allow) is
possible only if print production, from design through to printing, is considered as a total
system. It must be recognised that all processing stages are related to one another. Each
stage needs to be controlled in its own right, but overall quality relies on communicating
relevant information to all other operation stages.
Print production A controlled digital workflow for print is an integrated system. At each stage (from client,
as a system designer, prepress, platemaking, printing, binding and finishing) information can be passed
ahead to help the set-up of equipment. It can also be passed back to ensure optimum
quality from the process. For colour reproduction, the required information is conveyed in
the form of the print characteristic specification, or colour profile of the press to be used. If
a specific profile is not available, the buyer will use a widely accepted generic profile, such
as the Eurostandard, and the printer will operate within such tolerances.
Standardised printing conditions allow an overall improvement in the quality of
printed items while allowing maximum flexibility in placing a job with the buyer. The buyer
can enhance the product by using suppliers with additional print units offering a wider
colour gamut or incorporating metallics and fluorescents to achieve specialist effects.
The print characteristic The print characteristic is a quantitative definition of the transfer between the digital image
and production print. It is affected by substrate, inks, tone transfer characteristics (dot gain)
of the press and process. Colour management allows a suitable original, containing the
maximum amount of information, to be rendered for any particular printing condition that
has been profiled. Having provided a profile, the printers main task is to maintain it within
defined tolerances. To be able to do this, indeed to control any colour printing, requires an
understanding of the important parameters and the influences that they have on the
printed result. If a proof is to match job printing, it must duplicate the print characteristic
attributes appropriate to the particular printing condition. The influencing attributes are:
substrate
solid ink colour
secondary colour (trapping)
tone transfer (dot gain)
grey balance.
Although these are listed as individual attributes, they are not totally isolated from the
influence of the others. This is particularly true for grey balance that is not a variable in
its own right, but reflects the changes of any or all of the others.
Substrate The substrate has a significant influence on the print characteristic with respect to both
measured properties and the appearance of the printed result. Most people connected with
print production will have experienced the difficulties associated with trying to match a
print on uncoated paper with a proof printed on gloss-coated paper. The papers surface,
absorbency, and optical properties all contribute to affect the printed result. It is therefore
important to have different specifications for different substrate categories.
Solid ink colour
The solid colour is mainly affected by the amount of ink or colourant transferred to the
substrate. It is the main way the printer can adjust the overall result during a production
run. As the process inks are manufactured to comply with recognised colour standards,
the ink film thickness is the main thing to control, and the measurement of solid density
provides an effective means of monitoring this. Note there may be significant colour
differences between process colours in different countries. In the UK, BS4666 has a
warmer cyan and colder magenta than the German DIN 16538/9.
Secondary colour (trapping)
The secondary and tertiary colours are all affected by the primary inks hue and ink film
thickness and influenced by the trapping characteristics. It is possible to have little or no
difference between two prints with respect to the primary colours but to see significant
differences in secondary colours, particularly in saturated colours. Multicolour printing
involves the overlapping of several ink films. It is important that an overprinting ink is
accepted as well on printed areas of the sheet as it is on unprinted areas. Poor trapping
means that less overprinting ink is laid down on the previously printed area so that there is
a colour bias towards that of the underlying ink. This effect is demonstrated in Figure 2.2.
Tone transfer
The control of tone transfer (dot gain) is a major concern for all printed products that use
halftone, irrespective of the printing process, but the problems experienced are not always
recognised. All the printing processes, with the exception of gravure, have to create the
visual impression of differences in tone or colour intensity by varying the area that is
printed. Normally this is achieved with a regular pattern of dots, referred to as the halftone
process, but it is possible to convey a comparable effect with lines or irregular patterns.
This is used in the FM (frequency modulated) screening methods.
Irrespective of the method used, the discrete changes in intensity seen are
dependent on the ratio of clean paper to the area of paper covered with ink. Variation in
the overall intensity can be achieved by adjustment of inking level in an analogy with
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television where the contrast control is equivalent to relative changes in dot area, and the
brightness control is equivalent to adjusting the level of inking. It means there are two
ways to achieve the same intensity on the print. That is helpful because it allows leeway for
adjustment but it can also cause problems. For example, a printed area with a density of
0.29 can be achieved with small dots at a high inking level or larger dots with lower inking.
It does not mean that both conditions are correct because the larger dots result in lower
contrast relative to the solid.
What is dot gain?
Dot gain is one of the most misunderstood properties of lithographic printing. It is an
integral phenomenon of the offset process and is not an unwanted side effect. Dot gain
reflects the change in the relative dot area between the original dot in a make-up
application, exposed on film, transferred to plate and the final dried ink dot on paper. The
dot area changes through light scattering effects of plate exposure and the mechanical
forces exerted on the fluid ink during transfer from inking roller, to plate, to blanket and to
paper. Optical effects of light becoming trapped around the edge of the dot further
increases the apparent size of dots on paper. Problems arise when there is excessive dot
gain that has not been taken into account in the reproduction process.
Printing from films gave rise to significant quality problems associated with
changes in the relative sizes of printing dots across the tonal range. Platemaking and
printing both affect the final printed dot size. The imagesetter produces dots on the film to
a determined percentage coverage. When these dots are transferred to the printing plate,
there will be a size change and further changes will also take place during the transfer of
the image to the substrate. Although dots may reduce in size at some stages of the transfer,
the cumulative overall effect is normally an increase. A simple illustration of the stages of
dot gain, applicable in lithography when using positive film, is shown in Figure 2.3.
Although the term dot gain is not used, this change in tone value during
transfer is equally appropriate if the tone image is made up with lines or the patterns
applicable in FM screening. The increasing use of CTP technology removes the changes in
dot size associated with generating film and platemaking, but still requires calibration to
produce optimal results.
How is dot area measured?
It is not easy to measure the geometric size of printed dots. For control, a densitometer is
used to calculate the area from the integrated density on film and print, and a CCD plate
reader measures the size of dots on plate. The calculation is referred to as the Murray-Davis
equation and is built in as a function in most modern densitometers. This measurement
incorporates all factors affecting the dot size, mechanical influences related to the press
and optical properties associated with the paper. This calculated value is referred to as the
apparent or effective dot area. Typical values for offset lithography using positive working
plates from film would be 1620% growth of a 40% dot on film and 1015% at 80% for
coated stock. With the development of CTP, the major variable of film exposure is
eliminated and much lower dot gain (510%) results. With correct calibration this paves
the way to an improvement in quality.
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Good trapping magenta on cyan
Poor trapping magenta on cyan
Poor trapping cyan on magenta
FIGURE 2.2 Poor trapping results in a colour bias towards that of the underlying ink
FIGURE 2.3 The cumulative effect of dot gain
FIGURE 2.4 High dot gain requires lower inking to match the density of the halftone
Dot gain problems
Inconsistent results from conventional platemaking from films can be due to dot gain
variations. A typical example would be variation in the density of tint blocks from page to
page, or from one publication to the next. This can be influenced by several factors: poor
control when film contacting or platemaking, incorrect press adjustment or materials.
Under normal printing conditions, dot gain occurs evenly all around the printed dot so the
choice of dot shape elliptical, round or square will affect the result. If dot gain is not
even it indicates a problem on-press such as doubling or slur. This must be cured by
adjustment of the printing conditions.
An unacceptable colour match may occur when colours are specified in the form
of percentage values for CMYK. Such a specification can produce only an acceptable
colour match if the dot gain characteristics applicable when printing are nearly identical to
those that applied when the colour was specified.
Achieving a colour match between proof and production printing requires all the
important print characteristic attributes substrate, ink colour, solid density and colour
sequence to be comparable for proof and production, but dot growth is the most
significant of all the parameters. If the proof is produced with dot growth less than can be
attained in the production printing, it is impossible to achieve the required intensity in all
tones simultaneously.
The production result will typically appear desaturated and lacking in contrast
when inking is adjusted to match midtone colours and densities. Alternatively, if ink levels
are adjusted so that saturated colours are matched, the midtones are too dark and
gradation is lost. In situations where the discrepancy in dot growth applies only to one
colour, the disagreement may be apparent as a colour bias or cast. Such problems
commonly become obvious in flesh tones and in neutral areas of the reproduction. If the
dot gain of any one chromatic colour shifts significantly from that of the others, the
neutral balance of the reproduction is noticeably upset. It is important to ensure that the
spread of dot gain in the midtones does not become excessive. Users with CTP report
significant reduction in the occurrence of such problems.
Grey balance
Grey balance is not a variable in its own right, but is affected by all the previously mentioned
attributes. Grey balance is affected by the relationship of these attributes, one colour relative
to another. It is possible to achieve a neutral result using the process colours, if the proportions
of the three colours are correct one to another. Variation in the relative inking levels, dot gain
characteristics or trapping, will cause a shift in the printed grey balance. People are particularly
sensitive to these shifts, therefore, and reproductions of subject-matter with a large neutral
content will be noticeably more affected than subjects that are more colourful.
Many printers issue technical specifications indicating the form in which they
require films to be supplied, and the print characteristics required for proofs, based on their
knowledge of their presses and materials. Generic standard specifications are also
produced for specific sectors of the industry. These are aimed principally at satisfying the
needs of advertisers who want to supply all magazines with separation films or data files
to a common specification.
In North America, the Specification for Web Offset Publications (SWOP) has been
agreed by a consensus of advertising agencies, magazine publishers, graphic arts associations
and printers. For coldset newspapers, there is UK Offset Newspaper Specification (UKONS) in
the UK; and Specifications for Non-heat Advertising Print (SNAP) in North America.
During the last few years an ISO technical committee for graphic technology has
been working to develop a common set of technical specifications that formalises those
previously referred to, but also extends the approach to processes other than offset
lithography. These are specified under the following standard ISO 12647 Process control
for the manufacture of halftone colour separations, proof and production prints. Part 1
Parameters and measurement methods, Part 2 Offset lithographic processes, Part 3 Coldset
offset lithography and letterpress on newsprint, Part 4 Gravure, Part 5 Screen printing.
Print control images To achieve predictable and consistent results, it is important to have process controls that
enable the print characteristic to be monitored and controlled within acceptable limits. To
make this control easier, the industry uses sensitive reference images. These are typically
found on a control strip. They should be used at all the critical stages: proofing,
platemaking and printing. With digital prepress, the strip is still needed. It will generally
be incorporated by the imposition programme along with trim, fold and cut marks. One
example that is freely available to be downloaded is provided by Global Graphics for
checking that proofs and prints made from files transmitted as PDF/X have rendered
correctly. The URL is http://www.globalgraphics.com/features/pdfxwfv.html.
Whether digital or film analogue, the printed strips are invaluable in determining
the state of a printed item. In the event of queries or quality problems, printed control
strips allow systematic quantitative analysis of the printing conditions that are useful for
printers to determine the nature of any problems.
Technical specifications A wide range of control images is available for visual assessment and measurement. Some
are available as individual elements but they will normally be used as part of a
comprehensive continuous control strip. In the case of film, it is important that the control
strips should be used in their original form and not duplicated. Not only does duplication
infringe copyright, it also changes the tone value of halftone patches and the reproduction
of fine lines or dots. This makes it impossible to use the control strip, for example, to
provide a reliable measurement of dot gain without first verifying the tone value by
measurement of the control strip.
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Solid colour fields All the commercial colour strips contain several solid patches of each colour, repeated at
intervals along the length of the strip. If the control strip is for a particular type of press,
the spacing may correspond with the ink zone widths. From the point of view of ink feed
control, the more frequently the solids are repeated the better. However, the more solid the
patches, the less space for elements that provided for control of the other attributes. These
solid fields can be evaluated visually, but it would be normal to use a densitometer to
measure and ensure solid inking is even and within the specified tolerance.
Secondary colour The capability to assess trapping is provided by a solid area of each of the overprints. The
(trapping) fields requirement for the control strip is quite straightforward: the two-colour overprint patch
should be close to the solid areas of the individual colours to enable accurate
measurement of trapping. Trapping does not vary greatly across the width of the sheet,
assuming reasonably controlled inking, so it is not necessary to include frequent repeats of
these patches across the width of the press. These fields may be assessed visually or with a
densitometer or spectrophotometer.
Tone transfer fields Most platemaking and analogue prepress proofing systems use the photomechanical
platemaking and transfer of the image from the film. In this process, fine lines and dots are particularly
proofing sensitive to small changes in the conditions of exposure and processing and are widely
used to monitor and control this aspect of the overall control of tone transfer.
Microlines Microlines are used in film production but less so for direct plate imaging. There are
specific control targets such as the UGRA Plate Control Wedge (PCW), and microlines may
also be incorporated into a print control strip. The PCW consists of fine positive and
negative lines, the finest of which is 4m and the thickest 70m. Under normal conditions,
a positive working offset litho plate, with correct exposure, would show the positive
1012m line just reproduced. Similar target values are normally appropriate when used
FIGURE 2.5 Control strip of the primary printing colours
FIGURE 2.6 The control strip showing secondary, as well as primary, colour fields
with positive working prepress proofing systems. The greater the thickness of the last
reproduced line, the greater the loss of image in transfer.
Shadow and Shadow and highlight dots perform a similar function to the microlines. They typically
highlight dots consist of small areas of halftone dots with percentage values of 15% and 9599%, in 1%
increments. The normal exposure condition for offset plates will result in the 2% dot just
being reproduced. The examples shown in Figure 2.9 are combined with microline targets.
Tone transfer The tone transfer targets are a combination of visual and measurable elements. The visual
fields printing ones are useful to indicate a problem but it is not normally possible to quantify the effect.
GATF Star Target
The Graphic Arts Technical Foundation (GATF) Star Target was one of the first elements
designed for the control of tone transfer to be widely used in the graphic arts industry.
The target comprises lines that radiate out to form the spokes of a wheel, with the line
thickness progressively reducing as they converge in the centre. In certain respects, it
behaves like the microlines referred to previously but, because the line thickness is
continuously variable and is not so fine, it offers rather more information for print control.
Its response to variations in platemaking and film contacting is similar to that
of the microline target. The lines in the centre of the target are at their finest and they
disappear to form a white centre. The size of the white centre is determined by the
amount of image loss at platemaking. Conversely, image growth causes the lines to join
together at the centre producing a solid circular area, the size of which determines the
extent of image growth.
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FIGURE 2.7 Microlines, such as the UGRA Plate Control Wedge, PCW, may be
incorporated into a print control strip
FIGURE 2.8 The GATF Star Target used for control of tone transfer
Variable dot size With this type of element, an attempt is made to quantify the extent of image growth by
elements evaluating the change in variable sized dots. The main example of this is the GATF Mid-
tone Dot Gain Scale that is shown in Figure 2.10. When printed, the dots increase in size to
bridge the gap between the edge of the dots and the crosses. It can be seen that as the
numbered steps increase, the dot diameters reduce. Therefore, the extent of dot growth can
be quantified by determining at what point the bridging takes place. If Step 10 is bridged
and Step 15 is open, the dot growth is defined as 10%.
Halftone for This is a relatively straightforward field providing a precise tone value on the film that can
measurement be measured to determine dot gain on the print. The main consideration is the number of tone
patches and their tonal values. The whole tone scale is important, but space makes it impractical
to include more than two or three tone values in a control strip. These should normally be a
midtone (40% or 50%) and a shadow tone (75% or 80%). The halftone patches on most
commercially available control strips are produced at a screen ruling of 60 lines per centimetre,
and for this reason technical specifications are normally defined at this screen ruling.
FIGURE 2.9 FOGRA control strip (left) and a System Brunner control strip (right), here combined with microline targets
FIGURE 2.10 The GATF Mid-tone Dot Gain Scale
Tone transfer fields A certain degree of dot growth is unavoidable, but the increase in dot size may comprise
slur and doubling two importantly different components. The increase may be predominantly symmetrical
around the area of the dot or it may be more pronounced in one direction. The latter effect
occurs when either slurring or doubling is present. Pronounced directional dot growth
should be regarded as a fault, since it is neither consistent nor predictable. The control
elements previously referred to for the monitoring of tone transfer will indicate the
consequence of slur, but will not be able to isolate slur from normal dot growth. Slur and
doubling targets aim to make this distinction, using line patterns as opposed to dots. Lines,
unlike dots, have a direction and since both slur and doubling are directional effects they
are able to show that it is occurring.
Star target The star target can indicate changes in growth through the size of the central solid area
but, being a line target, it is able to indicate if this increase is directional. If there is slur,
the central solid area will be formed as an ellipse, the short axis being the direction of slur.
If doubling occurs, a figure of eight is formed in the centre, with the short axis indicating
the direction of the double image.
Concentric circles A concentric circle target, like the star target, is visually sensitive to both doubling and slur
and can also distinguish between the two. The element consists of concentric circles having
different diameters; the line thickness and gaps are equal so that the overall coverage of
the target is 50%. The presence of slur is indicated by darker 90 segments in the circle
while doubling produces smaller dark segments. The more segments, the greater the
displacement of the double image.
Line tint areas Small line tint areas are the most common form of slur and doubling targets. The principle is
simple: lines at right angles to the direction of slur increase in thickness, while lines normal to
the direction of slur are unaffected. This creates different comparative densities. However, the
targets are not able to distinguish between slur and doubling without being closely examined
using magnification. Area measurements made on each patch with a densitometer can be
used to determine the extent of slur and doubling by subtraction of one from the other.
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FIGURE 2.11 Tone patches on a control strip are normally limited to a midtone
and a shadow tone
Grey balance fields Most control strips contain one or more steps that include overprints of halftone areas of
the three primary colours as a grey patch. These are designed to appear as a neutral when
printed at normal levels of ink density, dot gain and trapping. Nevertheless, even if the
pass sheet itself has a colour bias in these areas, it provides a sensitive target for visual
assessment or measurement. Human vision is particularly good at discriminating between
tertiary colours and greys.
Process control The densitometer is the principal measurement tool to quantify and control the attributes
instruments that have been previously defined. The transmission densitometer is normally used to
measure photographic images on film, and the reflection instrument to measure prints or
The densitometer proofs on paper. The reflection instrument measures the proportion of light that is
absorbed by the printed ink film, but this is converted and displayed in the logarithmic
optical density scale. The basic measurement principle of the densitometer is shown in
Figure 2.13. When measuring the process colours, the measurement is made through the
complementary filter. For example, to control the cyan ink film thickness, the amount of
red light absorbed is needed and a red filter is applied.
In modern instruments, measurements are simultaneously made through all
filters but only the highest value is normally displayed. Most reflection densitometers
contain a microprocessor and this enables additional information to be provided that is
calculated from the density measurements. These may include the following:
apparent dot area and dotgain
relative print contrast
FIGURE 2.12 Three examples of slur and doubling targets
percentage trap hue error
greyness.
The densitometer filters are optimised for the purpose of measuring process colours. While
this does not prevent the density measurement of special colours, the sensitivity to change
may be reduced and it is possible that the same single filter density can be achieved when
measuring two different colours. To accurately measure colour, a spectrophotometer or
colorimeter is required.
The The spectrophotometer measures the proportion of light that is absorbed in narrow bands
spectrophotometer throughout the visible spectrum. When a sample colour is measured, it provides spectral
reflectance data that is unique for each colour.
This is converted for normal use into a three-figure (CIELAB) description. This
takes account of the spectral composition of the light source and the spectral sensitivity of
human vision. It also defines the colours location within a three-dimensional colour space.
The three-dimensional colour space is required because humans perceive colours
to have three distinctly different attributes: hue, chroma and lightness. Hue is simply how
humans perceive its colour to be red, green, blue. Chroma, or saturation, describes a
colours colourfulness. Lightness describes the luminous intensity of a colour. When the
colour has a location within this space, it is possible to indicate with a single value how
different it is to a specified colour. This is referred to as the E, colour difference, and a
value of 2 is just perceivable.
The colorimeter The colorimeter is a less expensive instrument for measuring colour. It uses filters that are
designed to mimic the response of the human visual system. It is suited to the
measurement of colour differences rather than the absolute measurement of colour.
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FIGURE 2.13 The basic measurement principle of the densitometer
The plate reader The huge growth in computer to plate technology and consequent drop in the use of film
separations has meant that, until the image and dots appear on the plate, there is no
physical method of checking content. The use of shiny, grained anodised aluminium plates
means that standard reflection densitometers do not provide consistent results because the
range of coatings available have different colours and reflectance. To obtain valid
measures of dot area, a plate reader is employed. These instruments use video cameras
that can be calibrated to the particular plate technology employed. They capture an image
of the plate surface and calculate the relative coverage of coating in the aperture
examined to provide a dot percentage. This is necessary to ensure that the plate has been
both imaged and processed correctly.
Quality assurance Besides satisfying client requirements, the printer may improve the performance of the
for printers and business, obtaining better quality and greater productivity, by measuring and controlling
statistical process all aspects of production. A systematic programme will generate much information
control including detailed, quantifiable performance statistics on the materials, equipment and
processes in operation. Over time, the results may provide the basis for performance
specification of materials allowing the printer to determine the costs of running
different materials and so improving the process. The method used internally is
statistical process control.
Statistical process control (SPC) is a management technique designed to improve
quality and productivity through continuous measurement and corrective action to improve
a process. There is inherent variability in all manufacturing processes. SPC critically
examines all the stages to determine the limits of consistency due to the equipment in use.
Variation outside these limits may result in defective product. Taking action to control the
process will lower such occurrences. Systematic improvement will increase the uniformity of
Measuring
diodes
FIGURE 2.14 The measurement principle of a spectrophotometer
the output as it reduces mistakes and waste of material, personnel and machine time.
Reducing waste transfers the man and machine time previously spent producing defective
product into the manufacture of good product, and increasing the capacity of a plant.
Statistical process control is an integral part of a total quality management
system. When SPC is used correctly, the printer will see significant improvements in both
productivity and quality. The literature has many examples of SPC programmes applied to
printing. These objectively define print quality and improve consistency while generating
productivity improvements, reducing waste and eliminating spoilage.
Customers make a contract with the printer to deliver a number of copies at
a particular time. Trade terms and conditions have developed over time, incorporating
acceptable limits for variation in quantity and quality of a print run. The competitive
nature of print and higher demands of clients is changing these terms. In many market
sectors, clients demand delivery of a precise quantity of perfect product. Printers must
change to develop systems to deliver exactly what the customer requires.
Printing is complex and brings together many materials under a range of
conditions on fast-moving, precision machinery. The press conditions and materials used
will affect the printed result, and in heatset web offset these variables include:
Ink formulation and temperature in the duct
Drier and chill roll temperature
Plate wear
Blanket surface release properties and tension
Cylinder and roller pressures
Roller surface hardness
Fount solution formulation, pH and conductivity
Ink/fount emulsification
Temperature of oven, rollers, plates, blankets, fount solution
Press speed
Web tension
Prepress film and platemaking
Paper
Relative humidity
Ambient conditions.
These variables must be controlled or, at least, taken into account for the press to reach
an equilibrium state and perform to an acceptable quality and productivity. Variation in
colour or folding results in wasted time and raw materials. It is necessary to employ a
specialist resource to sort the sub-standard product. Lithographic printing processes
contain many variables across both product and the production. The printed appearance
is governed by:
Ink film thickness and density
Highlight, mid-tone and shadow dot gain (sharpness)
Process colour grey balance
2
Ink trap
Paper opacity, colour and brightness
Absence of printing defects
Gloss
Ink contrast.
These are measurable print characteristics. They must be measured and then controlled by
the pressman to match the proofs throughout a run.
The ethos of printing quality management is changing. It used to be reactive
quality control after each production stage by checking film, plates and print. This method
identified the poor quality after production and later replaced it with good quality. This
changed towards integrated proactive quality assurance, and providing good quality
product is now taken as given by customers. Quality tends to be a disqualifier rather than a
qualifier as similar printing companies in a particular market compete with similar capital
equipment. Applying an SPC system will prove and demonstrate their quality and acts as
the means for them to differentiate themselves from competitors.
It is a fairly straightforward exercise to apply SPC to print if management
provides leadership and commitment. The routine to follow is:
Sample
Analyse
Control and improve.
The improvements will be in better quality and productivity.
For a quality improvement, the printer will measure and record a quantifiable
printability characteristic (perhaps a densitometer reading of density, dot gain and
trapping, or colorimetric measures of mid-tone grey) during the run of any job. Then plot
the results as detailed make-ready to define printing characteristics and then a sub-set
throughout the run to monitor consistency. To improve productivity, define a consistent
runnability measure and record performance over time. The results must then be analysed
and the management should initiate action (involving press crews) to eliminate the poor
performers and reduce variability.
The traditional manual visual comparison to a pass sheet is not sufficient. With
higher speed presses producing larger sheets, there is too much information to process
quickly and accurately by eye. Printing is a dynamic process. One potential problem is
overcorrection by the pressman. Studies have indicated that when a web press reached
equilibrium it operated more consistently in terms of density and dot gain when left alone
than when adjusted by operators.
Quality assurance Many companies adopted systematic quality management programmes gaining
of printing accreditation to ISO9000 standards. In many sectors of print, and in supplying to printers,
such qualification is a necessary marketing tool. This activity has resulted in the industry
rigorously defining quality as conformance to a specification rather than using various
difficult-to-define nebulous attributes of the product.
The successful application of process control to any manufacturing process will
reduce the need for quality inspection by cutting the production of defective products. An
initial inspection is made by sampling the run during production. This is later followed by
detailed examination, normally off-line. The process is expensive involving specialist staff
who may delay the completion of the job. Reactive quality control is not totally effective
in identifying and removing poor-quality product. There is no totally reliable automatic
image analysis fault-finding system for fast-moving presses, and this is often the role of
the press minder.
If problems are discovered later, the printer has the choice of delivering fewer
copies than ordered or starting re-work. Both are expensive and time consuming.
Controlling the process is a proactive approach to production. Quality procedures change
to examining the process itself rather than the resulting products. When the process is
under control and operating within known, defined and accepted limits of variation the
product is predictable and will fall within manufacturing specification.
Some customers buy print as a secondary product outside their main
manufacturing activities such as in packaging, some catalogues, technical documentation
and instruction manuals rather than commercial print. They have led the demand for
systematic proof that a quality standard is being achieved and maintained. These clients
routinely use many sophisticated production and quality systems. They are now applying
the same disciplines to buying printed products. The days of a printing company satisfying
a customer by providing a few specials, or advance copies, chosen by the printer are
numbered. It is difficult to define quality in commercial printing quantitatively. The
definition must encompass all aspects of design, production and materials that go into the
product and not just concentrate on the final manufacturing process of putting ink onto
paper. If different contract proofs made to different specifications are supplied, it will be
impossible to match the results accurately under the standard press conditions. The skill of
the printer is in making an acceptable visual match across the whole sheet. Problems may
surface later when an advertiser examines a single page in isolation from the 16 printed
together when the result is a compromise with the other pages in the track.
There is no single measure that will adequately define printability to satisfy
customers in the real world of commercial printing. In that world, printability is the
subjective perception of a printed article by an individual. The individual who matters most
is the paying customer and acceptable printability is a result that satisfies the customer for
every copy. Such subjectivity in defining printability and passing the job is a major
stumbling block to applying an objective print by numbers system. The printer can progress
toward a quantitative printability by ensuring that each job is printed in the same manner
on press using control strips to ensure consistency. Printers have used control strips for
many years, often as a reactive diagnostic aid in the event of problems rather than
proactively in quality assurance. During make-ready, the minder should check
measurements across the sheet of:
2
Density
Dot gain
Trapping
Grey balance
Colour (for spot colour applications).
When the minder is satisfied that the press is performing correctly, then ink density is the
most important measure to get even across the sheet. The readings demonstrate any
necessary adjustments and prove that the press is performing correctly to achieve quick
acceptance of the pass sheet. When a pass sheet is approved, the results should be
recorded and used to fingerprint the press. In this way, the real printing conditions are
monitored rather than an occasional exercise to fingerprint the press.
It is straightforward to measure subsequent sheets to ensure they are identical to
the pass. During the run, the time taken means it is impractical to take all measurements
manually across the sheet. Normally density and mid-tone dot gain measurements at fixed
points across the sheet will prove consistency through the run. There are several on-press
quality assurance systems integrated into modern colour presses providing continual
closed-loop control. The production statistics can be exported for off-line analysis; these
may be one part of the emerging JDF link from production equipment.
Simple manual systems can yield much valuable information. Press minders will
manually examine sample copies through the run, checking for colour, print to fold
registration and for print faults. At regular intervals, the minder will remove and retain a
copy, taking and recording density and dot gain across the sheet. The results could be
directly entered into a database from densitometer, colorimeter or spectrophotometer. Most
modern measuring instruments have data ports to link into a computer.
Examples of process Measuring density characteristics forms the basis of a quantitative quality assurance
control charts to programme. It is vital that the instruments are correctly calibrated. Figure 2.15 is a record of
define colour densitometer calibration. Examples of quality assurance record sheets for pass sheet and
printing conditions printed results are shown in Figure 2.16 and Figure 2.17. These charts can contain much
data, including a description of the job and materials involved on a particular press as well
as the print measurements.
Figure 2.18 is an example of a process control chart that is designed to monitor
colour density from a particular measure. The characteristic could be end density of cyan,
magenta, yellow and black from different pass sheets or throughout a run. It could be a
measure from a proofing system recorded during a weekly calibration. The chart allows a
range of values to be plotted together to give a simple visual representation of
consistency over time.
All four of the above charts can be found in the Excel file SPC sheets contained
on the accompanying CD-rom. The spreadsheet is fully formatted for use.
Such systematic measurement allows printers to demonstrate consistency to
customers and ensure the correct delivery of film and proofs. It is necessary for publication
2
Procedure
Check the calibration readings of the instrument on a weekly basis against the supplied
calibration forme. Readings should be within 0.02 units from the chart. If the instrument
is not within 0.02 units the instrument MUST be recalibrated.
Record the check and calibrations performed on the chart below
DATE Cyan Magenta Yellow Black Within Spec. Recalibrated OK Signed
STANDARD
DENSITOMETER/SPECTROPHOTOMETER CALIBRATION ASSURANCE RECORD
FIGURE 2.15 Densitometer/spectrophotometer calibration assurance record
Note: an electronic version of this form is supplied on the accompanying CD-rom.
Date
Job
Section
Press
Job Stock grammage gsm
Sheet is free from print faults (misregister/slur/doubling)

End Density
At 40% At 80%
Black A side % %
B side % %
Cyan A side % %
B side % %
Magenta A side % %
B side % %
Yellow A side % %
B side % %
Spot 1 A side % %
B side % %
Spot 2 A side % %
B side % %
Trapping Magenta on Cyan Yellow on Cyan Yellow on Magenta
A side % % %
B side % % %
Dot Gain
PASS SHEET QUALITY ASSURANCE RECORD
PRINTED RESULT
FIGURE 2.16 Pass sheet quality assurance record
2
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FIGURE 2.18 On-press printed sheet quality assurance record
printers to conform to the general market conditions, so allowing more consistency for
publishers and advertisers. In practice, preparing the samples and recording the
measurements is extremely time-consuming. There must be a real commitment from
management to use and act on the results, otherwise the technical and production
personnel will quickly find reasons to stop taking the measurements.
When such a system is in operation, the printer can develop acceptable limits of
variation with the client. Printing is a dynamic process. Press vibration and the rotation of
rollers and cylinders and transfer mechanisms of ink will result in cyclical variation between
copies. Most of the time this is not noticeable and only stringent examination and
measurement can show these differences. Most often they fall within practical error limits
of measurement. Over a longer period, there may be slow drifts in condition resulting in a
change. The minder will correct the drift as it occurs. At the end of a job, it is useful to
discuss the results with the client to find how they regard the performance. Sharing the
results, showing how the measured differences affect the visual result and deciding what is
unacceptable allows an agreed quality standard to develop. After a few runs the client
confidence should be increased as jobs are produced within acceptable variance. The press
crews will learn the actions to reduce variation and improve quality, saving the expense of
waste and rework.
There are useful marketing benefits of proving quality for some customers.
Internally, the goal is to define a standard set of printing conditions for a particular press
and stock. This definition should fall within the market requirements and ensure that the
standard is met every time as a matter of routine. When this is achieved, the printer can
maximise output from the expensive press time by checking films, proofs and plates before
they get to press. When press crews can rely totally that all materials they use are correct
they can develop standard make-ready procedures, using automation advances such as plate
loading and plate scanning to pre-set the ink ducts. The make-ready will be much faster and
involve less waste when the printer just concentrates on printing the test strip correctly by
running the press at standard conditions. The printed work will match the contract proofs
provided the proofs are made to match the press and the press is running normally.
The crew will spend time setting the press to its standard conditions during
make-ready, rather than adjusting to compensate for incorrectly made proofs or an
absorbent paper that has abnormal dot gain characteristics. With the commercial pressures
on a plant to maximise throughput, press crews spend their time trying to change to the
next job quickly rather than stepping back and involving all the plant to design a system to
smooth the high price of printing.
With the development of reduced plate gap and gapless presses, there will be no
room on the web to position traditional control strips. Sheetfed printers may be reluctant
to pay for areas of print that are destined to be waste. Micro test forms positioned in
circumferential folds across the web or analysing printed image area may evolve as control
methods. Some form of measurement will be required to control the process.
2
Productivity The key paper and ink performance property for printers is runnability through their
improvement presses. There are no laboratory tests that correlate to press performance. The only
through SPC informed way is to measure the performance of materials on press, then specify the best-
performing material. Runnability should be defined as a unit measure of saleable print
produced over a given time. The measure should be interpreted for factors that are not
paper-related but might affect performance on press.
A quick check of condition on delivery may reveal damage but not all may become
apparent until the reel is unwrapped. It is important that reel paper is kept in a clean area to
avoid damage when a reel is stored. Any loose stones or solid litter may cause holes that need
to be slabbed off as excessive waste. During the splice preparation, a minimum of paper
should be slabbed off the reel. Good housekeeping in the printers warehouse and liaison with
the supplier to ensure good handling practice is useful. There should be no need to remove
more than a few unwinds when the wrapper is removed. Training personnel involved in reel
preparation to remove the least slab possible is a quick and effective way of reducing waste.
A scale should be available to weigh any excess slab waste with an explanation for any reels
with significant quantities over 1kg to 2kg. It is good practice to have a Polaroid camera
available to take quick pictures of damaged reels to back up any discussions and claims
against a supplier. A record detailing the slab and core waste, together with press count when
the reel started and finished, provides evidence of paper performance before printing, and is
useful to calculate the true basis weight and amount of paper used.
Systematic measurement and recording paper performance on press will generate
much data. This will involve taking a measure from each press daily, sometimes more often
when the stock changes between jobs. A relational database is vital to process this into
useful information and relevant intelligence. It does not have to be particularly
sophisticated, and any of the readily available PC or Macintosh products should be more
than capable. Individual plants should construct their own database. The records must
include three classes of fields:
Paper identification criteria
Paper name (and hence mill and supplier)
Paper grade
Paper grammage
Batch number (optional)
Plant records and job statistics
Date
Press (and folder configuration)
Total copies produced in the period
Paper runnability data
Metreage/N sheets of paper run
Good copies produced
Total copies produced
Running time
Total running and paper downtime
N blanket washes
N web breaks
This information may be entered automatically as shop floor data collection as part of the
company-wide management information system, or manually from dockets filled out by the
press crew. It is time-consuming to enter the data manually. Using a relational database
increases the speed of data input when a series of paper identification codes is in use across
the plant. From the runnability data calculations described above can be used to work out
the press running waste, net and gross running speed, metreage per break and wash. This
data is typically available in a pressroom, either from manual dockets or from shop floor data
collection systems. Practically this means routinely recording these data on a daily basis, and
then processing it into information. A new data record must be created every 24 hours and
each time the paper changes on a press. When processing the data, the individual plant will
exclude records if the run length is below a certain level, or if the performance is greatly
affected by factors outside the normal operation. The runnability will be affected if the press
has serious mechanical problems, and these abnormal records should be ignored. It is
important that any machine downtime that is not connected with the paper performance is
ignored. This means that press stops for new plates or for mechanical problems must be
ignored when compiling the data. Make-ready will lower the performance as the press is
being set up so make-ready time should be ignored. The data that should be recorded is:
Total copies (sheets) produced = N
t
The total quantity that the press produces in the unit time. Accurate counting seems
difficult in many print operations. Good communication with the finishing department to
compare recorded quantities is often useful to determine and remove any source of errors.
Metreage of paper used M = N
t
N press cut off (m)
Where N is the number of webs on a multi-web press. The number of webs must be
taken into account when metreages per break or wash are compared. The actual
metreage of a reel or number of sheets on a pallet put through the press are
important measures. They should be compared with the metreage or quantity of
sheets recorded on the paper label to see how accurate the suppliers measure is. If
the length (or number of sheets) and weight of the paper are known, a precise
measure of basis weight can be obtained. If this is higher than the nominal weight,
the difference reflects a hidden source of paper waste that cannot be recovered.
Good copies produced = N
g
Saleable copies passed through to the next production stage. If there is a subsequent
problem unrelated to paper, e.g. an editorial mistake that requires reprinting, the
copies should be regarded as good for the exercise of determining runnability.
Waste copies produced = (N
t
N
g
)
The number of sub-standard copies produced including both necessary waste and
accidental spoilage. The largest single cause of waste is setting up a job during
2
make-ready. Most web press running waste comes from necessary reel splices together
with blanket washes and web breaks that cause spoilage. Washes should be taken at
the same time as a splice to minimise waste. There will be additional waste as
minders take out samples and spoilage when they make press and folder adjustments.
Printing time = T
r
(hr)
All press time while paper is being converted that does not include initial make-ready.
The cut-off point for make-ready is necessarily arbitrary on the part of the press minder
who is recording the time. This does not matter provided that the same cut-off point is
used throughout the recording and it does not vary for a particular press or paper.
Non-productive time due to paper problems = T
p
(hr)
The minder should account for all press downtime. There may be some discretion in
assigning some downtime to a paper problem, particularly as a minder may
occasionally look for a scapegoat to blame for a machine stop with no obvious cause.
As long as the minders are consistent, the results should not be biased for or against
any grades of paper. The largest components of press downtime due to paper are from
web breaks, blanket washes and machine or folder jams.
With modern automatic blanket washing equipment the press may not always
stop while a wash cycle occurs, taking perhaps less than a minute. Waste is incurred
and the frequency of washes is an important contributor to productivity.
Number of web breaks = Br
The major cause of press downtime in web offset printing is the web break. The
continuous web breaks somewhere and the press instantly stops. It takes between 20
minutes and an hour to get back into production, wasting up to 2000m of paper. Web
breaks may be due to definite paper faults, or to particular actions by press or printer
or there may be no direct evidence one way or the other.
It is sometimes possible to determine the cause of the break. On occasions it is due
to actions of the printer. Improper preparation of the reelstand splices, a mechanical fault
in the folder, or tar dropping onto the moving web from the oven and sticking on the
chill stacks can cause breaks. Most breaks fall into the no evidence bracket where there is
no clear evidence of a paper fault or a press problem, but the break occurs and press
time and paper are wasted as a result. The sleuth-like minder pieces together the two
ends and finds a slime hole, a crease in the web, or a cut edge, or a poorly prepared mill
splice. Whatever the cause of a break the result is lost press time and waste paper.
Number of blanket washes = Wa
Material from paper surface and components of ink will gradually build up on the
blanket, and sometimes the plate, during a press run. The build-up may not be solely
attributable to the paper type, but the paper will certainly influence the degree and
speed of any piling. The number of washes is only a useful indicator of build-up as
press crews will normally wash blankets whenever the press stops. From these data,
the following runnability characteristics can be determined:
Gross running speed
The key runnability measurement for either a sheetfed or web printing press should be the
gross running speed of paper through the press. This measures press performance over the
preferred maximum unit of time, with non-paper down time ignored. Gross speed is
calculated as:
Gross running speed = N
g
/(T
r
+ T
p
) (Copies hr
1
)
This measure is the most important for the printer as it measures the rate of production of
good copies over a period of time.
Net running speed
While the press is running, the net paper run speed is obtained from:
Net running speed = N
t
/T
r
(Copies hr
1
)
In web printing, a measure of running speed expressed as copies an hour must be
qualified because the cut off of the press and pagination of the product will vary. The
paper speed through the press is the important measure to take account of different press
format and cut off.
There may be single or twin webs. There are many press cut-off sizes, and in the
UK the popular sizes are 587mm, 600mm, 625mm or 630mm for a 16-page press. Double
circumference presses may be 1,200mm or 1,260mm. Shortgrain presses have cut offs of
897mm or 930mm. The new generation of gapless presses reduce the paper consumption
to achieve the same format of final product. So an A4 product can come from a press with
612mm cut off instead of the conventional 630mm.
Press running waste
This measures the production of waste copies, and is more important on the inherently
more wasteful web process than on sheetfed where waste sheets can be re-used. The figure
does not include the slab and core waste in web printing that should be recorded
separately, or any wrapper when the paper is bought by weight.
As an internal measurement, percentage of waste should be expressed as
proportion of the good copies produced as a higher figure results. Then successful waste
reduction provides a larger fall giving good motivation to the staff. For external discussion
with customers, waste should be expressed as a percentage of the total copies giving a
lower number.
Press running waste = (N
t
N
g
)/N
g
100% (Internal)
Press running waste = (N
t
N
g
) N
t
100% (External)
Metreage per web break
Measures the amount of paper run per web break from any cause.
Meterage per web break = (M N)/Br (m)
2
N is the number of webs running on the press. Normally only one of the webs suffers a
break before the press alarm system automatically severs all webs. The metreage per break
is therefore the length of paper from all reelstands.
Metreage (or number of copies) per blanket wash
This measures the amount of paper run between blanket washes, expressed as impressions
per wash for sheetfed applications.
Metre per blanket wash = M/(Wa N) (m)
N is the number of webs running on the press. Build-up is seen on individual press units so
the total metreage of paper recorded should be from just a single reelstand. This measure
may not accurately reflect the tendency for the paper to suffer from build up as often not
all the washes are recorded.
Interpretation of The SPC programme is used to improve productivity by identifying the best performing
runnability results materials and defining acceptable performance. Put simply, the higher the gross running
speed the better the paper is for the printer because the higher speed means more saleable
product in a given time. This is a compelling economic performance indicator for the printers
production staff to monitor. Reasons for a poor performer may be interesting, certainly for
the supplier, but they must be a secondary consideration for the printer and publisher.
Runnability information is used to make a quantitative comparison of raw
materials or machinery. These properties allow management to conduct useful sorts to be
carried out to determine the effects of different presses and variables inside the plant as
well as just the paper. It can help troubleshooting. When poor performance occurs, it is
easy to compare with the performance of the same materials on different presses at
different times. This information can help identify the root cause of the problem, and if
it is the material or the process.
Care is needed when interpreting the data into meaningful information. A
significant number of results are needed before the information becomes useful. The
results should reflect paper properties, and not background noise and factors unrelated to
paper. Runnability is influenced by the run length of the particular job and the numbers of
copies run in the particular period. A modern press should outperform an older model, and
an experienced crew will normally produce more than inexperienced minders.
The different presses with different crews will even out over a period of time if
jobs are mixed across all machines. One method to allow for the different capabilities of
presses is to express the gross running speed as a percentage of the manufacturers
maximum output rating for the press. When this figure is calculated on a daily basis over
a period most printers will find they have significant room for improving production.
These factors should apply equally to all papers when examining paper
performance. When these factors skew the results a value judgement is necessary to obtain
worthwhile information. If a particular grade of paper is used on an older press with
complicated in-line finishing equipment, it is not valid to compare the gross running speed
with a new press producing sections from a high speed folder and automatic palletiser.
The data can be sorted by machine to provide relative performance statistics
together with trends over time. It may be that patterns emerge showing that particular
combinations of press and paper result in unacceptably poor performance. The supplier
may argue with justification that the cause is within the press. If some corrective action
improves the situation then printer and supplier benefit from constructive dialogue. If not,
the printer should use an alternative material on that particular machinery to provide
better productivity.
Large amounts of data will be generated, and press performance statistics for
each day, or part of a day when a paper type changes, quickly build up. The results will
show a wide range of performance for individual papers. It is important to understand the
information and ensure that statistics are valid before discussing results publicly with
suppliers. When a programme has been established the statistics can be used with the
supplier to create a base level of performance. Significant variation from the base level
should trigger an alarm for production staff and supplier to try to find a solution while the
job is in progress rather than conducting a post-mortem after the event.
Quantitative runnability information allows a company to place a monetary value
on the runnability. Actual productivity (good copies per hour) is compared to estimators
standards. Any variance from the standard can be expressed in monetary terms, as a cost
per amount of paper. This measure can be used to give the paper purchaser the means to
determine which paper should be used for any job. Two examples are presented below.
Examples
For a sheetfed press with a rate of 100 an hour, and an estimated gross production
speed of 8000 copies per hour, a job runs four colours on both sides with two grades
of 90gsm paper, A and B. Each sheet is 700 1000mm, so 1 tonne = 15,873 sheets.
A has a gross running speed of 8500cph and sells for 600 per tonne. B has a gross
running speed of 7500cph and sells for 550 per tonne.
Paper cost of production = price per sheet + [(hourly rate/gross run speed) N
of passes]
For A = 600/15,873 + [(100/8,500) 2]
=3.78p + 2.35p
= 6.13p
For B = 550/15,873 + [(100/7,500) 2]
= 3.46p + 2.67p
= 6.13p
So, in this example, a saving of 50 per tonne on the purchase price is eliminated by a
variance of just 6% from estimated running speed.
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A twin web offset press costed at 550 per hour runs 90gsm paper reels of width
900mm with press cut off of 630mm. Paper A sells for 550 per tonne and runs at
42,000cph while paper B sells for 500 per tonne and runs at 40,000cph.
Paper cost of production
= Kilo price (cut off web width KgM
2
) + [(hourly rate/gross run speed)
N
o
of webs]
For A = 0.55Kg
1
(0.63m 0.90m 0.09KgM
2
) + [(550/42,000) 2]
= 2.80p + 2.62p
= 5.42p
For B = 0.50Kg
1
(0.63m 0.90m 0.09KgM
2
) + [(550/4,000) 2]
= 2.55p + 2.75p
= 5.40p
In this case the cost saving of 50 per tonne for paper is eliminated by a variance
of as little as 2.5% from the estimated running speed.
It is a simple exercise to construct a spreadsheet to accurately factor the press running
performance of any paper into its overall cost. This provides the purchaser with useful
ammunition when trying to negotiate the best deal from a range of potential suppliers.
When a publisher supplies paper the printer can provide a valid preference for a particular
grade backed up by statistics rather than just a feeling for the relative performance.
Printer supplier Successful trading should allow both buyer and seller to profit from the transaction. Most
relationship companies spend much time and effort building relationships with customers yet overlook
the potential benefits in forming similar bonds with suppliers. Printers generally do not like
to put all their eggs in one basket and become tied in to one supplier. Instead, they get
tied into many suppliers. It may profit printers to develop their suppliers to provide more
than just the goods and services at an acceptable cost. Suppliers are a potential source of
expertise and information for the client.
The printers Commercial printing is a conversion process. It needs paper or board, ink, chemicals, plates,
purchasing function film, adhesives and other minor components. These raw materials will account for more
than half the cost of a typical job. The purchasing function in a company can make a
major contribution to the financial performance if it is performed well. It needs
professional people supported by computerised databases and online systems to obtain
the best value. Purchasing must be close to the operational areas ensuring that materials
are performing to the maximum potential and looking for continual improvements.
There are two broadly opposite approaches to purchasing. The first is to treat raw
materials as commodities and negotiate the lowest price from a wide group of suppliers.
Much practical printing concentrates on buying the lowest-price paper or inks and
contacting the suppliers technical and support operation only if there are problems in use.
Many printers operate on a reactive, exception basis across their business. They
concentrate on solving problems after the event rather than trying to eliminate problems
before they occur.
Some organisations separate buying from operations and treat it as a profit centre.
This approach can avoid costly duplication in a large multi-site company, but the performance
must be examined closely. A buyer may obtain quotes on a particular grade of paper and
demonstrate price savings by buying brand X rather than brand Y, but the true cost of producing
using brand Y may not become apparent until the job is complete. Saving 15 per tonne can be
swallowed up by the supplier delivering 2% over the ordered quantity of a heavier weight paper
that has multiple breaks, blanket washes and jams on press. The purchasing manager has
gained an apparent profit while the rest of the organisation suffers increased costs.
Alternatively, a company may choose to develop good relationships with a
smaller number of key suppliers in a mutually beneficial win-win situation. The printer aims
to rationalise suppliers and reduce the range of materials used to minimise variables in
production. This allows the press crews a chance to learn the characteristics of materials
and then improve the process. Buying from fewer suppliers increases the value of the
account and hence market share to the supplier. The participants find it worthwhile to
share results openly, and to develop superior products and processes.
Strategies for The economic objective of buying should be to obtain the best value for the company. This
purchasing by printers is to ensure the right material is in the right place at the right time, minimise waste and
keep working capital tied up in stock at the lowest level possible. This goal should not be
hidden away, but well publicised as a company objective and certainly discussed with
suppliers and potential suppliers.
Obtaining value is best achieved through knowledge and understanding. Clearly
define the purchasing requirement and act to negotiate from strength whenever possible.
A strong position will come from knowing your internal processes and suppliers; what they
are capable of and how materials perform through running an SPC programme to get
quantitative runnability statistics.
Act to reduce the number of suppliers for key materials to the ones that provide
the best-value material. Rationalise the materials used to a minimum to allow production
personnel to get the benefit of a learning curve. Work with the internal production and
planning functions to define requirements for special materials in advance to give
suppliers reasonable lead times whenever possible. Giving time to suppliers allows them
to manufacture and deliver efficiently at the right time for the printer.
Printer and The relation between printer and papermaker can be strained with both parties
paper maker seemingly at cross-purposes. Paper mills manufacture huge quantities of paper, and
a single modern machine may produce 200,000 tonnes of consistent paper each year.
The mill then markets it throughout the world through specialist distribution channels.
Individual printers take only a tiny portion of the output and will use the paper in their
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particular manner. Often the local selling organisation will represent many different mills
and their marketing and technical personnel do not fully understand all facets of the paper
use. They deal second-hand and have to work according to the customs of the supplying
mill, and often not directly influencing developments. This makes it difficult for the mill to
monitor the press performance of all its products. Inevitably, the performance properties
appear to be a compromise to printers.
Printer and paper maker do not have the same perception of paper. Printers
sometimes get the feeling that their problems are not taken seriously enough by the paper
maker, and the mill almost objects to printers spoiling paper by putting messy ink on it.
Paper makers may feel that printers machinery is often poorly maintained and not set up
well enough to avoid problems that are passed straight to the mill as a paper problem.
This puts a gulf between them that is bad for both parties.
A suitable strategy to overcome problems can occur only when a professional
structured approach to gain mutual benefit is followed. Clear communication between
printer and supplier is necessary. The printer must describe simply and clearly what they
require from any material, and apply conditions of supply as part of a purchase contract.
The paper maker should clearly explain what the expected performance characteristics
should be together with actions if problems occur. Keeping accurate records of
performance and sharing them with the supplier will lead to improvements and form the
basis of acceptable runnability.
When agreement is reached, and an order placed, the printer should offer a normal
contract with the order specifying the terms and conditions of supply for paper. An example
could be: XXXX company is actively working to refine and improve all operations. This involves
minimising paper wastage and eliminating spoilage by providing the best-performing materials
backed up by a supportive technical and administrative supplier organisation. XXXX company
expects the supplier to deliver the ordered quantity of paper at the time agreed and in perfect
condition. The gross running speed is the key determinant of runnability. It will be measured
with the incidence of web breaks and blanket washes. The printer will inform the paper maker
when paper falls significantly below its normal standard and invite them to examine the run
together. This may determine the reasons in printing or the service properties of the paper. If
there is no direct evidence of poor paper then, unless conditions have significantly changed on
press, the printer should expect some compensation for a poorly performing batch of paper. The
press performance is part of the conditions for the supply of paper.
Reelfed paper will be ordered by length not weight, and invoiced by the
measured metreage delivered. Sheetfed paper will be ordered by number of sheets required
and not by weight. The company aims to receive the exact (to the next full reel) quantity
ordered, no longer following the No less than terms operated in the past. XXXX company
will not accept over or under quantities. It will be the responsibility of the paper supplier to
ensure that the correct amount of paper, in perfect condition is delivered at the agreed
time. XXXX company wants to encourage constructive dialogue with preferred suppliers to
determine the best way of meeting mutually beneficial objectives.
Beneficial relationships The best commercial relationships are cases where both parties profit. The most obvious
case is where one supplier takes a large share of the available orders in return for a
discounted price based on bulk. This can normally be agreed with ink, plate and
consumable suppliers, but rarely with paper makers or merchants. In many cases an increase
in turnover may be accomplished by buying a range of materials from one source. Suppliers
often act as agents for principals to supply all the needs of a printer from one source.
The two parties should explore the supply chain and look to remove areas of cost
wherever possible. All transactions, from the initial promotion and sales contact through to the
successful use of the product in a job and administration, should be analysed. Wherever
wasteful practices are seen they should be changed. One method of improving the relationship
is for a consignment stock holding agreement. This is a widespread practice in the supply of
ink, press consumables, plates, film and chemistry, and blankets. Here, the supplier holds fast-
moving stock at the customer. The printer draws materials as required and is invoiced at the
end of a week or month for the materials consumed rather than delivered to the plant. This
reduces working capital tied up in stock for the printer, and will smooth distribution for the
supplier. He can replenish the stock on a regular planned weekly or monthly basis instead of
ad-hoc. Consignment stocking could be useful for the supply of standard paper sizes for
sheetfed printing. The suppliers representative visits the plant to check on stock, and to
generate a top-up order with the customers warehouse and store personnel.
With the development of e-procurement there is the opportunity to share
information between management information systems of supplier and customer to
smooth the administration and control stocks resulting in lower costs. There is a trend of
increasing use of computers to handle routine data processing tasks. Modern logistics
practices involve designing systems to smooth order processing and stock control.
Suppliers are a potentially valuable source of expertise that a printer can use. Ink
manufacturers have experience of chemical industry legislation on hazardous materials
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TABLE 2.1 Potential benefits of forming relationship between a supplier and printer
For the supplier For the printer
Guaranteed increase in sales volume and Financial benefits from price, stockholding
performance and bulk manufacture Less variation in materials
Lower sales cost Less management time spent evaluating
alternative suppliers and testing
Better feedback on performance of materials Optimal performing materials
Steady planning of volume and capacity Prices guaranteed for a specified period for
planning
Efficient product distribution Security of supply and simpler logistics of supply
Simpler administration Just in time delivery
Simple invoicing Simple
-testing of new products Early information on new developments
Call on user expertise Call on supplier expertise
and waste management and will be able to advise printers on best practice. Paper makers
should provide insight on wider environmental issues facing the whole publishing industry.
In some cases formal joint projects may yield developments that printer and supplier can
use to gain a technical lead over the competition. In most cases building a good
relationship with any supplier ensures a source of information about new developments
and competitive industry activity. Any information, of course, must be validated. During
a long-term relationship the company will learn the reliability and accuracy of any
information and then how much attention to pay to it.
Actions if there Problems occur during printing, and probably always will. They are bad news for both
are problems printer and supplier. Most problems with supplied materials tend to be interesting one-off
examples. When problems recur a solution is usually found in changing the paper or ink
and thoroughly washing the press. The material is then labelled as suspect and is not used
again. Printers tend to have long unforgiving memories for materials that have not worked
well at one time. In fact the problem may not necessarily be due to the material, but it is in
the printers perception.
The first course of action when a problem occurs is to get back into production
quickly; then to identify the cause, take appropriate action and apportion blame. Most
paper suppliers have a clause in their terms and conditions indemnifying against
consequential loss if there is faulty material. When justified claims are raised the supplier
will agree to reimburse the direct loss of wasted material and press time. They will not
enter discussion about costs incurred in alternative printing and failing to finish a job on
schedule. This situation often leads printers to exaggerate effects and causes, and the
paper supplier to resist justifiable claims as it rightly wants to avoid spurious claims.
The major cause of web offset press downtime, by far, is the web break. The
continuous web breaks somewhere and the press instantly stops. It takes between 20
minutes and an hour to get back into production wasting up to 2000m of paper. There are
three categories of break: due to the printer, the paper or those with no definite evidence.
It is sometimes possible to determine the cause of the break. On occasions the break is due
to actions of the printer. An improper preparation of the reelstand splices, a mechanical
fault in the folder, or tar dropping onto the moving web from the oven and sticking on the
chill stacks can cause breaks. The largest category of breaks falls into the no evidence
bracket. Here there is no clear evidence of a paper fault or a press problem, but the break
occurs and press time and paper are both wasted as a result. A pressman will slow the
machine in trying to avoid breaks so the possibility of a break may contribute to poor
production. The sleuth-like minder pieces together the two ends and finds a slime hole, a
crease or slit in the web, a cut edge, or a poorly prepared mill splice. These are presented to
the supplier as evidence of poor paper, together with details of waste and lost press time,
and a claim for compensation is negotiated.
Laboratory personnel perform tests on discrete paper samples while presses run
continual reels or pallets of sheets. Paper is an organic material with an enormous array of
fibres, coating and various bonding elements making up the sheet. There will be stresses
and strains imparted to the paper as it passes through the press. These will vary in the
infeed, printing units, oven, chills, slitters and in the folder. The paper itself will have an
inherent strength, and areas where there is a weakness. This may be an obvious fault such
as a slime hole or a nick in the edge, or it may be an area containing slightly less fibre but
more coating, an imperfect edge from an unsharpened knife, or an uneven tension from
the winder. Statistics show that a sheet containing more imperfections will be more likely
to break. Modern web offset printing machinery puts ink onto paper at speeds of up to
3000ft per minute through the press. Any slight imperfections in paper may result in a no
evidence break, which is bad news for the printer.
The idea should be to work to avoid claims. When they do occur a disciplined,
controlled approach will lead to improved performance. Identify the cause of the problem
and do not jump to conclusions that may overlook the real cause. When a printer
implements a statistical process control programme there will be quantitative production
and quality statistics relating to individual presses and grades of paper. Part of the
specification may include an acceptable range of press runnability. When acceptable levels
are not met the printer should sound the alarm and involve the support staff of the supplier.
Purchasing decision There are many factors that influence the choice of a particular grade of material:
making availability, cost and quality. It is easy to determine the price of a material paid to a
supplier. However, detailed measurement is necessary to determine the cost of downtime
and sub-optimal running due to a material. The measured performance of paper and ink
on press provides the basis for informed choice of the cheapest materials.
Sharing the requirements and performance with the supplier allows both parties
to work together to achieve process improvements and lower costs, which are benefits for
both sides. Mutually commercially beneficial agreements, such as JIT to reduce stock
holding costs and over-delivery, can be made to work with good relationships. The printer
might use an MRP II (manufacturing resources planning) system to get the right material
to the right place at the right time and have the confidence to be able to rely on the
performance. Linking to the planning and scheduling functions needs good information to
be successful. The performance of the materials used must be predictable for closed-loop
control of the process to be successful.
Just in time All sectors of print are seeing a trend toward lower print runs and more reprints as
purchasing for printers customers act to reduce their working capital tied up in slow-moving or redundant stock.
This is particularly prevalent in packaging, labels and book production. The clients often
apply just in time (JIT) ordering procedures with their suppliers. Such approaches can be
usefully applied by printers to target five areas:
2
No waste
Firm schedules
Quality
Minimum set-up
Positive relationships.
Printers cannot just impose JIT on a supplier to reduce stockholdings. Having the minimum
amount of paper delivered from a new supplier for a one-off job with a fixed delivery date
is an unnecessarily high-risk strategy. The quantity may not be met if any paper is
damaged, and if there is a press or binder problem the delivery date may not be met.
Successfully using a JIT process means understanding the material properties to build in a
fall-back position if there are problems. They should work with suppliers to develop
mutually beneficial relationships to lower the costs associated with using a product.
The correct use of specifications can provide dramatic improvements in performance
on press by ensuring that all factors are suited to their purposes. Materials should be specified
to use the highest grade in the budget range. As a supplier, building in unnecessary
characteristics into a product is costly and acts to reduce profitability. If the customer is
willing to pay then his finances are affected. For example, it is an unnecessary cost for
newspapers to print heatset on coated paper when the market is coldset on newsprint. So
over-specification is financially damaging. The characteristics that the manufacturer measures
and controls may not be the important factors for the next step in the supply chain. It is not
until the performances of materials are measured that the complete cost picture for the
customer can be calculated. So it must be the customer who decides if a material is over-
specified. Where a good relationship exists between client and supplier they can work
together to develop a lower-cost, high-quality solution to the benefit of both.
Industry practices
Over many years the industry has developed a series of norms governing the agreements
between buyer and seller. These are by no means definitive and may be superseded by
specific supply agreements between trading partners. The relentless advance of new
technology, with the emergence of digital workflows and administration, has meant that
these documents are continually being updated. The latest versions are available from the
authors websites.
Particular contract details agreed between customer and supplier will take
precedence over generic industry terms and conditions published by industry bodies in
various locations. It is worth the buyer checking the small print (or conditions of
acceptance in an e-commerce situation) when accepting an estimate or placing an order
to ensure there are no terms that are contentious.
Most printers will provide their own standard terms and conditions, typically
based on the BPIF example that follows.
Standard conditions The British Printing Industries Federation (BPIF) issues a set of standard conditions for use
of contract for by member firms that were produced after discussions with the Office of Fair Trading and
printers which are printed below with permission of the BPIF.
For the standard conditions to have full legal force in any individual case, it is essential
that they should be drawn to the customers attention. It is not sufficient merely to print
the conditions on the back of the estimate form. There must also be wording on the face of
the form making reference to the printing on the back. This wording must be sufficiently
prominent to prevent a customer alleging that he did not see it, and it is suggested that it
should be printed as part of the estimate letter (i.e. above the signature) in preference to
printing it at the foot of the form.
The wording could be on the following lines: This estimate is given subject to the
standard conditions of contract issued by the British Printing Industries Federation and
printed overleaf which conditions shall be deemed to be embodied in any contract based
on or arising out of this estimate except as may be otherwise indicated herein or
subsequently agreed in writing.
Where a firm wishes to use its own conditions in addition to the standard
conditions, these may be printed on the face of the estimate, preferably above the
signature. They could also be printed on the reverse of the estimate, below the standard
conditions, provided it is made clear that the additional clauses are not part of the
standard conditions.
The unconditional acceptance by a customer of a printers estimate constitutes
a contract on the printers conditions. Some customers, however, specify in their orders
certain conditions of their own. A conditional acceptance of a printers estimate is not
binding on the printer until he confirms or accepts it in writing or by conduct. If the printer
accepts such a counter-offer, the conditions it contains become added to or (where in
conflict) substituted for those in the printers original estimate. Where appropriate for
printer read binder.
3
The Print and Production Manual Industry practices
1. Price variation
Estimates are based on the printers current costs of production and, unless otherwise
agreed, are subject to amendment on, or at any time after acceptance, to meet any rise
or fall in such costs.
2. Tax
Except in the case of a customer who is not contracting in the course of a business nor
holding himself out as doing so, the printer reserves the right to charge the amount of
any value added tax payable whether or not included on the estimate or invoice.
3. Preliminary work
All work carried out, whether experimentally or otherwise, at customers request shall be
charged.
4. Copy
A charge may be made to cover any additional work involved where copy supplied is not
clear and legible.
5. Proofs
Proofs of all work may be submitted for the customers approval, and the printer shall incur no
liability for any errors not corrected by the customer in proofs submitted. Customers alterations
and additional proofs necessitated thereby shall be charged extra. When style, type or layout is
left to the printers judgement, changes made by the customer shall be charged extra.
6. Delivery and payment
Delivery of work shall be accepted when tendered and the ownership shall pass,
and payment becomes due, on notification that the work has been completed.
Unless otherwise specified, the price quoted is for delivery of the work to the
customers address as set out in the estimate. A charge may be made to cover any
extra costs involved for delivery to a different address.
Should expedited delivery be agreed, an extra might be charged to cover overtime or
other additional costs involved.
Should work be suspended at the request of or delayed through any default of the
customer for a period of 30 days, the printer shall then be entitled to payment for work
carried out, materials specially ordered and other additional costs including storage.
7. Variations in quantity
In the case of continuous stationery production, every endeavour will be made to deliver
the correct quantity ordered. However, quotations are conditional on the following margins
being allowed for overs and shortages (measured in fold depths), the same to be charged
or deducted:
For quantities below 10,000, or where special papers or special features are required:
10% margin.
Single-part or one-process work 10,000 to 50,000: 5% margin; over 50,000: 4% margin.
Multi-part or multi-process work 10,000 to 50,000: 10% margin; over 50,000: 3% margin.
8. Claims
Advice of damage, delay or partial loss of goods in transit or of non-delivery must be given
in writing to the printer and the carrier within three clear days of delivery (or, in the case of
non-delivery, within 28 days of despatch of the goods). Any claim in respect thereof must
be made in writing to the printer and the carrier within seven clear days of delivery (or, in
the case of non-delivery, within 42 days of despatch). All other claims must be made in
writing to the printer within 28 days of delivery. The printer shall not be liable in respect of
any claim unless the aforementioned requirements have been complied with except in any
particular case where the customer proves that:
(a) it was not possible to comply with the requirements and
(b) advice (where required) was given and the claim made as soon as reasonably possible.
9. Liability
The printer shall not be liable for any loss to the customer arising from delay in transit not
caused by the printer.
10. Standing material
Metal, film, glass and other materials owned by the printer and used by him in the
production of type, plates, moulds, stereotypes, electrotypes, film-setting, negatives,
positives and the like shall remain his exclusive property. When supplied by the
customer, such items shall remain the customers property.
Type may be distributed and lithographic, photogravure or other work effaced
immediately after the order is executed unless written arrangements are made to the
contrary. In the latter event, rent may be charged.
11. Customers property
Except in the case of a customer who is not contracting in the course of a business nor
holding himself out as doing so, customers property and all property supplied to the
printer by or on behalf of the customer shall while it is in the possession of the printer
or in transit to or from the customer be deemed to be at customers risk unless
otherwise agreed and the customer should insure accordingly.
The printer shall be entitled to make a reasonable charge for the storage of any
customers property left with the printer before receipt of the order or after
notification to the customer of completion of the work.
3
12. Materials supplied by the customer
The printer may reject any paper, plates or other materials supplied or specified by the
customer, which appear to him to be unsuitable. Additional cost incurred if materials
are found to be unsuitable during production may be charged except that if the whole
or any part of such additional cost could have been avoided but for unreasonable
delay by the printer in ascertaining the unsuitability of the materials then that
amount shall not be charged to the customer.
Where materials are so supplied or specified, the printer will take every care to secure
the best results, but responsibility will not be accepted for imperfect work caused by
defects in or unsuitability of materials so supplied or specified.
Quantities of materials supplied shall be adequate to cover normal spoilage.
13. Insolvency
If the customer ceases to pay his debts in the ordinary course of business, cannot pay his
debts as they become due or, being a company, is deemed to be unable to pay its debts,
has a winding-up petition issued against it or being a person commits an act of
bankruptcy or has a bankruptcy petition issued against him, the printer without prejudice
to other remedies shall:
have the right not to proceed further with the contract or any other work for the
customer and be entitled to charge for work already carried out (whether completed
or not) and materials purchased for the customer, such charge to be an immediate
debt due to him, and
in respect of all unpaid debts due from the customer have a general lien on all goods
and property in his possession (whether worked on or not) and shall be entitled on the
expiration of 14 days notice to dispose of such goods or property in such manner and
at such price as he thinks fit and to apply the proceeds towards such debts.
14. Illegal matter
The printer shall not be required to print any matter that, in his opinion, is or may be
of an illegal or libellous nature or an infringement of the proprietary or other rights of
any third party.
The printer shall be indemnified by the customer in respect of any claims, costs and
expenses arising out of any libellous matter or any infringement of copyright, patent,
design or any other proprietary or personal rights contained in any material printed
for the customer. The indemnity shall extend to any amounts paid on a lawyers
advice in settlement of any claim.
15. Periodical publications
A contract for the printing of a periodical publication may not be terminated by either
party unless 13 weeks notice in writing is given in the case of periodicals produced
monthly or more frequently or 26 weeks notice in writing is given in the case of other
periodicals. Notice may be given at any time but, wherever possible, should be given after
completion of work on any one issue. Nevertheless the printer may terminate any such
contract should any sum due remain unpaid.
16. Machine readable codes
(a) In the case of machine-readable codes or symbols, the printer shall print the same as
specified or approved by the customer in accordance with generally accepted
standards and procedures.
(b) The customer shall be responsible for satisfying himself that the code or symbol will
read correctly on the equipment likely to be used by those for whom the code or
symbol is intended.
(c) The customer shall indemnify the printer against any claim by any party resulting from
the code or symbol not reading or not reading correctly for any reason, except to the
extent that such claim rises from any failure of the printer to comply with paragraph
(a) above which is not attributable to error falling within the tolerances generally
accepted in the trade in relation to printing of this sort.
17. Force majeure
The printer shall be under no liability if he shall be unable to carry out any provision of the
contract for any reason beyond his control including (without limiting the foregoing) act of
God, legislation, war, fire, flood, drought, failure of power supply, lock-out, strike or other
action taken by employees in contemplation or furtherance of a dispute or owing to any
inability to procure materials required for the performance of the contract. During the
continuance of such a contingency, the customer may by written notice to the printer elect
to terminate the contract and pay for work done and materials used, but subject thereto
shall otherwise accept delivery when available.
18. Law
These conditions and all other express terms of the contract shall be governed and
construed in accordance with the laws of England (Scotland in the case of Scottish printers).
British paper Five Federations or Associations endorse this document. Representatives formally recorded
and board trade their acceptance of its content by signing on behalf of their respective organisations.
customs, 1988 Terms marked * are described in Appendix C at the end of this document. The British Paper
and Board Industry Federation, The National Association of Paper Merchants, The
Packaging Distributors Association, The British Box and Packaging Association, The British
Printing Industries Federation.
This publication is a compilation of the customs and practices that have been
found by individual British mills to be valuable and practical in handling their sales of
paper and board. It has been developed in consultation with the signatory boards listed
above. It is as complete as it has been possible to make it, and will constitute a ready method
3
to ensure that both buyer and seller have the same understanding of a quotation or the
terms of a sale.
These customs shall apply to all transactions except as otherwise specifically
agreed in writing* by the parties. Nothing in these customs shall affect buyers statutory
rights under the Sale of Goods Act 1979. These customs are to be interpreted in accordance
with the law of England.
This edition (1988) of British Paper and Board Trade Customs supersedes British
Paper and Board Trade Customs (1974) including the amendments of February 1985, The
Code of Practice for Lined Cartonboard (May 1982) and The Code of Practice for Rigid Box
Board (March 1983).
It does not contain The Code of Practice for Container Middles (January 1985),
Recommended Quality Requirements for Continuous Stationery Paper, and Recommended
Quality Requirements for Carbonless Papers for Continuous Stationery and the
Memorandum on Pallet Specifications all of which are available as separate publications.
Terms marked * are described in Appendix C (see page 91).
Part 1: Force majeure
General applying 1. In the event of the delivery by the seller or acceptance by the buyer being wholly or
to all paper and board partly prevented or interfered with by act of God, hostilities, threat of war, riot,
industrial dispute, civil commotion, fire, drought, flood, restriction by Government or
other competent authority, shortfall in anticipated supplies of raw material or by any
of the following contingencies beyond the control of the party affected: interruption
of transport, destruction or damage of premises, plant or machinery, or any other
causes whether of similar character or not, beyond the control of the party affected
including, in the case of the buyer, causes affecting the buyers customer, the
following provisions shall have effect:
a. The party affected shall give to the other party immediate notice of cause
preventing or interfering with delivery or acceptance and the extent to which
delivery or acceptance is prevented or interfered with, and (if possible) the
probable duration of the cause of prevention or interference.
b. During the continuance of the cause of prevention or interference, delivery of the
unfulfilled portion of the contract shall be suspended or, in the case of a partial
prevention or interference, reduced until the cause shall have ceased to operate.
c. Immediately the cause of the prevention or interference has ceased to operate, the
party concerned shall give notice thereof to the other party, and as soon as
practicable thereafter delivery shall be resumed in accordance with the terms of
the contract.
d. If a cause of prevention or interference shall continue for more than one calendar
month after the stipulated date of delivery either party may by notice in writing
to the other cancel that portion affected by the delay.
Price variation
2. In the event of a variation of costs necessarily and properly incurred by the seller after
the acceptance of an order but before the date on which it is necessary to proceed
with manufacture in order to meet the delivery requirements of the order, the price
may be increased or decreased within the limits of such variation. This is subject to
reasonable notice being given by either the seller or the buyer in respect of orders or
balances of orders outstanding.
The buyer shall have the option to cancel orders or balances of orders
outstanding by notice in writing* to the seller within seven days of receiving the
sellers notification of an increase in price. Any quotation should also be subject to
variation in like manner unless specifically stated otherwise.
Details of order
3. a. Making specifications: Full particulars of the quality, quantity, grammage or
thickness and format* of the material ordered, together with any other pertinent
information, shall be provided by the buyer to the seller, in sufficient time to
enable the manufacturer to comply with the making and/or delivery
requirements.
b. Technical specification: If any special technical or end-use properties are required
they must be stated, and agreed in writing* by both parties, before the order is
placed.
c. Delivery specification: The buyer shall provide to the seller all necessary
information for delivery of the goods to be effected.
Invoicing
4. a. The goods, having been despatched to meet the buyers delivery requirements,
they shall be invoiced, and such invoice shall become due and payable in
accordance with the section headed Terms. (paras 3233)
b. If the goods contracted for be ready for delivery on the specified date and the
buyer does not then take delivery, they shall be invoiced forthwith and such
invoice shall become due and payable in accordance with the section headed
Terms. (paras 3233)
Storage
5. Goods stored by the seller after the date of invoice shall be subject to an economic
and appropriate rent charge.
Insurance
6. Insurance of the goods shall remain the responsibility of the seller until delivery has
been accepted at the specified destination.
3
Cancellation
7. Once accepted, an order may not be cancelled either wholly or in part except as
permitted under the Force Majeure or Price Variation provisions of these customs or by
agreement between the parties. Unless specifically agreed otherwise, neither party
shall be liable to make any payment to the other on cancellation, whether by
agreement or by such provisions, save that where the seller agrees to a cancellation at
the request of the buyer or where the cancellation is due to force majeure affecting
the buyer or the buyers customer and not the seller then the following provisions shall
(unless otherwise agreed) apply:
a. No payment shall be made in respect of the sellers regular stock products except
that when transit has commenced before cancellation the buyer shall reimburse
the sellers reasonable costs involved including cost of re-delivery to the seller
and the cost of any damage in transit.
b. Where the buyer has ordered goods which are to be manufactured for the
specific order and the buyer had been advised by the seller of the making date
and any of the goods are in course of manufacture or have been completed in
accordance with the contract at the time of the cancellation the buyer shall pay
the contract price for those goods. Where cancellation is due to an event in
respect of which a claim is available under the sellers insurance or would be
available if the seller had insured as required by paragraph 6, the liability of the
buyer under this paragraph shall be reduced accordingly.
Settlement of disputes
8. In the event of a dispute arising between buyer and seller that cannot be settled by
agreement, the parties concerned (in preference to having recourse to the courts) may
refer the matter either to the standing committee of the Paper Trade Customs or to
Arbitration under the relevant acts.
STANDING COMMITTEE
9. A standing committee shall be appointed consisting of three persons appointed by
and from each signatory body. The standing committee shall appoint a chairman who
may be either independent from or one of their number. The chairman shall hold
office during the pleasure of the standing committee and shall have a casting vote,
which (if he is otherwise a member of the standing committee) shall be in addition to
his vote as such a member. The standing committee shall also appoint a secretary
through whom any request for its services should be made. A quorum for a meeting of
the standing committee shall be six, among whom at least three signatory bodies are
represented and none of whom is in the employ of or acting as agent for a party to
any dispute or reference being considered.
Where any business concerns a dispute or reference affecting members of one or
more signatory bodies each relevant signatory body must be represented within the
quorum. Decisions of the standing committee shall be by majority votes of those
attending a meeting at which a quorum is present.
10. The standing committee has discretion in all cases whether to accept or refuse a
reference and this provision may not be varied by any purported agreement between
parties. Subject to this provision the standing committee may provide either of the
following services:
a. Interpretation of these customs in relation to any given set of facts referred to the
standing committee either by the parties to a dispute or by any tribunal
considering any matter involving such interpretation.
b. Conciliation at the request of parties in dispute which will involve investigation
and discussions in such manner as the standing committee thinks fit in each case
with a view to making recommendations for settlement.
11. The secretary of the standing committee may give informal guidance to any interested
person or body (whether or not a member of a signatory body) as to interpretation of
these customs but has no authority to bind the standing committee.
12. In any case where the standing committee agrees to provide such service the standing
committee may either perform the relevant function itself or may delegate the
performance of the function to a sub-committee appointed by the standing committee.
The sub-committee shall consist of two representatives of each signatory body involved
and an independent chairman who shall have a casting vote only. Decisions of the sub-
committee shall be by majority vote. The members of the sub-committee may, but need
not, be members of the standing committee and shall not be in the employ of or acting
as an agent for a party to any dispute or reference being considered.
13. The standing committee and any sub-committee shall each have the power to co-opt
specialist advisers if thought fit who may participate in their meetings but not vote or
count towards a quorum.
14. The standing committee shall not be bound to follow their earlier decision as to
interpretation.
OTHER THAN BY STANDING COMMITTEE
15. If it is decided to settle by arbitration, otherwise than through the services of the
standing committee, a dispute arising under any contract or order, including liability
for any loss or damage as above, such disputes shall be settled in England and Wales
under the Arbitration Acts, 19521979, or any statutory modifications or additions
thereto or re-enactments thereof, or in Scotland and Northern Ireland under the
appropriate law relating thereto.
16. Each party shall appoint an arbiter, but if either party fails to appoint an arbiter
within ten days of notice in writing from the other party requiring them to do so, the
arbiter appointed by the other party shall act for both parties and his award shall
bind both parties as if he had been appointed sole arbiter by consent.
3
17. If the arbiters do not agree upon determination of liability and how the cost of the
dispute shall be borne, they are to appoint an umpire to whom their findings are to be
submitted. In such cases the final decision shall be that of the umpire.
18. No person in the employ of, or acting as an agent for either shall be eligible to act as
arbiter or umpire.
Complaints and claims PROCEDURE HOME*
19. In respect of damage in transit complaints must be notified in writing* (other than
upon the consignment note) to the carrier and supplier within three clear working
days of delivery of the goods and any claim must be made in writing within seven
clear days of the end of the transit of the consignment or the part of the consignment
in respect of which the claim arises.
20. For non-delivery of the whole of the consignment or any separate package forming
part of the consignment, notification in writing should be made within 28 days and
the claim should be made in writing within 42 days after transit began.
21. Complaints arising on other grounds which can be revealed by immediate external
and visual examination of the bulk delivery can only be accepted if made in writing to
the supplier within 14 days after delivery and before the goods are used. If a defect is
subsequently discovered during processing, a claim may be admissible provided the
supplier is notified by the quickest possible means.
22. No acceptance of responsibility can be guaranteed for any claims lodged after three
months from the date of delivery.
PROCEDURE EXPORT*
23. Complaints on any grounds which can be revealed by immediate external and visual
examination of the bulk delivery must be notified to the supplier by the quickest
possible means within 14 days after the goods have reached their ultimate destination
as stated on the order and before the goods are used.
24. If a defect is subsequently discovered during processing, a claim may be admissible
provided the supplier is notified by the quickest possible means. No acceptance of
responsibility can be guaranteed for any claims lodged after three months from the
date of delivery at the ultimate destination.
SUCCESSIVE DELIVERIES
25. If any home or export order is to be executed in successive consignments, each such
consignment shall rank and be treated as a separate entity. Any difference or dispute
about one consignment shall not affect any other portion of the contract or order.
MEASUREMENT OF REEL LENGTH
26. In the event of any complaint being made for inaccurate measurement of the length of
the material supplied on the reel, such complaint must be based solely upon the actual
measurements. It shall not be based upon yield from the consignment concerned.
Materials of manufacture
27. Unless it is otherwise expressly stipulated in the order and agreed, the manufacturer
shall be free to use his discretion in the selection of materials. It is expected however
that the manufacturer would advise his customers of any significant changes that
might affect performance, providing the end use is known.
Outturn sheets
28. Outturn sheets* may be supplied with the invoice on request and duplicate sheets
shall be retained by the manufacturer for a period of 12 months after manufacture.
Conditions and methods of sampling and testing
29. The conditions and methods of sampling and testing in respect of any paper and
boards in the scope of these Customs, unless agreed otherwise by buyer and seller,
shall be the agreed standard tests prepared by the British Standards Institution.
(Listed in Appendix A on page 88.)
Part II: Customs Scope of customs for paper
specific to paper 30. The scope of this section of the customs shall include all papers and boards, coated or
uncoated, excluding:
hand and mould made papers
soft tissue paper
newsprint
boards as defined in the appropriate section of the customs.
Bases of sale
31. Paper shall be sold and invoiced:
a. by 100 or 1000 sheets or any part thereof OR
b. by ream* of 500 sheets OR
c. by area OR
d. by weight, in reels or sheets however packed OR
e. by arrangement between buyer and seller.
Terms QUOTATIONS
32. Unless otherwise stated, quotations are understood to be net and carriage paid to the
address stated on the order. The choice of route and mode of delivery shall be at the
discretion of the seller, unless otherwise agreed between buyer and seller.
TERMS OF PAYMENT
33. Goods invoiced and dispatched up to and including the last day of the calendar
month shall be paid for before the end of the following month.
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DELIVERY
34. Delivery in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland shall include
delivery at the buyers warehouse or that of this consignee.
CHARGEABLE WEIGHT*
35. a. Sheets: For paper sold by weight in sheet form, the chargeable weight of a
consignment shall be the product of the nominal net weight* of a unit of a
stated number of sheets of the ordered size and grammage* and the number of
such units, provided that the actual net weight of the consignment does not fall
short of the chargeable weight as defined above by more than 2.5%, in which
case the actual net weight shall be charged.
b. Reels: For paper sold by weight in reel form, the chargeable weight of a
consignment shall be either:
i) The actual weight of the reels excluding wooden and/or metal centres or
ii) The nominal net weight calculated from the grammage and area supplied.
[For details of sale of paper and board by area, please refer to Guidelines for Buying
and Selling Printing and Writing Papers on the Reel by Area (Appendix B, page 89).]
Manufacturing REELS MEASUREMENTS
variations, cutting 36. Reels shall not vary from the ordered width by more than the following amounts:
tolerances for a. plus or minus 2mm for reels up to and including 1000mm width
graphic* papers only b. plus or minus 3mm for reels over 1000mm width.
REEL JOINS
37. At the time of placing an order the buyer and seller should agree the maximum
number of joins or splices, the method of joining, their position in the reel and
identification.
SHEETS MEASUREMENTS
38. For paper guillotine trimmed or precision cut*, the permissible tolerance shall not be
more than plus or minus 2mm.
39. In special circumstances, members of AMPW* will supply precision cut papers against
making orders to the following tolerances when specifically requested to do so:
cross direction* of the paper plus or minus 1mm;
machine direction* of the paper plus or minus 2mm.
40. Mills reserve the right to make price adjustments when called upon to observe these
tighter tolerances which are intended to satisfy printers requirements when using
convertible presses* for perfecting*.
41. Sheets not guillotine trimmed or precision cut shall not vary from the ordered
measurement by more than the following:
a. plus or minus 3mm for measurements up to and including 610mm;
b. plus or minus 5mm for measurements over 610mm and up to and including
1245mm;
c. plus or minus 6mm or measurements over 1245mm.
Cutting tolerances REELS MEASUREMENTS
for all other papers 42. Reels shall not vary from the ordered width by more than the following amounts:
a. plus or minus 3mm for reels up to and including 610mm in width
b. plus or minus 5mm for reels over 610mm and up to and including 1245mm
in width
c. plus or minus 6mm for reels over 1245mm in width.
REEL JOINS
43. At the time of placing an order the buyer and seller should agree the maximum
number of joins or splices, the method of joining, their position in the reel and
identification.
SHEETS MEASUREMENTS
44. For paper guillotine trimmed or precision cut, the permissible tolerance shall not be
more than plus or minus 2mm.
45. Sheets not guillotine trimmed or precision cut shall not vary from the ordered
measurement by more than the following:
a. plus or minus 3mm for measurements up to and including 610mm;
b. plus or minus 5mm for measurements over 610mm and up to and including
1245mm;
c. plus or minus 6mm for measurements over 1245mm.
Other manufacturing GRAMMAGE*
tolerances and 46. Grammage readings obtained by using the methods of sampling, conditioning and
variations for all types testing detailed in Appendix A shall not vary from the ordered grammage by more
of paper (including than plus or minus 7.5% under 40 grammes per square metre or more than plus or
graphic papers) minus 5% for 40 grammes per square metre and over.
THICKNESS
47. Thickness readings obtained by using the methods of sampling conditioning and
testing detailed in Appendix A shall not vary from the ordered thickness by more
than:
a. plus or minus 10% for thicknesses up to and including 100 micrometres*;
b. plus or minus 7.5% for thicknesses over 100 micrometres.
3
QUANTITY VARIATION
48. Making orders are any orders for paper which are outside the normal stock range of
the manufacturer and shall be deemed to be properly executed if the quantity
supplied in each size and weight is within the following limits either way of the
quantity ordered in each size and weight:
Standard stock* Non-standard papers
quality and grammage e.g. by reason of quality
in special sizes and/or grammage
Up to and including 1 tonne 10.0% 15.0%
Over 1 tonne and not exceeding 5 tonnes 5.0% 10.0%
Over 5 tonnes and not exceeding 10 tonnes 5.0% 7.5%
Over 10 tonnes and not exceeding 20 tonnes 3.75% 5.0%
Over 20 tonnes 2.5% 2.5%
DOUBLE TOLERANCE
49. In all cases covered by the above manufacturing variation clauses, where purchasers
specify any tolerance exclusively in one direction, double tolerance shall apply in the
other direction.
50. For example, if a customer orders not less than 6 tonnes of a non-standard paper the
tolerance on quantity supplied would be minus 0% plus 2 7.5% = 15% = 0.9 tonne.
If a customer specifies for a non-graphic paper a reel width as not less than 590mm,
the tolerance on this width would be minus 0mm plus 2 3mm = 6mm.
SQUARENESS
51. Adjacent edges of paper supplied as rectangular should form a right angle within a
tolerance of plus or minus 0.003 radians (10192). This may be checked by placing one
side of the sheet in contact with a straight reference edge; a straight line is then
constructed at right angles to the reference edge, passing through the corner under
test: at a distance of one metre from the reference edge, the distance between the
constructed line and the adjacent edge of the sheet should not exceed 3mm. For
sheets less than one metre in length on the edge under test, the variation may be
interpreted proportionally.
GENERAL
52. When tolerance measurements are to be determined, samples shall first be selected and
conditioned in accordance with BS3430 and BS3431 (listed in Appendix A on page 88).
Packing
53. Returnable boards, frames, cases, stillages, pallets and special centres shall be clearly
marked and shall be charged at appropriate rates. These charges shall be refunded in
full when such packing material has been returned to the point of origin in good
condition within an agreed period.
Dandy rolls* and supported sleeves*
54. Any buyer requiring a special watermark shall pay the papermaker in full for the
provision of the roll or sleeve. The buyer, by agreement with the papermaker, may be
allowed a credit of 2.5% on the value of each invoice for the paper made in the mill
from the roll or sleeve until the total cost has been refunded, when the roll or sleeve
but not the design or its copyright shall automatically become the property of the mill.
The roll or sleeve shall be redeemable by the buyer within five years from the date of
the last making of paper from the roll or sleeve concerned, upon repayment to the mill
of the total amount of any such allowances. If no such allowances are made, the roll
or sleeve shall remain the property of the buyer who may at any time require delivery
thereof. No roll or sleeve shall be destroyed until the buyer has been given in writing*
the opportunity of redemption.
Any alterations to the roll or sleeve required by the buyer, or maintenance due to
fair wear and tear, are the responsibility of the buyer, and the charge may be credited
on the same basis as the original dandy roll or supported sleeve. The ownership of the
watermark, dandy roll and supported sleeve shall be the subject of a written
agreement between the buyer and the mill.
Breakage
55. Customary mill packages will not be broken.
Part III: Scope of 56. Heavier grades of paper, described commercially as boards primarily intended for the
customs for boards packaging and converting industries, but excluding fibre building board, matrix board,
container middles and grey paper felt.
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Bases of sale
57. Board shall be sold and invoiced:
a by weight, whether in sheets or reels OR
b by area OR
c. by number of sheets of a required size OR
d. by arrangement between buyer and seller.
Terms QUOTATIONS
58. Unless otherwise stated, quotations are understood to be net and carriage paid to the
address stated on the order. The choice of route and mode of delivery shall be at the
discretion of the seller unless otherwise agreed between buyer and seller.
TERMS OF PAYMENT
59. Goods invoiced and dispatched up to and including the last day of the calendar
month shall be paid for before the end of the following month.
DELIVERY
60. Delivery in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland shall include
delivery at the buyers warehouse or that of his consignee.
CHARGEABLE WEIGHT*
61. The chargeable weight for sheets shall exclude the weight of the necessary wrapping
materials. Board in reels shall be charged at gross weight inclusive of wrappers,
centres and plugs (excluding wood or metal centres) which are not returnable.
62. The following manufacturing variations and general requirements replace the Code of
Practice for Lined Cartonboard (May 1982) and the Code of Practice for Rigid
Boxboard (March 1983) and cover the following classes of board.
Class I White-lined boards down to N
o
2 white-lined chipboard;
Class II All other non-white boards lined with virgin pulp liners;
Class III Unlined chipboard and similar grades including greyboard.
General requirements
63. Agreement on the following conditions and tolerances shall be taken as an expression
of intention, and any deviation from these guidelines shall be the subject of
negotiation between buyer and seller.
a. The supplier must not deliver material which the supplier could reasonably be
expected to know would not be satisfactory for the described conversion process
in the converters plant and the end use if indicated.
b. Board manufacturers must ensure that, to the best of their knowledge, materials
used or supplied by them are suitable for the purposes specified. The responsibility
for ensuring the suitability of the finished product rests with the converter, though
it may be necessary to agree specifications for particular individual outlets and
purposes, e.g. the direct packaging of food as covered in the Statutory Instrument
1987 N
o
1523 or such other legislation as may, in future, apply.
c. The board shall be delivered in good condition in units of specified size and
weight. For lined cartonboard, sheets shall be wrapped in suitable moisture-proof
wrappers to protect them during transport. Reels will be similarly wrapped when
requested.
d. All units of board, whether pallets, bundles or reels shall be clearly marked to
customers requirements with the order details for identification purposes.
Machine direction* should be shown when requested by a uniform symbol
(<>) on every bundle and on two adjacent sides of a pallet.
(For lined carton board only, pallet loads or reels may be identified in relation to the
manufacturing sequence and deckle position when required.)
Manufacturing SHEET DIMENSION TOLERANCES
variations and 64. The size of a sheet of board shall be defined by width and length, the second
tolerances dimension being the way of the machine direction. When cutting sheets, dimensions
shall be within the following tolerances:
Class of board I II III
Machine direction 2.5mm 3mm 3mm
Cross direction* 1.5mm 2mm 2mm
The cross direction tolerances also refer to reels.
SQUARENESS
65. Adjacent edges of a board supplied as rectangular should form a right angle within a
tolerance of plus or minus 0.003 radians (1019) unless tighter specifications are
agreed between buyer and seller. (This may be checked by placing one side of the
sheet in contact with a straight reference edge; a straight line is then constructed at
right angles to the reference edge, passing through the corner under test; at a
distance of 1m from the reference edge, the distance between the constructed line and
the adjacent edge of the sheet should not exceed 3mm. For sheets less than 1m in
length on the edge under test, the variation may be interpreted proportionally.)
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GRAMMAGE*
66. a. Permitted deviation of the individual specimen value from ordered grammage
within a consignment (95% of the specimen measurements must be within the
agreed tolerance).
I II III
Unpasted 5% 5% 5%
Pasted 7% 7% 7%
b. From ordered grammages, the following sliding scale will apply for variation of
the average grammage for a given order.
I II III
Unpasted
(up to & inc 10 tonnes) 5% 5% 5%
(10 tonnes or over) 3% 5% 5%
Pasted
(up to & inc 10 tonnes) 7% 7% 7%
(10 tonnes or over) 5% 7% 7%
Thickness
67. These tolerances refer to the deviation of the individual specimen value from the
ordered value within a consignment.
I II III
Unpasted, the greater of 4% 5% 7%
or 25 25 25
Pasted 7% 9%
MOISTURE CONTENT
68. The moisture content of the board at the time of delivery or customer collection shall
be uniformly distributed and as specified within the following tolerances.
I II III
Unpasted 1.5% 2% 2%
Pasted 2% 3%
Note:
69. Tolerances for thickness and moisture content refer to the deviation of the individual
specimen value from the ordered value within a consignment. 95% of the individual
measurements must be within the agreed tolerances.
70. Achievement against tolerance is assessed for each parameter (i.e. grammage,
thickness and moisture content) independently of the other two. The 95%
achievement is therefore not cumulative.
QUANTITY
71. Orders shall be deemed to be properly executed if the quantity supplied in each size
and weight is within the following limits either way of the quantity ordered in each
size and weight:
I II III
Up to 10 tonnes 10% 10% 10%
Over 10 and up to 20 tonnes 7.5% 7.5% 7.5%
Over 20 and up to 50 tonnes 4% 4% 4%
Over 50 tonnes 2.5% 2.5% 2.5%
COLOURED BOARDS
72. A higher differential for quantity shall be allowed for coloured board, of all classes as
follows:
up to 20 tonnes plus or minus 15%
over 20 tonnes plus or minus 6.5%.
DOUBLE TOLERANCE
73. If a minimum or maximum quantity or dimension is specified, there shall be a double
tolerance in the other direction.
BOARD SUPPLIED ON REELS
74. Cores or centres shall be of suitable strength to prevent collapse or distortion of the
reel in normal handling.
EDGE ALIGNMENT
75. Reels and coils shall be tightly and evenly wound; the sides of the reel shall be visibly
perpendicular to the axis of the core. The sides of the reel or coil shall not be dished
by more than 25mm per metre of diameter.
The maximum lateral displacement between the edges of successive laps shall
not exceed the following:
I II III
Coils or reels with a butt join 3mm 3mm 3mm
All other coils or reels 2mm 3mm 3mm
JOINS OR SPLICES
76. For orders up to five tonnes the total number of joins should not be more than the
number of reels in the delivery. For orders of five tonnes and above, the number of
joints shall not exceed the following percentages of the total number of reels in the
consignment.
3
Quantity ordered No joins Not>2 joins Not>3 joins
per reel per reel per reel
5 tonnes and not exceeding 20 tonnes 50% 40% 10%
20 tonnes and over 60% 40% Nil
STRAIGHT EDGE
77. The edge of a sheet or reel shall not deviate from a straight line by more than the
following:
I II III
Over a length of 1.5m 1.5mm 3mm 3mm
SHAPE
78. The board as delivered shall be free from such wave or curl as can be anticipated to
cause difficulties on modern converting*, printing and packaging machinery.
EDGES
79. Slit, chopped and guillotined edges of the board shall be sufficiently clean, firm and
free from loose fibres and dust for the printing process where applicable.
TORN SHEETS, TABS
80. With the exception of count tabs, which are only acceptable where requested, and
pallet binders, there should be no torn or folded sheets, no packing pieces (except at
the start of the reel) nor loose pieces of board between sheets or in a reel which might
impede the automatic feed of the converting/printing machine where applicable.
SURFACES
81. The board shall be sufficiently clean and free from fluff, loose fibres and non-fibrous
contraries for the printing process specified. There shall be a minimum possible
variation in shade of face, not only within a making but also between makings.
ACIDITY OF PRINTING SURFACES (pH VALUE)
82. The surface pH value measured by the appropriate method shall be not less than 5.0
on any surface specified to be printed.
Appendix A: BS 2924: Part 1: Method for determination of pH
British Standards BS 3430: Method for sampling to determine the average quality of paper and board
referred to in British BS 3431: Method for the conditioning of paper and board for testing
Paper and Board BS 3432: Method for the determination of grammage* of paper and board
Customs BS 3433: Method for determination of moisture content of paper and board by the oven-
drying method
BS 3983: Part 2: Method for determining the single sheet thickness of paper and board and
apparent density of board
Note: The most recent issue of the above standards is applicable in all cases.
Appendix B: 1. Introduction
Guidelines for buying The following are guidelines for the purchase and supply by area of printing and writing
and selling printing papers on reels. This is one of the conditions of sale included in the British Paper and
and writing papers Board Trade Customs 1988. The method reduces the amount of variation between the
on the reel by area ordered and delivered surface area of the paper, compared with ordering and charging by
weight. Where printing and writing papers on reels are bought and sold on an area basis,
the preferred area is one thousand square metres (1000m
2
) or one thousand linear metres
of a stated width (1000m width).
2. Operation
Modern linear measuring devices available for fitting to slitter/rewinders, converting
equipment, web-fed printing machines are accurate to +0.5% and may be equipped with
visual digital display in metres or with a chart recorder providing a printout of the
meterage of each set of reels.
Papermills so equipped will be able to give meterage figures for the reels they
supply but will also continue to show the weight of reels for transport purposes.
3. Ordering by area
The customer will order the required number of square metres, or linear metres at specified
reel widths, of the grade of paper required. The papermill converts the order to x number
of reels, each reel to be y metres in length, at a nominal weight of z kilogrammes per
reel. (The same length and width can, if required, be designated as a quantity of sheets.)
Some mills may prefer to wind reels to the same length, which would be
advantageous to supplier and customer in both practical and clerical terms. Prices that are
quoted will include the cost of cores, packaging etc.
4. Tolerances
In calculating the total quantity to be ordered there is no longer any need to take account
of core and wrappers or to allow for grammage variation (+5% above 40g/m
2
) as is
necessary when ordering by weight. Variables to take into account are +1.0% to cover the
tolerance of the linear measuring device, in addition to the making order tolerance.
Making orders are any orders for paper which are outside the normal stock range of the
manufacturer and shall be deemed to be properly executed if the quantity supplied in each
size and grammage is within the following limits either way:
3
Quantity ordered Standard stock* Non-standard papers
quality and grammage e.g. by reason of quality
in special sizes and/or grammage
Up to 25 000 m
2
10.0% 15.0%
25 to 50 000 m
2
5.0% 10.0%
50 to 100 000 m
2
5.0% 7.5%
100 to 200 000 m
2
3.75% 5.0%
Over 200 000 m
2
2.5% 2.5%
If a tolerance is excluded in one direction, double tolerance shall apply in the other
direction.
5. Claims for short measure
For a claim for short measure to be successful the printer will need to account for all of the
paper used. Such a claim must include the following information:
length of paper issued from the store
length of paper used, equivalent to quantity and size of both saleable and unsaleable
products printed/converted
length equivalent to unused paper waste, e.g. left on reel core or removed before
printing/converting.
NB. This clause, if agreed between the parties, shall override para 26 of British Paper and
Board Trade Customs 1988.
6. Prices
Basic list prices will be quoted in s per 1000 m
2
or s per 1000 linear metres.
7. Costs
Costs of paper will be calculated as follows:
a. Cost per 1000 linear metres in width ordered:
Reel width (mm) price in s per 1000m
2
1000
b. total cost of quantity ordered or invoiced:
Reel width (mm) total linear metres price in s per 1000 m
2
1 000 000
or
total linear metres price in s per 1000 linear m of given width
1000
8. Grammage
Grammage is no longer of prime consideration in respect of the cost of a given area of
paper but will revert to the role of a quality control property together with other
characteristics such as thickness, opacity etc.
9. Reel specification
It is desirable that a reel specification should accompany each consignment and contain
the following information:
Main heading supplier customer
supplier ref no customer order no
grade reel width
quantity ordered
For each reel: reel No. length in metres
scale weight in kg.
10. Stock records, issue and receipt notes
Records will need to be maintained in reels and metres, which will be similar to methods used
for sheets on pallets. The much greater accuracy and certainty of information will improve the
correlation between stock records and physical stock and also permit a greater control of
paper spoilage. When changing from a weight to an area basis for ordering and charging, it is
necessary to ensure that all operatives concerned are fully trained in the procedure and in the
terminology and units employed. The organisations associated with these guidelines are:
The British Paper and Board Industry Federation
The British Printing Industries Federation
The National Association of Paper Merchants
The Publishers Association.
Appendix C: Definitions
Glossary for British Actual weight The weight of a unit or consignment of paper as recorded by accurate
Paper and Board and properly maintained weighing equipment.
Customs AMPW The Association of Makers of Printings and Writings.
Chargeable weight The weight of paper that a supplier is permitted to invoice to a
buyer under the terms of these customs.
Convertible press A type of multi-unit, sheetfed printing press in which reversing
equipment is provided between two adjacent units so that the sheet may be turned over
and the following unit(s) print on the reverse side of the sheet in the same pass. Thus the
press is capable of printing on one side or perfecting.
Converting Any process carried out on paper that alters its appearance or format or
changes it into another product, e.g. printing, cutting, impregnating, laminating.
Cross direction That direction in the plane of a sheet of paper at right angles to the
machine direction.
Cut sizes Term used to denote paper in small rectangular sheets. There is no agreed line
of demarcation between large and cut sizes but the latter would generally be applied to
sheets of A3 format (297 420mm) and below.
Dandy roll A wire-covered roll of light construction used on the upper side of the forming
fabric and rotating in contact with the wet web. If required, a design may be incorporated
3
on the face of the roll to impart a watermark to the paper, e.g. laid lines, brand name or
other symbols.
Export Refers to the relevant market area in the procedure for complaints and claims for
goods sold outside of the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland.
Format The manner in which paper or board is presented for sale, e.g. in sheets or on
reels. For sheets, format is taken to include dimensions and machine direction and, for
reels, the width, internal diameter of cores and information on the amount of paper or
board to be wound by specifying the overall diameter, length or weight.
Grammage The mass of a unit area of paper or board determined by the specified
method of test and expressed in grammes per square metre (gsm).
Graphic papers Papers intended to be suitable for printing by conventional processes
and/or inscribing with writing inks or similar applications.
Home Refers to the relevant market area in the procedure for complaints and claims for
goods sold within the whole of the United Kingdom including Northern Ireland, Channel
Islands, Isle of Man etc.
In writing Any method of communication that will provide a hard copy of the message,
e.g. letter, telex, fax etc.
Machine direction That direction in a paper and board corresponding to the direction of
travel of the web on the paper or board machine.
Micrometre A unit, used to express the thickness of paper and board, equivalent to one
thousandth of a millimetre. Frequently abbreviated in trade parlance to micron (m).
Net weight The weight of a unit or consignment of paper excluding tare (i.e. packaging
material, cores etc.).
Nominal weight The weight of a unit or consignment of paper or board calculated from
its nominal grammage, nominal dimensions and the number of sheets or total area supplied.
Outturn sheets Samples provided by a seller to a buyer, representative of a making, to
illustrate its characteristics.
Perfecting The placing of an image on both sides of a sheet of paper in the same pass
through a printing machine, or in a subsequent working.
Precision cut Term used for paper or board that has been cut from the reel to
rectangular sheets in a precision cutter. Although no different from a rotary cutter in basic
principle, the precision cutter is distinguished by its greater accuracy.
Ream A pack of 500 sheets of paper of the same quality, colour, grammage and format.
Stock papers Those qualities, colours, grammages and formats of paper that are advertised
by the seller as being held in stock on a regular and continuing basis for prompt delivery.
Supported sleeve A device, for use in conjunction with an uncovered dandy roll, in the
form of a cylindrical, wire-covered sleeve that may be fitted over the body of the dandy roll
and removed when no longer required. In cases where a sleeve can be used, it is
unnecessary to manufacture the more expensive complete dandy roll for a given
watermark.
Working days Monday to Friday, excluding public holidays.
Customs of the Introduction
trade for the Although many origination houses and suppliers have detailed contracts with periodical
production of publishers, their work is often also based on the standard conditions of contract issued by
periodicals the British Printing Industries Federation. However, such conditions do not fully cover all
aspects of periodical production and the purpose of this section is to clarify the customs
of the periodical trade on all relevant points. This section does not affect, and is not
intended to affect, the position of the origination house and printer not engaged in
magazine and journal production. It should also be noted that the customs recommended
can be varied by mutual agreement between parties to a contract and that they are
without legal effect unless they are specifically incorporated into a particular contract.
Even where the customs do not have a legal effect, however, publishers and suppliers may
feel that they provide a suitable basis for settlement in the event of a dispute.
Customs of the Trade for the Production of Periodicals was provided by a joint
PPA/BPIF Working Party and has been formally accepted by the two associations, and
registered at the Office of Fair Trading.
1. Terms of payment
Terms of payment, including such special arrangements as stage payments, are normally
agreed between supplier and customer before the order is placed. In the absence of such
prior agreement, payment is due 30 days from the date the printed work is delivered. It is
in the interest of both parties that invoices are rendered as promptly as possible following
delivery. The following are examples of current practice:
Where prepress material is ordered separately, an invoice may be rendered on
completion of this part of the contract;
Where a single supplier is responsible for composition and machining, the invoice
may be rendered on completion of machining;
Where a single supplier is responsible for machining and binding, the invoice may
be rendered on delivery of bound copies;
Interim payments may be negotiated for unusually large, slow or complex orders
for prepress work, machining or binding;
Except where covered by a prior agreement, an invoice for prepress work may be
rendered 60 days after completion of a proofing stage if the proofs have not been
returned to the supplier for further work to be done.
2. Origination material
Regardless of ownership, origination material supplied by a publisher for the production of
periodicals should not be destroyed without the written agreement of the publisher, but
the publisher should not expect the supplier to store items indefinitely. A storage period,
usually 13 months, should be agreed in advance.
Publishers property (and artwork, photograph, the property of third parties
supplied by the publisher) is normally held and worked on by the supplier at the
3
publishers risk. The supplier should, however, exercise reasonable care in handling and
storing such property. Film, digital and origination materials produced by the supplier or
origination house remain the property of the printer or origination house unless otherwise
agreed. It is recommended that arrangements are made for such materials to become the
property of the publisher when payment has been made in full.
There should be some specific arrangement regarding the loss or damage liability
of transparencies from picture libraries because replacement value can be high. The
supplier may need to break the seal, using all reasonable care, on photo library pictures in
order to scan them, in which case the publisher would be liable for any damage to the
material involved in so doing.
Paying for the faulty output of corrupted modems or disks is the publishers
liability. Also, if charges for modems or the use of fax are to be incurred as an extra, prior
agreement is needed in respect of the basis of these charges, including a clear
understanding of who is responsible for the maintenance and support of hardware and
software. The same principle applies to messenger services (without prejudice to clause 7).
Lithographic plates made by the supplier are normally the property of the
supplier and may be destroyed when printing is completed, unless the publisher has made
a specific request to the contrary in writing.
3. Insurance
Publisher and supplier are each normally responsible for the insurance of their own
property, including property in transit, but see clause 8 on paper. The publishers
responsibility for the insurance of work done is either from the time the work is:
delivered to his nominated supplier;
payment is made by the publisher, whichever is the earlier.
In this way the publishing company insures the work from the moment it has an insurable
interest in it. The publisher is responsible for the insurance of material stored by the
supplier at the publishers request in whatever form, unless agreed specifically otherwise in
writing. Value for insurance purposes should cover the cost of replacement to the same
stage as when lost. Suppliers do not normally cover any liability for the publishers
consequential loss.
The agreement should clarify what materials or data are covered by the
respective insurance arrangements of publisher and supplier, including the position with
regard to materials supplied by other parties (inserts etc). Examples of publishers property
on the suppliers premises which should be insured are all material supplied by the
publisher such as disks, manuscripts, artwork, photographs, transparencies, programming
tapes, camera-ready copy, film, paper and printed sheets owned by the publisher or
supplied from other suppliers (inserts etc.).
Where modem equipment is dedicated to a publisher or specific periodical,
agreement is need on insurance against total failure and disaster recovery and third party
misconduct.
4. Variations from quotation
The following are examples of current practice (the expression supplier here includes the
origination house).
Suppliers quote and charge for handling copy as received. Charges for additional
work, and any additional charge that may arise from illegible or unclear copy not
previously seen, should be agreed. It is the responsibility of the supplier to ensure that
the final output matches the final approved proof, subject to normal tolerances.
Where style or layout is left to the suppliers judgement, changes made by the
publisher may incur an extra charge.
The charges for authors corrections should be agreed between the publisher and the
supplier.
The publisher should agree with the supplier the number of proofs required and be
charged accordingly. Publisher and supplier should be clear as to what type of proof is
acceptable: dry colour (e.g. Cromalin or Matchprint), inkjet, dye sublimation or any
other form.
All extra work undertaken for the publisher may be charged at the rate agreed subject
to prior authorisation, where practical. Causes of extra work include requests for
additional proofs, alterations to proofs, extra planning, specimen pages, press delays
and extra planning incurred by the late arrival of editorial material and delay in
gaining approval. Additional experimental work carried out at the publishers request
(on sketches, artwork, positives, plates, press-work or binding, and so on) may also be
charged at an agreed rate.
Costs arising from work which the publisher and the supplier agree is additional to that
covered by the quotation or scale of prices may be charged for at a reasonable rate.
Overmatter produced but not used will be charged at the current rates.
5. Liability for error
Origination from manuscript or digital file
The supplier has no editorial responsibility other than to follow the publishers instructions
on style, to set accurately from the manuscript and to correct his own errors without charge
when these are marked on the proof. After proofs have been passed by the publisher, the
supplier is not liable for any error in origination, although errors introduced after the return
of such passed proofs are the responsibility of the supplier. It should be established at the
outset whether the supplier is responsible for reading and marking first proofs or whether
first proofs will be corrected before dispatch to the publisher.
Offset printing ordered separately from origination
In the case of offset printing ordered separately from origination, the suppliers
responsibility is limited to reproducing the image supplied by the publisher. Any technical
or other defect noticed by the supplier in the material supplied by the publisher for
reproduction should be brought to the publishers attention.
3
Claims
In the event of a claim from the publisher for defective work, the suppliers liability is
normally limited to the production value of the work and materials used in respect of the
defective areas. However, in certain circumstances, it may be necessary for negotiations to
take place between the publisher and the supplier.
6. Illegal matter
The supplier shall not be required to print any matter that, in his opinion is or may be, of
an obscene, illegal or libellous nature or is an infringement of the proprietary or other
rights of any third party. The supplier must immediately inform the publisher if these
circumstances arise. The supplier is entitled to seek indemnification in writing by the
publisher in respect of any claims, costs and expenses arising out of any libellous matter, or
any infringement of copyright, patent, design or any proprietary or personal rights
contained in any material originated or printed for the publisher.
The indemnity may extend to any amounts paid on a lawyers advice in
settlement of any claim.
7. Materials supplied by or on behalf of the publisher
Estimates usually provide that materials when supplied by the customer, including disks,
artwork, copy for reproduction, takes, film, plates and paper, are suitable for their
purpose. Provided the publisher has adequate forewarning, where practical, of the cost,
the supplier may charge for additional work (disk intervention, retouching, film spotting,
extra planning, paper conditioning, excess blanket washing, reduced machine running
speeds, handling pre-printed covers etc.) incurred when materials are found during
production to be inconsistent with the standard on which the estimate was based.
Standards for colour origination: The Periodical Publishers Association and the
Periodical Printers Section of the BPIF both endorse the specification for offset
printing produced by the International Federation of the Periodical Press. Copies of
the latest version (published in January 1995) of this publication are available from
PPA and the BPIF.
Sheets, reels and other goods provided by, or on behalf of, the publisher are not
normally counted or checked when received, but a routine should be agreed (as part of
the BS5750 or ISO9000 standard for example) for handling documentary evidence of
delivery. The supplier should advise the publisher of any apparent shortages or damage.
It is the responsibility of the supplier that despatches the goods to ensure that
accurate documentation is sent with them.
Inserts as supplied to any agreed specification by a third party and delivered to the
supplier should be clearly marked with the quantity, the title and issue for which they
are intended and details of overs, and should be accompanied by written notification
from the publisher for reference purposes. Adequate notification from the publisher on
all inserts should be sent to the supplier.
8. Paper supplied by the publisher
Storage
The supplier and publisher should agree on a minimum quantity of the publishers paper,
defined by tonnage or by number of issues, to be stored free on the suppliers premises.
The supplier will be responsible for storing this under suitable conditions. The supplier and
publisher should agree which of them has the responsibility for insuring the publishers
paper while it is on the suppliers premises.
Advice procedure
Details of the paper supplied by the publisher should be given to the supplier before
delivery. The advice note should specify the quantity, the title and the publisher for which
it is intended and the paper should be clearly identified as being the property of the
publisher. When the supplier receives the paper he should, in addition to reporting any
discrepancies or damage, confirm the storage address.
Consumption
Paper should be used in the sequence in which it is delivered: oldest stock used first, unless
otherwise agreed in writing. The supplier should send the publisher regular usage and stock
returns, normally five days after the completion of printing of an issue. If requested by the
publisher, the supplier should retain for inspection slab waste and wrappings from an issue.
Paper supplied on reel
Before ordering the paper, the publisher should confirm with the supplier the full specification
of the type and size of reel core required, including width and maximum diameter.
Each reel should be clearly identified and the information provided on each reel
label should be discussed with the supplier. Minimum requirements include: mill name,
batch number, publisher, title, direction of unwind, metreage, date of making, weight,
substance and reel width.
The publisher should instruct the paper supplier to ensure that the end wrapping
is flat, so that the reels can be stored correctly on end, that documentation giving full
details of each consignment is sent when the reels are delivered and that delivery dates
are arranged with the supplier. It is the suppliers responsibility to ensure that reels are
handled and stored efficiently.
The publisher should agree with the supplier the basis on which spoilage will be
calculated (for example length, numbers of cut-offs, weight and the amount of waste
slabbed off reels). There should be agreement that the amount of waste which is slabbed
off reels should be kept to a maximum number of millimetres/kilos.
Defective material
When running paper, the supplier should advise the publisher of any defective material as
soon as he is aware of it and should keep evidence.
3
Spoilage allowances
The supplier should specify in his quotation the quantity of paper to be supplied. A
spoilage allowance for printing should be included in his calculations.
Guidelines for paper spoilage
It is impossible to give guidelines that will be applicable in all circumstances. Different
types of press will result in significant variations. There are also, inevitably, specific
problems which arise from week to week.
The points which should be taken into consideration include:
length of run;
number of colours per section, number of webs;
type of binding;
weight and standard of paper (i.e. coated or uncoated);
additional processes such as lamination, varnishing and so on;
quality of the final product;
age of equipment in use.
Waste agreements normally specify a number of cut-offs/sheets for make-ready and
a percentage for running. The total number of sheets/cut-offs is then specified as
a percentage waste and is used to make-ready in the bindery.
The spoilage allowance must be agreed between the two parties prior to the start
of the contract. It is essential that suppliers and publishers are constantly vigilant to
ensure that paper is not wasted by carelessness. This is an increasingly expensive
commodity and both parties have a vested interest in keeping wastage to a minimum.
Publishers sometimes agree with suppliers that when wastage levels are lower than the
agreed norm the value of any savings should be shared.
The figures that follow are based on the printing of a magazine-format periodical
of medium quality using the same coated paper throughout the run and include binding
spoilage. They should not be used as a criterion for complex production, for high-quality
magazines (where the spoilage may necessarily be higher), for tabloid newspaper-format
publications where less critical quality may be acceptable or for production involving
complicated binding requirements.
Start-up waste represents the number of sheets or cut-offs spoilt up to the first
good copy. Running waste represents a percentage of copies normally spoilt in the printing,
folding and binding process. Running waste normally reduces as print runs increase.
Example of web offset spoilage calculations:
mono only mono and spot four colour
Running 8% 9% 10%
Start-up copies 2500 3500 4000
30,000 copies
Start-up for a four-colour publication 4000
Running waste of 10.0% on a 30,000 print order 3000
Total waste 7000 copies
In order to get 30,000 good copies, a total of 37,000 copies will need to be produced, a
spoilage allowance of 23.3% being required on the print order of 30,000.
Example of sheetfed spoilage calculations:
mono only mono and spot four colour
Running 6% 7% 9%
Start-up 500 650 800
8000 copies
Start-up for a four-colour publication 800
Running waste of 9% on a 8000 print order 720
Total waste 1520 copies
In order to get 8000 good copies, a total of 9520 copies will need to be produced, a
spoilage allowance of 19% being required on the print order of 8000.
Any problems arising from the quality of paper stocks should be notified to the
publisher immediately and discussions held to negotiate revised paper spoilage rates.
9. Schedule and delays
A production schedule for all work should be submitted and agreed in advance in writing,
and should be based on a realistic assessment of the circumstances at the time. Any delay
on either side should be notified to other parties concerned as soon as it is foreseen, and the
remainder of the schedule re-negotiated. Any additional costs incurred by supplier or
publisher must be agreed in advance on the basis of normal trading practice of both parties.
10. Outwork
It is not acceptable for the supplier to sub-contract the publishers work unless this has
been agreed in advance. If there is outwork, the supplier retains sole responsibility for
quality and quantity, for the completion of the work according to schedule and for
insurance (see clause 3).
11. Liability
The supplier is not liable for any loss to the publisher arising from delay in transit not
caused by the supplier or the suppliers sub-contractor.
3
12. Notice period and insolvency
A contract for the printing of a periodical may not be terminated by either party unless 13
weeks notice in writing is given in the case of periodicals which are produced monthly or
more frequently, and with 26 weeks notice in writing in the case of bi-monthlies,
quarterlies and annuals, unless the title is closed, where other arrangements may need to
be made between publisher and supplier. Notice may be given at any time but wherever
possible should be given after work on any one issue is completed.
Nevertheless, either party may terminate any such contract forthwith should the
other be in breach of the agreement; both parties should note that this includes non-
payment of sums due.
Both parties should ensure that there is provision in the terms and conditions for
loss caused by the default of either party through default for reasons of insolvency or
change of ownership. Legal advice should be sought in these circumstances.
13. Force majeure
Either party should be excused from performance of its obligations if and to the extent that
such performance is hindered or prevented (directly or indirectly) by reason of any strike,
lockout, labour disturbance, government action, riot, armed conflict, fire, flood, drought,
failure of power supply, unavailability or breakdown of normal means of transport, inability
to procure materials required for the performance of the contract, act of God or any other
matter whatsoever beyond the partys reasonable control (force majeure event) provided
always that the party uses its best endeavours to limit the effect of the force majeure event.
In the event that performance by either publisher or the supplier is prevented by any force
majeure event, then either party may give the other written notice to terminate the contract
and pay for work done and materials used, as mutually agreed, but subject to that should
accept performance of the contract when reasonably practicable.
14. Disputes
Independent arbitration services are available to both parties if necessary. The BPIF will assist
if its members are involved, offering a service that will appoint an independent arbitrator.
PIRA is an alternative and the Institute of Printing maintains a list of accredited consultants.
Some contracts include agreed procedures to be followed in the case of disputes.
15. Confidentiality
Each party to a contract is entitled to expect the other to respect the confidentiality of the
details of the agreement, and the business of information supplied by the other party.
16. Law
An agreement should specify the law under which it is governed and in the UK this is
usually English law.
Supply of materials As well as terms of trading, specific printing requirements concern the supply of
for reproduction materials for reproduction. Historically this concerned producing films and proofs to the
required specification but today the preparation of suitable print-ready files for
transmission to printers has superseded the use of analogue films. This manual includes
examples of specification for the supply of film and proofs, for gravure and offset, then
provides examples of the latest specifications for supply of files.
FIPP specification The specification for European gravure printing was set up to ensure a more uniform and
for European standardised approach so that the same page appearing in several different magazines
gravure printing across Europe will, in each case, match the original (and each other) as closely as possible.
of periodicals
Introduction
Film separations The publication of specifications is an evolutionary process because it does, in fact, provide
and proofing only a snapshot of technology available at that moment. As part of this evolutionary trend
the FIPP Production Committee sought to publish a summary of the current practices of
European gravure magazine printers for the benefit of publishers and advertisers.
The purpose of this specification is to ensure a more uniform and standardised
approach so that the same page appearing in several different magazines across Europe
will, in each case, match the original (and each other) as closely as possible. At present,
this can be best achieved by supplying each printer with a set of final colour separation
films and photo-mechanical proofs made in accordance with this specification. It is now
becoming possible to supply digital data in place of final colour separation films. There are
benefits to be derived from this but there are also some problems to be solved before it can
become universally acceptable. FIPP is developing a specification addressing these issues.
This specification was produced by the International Federation of the Periodical
Press (FIPP) and the European Rotogravure Association (ERA). Any questions concerning its
use should be directed to: International Federation of the Periodical Press, Queens House,
55/56 Lincolns Inn Fields, London WC2A 3LJ, UK. Telephone: (+44) (0)207 404 4169.
Fax: (+44) (0)207 404 4170. Email: [email protected]. Web: www.fipp.com
1. Scope
This specification is for the supply of final films with proofs to publication gravure printers,
for the printing of periodicals. Most European gravure printers are able to produce
acceptable results from film separations made for the web offset litho printing process.
Some problems may arise, however, with screen angles, screen rulings and highlight dots.
These problems can be avoided by following this specification. There are other minor
variations between individual gravure printers due to slight differences in the inks and
these cannot be avoided when using a common set of separation films. These differences
are not normally great enough to cause unacceptable results.
The forme cylinders may be engraved from digital data by scanning final films
or opalines made from them. A few printers continue to use the etching process. This
specification applies to all three methods of forme cylinder production.
3
2. Page design and colour specification
2.1 Fine lettering
Thin lines, box rules, medium and small size typematter and detail should ideally be
reproduced in one colour only. Perfect registration of such images in more than one colour
cannot be guaranteed and the slightest movement during the printing run will result in
colour fringing.
2.2 Reverse lettering
Reversals should be made using a minimum of colour. Typematter or detail smaller than
8-point size should ideally be reversed out of one process colour only. When reversals out
of more than one colour are necessary, it is best to use the dominant colour, e.g. black or
cyan, for the shape of the letters and undercut the letter shapes, i.e. apply grip, in the
subordinate colours. This will reduce register problems. Small letters or letters with fine
serifs should not be used for reversals since the slightest mis-register will create colour
fringing, showing colour in the white type areas. Care should also be taken to ensure the
background for reverse lettering is dark enough to give good legibility.
2.3 Undercolour removal (UCR)/Grey component replacement (GCR)
Colour separations can be produced using either normal undercolour removal (UCR) or
grey component replacement (GCR) techniques. Irrespective of the technique used, the
maximum sum percentage of the four process colours in the dark shadow areas should not
be greater than 280% when printing on uncoated paper. This figure may be exceeded for
prestige work or when running on coated paper, but this may be at the expense of reduced
press speeds and higher ink consumption and therefore must be discussed with the
individual printer.
Levels of UCR or GCR will depend on subject matter and individual publisher and
printer preference, and therefore must be discussed with the individual printer.
Where a large solid black background is to be reproduced it is recommended to
run 40% cyan under the solid black to give extra density.
2.4 Overprinting
Care should be taken to ensure that lettering or detail to overprint will have sufficient
contrast against the background tone to be legible.
2.5 Tint or special colour backgrounds
When a common colour background is required on more than one page or part of a
feature, careful consideration should be given to the use of not more than two process
colours to enable the printer to provide a consistent result across all areas.
A minimum of 8% in each process colour used in a tint block is recommended
to ensure uniform reproduction. For single-colour tint areas, particularly yellow, to be
clearly visible against unprinted paper, a minimum of 15% is suggested.
2.6 Grey balance
On proofs made with colourants to match the gravure process, typical neutral grey balance
at 50% is yellow 38% , magenta 38% and cyan 50%. At 20%, yellow is 14%, magenta
14% and cyan 20%. The printed grey balance may vary slightly according to the ink
formulations used by the printer.
2.7 Highlight dots
The minimum dot that can be held on the run with certainty is 5%. Colour separation films
should, however, contain dots below this value to ensure smooth gradations and vignettes.
In those cases where it is necessary to hold the edge of a picture it is preferable to use a
dot of at least 8% in the dominant colour. Good firm film dot quality is essential.
3. Halftone screening
3.1 Screen ruling
Most gravure printers prefer to use 70 lines per centimetre (175 lines per inch) screen
ruling, but films of 60 lines per centimetre (150 lines per inch) are acceptable. This
applies for magazine printing on both coated and uncoated paper. If necessary, it is
possible to engrave cylinders using a mixture of final films in the range of 6070 lines
per centimetre screen ruling. Films outside this range can be used but only in agreement
with the printer.
3.2 Screen angles
Any normal combinations of angles can be used, but it is best to avoid 45 especially in
the case of black. The use of 90, 45 and 0 angle films can give rise to problems in the
conversion process. Angles of 7.5 and 82.5 should be avoided except in the case of
yellow. The reason is to ensure that no visible moir patterning occurs as a result of the
conversion process.
3.3 Dot shape
Dot shape has no significant effect in the engraving process since the shape of the ink
cells is not determined by the shape of the dot on the film. Dot shape does, however, have
an effect on the visual appearance of the proof, where elliptical dots appear to give
smoother results and square dots slightly sharper results. It is important to keep to the
same dot family within a set of colour separations.
4. Final film separations
4.1 Image orientation and presentation
Final film should be positives right reading emulsion down. They must be clearly marked
for colour and contain register marks outside the trim area. Only minimal correction is
permissible and must be on the non-emulsion side of the film.
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4.2 Film quality
All films must be one piece, hard dot, free from kinks, spots and scratches, on 0.1mm thick
(0.00in) polyester base. The clear film density should not exceed 0.05 and the solid tone
density should be at least 3.5. Note: New film technologies may not achieve this specification,
but may be acceptable to some printers. Note: Some printers engrave directly from the
separation films. In this case the films should be 0.18mm thick polyester-based material.
5. Colour proofing
The customer proof should provide a consistent result that can be matched in production.
Both the substrate and the colourants play an important part in achieving this objective.
Photomechanical proofs such as Cromalin, Matchprint and Signature are suitable and are
capable of giving a close, if not perfect, match to the production run. Direct Digital Colour
Proofs such as Iris inkjet, Stork inkjet, Kodak Approval and 3M Digital Matchprint may be
acceptable to the printer. The use of sheetfed offset litho ink-on-paper proofs is not
recommended. In the absence of a specification for proofs from the individual printer, the
following guidelines should be acceptable.
5.1 Substrate
Where possible, the substrate should be the same as with the production run. Under certain
circumstances Cromalin proofs can be produced using the substrate from the production run.
For proofing systems where a proprietary substrate is required, a shade matching
the production stock should be used. These are readily available. A CIELAB colorimetric
specification for the substrate for a typical magazine paper could be:
L* 92.0 2.0
a* 1.0 1.0
b* 4.0 3.0
These values refer to CIE Daylight Illuminant D50, CIE Standard Observer 2, a geometry
of 45/0 and measurement on a stack of several sheets of the substrate (the so-called
white backing).
5.2 Colour gamut
Colourants are available from the proofing system suppliers to conform to the ISO 2846 (CEI
1367) standard litho inks. Other colourants are available to give closer conformity to gravure
inks and these should be used wherever possible. Application data sheets are available from
the different proofing systems manufacturers providing their recommendations.
5.3 Control strips
Appropriate control strips must be evident on all proofs. They must be exposed emulsion
side down, be in register, and only original films must be used. Standard 60 lines per
centimetre (150 lines per inch) control strips will enable all the necessary control
measurements to be made.
These are solid tone density and dot gain.
5.4 Solid tone density
When colourants which conform to typical gravure inks are used, the proof should give the
following solid tone densities, as measured using densitometers with the filter
characteristic indicated below:
Type of filter yellow magenta cyan black
Narrow band polarised 1.40 1.60 1.50 1.80
Narrow band non-polarised 1.25 1.40 1.30 1.50
Broad band polarised 1.00 1.50 1.40 1.80
Broad band non-polarised 0.90 1.30 1.25 1.50
Tolerance 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
To identify the type of densitometer filter, please consult the supplier or the instruction
manual, or see Annex A (below).
5.5 Dot gain
Dot gain is of far less importance in gravure printing than in litho printing. The reason is
that the gravure process varies the ink film thickness as well as the dot size from highlight
to shadow. It is important, however, that the proof is made in accordance with the same
dot gains that would be used for web offset lithography on coated paper. The dot gain
values at 40% dot should be in the range 1721%.
5.6 Proofing sequence
If there is a choice of proofing sequence, it is recommended to proof in the same colour
sequence as on the production run, i.e. yellow, magenta, cyan, black.
6. Viewing of originals and proofs
Correct viewing conditions are essential for effective appraisal of originals and proofs. The
same applies for checking proofs with running copies. These viewing conditions must
conform to ISO 3664 that corresponds with BS 950 part II. In brief, the illuminant should
match CIE Daylight Illuminant D50, the illumination level should be 2000 lux, and the
surround should be a neutral, medium-grey colour.
Annex A Information Densitometer categorisation
The following information, in combination with 5.2, may be used to determine the
appropriate density targets for a number of commonly used densitometers.
Narrow band polarised
APS 3
Gretag Series D 140/160/180/190
Macbeth Series 1240 PO
Techkon R412
Vipdens 800P/900P
X-Rite Series ELP 404/408/414/418/428
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Narrow band non-polarised
Macbeth RD
914/918/920/1056/1118
Macbeth Series 1240/1250
Vipdens 800/900
X-Rite Series E 404/408/414/418/428
Broad band polarised
Gretag D1/122
Macbeth Series 1230 PO
X-Rite Series GLP 404/408/414/418/428
Broad band non-polarised
Cosar SOS 40/61
Macbeth Series 1230
Macbeth RD 917/923/926/514
X-Rite Series G 404/408/414/418/428
Specifications for Specifications concerning practice in the USA are available from: The Specifications for Web
Web Offset Offset Publications (SWOP), SWOP Incorporated Administration Office, 60 East 42nd Street,
Publications (SWOP) Suite 1416, New York, NY 10165-0015, US. Tel: (+1) 212 983 6042. Fax: (+1) 212 983 6043.
In North America, the Specifications for Web Offset Publications (SWOP) was
agreed by a consensus of advertising agencies, magazine publishers, graphic arts
associations and printers.
Guidelines for web The printer is responsible for visually matching the supplied SWOP proof. This implies that
production printing the supplied film or file and proof are made to SWOP specifications, whether it is a press
proof or off-press proof. Off-press proofs, which are currently the most common form of
Printers responsibilities proof supplied to the printer, are to be made using SWOP Certified Systems. Since most
production press forms will include pages from several different sources, the printer may
not be able to match non-compliant proofs in running the press form.
Production presses should be analysed to determine their compatibility with
SWOP proofing characteristics, and their ability to match a SWOP certified press proof.
Production presses should be optimised to conditions as close to the target values as
possible. Then the press can be adjusted, within tolerance, if a change is needed, to obtain
the best overall visual match to the submitted proofs. The following guidelines list the
controls and initial aim values that the printer can use to bring presses into SWOP
compliance and to assure the faithful replication of supplied proofs. These guidelines are
based on the use of N
o
5 grade publication web offset paper and heatset process colour
inks matched to SWOP aim values. It is the responsibility of the printer to check received
digital files against the supplied proofs for content and colour breaks.
Viewing of proofs and Proofs and final printed product must be viewed and/or compared using 5000 Kelvin
printed signatures (D50) illumination complying with ISO 3664:2000, Viewing conditions for graphic
technology and photography. This standard and practice is now more important than
ever due to increased usage of different dyes and pigments in the industry for proofing.
Viewing booth manufacturers can provide compliance information.
Printers colour A control bar running perpendicular to the direction of printing and suitable for
control bar measurement should be included on press forms. This bar should be 133-line screen and
contain solid patches of each colour; 25%, 50% and 75% patches; two-colour and three-
colour solid overprints; and target areas visually sensitive to slur and dot gain. The
relationship between the trim size of a publication and the web press cut-off should
allow for the inclusion of this control bar.
Control bars as described above may be obtained from GATF. Specify:
GATF/SWOP Production Control Bar. Other sources of similar bars are available.
Control of film, A resolution target control scale should be used in combination with a CT scale to control
contacting/ film contacting, duplicating and plate exposure. Examples of some control elements that
platemaking can be used to meet this specification are the UGRA Plate Control Wedge, the RIT
Microline Resolution Target and the GATF Plate Control Target.
Positive vs negative While most press proofs are produced using conventional negative plates, and off-press
platemaking analogue proofs are made from negative and un-sharpened positive films, production
(analogue) printing of publications is produced both from positive and negative plates. Under normal
conditions, positive acting plates sharpen by a few per cent and negative plates gain a few
per cent. Due to exposure needs such as removing dirt or cut lines or extending plate life
on press, these differences can even be greater.
It is not unusual for printing to vary in highlight and mid-tone areas by 5% or
more, depending on the type of plate that is used. This is unacceptable in SWOP
production printing. It is the printers responsibility to make every effort to minimise the
variation in their process and differences between positive and negative systems.
Computer-to-plate CTP platesetters are usually calibrated by the manufacturer to reproduce exactly the
(CTP) per cent dot values on the plate that are specified in the electronic file. However, CTP
systems have extended capabilities for changing the size of the dots from that which is
stated in the digital file and output curves should be adjusted as necessary to result in
final printing which best matches supplied SWOP proofs in colour and tone value. The
entire reproduction scale is important in matching the proof, but particular attention
should be paid to the mid-tone and minimum dot areas.
Control procedures are as important in CTP as they are in film-based
platemaking. Digital control scales are available from RIT, GATF, UGRA and FOGRA
to evaluate and control CTP systems.
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New classes of instruments are now available for measurement of tone value
on plates.
Copydot scanning Printers often convert supplied film to digital data by Copydot scanning to use in CTP
systems. The application of SWOP specifications when the film was created is mandatory,
in that Copydot systems will essentially reproduce only what is already in the film. It is
critical that the scanning resolution and the resolution of the intended output device
match. If there is any difference, moir might occur.
Since it is the goal of SWOP to be able to mix pages generated from supplied
digital files and from supplied films on the same printing form, it is recommended that the
film be scanned, and the digital file be created, without any change from the tone values
of the film. In that Copydot or DCS files can not be fully checked until they are output on
the final device, the printer has the responsibility to notify if any problems develop.
Tone value increase Tone value increase (dot gain) reflects the difference between the dot on the film or in the
(total dot gain) digital file and the final printed dot. Output from digital files should be controlled by the
printer to match SWOP proofing.
In order to maintain visual gray balance, the TVI value of the three colours
should not differ by more than 4% from the target values. For example, if either cyan or
magenta is +2% (22%) in TVI, yellow deviation should not be greater than 2% (16%).
Another way to explain this specification is: after adding 2 percentage points
to the measured yellow TVI, process colours (Y, M, C) should not differ by more than
4 percentage points.
The table for total tone value increase (dot gain, physical and optical), as
measured in the 50% 133-line screen target, is shown below.
Target value Tolerance
Yellow 18% 1524%
Magenta 20% 1726%
Cyan 20% 1726%
Black 22% 1928%
Production press tone Over the past several years many things, including newer and more stable presses running
value guidelines at faster speeds, a shift to positive printing, and more and better measurement techniques
have improved the quality of production printing. Tone value increase (dot gain), with some
production systems has been reported to be lower by many publications and has been
confirmed in specific press tests conducted by SWOP, to be 18% and lower. This is
especially evident when printing with positive plates. Other tests, however, also verify an
abundance of publication printing with TVIs remaining in excess of 20%. Now, with the
advent of computer-to-plate technology, printers have the opportunity to match the tone
value of the supplied file or film with greater accuracy.
The printers responsibility is to visually match the supplied SWOP proof. Since
SWOP specifies proofing tone value increase levels at an average of approximately 20%,
the guidelines have always allowed for slightly fuller production printing in order to at
least approximate press proofs and the many off-press proofs presently in use.
These guidelines have worked well (i.e. facilitated highly acceptable printing)
because of the insistence on grey balance and process control as the overriding factors in
the matching process. The danger appears to be that, with CTP and the false notion that
less gain is better, the printer could go too far by making plates with not enough tone
value in mid-tones. This could create an inability to match the supplied proof by printing
too light and an inability to run film supplied and digitally supplied pages in the same
press form. Weight is also important in matching proofs along with grey balance and hue
shifts, therefore, this new ability to control the process more closely should bring a higher
level of quality to publication printing. Additionally, it should be re-emphasised that TVI
or dot gain is neither good nor bad, whether it be high or low, but rather only detrimental
if it is out of control, not consistent with the supplied SWOP proof or not in balance from
colour to colour.
Screen angles SWOP specifies that unscreened digital files be sent to the printer. The printer should
assume responsibility to ensure that moir patterns are not introduced into the printing
when plates are produced digitally. In many cases, the prepress provider will notify the
printer of the angles used to eliminate this problem if it was encountered in the prepress
process. It is also possible, and probable in the future, that proofs will be supplied to the
printer that are unscreened, and so will not have the ability to show a moir problem. In
any case, it is the printers responsibility to notify the advertising agency or advertiser of
the problem and work with them to resolve the problem. See the SWOP specification
section, page 15 for recommended screen angles.
In the case of copy-dot files that have been converted to digital format by scanning
from film supplied, the printer still has the responsibility to notify if a problem develops.
Printing inks Process printing inks for web offset presses should match the colours of the SWOP/NAPIM
standard reference proofing inks (ISO 2846-1) and have physical properties that enable the
web printer to meet the SWOP print quality control parameters while maintaining web press
performance requirements. Ink manufacturers should not be asked to deviate from these
shades to match a particular off-press proof, nor should this be necessary, since only off-
press proofing systems certified by SWOP for compliance to these ink colours may be used.
Solid ink density Target values for printed ink density on production presses should be the densities
determined as the centre point for each colour by use of the SWOP Hi-Lo colour reference.
The acceptable deviation in either direction from the centre point was previously equal to
the total difference between the Hi and the Lo patches, or approximately .14 but is now
.10 in density.
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Acceptable density ranges for the proofs and production from SWOP Hi-Lo colour
references. Note: actual density ranges will vary depending on the densitometer used to
read the SWOP Hi-Lo colour references.
Note: printers often run higher black densities. Printers are cautioned, however, to make
sure this does not increase dot gain to levels outside of SWOP specifications.
Print contrast A general guideline for publication printing is that print contrast at the 75% tone value
should fall within the following ranges (absolute, includes paper):
Yellow 2030%
Magenta 3040%
Black 3545%.
Other publication Super calendered paper
papers Certain offset publications now print on super calendered (SC) paper. As with all other
production stocks, the goal is to achieve as close a visual match to the submitted SWOP
proofs as possible. The customer must determine the acceptability of the match, but there
are certain techniques that will improve the potential to match the SC printed image to the
SWOP proof. If possible, films and electronic files supplied for printing on SC paper should:
Have screen rulings at 120 or 133 lines per inch at output;
Have a maximum TAC between 260% and 280%. This is because less ink and water
will require less oven heat, resulting in better print and paper gloss and minimal
linting. TAC above the recommended specification will most probably cause dry back
and after a few days, a chemical reaction will take place and the printing will appear
flat compared with the original press side result;
Incorporate appropriate output curves that are 3% to 5% less in mid-tones than
normal SWOP curves, to compensate for the additional TVI (dot gain) experienced
when running super calendered papers on production presses.
Centre point for
production aims
+0.10
0.10
R = 0.20
Centre point for
production aims
+0.7
0.7
R = 0.14
High
Low
FIGURE 3.1 SWOP Hi-Lo colour reference
Press recommendations for running SC paper are as follows:
Ink tacks use lower than normal tack inks where tack progressively decreases (9, 9, 8
and 7). Normal sequence of inks is: black, cyan, magenta, yellow;
Run the least amount of water possible without scumming. Ink and water balance are
critical and this allows for lower oven temperatures, improved ink mileage, higher print
gloss and fewer linting problems;
Fountain solutions should have a pH of 3.8 to 4.5 and alcohol substitutes should be
utilised;
Plates should be fine grain. This minimises water pick-up;
Quick release blankets should be used.
N
o
.3 grade coated publication paper
It is widely known that many publications routinely use papers brighter than a N
o
.5 grade
coated paper for both covers and, sometimes, entire magazines. However, SWOP specifies
the use of a N
o
.5 grade coated as a common proofing paper. SWOP does not want to
introduce a new or second proofing stock at this time since we believe that the present
stock provides a good common denominator.
However, it would be for the benefit of the publication industry if production
printing on a brighter (i.e. N
o
.3 grade) stock could be colorimetrically characterised using the
same methodology as the N
o
.5 grade stock that has been characterised in the CGATS
Technical Report 001, Graphic technology Colour characterisation data for Type 1 printing.
To this end, SWOP has recently endorsed a test printing, run on a representative
sample of a N
o
.3 grade coated paper and run to specific guidelines, which are in line with
normal industry guidelines (such as tone value increase and density). The inks used were
SWOP and ISO 2846-1 compliant. A statistical sampling of this press run has been sent to
the CGATS SC4 committee with a request that they investigate the appropriateness of
drafting a technical report, similar to CGATS TR 001.
Supply of digital files The use of specifications for the supply of proofs and film is falling with the increased
use of fully digital workflows. These involve preparing and supplying press-ready files to
particular printers requirements, following their guidelines on the construction of a
suitable PDF. It seems likely that the PDF/X specification will become widely used,
otherwise the printer will provide details of Acrobat Distiller settings to use, together
with guidelines for preflight checking. In the UK the PPA has been proactive in preparing
working guidelines, pass4press, that detail how to construct suitable PDFs from the
leading page layout software (QuarkXPress and INDesign), as well as from Adobes
Acrobat. The specifications are continually updated and the latest versions, including
Distiller options, can be downloaded from www.pass4press.com. Additionally it offers
guidelines on preparing suitable proofs for printing with the proof4press initiative. The
latest versions are reproduced over the next few pages.
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FAQ
Why do I now need to supply my advertising as a digital file?
Printers have invested in computer to plate technology (ctp), which is the process
of imaging digital data directly to the printing plate, eliminating the need for film.
What are the benefits of supplying digital data as opposed to film?
Superior image quality is achievable with a digital process as digital plate
registration gives cleaner, sharper results compared to film production.
The technology can also be used to obtain closer matches between the specified
proof and the printed result.
Cost savings may also be achievable through the elimination of film.
Digital technology enables a greater re-use potential than with film and
simultaneous multi-media publishing becomes possible particularly with an
agreed standard such as PASS4PRESS.
What is PASS4PRESS?
Pass4Press is a standard agreed by PPA publishers for the transfer of digital data.
The standard has been built around a file format known as PDF so that any
advertiser whether using desktop equipment or high-end systems can conform to
the same standard. The merit of PASS4PRESS is that through standardisation
and mass adoption, best practice can be achieved thus ensuring that the benefits
of digital workflows are fully realised.
What is a PDF?
PDF stands for Portable Document Format. It is a digital file format developed by
Adobe that is a composite image of the final page with all text and graphics in
place. It is very small in size making it easily portable. A PDF can be created on a
desktop if required and has a low cost to implement.
What do I need to create a PDF file?
Most of the time digital data will already be available, in the form of a Quark file
for example. In actual fact 99% of the time there is digital data available to
produce film. In addition to the software that you are already using to design
your page, you will need Adobe Acrobat Distiller 5.0 software.
The simplest way to create a PDF according to the PASS4PRESS specification is as
follows:
1) Create page in layout / graphics application.
2) Configure the postscript printer driver
3) Generate a postscript file with embedded fonts
4) Convert to a PDF using Distiller.
5) Preflight
6) Produce a proof of PDF file
7) Send
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Do I have to use Acrobat Distiller to create my PDF?
No, there are industrial type systems that can create PDFs conforming to
PASS4PRESS that use Distiller. These may not necessarily be desktop solutions
and may therefore have a higher cost to implement, but are often used by
reprographic trade houses. For advice on whether alternative versions are
acceptable please talk to your publisher.
In addition some publishers may have their publications specifications registered
with Quickcut. For a small fee advertisers may use this service for their PDF
creation. This service in effect also preflights the file.
Why cant I supply a Quark file?
Most content is created in layout applications such as Quark or graphic programs
such as Illustrator. Problems may occur with these types of files if they are sent
to press because the fonts are not embedded. Processing anomalies can occur
because of incompatibility between different software versions. Font legality
issues must also be adhered to.
Can I supply a PDF-rs file?
No, these files do not conform to the PASS4PRESS specification.
Can I supply a PDF-it file?
No, these files do not conform to the PASS4PRESS specification.
Can I supply a PDF-x file?
The committee is working to see whether some compatibility can be achieved
with the basic PDF standard and PDF-X 1a. The internet site will be updated when
it becomes possible to accept these files with appropriate guidelines.
Can I supply any other digital file formats?
No, unless otherwise agreed by the publisher. The benefits of full digital
workflows will not be realised unless there is adherence to standardisation.
Do I need to supply a proof with my PDF?
Yes, proofs need to be 100% of final size and created from actual PDF file being
submitted. Proofs must not be produced from the application file because results
may be unpredictable.
Can I supply any type of proof?
No, the proof must be a publishers approved colour contract proof. The
publishers will specify proofs that correctly build in press dot gain and in which
the proofing colour space can represent the colour space achievable during
printing. See publishers specification for list of proofs that are acceptable and for
the appropriate proofing profile references.
What is press dot gain?
The amount by which a halftone dot that is imaged to a printing plate grows
between the plate and the press sheet. This occurs when ink is absorbed by the
paper and is an inevitable part of the printing process and must therefore be
compensated for when scanning and most importantly must be represented on
the proof. Only certain proofing technologies / colour management technologies
are able to build in the required levels of dot gain and equally represent the
printing colourspace.
What is the printing colourspace?
The printing process uses four inks; cyan, magenta, yellow and black. The
printing gamut is limited to the range of colours achievable by mixing
combinations of the four inks. The proofing device needs to be capable of
matching the printing gamut otherwise it will not be possible to match the proof
on press.
The substrate being printed on also affects the end result in terms of base shade
and levels of dot gain. Therefore different proofing standards are specified for
different types of paper.
I cant supply a contract colour proof, what should I do?
If you do not supply an approved colour contract proof with your file, then the
publisher cannot be held responsible for the final printed result in terms of the
overall colour balance. On request, it may be possible for the publisher to
produce a contract colour proof for your approval prior to going to press. A
charge may be levied for this service and sufficient time must be allowed within
the production cycle.
What is preflighting?
Preflighting is the process of analysing digital art files to ensure they conform to
specification.
Do I have to preflight my file before sending?
Yes, to ensure that the file has been created to the specification. An incorrectly
created file could result in processing anomalies and / or additional charges. The
sender is responsible for the content of the file.
What do I need to preflight a file?
Various products can be used for preflighting such as Enfocus Pitstop, Extensis
products, Markzware Flightcheck. The committee is developing preflighting
profiles that can be used with these products to ensure compatibility with
PASS4PRESS. These will be posted on the web site www.PASS4PRESS.com when
available.
In the interim products should be set up to check for the following:
File format PDF 1.3
composite not separated file
All fonts embedded
No inclusion of Multiple Master or TrueType fonts
All imagery is in CMYK i.e. no spot colour, no rgb colour, no lab colour
No icc profiles have been included
No opi comments have been included
Resolution falls between 280 - 450 dpi (300 dpi advised)

A preflight solution is to be launched for advertisers working with
PASS4PRESS. This service will be free of charge to advertisers. For
further details please see the PASS4PRESS web site from January 2002.
Why shouldnt I use Multiple Master or TrueType fonts?
These fonts should be avoided because some output devices (usually older, or
non-Adobe RIPs,) are unable to handle them.
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Digital File Format version 3
You can download the pass4press joboptions file from www.pass4press.com, and place it in your Acrobat Distiller settings
folder. For further information on creating pass4press pdf files please see the pass4press website.
Digital File Format Creation
Adobe Acrobat Distiller 5.05 is the recommended software for creating pass4press version 3 compliant PDF files. Details
regarding use of other software / systems to create pass4press files is available on the web site. Pass4Press version 3 compatible
files must conform to the following (files will conform to this if the specified job options are used)
- PDF version 1.3 or higher
- Files must not contain any transparent elements
- Files must be composite
- Files must be CMYK
- Files must contain a trim box (set to trim size of magazine -Acrobat Distiller 5.05 saves trim box information from
postscript document. There are plug-ins available for use with other products - please see website)
- Files must contain crop marks
- All resolution guidelines (as per settings) must be adhered to and in particular imagery should be 300dpi in the final
PDF
- Multiple Master and Truetype fonts must not be used
- Pseudo italics and pseudo bold fonts must not be used
- Combined colour ink density should not exceed 300% (This may vary depending on grade of paper used. Please
check with publisher)
- It is preferred that double page spreads are supplied as two single pdfs (but these should be proofed together)
- All fonts must be embedded
-. All embedded fonts must be subsetted
Preflighting
- Pass4press files must be run through an approved flightchecking application to ensure the files comply with the specification
prior to submission. See facing page.
File Delivery
- An email confirming the sending of any digital file should be sent to relevant production contact at publisher upon transmission
- If supplying a file on disk, please use industry standard CD, ZIP or JAZ. Media must be write protected and contain only the
file required for each advertisement. The disk must be clearly labelled with booking reference as supplied by publisher. Disks
are non-returnable.
Proofing
- All proofs submitted must be generated from the PDF file being submitted and not from application file
- Proofs must be 100% of final size, customer approved, colour contract proofs
- For details of proofing standards / specifications, please contact the publisher and refer to proof4press initiative.
Workflow solutions
There are workflow solutions available which can create pass4press compliant PDF files and automate flight checking and delivery.
Please contact your publisher for further details.
5. Page Setup (File > Page Setup >
Page Setup...)
5a. Page Attributes - Printer:Virtual Printer.
Paper: Custom. Scale: 100%
5b. Postscript Options:All off 5c.Watermark: Off
5d. Custom Page Default - Paper Size: set to
a minimum of 20mm (2cm) larger than
the document size (ie for an A4 (21cm
by 29.7cm) publication 23cm by 31.7cm)
to leave room for bleed and crop marks
5e.Virtual Printer - Select the Acrobat
Distiller PPD (this can be found in the
Adobe Acrobat > Distiller > Xtras
folder)Copy the file into the System
Folder > Extensions > Printer > Printer
descriptions folder (Use the PPD
supplied with Acrobat 5.05, or download
it from the pass4press website
www.pass4press.com)
6. Print (File > Print)
6a. Document Tab
Separations: Off
Spreads: Off
Include Blank Pages: Off
Thumbnails: Off
Back to Front: Off
Page Sequence:All
Registration: Centred
Tiling: Off
Bleed: 3 mm
Offset: 9pt
1. Document Setup.
When creating a new document please
make it the size of the advertisement
required, ie if the magazine is A4 Width:
210mm Height: 297mm. If a spread is
required click Facing Pages
2. Colours (Edit > Colours)
Ensure all colours are CMYK
2a. Select the colour / edit colour 2b. Model: CMYK
2c. Spot Colour: Off
Click Save
Check that all colour illustrations and colour photographs are converted to CMYK
3. Fonts (Utilities > Font Usage)
Check that all fonts are OK and all read
style plain
Check that all fonts are PostScript fonts
TrueType and MultipleMaster fonts should
not be used (Note: do not use pseudo bold
or pseudo italic fonts)
4. Pictures (Utilities > Picture Usage)
Check for any pictures that need updating
or are missing
Print:
Status: OK
Instructions for creating a PostScript file from
Quark 4.11 or higher
Note; Some windows may differ slightly to those shown, depending upon version being used.
Please install the Adobe Printer Driver Adobe PS 8.7.1 or higher from:
http://www.adobe.com/support/downloads>Printer Drivers
Magazine trim size
Follow style of Magazine
} Do not use
3
7b. Cover Page Pull-down 7c. Colour Matching Pull-down Print
Print Cover Page - None Colour: Colour/Greyscale
7d. PostScript Settings Pull-down
Format: PostScript Job
PostScript Level: Level 3 only
Data Format: Binary
Font Inclusion:All
Click: Save
7e. Printer Specific Options
7f.You will get a new dialogue box: navigate
to the folder in which you wish to save
the
Create File:Your Document Name.ps (see
publisher for file naming conventions)
Click: Save
8.You can now save this as a print style
The PostScript file generated can now be converted to a PDF file using Adobe Acrobat
Distiller
6b. Setup Tab
Printer Description:Acrobat Distiller
Paper Size: Custom
Paper Width: 230mm
(for A4 publications + 20mm for bleed and crop)
Paper Height: 317mm
(for A4 publications+ 20mm for bleed and crop)
Reduce or Enlarge: 100%
Page Positioning: Centre
Fit in Print Area: Off
Orientation: Portrait
6c. Output Tab
Print Colours; Composite CMYK
Halftoning: Printer
Resolution: 2400dpi
Note: CMYK should be the only colours
listed unless a paid for spot colour has
been specified
6d.Options Tab
Quark PostScript Error Handler: Off
Page Flip: None
Negative Print: Off
Pictures - Output: Normal
Data: Binary
OPI: Include Images
Overprint eps black - Off
6e. Preview Tab
Check to see if the page is centred and
the crop marks are present
*Note all measurements quoted in the
above are for A4 publications.When
working with other document sizes
please ensure the relevant size is
inserted
7. Printer (File > Print > Printer...)
7a. General Pull-down
Destination: File
Copies: 1
Pages:All
2b. Job Options > Compression Tab
Colour Images: Bicubic Downsampling to: 450dpi for images above 450dpi
Compression:Automatic
Quality: Maximum
Grayscale Images: Bicubic Downsampling to: 450dpi for images above 450dpi
Compression:Automatic
Quality: Maximum
Monochrome Images: Bicubic Downsampling to:2400dpi for images above 2400dpi
Compression: CCITT Group 4
Anti-Alias to gray: Off
Compress Text and Line Art: On
2c. Job Options > Fonts Tab
Embed All Fonts: On
Subset Embedded Fonts When Percentage of Characters Used is Less Than: 100%
When Embedding Fails: Cancel Job
Embedding: Base 14 Fonts
Launch Acrobat Distiller. Job Options > pass4press or Press Optimizes with the following
changes:
1. Setting Menu > Job Options
A new dialogue box Job Options: Press will appear.
2. Job Options > General Tab
Compatibility:Acrobat 4.0 (PDF 1.3)
Optimize For Fast Web View: Off
Embed Thumbnails: Off
Auto-Rotate Pages: Off
Distill Pages:All
Binding: Left
Resolution: 2400 dpi
Default Page Size:Width: 21.59 Height: 27.94
(Note:These are the default sizes. the actual page size will be determined from the
PostScript file when distilled)
Units: Centimetres
Instructions for creating a PDF file using Acrobat
Distiller 5.05
You can download the pass4press.joboptions file from: www.pass4press.com and
place it in your Acrobat distiller > Settings folder or modify your Press.joboptions
as follows:
3
3. Select Save As... button
Navigate to the Acrobat Distiller Settings folder
Save as pass4press
Click Save
You can now use these settings to produce a pass4press approved PDF file from a
PostScript document.
(See instructions for creating a PostScript file from Quark 4.11 or above).
2d. Job Options > Colour Tab
Adobe Colour Settings - Settings File: None
Colour Management Policies - Leave Colour Unchanged; Intent: Default
Working Spaces - Gray: None; RGB: None; CMYK: None
Device - dependent data
Preserve Overprint Settings: On
Preserve Under Colour Removal and Black Generation: Off
Transfer Functions:Apply
Preserve Halftone Information: Off
2e. Job Options > Advanced Tab
Options
Use Prologue,ps and Epilogue.ps: Off
Allow PostScript Files to Override Job Options: Off
Preserve Level 2 copypage Semantics: Off
Save Portable Job Ticket Inside PDF File: Off
Illustrator Overprint Mode: On
Convert Gradients To Smooth Shades: On
Ascii Format: Off
Document Structuring Conventions (DSC)
Process DSC: On
Log DSCwarnings: Off
Resize Page and Center Artwork for EPS files: On
Preserve EPS information from DSC: On
Preserve OPI Comments: Off
Preserve Document Information from DSC: On
Preflighting
Preflighting is the process of analysing digital art files to ensure they conform to specification.
Senders of Pass4Press files are responsible for ensuring that any files submitted conform to the pass4press specifications.
To assist this process, the pass4press committee has undertaken the following:
- Produced a set of guidelines for the checks that need to be made in any given preflight product
- Has worked /is working with various preflight vendors to produce approved preflight profiles that are available from the
Pass4Press website.
- Worked with PPA production and technology committee to provide a free on line preflight solution for advertisers to use.
(A revised solution will be available live early 2003)
Preflight Guidelines
If the following is detected a FAIL should be given:
-Version 1.2 pdfs or below
-Resolution below 150 dpi
-Separated file (checks by ensuring only 1 page)
-Fonts not embedded
-Fonts not subset
-Inclusion of Multiple Master Fonts
-Inclusion of TrueType fonts
-Transparency
-Inclusion of any security settings
-PDf includes transfer curves or halftone settings
-PDF contains RGB colours
-PDF contains spot colours
-PDF contains Lab colour
-PDF contains ICC profiles
-PDF contains OPI comments
If the following is detected a WARNING should be given:
-Resolution falls between 150 and 300dpi
-Resolution above 450dpi
-Resolution of bitmap image exceeds 2400dpi
-The total ink coverage exceeds 300%
3
Proof4Press Initiative
Background
Advertisers require standards. Digital Image providers require standards. Output intent needs to be
specified as a standard in pdf-x-1a files.
Aim
To develop proofing standards for the different grades of paper used in the magazine printing industry.
Approach
The approach taken has been for defacto standards to be developed, with the knowledge that harmonisation
curves can be built to compensate for any measurable difference between print and proof, in effect
bringing print closer to a given proofing standard rather than the other way around.
Profiles and guidelines for accredited proofing devices will be made available on the Pass4Press website
once the first phase is completed.
Proof4Press is an excellent initiative from the PPA that will
help all our proofing customers to supply a well accepted and
standardised Iris proof. We are very pleased to be part of this
effort, as it will further enhance the ability of UK publishers and
printers to achieve the required results on press.
We look forward to completing the first part of the test which
will result in an ICC profile for Iris proofers driven by Creo front
ends. The first ICC profile is aiming to match the Eurostandard
colour space for coated magazines.There will be different versions
of this profile for our DCP Commercial, Glossy and Semi-matte
Iris media. Once complete and approved by the PPA, these pro-
files will be made available to all Creo Iris users free of charge
The Proof4Press concept is an important requirement within the
Graphic Arts industry. Agfa is totally committed to the endorsement
of existing and new proofing standards.
Our corporate direction is for the Sherpa to be at the leading
edge of high quality, colour managed proofing. It is for this reason
Agfa is fully dedicated to the implementation of the Proof4Press
specification.
Background to imaging theory
and colour
Computer graphics Samuel Finley Breese Morse (17911872) invented the first digital communication. He
studied painting in London, where he heard about the newly discovered research into
electromagnetism and he gained the inspiration for his telegraph system. Morse code is
a character code that is used to electronically transmit messages over telegraph lines.
It started the movement toward todays electronically networked world.
Bits and bytes Digital files make up almost all printed images. There are two basic forms of file and
often they will be combined to make up a complete page or document. Digital files are
composed of bits of information. A bit, or binary digit, is a partial electromagnetic charge
held on a memory device in a computer. As technology has improved and developed, the
necessary size of the charge has dropped to a relatively small number of electrons. This
allows smaller, more powerful computers to store, transmit and manipulate digital
information more quickly and easily.
This bit is a binary function and considered as two possible digits 1 or 0, on or
off and every representation of digital information is comprised of a collection of bits.
It is cumbersome to have to count in binary mode and one of the key developments in
boosting the digital capabilities was to handle collections of bits rather than individual
bits. If eight bits are combined together there are 256 permutations from 00000000 to
11111111. This is a byte and 1012 bytes is a kilobyte (k or kb), 1012kb is a megabyte (Mb),
1012Mb is a gigabyte (Gb) and 1012Gb is a terabyte (Tb). Terabyte databases of content are
now common in digital memory archives. Tb hard disks will be in workstations relatively
soon and the standard hard disk size in personal computers within five years. A terabyte
contains 8,390,967,461,888 (8.4 trillion) discrete bits of information, which is a large
amount of information by any definition.
The representation of information owes a great deal to the decision to group
eight bits together to make a byte that makes up all web and printed images, text and
pictures. There are two fundamentally different types of computer graphic files:
Raster
Vector.
Raster (bitmap) files
Raster files are made up of collections of lines made up of pixels that describe every
addressable position of any image as an array of discrete addresses. Images are built by
varying the attributes of the pixels. The total image is stored as a reference grid, or map, of
each pixels value. In a mono image, each pixel may be either on (black) or off (white).
Each pixel needs only a single bit to record its state, hence the term bitmapped image.
In a high-resolution, continuous tone colour, each pixel requires more than a
single bit, they have depth. There are three channels red, blue and green in RGB
colour for the web, and four cyan, magenta, yellow and black for most printing
applications. Each separation has its own collection of pixels. The size of raster files
corresponds to the number of addressable positions and colours in the image. Bit depth is
4
The Print and Production Manual Background to imaging theory and colour
the number of bits used to store information about each pixel. The higher the depth, the
more colours are stored in an image. For example, the lowest bit-depth one-bit graphics are
capable only of showing two colours, black and white. This is because there are only two
combinations of numbers in one bit, 0 and 1. Four-bit colour is capable of displaying 16
colours because there are 16 combinations of four bits; with eight-bit colour, there are 256
colours available. With 16-bit colour, a total of 65,536 are available, and in the case of
24-bit colour, 16,777,216 colours are available. Bit depth can refer to the bit depth of an
image or monitor. The number of pixels in a raster file is determined when the file is
created; if they are not to be seen in the final reproduction, they must not be enlarged too
much as shown in the following images.
This image is satisfactory for mono reproduction at 34cm. When blown up too
much, the individual pixels become too apparent, as shown in Figure 4.2 where a portion
has been enlarged 15 times.
FIGURE 4.1 Mono halftone TIFF image, 134kb uncompressed
FIGURE 4.2 Portion of Figure 4.1 enlarged 15x, showing pixelation effects
For printing without such unsightly attributes, there is a limit to the degree of
enlargement of a raster image and both the size and the number of the pixels it contains.
The rule of thumb is to use a screen ruling of half the resolution of the image file at
whatever the printed size is.
Continuous tone pictures are created by digital photography and scanning, along
with creative artists and illustrators working directly in software, and generating images
with no analogue original. The market-leading software for raster files image manipulation
is Adobe PhotoShop.
Vector files
Vector files contain no pixel information. They comprise a list of mathematical descriptions
of the boundaries of graphic objects used to create an image. They are the building
components of the image rather than a representation of the finished graphic. Its simplest
form is a straight line and the vector file contains the necessary data to describe the lines
start position, length, direction of travel, thickness and colour. To become an image, the
vector is drawn in software. The image is drawn from fundamental instructions within the
file and the resolution of the final result depends on the output or viewing device. Vector
images are not linked to any particular piece of hardware, and it is up to the application
software to interpret the instructions correctly. It is the resolution-independence of vector
graphics that allows the same font to be written to a 300dpi office printer and 3400dpi
platesetter, and be reproduced at the optimum quality from both.
Another name for vector graphics is object or object-oriented graphics. This is
because pictures formed this way remain as groups of simple objects and each element of
that is stored as the instructions for its own reconstruction. The leading applications for the
construction of vector graphics are Illustrator, Freehand and Corel Draw.
Figure 4.3 (overleaf) shows the comparison between a raster and a vector graphic
of the same subject a lower case g. If the raster version were to appear as smooth as the
vector at the same size, the resolution of the raster would have to be so high that you
could not see the individual pixels.
This shows a lower-case g character from the Antiqua font family. The outline of
the character is positioned over a regular raster grid for a 10pt character at 150-line screen,
the typical frequency of a halftone picture. At this resolution, the pixels in the grid are not
capable of precisely rendering the shape of the character through the low resolution. To
get a smooth, clear outline, significantly higher resolution is necessary, normally eight to
ten times higher than for continuous tone pictures.
Vector graphics are inherently much smaller files than their raster equivalents.
While it is possible to convert a photographic picture into a vector graphic, it is only likely
to be used to create a special effect because it will lose its photo-realism in the process.
Conversion is frequently done from printed or flat artwork of logos and simple designs so
that they may be converted into a vector graphic by outlining the design for linework and
particularly font characters.
4
Fonts (founts) A font is a collection of characters upper- and lower-case letters, punctuation marks and
numerals in one size of one typeface. A typeface is the set of all sizes of one weight and
style from a related set called a family. Two of the best known of all the thousands of type
families available are probably Helvetica and Times. Within the type family there will be all
the derivations of the basic design: bold, italic, extra bold, demi-bold, light, book,
condensed and so on. The term font is increasingly being used as synonymous with
typeface, but purists find the inaccuracy objectionable.
Depending on the software technology, the font will contain both a map of the
character and the mathematical instructions for building the character outline, or just the
instructions.
Font technology Font technology issues do not give rise to the same degree of problems they once did. This
does not mean that all problems have been solved by incorporating font outlines into PDF
files but, with a bit of care and judicious use of preflighting software, most print-related
issues can be solved.
In a computer system, the individual font characters are encoded in the form of
binary numerical codes just as the numerals used in calculation programs are. A range of
the codes is shown in Table 4.1. This is because the circuitry of a microprocessor can do
Vector font character Pixels making up character
Raster grid overlaid with lower case
Antiqua 'g' outlined, bezier points in position
FIGURE 4.3 Comparison between raster (bitmap) and vector font characters
only two things: calculate binary arithmetic operations and perform Boolean (true or
false) logic operations.
TABLE 4.1 Binary values of alphanumeric characters in 7-bit ASCII code
Character Binary Value
1 00110001
2 00110010
3 00110011
4 00110100
5 00110101
6 00110111
A 1000001
B 1000010
C 1000011
D 1000100
E 1000101
F 1000111
Each character in a font has a particular shape and there are various ways of describing
that shape on a computer. So when a personal computer saves the letter A to memory, it
does not create an image of the letter A with tiny magnetic dots, but records a binary
number that represents the letter A in a character code table. When the key for the letter A
on the keyboard is pushed, the first thing that is generated is the character code for A. The
computer uses that to load the character A from a font file listing with the same binary
number and then displays it on screen.
A bitmapped font describes each character by drawing a picture of that character
on a rectangular grid of pixels as a fixed bitmap array. The number of pixels in the letter
does not change, so its rendered size on screen or print depends on the resolution of the
device. To change size, a separate bitmap set is needed for every font size so raster fonts
are less efficient in the use of computer resources than vector fonts. Many typographic
purists maintain that the quality of the hand-crafted glyphs is much better than that
produced by scaling algorithms, especially at small point sizes. They are always preferred in
situations where text clarity is critical and screen space is at a premium. This technology is
useful for representing small characters on web displays to make them as clear as possible.
Vector fonts (PostScript, TrueType and OpenType) describe the outline of the
shape and then fill in the interior of that outline. Pierre Bzier was a French engineer who
developed a routine to aid the body design of a car for Renault in the early 1970s. Bzier
Curves are mathematical descriptions of smooth curves. His formula allowed a computer to
use four points to create any curved segment, or spline. When these points are combined
any shape can be created smoothly in digital form requiring a minimal amount of code.
This type of mathematical description is used in PostScript and many computer programs.
An outline is composed of a set of paths. In Figure 4.3, the outline of letter g is
described by three paths. The main one is on the outside and the two smaller ones are
4
internal. Each of these paths is composed of a series of Bzier and line segments. Each
spline is defined by control points and represented in the diagram by dots. Moving a
control point will change the shape of the curve but does not alter where the spline begins
or ends. A series of splines and lines are joined together to make a path. All paths in an
outline font must be closed when it comes back and joins its start. A closed path has a
direction that is essentially clockwise or anti-clockwise. When the outline character is
drawn, everything in the interior of the outline should be filled. In the case of the g, there
are two paths inside the main outline path and the interior of those two paths should be
white rather than dark. The direction of the paths makes the distinction. Consider any
point in the character and draw a line from that point out to infinity and count the number
of times a path is crossed. Each time a clockwise path is crossed, add one to the count and
subtract one for each anti-clockwise path. If the result of the count is non-zero then we fill
the point dark, otherwise we leave it white. So to make the g above work, the outer path is
clockwise and the two inner ones anti-clockwise and the loops are around a white interior.
As well as the outline scalable shape information, the font program contains
additional information and hints to help the output device render the character outlines at
different sizes. At small pixel sizes, the process of drawing the interior of an outline font is
difficult to do well. Hinting mechanisms are statements to specify the location of key
features of a character; then the RIP interprets these hints and makes the type more uniform
on many output devices while reducing the overall size of font files. At its most basic level,
hinting a font is a method of defining exactly which pixels are turned on in order to create
the best possible character bitmap shape at small sizes and low resolutions. Since it is the
outline that determines which pixels will constitute a character bitmap at a given size, it is
often necessary to modify the outline to create a good bitmap image, effectively changing
the outline until the desired combination of pixels is turned on. A hint is a mathematical
instruction added to the font to distort a character's outline at particular sizes. Technically,
hints result in operations that modify a contours scaled control point co-ordinates before
the outline is scan converted. In TrueType, a combination of these hints, and the resulting
distortions, affords a fine degree of control over the bitmap shape produced.
English-language computers employ a basic seven-bit character code, the
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). This allows for a character
set of 128 items of upper and lower case Latin letters, Arabic numerals, signs, and control
characters to be used (2
7
= 128 code points). When an eight bit is used as a parity bit, that
is a value used for checking whether or not data have been transmitted properly, then
ASCII becomes an eight-bit, or one-byte (eight bits = one byte) character code. A true
eight-bit character code allows up to 256 items to be encoded (2
8
= 256 code points).
In the case of languages such as Kanji, which has a huge character set with tens
of thousands of characters, a 16-bit, or two-byte, character code is used. A two-byte
character code allows for up to 65,536 items to be encoded (2
16
= 65,536 code points), but
the standard character code used in Japanese personal computers at present, i.e. Japan
Industrial Standard (JIS) X 02081990, lists only 6,879 characters. Table 4.2 shows the
characters available from a range of PC fonts.
TABLE 4.2 Character sets from several TrueType font sets on a PC
1 52 4 4 _ 103 g G _ 154 C 205 - - -
2 53 5 5 104 h H 155 ^ 206 + +
3 54 6 6 : 105 i I ) 156 O 207 O
4 55 7 7 l 106 j J 157 208 _ _ =
5 56 8 8 107 k K g 158 _ _ 209 _ _ _
6 57 9 9 108 l L 159 C 210
7 58 : : 109 m M O 160 ^ 211 g
8 59 ; ; 110 n N 161 v 212
9 60 < < 111 o O E 162 213 I I
10 61 = = U 112 p P O 163 - 214 j
11 62 > > 113 q Q O 164 ^ 215 )
12 63 ? ? > 114 r R 165 g 216 g
13 64 @ @ 115 s S 166 + 217 + +
14 65 A A 116 t T 4 167 218 + +
15 O 66 B B ` 117 u U 4 168 219 _ _ _
16 67 C C ` 118 v V + 169 4 220 _ _ _
17 68 D D 119 w W 170 * 221 _ _ O
18 69 E E 120 x X 171 _ _ 222 @
19 70 F F 121 y Y E 172 _ _ 223 _ _ _
20 71 G G - 122 z Z = 173 O 224 /
21 72 H H 123 { { 174 * 225
22 73 I I 124 | | = 175 226 [
23 74 J J 125 } } " 176 _ _ _ 227 _
24 75 K K 126 ~ ~ " 177 _ _ _ 228 '
25 76 L L 127 178 _ _ _ 229
26 77 M M e 128 ^ 179 _ _ O 230 O
27 78 N N 129 - 180 _ _ O 231 _ _ E
28 79 O O 130 q 181 232 _ _ O
29 80 P P 131 + 182 233
30 81 Q Q 132 7 183 234 C
31 82 R R ^ 133 184 - 235 *
32 83 S S e 134 185 _ _ O 236 _ _ E
33 ! ! . 84 T T + 135 + 186 _ _ O 237 _ _ O
34 " " > 85 U U 136 + 187 + + 238 ^
35 # # - 86 V V V 137 R 188 + + 239
36 $ $ 87 W W 1 138 189 O 240 - - -
37 % % ~ 88 X X + 139 190 241 =
38 & & 89 Y Y 4 140 N 191 + + 242 _ _ _
39 ' ' 90 Z Z L 141 7 192 + + 243 _ _
40 ( ( W 91 [ [ 142 + 193 - - - 244
41 ) ) 92 \ \ 6 143 194 - - - 245
42 * * 93 ] ] + 144 195 + + 246 u
43 + + 94 ^ ^ [ 145 196 - - - 247
44 , , - 95 _ _ _ 146 ; 197 + + 248 =
45 - - - 96 ` ` } 147 ; 198 N 249 E
46 . . 97 a a C 148 199 250
47 98 b b p 149 - 200 + + 251 _ _
48 0 0 99 c c ] 150 201 + + 252 _ _
49 1 1 . 100 d d - 151 202 - - - 253 _ _
50 2 2 101 e e ] 152 203 - - - 254 _ _ _
51 3 3 102 f f 153 204 _ _ O 255
4
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Table 4.2 shows the character sets for three common TrueType fonts on a PC with
a standard UK keyboard. Arial and Times New Roman share the same characters while
Wingdings provides a different array of symbols, each taking just one byte of computer
memory to store. The main characters will always fall in the same position by convention
making it easy for data exchange between different fonts and different operating systems.
Difficulties may still arise with special characters (foreign, scientific or mathematical) and
decorative marks such as bullets. Mapping of some characters is different on a Macintosh
platform than on a Windows workstation. Even some mundane ones sometimes do not
translate across when transferring between a Macintosh application using PostScript fonts
and a PC with TrueType fonts, so care is needed to check. The ASCII code, having fixed the
first 128 out of the full byte 256 possible characters, left the balance to be defined either
by the operating system or the application.
PostScript fonts come in two parts: the screen font and the printer font. Screen
fonts are low-resolution bitmaps which are used to display the character on the computer
screen. The maps are made to correspond to a certain point size (typically at 72 ppi
resolution) and contain information about the character width and spacing. If screen fonts
are scaled to appear larger, their block nature quickly becomes visible with the character
curves clearly showing jagged edges (the jaggies). Adobes Type Manager (ATM) overcomes
some of these problems. ATM improves the look of type on the computer screen by creating
appropriately sized screen fonts (from the instructions in the printer fonts), as they are
required. The ATM software has no influence on type sent to a PostScript printer, but it can
be used to aid the appearance of PostScript fonts on non-PostScript printers.
Due to their low resolution, screen fonts are not suitable for sending to a printer
or imagesetter. Printer fonts are vector descriptions of the character boundaries. When a
document is sent to a PostScript imager, the application determines the screen fonts used
and requests the equivalent printer fonts from the output device. If the fonts are not
present on the printer and cannot be downloaded by the application, then the raster
image processor (RIP) will either make a font substitution (choose a font that it thinks is
near to the one requested) or use the screen font. In either case the result is likely to be
unsatisfactory, and more likely a disaster. The RIP is the computer in the printer that
translates the vector information describing the document layout and character
constructions into the raster map needed to draw or write the final page image onto paper.
PostScript fonts on different platforms, even though they may have identical names, may
not contain the same character dimensions and spacings.
The graphics industry uses both TrueType and PostScript fonts that are based on
slightly different technologies, and the new OpenType technology. PostScript uses cubic
Bzier splines where each control point determines the slope of the spline at the
corresponding end point. TrueType uses quadratic Bzier splines, and in these there is only
one control point between two end points. That point determines the slope of the spline at
both end points. Cubic splines are generally easier to edit (more shapes are possible with
them). Any quadratic spline can be converted to a cubic spline with essentially no loss. A
cubic spline can be converted to a quadratic with arbitrary precision, but there will be a
slight loss of accuracy in most cases. This means it is easy to convert TrueType outlines to
PostScript outlines, but harder to convert PostScript to TrueType.
OpenType is a PostScript font rendered into a TrueType format. It looks like a
TrueType font except that the outline descriptions are PostScript Type2 font descriptions
rather than TrueType. An OpenType font is essentially a double-byte TrueType font
(meaning that it can contain some 65,000 glyphs, or representations of characters),
augmented by a series of resources (called tables) that allow OpenType fonts to provide
certain auxiliary features. This feature is hugely useful for non-Latin character sets.
So, in a font all of the points are described mathematically and it easy for a
computer to calculate the required shape at output (or for display) using little memory.
This means that for text each character can be stored as a single byte, and a 3,000-word
article takes up only 3k of memory. At output, the vector file is translated into a bitmap
according to the resolution of the output device. Most type looks satisfactory when imaged
on a 600dpi laser printer while conventional printing type needs 2400dpi (maybe 1200 dpi
for newsprint).
Font legality When a font is bought, the user does not receive ownership of it. There are usage rules with
all fonts and it is important to read the licence and be aware of the manufacturers
requirements for its use and distribution. Not all font owners have the same rules but here
are some of the more common approaches to font use. A buyer of a font package is licensing
the right to use it. Apart from as a security back-up, it is usually illegal to copy fonts and give
copies to others, which includes printing companies. It is possible to legally send copies of
fonts along with a job to a printer as long as the printer already has a licence to use it. There
are two alternatives to sending a copy of the font with the job. One is to convert the fonts to
outlines, but this is feasible only for layouts with small quantities of text such as display
advertisements. The other is to embed the fonts within the document format. In this way they
become an integral part of the file and cannot be saved separately by the recipient. This is
probably the most important early driver for the success of PDF as a transfer mechanism.
Image printing Conventional printing technology does not have the controllable capability of printing
variable shades of an ink, and variations in colour density are produced by varying the
physical area of the dot in a halftone screening process.
Screening There are two ways of varying the area. In conventional screening, the image is split into
a series of cells at a fixed position that contain a dot. The dot can vary in size from nothing
to filling the complete cell. Newer, frequency modulated screening (FM, sometimes referred
to as stochastic screening) uses the same sized dots and just adds more with no fixed
position for each.
A platesetter (or imagesetter) is a recorder that shines laser light onto a photo-
receptive media and selectively exposes an image. Text, linework and images are all produced
4
from a vast array of tiny dots making up the final image. Text and linework are generally
produced from vector files with a mathematical transformation performed by the RIP. High
resolution is necessary to avoid noticeable jagged edges and other unsightly artefacts. A
minimum of 1200 lines per inch is required for newspaper and about 2400lpi
(or 2,540lpi) for commercial printing. This high resolution is fine for text where it is only at
output that the outline is painted, but most continuous tone pictures are stored at much lower
resolutions, typically 300 dots per inch for commercial colour printing onto a good surface.
The images are built up at the higher resolution with individual printing screened
dots being output at 150dpi (much lower for newspaper and some flexo reproduction,
higher for top-quality litho where 200dpi is not uncommon). The screen frequency can be
represented by a grid as in Figure 4.4. Each square in this grid is a halftone cell and
capable of holding one halftone dot. Think of each halftone screen as a grid that is
superimposed on the image recorder resolution grid.
The recorder makes an extremely fine grid (named the resolution grid). The
imagesetter spots composing the grid are called printer dots, and, in fact, image recorder
resolution is measured in dots per inch (dpi). When the halftone grid is laid over the
resolution grid, each halftone supercell is filled with imagesetter spots. Combinations of
these spots make halftone dots.
Platesetter (imagesetter) grid
Pixels activated in grid to create a printable tint
Screened dots for printing in 'Supercells'
FIGURE 4.4 Halftone dots and the imagesetter grid
To convert an image into a halftone, the halftone grid is superimposed and the
colour value at that point is converted into a percentage dot. The percentage is then output
as a dot using the particular screening algorithms to control frequency, angle and shape of
the individual dots at the output device. The size of halftone cells is determined by the
interaction of the screen frequency with the image recorder resolution. Each of the halftone
cells in the figure comprises many spots created by the image recorder laser beam when it is
focused on a point of media. Each spot in a halftone cell can be turned on (producing a
colour dot) or left blank to give white. The combination of imagesetter spots produces a
halftone dot of a specific size and shape. If a dot has to be larger, the image recorder turns
on more spots; if smaller then fewer spots are exposed. PostScript uses at least 256 levels of
grey to properly reproduce an image and platesetter manufacturers have adopted 256 grey
levels as a minimum standard; each level expresses as a single byte of information.
There is a trade-off between screen frequencies and grey levels. Higher screen
frequencies are finer and can reproduce more detail from the original file in more halftone
cells. The platesetter resolution remains constant so the more halftone cells there are will
contain fewer addressable spots. As the number of output spots decreases, so does the
number of grey levels each halftone cell can reproduce. To create different shapes, spots are
exposed in different sequences. These spot functions are determined by a RIP algorithm.
In FM (frequency modulated or stochastic) screening, the platesetter takes the
image bitmap data and generates smaller dots that are not restricted to a fixed grid
pattern. By varying the number of dots in a given area, any desired grey level can be
generated. As the dots are significantly smaller than conventional halftone cells, FM
screening can represent more detail. FM screening methods employ randomness, or noise
generation, in determining where to place pixels. This produces smoother tone transitions
and eliminates patterns that could lead to a moir effect. Many digital printing devices
use FM techniques to print small dots at high resolution, producing an apparently
continuous tone image.
Colour This section provides an understanding of the basic principles of colour reproduction. It will
reproduction help readers to appreciate some of the problems and limitations in printed colour
basic principles reproductions, and understand some of the terminology.
Human vision People use their eyes to receive light from the surroundings. Signals from light-receptive
cells on the retina transmit a signal to the brain, which interprets the signal as vision. The
retina of a person with normal colour vision provides a visual sensation when stimulated
by electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range 380760 nm. The brain interprets
this stimulation as light and colour. The sensation of colour will be different depending
upon the precise balance, or combination, of wavelengths received. The sensation of white
requires elements of all three thirds of the visible spectrum to be present. Millions of
photoreceptor cells (about 126,500,000 in each eye) lie within the retina and these
photoreceptors are divided into two groups: rods and cones.
4
The rods there are about 120,000,000 of these cells, are brightness sensors. The
cones determine hue. They are concentrated in a small area of the retina opposite the
optical axis of the lens and are divided into three groups:
those that are broadly sensitive to the short wavelength third of the visible
spectrum blue;
those that are broadly sensitive to the medium wavelength third of the
spectrum green;
those that are broadly sensitive to the long wavelength third of the visible
spectrum red.
The eye takes in the light onto the receptor cells but it is the brain that interprets the result
humans see. With the vast amount of information to process human beings have evolved
mechanisms for the brain to make short cuts; these may not reflect reality. It is fairly easy
to fool the eye (in fact all continuous tone printing of images uses this principle); in print
production it is important to take steps to avoid being fooled.
Figure 4.5 shows one such effect. The yellow, cyan, magenta, green, blue and red circles
are all identical in hue and strength yet humans see significant variation, particularly in
density. This chromatic induction effect is due to the different surrounds, the brain
perceives the relative rather than absolute colour.
Additive colour When the process of creating colour uses sources of light such as the tiny points of
phosphor on the surface of a domestic television tube, a computer screen or the projected
light from a video projector this is additive colour. The colour is created by adding
together different amounts of the additive light primaries: red, green and blue (RGB). If all
three of these are present, their combined effect will be white. If none of the light sources
are available, the result will be black (the absence of light). All the other tones and hues
that the device is able to present will be created by the precise control of the individual
(and relative) brightness of the RGB sources, because mixing two primary colours creates
FIGURE 4.5 Effect of chromatic induction
a secondary colour; red plus blue makes magenta, red plus green makes yellow, and blue
plus green makes cyan.
A colour monitor reproduces colours by presenting red, green and blue light from
individual points that are so small that the eye cannot distinguish them as separate. The
blending of these points by the eye creates the illusion of continuous colour (a similar idea
to the principle of halftone described earlier). The individual points of colour are phosphor
spots on the surface of the glass tube that are bombarded with a stream of electrons from
three guns in the neck of the tube. The electrons excite the phosphor, which then glows.
The more energy that is transferred from the electron guns, the more light the phosphors
will emit; causing the phosphors to emit more or less light, depending on the signals
received and creating the various colours seen on the screen. Thus, as the relative amounts
of RGB are altered, so the whole range of colours may be produced.
The fact that the eye has three sets of cones or receptors is fundamental to most
modern methods of colour reproduction, whether it is printing, photography or television.
Additive colour reproduction is based on the understanding that, by selectively mixing
three different lights, it is possible to stimulate the human vision to see different colours. If
the receptors are all stimulated to a similar level, we perceive the colour as neutral (grey to
white). The brain, in effect, mixes the stimuli in an additive manner.
Additive colour works only for self-illuminating devices; it does not work for print
because a printed page does not generate light. Print is viewed by the light that falls on its
surface, which is then reflected back off the ink and paper. All process colour printed
reproductions, and most colour photographs, are based on the subtractive principle.
Subtractive colour Paper is normally white, as can be seen in the centre of Figure 4.6, and is a mixture of the
three additive colours. Nothing has to be added to white to make colours because they are all
already there. The means of creating the appearance of particular colours in photography and
4
FIGURE 4.6 Additive colour
process-colour printing is subtractive colour, because it starts with white and subtracts from
that white the colours that are not wanted. Additive colour starts with no light (black) and
mixes light to build the colour wanted. In subtractive colour (printing), the unwanted
wavelengths are carefully filtered out of white to leave behind those that are required.
The primary colours of subtractive reproduction are the secondary colours of the
additive method, and in the realisation of that is the explanation of why they do what they
do. The secondary colours of the additive system can be seen in the overlaps in Figure 4.6.
The subtractive primaries are cyan (C), magenta (M) and yellow (Y).
Cyan is two-thirds of white light, created by mixing blue and green light, while
white is created by blue, green and red. Another way to describe cyan is what is left when red
light is removed from white. Magenta is blue plus red, or what is left when green is removed
from white. Yellow is green plus red, or what is left when blue is removed from white.
If a single, transparent subtractive primary is printed on white paper, it will
remove its complementary colour. So, cyan removes red, magenta removes green, and
yellow removes blue. Controlling the overprinting of the three inks results in the required
combination of wavelengths being subtracted. Where all three inks overprint, all three
thirds of white are removed, leaving black. However, with ink on paper, the combination of
the three inks alone cannot achieve a high enough density, so a fourth ink, black (K is used
to describe the key colour), is needed to enhance shadow detail and dark colours. A bonus
is that black ink is cheaper than the primary colours and will print clear, sharp text.
Figure 4.7 demonstrates the primary, secondary and tertiary combinations of
yellow, magenta and cyan transparent inks. At first glance, subtractive colour mixture
appears quite different from additive methods, but there is a clear relationship between
the two. In practice, the printer considers subtractive mixture without reference to additive
methods, but it is helpful, in understanding the process and its limitations, to be aware of
the relationship.
FIGURE 4.7 The subtractive process: yellow, magenta and cyan are the primary colours
and red, green and blue become the secondary colours
So far, there are only eight colours produced obviously this is not sufficient for
printing. Suppose, for example, a saturated orange is needed. The additive mixture shows that
orange is produced by mixing red and green so that the proportion of red is greater than
green. Depending on whether a yellow/orange or a red/orange is required, the proportion
required varies. With a subtractive mixture, more red light is needed than green but no blue to
obtain a saturated orange. So, a great deal of yellow is needed to subtract the blue, less
magenta to subtract some green, and little cyan to subtract little of the red, hence the orange.
The same argument will apply to obtain other hues between the primary and
secondary colours, so the next difficulty is to find a method of varying the amount of cyan,
yellow and magenta applied. With most printing processes, it is not possible to vary the
concentration (or film thickness) to adjust the red, green and blue absorption, and the
amount of colour is varied by introducing the halftone principle. Thus, in order to obtain the
modulation required, a halftone dot of ink is printed and the value of the halftone (or the
area for AM halftones) depends on the amount of red, green or blue reflectance required.
The halftone principle enables the creation of filters with specific absorption
characteristics relative to the picture that is to be reproduced. The information necessary to
calculate the relevant absorption comes from the process of making colour separations.
Making colour
separations
4
FIGURE 4.8 The principle of process colour
The principle of process
colour is to split the original
through the use of a primary
filter into its red, blue and
green additive components,
then use this data to create
a subtractive version that
will be printed in cyan,
magenta and yellow ink.
This is now digital and the
imaging software will create
a black file to add detail and
depth, as well as taking the
chromatic impurities of
printing inks into account.
This is shown here, with the
individual colours printed as
progressives demonstrating
how the full colour
reproduction has been
created. Most imaging
software will allow images to
be viewed as composite or
individual separations of
four colour and extended
process sets.
The description of subtractive colour above shows the need for a measure of the
relative amounts of RGB present in any coloured original. The process of identifying these
values is called separation. Colour scanners measure the relative amounts of RGB light
transmitted by, or reflected from, originals. The three datafiles generated are then passed
through a colour computation that converts the description of the colour from the
measured RGB into the relative amounts of cyan, magenta, yellow and black (CMYK)
necessary to synthesise, on paper, a reproduction of the original.
Colour separation still refers to a set of four films, one each for the yellow,
magenta, cyan and black. They may include text and other layout elements or they may be
just halftones of the illustrations that will need to be planned into a final layout as a
subsequent manual operation. As film use declines, the separations are electronic and can
be viewed on screen as channels of the image.
Colour halftones In reproducing colour pictures that were originally continuous tone, printing requires to
and screen angles overlay the CMYK images as halftones. If the halftones are amplitude modulated (AM),
they will be formed from regular patterns of fixed frequency. The need to rotate the angles
of the halftone patterns comes from the fact that printing cannot precisely place down one
halftone dot on top of a previously printed other-coloured dot. Commercial-quality colour
printing typically has 60 dots per cm (150 dots per inch) in both the horizontal and vertical
direction. A slight inaccuracy in placing four identical patterns on top of each other will
result in an unpleasant moir or screen clash. By rotating the screen patterns at 30 from
each other, it is possible to reduce the frequency of the moir to a level that is below the
visual threshold it becomes too small to be obtrusive. That reduced moir is the pattern,
which is commonly called the printing rosette.
As the halftone patterns are crossed lines at 90, there is only 90 in which to
rotate the screens before returning to the starting position. If printing with three colours,
there would be no trouble since there are three 30 angles in 90 but there are not four
30s in 90 when printing with four colours, so a compromise is necessary. The cyan,
magenta and black are printed at 30 apart, but the yellow, which has a low visual
contrast and is difficult to see against the white paper, is rotated to only 15 difference
between the cyan and the magenta. Figure 4.9 shows the relationships and the
characteristic rosette that is visible, with magnification, in areas where the halftone values
leave white paper uncovered.
The angle relationship between the four colours is usually fixed at 30:30:30:15.
However, the colours in this relationship may be switched. This is most usually done to
overcome a clash between the yellow and another colour in a particularly important
picture or tint area. In flexography, where the anilox inking roller has a 90 cell structure,
the whole angle set may be rotated by 7.5 to avoid the yellow being angled precisely
at 90. Similarly, when films are made for litho-to-gravure conversion the actual angles
will be different again. It is the angle relationship that is important rather than the
precise angle.
Inks for process Process colour inks must be yellow, magenta and cyan, and absorb blue, green and red
colour reproduction light respectively. Ignoring economic restrictions, an ideal ink set will reproduce as many
colours as possible, to allow reproduction of the largest possible colour gamut. Figure 4.9
shows the spectral reflectance values of theoretically ideal and of real cyan, magenta and
yellow inks. For the ideal set, each ink absorbs in one-third of the spectrum and reflects in
the other two-thirds. Typical or real ink has spectral reflectance curves as shown on the
right of Figure 4.10 (page 140).
It is immediately apparent that inks have unwanted absorption (grey shaded
areas). Relative to the ideal inks, they absorb in parts of the spectrum where they should
be reflecting. The effect of the unwanted absorption is to darken the colours unnecessarily.
This can be compensated for partly by colour correction. Inks could possibly be produced
closer to the ideal by using more expensive pigments. In practice, the bright colours that
these would permit to be reproduced are rarely encountered. Each of the real inks behaves
as if they are contaminated with one (or two) of the other inks. Magenta should absorb
only green but it is absorbing blue too, as if it was contaminated with yellow. Cyan looks
as if it is contaminated with both yellow and magenta.
Figure 4.10 shows that the magenta is particularly deficient in the blue part of
the spectrum, and cyan in both green and blue. Of the three inks, yellow is fairly
satisfactory. In separations made with no correction for these deficiencies, areas containing
magenta ink will be too yellow and too dark, thereby looking yellow-brown, and areas
4
black is 45 to
the edge of
the picture
o
cyan is 30
from the black
o
magenta is 30
from the cyan
o
yellow is 15
from the magenta
and the cyan
o
It is common for the angles of the black and the magenta to be switched. The reason
is that skin tones are predominanetly yellow and magenta. If left with only a 15 difference
between them, the chance of a noticeable moir is greater in the areas of the picture which
are likely to be very important the people!
o
FIGURE 4.9 Screen angles
containing cyan too dark and too red, looking brown. Indeed, uncorrected reproductions do
tend to look dirty and brown (see first frame in Figure 4.11).
A considerable improvement can be made relatively simply by adjusting the
balance of the separations in a way so that neutrals are reproduced as neutrals. This is
achieved by determining the dot sizes needed to produce greys, and adjusting the
separations to achieve this. If such an adjustment is made, it not only affects the neutral
100
50
0
100
50
0
100
50
0
% reflectance of ideal inks
100
50
0
100
50
0
100
50
0
% reflectance of real inks
380 430 480 530 580 630 680 730
Wavelength (nm)
380 430 480 530 580 630 680 730
Wavelength (nm)
unwanted
absorption
unwanted
absorption
unwanted
absorption
FIGURE 4.10 Ideal and real process colour inks
FIGURE 4.11 Grey balance and colour correction
colours but also the other colours in the picture. This improves the overall appearance. The
result is not correct in all colours because the correction has been carried out based on
equal dot areas, and will not be sufficient, for example, in colours where the magenta dot
is larger than the yellow because here extra correction will be too great. This procedure is
known as obtaining grey balance.
This establishes a condition where the colours are being reproduced as neutrals,
but further correction is still required in certain colours that still tend to be too brown and
too dark. These colours will be primarily those containing more magenta than yellow, and
more cyan than yellow and magenta.
The most common causes of unacceptable reproduction are inappropriate tone
reproduction and poor grey balance. Colour correction is important but the achievement of
correct grey balance will go a long way to producing good colour rendition. Tone
reproduction is probably the most crucial aspect since this affects whether a reproduction
appears muddy, dirty or too bright.
Tone reproduction Tone reproduction is the relative difference between levels of greys (brightness) on the
original and the reproduction. If the printing process were able to match the brightness
range of the original, a one-to-one relationship would be possible. However, most originals
have a brightness or density range that exceeds that of printing, and tone compression has
to be applied so that the relationship is no longer one-to-one. If this relationship is not
correct then highlight areas may appear dirty or too bright, and shadow detail may be lost
in a black mass. Precisely what this relationship should be is a matter of some debate, and
4
FIGURE 4.12 Colour enhancement
is not the same for different types of original. This is still further complicated by the fact
that the perceived tone reproduction is also dependent upon viewing conditions.
The relationship between tone reproduction, grey balance and colour correction is
complex because we introduce the problems associated with hue and saturation of colours
as well as brightness. So long as attention is restricted to a grey scale and assuming a
good grey balance is achieved, then the tone reproduction is easy to define, but this
reproduction will also affect the reproduction of colours. Of course, accurate tone
reproduction and grey balance do not in themselves guarantee good colour reproduction.
If the colour correction is inaccurate, some other colours will not be accurate, but they go a
long way towards it.
The term colour correction is also used to describe editorial colour changes that
are used to modify or exaggerate colours in the reproduction or to correct for defective
shifts of colour in poor quality originals.
Adding black
So far the colour theory discussed has been largely concerned with the principles of three-
colour reproduction. In practice, however, black is added. This does not affect the basic
theory but adds a complicating factor. The primary reason for adding black is because of
the limited maximum density achieved with just CMY. The addition of black is an attempt
to compensate for this.
Undercolour removal (UCR) and grey component replacement (GCR)
There are other reasons for adding black. Using undercolour removal (UCR), it is possible to
replace proportions of the three process inks in the neutral and near-neutral areas of an
image with one ink black. UCR is the reduction of cyan, yellow and magenta dot areas in
correct proportion to one another, as determined by the grey balance characteristic where
all these are present, and printing the appropriate amount of black instead.
Grey component replacement (GCR) takes the principle further. It reduces the
grey component from all colours in a reproduction (not just the neutrals), and replaces
them with black ink. Both techniques help avoid marking and set-off difficulties associated
with high areas of ink coverage. Control of the printing process is also made easier as it
becomes less sensitive to changes in balance between the colours. This is particularly
useful in reproducing originals containing large areas of near-neutral colour.
Adding black makes the theory and practice of colour reproduction more complex
because, for many colours in a reproduction, it means there is no unique mix of colours
that will reproduce them. However, it is essential to think of a reproduction in terms of a
three-colour mix to obtain the correct hue and saturation rendition of colours. The black is
added to achieve optimum rendition of darkness, only secondly for use in replacing the
process inks in greys or greyish colours. If this is not done properly, adding black can ruin
a reproduction.
4
FIGURE 4.13 Illustration of UCR and GCR
Process colour printing involves the addition of a certain amount of black ink to the cyan, yellow and magenta to provide
colour depth and detail, particularly in shadow areas. Using under colour removal (UCR) or grey-component replacement
(GCR) techniques allows for areas of colour that contain cyan, yellow and magenta to be replaced by black. When done
correctly the observer will not notice any differences with the final reproduction, as in Figure 4.13. This provides benefits
to the printer, by reducing the weight of ink laid down to minimise marking and set off, as well as replacing expensive
coloured inks with cheaper black. There are also runnability benefits on press provided that the weights of colour are not
reduced too much, and small colour variations become less noticeable. The relative amounts of the process inks required
to reproduce the same dark brown conventionally and with GCR are show in Figure 4.14.
100
75
50
25
0
Conventional reproduction of a dark brown colour
T
o
n
e

v
a
l
u
e

%
100
75
50
25
0
GCR reproduction of the same dark brown colour
T
o
n
e

v
a
l
u
e

%
Cyan Cyan Cyan Cyan
Grey component
of the colour
Grey component
removed and replaced
with black
FIGURE 4.14 Application of grey component replacement
Preparation In an artists watercolour painting, shading is created either by loading the brush more
for printing fully or by going over the same area more than once. In both cases more colour is put on
the paper. The tones in the picture will be related to the quantity of paint on the paper
Halftoning (screening) surface. Lithography, letterpress, flexography and screen printing cannot do this; they
must print ink or no ink without intermediate levels. The mechanisms by which these printing
processes define image and non-image areas are capable of carrying, and transferring to the
surface being printed, just a single thickness layer of ink. If a picture to be printed has tonal
information, shades of light and dark, it must be manipulated before being printed.
Line drawings, such as cartoons and engineering drawings, are bi-level pictures.
Everything in the picture is made with solid colour, often black. For exactly the same
reason, text is also bi-level information. Bi-level images, text or pictures require no
intermediate treatment to make them suitable for reproduction by lithography, letterpress,
flexography or screen printing.
Images that contain a range of tones, such as photographs, paintings and pencil
sketches, are described as being continuous tone. Continuous tone, often abbreviated to
contone, describes an image where the transitions from white through to black are smooth
changes of grey without any distinct boundaries between the levels. Tonal boundaries that
FIGURE 4.15 In a watercolour painting the tones are related to the quantity of paint on
the papers surface
FIGURE 4.16 A line drawing is a bi-level picture
can be seen in a continuous tone picture are there because they are required by the detail of
the subject rather than imposed by limitations of the reproduction processes.
Artists working in bi-level media can adopt particular techniques that, when
viewed from a normal reading distance, give the impression that the illustrations contain a
range of tones. For the techniques to work, the artist must exploit limitations of vision.
The human eye is not good at resolving fine detail. The generally accepted limit
of normal eyesight is that from a reading distance of about 25cm (10in), differences in
circles with diameters less than 0.025cm (100th of an inch) cannot be seen. Unable to
identify individual points of detail, the eye will merge the points and the resulting tone
perceived will be a combination of the points of detail and the background that surrounds
them. Engravings and woodcuts are good examples where this principle is used. The artist
arranges the detail in the illustration to be constructed from lines and patterns of different
widths, spacing and areas. If the patterns are so fine that the individual elements cannot
be resolved from a normal reading distance (less than 25cm), the integrated areas will
have darkness value related to the ratio of the image (the inked areas) to the clean, white
background surrounding them.
A European television picture is constructed of 625 raster horizontal scan lines.
The scan lines are not visible when viewed from a normal viewing distance and only the
total picture is seen. The eye is integrating the lines into an apparently continuous tone
picture. Accepting that the illusion of greys can be created from unresolved patterns of
solid black, commercial reproduction requires that the process be automated rather than
rely on the efforts of individual artists. Illustrations can be constructed from flat areas of
pre-defined patterns, their careful placement resulting in representational tonal changes.
However, if a reproduction is to be made to look like a genuine photograph, rather than an
artists impression, the subtlety of the pattern changes must be far finer than could be
rendered using areas of pre-defined patterns. The change in the pattern must be related
directly to the changes in the amount of light reflected from the surface of the photograph,
at every point of detail and tone change in the picture. It was in recognition of this
requirement that a photomechanical method of producing the pattern was developed, the
results of which are shown, greatly magnified, in Figure 4.17 (page 146).
In the first instance, about 1850, a patterned image was produced by
photographically copying the subject through the open weave of a coarse cloth. By about
the 1890s this concept had developed into a commercial process using a glass screen. By
the 1970s the glass screen had largely been superseded by film contact screens. It was not
until the end of the 1980s that photographic methods of producing screened black and
white pictures started to give way to direct electronic methods of doing the same job as a
function of the RIP on the imagesetter or platesetter. Conventional printing devices use
halftone screens to reproduce continuous tone images but digital print often applies
colourant directly as a pattern of micro dots.
Halftone patterns have several attributes by which they can be identified and by
which they can be chosen so as to be most appropriate for their intended purpose. The first
4
attribute of a halftone pattern is the method by which it carries the information from the
original to the eye of the viewer. There are two approaches for halftone patterns to
simulate tonal information: amplitude modulated or frequency modulated patterns.
In an amplitude modulated (AM), or conventional, halftone, the position of
printing dots is fixed and their size varies to carry the detail. In a frequency modulated
(FM) halftone pattern, often referred to as stochastic or random screening, the size of the
individual elements of the pattern (dots) are fixed at the outset and the tonal
representations are made by changing the numbers of the dots placed in an area of the
image. This is the method used by many digital printing devices that do not use
conventional printing dot rosettes.
FIGURE 4.18 A photomechanical halftone, greatly magnified to show the dot structure
FIGURE 4.17 Artists engraving. The similarity to TV scan lines is apparent
Attributes of AM There are four attributes of a conventional screen that must be understood if halftoning is
(conventional) to be commissioned or approved. They are:
screening dot percentage
dot shape
screen ruling
screen angle.
Dot percentage
Dot percentage is a way to describe a fixed tonal value. In a given area, such as one of the
sections of the scale in Figure 4.20 (page 148), the dot percentage describes the proportion
of the square that is covered by black image. In the highlight end of the scale, only a small
part of the square is covered by the halftone pattern so the dot percentage value for the
square is low, perhaps five or ten per cent. Conversely, at the shadow end of the scale the
percentage coverage is far higher, perhaps 80 or 90%. If the paper is unprinted, it will have
zero coverage; with complete coverage the halftone value is 100%. The dot percentage
always refers to the image coverage on either the film or the printed result. Image
processing software often provides a tool to assess the dot percentage, transmission
densitometers measure dots on film while plate readers are used to measure dots on plates.
A linen tester with an enlargement of about 10 is a good tool for checking dot
percentages on final print. However, if individual dots need to be studied for shape and
formation, a dot microscope with a minimum magnification of 30 should be used.
4
Amplitude modulated screening same number of dots but dots change area.
Frequency modulated screening all dots the same size but the number varies.
FIGURE 4.19 Amplitude versus frequency modulated screening.
The strip in the centre shows the tints produced by either method
Dot shape
The overall shape of a halftone dot determines some of its visual and printing
characteristics. There are three main dot shapes commonly used for offset printing: square,
elliptical and round. The reason for choosing one shape rather than another is a
combination of considerations including the purpose of the picture, the printing process
and substrate involved.
Square dots are considered the most suitable for general purpose work because
they provide a compromise between rendering fine, sharp detail and smooth tonal
transitions. However, there is the problem that all four corners of a square dot link to all four
dots surrounding it at a 50% value. This sudden link may be visible as a step in what should
be a smooth tone change. Elliptical dots are better able to represent smoothly changing
values in the mid-tones than square dots because their links to the surrounding dots do not
happen in a single tone level. Across the long axis of the ellipse, the dots will join at about
30% but the short axis will not link until the coverage is up to 70%. The trade-off is that
elliptical dots are harder to control in difficult printing conditions and can produce chains
through the printed image. This is why another name for an elliptical dot is a chain dot.
Round dots are the most stable of the main dot shapes, particularly in relation to
dot gain. Round dots would be the natural choice for newspaper printing because of the
high dot gain associated with coldset web offset printing on newsprint. There is a trade-off
in that it is difficult to keep detail open above 75% dot area coverage.
10% 0% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
FIGURE 4.20 Dot percentage scale (round dots)
FIGURE 4.21 Line screen
Geometric or special-effect pattern screens
It is not always the case that the user requires the screen pattern to be integrated fully.
There are many special effect screens available that can add interest and variety to
illustrations. A special effect screen should be noticed, and for that reason they are often
much coarser patterns than would be used for normal screening. Simple examples, such as
line screens, are often used to increase the impact of monochrome advertisements in
newspapers. However, there is a wide range of alternative effects available including
circular, hessian effect and even lace, but any pattern can be superimposed onto a
photograph to achieve a particular effect. These effects are created during origination,
rather than reproduction, in software. Figure 4.23 shows a digitally generated canvas
texture that easily mimics what used to be achieved with a special effect contact screen.
Geometric screens produce geometric patterns rather than discrete dots; geometric
line screens are well used in flexography. Relief printing has always had difficulty printing
fine detail because the image-carrier must support the printing point above the background
(non-printing) level. With a conventional halftone screen, this means that the dot becomes a
tiny, fragile island on an open sea of plate that is easily damaged and lost. This limits the
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FIGURE 4.22 Square, elliptical and round dots
FIGURE 4.23 Canvas effect generated digitally
highlight detail that can be reproduced. However, a line or geometric screen provides
support for the image area along the length of the pattern. On the left side of Figure 4.21
(page 148), the line pattern of the magenta ink in this flexographic print can clearly be seen,
as can the line of the cyan in the green area on the right.
Modern software allows different dot shapes within the same image, at different
points in the tone scale for example, providing optimal reproduction and improving quality
for various processes.
Screen ruling
The term screen ruling refers to the number of halftone dots per centimetre (dpc) or lines
per inch (lpi). The term is a throwback to the days when screens were made from ruled
glass plates, and referred to the number of cells per linear centimetre of the screen. The
screen ruling of any particular halftone can be determined by counting the dots over a
measured length, using a microscope or a tester made for the purpose. The most common
type of screen ruling tester is a line pattern and a scale on film. By rotating the tester in
contact with the halftone and noting the interference patterns generated, the ruling
frequency can be read from the scale.
The decision of which screen ruling is most appropriate depends on the printing
process and the materials used. The finer the screen ruling, the more lines per centimetre
and the finer the detail that may be reproduced on a high-quality paper surface. There is,
however, a trade-off. The finer the screen ruling, the more sensitive the image to dot gain,
and the greater the likelihood of significant tone changes occurring when the job is printed
and the more difficult the job to control on the press.
In any situation where the risk of the halftone dots spreading is increased, due
either to the process, as in the case of flexography, or to the materials used, as in the case
of web offset newspaper printing, a coarser screen ruling will be chosen to minimise the
effect of the dot change on the detail and tone range of the printed image.
TABLE 4.3 Equivalent screen rulings
Lines per cm Lines per inch
20 50
26 65
30 75
40 100
48 120
60 150
70 175
79 185
TABLE 4.4 Typical halftone screen rulings
Paper type Lithography Letterpress Gravure
Newsprint 40 26 40
Machine-finished 48 40 60
Process-coated 54 48 66
High-quality art 70 60 79
Screen angle
It has been explained already that the purpose of using a halftone pattern is to simulate
various levels of grey with a system that is capable only of reproducing one tone usually
solid black. The pattern of the screen should not be readily visible to the viewer. Early in
the development of the use of halftone screens, it was recognised that the pattern of the
halftone was less noticeable and there was an improvement in the perception of the detail
of the picture when the screen pattern was angled at 45. It is for this reason that any
single ink printing, regardless of colour, that uses amplitude modulated halftones to
represent tones, should be reproduced with the pattern at 45.
Refer back to the halftone patterns in Figure 4.20. All of them are at 45. The
angle always relates to the horizontal and vertical edges of the picture.
Frequency modulated In frequency modulated or random screening, the area of the smallest elements in the
(FM), stochastic or patterns, the spots, remains constant throughout the image. FM screening relies on the
random screening number of dots to simulate various tones. In much the same way that the choice of screen
ruling in AM halftoning is influenced by the characteristics of the process and the
substrate, so too is the choice of FM spot size. Table 4.5 shows the minimum spot sizes
(in microns) recommended for various categories of work.
TABLE 4.5 Recommended FM spot sizes
Spot size (m) Work or substrate type
14 Offset litho premier quality on coated paper
21 Offset litho commercial quality colour printing
>28 Coldset offset litho newsprint
3040 Flexographic reproduction
If the calculation of the position of the FM spots was truly random, there would be instances
when regular patterns would become visible. The principle of stochastic sampling is that the
algorithms through which the calculations are taken reduce the likelihood of regular
patterns developing. The degree of randomness and the way that the individual spots join
to form larger agglomerations in the image are quite different in each of the manufacturers
approaches to FM screening. There are many FM screening software patterns on the market
as part of the RIP function at the platesetter. Figure 4.24 shows two different patterns.
4
Agfa Crystal Raster Creo Full Tone
FIGURE 4.24 FM screening patterns
Calibration The predictability of halftone dot area, or frequency in the case of stochastic, is paramount
to the control of the quality of printing pictures. The picture data, having passed through
the halftoning algorithms, is reproduced by laser exposure on the image recorder. Whether
the recorder is imaging paper, film or plates, the effect of the exposure must be controlled
and consistent. When the recorder spot is projected onto the light-sensitive material, the
brightness of the spot and the duration of its exposure will affect the resulting image.
If the halftoning algorithm calls for a 10% halftone, the combined effect of the
lit spots in the cell must result in a given integrated density in the final image. Calibration
is the means by which the consistency and predictability of the end result can be
maintained. Calibration procedures involve the measurement of the effect of the variables
being controlled on a test image. The known values of the test image provide the target for
the recorder and the subsequent processing of the paper, film or plates. The use of a
densitometer or plate reader is essential for accurate calibration. Some attributes can be
judged visually, and it is often the case that calibration test formes will have elements
included that accentuate visual differences.
However, for the accurate assessment of halftone predictability across the full
range of the recorders scale, objective measurement is essential. It should also be
understood that calibration is an ongoing requirement. Of course, if any of the variables
such as the photographic materials, chemistry or the imaging components of the recorder
are changed, then recalibration is necessary, but it should also be realised that it is
possible for these values to drift during normal use. All manufacturers recommendations
should be studied and their advice on calibration procedures followed. If quality is
important then so is calibration.
Data compression
Data files contain gaps, empty fields and patterns that can be identified. Software can
recognise the redundancy, code it and remove it. The position of its removal from the file is
remembered and passed to the receiving station. Software at the receiving end then replaces
the data and the file is restored to its original size. It is much more efficient to describe a
pattern once and then list its occurrences than it is to describe it fully each time it occurs.
Data compression is used to reduce the size of files for short-term storage,
archiving and digital delivery. Many file formats and data transmission systems use lossless
compression routines without the user being aware of it. Compatibility of compression and
decompression routines is an issue when transferring files between different platforms, but
the incidence of problems is fairly low and many software applications recognise the
routines that have been used and handle files accordingly.
Line graphics and text can be compressed to a fraction of their original size using
software that recreates an exact replica of the original when it is restored. There is no loss
of quality or detail (lossless). Photographs (scans) can also be compressed with lossless
software but the degree of compression is small. For greater levels of compression, lossy
routines such as JPEG are usually chosen. It is the lossy software that must be used with
care. Raster files stored in JPEG format are small in comparison with their uncompressed
equivalents, but each time they are opened, altered and re-compressed, there is an
increased risk that compression artefacts will become visible in the pictures. JPEG artefacts
are common in pictures on web pages simply because of the premium of having small file
sizes for rapid delivery. Rarely do the artefacts detract from the value of the pictures being
there. This would not be the case in a PDF destined for digital print.
4
Origination and prepress
Introduction Origination and prepress cover the stages and processes required to transform a concept
into a printed item. It is the fastest changing part of the printing and graphics industries
with new digital developments being introduced all the time. The major change that is
happening, and which will become increasingly important, is the requirement to prepare
content for a variety of output media, and not just preparing a page or a document for a
particular print process. There will be a further step-change in prepress technology with the
development of true media-independent authoring tools. The current dominant packages,
Microsoft Word for content and QuarkXPress for layout, will see new competition as
companies tackle the problem differently.
All commercially printed material will be originated electronically and this
chapter will focus on this methodology. To be successful (technically and commercially) it is
useful to have a good understanding of the principles of computer graphics, colour theory
and communication developments, and these are included with background on the major
changes that have affected prepress.
Since the publication of the eighth edition of this manual, there has been
considerable progress in the development of prepress systems and the structure of the
industry has changed. The take up and use of digital file transfer for all printed items
received a major boost with the widespread acceptance of PDF as a suitable format. In
2003, many printers are placing a significant cost penalty on the receipt of film and a
premium on the use of application files. The promise of computer to plate (flexo and
gravure cylinder as well as metal and polyester litho plates) has come to fruition with
manufacturers reporting a major decline in the volumes and use of film. Distributed
collaborative development is the norm, with preflight checking and a de facto standard
of PDF maturing as the accepted mechanism of transferring files. Proofing has seen the
widespread acceptance of digital proofs, an apparently insurmountable problem a few
years ago. Low-cost, photo-realistic inkjet proofs produced on colour-managed machines
have overtaken the need for print dot simulations in many sectors. High-end prepress
systems have been replaced by Mac, Wintel and Linux workstations using workflow engines
such as Prinergy, Brisque, Apogee and Twist. Font issues have been largely solved. Colour
has been addressed and there are working solutions available that do not require colour
professional input.
Instead of the complex series of events that have to take place, be checked and
approved for a job to be printed, the prepress process will become further removed from
simply printing. The idea is to create a file that will be formatted, and sent to several
different output media without the need for further manual intervention. There will be
intelligence built in to more elements that will allow economic automated formatting and
output. This function will be similar to the hinting technology that allows fonts to be so
flexible at such efficient file sizes. This means that content will be produced in a way that
allows output to whatever media channel is needed effectively.
The series of prepress activities will change from a series of events and be refined
into three broad areas with an overall management function encompassing the processes:
5
The Print and Production Manual Origination and prepress
Image and content acquisition
Content management and editing
Formatting and output.
Prepress used to be a recognisable intermediate between creative and printer. It had its
own tools and industry structure to handle type, pictures, make-up, proofing and
platemaking. Digital development and the DTP revolution blurred the creative/production
boundary and changed the structure. The onward march of digitisation and the
requirement to get the maximum out of the content is now changing the
production/delivery interface. Printing is just one of the delivery channels to communicate
with consumers and the prepress industry has to accommodate these demands. It offers
great challenges to conventional print-based organisations but also great opportunities as
companies discover the impacts of this huge communication change.
Conventional prepress activities are being absorbed into the creative and output
ends of the digital workflow. In a few years, the role of the prepress company will be to
organise and manage the digital content on behalf of customers making it easy to be
served to customers as print, email, cell-phone or PDA, website, e-commerce or whatever
these channels develop into. Print will still be the major delivery method for most
applications but it will not be the only one. The skills required to produce good print will
still be needed as the tolerances for print are more stringent than for other media.
Background Before the adoption of computers, skilled craftsmen performed design and prepress
and history operations. They used hot metal for type and photographic techniques for images. The
different stages and requirements type, illustrations, colour, proofing and platemaking
required specialist knowledge that was closely guarded. The reason for the success of digital
origination is that it allows print customers to reduce the cost and complexity of producing
a communication product by de-mystifying the process and making it cheaper and easier to
prepare print-ready material. It is the history of the manual process that provides many of
the strange names and requirements that are necessary for satisfactory print.
These serial processes took a great deal of time and money to accomplish. Printers
would house these skills, but specialist companies would service the needs of customers and
small printers. As mechanisation turned to early adoption of computers, the capital
requirements for a scanner or photo-typesetter and front end meant high utilisation of the
equipment was needed and design agencies, typesetters and repro companies became the
norm. Some larger printers retained in-house origination and the majority would make their
own plates, but most of the physical production of bromides, film separations and proofs
would be from trade houses. The industry adopted expensive proprietary colour electronic
prepress systems (CEPS) and successful prepress companies produced many pages over 24
hours to pay for the investments. Skilled operators commanded high salaries, but the final
customer still had to wait for the proofs and pay a high cost for pages and corrections.
In the late 1980s, new technology irrevocably changed the industry with the
desktop publishing revolution. Origination was taken in-house to publishers and many larger
users of print, which used Macs and laser printers to provide layouts. Print-ready material was
produced by changing trade houses (others just went to the wall), and the cost of equipment
and required skill level dropped markedly as the process was opened up to the final
customer. The new technology was successful because it solved a business problem of print
buyers, not the printing industry. PostScript enabled the true transfer of (almost) print ready
files to any printer anywhere in the world and opened up more choice for the print buyer.
The largest investment needed was a film imagesetter (and processor) and many
small to medium print companies bought some Macs and an imagesetter to produce
imposed pairs and then formes with larger-format devices. As the power of computers
increased, the imposition of four, eight, 16 and more pages became fast and efficient. At
the same time, improvements in offset plate technology allowed computer to plate systems
to be fast enough to be economically viable. Printers have enthusiastically embraced CTP
technology to produce high quality plates quickly with little fuss, with the users reporting
significant productivity benefits of reduced make-ready and waste in the pressroom.
The software improved, font technology largely eliminated font clashes and the
lower costs enabled many more users to license the technology, greatly benefiting type
foundries and encouraging a massive growth in available designs. The differences between
different versions (country and release) of prepress software applications gave rise to many
problems that were largely overcome by the use of correctly produced PDF files. Preflight
checking software allows inexperienced producers to be fairly sure that the file they
produced would work at their printer.
In 2003, the majority of printed jobs whether catalogues, newspapers,
magazines, books, packaging or a more specialised sector broadly follows a conventional
workflow detailed in Figure 5.1 (page 158).
Following the decision to commission a job, the publisher selects suppliers, a
design function, final artwork producer and printer. This workflow has been in operation
since the introduction of typesetting in analogue and digital form. Designers take a brief
from the publisher and produce a range of dummy pages for a design approval process.
These concepts and mock-ups are a key stage of the added value provided by design,
ensuring that the content is legible and suitable for its purpose. The format has been
determined with style of page size, headlines, body text, captions and pictures presented
with dummy pictures and Latin text. The selection process in determining design
concentrates on the format and look of the printed item before any content is selected.
It is the skilled designer or makeup artist who creates the look. Most of these people use
programmes such as QuarkXPress, InDesign, Illustrator or Freehand, running on Macs,
although the Windows PC is steadily increasing in popularity. When the design is
approved, the author/copywriter prepares the text, often in Word. Copy is edited and
passed to make-up and the page is assembled into the defined design templates, images
incorporated and a proof produced. Final application files, with all content including fonts
would be supplied to the printer for it to output, but this takes time and cost at the printer
and could lead to errors. Increasingly the job is saved as a PDF with high-resolution
5
print-ready image data and embedded font information allowing correct interpretation at
any printer. The characteristics of the PDF preparation are often supplied by the printer,
and tailored to his particular requirements. When approved, the files are sent to the chosen
printer for output to plate and printing.
There may be several companies involved (client, agency, repro company and
printer), each with their speciality. At the final printer, the supplied file will be checked and
processed for output with the specific attributes needed applied according to the demands
Commission
Budget
Select
supplier(s)
Project
manage
Pay
invoices
Estimate
Schedule
Job status
tracking
Despatch
Delivery note
Invoice
Write copy
[WORD]
Page
layout
Proof/
Approve
Correction
Final (printed)
file
Repurpose
Web version
Design
Illustrations
Images
Prepress
(printers)
Imposition
colour manage
Print
Publisher Supplier
Production function Administration function
FIGURE 5.1 Typical publishing work programme
of the process involved. The screening and trapping requirements of sheetfed litho are very
different to web-fed newspaper printing or flexo. A good printed job results and the
administration is completed. Then the publisher decides it would be a good idea to provide
alternative versions as a CD-rom or on the web. The final print-ready file is sent to a
specialist supplier who takes it apart, renders the graphics into low-resolution RGB and
encodes the text with links and makes the font more legible on screen. This is then ready
for publishing.
The key issue now being addressed is workflow, the transfer of files through the
various participants to produce and approve the final result. Prepress is expanding from
being purely a production workflow, and it now can include parts of the necessary
administration load within the files. These can handle both payment and schedule
information as well as linking in to the printing process and provide methods of pre-setting
equipment and reducing machine make-ready. The other change is the requirement of
many customers to use their content across more than just print, adding electronic delivery
channels (website, email, CD-rom, SMS text messaging) to deliver the message. Many
printers are embracing the opportunities from additional distribution channels to widen
the range of services they provide for clients.
When an organisation needs to distribute editorial content for different
publishing channels, the selection and formatting of the content will not be the same for
each channel. In the past, the solution was to rewrite or re-purpose the material, with the
disadvantage that it added more steps to the editorial process and resulted in multiple
versions of an item that had to be edited or updated separately. As well as the production
aspects involved in the workflow elements, there are also the process and administration
stages that have to be covered. Each page or spread is generally treated as a unique item
with manual operator intervention and separate management.
This is a fundamental shift for the prepress industry. Instead of having to produce
a file tailored for a particular press or process, the future prepress operation will create a
media-independent master file. When it is ready to be printed or delivered, the output
characteristics are applied to optimise the master data for the web, digital printing, offset
or flexo printing, each of which requires a different type of file in terms of colour space,
resolution, trapping and colour management. As such systems develop, probably being
based around a flavour of XML, the conventional proofing methods will change as
relatively low-cost devices become capable of mimicking a range of printing conditions.
The role of prepress changes, to characterise a printing press or proofing device
and to provide files optimised for that device. They still need to understand and quantify
the printing process being used with a combination of densitometry and colour
measurement. They then produce a simulation for the customer to examine subjectively. In
order to reduce to a minimum the effect of external influences during the visual
assessment of originals, the conditions under which the assessment of proofs or the final
production print takes place must be controlled.
5
Standard viewing The appearance of an object can be dramatically affected by the conditions under which it
conditions is viewed. The following procedures help minimise the misinterpretation of colour matches in
commercial printing. All judgements about colour and tonal value should be made under
conditions that are repeatable, and every person who is involved in the print production
process should use standard viewing conditions. These help the consistency of communication
across all stages of design, reproduction and printing. In addition to controlling the conditions
under which decisions are taken, it is also important to ensure that only people with normal
colour vision should make colour decisions. It should be realised that about 8% of the male,
and 0.5% of the female, population have poor colour vision (the situation is worse for ageing,
white males). There are several commercially available kits to check operators colour vision, or
these can be performed at any reputable high street optician.
Standardised viewing refers to an environment where the following conditions
are all controlled:
the colour of the light sources
the intensity of the light sources
the degree of specular reflection and effects of glare
the colour of the surrounding area
the influence of non-standard, ambient light
the visual adaptation of the observers eye.
Conditions that satisfy the environment described above may be obtained by equipment
designed and supplied in accordance with ISO 3664:2000 or 12646. ISO 3664 was
updated to ISO 3664:2000 Viewing Conditions for Graphic Technology and
Photography in September 2001. It covers viewing conditions for monitor calibration and
room lighting when digital image files are displayed on a computer monitor in isolation,
independent of any form of hard copy. ISO/DIS 12646 Graphic Technology Displays for
colour proofing Characteristics and viewing conditions for originals, proofs and final
printed products is currently under development.
A controlled working area, such as a neutral viewing booth, is recommended.
These need regular maintenance to maintain the conditions demanded by the published
standards. A regular maintenance schedule should include the following tasks:
All neutral surfaces, fluorescent tubes and baffles should be cleaned weekly, using
materials that will not damage the surfaces.
The entire booth must be periodically inspected for dirt, scratches, remnants of
adhesive tape and other debris. If found, they must be removed without damaging the
surface finish.
The fluorescent tubes should be replaced after 2000 hours of use.
Many commercially available booths incorporate elapsed time meters to monitor the life of
the tubes. Nothing should be stuck or pinned to the inside walls of the booth because it
may cause reflections or false adaptation.
One argument against the use of standard lighting conditions is that the readers
of the print do not look at the final product under controlled conditions, so what is the
relevance of using fixed conditions during production? Surely it would make more sense to
try to simulate the end-users viewing conditions?
There are several important factors that this argument overlooks. First, it is
impractical to evaluate the elements of print under every possible lighting combination the
end-user may find. Second, print production tries to co-ordinate and synchronise the input
from an assortment of different people in a variety of different environments across
separate companies or even countries. Standard viewing conditions ensure that all
participants, wherever they are making their evaluations, do so from the same starting
point. Finally, it is only during production that comparisons are being made; comparisons
between original and proof, proof and production print, print and original, and print to
print. In all but the last category these are comparisons between images that should
appear similar but are manufactured from different materials. The end-user evaluates the
print in isolation from the originals and the proofs, and the decisions the end-user makes
are quite different from the requirements of production.
The only circumstance where non-standard lighting conditions should be used is
when the viewing conditions of the primary environment are defined and controlled. A
common example of this condition is that of a retail outlet such as a supermarket. The
final evaluation of print for packaging or display materials destined for a supermarket or
department store should be evaluated under the lighting conditions under which they are
to be displayed.
Content acquisition The biggest change that will be seen in prepress is the development of authoring tools that
will be widely used to prepare content in a media-independent manner. The most popular
creative workflows use word processing packages such as Microsoft Word to write the story.
This text is then imported into a page layout program such as QuarkXPress, which
positions the text onto the page and incorporates graphics together with necessary print
elements such as bleeds and trim marks. This application will also generate final PostScript
code for the high-resolution interpreter (on CTP or proofing device) to output. In the event
of requiring the content for other applications, such as publishing on a website or to be
part of a variable data print run, additional processing and staff are needed to re-engineer
the produced pages. This adds significant time and cost into the multi-media publishing
process while generating the possibility of additional errors.
Traditional companies that have conducted business using print production face
significant challenges from the new requirements of e-business. Competition forced
companies to invest in the systems and staff needed to create and run sophisticated
websites. As the internet channel matures, many companies, particularly magazine and
catalogue publishers, face a new challenge. These organisations too often operate two
distinct production processes: one for print and another for the website. In many cases,
these two production processes are disparate operations that run in parallel, but separate,
tracks. This dual approach is inefficient, requires separate staffs, budgets and different
technologies and is not affordable. Over the next few years, management will find a single
5
solution to drive efficiencies across both channels to enable each system to make the most
of the work done in the other.
By implementing asset management with neutral authoring programmes, companies
can break down the technical, organisational and cultural walls that separate their website
and print production teams to end up with a single solution rather than competing for finite
corporate resources and building additional incompatibilities into their environments.
Any single element picture, text, logo or document can be instantly located,
easily accessed, and quickly re-purposed by people working together anywhere in the
organisation or at its agents. This will increase productivity, reduce costs and accelerate a
projects time-scale. Media neutral authoring and management will help companies to
maximise the return on their information and content investment.
Image acquisition As content becomes an important asset of the publisher or corporate client it becomes an
investment to acquire images; the issue is now much more than obtaining a scan for use in
one publication. The choice is between conventional photography and scanning, or digital
photography, with increasing use of stock images from commercially available collections
and libraries. These developments make it much easier to deliver images into the creative
department and then seamlessly on to production. Provided the system is set up properly,
these new techniques will not require personnel with extensive colour experience. The
traditional requirement of specification details to ensure correct colour and printability
settings can now simply be handled by the correct settings to generate the PDF.
The use of stock photography will grow. It reflects the trend of creatives shooting,
creating, scanning and controlling their own images. They like the immediacy of doing their
own scanning and manipulation at the desktop. Stock photography is popular, not just for its
cost, but for its ability to provide flexibility and control. Outright purchase of the rights to an
image (royalty-free) will increase with a one-off payment made to the library. Faster download
speeds of high-resolution images will further boost distributed image libraries across the
world. This market will grow to meet the demand from the expansion of web pages needing
images. Sites must be kept fresh so web designers need to regularly update their images.
Text acquisition One trend that is now being seen in newspaper editorial systems will have great impact
across all text applications of prepress over the next few years. This is the use of media
neutral word processing systems that allow great flexibility in the later use of the content.
There will be many programmes appearing that will embed structure instead of format into
the text stream. The software will probably be XML or a descendent.
The key to success will be to make the application as easy to use as conventional
word processing, as if it is a Word Editor. There should be little additional burden placed
on original authors and copywriters. One way this will happen is for software to
automatically embed characteristics within the text data stream. This will allow format to
be applied automatically at whichever delivery system is chosen for the content.
Some organisations are embracing XML authoring systems and the
announcement that future versions of Word will support XML will accelerate this trend. The
use of standards and descriptive templates (schema or Document Type Definition) will
greatly expand, changing and broadening the role of prepress to wider media. Authoring
aids will become more widespread and easy to use and their take-up will increase as
content owners understand the benefits of cross-media channels of distribution. These
applications will allow real-time views of the content as it might appear in print, web or
other media at the authoring stage. The other element that will make XML more prevalent
is the development of software to extract XML from existing documents. Applications will
extract content from legacy files to release the print-based content for re-use.
In order to transfer data between different applications, it is necessary to
transform data from the data model used by one application to the model used in
another. To load the data into an application, the required format might be a comma-
separated values file, an SQL script, HTTP message, or sequence of calls on a particular
programming interface. Alternatively, it might be another XML file using a different
vocabulary from the original. As XML-based electronic commerce becomes widespread, so
the role of XSLT in data conversion between applications also increases in importance.
Widespread use of XML will not mean the need for data conversion will disappear. There
will always be multiple standards in use. For example, the newspaper industry is likely to
use different formats for exchanging news articles from the format used in the TV
industry. Equally, there will always be a need to do things such as extracting an address
from a purchase order and adding it to an invoice, or interrogating a printing press about
the status of a particular print job. So linking up enterprises for e-commerce will
increasingly become a case of defining how to extract and combine data from one set of
XML documents to generate another set of XML documents. Systems that are based on
XML, like JDF, are set to succeed.
When an organisation needs to distribute editorial content through different
each channel. In the past, the solution was to rewrite or re-purpose the material with the
with manual operator intervention and managed separately in administration.
There are inefficiencies and much duplication of effort in providing the same
content for different media channels, or even different printed versions. The content is
defined along with the format of its final intended channel to reader/customer. This was
fine in the past when film for a print job was the only product, but not so good when
alternative media became commercial realities. The same content is used but it is
formatted differently.
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Content The biggest change that is happening in prepress is the development and widespread use
management and of media-neutral content management systems. Print will still be the main medium for
editing much material but, in addition, clients may use the same material on websites and e-
commerce systems such as e-mails or even SMS messaging and to mobile phones or PDAs.
The challenge for prepress suppliers lies in the fact that a printed page is technically
different to a web page, even if the content is identical. The main software suppliers have
added web functionality to print-design programmes, which has promoted upgrades but has
also tended to make cross-media production a more limited, linear process. The print page-
layout programs have provided some non-print design and export capabilities because the
print was the critical medium that gave rise to re-purposed versions as a PDF or HTML file.
It is only now that companies are recognising that new media is different to
print. Publishers place their titles online, corporations wish to communicate with real and
prospective customers not only through direct-mail and statement and billing, but also
through their interactive websites and with electronic presentment and payment systems.
They see the importance of producing and editing content once, independent of the
output medium, and then deliver according to whichever channel is required. The specialist
applications for both print and online will exist, but cross-media production will require all
publishing applications to be database clients performing appropriate formatting tasks to
data. The key for this to work will be the mainstream acceptance of XML as a standard for
data preparation and storage. Over the next few years there will be great strides in this
area led by newspaper editorial requirements.
Currently the formatting and make-up of pages and documents is handled by
technicians and operators who mostly use a suite of programmes on the Apple Macintosh.
The market leader is undoubtedly QuarkXPress, with image manipulation performed within
PhotoShop and illustrations produced in Illustrator and FreeHand. Adobes InDesign is
technically a pretender to Quarks throne but the installed user base and the long-
established third-party XTension developments means that most publishing requirements
can be handled easily within Quark XPress. The latest versions of both QuarkXPress and
InDesign have limited support for XML structuring.
Word processing Word processor software now provides text design features that compete with the simpler
page layout programs. There is a degree of cross-media compatibility, and the latest
versions of the leading programs all include at least limited support for XML coding.
As their name suggests, word processors have always been most suitable as basic
authoring and text input tools. Many publishers will provide authors and contributors with
house style sheets to work with and increasingly these will allow content to be coded
correctly at its inception rather than requiring later sub-editing and markup.
Proof stages Opportunities exist for proofing at many points in the production cycle of a publication
at the word processing stage, on a made up page and in imposed pages (book-proof).
Generally proof corrections become more expensive as production stages progress, and in
an ideal world all correcting would be done before any of the typographic or page make-up
stages are started.
Proofs at word processing stage are typically hard-copy printouts from the saved
files, produced in multi-copies or photocopied as necessary. Correcting at this stage is a
simple matter. Editors working remotely might be sent files electronically via e-mail or FTP,
correct and return them the same way. In some circumstances, it may be possible to go
back to the author and have him put in the corrections made by an editor.
Page proofs will typically be laser proofs, either 300 or 600dpi, produced in
multi-copies or photocopied as necessary from the paginated files. These can be read and
marked-up as hard copy, or it may also be possible to annotate PDF versions of the pages.
The editor can post comments electronically inside the files for query or action, and make
limited corrections on the files. Imposed page proofs will be from an A3 or printer, either
mono or colour, although colour fidelity will not be maintained.
Proof marks All typographic proofs should be marked using the British Standard BS 5261 proof
correction marks. The convention is for printers errors to be marked in red and authors
corrections in blue so that a fair allocation of cost can be made. Correcting scientific
typesetting requires an additional set of marks.
Images The two types of originals are computer-generated illustrations known as vector files, and
continuous tone pictures, or bitmap files. Vector images are line drawings or images in
Originals for which the path of each line is defined by a computer statement rather than physical
reproduction information (e.g. a line 2mm long and 2 microns thick at an inclination of 30, starting at
such-and-such a coordinate). Bitmap images are line or, more normally, tone images
defined in the computer by the positions of each dot in the total physical array making up
the image (e.g. all the dots covering the area of the line).
Artwork that is drawn or traced on a computer using draw packages, such as
Illustrator or Freehand, can be saved in vector format. Once in this format, it can be scaled up
or down in size without any loss of quality. Vector format is termed native format or application
format in most drawing packages. Artwork that is scanned from a line or tone original, or is
predominantly continuous tone in nature, can be saved only in bitmap format. Bitmap files (for
which the most common format is TIFF) are editable but not as scalable as vector files.
If you are dealing with the illustration provider from the start of the project, you
have the opportunity, as with text, to have the artwork created in a way that links into your
preferred workflow. This might mean recommending a standard package such as Illustrator
or Freehand, specifying a precise file format.
What makes a good picture?
The correct picture sells a product or service. It illustrates a point in an article, and draws
attention to the publishers message. All originals can be reproduced and the important
points to consider include:
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FIGURE 5.2 General proof correction marks
5
FIGURE 5.2 General proof correction marks (continued)
Will it, when printed, still deliver the statement required?
Is the assessment of the original objective? Is it fit for the required purpose?
Has the original been judged under the correct viewing conditions?
In the past, photographers provided prints, transparencies and negatives for reproduction
and, with digital workflows, a print-ready file can be supplied. Analogue photographic
originals are still the largest proportion of originals for printing, although the share of
digital photography is rapidly growing. Photography comes in several forms:
Colour prints
Prints should be made from the original negative or positive. Colour prints for the amateur
market are made using automatic equipment, and although the consistency and accuracy of
these are appropriate for the general consumer, it is unlikely that the prints will have the
maximum quality of which the process is capable. Due to unavoidable losses in the graphic
reproduction process, it is possible only to economically achieve high-quality print from high-
quality originals. To qualify as appropriate, photographic prints need these minimum properties:
clean and free from damage
a gloss finish
correct exposure
sharpness
neutral colour balance, within subject requirements
the same size or slightly larger than the size of the reproduction. (Reproductions from
photographic prints should not be enlarged. If enlargements are required, data
conversion should go back to the original negative.)
Prints with regular, patterned surfaces, such as silk or canvas finishes, can cause problems
due to the surface finish conflicting with the halftone screen pattern. This is one reason
why a gloss surface is preferable. Another reason is that fine detail can become obscured
by coarse surface patterns.
Original film
A first-generation photographic original is the film from the camera, either positive or
negative. This represents the maximum technical quality achievable and any optical or
photographic step on from the first generation will reduce the quality of the picture.
Sharpness will be reduced and both the overall contrast and the fine detail contrast will
be altered. The subsequent degradation is inevitable but the degree can be minimised
by scrupulous attention to technique.
35 millimetre transparencies
For general illustration, 35mm transparencies are the most common film format used.
The ability to record fine detail on 35mm film is limited compared with larger formats,
and small size presents more potential problems:
They may be difficult to handle and remove from protective coverings before scanning
without damage.
They often require significant enlargement making defects such as dirt, damage,
obtrusive grain and poor focus even more obvious.
Provided that the photographer has used the full area available on a 35mm, it is possible to
obtain an 800% enlargement up to a full A4 suitable for magazine or general illustration. This
format cannot provide suitable quality for fashion, portraiture, architecture, high-quality food
shots or anything where texture and fine detail are critical issues.
Duplicate transparencies
Use of duplicates is declining as libraries and photographers provide digital originals but
there is still a significant legacy of duplicates in archives. The duplicate copy represents the
original as closely as possible, provided no error correction has been included. Agencies use
duplicates as an insurance against damage or loss.
Colour negatives
Experienced users are able to judge many aspects of a final image (exposure, sharpness,
tone, format and lighting) by looking at a negative but it is impossible to judge colours.
A reason for wanting to scan a negative directly would be to save a photographic step
if maintenance of fine detail is critical when the first generation original is a negative.
Photographic Incorrect exposure
technical quality Professionally produced photographs should be correctly exposed. Professionals should
judge the exposure required for their subject and it is industry practice to supply exposures
either side of the correct one. This form of error is probably the most common defect that
causes problems during reproduction with the explosion in demand for originals produced
outside the control of the professional photographer.
Overexposure results in burning away of highlight, detail and a loss of saturation
in the colours. Underexposure makes the image too dark and although there may be detail
highlighted, the shadows remain absolutely solid where the emulsion has not received
enough light for it to react and form an image. No image means no amount of subsequent
image enhancement and processing will create information. Underexposure of an original
colour negative allows only the brightest highlight detail to record correctly. Mid to shadow
tones will be muddy and are likely to display a significant colour bias, often to green.
Detail will be missing in the shadow areas and the overall contrast of the print will be low.
Non-neutral colour balance cast
Normal colour vision is accurate at gauging neutrals as long as the reference information
of the surrounding conditions is correct. Unwanted, visible colour shift is known as a cast.
In most instances, the degree of shift will be slight and noticeable in shades close to grey.
A colour cast may not be equal over the whole range of the image shadows and can be
moved from the neutral when the midtones and highlights are correct. Incorrect exposure,
poor processing, poor film storage and some product characteristics can lead to tonal
colour shifts. There are three types of colour cast:
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Overall colour cast. The whole image area is affected equally by the colour defect,
which is usually caused by mismatching the film used to the lighting.
Tonal colour cast. The colour shift is confined to a particular range of tones: shadow,
midtone, or highlight. There may be more than one cast of this type. There may be a
different colour affecting the highlights than the shadows. To fit this description, all
shadows or highlights would be affected throughout the entire image.
Localised colour cast. Here the unwanted colour influence is confined to a particular
area of the image, not a range of tones. The cast may cover the full tone range but
not the whole picture. Common causes of this type of defect are unwanted reflection
from a coloured object, mixed lighting (daylight plus fluorescent plus incandescent
very common in interiors or exhibition photography) or stray light from a source that
may be outside the picture area.
Overall and tonal casts can be removed by global controls during scanning but the only
way to remove a localised colour cast is by retouching and correcting the resultant file.
Grain
One characteristic of any photographic image is that it is made up of silver grains. Faster
films have larger grains and cannot be enlarged too much without the quality of
reproduction becoming poor. Once enlargement leads to the grain structure becoming
obvious, reproduction will suffer and:
areas of even tone become broken and granular;
smooth transitions between tones may become harsh and under extremes stepped
where the tone changes occur in sharp steps like the contour lines on a map rather
than a smooth, continuous transition;
fine detail and textures can be lost due to the false image texture imposed on the
subject by the grain structure of the film.
Inadequate focusing
A camera or film enlarger is only in focus on one precise plane. In a photograph there is
usually quite a wide margin that is acceptably sharp, because the eye does not resolve fine
detail. This is the depth of field; it cannot be adjusted by a prepress operator. An original
with poor focusing is one where the main subject is not sharp.
The use of unsharp masking (USM) cannot always solve the problem of a poorly
focused original. In a fuzzy original, any enlargement may make the fault more obvious.
Enlargement makes grain more apparent and while unsharp masking enhances the
apparent sharpness, it can also make grain more apparent. A compromise must be chosen
between these factors to produce a commercial result.
Difficult colours
Some subjects produce photographs with high colour saturations that are impossible for
normal process inks to reproduce. Vibrant reds, bright oranges and deeply saturated
natural greens fall outside the colour gamut of most four-colour process inks. The gamut of
colours of a particular printing condition can be found from charts made from various
overprinted tint values, and with the dot percentage content of each colour patch given as
a reference. These give a good indication of the range of colours and maximum saturations
possible from the ink-set, paper and press combination from which the chart was created.
Using a visual comparison to match the problem colour in the original with the closest
example to be found on the chart, and then reading off the dot overprint values, gives a
guide to the target reading of the scanner meter for that colour. It will show if a particular
colour in the original is too far from the achievable range that some other action must be
taken to reproduce it, such as using a wider process gamut such as hexachrome or
replacing one of the process colours with a special colour.
Digital photography
Analogue originals are rapidly being overtaken by the rise of digital photography. This
eliminates the need for environmentally damaging chemical film processing, selection and
scanning of photographs to get the image into the digital prepress workflow. Eliminating
these activities leads to significant cost savings but critically reduces the timescale involved
in reproduction. So, with digital transmission of images from a camera, the winner of the
Olympic 100m race was on the front page of national newspapers printed in London less
than 15 minutes after the race finished.
An enormous effort by camera manufacturers and film producers now allows
almost every application, in studios and in the field, to be technically satisfied by digital
photography. New camera backs allow existing lenses and associated equipment to be
used, eliminating the need for Polaroids and allowing photographers to be more creative
and productive.
Light-sensitive silver grains in film emulsions have been replaced by electronic
devices that take advantage of the photoelectric effect. In film, a coloured image is
produced when emulsion on the films surface is exposed to light. In digital imaging, an
electric signal is generated when light falls on a photosensitive site. The first technology
used was charge coupled devices (CCD) linked to an external processor but integrated
complementary metal oxide semi-conductor (CMOS) image sensors are being introduced.
Most digital cameras still use arrays of CCD photosites arranged in an X-Y matrix
of rows and columns. Each photosite is a photodiode with an adjacent charge-holding
region shielded from light. The photodiode converts light photons into charge, with the
charge generated being directly proportional to the light intensity. The light is collected
over the entire array simultaneously during exposure and transferred to charge transfer
cells so the next exposure can be made. The next stage is to record the charge; each set of
data has to be read serially, converted to voltage and amplified. This complexity makes
integrating other electronics impractical. The charge is neutralised after exposure and the
array is ready for re-use in timescales approaching motorised film drives for fast exposure,
provided data transfer rates are high enough. Miniaturisation of CCDs has allowed high-
resolution images to be captured but the separate image processing takes time.
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New complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology is replacing CCDs in
digital cameras. A CMOS imager integrates the peripheral electronics, such as digital logic,
clock drivers, or analogue-to-digital converters, within the fabrication process. CMOS
imagers can also benefit from process and material improvements made in mainstream
semiconductor technology. The CMOS sensors architecture is arranged like a memory cell
or flat-panel display. Each photosite contains a photodiode that converts light to electrons,
a charge-to-voltage conversion section, a reset and select transistor and an amplifier
section. This architecture allows the signals from the entire array, from subsections, or even
from a single pixel to be readout by a simple X-Y addressing technique. Increasing
resolution and speed of data processing and transfer is potentially much greater in CMOS
technology rather than CCD, and it is likely this technology will replace CCD over time.
Benefits of CMOS technology include:
Lower power usage
Integration of additional circuitry on-chip
Lower system cost.
CCDs have been mass-produced for more than 25 years whereas CMOS technology has
only just begun to be mass-produced.
New CMOS cameras are now being introduced to the market. Their price
performance makes this a compelling technology. New models such as Kodaks DCS Pro 14n,
aimed at the professional market, will cost about $5000 (4630). It uses a light detector
the same size (24 36mm) as ordinary 35mm film 14megapixel array, 3048 4560 pixels,
with 36 bits of colour depth giving a 41-Mb TIFF file. This means that photographers who
understand how different lenses behave with traditional 35mm cameras will have nothing
CMOS imager
Output buffer
Column decode and readout
Pixel
R
o
w

d
e
c
o
d
e
Q-V conversion
and output
amplifier Photodiodes
Output lines
Row
signal
lines
Interline transfer CCD
Parallel
clocks
Photodiode
Shift
register
(masked)
Serial
clocks
Output
amplifier
Direction of
parallel shift
FIGURE 5.3 CMOS and CCD sensor architectures
Source: Kodak Inc.
new to learn; their old lenses will work exactly as expected with the new camera. The
camera can capture a burst of up to eight shots at 1.7 frames per second.
Digital camera profiles
Camera profiling can be done using test targets but they will represent only part of the
possible gamut of the subjects, and the gloss surfaces of photographic materials can cause
serious problems with reflections. Gretag/Macbeth has a test target made specifically for
the job. This not only has matt elements but is also designed to cover the likely gamut of
natural objects. A photograph of the target is taken under the prevailing lighting and
exposure conditions and analysed using their profiling software to make an ICC profile.
Camera profiling must take account of the lighting conditions in the studio as well
as the specific influence of the optics and sensor of the digital camera. This raises the
question: will one profile do for every subject treatment or must we develop a profile for
every studio/lighting style/camera/subject/exposure combination? Clearly, if that were the
case making a library of profiles would be a time-consuming and impractical approach. The
photographers would have difficulty in knowing what degree of change in any one of the
profiles parameters required a new profile to be made. The solution in that instance is to
insist that every photograph carries its own profile. This is a theoretical solution that would
double the photographers work for every shot taken. It would be acceptable for a high
value, one-off studio set but impractical in a production line, catalogue or fashion workflow.
An alternative is to use one profile that represents the camera and standard
lighting values, and then use the photographer in the same role as the traditional scanner
operator working from transparencies. To the scanner operator, the image values (colour
and tone reproduction) held by the transparency must be optimised for the printing
process. The scanner operator does that by choosing highlight and shadow points that are
mapped onto the printing reproduction values by the computer associated with the
scanner. That role now becomes the responsibility of the photographer. If the camera and
monitor are calibrated and locked together by ICC profiles it is based on a visual
assessment of the image on his screen. The intention is to treat the screen as the target,
with the profiled system aiming to make the reproduction look like the screen. It does not
mean that the photographer takes a picture and the ICC system makes the best
reproduction possible from the file supplied. The second option requires a profile for every
image but could be automated. The first option requires all photographers to adjust every
file to look correct based on their screen.
Video Professional photographers have evaluated, and rejected, still video technology as
incapable of providing sufficient quality for anything but screen-based presentation.
Consumers have rejected still video as a snapshot technology because they could not
be convinced that a TV screen was an attractive way of viewing still photographs, but
broadcast television, particularly news, represents a huge reservoir of images that
sometimes must be reproduced on paper.
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Capturing a frozen television picture as an original for publication is called
frame grabbing. The concept is not new newspapers have been doing it for more than
a decade. There are several drawbacks to using television pictures as stills, and the most
difficult is its lack of detail.
The amount of information needed for a single frame of an animated sequence
is considerably less than would be needed for a still picture. You would be amazed at how
fuzzy and grainy a frame of big screen cine film can look, but it looks fine as part of a
moving sequence. The main drawbacks are:
lack of detail
coarse scan lines
interlaced frames
easily noticeable image-processing artefacts
easily noticeable colour artefacts.
With post-capture digital image processing, the effects of the problems above can be made
better. For printing, however, video frames should be used at a very small size or considered
only as a last resort, e.g. the pictures exist only as video and there is no opportunity to
reshoot. The main application is for use of the dramatic image in newspapers.
Frame-grabbing boards are widely available allowing a computer to play
television signals, either directly from an onboard broadcast tuner or video recording.
Inputs to the boards will include composite video (as from a TV source), separate video and
audio and possibly S-VHS. S-VHS keeps the colour information separate from the
luminance signal resulting in less confusion between the two in the decoded signal. This
makes for better pictures. To use this feature, the signal must be supplied in S-VHS format.
New digital camcorders are designed to have multiple input quality standards and image
processing software can optimise many images for printing.
Having displayed the video signal on the computer monitor, the frame grabber
software enables you to select a frame, digitise it and save it to disk. The resolution at
which the image is saved is usually the display resolution of the graphics card in the
computer. Depending on the sophistication of the image processing software and,
therefore, the cost of the installation, the frames can be made suitable for screen-based
publications and, possibly at small size, some paper ones.
Digital conversion Although totally digital origination is increasing in importance, there is still a major
requirement to translate analogue originals, existing documents and photographs into
digital form.
Optical character Optical character recognition scanning is the process of converting printed text back into
recognition (OCR) editable form without the need to re-key the characters. OCR is well established in data
processing and banking (for the reading of forms and cheques). In these specialist areas
both the text to be read and the scanners doing the reading tend to be designed for single
tasks, although the capabilities of the systems increase regularly.
OCR for general text capture has developed to allow virtually any well-
reproduced text to be scanned on a cheap desktop scanner, and the resulting raster file
processed using cheap software. OCR software can recognise a wide range of different
fonts and formatting, preserving the layout of the document being scanned. Specialist
scanners and software are available in publishing but the emerging requirements to store
content in XML format means that, for many applications, re-keying in cheap markets such
as India and Mauritius are preferred. While there are many applications where OCR is
useful, it still has limitations. For example, handwritten editing on typescript cannot be
read and worse may confuse the OCR reader into misreading the printed characters.
Also, 100% accuracy in reading anything but the cleanest typescript is not readily
achievable and although 99% accuracy seems almost perfect, if you translate that into
the number of mistakes in a 50,000 word document, you can see that the 1% error
translates into a time-consuming editing job: 50,000 words = some 250,000 characters
99% OCR accuracy = 2500 errors = a possible 2500 words that are wrong = 5%
of the book.
One of the paradoxes of text handling is that to insert corrections into previously
typeset text can often take as long as re-keying the text itself. OCR for general text will
always be done using spellcheckers, and for technical matter it may be worth generating
specialist dictionaries. OCR is at its most useful when it is possible to present the scanner
with clean, well-prepared typescript.
Image scanning A few purists fondly remember high-end drum scanners from Hell, Crosfield and Dai-
Nippon. These devices currently (Spring 2003) cost about 150,000 (217,000) and a
skilled operator could set up and scan between six and eight transparencies an hour, and
obtain excellent reproductions. These are rare today and most scanners sold are flatbed,
with limited degree of operator intervention, and capable of reproducing 20 to 30 scans an
hour. The scanners cost between 15,000 and 20,000. Despite cost reductions and
productivity improvements, the demand for scanning is dropping as the move towards
digital photography and the storage of archive photography accelerates. However, the
need for images has grown enormously and scanning will still be required while analogue
material (photographs and artwork) has to be reproduced.
Choosing a scanner There are many scanners on the market. Graphic arts-quality high-end models are available
in rotary drum and flatbed format. Some have the copy dot option allowing the user to
digitise film, although this need is rapidly waning. The use of high-quality precision optics
and components means the quality achievable from these devices will be much higher
than from the cheaper desktop scanners that are widely available.
A potential user must consider what he wants a scanner to do before buying one.
There is no dividing line between professional and amateur scanners and much sales
literature is of little help when it comes to deciding which technologies are the most
appropriate for particular tasks. Tests of scanner capability, which use reproduced images
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for comparison, are highly suspect. Rarely is the scanner the only element in the
reproduction process that has been changed. Other stages of reproduction, such as grey
balance, colour correction, tone reproduction and sharpness, have such a major effect on
the appearance of the final print that it is difficult to determine the precise influence of
the scanner. This is particularly applicable to dumb scanners where the essential image
processing, colour computations and colour space transformations are undertaken as
ensuing operations rather than in real-time by the scanner. Choice of scanning equipment
should take into account:
the nature of the original transparency or reflection copy and range of sizes;
the resolution required how and where the scan is to be used and at what size;
the productivity needed in the environment in which it must operate scans per hour;
the availability of skill how intelligent is the support software;
the budget.
Not all scanners deliver their files equally ready for reproduction so make sure that the
productivity of the system is judged from points of equivalent status rather than on the
basis of mechanical speed.
Scanner specifications can be confusing. The number of subjects covered by them
is large, and their names are confusing. Different manufacturers might give the same
subject a different name; a similar name might mean different things between
manufacturers. Table 5.1 shows a selection of specification headings collected from the
trade press and manufacturers literature with a brief explanation.
TABLE 5.1 General scanner specifications
Specification explanation
Scanner type: rotary or flatbed, CCD or photomultiplier
Scan head: description of the optical path to the sensor
Light source: fluorescent, halogen, xenon or laser (relevant to colour sensitivity)
Document size: maximum size of original
Optical scan resolution: actual recording resolution of the scanner (the important value)
Firmware interpolation: software permanently available in the scanner for artificially enhancing the
resolution of the image
Pixels at 100%: same as optical resolution above
Halftoning: a function of the control software usually the responsibility of the final RIP
Reading sequence: the sequence of storing the RGB or CMYK pixel values. Important if the file is to be
transferred to another system
Gamma correction modes: tone reproduction functions in the control software
Colour correction modes: software to adjust the relationships of the colours in the image
Drop out colour: this usually refers to a colour that an OCR scanner will ignore (like printing blue)
Interfaces: SCSI, bi-directional
Parallel: TWAIN communication route between the computer and the scanner
Reliability: (MTBF) mean time between failures (self-explanatory production engineering term)
One of the causes of confusion is that it is not made clear which of the specs depends on
the actual scanner and which is the province of the driver software. The reason it is
important is that if the software is changed, features may be lost or gained. Of all the
characteristics of scanners listed in the specifications, the single biggest source of
confusion is the resolution figures.
Scanning resolution
Scanning resolution describes the number of sampling points per linear measurement that
a scanner is capable of recording. The higher the scanning resolution, the more pixels for a
given area of original and the greater the amount of information that is captured and the
larger the datafile will be. It is possible for an image to be scanned with too high a
resolution for a given output requirement. Over-sampling does not enhance quality and
may dramatically reduce the efficiency of the system being asked to handle the file.
For a CCD scanner, the input resolution is calculated in exactly the same way as
the digital camera: the number of horizontal photosites and the vertical movements of the
stepping motor. It is calculated differently for a rotary scanner and the input resolution is a
combination of the digital sampling rate as the drum rotates, moving the original vertically
past the scanning spot, and the incremental steps of the drive screw.
Many flatbed scanner descriptions refer to their resolution ranges under two
headings:
optical resolution
interpolated resolution.
Interpolated resolution is much higher but the only useful information is the optical
resolution, which refers to the real capture of information and the real number of sampling
points. Interpolation is the process of computing intermediate values between known
values. It is widely used in image manipulation software when resolution or size increases
are required, and pixel data is invented to fill the gaps between known points. Pixels in
the area of the interpolation are sampled and, depending on the sophistication of the
interpolation routine, the information is averaged, or anticipated, and additional
information is inserted. In this way, enlargements can be made from rasterised information.
However, this is not real information from the original and is not a good substitute for a
scan at the correct resolution for the enlargement required.
XY flatbed scanning
Light from a point source will vary in angle and intensity over the area of a flatbed
scanner. The cheapest method is point sources with an array of mirrors but more expensive
movable optics in the X and Y co-ordinate provide a more consistent imaging across the
bed with no anamorphic distortion of the original.
At what input resolution should an original be scanned?
Ideally, a continuous tone original should be scanned at an input resolution that will
provide double the screen ruling at which the image will be printed in conventional AM
screening. Much offset colour printing uses 150 dots an inch, so scanning 300 pixels to the
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inch (ppi) at the final size of the reproduction is enough information for a high-quality
reproduction. With higher screen rulings and FM screening, higher resolution may be
required. In the past, the final destination of the scan was known and the operators would
scan the original for that particular use. If it was for the front cover of a glossy magazine,
higher resolutions and particular screen patterns would be used; for a newspaper, lower
resolution with coarser screens was fine. Today, this approach is flawed because the image
could be used in many forms that are not predicted, and it is common for an optimal scan
to be produced that is suitable for multiple re-use across many publications and media.
Difficulties often arise because of confusion between input and output
resolutions. The relationship between the two is quite straightforward. There is a simple
formula that is used to calculate required scan resolution: Or Sc = Sr (where Or is the
output resolution, Sc is the scaling factor and Sr is the scan resolution).
EXAMPLE 1
Or = 300ppi
Sc = 60% (5in 4in landscape transparency reduced to 3in wide)
Scan resolution = 300 0.6 = 180ppi
EXAMPLE 2
Or = 300ppi
Sc = 270% (2in 2in transparency enlarged to 6in wide)
Scan resolution = 300 2.7 = 810ppi
It is no longer critical to minimise file sizes as communication bandwidth has
increased and the cost of storage has fallen. Scanning at a higher than needed input
resolution may waste scanning time, computer and network resources and storage space. It
does nothing to enhance the final quality of the reproduction but it is important not to
enlarge a reproduction more than the input resolution allows. If a rasterised image is
enlarged too much, the pixel structure will become visible.
It is common for the resolution and reproduction ratio (scaling factor) to be
calculated for the operator. All the operator has to do is indicate the area of the original
that is to be scanned, key in the final size of the reproduction (in whatever units are
convenient inches, centimetres, points, etc.) and the rest is calculated by the software.
The scanners There are several factors that influence the image quality of a reproduction:
influence on resolution
image quality sharpness
dynamic range
colour resolution
accuracy of calibration
the operator.
Resolution
Input resolution is explained above. When deciding if a scanner is suitable for a particular
type of work, its maximum optical resolution will determine the degree of enlargement
achievable with that device. Dedicated scanners designed for specific tasks, like 35mm film
scanners, have a relatively high resolution but limited area coverage. A 35mm film scanner
will typically have enough resolution to allow a 2436mm area (35mm format) to be
enlarged to A4, which is an enlargement of slightly more than 800%.
Sharpness
Resolution and sharpness are often confused. Sharpness refers to the appearance of the
well-resolved edges of detail in a photograph. The scanner will influence the sharpness of
the reproduction. The sharpness of the final image will depend on five sets of unconnected
variables:
the quality and cleanliness of the scanners optics
the mechanical precision of the scanner, including its accuracy at focusing, the
flatness of the image plane and the registration of the sensors
the recording quality, stability and calibration of the sensors
the scanners unsharp masking method
the original being scanned.
The first three items of the list above relate to the quality of the scanners components. The
price of the scanner will be a fairly reliable indicator of the calibre of the engineering and
the quality of the components used.
The fourth item on the list, unsharp masking (USM), may be related to the
scanner or it may be applied post-scanning by colour conversion or editing software.
Unsharp masking is a means by which an image can be made to appear sharper by
enhancing the micro contrast of detail edges. When colour separations were made using
cameras, one of the stages of achieving this effect was to make an unsharp version of the
image into a mask hence the name. A similar effect can be achieved with a digital image
by sampling and modifying the values of the pixels. Some degree of unsharp masking is
required to re-establish original levels of sharpness that inevitably will have been softened
by the process of scanning. So USM is a necessary part of scanning, but it cannot make an
out-of-focus photograph look sharp.
The fifth category is the original. The first criterion is the focus of the original
camera, but lighting contrast, type of background (textured or smooth), subject movement
and whether the subject contains pastel or strong colours will all affect the appearance of
sharpness.
Dynamic range
Another technical aspect of the scanner that will affect the quality of the reproduction is
the scanners dynamic range. The dynamic range describes the extremes of lightness and
darkness to which the sensors (photomultipliers or CCDs) can ascribe separate values. A
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photomultiplier will typically have a dynamic range of 4.0, which translates into the ability
to identify light differences in the ratio of 1:10,000. A good-quality scanner with a cooled
CCD will have a range somewhere between 3.5 and 3.9.
Colour transparencies have the widest density range of the photographic originals with
which a scanner must cope. A well-exposed colour transparency will have a density range
of about 3.4. Density range is the number that describes the difference in brightness
between the darkest and lightest points in a photograph. It is the range of tones that must
be encompassed if all the detail in the picture is to be reproduced. It is important that the
CCD has a dynamic range well in excess of the density range of the original being
scanned, particularly for recording detail in dark (shadow) areas.
One of the reasons that dark shadows of originals scanned with CCDs can be
problematic is that CCDs and the associated imaging circuits can suffer from noise. Noise
is caused by spurious signals that are misinterpreted as light and appear as artefacts in the
image. All electronic circuits have some noise. An indication of the quality and fitness for
purpose of many circuits is indicated by their signal-to-noise ratio. The greater the
difference, the less influence the effect of the noise will have on the end result. In the
shadow part of a picture, the signal level (the amount of light) is very small and noise will
be as visible as the shadow detail. If the detail is enhanced it is likely that the effect of the
noise will be enhanced as well. The broader the dynamic range of the CCDs, the more
likely that the detail of the photograph can be accommodated without going right into the
noisy extreme of the sensors range.
Colour resolution (or pixel depth)
Colour resolution (or pixel depth) refers to the softwares ability to record colour
differences. It has nothing to do with the resolution of area-related detail. The relationship
Dynamic range describes
the extremes of lightness
and darkness to which the
sensing device can ascribe
separate values. It is a value
which describes the sensors
recording range capability.
Density = 0.04
Density = 3.22
Density range
= 3.22 0.04
=3.18
FIGURE 5.4 Dynamic range and density range
between the number of grey levels or colours that a pixel can represent and the number
of bits or bytes of computer memory needed to store it is listed below. The minimum
requirement is eight bits per colour (one byte), but often scanners are advertised as being
ten, 12- or even 16-bits per colour. Although most images are converted to eight bits per
colour for storage and manipulation, sampling at a higher bit rate includes some
redundancy that can be used for tone transformations optimising the results from less than
perfect originals.
Colour resolution: bits per pixel
1 bit per pixel = black or white
8 bits per pixel = 256 shades or colours
24 bits per pixel = 256 red 256 blue 256 green = 16.7 million colours
each extra bit doubles the number of tones or shades that can be expressed
the software convention is an 8-bit environment
10- or 12-bit scanners = redundancy of bits for tone transformations.
Accuracy of calibration
All scanners need to be calibrated. In the case of photomultiplier machines, the sensors
need to be balanced to equalise their sensitivity and zeroed to white light. Although the
routine is usually automatic, it has to be initiated manually. It is important that the
analyse optics are focused onto a clear area of the drum when the procedure is started.
Calibration will account for changes in the sensitivity of the photomultipliers due to age
and will also account for changes in the colour of the illuminant as that also ages.
Calibration for the light sources of CCD scanners is usually automatic, taking as a
reference a scale built into the body of the scanner.
Balancing the sensitivity of the individual photosites of the sensors is a complex,
fully automatic function of their control software and not something of which the operator
is aware.
Operator set-up of the individual original
Every major manufacturer has control software that supports the inexperienced user. Some
manufacturers describe their software as artificial intelligence: they have collected
experienced operators most likely responses to a selection of control decisions and made
them available as a series of correction algorithms. Where a complex interaction of tone
reproduction, colour correction and image processing settings are needed, the software will
offer a pre-determined set of control functions. In this way the reproduction of a difficult
original can be optimised with little understanding of the processes involved. The use of
these algorithms, while being of enormous assistance to an inexperienced operator, would
slow down an experienced operator. They should be considered as training aids rather than
optimised operating procedures for high productivity.
Much of what a scanner operator is required to do relies heavily on subjective
decisions regarding what the operator believes the client wants from the original. Issues of
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tone reproduction and colour correction are subjective and for that reason good or bad
operators, even with the most sophisticated of modern equipment, still influence the speed
and the quality of colour reproduction.
Asset management The management of content is becoming one of the key applications for prepress providers.
There are many flavours and scales of systems to provide, prepare and manage a
centralised asset management database, the repository for all graphic elements within
a relational database. Items (pictures/text/logos/illustrations/templates/documents/
pages/publications) are catalogued according to customer requirements. Elements will
have metadata associated with them. Metadata is simply information about information,
such as descriptive (keywords, what is it, what form, what colour, etc.); physical (type of file,
dimensions and file size, resolution, colour space, etc.); and workflow (is it ready for use,
where is it in the production schedule, as full audit trail). These key words allow
sophisticated searching on all communication material while providing maximum
production efficiencies and optimal workflow, reducing lead times.
The system will provide audit trail capability for all elements and the progress
of projects. It may be networked, providing access-controlled customer service, client and
approved client agents in a secure, controlled manner. Customer service agents (perhaps
a helpdesk operation) and clients have direct access to their prepress material to aid the
design, selection and format of their communications while following style guides. This
improves quality, ensuring that customers expectations are met. The benefits include:
All files are catalogued with the correct, latest versions available
Consistency of style is maintained
Consistent prepress services across a distributed organisation: inter-department, inter-
company and inter-country
Redundant designs and elements are archived offline
Electronic selection and delivery of low- and high-resolution files
Design templates and files available for designers
Complete library for reference is available
Ability to update elements of design across all communications
Useful data can be associated with the graphic (metadata), totally customisable to
client requirements
Detailed search and query capability
PDF versions containing artwork and complete specification are available
Complete workflow record
Complete audit trail of prepress is available
Individual graphics elements available as well as finished pages and projects
Remote colour managed proofing
Access via any web client browser
Total firewall security with controlled access privileges for customers and their agents
Workflow and production management (job progress) information is available
Maximum flexibility for searching should be provided for creative and production
personnel. There is a job-tracking progress function allowing relevant personnel to assess
progress against deadlines. There is regular automatic back up provision to eliminate the
problem of data loss. The archiving system and format is capable of providing input to
intranet and internet servers.
Many vendors of management systems have found it difficult to convince publishers,
printers and trade houses to invest in asset management solely to improve prepress
efficiency. It is only as the business range has expanded to new areas that the value of the
asset management system becomes apparent. The ability to handle and manage graphic
files is critical in allowing well-organised multi-channel distribution of content to take
place economically. For companies involved in one-to-one communications the capability
of automated make-up is important, this involves serving up the correct text file and
images according to the profile of the customer. Asset management is critical. When colour
managed remote proofing is offered it is important that the proofer and the press profiles
are stored and the correct transformation is applied to the file being proofed. This is stored
as metadata and sent with the file for the proofing RIP to interpret.
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Asset Management
System
Project
management
workflow/
tracking
ODBC
JAVA
Remote
proofing
Colour
management
e-procurement
systems
Automated
page make-up
(e.g. PageFlex)
Multi-channel
delivery
Management
Information
System
Account and
ledgers
Interactive digital TV
SMS messaging
Printing
e-mail
Digital print
Website
FIGURE 5.5 Schematic of the position of asset management
From a management perspective the asset management system enhances the
functionality of a management information system (MIS). When a client orders printed
items they can see a representation of the document or pack when they place the order.
Additional information can be incorporated into the invoice simplifying the business
process. In some cases it will be possible to integrate the asset management system into
the clients MIS, increasing the functionality at the client and cementing the supplier
partnership relationship. When all elements are tracked according to use it is easy to use
the system as a project tracking device.
In future the digital asset management solution will feature a modular, flexible
design with three main product components:
asset management system
print content management system
allowing open integration with popular web content management systems.
The content will be catalogued once, then automatically produce multiple versions of that
original asset in several formats to simplify reuse in cross-media publishing environments.
There will be rigorous archive functions both near-line and offline storage to easily
resurrect content to active status. This will mean effectively unlimited storage capacity, so
the system can expand with customer growth. There will be reliable revision control to
increase flexibility and simplify tracking and relating multiple versions of assets. There will
be rights management and access control to give management control over specific assets
and exactly and how those assets can be shared.
The system will have sophisticated security features, developing from identity and
password protection for users, groups and locations of company staff, clients and client
agents. This will help to protect both production and intellectual property, maintaining
confidentiality in multi-client editorial and production environments.
The system will integrate with todays page layout applications, offering full drag
and drop of content directly into a document providing greater control over the process to
users. In future the integration will be to output devices and workflows to ensure accuracy
of formatting across developing workflows. There will be easy integration in to business
control systems used by customers to control their businesses to allow clients to make
efficiency gains and cost savings by sharing content between their print and web content
management systems.
Page make-up Once content, text and images have been created, the next stage is to assemble the
and assembly content into pages and documents. The basic necessary capabilities from layout
software include:
importation of text from popular word processors with filters allowing retention of
font definitions, line, paragraph and page instructions;
search and replace on both character and format specifications;
automatic numbering of paragraphs, pages, sections and illustrations;
ability to define running heads and footers;
ability to use pre-defined templates for the document structure and paragraph formats;
ability to generate simple page design elements such as tints, rules, borders;
ability to generate tables as single structures (rather than having to build them from
separate paragraphs and rules) and to apply tints and rules to them;
importation of EPS and raster graphics and the ability to flow text around graphic
elements;
ability to rotate, crop and scale imported graphics;
typographical freedom regarding the individual manipulation of the position of lines,
words and individual characters horizontally and vertically;
hyphenation and justification options with reference dictionaries;
accurate presentation of the document on screen both position and colour;
colour definitions that relate to the operators choice of method RGB, CMYK, Pantone.
Some user requirements are specialised and will encourage one software to be chosen over
another, one of the most obvious being transplatform document portability. Others include:
mathematical or scientific equations;
cross-referencing between files;
indexing;
hypertext linking;
OPI the automatic replacement of FPO illustrations with the high resolution version
immediately prior to output;
drawing functions or the ability to edit the colour and/or tone reproduction of scans;
conversion of RGB colour into CMYK;
the ability to apply spreads and chokes (grips) between different elements in the
document;
database referencing.
One way that third-party suppliers can enhance core layout software is through the
principle of plug-ins. A plug-in is a separate piece of software code that is written so that it
may be accessed as if it was part of the original program. For example, XTensions for
QuarkXPress can provide some of the specialist functionality on the list above.
Plug-ins can be expensive, costing even more than the original program,
although they can often be justified by the increase in efficiency that they give to the
operator. It is an important management function to evaluate the difference between
additional features that would be nice to occasionally use, and functions it would be a
mistake to refuse.
Structured Increasingly the graphic arts will develop the specialist SGML typesetting and databasing
documents, SGML and use XML as a format to create, store and distribute content in an efficient manner. It is
and XML difficult to provide a clear, concise definition of XML because it allows many things to
happen. It is not just for publishers and print buyers/users, but also business-to-business
communication and the larger IT field. It is important to the graphics and business
communities because it does two things:
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XML separates content from format, allowing repurposing for different media, and
XML describes data, allowing easy data exchange between disparate computer systems.
XML stands for eXtensible Markup Language. It is a set of rules for designing text formats
that describe data and allow it to be structured in a systematic manner. It is not a
programming language; it is a language designed to make it easy for a computer to
generate and read data, and ensure that the data structure is unambiguous. XML
separates the syntax (structural representation) from semantics (visual rendering or other
processing), and considers only syntax.
Development of XML started in 1996 as a subset of SGML, an ISO standard since
1986 that is widely used for large documentation projects. XML was approved by the World
Wide Web Consortium (W3C.org) in February 1998. The designers of XML claim that they
took the best parts of SGML, guided by the experience with HTML, and produced
something that is no less powerful than SGML but more regular and simple to use. While
SGML is mostly used for long, multi-input technical documentation and much less for other
kinds of data, it is exactly the opposite with XML.
Standard generalised SGML is an international standard (ISO 8879) that specifies a general-purpose computer
mark-up language language for the preparation and interchange of text-based digital documents. The use of
(SGML) SGML involves the acceptance of four fundamental ideas about the nature of documents.
The term document implies any body of content that forms an identifiable unit for some
purpose, such as the creation of a publication (e.g. magazine or journal, book, article, entry
in an encyclopaedia). The key concept is that a document can be represented as a
hierarchical arrangement of components called elements. Each element represents a logical
unit of text, such as a chapter, section, paragraph, caption, footnote or heading. All types
are defined in terms of how its content is organised. Large elements contain smaller
elements, e.g. a chapter contains a title followed by one or more paragraphs, and the
smallest elements contain simple text or in some cases have no content at all. The largest
element of all is the document element: the logical unit representing the entire document,
and containing all other elements.
Elements provide a basis for creating digital mark-up tags that are generic, and
they are not necessarily tied to any specific treatment of the tagged content. While a tag
that conveys the sense start a new page represents a specific (probably print-based)
typographic requirement, a tag that conveys the sense start a new chapter does not imply
any specific treatment.
Secondly, SGML information other than content may be associated with a
particular element type. Such information could identify an item of text for indexing or
cross-reference purposes, link a logical illustration element with a specific non-text image
(in a separate file), or identify different versions of the same paragraph. In SGML an item
of such information is called an attribute of the element.
Thirdly, every document has both an abstract, logical structure the element
structure and a concrete, physical structure: the arrangement of objects (characters,
images, flat files, database records) that are the way the document is stored digitally.
The objects in this physical view are called entities.
Finally, definitions of element types, attributes and entities can be collected
together into a formal specification called a document type definition (DTD). This defines
everything that is needed to construct and use generic mark-up tags in preparing digital
content for a specific type of document.
SGML and complex texts
SGML mark-up tags provide mechanisms for preparing content of varying complexity from
simple paragraphs and headings to highly complex structures such as tables and
mathematical formulae. The more complex the text structure, however, the greater the
number of mark-up tags that need to be used. For this reason, it is generally not practical
to use SGML mark-up tags to prepare tables or mathematical formulae, unless a special
purpose SGML text editing tool is available that will display such text in a meaningful
fashion, i.e. without the tags showing and with the various elements visually arranged in
an intelligible manner. Some publishers have found it useful to treat tables and
mathematical formulae as illustrations and not use SGML in their coding, others insist that
SGML should be used for all text.
Hypertext mark-up The Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) is the mark-up language that was developed for
language (HTML) the preparation of documents for delivery via the worldwide web. Originally HTML was an
application of SGML, with a single DTD defining the coding and use of HTML mark-up
tags. Almost from the start, HTML has moved rapidly away from this model. HTML
documents are generally hypertext documents, i.e. they can contain links to other
documents, enabling a user to browse through any number of linked documents. The main
drawback with HTML is the inability to render sophisticated designs within the various web
interfaces. Colour and typographic control is limited, so enhancements were necessary
spawning the next generation of mark-up, XML.
Extensible mark-up XML is a meta-language, used to define other languages. It creates documents that are
language (XML) well structured. This means that any data in XML is used easily across the internet because
it enables businesses and their computer systems to communicate more easily. Not only
does XML hold data, it can also hold the structure and even classification of the
information inside a document. Using XML, the document carries information about itself
because a user can define tags specific to that user.
XML is a simple, standard way to interchange structured textual data between
computer programs, and it satisfies two compelling requirements.
Separating data from presentation. The need to separate information (such as a
magazine article) from details of the way it is to be presented on a particular device is
becoming more urgent as the range of internet-capable devices grows. Publishers with
valuable content increasingly need to be able to deliver them not only via print but
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also to PC-based web browsers (that now come in multiple versions), but also to PDAs,
digital TV sets and mobile phones.
Transmitting data between applications. As electronic commerce gathers pace, the
amount of data exchanged between enterprises increases daily, and the need to transmit
business information (such as orders and invoices) from one organisation to another
without investing in bespoke software integration projects becomes ever more urgent.
It is for these two applications that XML is important. An invoice can be presented on the
screen as well as being inputted on a financial application package, and magazine articles
can be summarised, indexed, and aggregated by the recipient instead of being displayed
directly. However, whether the XML data is ultimately used by people or by a software
application, it will rarely be used directly in the form it arrives. It first has to be transformed
into something else.
This has profound implications for print and publishing because XML is a text file
format designed to allow the re-use of content across a variety of applications and media.
When an operator makes a page up for a catalogue or magazine, he typically imports text
and pictures into a standard template and edits accordingly. Text is typically formatted as
it is made up. So headlines are set in semi-bold Rockwell, 36pt in 100%C/70%M,
paragraph subheadings as Rockwell Light, 10pt on a 12pt body in 70%C/50%M while
body text is 8pt Palatino on a 10pt body. Captions are 6pt bold Rockwell, in black running
at 90 up the left side of an image. In most cases a standard template has been
generated with the attributes pre-formatted and ready to receive content. Different
components simply run into the available areas and the pages are made up but when a
freelance operator or a busy sub-editor becomes involved, corrections may just have a style
associated with them and the content loses its structure. The point with XML is to
categorise these different attributes by labelling them with specific tags.
The extensibility feature means that XML may be used to create other mark-up
languages such as XSL, the extensible stylesheet language. XSL is made out of XML and their
relationship is important. If XML is the raw data, XSL is used to change that raw data into a
usable format. XSLT, the eXtensible stylesheet language: Transformations, is a language
designed to transform one XML document into another or to transform the structure of an
XML document. To communicate with a human reader, this might be a document that can be
displayed or printed: for example an HTML file, a PDF file, or even audible sound. Converting
XML to HTML for display is probably the most common application of XSLT.
In order to transfer data between applications, it is necessary to transform data
from the data model used by one application to the model used in another. To load the
data into an application, the required format might be a comma-separated-values file, SQL
script, HTTP message or a sequence of calls on a particular programming interface.
Alternatively, it might be another XML file using a different vocabulary from the original.
As XML-based electronic commerce becomes widespread, so the role of XSLT in data
conversion between applications also becomes more important. Widespread use of XML
will not mean the need for data conversion will disappear. There will always be multiple
standards in use. For example, the newspaper industry is likely to use different formats for
exchanging news articles from the TV industry. Equally, there will always be a need to do
things such as extracting an address from a purchase order and adding it to an invoice or
interrogating a printing press about the status of a particular job. So linking enterprises for
e-commerce will increasingly become a case of defining how to extract and combine data
from one set of XML documents to generate another set of XML documents and systems
that are based on XML, such as JDF, are well set to succeed.
When an organisation needs to distribute editorial content through different
each channel. In the past, the solution was to rewrite or re-purpose the material, with the
with manual operator intervention and managed separately in administration.
There are inefficiencies and much duplication of effort in providing the same
content for different media channels, or even different printed versions. The content is
defined along with the format of its final intended channel to reader/customer. This was fine
in the past when film for a print job was the only product, but not so fine when alternative
media became commercial realities. The same content is used but it is formatted differently.
One solution is to prepare content in a media-independent manner at the start of
the project and use the same material for print and alternative media channels. This
becomes possible by working in XML. It may mean working with different software and
almost certainly in different ways to conventional prepress. Depending on the application
used to create the content, the file may look like the marked up text of an old (pre-
wysiwyg) typesetting system; alternatively a view of the finished page (or website or
message) may be provided by the software. Often the application allows users to switch to
check both structure and appearance.
There is no fixed style applied to them until the page or document is ready for
output, which is performed through a specific document type definition (DTD). This allows
the same content to be published in different ways. Format is applied to an XML file only
when it is ready to be outputted. For print, this might involve applying different styles
when a newspaper article is re-used by a magazine publisher. There is no requirement for a
sub-editor to apply style as he has to just check story length and apply re-writes.
The capabilities become most useful when content is used in print and electronic
media. It is possible to tag some content not to appear so that the file of the 1500 word
newspaper article with five pictures on the news is sent to an SMS as a headline. At the
same time, the article is expanded to 3000 words with 15 pictures on the website with links
to background. For a sporting event, there may be links to websites as well as the option of
buying a personalised T-shirt with your choice of picture and headline. All this can come
from the same XML content, and produced once with no subsequent manual processing.
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Digital workflow for print
As digital workflows become more prevalent, there is widespread acceptance of the PDF
file as the accepted way of replacing film. It works. There are many ways to produce PDFs,
and printers and their customers will go through a variety of detailed tests to ensure that
the quality is satisfactory and the workflow is successful. PDF offers significant benefits
over film as a workable digital transfer mechanism, and acts as an improved way of getting
a file into print. PDF files can be annotated with electronic sticky labels with a request for
a change, or simple text corrections can be made just like film. It can be adapted, the
images resized and translated into RGB and used on a website, in a way that film cant.
Using PDF remains a serial process. The industry is structured to handle that fact
and there are significant improvements over transporting large amounts of film. The
technological barriers were overcome successfully long before the use of PDF became
mainstream. Staff had to be properly trained to understand the technology and provide
safeguards to maintain quality and delivery dates. Publishers and printers organised
themselves to use the technology on a daily basis and, most importantly, agree costs. Once
that happened, the method became accepted and widely used. PDF is now used almost as
a straight replacement for film, and the rigidity seen as a major advantage in use. The next
stage will be to allow a degree of controlled flexibility into the workflow, and allow more of
the benefits of technology to be used by publishers. Instead of electronic film, the use of
structured XML offers the potential for electronic content.
An analogy is childrens toys, where the latest must-have toy is played with for a
while but then discarded. That is the situation with PDF as electronic film. It is a particular
page or publication and, with a bit of effort and a developing production system, it is
possible to put the file to additional use. Another toy is the Lego brick. It takes some time
to assemble, gets played with and when the child gets fed up it is broken, added to the box
then converted into something totally different. The Lego is XML, the instructions the DTD.
The final toy is assembled on-demand to the childs specifications rather than having the
fixed version (PDF) that is very good and practical for a single application.
Adobe recognised this potential limitation in PDF and the latest version allows a
degree of structure to be included through use of tags. Acrobat 5.0 allows PDF files to
contain a logical document structure such as the title page, chapters, sections and
subsections. Tagged Adobe PDF documents are designed to be reflowed to fit small-screen
devices and offer better support for repurposing content, breaking the will read the same
on any computer strength. Reflowing capability and editability are potentially useful; there
is even a plug-in that allows Acrobat files to be saved as XML. So XML is becoming
mainstream. XML allows publishing to be a parallel process, offering the potential of very
fast make-up. There are many tools available, some market sectors have adopted the
process and it is set to increase.
Colour management Colour prepress and printing have long been craft processes, and learned by skilled operators
who understood their equipment and could tweak the results to satisfy customers. This
resulted in different results at local plants with no standardisation across companies. Proofs
and print runs did not match. The reproduction process was tailored for a local production.
The scanner operator would adjust the range and settings for the final press, platemakers
would adjust exposure to compensate for printing conditions and the press minders would
change press settings to provide the optimal result. In 1993, eight companies selling into the
international colour communications market established the International Color Consortium
(ICC). The aim of the group is to encourage the development of vendor-neutral, cross-
platform and cross-application colour communication. The methods and software structures
developed by this group are commonly referred to as colour management techniques.
There are now scientific methods to ensure the accuracy and consistency of print
production. Colour can be controlled and optimised at all stages of the communication
process in accordance with the ICC standard. All input, viewing and proofing devices and
presses are fingerprinted under controlled conditions to define their colour capability and
prepare a colour profile. These profiles are stored with the data in the asset management
system and applied to the images when output is selected.
This results in the correct colour being printed regardless of the press used, and
providing more consistency of the corporate brand. Proofing uses the system and allows
good quality contract proofs to be produced remotely, in many cases in the clients office,
to reduce the time for approval. Colour management is also applied to images that will be
used on the web as it can work across all media. A further benefit of colour management is
a uniform print condition. This reduces press set-up and waste, and provides economic
benefits that are passed to the client.
ICC colour management is based on the principle that every device in a colour
production chain can be profiled. A device profile describes the transformation from the
devices colour space to a reference media. An ICC profile is a data file containing the
information for device colours to be transformed into the reference colour space, and for
reference media colours to be transformed into the devices colours. The transformations
are undertaken by software described as a Colour Management Module (CMM). The colour
values of the reference media are based on the Commission Internationale dEclairages
(CIE) established standards. The CIE colour systems are device independent meaning that
the gamut of colours they encompass is not limited to the rendering capabilities of any
particular device or process.
While the ICC has laid down the structure of a profile, and a definition for the
reference media, there is no definition for the functionality of a CMM. Two CMMs with
different pedigrees, presented with identical profiles, have the possibility of delivering
results with different appearances. When translating from one device-dependent colour
space through CIE values into another device dependent space, it is easy to imagine that
some colours present in the original may be impossible for the destination device to
achieve. It is one of the functions of the CMM to determine how the colours not in the
gamut should be handled. It is also easy to imagine how two versions of the same original
may differ if the gamut compression targets are not the same. Even at todays level of
development, colour management can significantly improve colour predictability and
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consistency. Where further development is needed is in the areas of open communication
and the multi-sourcing of origination and output.
Since colour management was mooted there have been important developments
in the software available for generating and editing profiles. There has been a considerable
reduction in the capital cost of the spectrophotometers and spectroradiometers necessary
for calibrating equipment, and an increase in the variety of image manipulation programs
available that follow the ICCs methods for controlling colour.
Using colour management links the digital world to the real world of installed
printing presses that will remain an important segment of the communication market.
Using colour management allows improved colour communication (a good match between
proof and press and ensuring colour consistency between different presses), and to
minimise set-up time and waste on press by running to specified press settings. This
explanation of the principles of colour management does no justice to the complexity of
achieving what is being described. Colour management, from the point of view of industry
uptake, is still in its early stages. In a traditional colour workflow, after the photograph has
been delivered, the first process it passes through is digitisation and simultaneous
conversion into the dedicated CMYK colour space of the target printing condition. The
original photograph (usually a transparency) remains the reference used to judge the
success of the print, and is also the original that other dedicated colour transformations
can be made from. If the original reproduction was for a newspaper, and the image is next
needed for a gravure magazine, a new set of dedicated separations would be made from
the original film. This changes in a digital photography workflow. Commonly, a digital
photographic file is held in RGB. Conversion of that file to CMYK immediately throws away,
by dedicating the content to the target CMYK, values of the conversion.
The CMYK gamut is smaller than the RGB gamut and represents a loss of
content. Unless the RGB is preserved complete, the opportunity to re-use the image or
make alternative sales may be reduced. The management of a digital image workflow has
to take into account not only the demand of how the image is to be first used, and its
conversion for that requirement, but also how it should be archived when in the workflow.
This choice must be a trade-off between holding the image in a state that keeps as many
options as possible open for its future against the possibility of duplication of effort
relating to things like tone reproduction enhancement, colour correction and remedial
retouching (removing unwanted elements from the image).
The strategy should be based on commercial, not technical, issues based on the
purpose of the images. If the archive is a commercial asset to be widely exploited, the less the
image is dedicated to one use the greater is its potential for resale. However, if the archive is
a record of the use of the image in that particular context, the image should then be stored in
a form that is as close to the paper reproduction as can be maintained. Increasingly, images
will be saved as an RGB file and translated into CMYK on output for print.
Storing the image in a non-dedicated format means keeping it in the workflow as
an RGB file for as long as possible. This also has advantages for file size and storage space,
access and delivery speeds. However, if the image is to be proofed or printed, at some
point in its life it is going to have to be converted into CMYK. This again is where ICC
profiling becomes important.
Colour management built into software and hardware will become increasingly
effective and will work transparently for most users. Process colour will be controlled and
optimised at all stages of the communication process, probably in accordance with the ICC
standard. All input, viewing and proofing devices and presses are fingerprinted under
controlled conditions to define their colour capability and prepare a colour profile. These
profiles are stored with the files (in the asset management system) and applied to the
images when output is selected.
This will help ensure that the correct colour is printed regardless of the press
used. Proofing will use the system, allowing good quality contract proofs to be produced
remotely on relatively low cost inkjet devices, often at the clients office reducing the time
for approval. Colour management will be automatically applied to images to be used on
the web, as it can work across all media generating lower resolution RGB files to minimise
download time. A further benefit of colour management for printers is a uniform print
condition, reducing press set-up and waste providing economic benefits that are passed on
to the client.
Proofing Proofing is changing as costs and the time involved make many existing solutions
unworkable. With the increase of distributed prepress functions and more people involved
in the preparation of digital files, there is still need for proofing but not in the same way as
now. This is not a technology issue and the creative community and final customers need
proofs at various stages during the development of a print project. The proof validates
data at a given position in the workflow. This process gives authority to the validator and
defines a responsibility point for the accuracy and suitability of the data. The reference
may be local and transient with no value to anyone else or it may be archival. It provides
stable information that others can refer to in the event of a query arising later in the
production process. While the formal proof is a communication in the process of creating
print, it may not be so relevant in the wider communications area.
Colour fidelity will move to become a system feature while proofs are used to
check content rather that the contract proof as now. This will see significant growth in soft
proofing, where PDF files are distributed to interested parties over the web with deadlines
for comments. Hard copies will be printed remotely if they are needed, probably on colour-
managed inkjet printers with simulated dots an option that will diminish. Mark-up of
proofs will be electronic with comments recorded in a digital asset management system
that records the development of a printed item.
Increasing use of soft proofs means that monitors will be larger, with greater colour
fidelity provided by suppliers who have technology to manage onscreen colour fidelity. This
will be critical for businesses that use the web for displaying and selling products.
The proofing process is rapidly changing and it will be:
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Fast, for transmission and output;
Both accurate and consistent, achieved through colour management and calibration;
Providing a hardcopy option, probably on A3 inkjets using approved substrate and inks;
Both predictable and traceable. File management is needed with receipts and job
tracking across all parties with full audit trail.
Proofing methods In printing, the final result will be judged on the basis of how it looks. The need for
and control subjective visual judgement is made inevitable because most reproductions are not an
exact copy of the original. While it is possible to express some aspects of the relationship
between original and reproduction in measurable terms, these are not capable of being
interpreted as an indication of the overall acceptability of the reproduction.
An opportunity to make visual judgements in addition to measurements is,
therefore, a fundamental requirement in most colour reproduction systems, and this
requirement is fulfilled by the colour proof. In this context it is important that the proof
mimics the final printed result as accurately as possible. This is crucial to a successful
colour reproduction system.
Stages of proofing A proof may be required at several stages in the reproduction process. Digital proofing
techniques are now largely used throughout the process from mono laser iterative checks
through to contract simulations of the final job. There is a wide variety of colour proofing
methods and systems available, and some are more able to simulate the print characteristics
than others. For convenience they are often loosely categorised into four groups:
progress proofs
target proofs
contract proofs
imposition proofs.
Progress proof A progress, or iterative, proof is one that is cheap, fast and produced locally. It shows the
information to decide if a change is needed, and it will be thrown away without concern
for the budget. The progress proof is normally considered only for internal use as it has
significant limitations when it comes to matching the printed result, but will be convenient
to use and, hopefully, economic at the stage at which it is required.
Colour laser and inkjet printers are increasingly used and with colour
management they can provide good representations of the final result, although there will
be no representation of the printing dots.
Target proof Simulations of the final result, used with a colour management system to provide content
with colour defined by a standard.
Contract proof The aim of the contract proof is to match the production result. It is often the means of
explaining to printers what they are expected to achieve. The contract proof can form a
legally binding contract between the supplier and the customer. Because of this, it should
not be the subject of individual interpretation by either party. Visual assessment alone is
too subjective for the results to define a contract, and the nature of this contract is that
one party often has a far deeper understanding of the technological ramifications than the
other does. The need for objective assessment a meaningful control system is one of
the characteristics that separates a contract from a progress system. A control system and
means of colour managing to an accepted standard can be applied to a cheap inkjet
printer with suitable RIPs and calibration routines.
Imposition proof Large-format representation of printing forme, usually produced on a large-format plotter.
The only proof that faithfully duplicates the production print is one printed on the
production press under production conditions, and with the same materials that will be used
for the job. Any proof produced another way might be considered only as a target proof. So,
in the context of proofing to match the production result, the terms contract and target
are not helpful. All we can really say is that the proof should aim to achieve, as closely as
possible, a simulation of the production print characteristics. What differentiates between
contract and target, at this level, is the compromise accepted by the parties involved.
Methods of proofing Most printers still request proofs or they will generate digital proofs from the supplied files
to match the and run to that copy. Proofing has seen major changes with the development of digital
production result workflow and the demise of film. Many commercial jobs do not use contract proofs to
accompany digital jobs but use iterative proofs for content and follow colour management
routines for the printer to follow standard set-up. There are two categories of proof:
press
off-press, divided into analogue and digital.
Various methods or technologies are common within these three categories. Digital proofs
are fast becoming dominant because they are fast, cheap and good simulations of the
printed result with reasonable control. Some critical colour applications still require the
highest quality proofs for advertising material, but these are becoming less widespread.
Press proofing is still required when spot-colour mock-ups are needed.
Production press proofs A proof produced on the production press can be seen as the ultimate in so far as
matching the print characteristics is concerned. Production materials can be used with the
same process and possibly the same equipment. However, there are economic limitations.
It is expensive, not just because of the cost of operating a production press for proofing,
but also because of the plate, ink and paper costs. Although it is a short print run, it
cannot be so short that the normal equilibrium print characteristics are not obtained. All
this means that the timescale to produce the proof is lengthy and the results can also be
inconsistent. Nevertheless, the production press proof does fulfil a need for certain
products such as folding cartons. Cartons, like most packaging products, are particularly
demanding with respect to colour match for spot colours and a short proof-run can be
justified for the assurance of knowing that the proof can be matched.
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Proofing press proofs The proofing press is more common when a printed ink-on-paper proof is required. The
press is a normally single colour, flatbed rotary, plate and substrate flat, offset blanket
rotary. The print is made at a much slower speed than is the case in production, and there
is a comparatively long time interval between transfer of ink from plate to blanket and
then paper. As most proofing presses are single colour, printing is wet-on-dry.
An accurate match to the production print characteristics is possible from most
points of view. It is possible to print on the job stock as long as the weight of the paper is
not too low. The inks can also use the same pigments and be similar in make-up to
production inks, so that it is possible to duplicate exactly the hue and densities achieved in
production. The problem comes in reproducing the production tone transfer characteristics
and trapping. The nature of the process means that the dot gain is generally lower than in
production and the trapping, being wet-on-dry, is better. It is possible to achieve
production dot-gain characteristics, but this requires adjustment of the inks and printing
pressure. The main problem that we then see when assessing these proofs is inconsistency,
and this greatly depends on the skill of the proofer.
Note that a second meaning for the term trapping, is in use in page layout
software. The term trapping is used to describe the process of applying grips (spreads and
choked) to elements within a page or design. Here the term trapping is used in its original
context to mean the degree to which an ink sticks to a previously inked substrate. If the
previous ink is still wet, as would be the case in a multi-unit, litho colour press, the
trapping will be lower than the wet-on-dry situation of a flatbed proofing press. The
original definition and the new usage have no connection with each other and relate to
completely different aspects of print and reproduction.
Analogue, off-press Off-press proofing systems from film are able to reproduce a much more consistent tone
proofs transfer characteristic than printed proofs. Density and trapping are consistent, although it
is not always possible to match production. The proofs are quicker and cheaper to produce,
assuming only one or two are required, but off-press systems will generally become
uneconomic when more than three proofs are required. The accuracy of match to
production printing varies depending upon the process, type of work and substrate that is
to be matched. It is not possible here to consider all the systems in detail and comment
will be restricted to the generic groups.
Photomechanical There are a large number of commercial photomechanical proofing systems including
systems Cromalin, Matchprint, Agfa Proof and Color Art. These systems were widely used, often as
contract proofs, even though they have some limitations when it comes to exactly
duplicating the production result. They are in significant decline and manufacturers have
developed digital methods using the same brand names with good control routines. These
are still used although they tend to be more expensive than other digital methods.
Digital proofing With digital proofs, the print characteristic specification is required for calibration. This
systems information is used in the data transformation, which should then allow the proof to
match accurately the production printing. It is important that the proofing system should
be able to use similar substrates to production and the ink hue and gamut should also be
comparable, if a customer proof is required. Other factors, such as dot gain and trapping,
can be taken into account in the data transforms.
Most digital proofing systems do not create the tonal rendition with the same
halftone dot structure that will be generated on the films that will be used to make the
printing plates. This leads some people to ask whether a proof without halftone dots can be
used to simulate a halftone print. In practice the proofs are able to produce results that match
well with halftone production prints, providing that calibration has been carried out correctly.
Most contract colour digital proofs use inkjet technology with colour
management and calibration to simulate various print conditions. Some offer halftone
screening capability but this is becoming less important as the industry starts to lose its
reliance on the linen tester.
Calibration of proof In an ideal colour reproduction system, the proof supplied to the client for assessment
to production should accurately duplicate the production printing characteristic. It is important to make
the proof accurately simulate the printing characteristics. If the printer has control of
proofing, this is relatively straightforward to arrange, but it may be difficult to achieve
from a technical standpoint. The possibility of this happening where a third party supplies
proofs depends on having good co-operation and adequate specifications of the
requirements. This involves specifying a standard printing condition and ensuring all
parties stick to this optimum condition.
Achieving this goal is made possible by measurement to determine the
appropriate adjustments. Measurement requires a test forme to be printed and proofed.
The forme should include a full range grey scale and tone scales of the primary and
secondary colours. This will provide the press characterisation profile used in the colour
management routine.
With digital proofing systems, the colour gamut is wider than for offset printing
and it can be controlled to manipulate the proof image to simulate the visual effect of all
the print variables. The profile of the proofer can be set to match a variety of printing set-
ups so one device can be used to mimic a range of production options. In some cases, the
digital proofer is a digital press that can produce a prototype run of the final product,
using actual materials that can be finished to provide an early run of products.
Formatting for output The format of the content will be increasingly applied at output stage according to rules of
the media involved. For print, this will mean flowing content into a range of templates and
document definitions optimised for the particular print process involved. Early examples of
variable document templates already accomplish these activities and follow clearly defined
rules for both content selection and make-up appearance.
Automatic make-up Developing technology will allow automatic make-up applications to create and assemble
customised and personalised pages. Content can be automatically assembled into design
templates with the system making up into pages or documents that have the appearance
of being designed by operators. Early examples of this technology are Pageflex Persona
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and Mpower, and ControlP templates software that allows users to create PDF files on
demand and automatically create sophisticated designs.
They enable the design and automatic production of customised documents
targeted to individuals or small groups. The selection of the digital content is controlled by
final consumer profile information. Then flexible templates assemble this selected content
into the final document for electronic or printed output. This enables the marketeer to
tailor a specific message relevant to the target customer providing a better response to
direct mail and improving the relations with existing customers. The content may be
repurposed making it more effective.
The document content will vary according to the individual customer profile
information. The template captures the overall abstract look automatically adjusting the layout
according to the size and placement of the variable content. Output systems provide optimised
PostScript to go to a conventional RIP or digital colour press as a PPML format to optimise the
digital printing. Additionally, other formats will be supported so a PDF might be emailed or
the content posted on the web or as HTML/XML data to form a dynamic web page.
The document type definition in SGML, or schema in XML, provides the same
function on static documents. These will apply format to tagged content at the output
stage according to the requirements of the particular print or distribution process. It will be
a function of the prepress operation to obtain and prepare the correct settings for output.
This will involve liaison with final printers to optimise particular settings held separately
from content until the file is prepared for a particular press. In a few years time, it will be
common to receive a specific set-up to be included into the output schema as part of the
specification provided by the printer.
Output file The principle of preflight checking recognises that most digital file preparation errors fit in
preparation preflight a narrow range of categories (missing fonts, incorrect resolution or colour space of images,
checking wrong trapping characteristics). Identifying and overcoming any such errors means the
digital workflow will move relatively smoothly. The term preflighting comes from aircraft
pilots use of a check list before take-off. Regardless of their experience, pilots perform a
series of formal routines that, providing the results of each are positive, guarantee the safe
state of the aeroplane before flight. The same principles should be applied to the
preparation of a datafile before despatch by originator and printer to ensure smooth
production saving time and money.
Early preflighting was performed manually by a skilled operator checking
individual native application files. Now preflight checking of files is mostly done using
commercially available software such as MakzWare FlightCheck and EnFocus PitStop. The set-
up checks for common errors and will automatically fix minor things. When passed, the file
has a much greater chance of working smoothly and correctly to produce the job required
without incurring additional charges Then came commercially available software integrated
into the workflows and files would be dropped into hot folders and checked. Errors were
reported in a log and operators would repair the files or request re-submission. The software
will become easier to use and capable of handling more sophisticated errors and omissions.
The future of preflighting is integration and automation, and both relate directly
to the efficiency of a digital printing workflow. It should be done either side of any point
in a workflow where responsibilities for the content changes before delivery and before
accepting receipt. In that way, maximum efficiency is maintained and responsibility for
errors more easily deduced.
Preflighting automates the checking and fixing of files at various stages
throughout their gestation. The software is available as web-based plug-ins run by printers
with their particular specification or by specialist software developers on a subscription
basis. Elements, pages, templates and files (including PostScript, XML and PDF code) will
be parsed and examined by the software according to the particular output requirements
of the customer. Most errors will be corrected transparently to the user. In the event of a
missing font, the application will source the font licence and pay the copyright owner the
necessary licence as part of the agreed fees for preflighting.
For printing there are six main categories that will be checked.
File for application software files it is important to use the same version and
language edition to avoid reflowing, and to check that any specialist plug-ins are
present. Logos, scans, EPS design elements are they with the document, clearly
identified and in logically named folders or directories? If you had never seen the job
before and you had no idea what the author was trying to achieve, could you find all
the elements of the design? Is there only one version of each file being delivered? Do
not send alternatives from which the printer can choose the best.
Page page size, orientation, bleed, extent, start point and presence of any spreads is
important to know.
Print the documents print parameters based on the settings originally chosen in the
applications page setup window. This includes the print resolution, line screening,
output quality, data format, registration or printer marks setting and bleed value.
Additionally, whether the document will be printed in process colour, spot colour or
mono, if there will be a reduction or enlargement scaling, if separations or spreads
have been turned on, as well as the orientation and paper size (if known).
Font probably the biggest cause for concern is still use of fonts in original
applications and nested within images incorporated in the document. Are they
TrueType, OpenType or PostScript? Is the method by which you are ensuring that the
fonts will be available legal?
Colours this checks the correct rendering of spot colours used in the document or
within placed images for text characters, background fills and frames of boxes, lines
and paragraph rules. It will check that there is a reference to the correct specification
of the colour (rather than just a default name) and ensure the correct knockout and
overprint characteristics are employed.
Image the images used in the document and presence of any fonts. Specific
information about resolution, colour space, transparency, clipping paths and scaling
factors will be checked. Ensure the image has not used lossy compression routines.
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For each of the criteria, the preferred settings will be defined and the files checked against
the ground rules. In some cases the software will automatically fix errors or provide a
report detailing the necessary corrective action. For PDF and PDF/X supplied files, the
settings will be checked against the set-up definitions. An exact duplicate of the work
despatched is kept for safety and insurance reasons. If the work is lost, it can then readily
be replaced but the exact duplicate can also be valuable in disputes about where
something was lost or where in the process an error was introduced.
Software checking is not usually sufficient on its own because there are elements
outside the datafile that are also important. Preflighting is so important to the smooth
running of a digital workflow that routines combining both manual and software checking
should be installed and all work should pass through them before being passed on to the
next stage of production.
PostScript PostScript is a page description language that describes every detail, such as text,
diagrams, graphics and pictures, that could appear on a page. It is a near-English set of
commands and operators, arranged in a syntax that describes a page in terms of the
boundaries of the graphical elements that appear on the page. A PostScript file is
generated from a front-end application program that defines the content. As a program,
the PostScript file needs to be interpreted. The PostScript interpreter resides in the printer
or output device, and is often called a raster image processor (RIP). The RIP will be
software running on a powerful computer interpreting the PostScript file instructions into
the addressable points of the output device.
Each addressable point is rendered as either to be exposed or not to be exposed.
Imagine an area of electronic memory with one cell (or bit) reserved for each addressable
point on the surface of the page. The PostScript file is then interpreted so as to insert a
required 0 or 1 in each memory cell. The memory is then addressed to switch the laser light
on (where there was a 1 in the cell) or off (0) at each addressable point, as the laser points
at it, on the output medium.
A PostScript file contains the boundaries of the graphic elements, in the form of
start co-ordinates and travel directions, as though the outline is being traced with a pointer. It
also contains instructions concerning the treatment of the boundary described. The boundary
can be filled in with colour (painted), or it can be stroked painted with a set width of line
to form a visible outline on the page. This vector format makes for relatively small files when
compared with bitmapped graphics. Painting can be achieved with colour or halftone to
make colour-tinted elements, or with a pattern defined elsewhere in the PostScript file. For a
given page, there is no unique PostScript file. Apart from the syntax requirements, the file is
unstructured. There are a variety of ways in which a PostScript file can represent a page. A
page described in a file made by a PostScript programmer can be quite different to the same
page made by an operator working with a software application: the file sizes, orders, contents
and output times can be very different, but the output pages can be identical.
Portable document Adobes PDF was developed to suit the needs of networked communities. It allowed a
format (PDF) document created on one computer to be viewed on any other computer without the
receiver having the application that created the document. PDF has been developed into
an application, platform and output device-independent file structure that lends itself to
transportable publishing. When created, the file is equivalent to a partly-RIPped file,
containing a display list of page objects. Acrobat Reader is a utility enabling the display of
the file on most computer screens, but it also adds a PostScript structure if the file is sent
to a printer. The file is then RIPped in the normal way.
Since PDF aims to serve all the digital data-based graphic arts, it contains
functionality that will be irrelevant to many users. As an output format for print, for
example, many of the internet facilities will be academic, except that the printer may
receive the document by email, or the prepress house may send it to the printer by email.
The print-related functions will be of little interest to the internet community.
Font (typeface) problems currently experienced by many in the graphic arts
industry will be sidestepped by the ability of PDF to incorporate the fonts for the
documents within the file. The fonts will, therefore, transfer with the file but in a non-
reusable way. This means that anybody can legally process the document, even without a
licence for the font, because they will not be able to extract the font for their own use. To
maintain a small file size, the author may choose not to include the font, in which case the
receiving computer will select its best fit.
The author of the PDF file may also choose to make the file editable to allow the
printers to incorporate their own fine-tuning, or to disable all editing so that the file
cannot be changed at all. Both these options are required in the industry.
As an output file, the PDF overcomes the variability of PostScript by virtue of not
being a program file, as PostScript is. PDF is an object-oriented format, where each graphic
object carries properties and hierarchies. When the object arrives for processing as part of the
document that contains it, the RIP will carry out the processing according to the assigned
properties. The PDF can be made by a number of applications using a PDF writer or by using
Acrobat Distiller. The parameters governing construction of the PDF can be defined and set
according to the required print specification to produce a print-ready file. PDF is more
efficient for output than PostScript, it is smaller and eliminates unnecessary content.
Given a PDF file, the publisher may send it to any computer, running any
operating system, to be viewed on-screen or printed on any output device. The addition of
print-related functionality to the file structure has made PDF the de facto standard for
sending files for printing to remote locations. There are many ways of generating PDF
files using native applications (perhaps using a plug-in), third-party software and Adobes
Distiller, available in several versions. In each scenario there are many variables in the set-
up that will affect the final file: document structuring, colour space and resolution of
images, data compression, embedding fonts, colour management, OPI compatibility, page
size and bleed and many other features. If these are not correctly defined and set up,
there may be problems at output stage. Several printers produce their own preferred set-
5
up options as part of their specifications detailing the option boxes for Distiller and only
accepting files on that basis (see section for a generic example). Others follow a more
standard approach specifying the use of more widely accepted standards in the
production of print-ready PDFs. In the UK, the first widely accepted standard was the
PPAs pass4press. This contained detailed instructions on how to create a satisfactory PDF
from QuarkXPress and using Distiller. As the technology advanced, so did the capabilities
of the specification. Version 3 was launched at the end of 2002 and encompasses the
PDF/X-1a version for magazines (see page 115).
The specification is available on www.pass4press.com, and is reproduced here at
the end of Chapter 3.
PDF/X PDF/X is a set of specifications defining the creation of PDF files for printing. There are
several versions and the standard is regularly updated to take advantage of technology
advances. The PDF/X standards are methods of delivery of printable files to be processed
through a prepress workflow with no errors and a more predictable result than a general
PDF file. Part of the predictability is that the PDF/X standards do not just define file
formats but also specify correct rendering behaviour of the files in the RIPs driving printers
and CTP devices.
Imposition One of the main requirements of any printed product is that image areas should be located
consistently in positions required by the customer. The degree of accuracy will vary
according to the product, from fairly generous tolerances in single-colour work to those
where differences of 0.050.1 mm (a half to one halftone dot, typically) will become
apparent or interfere with other processes or end product performance.
This requirement is more stringent when multi-colour work is involved. Here the
printer is not only concerned with ensuring the correct position of the original image areas,
but also that subsequent images superimposed on the same printed sheet will register with
each other. Note that the degree of accuracy required depends much on the kind of detail
in the colour sets, so that for a large number of jobs there may be three location conditions
to satisfy:
the image is in the correct position relative to the material on which it is printed;
different images on the same sheet are correctly placed relative to each other;
images are sequentially superimposed accurately one upon the other, e.g. in process
colour work.
Manual planning or imposition of film is still important but will quickly be superseded by
output of imposed plates through CTP. Imposition systems reformat complete page (or
carton) files, applying the necessary rotation and positioning according to the rules of the
product involved. Complex book impositions for a coming and going version of a 2500
page title can be automatically handled as well as a two-up, four-page brochure. It is
important that the final pages are correctly sized with sufficient bleed and margins for the
imposition package to operate effectively.
RIP functions All output engines, imagesetters, platesetters, digital presses and proofers are raster
devices. As documents are complex assemblies of both raster and vector information, it is
necessary to convert all of the content into raster values. This takes place at the raster
image processor (RIP). Most RIPs comprise software running on a high-speed computer and
are the heart of a production output system. RIP performance is one of the major factors
determining the efficiency and consistency of the output network.
The raster values required to drive an imaging device are specific to the device
itself. For that reason the interaction between the RIP and the imager is intimate, requiring
complete understanding by one of the others needs and capabilities. For that reason, in
the past, the RIP and the output device were, more often than not, sold as a pair. This is
changing, as is the ability of a RIP to handle more than just PostScript data.
Document data flowing through a RIP passes through three stages of processing.
First, the PostScript page description is interpreted. From that interpretation, a display list is
built that contains reference to every object on the page and their properties. The third
stage is the conversion of the display list into the device specific commands to control the
actions of the output engine.
The trend is for the front-end communication software supplied with a RIP to aid
the management of the workflow to it. Facilities for setting up programmed queues,
tracking jobs, visualising and editing individual pages within complex documents, are not
uncommon. It is also true that as proofing is recognised as being one of the crucial issues
in the successful management of a digital workflow, the RIP becomes an important stage
for the provision of meaningful data about the document being handled.
RIPs are multi-function appliances, taking responsibility for a whole host of data
preparation services. If required RIPs can:
generate halftones
prepare colour separations
apply print-specific alterations such as tone reproduction and tone transfer changes
apply grip (spreads and chokes)
handle colour management tasks.
The trend is for the front-end communication software supplied with a RIP to aid the
management of the workflow to it. Facilities for setting up programmed queues, tracking
jobs, visualising and editing individual pages within complex documents are not
uncommon. It is also true that as proofing is recognised as being one of the crucial issues
in the successful management of a digital workflow, the RIP becomes an important stage
for the provision of meaningful data about the document being handled.
Image output Platesetters and imagesetters expose the final plate-ready films or plates. The output
media is sensitive to laser light and arranged so that the surface can be exposed by a
series of passes. The laser is arranged so that it can be switched on and off at each point
of the surface. In practice, the laser can only be switched and swept at a certain rate per
unit area. This rate determines the resolution of the output device. Ideally the resolution
5
should be as high as possible, but in practice the setter can be expected to address 2000
points per cm, often expressed as 5080 points per inch. The higher the resolution, the
longer will be the exposure time of a given area of medium. There is a balance to be struck
between expose time, quality of output, and precision of the setter.
Film imagesetters Film use is still important but it is declining quickly as print embraces digital production.
There is no need to waste time and money getting film made when a file will output
correctly. One way of extending the use of a film imagesetter is to expose polyester plates
and there is much development on plastic plate technology. Provided the printer
understands the handling and loading requirements on press, 0.2mm plates can produce
excellent colour up to run lengths of 20,000 copies. Growth in this technology will be
consolidated by the development of automated A3 multi-unit presses designed for fast,
cheap set-up in competition to digital printing.
Computer to plate The use of CTP will increase among all printers, even for A3 format at small firms. Violet
(CTP) light platesetters will outperform thermal on cost grounds for metal plate, and there will
be considerable growth for polyester plates for short run work including colour. Small
printers, often with capital restraints can get the benefits of CTP at much lower cost than
the required investment in metal-plate technology.
There are many competing machines on the market offering a range of options
and prices suited to most companies. New inkjet systems from Pisces making A3 plates and
using modified Epson printers are available for a few thousand pounds, while fully
automatic large format platesetters and multiple bays cost more than 500,000.
Plate technologies
The leading plate types are currently silver-based coatings (for polyester and aluminium)
and photopolymer, imaged by thermal and violet diode lasers. There are several ablative
technologies that offer no processing and are designed for on-press imaging that can be
imaged offline. Plate manufacturers have increased the sensitivity of their coatings to suit
new, more powerful laser expose units, and it is likely that the market will develop into two
competing technologies: thermal and violet-diode. Silver-based systems will be superseded
with the arrival of higher-powered lasers and considerable environmental pressures. Higher
volumes of platesetter installations have dropped the cost of parts and improved the
reliability of the machines.
There has been considerable discussion of the relative merits of competing types
among the system suppliers. As it is not easily possible to change the plate type without
considerable disruption of subsequent processing and calibrating, the exposure set up by
the printer must determine which system best suits, and plan to not change for at least
two years. Fuji recently launched a photopolymer processorless plate using controlled
ablation. The laser energy weakens the bonding between the coating and the plate
surface. When printing starts, the high tack of the ink picks at the coating and, where
there is weak bonding, removes the coating during make-ready. The platesetter needs no
special air flow because there is no ablation debris at the imaging stage and there is no
requirement for special processor or expensive chemistry. Other processerless plates will be
developed and will take a significant share of the CTP (and whole) print market. As well as
the platemaking area, the preference of the printing department must be considered.
Plate handling technologies
Platesetters fall into three categories: external drum, flatbed and internal drum.
External drum
External drum imagesetters and platesetters developed from output scanners. The plate is
clamped onto a drum that rotates in front of the laser source. The laser path length is short,
so there is little drop off of energy. The unexposed plate is held by vacuum to the outside of
the drum with the plates light-sensitive coating facing outwards. A traversing optics head
contains the exposing source and modulator. The exposing laser source can be split into a
number of separate beams, thus reducing the rotational speed by imaging a wide swathe at
each pass. The beams are on continuously, being interrupted by the modulator, with each
acting independently under the direction of individual beam computers. These beam
computers are programmed to determine the switching times of each beam according to the
plate position, the required halftone dot size, the screen ruling and the screen angle.
Flatbed
The flatbed, rotating polygon configuration (see Figure 5.7) is widely used in newspapers
where a plate is held on a flat bed that moves under a rotating polygon. This has a series
5
Multiple beam
laser head
Traverse lead screw
Rotating cylinder with
plate held, by vacuum,
to the outside of the drum
FIGURE 5.6 Rotating drum
of accurately ground and polished reflective faces that reflect an incident laser
continuously over the surface of the medium from one side to the other. The main benefit
is easy and fast plate loading and unloading allowing high numbers of plates to be
produced in automated devices.
Internal drum
The internal drum design uses rotating optics to reflect a scanning beam onto a plate held
on the inside of a static cylinder. A rotating optic head is traversed axially through the
cylinder, exposing the material in a helical trace. The formation of halftone dots is similar
to the rotating polygon design since these devices usually use a single beam for exposure.
Fairly high positional precision is assured in this design. The rotating optics design lends
itself to high mechanical speed operation. The mass of the spinning optic is low, and so it
can be rotated at high speed (20,000 rpm is typical).
There are merits to all three methods. Flatbed has been accepted by the
newspaper industry where large numbers of plates are required in short timescales because
of the ease of handling and high levels of automation. External drum technology allows
the exposure head to be close to the plate, and sophisticated beam splitting through light
valves and gratings mean the rotational speed does not have to be high to achieve high
speed imaging. Internal drum technology involves a fairly long beam width that suffers
45 reflector
o
reflects the beam vertically
to the materials surface
flat photographic material
(paper or film)
rotating polygon
each face is a polished mirror
as the face moves round
the single beam traverses
the 45 reflector via the corrector
o
beam correcting optics
corrects for the different distances
from the polygon to the centre and
the ends of the reflector
laser
generates a
continuous beam
electro-optical modulator
switches the beam on
and off according to the
data flow from the RIP
ROTATING POLYGON
OUTPUT
direction of material
movement
FIGURE 5.7 Rotating polygon: the film is in continuous motion beneath the sweeping beam
significant energy drop off. As more powerful 3050mW laser expose units became
available, this problem has been overcome and fast-spinning mirrors allow fast exposure.
Although competing suppliers will sell the benefits of their particular technologies, all have
been proven to work satisfactorily. The choice should be made on the requirements of the
business, in terms of plate format, throughput and the degree of automation required.
Computer to Since their introduction, plate suppliers have succeeded in charging a significant premium
conventional plate for the supply of CTP plates over conventional types. Whether silver-based, thermal or
photopolymer, the costs in the mid-1990s equated to conventional plate plus film, now the
premium over conventional plates may be 5075% higher with additional developer costs.
This premium can be an important issue particularly in high volume applications and there
have been attempts to develop exposure units that work with conventional plates. Basys
Print has a number of innovative imaging systems using UV light that work with
conventional plates. Inkjet CTP systems have found some success but their penetration
is relatively low with their two hundredth installation reported in 2002.
Printers put the advantage of reduced press make-ready as the key benefit for
CTP, making print more efficiently. This has been a key measure of the success of CTP
installations at printers. Plates are a necessary part of the offset process, and new
technologies allow faster make-ready and lower wastage that greatly benefited offset
printing. The cost of the special CTP plates is secondary and printers perceive use of
conventional and processorless plates as not key issues.
5
FIGURE 5.8 Internal drum
Economic The choices for imaging from digital files are broadly:
considerations Traditional film output and platemaking
of prepress Computer-to-plate, either polyester or aluminium
On-press DI imaging
Variable data print.
Within each method there are many choices. The printer may choose to outsource all
prepress to a partner and pay for press-ready plates. The costs of each method obviously
vary according to the volume and work mix. Exact prices are difficult to assess, these that
follow are from my experience and discussions with suppliers and users. Different printers
will negotiate different deals and have their individual cost structures so they should do
the sums themselves. They are presented to allow potential buyers to examine the best way
of supplying data for printing.
Comparative costs Imaged plates are necessary for offset printing, which is the dominant process of Europes
of different methods printing markets. There are many plate types and technologies for the range of quality and
employed to make run lengths for the variety of applications in use. Paper plates can be used for short-run
plates for offset mono, and polyester plates for runs up to 50,000 copies (if exposed on a CTP device, they are
suitable for process colour providing the press loading mechanism does not stretch during
make-ready). Most plates used are made from grained, anodised aluminium with gauge
between 0.10.5mm. These have light-sensitive coatings in positive and negative working
modes for exposure by UV light in print-down frames, auto-imposition (step and repeat)
devices or projection platemaking systems. Final contact film is required with a variety of
masks to prepare the printing master for the press. Exposure levels must be controlled and
monitored to provide optimum quality in process colour as this impacts the final printed dot
gain characteristics. The plate processing and finishing (baking and gumming) methods must
be consistent as the particular plates and methods chosen by print companies are well
understood by offset printers, and any changes affect the press conditions and operation.
Conventional platemaking methods make it easy to make mistakes in
registration, transposing colour film separations or assembling incorrect pages. Many errors
have been overcome through the use of large format imagesetters to produce a single
piece of film for exposure, but this does not overcome problems of dust and dirt making
deletions on the final plate necessary.
Increasingly, the use of film is being dropped. Printers are installing and using
direct exposure of plates in computer to plate (CTP) devices for metal and polyester plates.
There are many different types with different formats and degrees of automation. Most use
specialised plates with coatings used only with a particular exposure and processing
system. There are various levels of speed and automation, from slow manual devices to
automatic, high-volume lines with integrated processing and punching to deliver up to 200
plates an hour for some newspaper systems. Some CTP devices are part of integrated
manufacturing systems that link prepress and printing, passing information to pre-set the
press with bar-coded plates.
Imaged plate cost The following scenarios contrast the methods that a print company might use to prepare a
comparisons nominal 40 SRA1 (1020740mm) metal plates a day, working on a single shift operation in
each case.
Manual receipt of films
For printers with no digital output methods, films are supplied by the customer or
outsourced to a specialised supplier. Some will buy in plates, although this is rare as any
problems cause significant delays and cost while replacement plates are produced.
The processes to be followed are shown in the diagram below.
5
Receive film
and proofs
Check for completion
and quality against
contract proofs
Sort into
sheets/sections
Assemble onto
carrier foils
Make imposition
proof from foils
(ozalid/blueprint)
Expose plates on
auto-imposition machine
(step and repeat)
Process plates and
check and delete
blemishes, etc.
Print
N Approve Y
FIGURE 5.9 Typical workflow for printers receiving film
Cost build up
Receiving and sorting 320pp sets of films per day (one man-day) 50.00
Assemble to foils (two man-day) 166.70
Produce imposition proof, two man-hours, 10 sets 52.30
Expose plates (step and repeat) 72.00
Process and check/clean plates (two man-hours) 22.30
Conventional plates (40SRA1) 190.20
Total for 40 plates 553.50
Cost per plate 13.84
Notes
Film sorter, salary 12,000 pa: daily cost 50
Skilled assembler/platemaker, salary 20,000 daily cost 83.35: hourly cost 11.15
Step and repeat machine, cost 150,000, straight line depreciation over 10 years, add 20% finance and
premises to make a daily cost of 72. Plates are 0.3mm thick aluminium, cost 6 per m
2
processed. Ozalid
materials 3 per SRA1 proof, one required for each set of plates.
Run to film and make plates
Many printers installed film imagesetters to expose page or plate-ready film from supplied
digital files. Many have workflow systems to aid the receipt, final checking of files and
imposition for output. Imagesetters come with a punching system into a bridge to online
film processing to provide plate-ready films. The workflow is shown below in Figure 5.10.
Cost build up
Receiving, checking and preparing digital files 55.30
Film imagesetter 96.00
Film and processing chemicals 110.95
Imposition proof (10 sets) 5.00
Expose plates in print-down frame one hour 11.15
Process and check/clean plates (one man-hour) 11.15
Conventional plates (40xSRA1) 190.20
Notes
Digital files are taken into workflow system, capital 30,000 depreciated over four years with 10% finance
and premises, daily cost is 33. Operator spends two hours a day sorting the files, salary 20,000, hourly
cost 11.15. Skilled assembler/platemaker, salary 20,000, hourly cost 11.15
An 8pp imagesetter, cost 100,000, straight line depreciation over five years, add 20%
finance/maintenance and premises. Daily cost is 96. Film cost is 2.50 per m
2
processed. Same plates as
before 0.3mm thick aluminium, cost 6 per m
2
processed. Imposition proofs on A3 laser printer in
proportion, allow 0.5 per SRA1 proof, one required for each set of plates.
Using a CTP system
Over the last few years, many printers have invested in CTP receiving digital files ready for
platemaking. One early concern was the ability to mix film and digital files and several
printers installed expensive film scanners to digitise supplied film into the workflow. As
the widespread acceptance of digital workflows spread, this requirement diminished as
customers were able to supply the files directly. Publishers and customers have largely
5
taken the cost savings of digital workflows. The real savings in materials and manual
labour have been shared with clients while printers have benefited from efficiencies in
the printroom. Typical workflow is shown below.
Receive files
and proofs
Load in workflow
system/digital asset
management database
and preflight check
Impose for output
Make imposition
proof on
laser printer
Expose and process
film in imagesetter
Expose plates on
print-down frame
Process plates and
check and delete
blemishes, etc.
Print
Approve N
Y
FIGURE 5.10 Typical workflow for printers running a large-format film imagesetter
Cost build up
Receiving, checking and preparing digital files 55.30
Imposition proof (10 sets) 5.00
Expose plates in CTP 115.20
CTP plates (40SRA1) 269.45
Notes
Digital files are taken into the same workflow system as for film.
Skilled assembler/platemaker, salary 20,000 and hourly cost 11.15. SRA1 platesetter with in-line
processor and punch, cost 120,000, straight line depreciation over five years, add 20%
finance/maintenance and premises. Daily cost is 115.20. CTP plates, 0.3mm thick aluminium, cost 8.50
per m
2
processed. Imposition proofs on a large format inkjet plotter, allow 0.50 per set of plates.
Receive files
and proofs
Load in workflow
system/digital asset
management database
and preflight check
Impose for output
Make imposition
proof on
inkjet plotter
Expose and process
plates in CTP system
Print
Approve N
Y
FIGURE 5.11 Typical workflow for printers operating a computer to plate (CTP) system
The summary for the comparison is shown in the following table.
TABLE 5.2 Comparative costs of alternative methods of platemaking
Cost per plate Total daily cost Annual cost
Film supplied 13.84 553.50 138,000
Imagesetter 11.72 468.60 117,000
CTP 11.12 444.95 111,000
The figures show economic justification for investing in technology to reduce costs. The
savings are accomplished through reductions in labour, either reducing headcount or
allowing staff to perform other value-adding tasks in the print operation. Taking it further,
as run lengths drop and more plates are required, CTP provides significant unit cost
reduction. Using variable data printing totally eliminates plate costs, however unless the
printer abandons conventional printing, the prepress costs cannot be removed.
Advantages of One of the major benefits reported by users of CTP is the quality of the plates presented to
computer to plate the print room. Machine minders across the world cry out for the same thing: If only the
technology prepress department could provide a correct set of plates, in good time, printing would be
easy. With plates from a CTP system, the reduction in press make-ready is an important
facet of the investment in CTP. Typically, conventional platemaking from page film requires
210% plates to be remade for errors including poor contacting. It takes perhaps one hour
of non-recoverable lost time for the print company, as films are checked/moved to replace
the plate. Losing an hour of a four-colour 40-inch sheetfed press costs some 150, in the
case of a web offset machine this could cost 600. Having to remake two plates a day
under these conditions increases the cost for each plate by 8 for the sheetfed example,
and 30 for the web press. Installing CTP has benefited printers by reducing these costs
and helping the overall efficiency of the print manufacturing.
Origination for The origination function is the creative and production process that translate an idea
digital printing into a print-ready format. For conventional printing, this is an expensive and time-
consuming stage but there are many developments coming together to change this
situation. Using sophisticated database management and flexible templating, pages that
have good design can be constructed automatically. The widespread acceptance of PPML
(personalised page mark-up language) allows the front ends and RIPs of digital presses to
process the data streams efficiently, further fuelling the rise of digital printing over the
next few years.
Personalisation is the key technology for digital printing and, with increasing
sophistication, allows targeted messages to be sent to individuals. The use of asset
management databases with profiling techniques is key.
5
Database profiling
For automated make-up, it is necessary to profile the attributes of the recipient to ensure
that the correct content is served as requested. This profile is a series of variables that
initiate calls to the database storing content. For example, a 35-year-old married man with
a young child, earning 25,000 will have a totally different holiday requirement to an
unmarried 22-year-old woman earning 30,000. In designing a customised brochure, a
travel agent needs to gather as much information on a prospective client as possible in
order to provide a successful lead. It is by storing the key attributes of people or businesses
that marketers can provide the useful tailored message.
The profile may come from a client that the company serves (bank, credit card
or insurance customer provides great detail), from a loyalty-card scheme, or response to a
questionnaire or filling in a guarantee card. Profiles result from a phone call to or from
a tele-marketing call centre and increasingly from online responses on websites related to
a specific product, service or activity. This information on clients is being collected and
stored by corporations across the world in growing databases. Tools are developing to
clean the databases (removing duplicated and erroneous data entries) and then to perform
sophisticated interrogations to find prospects that match certain criteria. It is a key part of
refinement of the personalisation and a central part of the developing customer
relationship management tools.
Personalisation
The personalisation of documents has been done for more than 25 years for the production
printing and direct mail industries. The new digital presses, their associated RIPs and print
servers offer options for complexity of design and sophistication of illustration that has not
been possible before. These options are being sold to print customers who do not have
experience of this type of data administration and is more the working environment of
banks and insurance companies than of graphic designers and publishers. The engine
manufacturers have recognised the opportunities their technologies offer in this field and
have developed various software applications to encourage its use. But it would be fair to
say that full use of the options available is not yet common, particularly as digital print is
mostly aimed at short-run print work and experience of database management has largely
been the domain of specialist list vendors, large corporations or public utilities.
Unlike conventional document design, that has a long-standing industry
structure to support it, the success of personalised print depends not only on the relevance
of the content and the appearance of the final elements but also on the management,
coding format and availability of the variable data.
Software such as Private Eye from Xeikon is one example of an application that
demonstrates how a simple text database can be used to control sophisticated elements of
a graphic design, both text and illustrations. Freely available to designers, it gives a good
introduction to the possibilities that variable data printing offers. However, on a bigger
scale, it is not the graphic design that is the crucial element. It is the data collection,
organisation and filtration for the target recipient that is crucial to the success and
realisation of the full potential of the technology.
Personalised print mark-up language (PPML)
PPML is an XML-based standard that facilitates the data handling of variable data jobs by
any compliant press. It allows any front end to talk to any press rather than having to use a
turnkey solution from one supplier. It is hoped that this development will increase the use
of variable data applications making sophisticated projects more cost-effective and simpler
to set up. The standard was developed by the Print on Demand Initiative (PODi,
www.podi.org), a group of leading vendors of digital printer manufacturers and front-end
suppliers. The PPML standard is designed to make all vendors software and hardware
compatible with each other giving a wider selection of features, simpler workflow and
much greater freedom of choice. XML is the base for PPML and this important standard
will give it the power and flexibility necessary to meet the needs of both current and future
implementations. PPML provides standard structure of a variable print job so allowing all
page elements for a given job to be defined in any one of a number of languages.
The important focus of the standard is to increase productivity on the digital
press. PPML is designed to download part of a page once and re-use it whenever required
as long as it stays resident in the printer. This object level granularity will eliminate large
amounts of redundant network traffic and ease the burden on the print controller. It
should let the print engine run at full rated speed, even for jobs with 100% variable page
content that have been slowed by the number crunching at the front end. The standard
will define not just page components but also manufacturing information such as
assembly of multi-page publications.
The reduction in the amount of data with more powerful computers will make it
easier to print sophisticated, effective and customised graphical documents economically
on any printer. Widespread acceptance of PPML will greatly fuel the take up of high value
sophisticated colour personalised digital printing. The standard is being updated
continually. This provides a more formal approach for graphic arts jobs and restricts the
flexibility for that sector. The aim is to permit jobs to be sent to printers directly with no
formal advance discussions and tests on the output system capability. The graphic arts
subset has two levels. When there is an existing relationship and the producer knows to
expect jobs at intervals, some re-usable data will already be present allowing the originator
to supply smaller content-only files and making the data preparation simpler and transfer
more efficient. The base level means all elements are sent from the customer (PPML
originator) to the printer (PPML producer) with no need for previously stored logos, or
colour space data. Here the digital printer acts as the producer for a job without
necessarily knowing the customer, which is a similar approach to the Interflora model of
flower selling. With a suitable administration system and online presence, the printer may
attract new sources of work.
5
The Print on Demand Initiative recommends the following considerations for any
successful variable print project.
Have clearly defined, measurable objectives. Agree with the client the projects goals,
include reducing postage cost, improving accuracy, and reducing turnaround time. All
of these are relatively easy to measure, so management can monitor the success of
the project.
Use appropriate production methods. It is not always necessary to use the highest-
quality, most productive engine for every application.
Use personalisation technology effectively. In addition to the normal printing of
name, address and salutation, variable-print technology can print additional
information onto reply sections or provide bespoke content for each recipient.
Use effective design techniques. A key to the effectiveness of any document is its
clarity: how easy is it for the reader to notice the important information? In one
project the form layout was professionally redone for clarity and to draw the readers
attention to the relevant information. A revised edition of the form is now in
development, which will produce further improvements by using highlight colour
to emphasise important information.
Printing processes
Print process A printed image has characteristics that are unique to the process used to produce it. It is
recognition useful to be able to identify the method used to print a product, particularly where it is
necessary to decide on a method to be used for a new product. Identifying the printing
method is possible using a process of elimination based on knowledge of the printing
processes and their capabilities, and complemented by recognition based on the visual
characteristics of the process. Recognising their characteristics is made easier by the use of
a low-power microscope (25), or a pocket lens giving magnification up to 10 can serve as
a reasonable alternative.
Offset lithography In lithography, the plate is planographic, image areas are grease-receptive and water
repellent, while the non-image areas are water-receptive. Both water and oil-based ink is
applied to the plate. The water wets the non-image areas of the plate and prevents the ink
from wetting those areas. Ink transferred to the image areas is subsequently transferred to
a rubber covered blanket cylinder (offset) that transfers the image to the substrate under
high pressure. The inks used are relatively thick and viscose in comparison with flexo and
gravure. Printing from an offset blanket and planographic plate produces the following
characteristics (as shown in Figure 6.1):
no impression or squash is apparent at the edge of type, which is sharp even at small
point sizes;
thinner ink-film than the other processes;
good uniform ink-coverage density in the image areas, even on rough paper;
good uniform halftone printing with smooth vignettes, even on rough paper;
halftone tones will normally be at a finer screen ruling than other processes on similar
substrates;
halftone dots may appear circular, elliptical or square in midtones;
small specks of ink may be apparent in non-printing areas, but less common with CTP;
under magnification it may be possible to see evidence of doubling (same image
printed at a lower density slightly displaced from the main image);
conventional oxidation drying inks have characteristic oil-based odour when books or
brochures are opened.
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FIGURE 6.1 Illustration of the characteristics obtained when printing from an offset
and planographic plate
The Print and Production Manual Printing processes
There is increasing sophistication of press format with perfecting six-colour machines
(12-unit) now commonplace. This allows the use of extended process work, hexachrome
printing and the use of integrated metallic and fluorescent effects. Heatset web offset
results in drying out the paper and over time moisture is reabsorbed causing the print to
expand in the cross-grain direction. Without very sophisticated, controlled remoistening,
bound products tend to exhibit waviness and page shoot with a non-heatset cover. For
perfect bound products bound cross grain there is often significant cockling as the paper
expands against the fixed spine.
Flexography Flexographic printing uses a resilient relief plate and fluid inks. The relief surface produces
a squash effect like letterpress, but the halo at the edges of type and on halftone dots is
less sharply defined than in letterpress.
The squash is especially noticeable on prints produced on film or foil, but this can
be kept to a minimum if kiss impression is used. Squash on halftone dots is most
noticeable in highlight tones and there is typically a high level of dot gain; this makes it
difficult for the process to achieve smooth vignettes.
The following points may be observed (see Figure 6.2):
text has a fairly sharp outline but shows squash under magnification;
the squash halo is less apparent than letterpress and line at edge is thicker;
highlight dots in particular show noticeable squash;
process colour shows lower screen ruling than offset, plates may be damaged and
dots can be missing;
limited highlight capability (flexo does not reproduce very small dots well) resulting in
high-contrast highlights;
tonal vignettes will not normally be smooth and the transition from substrate to the
first printing tone is often quite noticeable;
possible filling-in, particularly in shadow tones, and light tones may show bridging;
in some circumstances, the anilox roller cell pattern may be visible in solids.
FIGURE 6.2 Flexographic print characteristics
Gravure The gravure printing image is recessed from the non-printing surface, an intaglio process.
In conventional gravure, the image is composed of a large number of small cells, the
surface areas of which are similar and square in shape. Most modern gravure cylinders are
engraved using a machine called a Helio-Klischograph, which uses a pyramid-shaped
diamond stylus. This engraves cells that vary in depth and area depending on the strength
of colour required. In both cases, the cell structure is applicable irrespective of the image,
i.e. text, solid and tone.
This cell pattern that is apparent in the printed image is peculiar to gravure and
provides a ready means of identification. Gravure print characteristics are (see Figure 6.3):
no embossing or squash
irregular saw-like edge to text matter and line images
well-defined square grid pattern on tone areas (in conventional gravure only an
elliptical pattern for engraved cylinders)
cells in tonal areas will often have a dark edge with light centre
good quality colour reproductions on coated paper with high colour saturation
under magnification, the cells are normally apparent as a slight mottle in solid areas
under magnification speckle (cell skip) will often be apparent in highlight tones,
particularly on rough surface papers
there may be entrapped solvent in bound publications, which is noticeable by the
odour.
There is no wave on gravure publication properties.
Screen printing The screen process uses a stencil image formed within a screen mesh. Medium-viscosity ink
is forced through the mesh, in open image areas of the stencil, onto the substrate or
container by the action of a squeegee. Screen printing generally uses greater thicknesses of
ink film than is possible with any other normal printing process, and the raised ink surface
is sometimes obvious. The chief characteristics are (see Figure 6.4, page 220):
images are sharp and slightly raised to the thick ink film
high density possible from the weight of ink applied
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FIGURE 6.3 Gravure print characteristics
screen mesh sometimes results in zigzag at the edge of text and line images, similar
to gravure
halftone work is unusual but when used, the screen ruling will be coarse
dots may show a mock squash effect
solids are uniform on all substrates with good covering power
solids under magnification may exhibit small craters caused by entrapped air.
Electrophotographic The process uses a photoconductive surface that collects finely divided pigment particles
(laser) printing and transfers them to paper by electrostatic means, and then fixes the powder image to
the paper by heating. The process produces the following characteristics:
no halftone dot pattern, appearance of continuous tone
powder toner laydown is not planographic, and it is possible to feel the relief effect
no impression although there may be some embossing caused by paper distortion
during fusing
under magnification, images do not have a well-defined outline
coverage is generally good and uniform
extraneous spots of pigment powder may be observed in non-image areas.
Laser printing is a digitally originated form of electrophotographic printing, and the
identifying characteristics are similar if dry toner is used. Those electrophotographic
systems that use liquid toner (HP-Indigo) achieve slightly sharper edge definition than dry
toner and the results are similar to lithography. Unusual dot patterns may be apparent
when the reproduction of photographic images is examined under magnification. This is
necessary to improve tone reproduction with the comparatively low-resolution imaging.
Chief characteristics are:
in halftone areas, the appearance is similar to lithography but systems using liquid
toner have sharper edge definition;
quite a well-defined outline, some jagged edges on type due to the comparatively
low imaging resolution;
halftone images appear very similar to lithography;
photographic reproductions may have an unconventional dot structure.
FIGURE 6.4 Screen print characteristics
Inkjet printing Inkjet printing creates images by the controlled placement of small droplets of ink. With
low-resolution systems, this will be apparent in the printing of alphanumeric characters as
a coarse matrix of spots. The matrix may not be apparent with higher-resolution systems,
but the spots should be visible under magnification and the edges of characters will be
quite ragged. The reproduction of photographic images will be quite poor with low-
resolution systems, but the results can appear almost continuous tone, similar to printers
that have a high resolution.
Some inkjet printers use so-called phase change inks, which produce an ink film
that sits slightly in relief on the surface of the paper.
Chief characteristics are (see Figure 6.7, page 222):
inks are often water-soluble so will smear when wet
heavy coverage results in paper distortion and marking, there may be strikethrough
no impression
irregular ill-defined outline for characters
under magnification the ink spots from which the image is formed are likely to be
visible
photographic reproductions may have the appearance of continuous tones at high
resolutions, but can be poor at low resolution.
6
FIGURE 6.5 Xeikon print characteristics
FIGURE 6.6 HP-Indigo print characteristics
Die-stamping Die-stamping is an intaglio process using an engraved female die and a male impression
surface. The female die is charged with ink and the surplus removed from the non-printing
areas by wiping with a cloth or paper. Heavy pressure is applied to transfer the ink from
the engraved portions of the female die to the paper.
The process is recognised by the following characteristics:
raised surface of the printed image with corresponding indentation on the reverse side
feathering of the ink around the characters.
Thermographic printing Thermography is a printing process using slow-drying ink and powdered resin. The printed
image (usually lithography) is dusted with the resin and passed through a heating
chamber. This fuses the resin and ink to create a raised surface similar to that produced
by die-stamping.
The following characteristics identify the process:
raised printed surface, with no indentation on the back
usually a high-gloss effect
small voids may be on the ink surface
thin ink-film spread beyond outline of raised characters.
Introduction One of the most engaging facets of the printing industry is the range of methods that have
been devised to apply colourant to substrate. Equipment suppliers are extremely innovative
and are still developing new ways of printing. The first methods, applying carved blocks
into an early press, have been known since Biblical times in Korea and China. The
development of movable type about 1500AD boosted literacy and was one of the key sparks
for the Renaissance and social development in the Middle Ages. Increased mechanisation
and automation allowed the industry to boost quality and productivity of all aspects of
printing. Now the computerisation and digital technologies have developed the industry
from a craft into part of the high-tech communications sector.
This has made it much easier for customers to get their message into print.
However, they are now faced with many decisions to ensure they get the best deal and
achieve the desired result. What design and prepress? Does the job need to be on a
FIGURE 6.7 Inkjet print characteristics
website as well as printed? Which process gravure, screen, flexo, web offset (coldest,
heatset or UV stationery, long-grain or short-grain), sheetfed offset (which format), relief
letterpress or digital? What finishing should I use? Folded, perfect bound, hard cased, side-
stabbed or wire stitched? Which printing company do I use? Do I go direct, or do I use
middlemen? What about e-procurement and online auctions? It is probably no longer
enough to always use the same print supplier because over time, the clients requirements
change, and may be better suited to different print companies with different specialisation
and equipment.
These are challenging decisions and the correct choice will save much time, effort
and money. The object of this chapter is to provide some guidance to the decision-making
process, and to offer a brief explanation of the technology and processes involved in print
production.
Today the dominant printing process is offset lithography using sheetfed, heatset
web offset, coldset web offset and UV-curable web offset on machines with replaceable
cylinders to allow variation in cut off. Offset accounts for some 61% of all printing volumes
(excluding packaging) across Europe as shown in Table 6.1. Various forecasts differ but all
show the same trend. Pira International forecasts show the relative share of processes for
commercial printing (excluding packaging and newspaper printing) in the table:
TABLE 6.1 Detailed market distribution of major print processes (excluding packaging)
2002 2006 2010
Offset lithography 61% 59% 57%
Gravure 22% 21% 19%
Digital print 5% 7% 11%
Desktop digital print 5% 7% 9%
Total digital (10%) (14%) (20%)
Other (flexography, silkscreen, letterpress) 7% 6% 4%
After litho, gravure accounts for the second highest volumes with digital printing now
accounting for some 10% of all print.
Conventional printing accounts for the largest proportion of all printed material.
The processes are offset lithography, flexography (and some direct letterpress), gravure and
silk screen printing. For the traditional printing methods, printing is accomplished by the
image-carrier (printing plate, screen or cylinder) that defines image and non-image
primarily by physical means. The image-carrier is produced using photomechanical
methods or increasingly direct production from digital data. The traditional printing
methods, with their fixed image-carrier, are ideal for printing multiple copies of the same
image. They are being developed to be increasingly economic at shorter production runs.
Digital printing is used for shorter runs and variable data techniques to make each copy
unique. All of these methods will be considered in this chapter.
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Traditional printing The physical profile of the image-carrier is the most distinguishing feature defining one
methods process from another, and it determines many of the characteristics applicable to the
process. The material used to produce the image-carrier also contributes to the
characteristic appearance of the printed copies, and imposes specific requirements of the
ink and influences the method of ink application. It also determines the type of substrates
that can be printed and influences the design and construction of the printing press. This,
directly and indirectly, determines what process is most suitable for printing particular
types of work.
When seen in cross-section, it is apparent how the processes define image from
non-image areas. See Figure 6.8. Flexography (and letterpress) are relief processes with the
image physically raised above the non-image. Gravure is an intaglio process where the
image is recessed below the non-image surface of a cylinder. Silk screen is a stencil process
while lithography is a planographic process, in that image and non-image are (virtually) in
the same plane.
Offset lithography The apocryphal tale of the discovery of lithography tells of Aloys Johann Nepomuk Franz
(Alois) Senefelder, a Bavarian who lived from 1771 to 1834. He was writing a laundry list on
a stone with a crayon. He was a playwright and had problems with printers producing
copies of his work and publicity material on time and was looking for a cheaper alternative
to metal type. He decided to etch a stone with acid, using the crayon to protect the image
area from attack. When he inked the still wet stone and pressed paper to it he obtained a
very clear image and lithography (stone writing) was born.
Lithography is planographic. The distinction between image and non-image is
achieved by differences in the plates surface chemistry, which results in differential
wetting. The image areas are receptive to greasy ink and repel water, while the non-image
areas are receptive to water. Both water and oil-based inks are applied to the plate. The
water (actually a controlled dilute solution of various chemicals) wets the non-image areas
of the plate and prevents the ink from adhering in these areas. The non-image areas that
are readily wetted by water are hydrophilic (water-loving) or oleophobic (oil-hating), while
f
FIGURE 6.8 Physical profiles of image carriers
the image areas repel water and are hydrophobic (water-hating) or oleophilic (oil-loving).
Ink transferred to the image areas is subsequently transferred (offset) onto a rubber-
covered blanket cylinder that in turn transfers the image to the substrate under pressure.
Commercial lithographic printing (except for waterless single fluid lithography)
requires the application of water and ink to differentiate between image and non-image
areas. The image is not directly transferred to the substrate. The main strengths of litho
include:
fine detail and good tonal reproduction can be achieved even when printing on poor
surface papers;
it is capable of reproducing clear linework and text, which enables smaller print and
therefore a greater amount of information to be printed within a small area;
fine conventional and FM screening can be used for tonal reproductions;
relatively low prepress costs with many alternative options for platemaking;
wide range of printing press types and formats for both sheet and web production;
increasingly suited for relatively short production runs.
The main process limitations are:
it places quite high demands on the surface strength of papers due to the tacky
ink and the offset blanket;
heatset web presses are normally able only to print a fixed repeat length;
relatively high print waste due to the need to balance both ink and water.
Typical work
Offset lithography is particularly suited to printing illustrated work on a wide range
of papers and it is the dominant process for most forms of printed material on paper.
The main types of work are:
promotional literature, brochures and illustrated books
magazines, newspapers, directories and catalogues
printed stationery and forms
sheet labels, folding boxboard cartons and metal plate
posters, maps and stamps.
Waterless lithography
Waterless litho printing also uses a planographic plate, but it is able to differentiate
between image and non-image without water. The secret of the plate lies in its non-image
silicone rubber coating and the ink rheology. When ink is rolled onto most dry surfaces
there is a more or less equal attraction to the ink and it divides (splits) at the weakest
point, which is normally within the ink itself. When ink is applied using a roller to the
silicone rubber, the cohesion of the ink is greater than its adhesion to the silicone surface.
Therefore, instead of the split taking place within the ink, the low surface energy of the
silicone rubber allows it to lift off cleanly from the plate.
6
Printing without water has the advantages of reduced start-up waste, lower dot
gain and improved colour saturation. However, the absence of water means there is a
significant temperature rise in the inking system during the run. This reduces the cohesive
strength of the ink and, as a consequence, it does not separate cleanly from the plate
resulting in scumming. It is necessary to cool the ink system and/or plate to achieve
acceptable results. The silicone rubber is also rather more fragile than a conventional plate
surface and is more easily damaged. However, there are an increasing number of sheetfed
and web-fed printers providing this option.
Platemaking
There is a wide range of litho plate types and the choice will be influenced by cost, format,
run length, type of work, quality requirement and continuity of supply.
The range of plates is categorised with reference to two fundamental
characteristics: the base plate substrate and the imaging method.
Plate substrate
Grained aluminium is the base substrate for most medium-to-large-format litho printing
plates. It is chosen because of its good litho properties and its surface is particularly
hydrophilic. This characteristic is enhanced and made more durable by graining and
anodising the surface. The aluminium plates are suitable for medium-to-long runs
achieving run lengths in excess of one million under favourable conditions.
For demanding requirements, the plate may consist of three metals (multi-metal
plates): steel electroplated with a thin deposit of copper and chrome. The image area on
FIGURE 6.9 The application of ink and water differentiates between image and
non-image areas
these tri-metal plates is formed by the copper and the non-image area by chrome.
These plates are suitable for long runs but are expensive and no longer commonly
used, particularly as they cannot be produced in computer-to-plate systems.
Small offset presses frequently use paper or polyester-based plates. These are
cheap but have a limited run-length capability (about 5005000 impressions for paper
and 500025,000 for polyester). They are also less tolerant in terms of ink/water balance
than metal plates. Paper plates can achieve only a limited quality, which is suitable for text
and line illustrations. Polyester plates can be used for colour work on small-format presses
and are widely used on medium-size presses to print good quality monochrome book work.
These plates provide a cheaper option to metal, if the limited run length and inferior
dimensional stability can be accepted. Further take-up is due to printers adapting film
imagesetters to directly expose plastic plates without need for a metal CTP installation.
Imaging methods
Litho platemaking can be accomplished in many ways: projected from rolls of film,
reflected from copy, exposed through positive or negative film and directly imaged in
a platesetter. Platemaking has undergone a significant revolution since the mid-1990s
when powerful computers were able to quickly RIP imposed flats economically. There is a
compelling impetus towards computer-to-plate (CTP) for all types of print, but there will be
a need for film for many years to come. Much more detail on the methods is provided in
the prepress section.
Film exposure
This requires film separations to be at reproduction size in an auto-imposition (step
and repeat) machine, or a printing-down frame. Films are held flat in contact with a
presensitised, light-sensitive plate and are exposed to a powerful source of UV light. The
film must have its emulsion in contact with the plate, therefore a right-reading emulsion
side down film negative or positive is required. On exposure to light, the plate undergoes
a photo-chemical change that affects the solubility of the coating in the plate developer.
Figure 6.10 (page 228) shows the photomechanical processes for negative and positive
working plates.
Negative working, positive working
If the film has been imaged on a large-format imagesetter it will be in an imposed form
ready for contacting. However, it is possible for the imposition of film elements or pages
to be combined with the plate exposure using a step and repeat machine. The step and
repeat machine consists of a bed for mounting the plate, a frame or chase for mounting
the films, a UV light source and a means of traversing the frame and light source
accurately in x y directions. The machine may allow the same film to have multiple
exposures to the plate, as required for products like cartons and labels, and the film
may be automatically changed after each exposure for magazines or books.
6
Projection platemaking
An alternative film-imaging system, which was widely used in books and line work
applications, is a projection system using 70mm roll film negative. Here the imaging of the
plate is combined with the imposition of the pages as the projector steps the pages to their
appropriate location on the plate. The development of the plate after exposure is
essentially the same regardless of the exposure method. The plates are processed in
comparatively simple, automatic processors. A series of nip rollers transport the plate
through the development bath, under a water spray, through a finishing application and
then a dryer. This process will normally take between one and two minutes to complete.
Direct production from reflection copy
The filmless production of plates from reflection copy uses dedicated, fixed-focus camera
platemakers and imaging plates with silver or photoconductive coatings. This has been a
common technique for the production of small offset paper/polyester plates and medium-
format polyester plates for book presses. There is a move away from these methods to some
form of CTP.
Film
Photosensitive
coating
Film
Photosensitive
coating
After development
After development
Plate base
Plate base
Plate base
Plate base
Negative working
Positive working
Ultraviolet light source
Ultraviolet light source
FIGURE 6.10 Negative- and positive-working plates
Computer-to-plate (CTP)
Using a platesetter allows the plate to be imaged directly without films, reflection copy or
intermediate labour. The benefits in time, cost and quality of print make CTP a compelling
argument for most print operations. There are many technologies in use from laser printing
paper plates, inkjet printing onto plates, UV imaging and laser imaging (thermal and violet
diode). Platesetters use flatbed, internal drum and external drum imaging arrays with a
variety of formats, speeds and degrees of automation. For newspapers, a pair of machines
could deliver more than 400 process colour tabloid plates, punched ready for loading onto
the machine in less than an hour if needed.
Practical experience has shown that as well as the reduction in the number of
stages that have to be followed at the prepress stage, users often report that CTP offers
significant benefits in the pressroom. Plate quality is much higher than can be obtained by
conventional exposure methods (wider range of sharp dots from 0.599.5% at a screen
ruling of 175lpi is common), and the plates do not suffer from blemishes resulting from
dust and dirt. The benefit of knowing that the set of plates delivered to the press is correct
and in precise register allows press crews to reduce the time and waste in make-ready,
offering significant productivity improvements.
The plates used are not compatible with conventional platemaking. They are
more expensive and require different calibration and processing techniques. The premium
over conventional plates is likely to remain, but the benefits outweigh the drawbacks.
The litho printing unit
The dampening system
A dampening system supplies a controlled amount of water to the plate. The one shown in
Figure 6.11 (page 230) is integrated with the inking. Such systems attain ink-water balance
more quickly reducing the number of waste sheets at start-up. High waste levels are
regarded as a characteristic of lithography, but this is less true with modern systems. There
are other forms of dampening unit, which use rotary brushes with flicker blades and some
in which the dampening solution is sprayed into the system. All systems are designed to
supply an adjustable, controlled film of water to the plate.
Fountain solution
Lithography delivers water and a controlled stable emulsion of ink and water to the plate.
Although the lithographic process will work for a time with water only as the dampening
medium, the process works more efficiently if chemicals are added to the water and the
water source is demineralised or deionised. This normally takes the form of a couple of per
cent of a fount solution additive. The chemical nature of the additive is determined by
factors such as:
type of dampening system
nature of local water supply
type of ink.
6
Some require the use of propan-2-ol (isopropyl alcohol), although environmental pressures
are gradually phasing it out. It is important to control the fount solution. Many are
buffered acids and the measurement of pH is insufficient to provide the necessary
regulation so measuring of specific gravity and conductivity is required.
The inking system
Litho ink is a high viscosity, shear-resistant fluid that flows when worked. These rheological
properties require an inking system with many linked rollers to break the ink down into the
thin film that is applied to the plate. This presents a problem because the rollers retain a
surplus of ink in those areas where it has not been removed by the image. It is necessary
therefore to replenish the ink in zones to accommodate the different requirements of the
image being printed. On modern presses, each zone is precisely adjusted by its own motor.
This allows the adjustment to be made from a remote control desk.
There will normally be provision for ink-zone settings to be preset, recorded and
stored. The data for presetting may be obtained from a plate scanner or via a CIP4
interface with the digital datafile used for plate imaging. All this could be avoided if the
process was able to use a simple inking system like that used in flexography. So-called
keyless presses have been developed, but this approach is currently possible only with the
lower-viscosity ink that is typically used for newspaper printing and in specialist machines
such as the Karat Gravuflow inking system.
FIGURE 6.11 The offset litho press
Inks and ink drying
More detail is presented in chapter 8, Printing Inks. A fundamental requirement of litho
ink is to separate from the damping solution water. This is done by forming a stable
emulsion of water in the ink: the correct ink/water balance that is so important to good
litho production. This requirement, and the large surface area of the inking system, restricts
the possibilities for ink drying. The ink must remain open on the rollers and dry only on the
substrate. Conventional lithographic sheetfed inks dry by a combination of penetration
and oxidation that takes some hours to complete. This is unacceptable for some printing,
and radiation dryers may be used to speed the process with special inks formulated for
infrared, ultraviolet and electron beam curing.
In web offset printing, the paper moves so quickly through the press that the ink
does not have time to dry by oxidation. If the paper is absorbent, like newsprint, the setting
of ink by absorption is normally sufficient. This is referred to as coldset printing to
distinguish it from heatset, which is necessary when less absorbent papers are used.
Heatset inks contain a solvent that has a low evaporation rate to avoid drying on the
inking rollers. A high-boiling petroleum fraction is used and this is removed by heating the
printed web through a hot air drying oven causing the resin in the ink to crystallise and
form a hard, glossy film, followed by chilling back to ambient temperatures. Other web
offset uses UV curing inks, particularly in continuous stationery presses.
Sheetfed litho presses
There is diversity of sheetfed presses designed to print on a variety of substrates including
paper, board and metal plate. Presses range in sheet size from A3 up to A0 and from
single-colour to 10-colour. The most common sizes are B2, 720540mm and B1,
1020720mm. To improve productivity, manufactures have introduced eight-unit perfecting
machines capable of printing both sides at full press speed in a single pass. Twelve unit
presses are now common with multiple coating and varnishing units in place. Some
machines now have integrated web feed allowing printers to use cheaper reels of paper
and gain efficiencies in material use.
Figure 6.12 (page 232) shows a small offset, sheetfed press. Small offset is a term
generally applied to presses that can print paper or fine card up to a maximum size of about
B3 (420297mm). This type of press is typically used by instant print shops, inplant printers
and general jobbing printers. It would normally be used for short print runs of stationery,
reports and similar work using paper or polyester-based plates. This press is a single-colour
press, although two and four colour models are common. To print another colour, the inking
system would have to be cleaned, the ink and the plate changed, and the sheets would then
have to be passed through the press again. Most small offset presses are single colour.
Tracking problems
All litho printing presses have inking systems that require ink to be adjusted in zones
across the sheet. This means inking levels have to be adjusted for individual images to
obtain a colour match to the passed proof. Difficulties may be experienced where a heavy
6
image coverage is in track with the light coverage of another, because the rate of
replenishment required to meet the needs of one is too great for the other. This is referred
to as a tracking problem. Tracking problems also arise if images, proofed to different
specifications, are printed in the same track. Tracking problems like this should be
prevented by applying tighter compliance to the standards at the proofing stage. Figure
6.13 below illustrates the two basic situations in which a tracking problem may occur.
In the example on the left, images marked A have been proofed to a different
specification to images marked B. When inking is adjusted to optimise the quality for the
B images, the A images are too light.
If the inking is correct for A then the Bs are too dark. It is possible to adjust the
inking so that A and B2 are optimised, but not both A and B1. The example on the right
FIGURE 6.12 A small offset, sheetfed press
FIGURE 6.13 Situations in which tracking problems can occur
illustrates the condition where an area of heavy ink consumption is in track with images
that consume much less ink. The high ink demand of the solid leads to excessive ink
building up in the ink roller system and consequential over-inking of the lower
consumption halftone images.
Multi-colour presses
Multi-unit sheetfed presses can be from two to more than 12 colours. The maximum speed
of sheetfed presses depends on the make and size of press, and the paper being printed. A
typical modern press is rated at 15,000 sheets an hour, with a maximum of 18,000. These
presses are used to print a wide range of paper and board products such as labels,
brochures, leaflets, greeting cards, periodicals and books. Typical run lengths are up to
50,000. If a printer needs to print larger quantities of sections or complete periodicals at
one pass through a press, a web press would be more commonly used.
Figure 6.14 shows a medium-size, multi-colour (only two units shown) sheetfed
press. The cylinders, located between each printing unit, transfer the sheet, in register and
in a controlled way, through the press. It is possible to see the path that the sheet has to
follow (white sheets) from the feeder to the delivery. There is no drying between the
printing units except in some inter-deck UV applications for cartons and printing on
plastic; most multi-colours printing in litho is normally wet-on-wet.
Presses similar to this are available as straight multi-colour or convertible multi-
colour/perfector presses. In perfecting mode, the sheet is printed on one side and then
tumbled over by the transfer cylinder so that the remaining units print on the other side.
This is achieved by a simple adjustment and takes only a few minutes. New eight to
twelve-unit presses are convertible and can print eight to twelve colours on one side of the
sheet or be converted to print four/six colours on each side of the sheet. They are widely
used to print short-run magazines, brochures and books. The last unit of the press shown in
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FIGURE 6.14 A multi-unit sheetfed offset press with inline coating and drying units.
This press has two printing units, there may be up to 12
Figure 6.14 is not a printing unit, but a coating unit. It applies UV-curable or water-based
varnish inline with printing. The varnish may be overall or spot (if a relief plate is fitted to
the coating unit).
Most multi-colour offset presses are configured in the unit-to-unit arrangement,
but more compact configurations are possible using a common impression cylinder for two
or more offset cylinders, as shown in Figure 6.15. This is a diagram of the Heidelberg
Quickmaster DI, a waterless press with digital imaging of plates, but this type of
configuration is not restricted to this machine.
Web offset litho
Web-fed presses print from continuous rolls of paper, a cheaper source than sheetfed. They
are faster than sheetfed presses and normally incorporate finishing options inline with
printing. Most heatset web offset presses have an inline folder as they are widely used to
print books, magazines and newspapers. Reel-fed litho offset presses are also used to print
other products such as continuous forms, base stationery, labels and cartons. The speed of
these presses is limited as they often have the capability of changing print units so
providing variable cut-off capability to satisfy the requirement for different print lengths
necessary for these products. There are also finishing units to allow re-reeling, sheeting, fan-
folding and specialist in-line gluing, folding and finishing to produce complete products.
Blanket-to-blanket units
Web offset printing units may be configured like sheetfed presses, with a plate, offset and
impression cylinder, but most are used to print publications printed on both sides, and the
most effective configuration to achieve this is a blanket-to-blanket perfecting unit. These
may be arranged in the form of an arch with the paper being fed vertically from below or
FIGURE 6.15 A sheetfed, offset lithographic press in which four printing cylinders
share a common impression cylinder
slightly offset vertically with the paper running horizontally. The arch arrangement is
typical for newspaper presses, while the horizontal web path is normal for heatset
commercial web presses.
Newspaper presses
A modern newspaper press comprises several basic blanket-to-blanket units. These will be
configured to suit the maximum number of pages of monochrome and colour specified
when it was installed. A single-width press prints on a web that is the width of two
broadsheet newspaper pages. The press shown in Figure 6.16 is double width with two
pages around each cylinder. The four reels of paper being printed on this press would
produce a 64-page broadsheet newspaper when running in straight production mode.
Presses often have heatset dryers for one or two webs allowing higher quality semi-
commercial printing capability for cover pages. These also allow the press to produce
magazines and inserts at times of the day when not used for the news sections.
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FIGURE 6.16 An example of a coldset web newspaper press
FIGURE 6.17 How the cylinders are aligned in a blanket-to-blanket perfecting unit
The lower units in the two left towers are convertible units. The unit on the far
left is configured as a four-colour common impression satellite and the other in perfecting
mode, as two blanket-to-blanket perfectors. The unit at the far right is referred to as a four-
high tower, which is able to print colour on both sides of the web. Configured in this way,
the newspaper will have some pages in full colour, others with only spot colour. From left
to right the webs from each reelstand will print colour as follows:
Web A: four-colour process plus black and red spot
Web B: black and red spot plus black and green spot
Web C: black only on both sides
Web D: 4-colour process on both sides.
Heatset web presses
Heatset web presses normally comprise multiple vertically aligned (slightly offset) blanket-
to-blanket units with the webs running horizontally. The main components of a heatset
web press are as follows:
The reelstand, which controls the unwinding of the reel and automatically changes to
a new reel as the old one expires;
The web guides, which monitor and adjust the lateral position of the web: one is
positioned before the units and one after the dryer before the folder;
The infeed metering, which comprises variable speed-driven nip rollers that meter and
control the tension of the paper fed into the printing units;
The dryer, which is a high-velocity hot-air type. The design determines the maximum
speed the press will run at, often with pollution control and heat recovery systems;
The chill rolls, which are water-cooled and also have a variable speed drive. Their
function is to set the ink by cooling the paper and to control paper tension from the
printing unit through the dryer;
The silicone applicator, which consists of two rollers that apply a mix of water and
silicone to the printed web. These rollers put back moisture removed by the dryer,
improve slip and reduce marking;
Some presses have specialist remoistening units that replace water in the paper, the
technology allows controlled remoistening to remove web wave and subsequent
dimensional instability;
The folder, which cuts and folds the continuous web into sections. A single folder will
be capable of producing a range of folded products;
Some presses have a sheeter.
The number of webs and the format of the units determine the products that can be
printed. The press in Figure 6.18 is capable of printing a single web in four colours on both
sides but, with the addition of an extra reelstand and dryer, it is able to double the
pagination throughput by printing two webs at the same time, each in two colours.
Heatset presses commonly print magazines, periodicals, books, catalogues and
long-run promotional printing, and the format size and capability is typically expressed in
terms of the number of A4 pages that it can produce.
A typical press with a web width of about 950mm will yield four A4 pages across
the web with trims. The length of the printed image is determined by the circumference of
the plate cylinder. When the web passes to the folder, it is cut into sections by the cutting
cylinder in the folder and it is this cut-off length that identifies the presss printing size.
Thus a 16-page A4 web press has a maximum web width of about 950mm and a cut-off
length of about 630mm yielding eight pages to view (16 pages perfected) to each section.
New microgap and gapless technology reduces the non-print area and results in a smaller
circumference to produce the same product, so using less paper.
This press format produces a portrait product with the paper grain running top to
bottom of the page long grain. The long grain press presents an A4 section with suitable
grain direction for adhesive binding. Many book presses and some magazine presses are
short grain. A 32-page A4 model produces the same product in landscape delivery as a
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FIGURE 6.18 A typical heatset web press
Web d
1624 page 3248 page 2432 page
Shortgrain press formats Longgrain press formats
FIGURE 6.19 Short-grain and long-grain press formats. The formats are typical maximum
dimensions and the number of pages (A4) apply when printing a single web
32pp long grain press with the circumference of some 960mm and wider at 1180mm. A
section is produced for every 960mm of paper fed through the machine rather than 1260
on the long grain model. Press crews and machine speeds are identical, and the machine
offers productivity increases. With suitable remoistening, the product is fine for perfect
binding. The short grain press offers some benefits:
it is possible to stitch sections in the folder
web speed is lower for same section output
no requirement for quarter fold on A4 products, resulting in more accurate folding.
Web folding
The web folder can use the following folding methods:
A former or plough fold, which is made in the grain direction while the paper is still
a continuous web;
A chopper or knife fold, which is made in the grain direction after the web has been
cut. This is normally the last fold in a combination;
A cylinder or jaw fold, which is made in the cross-grain direction after the web has
been cut. Two cylinder folds made one after another are referred to as a double
parallel fold.
Most web folders incorporate a combination of folding methods in sequence, but are
typically categorised as:
former folder
ribbon folder
pinless folder.
With the former folder, the web is directed over a triangular former (or kite) to make the
first fold in the grain direction. A knife on a cutting cylinder cuts the folded web to a fixed
length, the cut-off. Each cut length is folded further by a series of cylinders that contain a
jaw recess into which the section is forced to complete the fold (jaw or cylinder fold). Long-
grain magazine and newspaper presses will normally be fitted with a folder of this type.
The ribbon folder is normally fitted to all short-grain presses and is also used for
bookwork and high-grade multi-colour printing. With this folder, the web is slit into ribbons
that are aligned into the folder by passing over angled bars. Within the folder the
combined ribbons are cut and cross-folded by a series of jaw-folding cylinders. The folding
of the section may be completed with a chopper or knife fold.
The pinless folder was developed to meet the demands for reduced trimming
waste on sections. On modern magazine presses, the non-printing gap in the blanket
cylinder is small and in some cases there is no gap. That means the minimum trim is
determined by the need to remove the folder pin holes.
The pinless folder controls the passage of sections through the fold with tapes
avoiding the use of pins and reducing the trim waste. Web press folders generally work to
high standards of tolerance within their capacities. Problems that arise are most likely to
be marking and set-off problems rather than the folding of the paper, although fold
cracking with coated papers on heatset can be a problem.
Web offset developments
The leading technological changes that have led to the substantial growth in the heatset
web offset printing industry include the following:
Shaftless drives on heatset presses reduce setting and start-up time and improve
register accuracy. They improve mechanical lifetime and further improve press
operation and waste reduction.
Gapless sleeve blanket cylinders, such as the Sunday Press, enable wider machines
without problems of gap-bounce vibration, increasing the productivity of new
machines and personnel. This also solves a long-term problem on print quality (strikes)
and improves press lifetime (wear on bearers). The most recently developed gapless
presses can reach production speeds of 15msec-1 (2900fpm), while other systems like
narrow-gap constructions come close to that. As well as production improvements the
new formats provide significant reductions in paper waste with shorter cut off needed
to yield the product.
Some machines use separate servo drives replacing a single drive shaft and gears. This
also reduces some press unit vibration and allows remote control of some operation
functions, such as automated setting and adjustment including auxiliaries that are more
integrated. New presses are software-controlled devices rather than hardware dominated.
Software can be updated to maintain performance, and maintenance controls help to
keep uptime maximised through on-press targeted maintenance indicators with self-
maintaining and self-repairing systems. Machine manufacturers monitor presses online
because printers want to invest in efficiency, i.e. guaranteed uptime.
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FIGURE 6.20 Schematics showing a ribbon folder and a former folder
Press auxiliaries are automatic quality-inspection and adjustment systems, tightly
monitoring register, colour matching, print defects, cut-off and folding register. This
allows heatset presses to process six tonnes of full-colour printed sections every hour
with minimum staff.
As well as high speed, presses are reducing set-up times with automatic plate loading
and pre-setting from CIP4/JDF data significantly to reduce wastage.
Hybrid printing, coldset presses being equipped with heatset dryers, will affect some
heatset markets. These improve quality over coldset but limited compared to heatset,
the quality limitations will improve in the coming years. Initial installations are on
new newspaper printing lines and they may take a significant share of the magazine,
catalogue or directory market.
Letterpress Letterpress is the oldest method of printing and dates from Gutenbergs invention. Its wide
use has diminished with the adoption of digital prepress and the demise of hot-metal
typesetting. There are now relatively few letterpress applications in developed printing
markets. The process is still used to print paperback textbooks, newspapers in some
countries and self-adhesive labels on narrow web presses. It is also widely used, as an
offset process, to print plastic containers and metal beverage cans.
The process uses a hard printing surface, metal or photopolymer, with the image
areas raised in relief from the non-image areas. Viscous low-tack paste ink is applied to the
plates surface and the inked image is then transferred to the substrate with the
application of pressure. It is the hardness of the plate, nature of the ink and inking system
that distinguishes modern letterpress from flexography.
The main strengths of the process are:
good legibility of text even on uncoated papers
low print waste even with frequent interruptions to the run.
relatively high printing plate costs
poor tonal reproduction when compared with offset litho at lower, relatively coarse
screen rulings
low productivity in comparison to offset.
FIGURE 6.21 The three principles of letterpress printing
Platemaking
Some metal type is still used but most applications use photopolymer plates that are
imaged by exposure to UV light through a film negative, followed by a wash-out
development. Several systems are used including NAPP and Nyloprint. Letterpress uses a
photopolymer plate production method and the main difference with flexography is the
higher degree of hardness of the plates.
The printing unit
The basic letterpress comprises an inking system to apply ink to the relief plate with a
means of generating pressure to transfer the inked image to the substrate. Conventional
letterpress machines are designed on one of three principles:
platen principle
flatbed (cylinder) principle
rotary principle.
Although it is still possible to find some examples of each type of letterpress machine, all
serious modern applications use the rotary principle.
Platen
The printing forme is held vertically. Impression is carried out by the platen, a heavy metal
plate that pivots forward and upward in an arc. It carries the paper and impresses it into
the surface of the forme as it reaches a position where it is vertical and parallel with the
forme. Most platens are used for creasing, foil blocking and diecutting applications today.
Flatbed cylinder
The type-bed is flat and horizontal. Positioned over it is the cylindrical impression cylinder
on which the paper to be printed is held. Impression is made as the bed moves in a
horizontal direction under the revolving cylinder on the impression stoke; the impression
cylinder lifts to allow the bed to return to its first position and the cycle is repeated.
Rotary
The printing surface is either flexible plastic, rubber or photopolymer plates that are fixed
around the circumference of the plate cylinder. An impression cylinder rotates against the
plate cylinder and impression is carried out as the paper (sheets or reels) is fed between them.
Inks and inking system
The viscose nature of letterpress ink, and the fact that the hard plate requires resilient
rubber rollers to transfer ink, requires a roller system similar to that used in offset
lithography. The inks are similar to offset litho inks and the options for ink drying are
essentially the same.
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Reel-fed rotary letterpress
Figure 6.22 shows a simplified view of a reel-fed rotary letterpress label machine. Starting
with the reel of material, the web is passed through the printing units then on to the final
operation, which in this case, is rewinding. More commonly, machines of this type would be
fitted with inline diecutting and possibly foil blocking.
Offset letterpress
Letterpress remains an important process in package printing, but only as an offset process.
It is used in this form to print plastic containers, like those for yoghurt and margarine, and
drinks cans. The offset principle is needed to allow printing onto metal, but it also provides
another important benefit. The different colour images that make up the design are
transferred from their appropriate printing head to the offset blanket, which is attached to a
FIGURE 6.22 Schematic of a reel-fed rotary letterpress label machine
FIGURE 6.23 Offset letterpress for container printing
cylinder common to all printing heads. A composite image is built up on the blanket and
this is printed to the container in a single transfer. This avoids the problems that would be
encountered in trying to register individual images to each other around the container.
Flexography Flexography is the main process for printing food packaging on plastic films and other non-
absorbent stocks. It also has wide application in the printing of cheap paper wrappings.
The main types of work are:
flexible packaging and carrier bags
adhesive roll labels
envelopes
corrugated cases, paper and plastic sacks
liquid cartons and folding box cartons
newspapers and paperback books.
Flexography was regarded until recently as the poor relation of print just used for rubber
stamps and cardboard box printing. This is changing because of the technical and quality
improvements achievable at relatively low cost. There are now more than 5500 flexo
printers in Europe operating 12,000 presses. They produce more than 72 billion square
metres of material in a market that is showing 5% year-on-year growth. Envelope printing
is a niche area of the flexo process and can benefit from the developments in producing
cartons, flexible packaging and newspapers.
Flexography is a relief printing process using deformable plates made from either
rubber or soft photopolymer. These plates are flexible and are normally attached to the
plate cylinders with double-sided adhesive tape. The image is inked with a liquid ink before
being transferred to the printing stock by light pressure. The process is simple. Liquid ink in
a duct is transferred from a pan roller to an anilox roller. The ink fills tiny pits engraved on
the roller surface so a controlled volume of ink is transferred onto a relief plate. The peaks
of this relief take the ink and deposit it onto the paper.
Prints obtained with flexography exhibit a noticeable degree of ink squash,
particularly when using rubber stereos and printing onto non-absorbent substrates. The ink
squash is normally visible without a magnifying lens and is due to the combined effects of
impression and the rubber stereos being compressed during printing. However, polymer
plates can give substantially reduced ink squash and, therefore, improved print quality.
Flexography is increasing its areas of application. Technical developments have
greatly improved print quality enabling the process to be considered as an alternative to
offset lithography for printing newspapers, flexible packaging, envelopes and folding box
cartons. Recent developments have focused on UV ink systems and improved control of
anilox engraving.
the ink system can use relatively volatile liquids that are key to a wide range of
substrates and dry without requiring a lot of energy;
the prepress costs are significantly less than for gravure, which is its main competitor
in package printing;
6
it is possible to print continuous repeating designs;
the printing unit design allows for the repeat length to be easily changed.
tonal reproduction is poor when compared with offset litho and gravure;
relatively coarse screen rulings have to be used because of the relief plate;
the process has difficulty in printing smooth vignettes;
it is difficult to print small type and halftones in combination with solids on the same
plate cylinder.
Flexo platemaking
Rubber plates are produced using a moulding process or laser engraving. These are being
superseded by photopolymer plates, which are now the standard for four-colour process
and other higher-quality work. The photopolymer is extruded onto a thin non-stretch
backing layer that gives the plate stability. The printing face of the plate is exposed to UV
light through a film negative and the image relief is controlled by an overall exposure
through the transparent backing. The exposure cross-links the polymer and subsequent
processing removes the unexposed polymer leaving the image areas of the plate in relief.
The main stages in photopolymer plate production are shown in Figure 6.24. The use of
CTP for flexo is increasing in popularity although the costs are significantly higher than for
offset CTP. The use of digital workflows will improve flexos competitive position when it
comes to quality and turnaround.
Some products, such as gift wrappers and wallcoverings, printed by flexography
require continuous designs without joins. The design rollers used for this purpose are often
produced by a laser engraving the rubber-covered rollers. Plates are produced flat and are
attached to the plate cylinder with double-sided adhesive tape. There are many
registration and loading aids to improve quality and speed and some plates are exposed
on steel backing ready for quick loading onto press. The plates are relatively thick and are
flat when imaged, but have to be curved when they are attached to the plate cylinder.
Allowance must be made during the reproduction stages for distortion of the image. The
thicker the printing plate and the smaller the printing cylinder, the greater this distortion.
Printing unit
The basic flexo printing unit comprises three main components:
the inking unit
the plate cylinder
the impression cylinder.
The inking unit is simple. In its most basic form it consists of an ink duct, a rubber-covered
fountain roller and an engraved ink metering roller (anilox). The simplicity of the inking
system allows it easily to accommodate different plate cylinder diameters allowing
changes in print length. More sophisticated flexo presses have enclosed ink duct systems
with doctor blades to regulate the ink film thickness to the plate. These chambers reduce
evaporation and make the ink more consistent throughout the run and aid print
consistency. The pressure between Anilox roll and printing plate must be carefully adjusted
to give a uniform print with no areas of over-impression otherwise excessive dot gain will
occur. To aid this, the ink rheology and viscosity must be tailored for the particular press,
and in some cases there is automatic viscosity monitoring and adjustment.
The anilox roller
The anilox roller is probably the heart of the flexographic press. The surface of the roller is
engraved with a uniform pattern of even cells that act as ink-carrying reservoirs. The
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Back exposure
Face exposure negative
Wash out
Drying
Post exposure
FIGURE 6.24 The stages in conventional photopolymer plate production
volume of these cells determines the ink film thickness applied to the plate. This is only
partially true for the basic inking system because the effectiveness of metering is
influenced by speed. More controlled inking is achieved with a doctor blade acting on the
anilox and in some cases this may be a chambered system, as shown in Figure 6.25.
The anilox rollers screen ruling and its volume are chosen according to the
subject matter being printed and the material being printed on. If, when printing fine
subject matter, the screen ruling is too coarse or the cell volume too great, too much ink
will be transferred to the plate resulting in dirty printing and the filling-in of fine type and
halftone screens. If the volume is too low, the solids will be low in density and may have
poor coverage. Typically, high screen rulings of low volume are used for printing fine
subject matter on non-absorbent materials, and low screen rulings of high volume are used
for printing solid areas on absorbent material.
Inks and ink drying
Flexo uses liquid inks and the enclosed compact nature of the flexo inking system allows
it to use liquids that evaporate quite quickly. There are three basic classifications of
flexographic inks:
solvent-based
water-based
ultraviolet (UV)-cured.
Solvent-based inks
Many flexographic inks are solvent-based. Ethanol is the most common solvent as it has
many desirable properties. It is a good solvent for various resins, does not swell or degrade
either rubber or photopolymer printing plates, evaporates rapidly, has low toxicity and is
free from odour. These last two properties are important in food packaging.
Water-based inks
Water-based inks are increasingly used in all flexo applications. Their main advantage is
that there is no fire hazard and water reduction and wash-up of the press is possible.
However, water-based inks can foam and, because they are not soluble in water when dry,
can plug the cells of the anilox roller if allowed to dry on the press. Water does not
evaporate as rapidly as alcohol, so the drying rate of water-based inks is slower. They
provide environmental benefits and much work is being done to overcome difficulties and
teach press operators how to use the inks effectively.
Ultraviolet ink systems
UV-cured inks for flexography are 100% solid systems with no solvent component. They do
not dry by evaporation like conventional flexographic inks but, when exposed to ultraviolet
light, cure to form an ink film with good end use resistance properties. Because UV-cured
flexographic inks are not subject to evaporation, it is easier to maintain consistent colour
on long print runs. They perform well on the press and much work to overcome odour and
taint makes them useful for food-based flexible packaging applications.
Flexo press types
Most flexographic presses are web-fed from rolls of material, the exception are corrugated
presses where the board is more often sheetfed. Web flexographic presses come in a wide
range of sizes with maximum web-width varying between about 150mm for a small label
press and 3000mm for a large preprint liner press. The presses are made up of four major
components:
the material infeed section
the print units
the dryer section
the material outfeed section.
Figure 6.25 shows these component parts on a six-colour web-fed stack press. As well as
printing units and drying units, a press must have feeding and delivery mechanisms to
control the passage of the substrate through the machine. With web-fed presses such as
the one illustrated, the control of web tension is the most critical function of the infeed
and outfeed sections of the press. Inadequate tension control can severely limit the register
capability of the machines.
The press shown is simply rewinding the printed product, which would be
appropriate for many packaging applications. But the flexographic process is well suited to
working with finishing operations inline. Inline presses are used for producing labels,
cartons and postprinting corrugated board. There are three types of flexographic press:
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FIGURE 6.25 Controlling the inking system in the flexographic process with a doctor blade (left) or a chambered
ink system (right)
stack presses
common impression presses
inline presses.
Stack presses
The individual print units of a stack press are mounted one over the other, usually on both
sides of a main press frame, and the rollers of each individual print unit are generally
arranged on a horizontal plane. Stack presses are made with between two and eight colour
units and, because of the arrangement of these units, it is possible to accommodate large
plate cylinders and print long print repeats. These presses also offer great accessibility,
which enables changeover, wash-up and impression setting.
The stack press can be used for printing almost any type of substrate but it does
have register limitations when printing substrates that are extendable or of a thin gauge. With
materials such as fairly heavyweight papers, thick films and laminated structures that can
tolerate fairly high levels of tension, commercially acceptable register can easily be achieved.
Common impression presses
Figure 6.26 shows the arrangement of the print units on a four-colour common impression
cylinder press, usually referred to as a CI press and sometimes called a central impression
cylinder or drum press. The greatest advantage of the CI press is its ability to hold excellent
register even when printing very thin, extendable packaging materials.
Inline presses
The inline press is the only one of the three flexographic press types that can be used for
printing rigid sheet materials such as corrugated board. Inline presses have the advantages
dryer
dryers
FIGURE 6.26 A six-colour webfed stack press
of good accessibility and quick changeover, can be manufactured with any number of
colours and, since a single frame does not have to support all the print units, they can be
easily designed to handle extremely wide web widths.
Inline presses are commonly used for folding box, corrugated and multi-wall bag
printing. They are also common in narrow-web widths where they are used for printing
pressure sensitive label stock.
Inline presses often have inline converting operations such as bag making, carton
cutting and creasing, embossing, label or form sheeting built in. For example, carton board
can be fed into an inline press from a reel, printed, creased and rotary diecut at high speed
in one continuous operation.
Envelope machine Envelope manufacture is a decoration and converting process produced on sophisticated
production paper folding and gluing machines. The printing capability tends to be secondary to the
material handling, although there are developments that offer significantly improved print
quality. Envelopes may be produced by converting reels of paper (web fed) or pre-shaped
litho printed blanks (sheetfed). During web production, there are six main stages of
envelope developments using variable cut off multi-colour flexo printing:
paper is unwound and printed on both sides, first the opaque and then a number of
outer colours depending on the number of available print units;
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FIGURE 6.27 The arrangement of the print units on a common impression cylinder press
FIGURE 6.28 The arrangement of the print units on an inline press
the printed web then has a window cut out and film glued into position;
the shape is then cut out, and the web cut into individual envelopes;
seams are glued and paper folded to make the product;
glue is applied to the flap, then dried;
finished envelopes are delivered, counted and packed into boxes.
Gravure Typical work
Gravure is mainly used for the printing of high-volume publications and packaging. The
main types of work are:
magazines and catalogues
flexible packaging and confectionery wrappings
folding box cartons, liquid cartons and cigarette packets
postage stamps
decorative coatings (wallpapers, woodfinishes).
Gravure is an intaglio printing process in which the image to be printed is formed by cells
that are recessed into the surface of the image-carrier. Printing is achieved by flooding the
surface with a liquid ink that fills the recessed image cells. The excess is scraped away by a
doctor blade leaving the surface, non-image areas, clean. The substrate is then pressed
against the image-carriers surface. Under impression, the ink in the recessed areas is
drawn from the cells and transferred to the substrate.
Gravure does not have a plate system like other processes, and the image has to
be formed directly in the outer copper surface of a cylinder. This makes the image-carrier
expensive to produce, and the gravure process is, therefore, suited only to long production
runs. Recent developments and trends have focused on digital cylinder imaging and quicker
cylinder changeover on the printing machine. The main strengths of the process are:
high-quality colour reproduction is possible on suitable substrates
waste levels are relatively low and print quality is consistent through the production
run
the inks use relatively volatile liquids that key to a wide range of substrates and dry
without requiring a lot of energy
it is possible to print continuous designs
high production speeds are achieved.
the cost of producing the gravure cylinder is significantly greater than the cost of
producing plates for other processes
the lead times for producing the cylinders are lengthy
corrections present a problem
the high prepress costs mean that the process is viable only for high run lengths or
regularly repeating jobs in packaging
all images have a cell pattern that is detrimental to the reproduction of line images
and the legibility of text, particularly at small sizes
print quality can be poor if paper surface roughness is not within the minimum
specification.
Production of Conventional gravure is unique compared with other conventional printing processes in
image-carrier that it can print grey levels without using the halftone principle.
Figure 6.29 shows an area of tonal gradation on a conventional gravure image-
carrier. The printing area is divided into cells that have the same surface area but vary in
depth. The variation in printed grey levels results from this depth variation: deeper cells
hold more ink, printing a darker tone than shallower ones.
The methods currently used for gravure cylinder imaging provide cells that vary in
area or in both area and depth. There are three options for imaging the gravure cylinder:
chemical etching
mechanical engraving
direct laser engraving.
Chemical etching
The chemical etching method currently used to produce the gravure cylinder is called halftone
gravure or direct transfer. It employs a photomechanical process similar to that used for
platemaking by other processes and, like those, it achieves the printed grey levels by differing
area (Figure 6.30, page 252). The copper surface of the gravure cylinder is coated with a light-
sensitive, high-contrast photopolymer that is exposed to UV light through a film positive.
A special halftone screen has to be used to produce the dots for the film positive.
It produces dots in the shadow tones and solids that never completely join together, so
maintaining support for the doctor blade through to the solids. The exposure to UV light
6
FIGURE 6.29 Tonal gradation on a gravure image carrier
hardens the non-image areas leaving the image unaffected. On development, unexposed
areas are washed away leaving areas of bare copper exposed.
The etch acts directly on the copper making the system ideal for etching
machines with a one-bath etch. Some slight variation in depth does occur but the range is
usually between 42 and 44 microns. The use of the halftone process simplifies and speeds
up cylinder production, but sacrifices some reproduction quality associated with
conventional gravure.
Electromechanical engraving
Figure 6.31 shows the basic principles of the electromechanical engraving method for
producing the image on the gravure cylinder. The engraving is done by a diamond stylus
that is shaped in such a way that as it digs into the rotating cylinder, it produces cells
resembling inverted pyramids. Shown on the right are the inverted pyramid-shaped cells
engraved by the stylus. As it is driven deeper into the copper, cells of increasing volume are
produced. The stylus is followed by a diamond scraper that removes the burr produced by
FIGURE 6.30 An image carrier produced by chemical etching the cells differ in area
Stylus
Highlight
Midtone
Shadow tone
FIGURE 6.31 The basic principle of the electromechanical engraving method
the gouging action. This allows area and depth variable cells to be produced, as dictated
by the image, at a rate normally in the region of 4000 cells per second.
Electromechanical methods of cylinder engraving eliminate the variables
associated with light-sensitive coatings and chemical etching, bringing the process of
image transfer under much closer control. The engraved cells have uniform shape, with
smooth walls giving improved ink transfer leading to the production of good quality prints
with smooth tones.
Analogue input
This electromechanical method of cylinder imaging is commonly used with halftone
screened film separations as the input. In this way it provides a form of offset-to-gravure
conversion. This greatly simplifies the prepress for gravure and it allows colour proofing to
be undertaken using conventional and digital prepress proofing systems.
The equipment for this comprises two cylinders, with synchronised rotation. One
of these is the gravure cylinder to be engraved; the other is the scanning cylinder, on which
is mounted a photographic copy of the film separations. The scanning head, containing a
light source and a photocell, moves crosswise at a constant speed while the cylinders
rotate. As it does so, the light beam scans the copy, and light is reflected back to the
photocell. The intensity of the reflected light is proportional to the integrated density of
the screened separations. After processing, these signals are used to generate
electromagnetic impulses that drive the engraving head.
Digital input
In situations where workflow is totally digital, it is now common to bypass the analysing part
of the system and feed the data directly to the engraving unit. With the wider acceptance of
digital proofing, this offers a more efficient approach to gravure cylinder production.
6
FIGURE 6.32 Electromechanical cylinder engraving with analysing drum
Laser engraving of cylinders
The use of mechanical cylinder engraving has been a digital workflow that preceded litho by
several years, but it still uses mechanical methods to create the cells. Many manufacturers
have worked on direct laser engraving, some with plastic surfaces, with little success.
It is likely that this will change with the choice of the correct surface preparation
and laser combination. Normal cylinder preparation involves electroplating nickel over the
base steel cylinder, and placing a layer of copper over that. A further layer of a zinc alloy is
deposited for laser engraving. This absorbs incident energy from an extremely powerful
500mW YAG laser and is vaporised, along with some of the copper underneath to produce
the ink cell. After engraving, the cylinder is electroplated with a hard chrome finish,
exactly like normally produced cylinders. New engravers are much faster then their
mechanical predecessors and will take a share of this market.
Cylinder chromium plating
The number of copies that can be printed from a copperplated gravure cylinder is limited
due to wear. It is normal for it to be chromium-plated after imaging. Under good
conditions, a chromium-plated cylinder should have a life of several million impressions. An
additional advantage of chromium plating is that when it does begin to wear it can be
stripped off in an electrolytic bath and the cylinder replated, avoiding the need to remake.
This can be done several times providing that the cylinder is taken from the printing press
before the wear has extended to the copper.
Printing unit
The gravure printing unit is simple in concept. The inks are fluid and flow easily, and metering
is taken care of by the volume of the cell. The gravure cylinder rotates in a liquid ink,
contained in an ink duct. The cylinder then carries a relatively thick layer of ink on its surface.
This layer of ink is wiped off the surface by the doctor blade leaving ink only in the cells.
The doctor blade is normally made of thin spring steel or plastic with a thicker
back-up blade behind it to provide rigidity. The edge of the blade must be perfectly smooth
and free from nicks. Any nicks in the blade will leave thin streaks of ink, known as doctor
streaks, on the cylinder that will print unwanted lines of ink on the paper. As the cylinder
rotates, the doctor blade mechanism moves backwards and forwards across the face of the
cylinder. This helps to spread any wear evenly over the doctor blade surface and to
dislodge paper fibres or particles that may be trapped under the blade.
Pressure is needed to transfer the ink from the cells to the substrate. The
substrate is fed into a nip between the gravure cylinder and an impression roller, with the
cylinder and roller being squeezed together. The substrates surface roughness and
compressibility is the main factor affecting the pressure required. Unsuitable papers or
insufficient pressure may result in speckle or cell skip.
To avoid or minimise this problem, a technique known as Electro Static Assisted ink
transfer (ESA) is often used. This requires the rubber on the impression roll to be formulated
so that it will be able to conduct an electrostatic charge. As the paper web comes into contact
with the charged roller, the electrostatic field attracts the ink from the cells onto the paper.
Inks and ink drying
Gravure inks are similar to the solvent-based inks used in flexography. A wide variety of
solvents can be used, the most common being toluene, xylene, petroleum fractions, various
alcohols, esters and ketones. Some water-based inks are being used but not widely. Most
gravure solvents are flammable and have low flash points. Safety precautions have to be
taken to avoid fires, explosions and detrimental health effects. Many installations have
solvent recovery or dispersal systems to remove the vapours and, where appropriate,
recover the expensive solvents.
As with flexography, it is necessary to dry each ink film before the next can be
printed. After printing, the paper web passes through a drying chamber where the ink is
dried by removing the solvent with heated air. Rapid ink drying by solvent evaporation
allows printing on non-absorbent materials without the danger of wet ink rubbing off onto
rollers or sticking in the rewound reel. Thus gravure is the ideal process for a wide variety of
packaging printing on films and foils. Alcohol-based inks are particularly suitable for food
packaging because they are free of residual odour.
Press types
Publication presses
Figure 6.34 (page 256) shows a large gravure publication press. The paper from each
printing unit passes into a drying hood where a balanced supply of air is blown onto the
web to remove as much of the solvent as possible. Normally these presses consist of eight
or 13 units and are used to print complete magazines or catalogue signatures. On an eight-
unit press, four colours can be printed on both sides of a web of paper.
6
FIGURE 6.33 Principle of the gravure printing unit
The printing cylinders can be up to 3m wide, although the most popular width is
in the region of 22.5m. The cylinder circumferences typically provide four or six pages
around the cylinder (normal circumference being about a 1000mm or 1500mm,
respectively). Thus a 2.4m wide eight-unit press can print 64 A4 pages (short grain) in full-
colour using a four-pages-around cylinder or 96 pages with the six-pages-around cylinder.
At a web speed of 15m/s, more than 54,000 64-page magazine signatures can be printed
in an hour. Larger, faster models are continually being introduced to the market.
After printing, the web is split into ribbons (in Figure 6.34 there would be eight)
and folded into the correct pagination. It is then either collated, stitched and trimmed offline;
or it might be stitched and trimmed inline, with the press delivering the finished product.
Packaging presses
A wide range of gravure presses is used for packaging printing. The webwidths cover a
range from 3501400mm and there are special presses built for very narrow web-widths
that can be as low as 50mm. The cylinders on a gravure press are not geared together and
usually the printing cylinder is the only one being driven. This means that presses can be
built to easily accommodate cylinders of different diameters. This is an important point in
packaging printing as it enables different print lengths to be printed on one press. For
high-volume products, where the pack design does not change, cylinders can be re-used
many times defraying the high prepress cost and speeding up changeover and set up.
A gravure press for flexible packaging would normally be fitted with a rewind as
the product would be supplied in reel form. For carton packaging, the press would
incorporate a number of additional inline finishing operations. These may include rotary
embossing, rotary diecutting and creasing.
To
folder
FIGURE 6.34 Schematic of a gravure publication press
Sheetfed gravure presses
Most gravure presses are web-fed rotary. There are, however, a few sheetfed presses in use.
They are mainly used for high-value speciality carton package printing and labels.
Silk screen printing Typical work
Screen print is a versatile printing process used for many applications not normally thought
of as printing. The main types of work are:
point of sale display materials
posters, window stickers and signs
plastic cards
fabrics, transfers and garments
bottles and other containers
compact discs
wall and floor coverings.
Screen printing is a development of the stencilling process. Images printed by simple
stencilling are encumbered by the connecting links that are required to hold the elements
of the images together. In screen printing, a mesh is used to support the stencil allowing
the connecting links to be eliminated and a more natural printed image is achieved.
Figure 6.35 shows the basic principle employed to transfer the image. The
prepared screen is placed over the material to be printed and a fluid ink poured into one
end of it. The ink is spread over the screen and forced through the open mesh areas with a
rubber or plastic squeegee.
Screen printing differs from the other printing processes in a number of ways. It is
the only process that prints through the image carrier rather than from it. The screen acts
as an ink reservoir, or duct, for a working supply of ink, while other processes need
independent inking systems preceding the printing stage.
6
FIGURE 6.35 The principle of screen printing
it can print intense colours with good covering power and opacity
it can print onto almost any substrate
it can print onto curved, uneven and fragile surfaces
it is possible to print thick, opaque ink films
it can print unusual ink formulations and coatings.
print production speeds are slow
it is difficult to reproduce fine detail and small type
halftone reproduction requires coarse screen rulings.
The screen
The screen has two principal functions:
to provide a supportive structure for the stencil
to meter the ink film deposit.
Screens are made by fixing a fine mesh material over a wooden or metal frame. The mesh
is tensioned to precise specifications before fixing using mechanical or pneumatic
tensioning devices. This ensures even tension and controlled dimensional stability.
Mesh materials
Modern screen meshes are monofilament materials made from single, smooth, wire-like
threads. The threads are woven together to form a regular and even gauze structure that is
important for optimum ink transfer and easy screen cleaning. Nylon and polyester are the
two most commonly used mesh materials. Nylon is used for many applications where
dimensional stability and close registration are not critical requirements. It is extremely
durable and commonly used for high volume production of single colour work, particularly
in container printing and other three-dimensional objects or uneven surfaces.
Monofilament polyester mesh has the same structural qualities as nylon, but it is more
dimensionally stable. It is more widely used for this reason, especially in applications where
fine registration tolerance in multi-colour printing is required.
The screen may also be made from stainless steel wire mesh. The relatively high
cost (as much as five times that of polyester) limits its use to applications where the
following requirements are essential:
screen durability
resistance to abrasion from inks
heavy ink deposits
extreme dimensional stability
reproduction of fine image detail.
Mesh grade and mesh count
Mesh materials are classified by mesh count and grade. The selection of an appropriate
grade of mesh material with a suitable thread count is important as it determines the:
ink film thickness that will be achieved
stencil detail that will be possible
support given to the stencil.
The mesh count refers to the number of threads woven into the mesh. Screen mesh
materials are available in mesh counts (depending on grade) from 12200 threads/cm. As
a general rule, the lower the mesh count the less support there is for the stencil detail and
the heavier the ink deposit will be. The mesh grading relates to thread thickness. The grade
of the thread determines the dimensional stability of the mesh and its overall calliper, that
in turn influences ink film thickness. Screen meshes are available in four grades, as shown
in Table 6.2.
TABLE 6.2 Mesh grades
Grade Thread Typical mesh open area
S light grade thin 5070%
M medium grade thick 3040%
T thick grade 3540%
HD heavy duty 2035%
Figure 6.36 shows three grades of mesh, all with the same thread count. As can be seen,
the thickness of the mesh thread determines the size of the mesh openings. As the mesh
count increases the effective print area is reduced until a point is reached where the
openings are insufficient to allow the ink to pass through.
Stencil making
Stencils can be made in several ways, and the method used will depend on image and
print run requirements. For simple bold line work, such as large-format signs or posters,
stencils can be cut in special water or solvent-soluble laminate film. The stencil is
transferred onto the screen and fixed with heat or with a water or ketone solvent. But most
stencils are made using photomechanical methods that are necessary when producing
images with any intricacy and fineness of detail such as fine line or halftone work. New
6
FIGURE 6.36 Three grades of mesh, all with the same thread count
direct digital stencil production methods are being introduced that will speed up and
simplify the process.
There are a number of slightly different photo-stencil systems in current use.
Choice is determined by image and production requirements such as:
fineness of image detail
print run length
ink type.
Indirect photo-stencils
Indirect stencils are similar to cut stencils in that they are imaged and processed before
being transferred to the mesh. They comprise a presensitised gelatine or polymer film
coating on a polyester base. The film is exposed to ultraviolet light in contact with a film
positive image. The exposure level is set to ensure that the non-image areas are made
insoluble, but with a partially soluble top. When this is processed the unexposed areas
dissolve into solution, leaving the exposed areas to form the stencil.
The stencil is then mounted onto the screen, its partially exposed soft sticky
surface readily adheres to the mesh. After drying, the supporting film base is stripped
away, leaving the stencil firmly fixed to the underside of the screen.
TABLE 6.3 The mesh count and grade for typical applications
Mesh count and grade for typical applications
34T to 49T: sports and travel bags, coarse fabrics, denim
49T to 77T: rough absorbent surfaces textiles, T-shirts, flags and pennants
77T to 100T: posters, point-of-sale display signs, large lettering, opaque inks, coarsely pigmented inks,
fluorescent and metallic colours, textured or grained surfaces, overprint varnishing
100T to 120T: halftone screens up to 26 lines/cm, fine line/lettering instrumentation, sign work, self-
adhesive labels/stickers
130T to 165M: fine line halftone up to 54 lines/cm
Direct emulsion photostencils
This type of stencil encapsulates the screen mesh providing greater resistance to physical
stressing and abrasion caused during long run production. The stencils are made by
coating the screen with a photosensitive polymer emulsion. When the coated screen is dry
it is exposed to ultraviolet light in contact with a film positive image. The exposed areas of
the coating become insoluble in water. After exposure, the screen is sprayed with water,
causing the unexposed image areas to dissolve away and leaving the exposed areas to
form the non-image stencil.
Direct/indirect photo-stencils
This system offers the advantages of the two former systems by providing the durability of
a direct emulsion stencil with the reproduction fidelity of an indirect stencil. Stencils are
made by mounting a precision-coated polymer film onto the underside of the screen with a
light-sensitive bonding emulsion. The emulsion is applied through the screen using a
rounded squeegee blade. It is absorbed by the polymer film that is then drawn into the
mesh. When dry, the film and emulsion become one, bonded through the mesh. The film
base is then removed leaving a flat under-surface to the stencil, which allows improved
printing fidelity. The screen is then exposed and processed in the same way as a direct
emulsion screen.
Capillary direct film photo-stencils
This is a widely-used system that provides the qualities associated with the direct/ indirect
stencil with a more simple and cheaper method of application. It comprises a precision
photopolymer film coating on a polyester base. The film is hygroscopic and is drawn into
the screen by the application of a fine mist water spray through the mesh. When the film is
dry, its base is stripped away, and then the screen is imaged in exactly the same way as the
direct/indirect screen.
6
Soft top
Positive
Backing
Emulsion
Backing
Development
Exposure
Transfer
Backing
Stencil
Exposure
Coating
Development
Positive
Coated
mesh
Finished
stencil
FIGURE 6.37 Two photo-stencil making processes: indirect (left) and direct (right)
Alternative imaging The photosensitive stencil-forming emulsion can be exposed using other methods. For
methods large-format stencils, which are used for posters, vehicle livery and signs, the photosensitive
stencil coating can be exposed by projection. This allows cheaper, relatively small format
films to be used for the imaging of big stencils.
The imaging of stencils is also possible from digital data indirectly using a data-
driven inkjet printer and by direct laser exposure of the photosensitive stencil emulsion.
The ScreenJet system prints a positive image directly onto the photosensitive emulsion,
which was previously applied to the mesh using one of the techniques described. The inkjet
printed image takes over the function of the film positive, but there is no need for a
contact frame as the screen is simply exposed to a UV light source.
Printing machines There is a wide range of screen printing machinery indicating a considerable diversity of
process applications. The following classification provides a guide to the most commonly
used forms of machinery.
Flatbed hinged frame
These machines are designed on the principle of the hand-bench. The screen is hinged at
the rear of the flat printing base. The screen frame carriage is mechanically synchronised
with the squeegee and flo-coater carriage. On all screen printing machines except rotary
screen, the ink is returned to the pre-printing position by a metal scraper-blade, technically
referred to as the flo-coater. It is positioned behind the squeegee. The angle, pressure and
speed of both flo-coater and squeegee blade can be adjusted to suit inking requirements.
The printing cycle begins with the screen open for the substrate to be fed into
the lays. The screen closes and the squeegee stroke begins, forcing the ink across the
screen and through the stencil onto the substrate beneath. At the end of the squeegee
passage, the blade lifts and the flo-coater drops to return the ink for the next print stroke
charging the open areas of the screen as it does so. The screen opens during the flo-coater
stroke for the substrate to be removed from the printing base to the dryer.
FIGURE 6.38 A flatbed hinged frame
The production output of these machines can vary between 300 and 1200
impressions per hour (iph) depending on the degree of automation. A wide range of
machine sizes and formats is available, from precision circuit machines with print areas
of 390510mm to the jumbo machines with print areas of 23m.
Flatbed vertical lift
These machines allow the screen to rise vertically from the printing base, remain horizontal
throughout the printing cycle and allow for more efficient inking control. The most basic
machines feature a reciprocating printing base that slides from beneath the screen to
receive the substrate, back again for printing and out once more for delivery to the dryer.
A more automatic version has a stationary printing base, with the substrate being picked up
from a pre-register position by grippers. Output on these machines depends on the degree of
automation but will range from 10002000 iph. Machines are available in a range of sizes
and formats with print areas as small as 400600mm or as big as 20004000mm.
Cylinder-bed presses
Here the substrate is supported on a cylindrical vacuum bed and the screen reciprocates
above with the stationary squeegee and flo-coater printing and charging the screen in
sequence. The machines are usually automated with the substrate fed to the vacuum
cylinder from a deep pile feeder. The suction from the cylinder holds the substrate down
during the printing cycle and releases it onto the delivery tapes. It is then transported to
the dryer as the vacuum cylinder receives the next sheet. These machines are the fastest
sheetfed machines available. Speeds are determined by the size of the machine, with a
maximum output on the smaller format machines of 6000iph and average speeds of about
3500iph. Sizes vary from print areas of 550750mm to 12001600mm.
Container printing machines
These machines operate on the cylinder-bed principle. The curved surface of the container
takes the place of the vacuum cylinder and is supported beneath by roller bearings. The
6
FIGURE 6.39 A flat-bed vertical lift machine
printing action is the same as the cylinder press, and the screen reciprocates over the
rotating container as the stationary squeegee forces the ink through the screen.
Rotary screen
These machines are used exclusively in high-volume production of printed textiles, scratch-
off tickets, floor and wall coverings. Some small-format label machines have the facility for
rotary print heads to be used in combination with other processes. The operational principle
is different to that of conventional screen printing. Here the screen is a seamless perforated
cylinder made from a light metal foil. Two metal tension rings (mandrills) are fitted at each
end. These rings also accommodate the hollow squeegee carriage through which ink is
pumped during the printing cycle. As the screen rotates, the stationary squeegee blade
forces the printing medium through the screen apertures onto the moving web beneath.
Carousel machines
Based upon the hinged frame principle, these machines were originally designed for multi-
colour printing on T-shirts. They consist of multiple printing bases or garment platens that
can be rotated around a central pivot. Above each platen is a printing head (also
rotational). This consists of a squeegee and flo-coater integrally driven by the screen
carriage mechanism. The printing cycle begins with a garment being slid over the platen.
The first screen is lowered in register with the garment/platen and the first colour is
printed. The screen is then raised and the second screen rotated into the printing position
(registered over the garment/platen), the printing stroke completed and so on until all the
colours (up to eight wet-on-wet on some machines) are printed. After printing, the garment
is removed from the platen and transported to the dryer.
Screen ink drying Ink film deposits produced by screen printing are in the order of 1015 microns, and much
thicker than for other print processes. The inks must be force dried in order to achieve
reasonable production rates. The four drying methods currently employed are:
FIGURE 6.40 A cylinder-bed press
wicket or rack drying used with evaporative inks;
jet air drying used with evaporative inks;
infrared drying used with inks and textiles dyes requiring curing with infra-red
radiation;
ultraviolet drying used with inks containing special reactive photopolymer resins
that dry rapidly on exposure to intense UV radiation.
Digital printing Digital printing is an integral component of the printing market, and one of the key
technologies used in printing. This represents a huge shift from conventional production
Introduction over the last 15 years, radically changing the nature of the printing industry. The increased
computer power in imaging systems allowed this change to happen but did not instigate it.
The new technology was an enabler allowing operations to provide additional and new
products and services. Digital print is successful because it provides solutions to new
consumer demands:
economic short-run, high-quality print
customised and personalised print.
The demands of consumers are becoming increasingly exacting; they want what they
want at the lowest price, when they want it. This is a fact of business life in all industries
and it is now here in printing. It is the end consumer that is driving industries to provide
better products and services, faster at lower cost. This will not go away and these changes
are occurring because the requirements of the end consumer are changing. Demand for
customised, personalised products and services is a key driver for the future of printing.
New technology is developing that allows consumers to achieve these requirements across
all sectors. Conventional printing is being subsumed into a wider communications process
as a result.
Digital printing converts a file directly into a printed product, hence the generic
term computer to press. Figure 6.42 (page 266) shows the different stages necessary for
printing.
6
FIGURE 6.41 A rotary screen press
Print-ready
digital file
Separated
film output
CTP output
On-press
platemaking
Variable
digital print
Imposition
and exposure
to plate
Plate
processing
Load
onto press
Load
onto press
Make-ready
and set-up
Make-ready
and set-up
Print
Print Print
Dry Dry Dry
Collate Collate
Collate
Finish/bind
Online
finishing
FIGURE 6.42 Processes involved in conventional and digital printing
With digital on-press imaging of plates, there is no separate requirement for
plate exposure, processing and loading onto the press. The imaging is performed in situ for
all colours in a single stage, allowing the press minder to look at materials and other tasks.
The direct process sets the press and, using lithographic inks and materials print, is carried
out producing the sheets in the same manner as conventional. Once jobs are dry, they are
folded, collated, bound and finished when all sections are printed. There are significant
reductions in the different stages necessary to produce a saleable product.
In the case of variable data printing (both mono and colour) all of these stages
can be combined into a single operation. With the correct online finishing units, a collated
multi-part book, including the cover, can be delivered collated and finished in seconds from
sending the print-ready file to the machine.
It was the potential for eliminating these costly, time-consuming stages that
provided the impetus for suppliers to develop digital printing and for printers, prepress
companies and even print buyers to install and use the technology. This section aims to
introduce the reader to the reasons behind digital printings success and examine markets,
products, costs, prepress and the technologies involved. It provides an overview of the
major suppliers and presses available, offers some predictions about how digital printing
may develop and some of the new opportunities that digital printing provides for changing
existing inefficient supply chains for some printed products.
Commercial digital printing developed from the invention of the laser printer at
Xerox PARC in the 1970s. Such mono engines have been producing enormous quantities of
personalised print, driven by IT departments of financial institutions and utility suppliers to
generate bills and statements for customers. This production printing is separate to the
general print market. Particular emphasis is placed on the document integrity and
production rather than aesthetic quality of the print. The data to drive the printers are
generally line text data formats at low resolution and limited typographic capability. This
mainframe or production printing environment has seen significant change, as engines
have increased in speed and quality by incorporating PDF or PostScript datastreams and
increasing the resolution capabilities. The graphics sector is taking advantage of the high
quality capabilities (achieving and surpassing offset) of print engines and offering
economic low runs and the ability to personalise products.
Future markets (packaging, short run, print-on-demand and personalisation) for
digital print will all increase significantly. Pira research provides the data for Table 6.4
(page 270), showing the forecast market shares of the major print technologies (excluding
packaging) to 2010.
Individual market share forecasts differ but all follow the same general trend, and
digital printing will increase market share at the expense of other technologies. This increase
in market share will be at the expense of traditional processes but there are also new
applications providing opportunities to develop the production printing sector. Digital
technology links printing into a continuous pyramid of quality and productivity from home
inkjet printer to high-quality contract proofers, from networked office laser printer to high
6
volume mono production engines, from low resolution inkjet marking to high volume colour
inkjet printing, and from variable colour engines approaching offset to on-press imaging.
There is no image-carrying master in variable data printing, and each print is
formed afresh as part of the production cycle. For short-run applications, the high-quality
graphic file is prepared and RIPped with data either repeatedly sent to the engine or
buffered in memory for each print. A significant advantage of variable data printing is the
ability to print collated and completed document sets in a single pass rather than having
to have a separate collation stage. This is particularly useful for book printing where a
single pass to produce a complete product is an advantage.
Digital printing is a large, established business with a total value estimated to
be some 5.8 billion across Europe in 2002. Pira forecasts predict the European digital
print market will grow to more than 7 billion in 2005, and 12.5 billion by 2010. This
attractive, significant top-line figure is one of the few high growth sectors of the printing
market. The main market sectors for digital printing are:
Financial services
Retailing
TABLE 6.4 Forecast of market share of total print (excluding packaging) processes
2002 2006 2010
Litho 61% 59% 57%
Gravure 22% 21% 19%
Digital 5% 7% 11%
Desktop 5% 7% 9%
Total digital (10%) (14%) (20%)
Other (flexo, screen, letterpress) 7% 6% 4%
1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 4 4 4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ... ... ...
Short-run printing
Collated printing
Variable printing
FIGURE 6.43 Collation capabilities of digital printing systems
Industrial/manufacturing
Public sector
Publishing
Packaging.
The main products produced through digital printing include personalised products and
document fulfilment, packaging, books, magazines, manuals, corporate promotional material,
stationery, catalogues, labels, security print, transactional print, short-run mono and colour.
There are many digital presses available. They vary from office workgroup mono laser
printers, rated at more than 45ppm, to web-fed devices capable of printing more than
1300ppm. Colour machines vary from office colour photocopiers through to offset quality
machines from Xerox, Heidelberg, Xeikon and HP-Indigo rated at more than 100ppm. Wide-
format digital machines are taking significant share of the signage and poster market.
Additionally there are commercial inkjet machines offering high productivity and low page cost
from Scitex Digital Printing with new devices for packaging, books and industrial applications
for Dotrix, Aprion and Spectra. Costs can vary from 1,500 to upwards of 2 million to produce
different quantities of print at a range of different quality levels and unit costs.
Issues key to digital printing
Many companies successfully use digital print technology in critical applications. The
situation for digital print is not all positive, however, and there are several important issues
that users need to understand to improve and develop digital printing. The important
topics identified by experienced users include:
Productivity (machine capacity, the printing speed allied to reliability and uptime
performance)
Cost (of equipment, consumables, click charges and overall print cost)
Quality of reproduction, particularly for colour
Prepress requirements
Materials (paper grades and availability, other substrates and colourants)
Market requirements, understanding the necessary capabilities of service offerings and
client demands (particularly for conventional printers expanding their product range)
Format of printing area
Personnel skills across the board, for management, sales, administrators, prepress and
data preparation and machine operators
Finishing, integrated or offline for small quantities and varying products
Data handling/preparation, front-end requirements
Lack of spot colours
Lack of standardisation of production and administration data.
Digital print The main concern is the relative lack of digital productivity compared to conventional
productivity offset printing presses. The fastest heatset web offset machines can every second produce
more than 2000 full-colour A4 pages, folded and trimmed. The fastest comparable quality
6
variable data printers will deliver just 167ppm. Machines are becoming progressively faster
and more productive each year with increased reliability and uptime. The potential for
large format, high-quality inkjet devices with few moving parts will continue this trend.
It is the speed of printing and reliability of machines with time required for
regular maintenance, mostly for colour applications, that is of concern.
Equipment reliability Probably the key benefit of digital printing is the ability to provide a fast print-on-demand
and maintenance service. Any machine downtime jeopardises deadlines. This is still a significant issue for
colour machines that has still not been overcome, although the equipment is more reliable
and there is skilled back-up and application support from the manufacturers. There are still
significant technical problems with the performance of digital printing, particularly in
colour markets. The incidence of downtime is too high for digital presses. While users
appreciate the complex nature of the technology involved, they are critical of the amount
of downtime that occurs for routine maintenance, consumable replacement, software
issues and breakdown.
Colour digital print engines require specialist maintenance including regular
changing of components and fine-tuning as well as software adjustment. Many of the DI
presses are designed to be significantly easier to operate than conventional offset litho
presses, colour management and automated set-up remove a lot of the traditional skill
requirement. The initial promise of high-end digital engines was to avoid the need for a
trained printer, making colour printing almost an office function. The new models from
Nexpress, HP-Indigo and Xerox are firmly aimed at the printroom with skilled technicians
as operators rather than the office.
Cost issues for digital print
Although costs have fallen, and will continue to do so, the overall cost of production,
equipment, service, consumables and administration is a major concern to the uptake of
colour digital printing. This view reflects the traditional approach, and the experience with
long-run jobs. Many conventional print buyers have performed market tests with digital
and received high quotes when compared with conventional print solutions. These are
remembered and a mindset against digital print starts to develop. This situation is
changing as the on-press systems lower the cost of short runs, and the higher productivity
and lower costs of variable print develop the on-demand and personalisation markets.
As DI technology becomes more accepted and the plate quantities used grow,
there will be less of a premium over the cost of conventional plates. There will also be
benefit as processorless CTP plates supersede the current generations of plate. The main
cost advantage will come from re-usable plate materials (switchable polymer) and in-situ
coating technology, developments that are some time away from commercial reality.
Conventional print companies tend to handle relatively few, fairly high-value
jobs. With digital print, the model switches to a large number of relatively low-value jobs. It
is not viable to use an administration system that has a cost of 20 to raise an invoice if
the average order value is just 18. Printers have to reduce the transaction cost of digital
printing, and make it more commercially attractive by automating the administration. The
development of standardised administration functions based around JDF will allow the job
process information to be incorporated into the print file. This could generate the print
queue automatically for a contract each jobs details can be used to raise an invoice
automatically each month with a report on the activity for that customer. No manual
account executive time is involved.
Quality of colour digital print
The low quality of digital colour images compared with offset has been used as an
argument against the use of the technology, particularly by the conventional printer
wielding a linen tester. As manufacturers have improved their equipment, these are less
important considerations. The correct prepress set up is necessary as the digital engines
have minimal colour adjustment capability. New machines from HP-Indigo, Nexpress,
Xeikon and Xerox promise effective litho quality indistinguishable to the eye (providing the
correct mix of engine, colourant and substrate is used). One of the versions of the HP-
Indigo engine is to produce high-quality photographic prints for film processing
companies. Conversely, if materials are selected on the basis of being the cheapest but are
incompatible with the print machine, it will be impossible to obtain a high-quality result no
matter what adjustments are made.
Established litho printers, rather than their customers, tend to be most distrustful
of digital quality. Many take a defensive position to support their existing operations, but
as more printers with good prepress skills become involved, the quality levels achievable
will increase.
Materials for To get the optimal printability and runnability from a digital printing system, it is
digital print important to use the correct substrate. The equipment manufacturer usually supplies the
colorant so the choice of paper is critical, particularly for the new inkjet machines. The best
quality and productivity will be produced from the correct combination of paper, colourant
and imaging system rather than looking at individual components.
Customer Many commercial printers report that poor understanding of the potential of digital print
understanding is a significant difficulty in developing sales of digital print. Proselytising is needed to
and acceptance develop the commercial digital print market. The offering is different to conventional
printing, and the key benefits of digital printing are for the marketing function of a client
rather than the standard print buyer. Commercial printers must recognise this and develop
strategies to reach the decision makers and present the benefits of a system sale rather
than the benefits of their organisation compared to other printers. The sales function has
to learn to move from competing on price to competing on capability of better serving the
needs of their customers.
6
Format of digital The use of a limited range of formats is a concern. High-quality, sheetfed colour is limited
printing devices to A3+, and one reason for the success of the 50cm web-fed Xeikon engine is its capability
to produce duplexed SRA2 posters and prints (with unlimited length restrictions). Many of
the potential sophisticated complex print products are outside the realm of digital presses.
Many conventional printers are used to printing large sheets and then cutting them down,
and would like to be able to mimic this ability on digital presses. As colour becomes more
prevalent, the ability to print bleeding images in larger format is useful. If this capability is
not available, the printer will continue to use conventional methods to accomplish the
desired result.
Personnel skills Using digital equipment requires a different range of skills and understanding by staff. This
includes management, sales, front-end (data) and administration as well as direct production
operators. Operators need to understand the mechanics of production as well as having the
prepress and computer literacy understanding to maximise the production throughput.
Individuals with the necessary production mentality and computer literacy are not common.
The skills required by salesmen are different to those used for selling
conventional printing; it is a benefit sell of a project rather than a unit cost comparison of
a traditional print job. It is as important for sales people to spot opportunities and develop
profitable business as it is to sell a service rather than a host of tiny value jobs. Successful
digital print operations will involve technical specialists consulting with the client to re-
engineer the supply chain to provide benefits for the client and printer.
Finishing for digital Many users criticise the lack of integrated finishing with colour print machines. The range
print applications of equipment is designed for conventional applications, and generally designed for long
runs of the same format rather than many small runs of varying format. Much progress has
been seen in developing integrated manufacturing in mono applications. More finishing
equipment is being introduced to support folding, trimming, collating, paper
cutting/delivery systems, creasing, stitching and perfect binding. Some engine suppliers
are working in partnership with finishing manufacturers to provide turnkey systems.
Print finishing and binding has long been the poor relation of the printing
industry. The next few years will see more automated approaches being used for labour-
intensive jobs, but the trick is to maintain product flexibility at the same time. The type of
automation that has been applied to litho presses is migrating into the finishing
department with collators, binders and folders offering automated set-up to reduce make-
ready, especially for repeat or same format jobs. This trend will be pushed by health and
safety concerns that lead unskilled labour to contract repetitive strain injuries from
handling high volumes of part finished products.
The most significant changes are taking place with materials handling systems
being integrated into digital printing systems. To be successful and provide fast
turnaround, digital printers will handle the finishing and mailing in-house. This will include
developments in the job ticket controlling the operation, or at least the set-up of folders,
collators, inserters, cutters and binding equipment. Such automatic flow lines significantly
increase capacity on guillotines and folders with reduced manning levels.
There are many differing requirements concerning finishing, and these determine
if finishing can be on or offline. The following are significant:
binding method perfect binding, sewn binding or booklets?
monochrome books or in combination with colour pages?
on-demand or simply short run?
cover lamination, varnish or as is?
getting the product right (a particularly important consideration if on-demand)
correct cover with content, correct size, sending to the right customer.
The range of on and offline finishing equipment is quite comprehensive but is often quite
restrictive in the formats. The range of operations dealt with by specialist equipment
includes the following:
perfect binding with separate cover
booklet making with separate cover, includes collation, saddle stitching and folding
three edge trimming
stackers
sheet rotation
book block banding.
There are many systems for mailing operations to cater for a variety of requirements and
volumes. These allow the digital press to have its web output fed into an inserter, together
with sheetfed flyers and inserts, to feed into a mailpack. Total integrity can be maintained
using appropriate systems. A major concern from use of dry toner printing is the effect of
moisture loss on paper after the heating during the fusing process. One solution is to re-
moisten the paper before it is finished. Weko offers a rotary dampening system, the RFDi,
that can replace lost moisture so reducing shrinkage and the tendency for post binding
waviness, static in subsequent conversion and reduction in curl.
Data handling/ There are many difficulties associated with the receipt of customer data. Successful
front end business employ the necessary skills for amalgamating graphics content with databases
to promote sophisticated variable data applications. The mainframe production printing
and graphic arts are merging and have lots to learn form each sector. The problems
associated with mixed platform (Mac, PC and Unix computers) driving a single printer
have long been solved.
Spot colour capability Many applications have to reproduce spot colours, e.g. packaging and corporate branded
materials. The latest seven-colour capable HP-Indigo machines offer exact matching to
Pantone colours with some metallics, opaque white and fluorescent colours. More of this
capability is necessary to further develop digital printing.
Getting special (non-process) colours right and maintaining them is seen as an
important issue for digital printing. The colour gamut available from inkjet and six/seven
6
colour stations is significantly wider than from four-colour process offset, which allows
closer matching to spot colours. It is up to the user to determine the limits of acceptable
colour matching.
Lack of The developing standard for the preparation, administration and printing of digital
standardisation documents is an important driver to increase the use of digital print. The number of
in digital print different data formats and proprietary streams stop easy change and improvement in the
final printed document. The experience with the rapid development of the PPML standard
for variable data jobs, which allows suitable files to be printed on any compatible device, is
an important step. As standardised files and job tickets, probably based on either PDF or
XML (or a yet to be developed hybrid), become more widely used, the Job Definition
Format (JDF) is the most likely standard to be adopted.
Cost issues of Digital printing has a different cost model to conventional printing. There is no separate
digital printing labour and material component in prepress as there is no platemaking, and the press set-
ups are largely eliminated. However, the data preparation and formatting must be
accounted for as each short-run job needs to be set up for printing. This data preparation
makes the fixed cost of digital print, as often presented by equipment suppliers, incorrect.
Both printing processes apply colourant to a substrate and the way that the costs
build up is as follows. Variable direct costs of paper and labour will be accounted for in a
similar manner. However, the machinery cost, consumables (ink/toner, imaging parts) and
treatment of necessary maintenance are treated differently. Digital printer vendors will supply
the print engine, data handling/server/RIP and network, paper transport, finishing,
maintenance as well as consumables. The ongoing relation lasts over the life of the investment
that may well change with upgrades and developments as technology matures. In
conventional printing, the press manufacturer or used equipment dealer would supply and
install the printing machine. Consumables are bought on the open market from the preferred
supplier and most maintenance handled internally. Parts may be bought from the press
manufacturer but they would become involved only in major repairs and overhauls. This
provides the conventional printer with a wide choice of competing suppliers. There is no similar
independent, well-established support network for digital printers. The systems are delicate
and many manufacturers will specify that branded consumables and spare parts should be
used or performance guarantees and support may not be available. Inkjet technology may
offer to break this situation as there are competing suppliers who offer different types of ink,
water-based, UV-curable and solvent-based inks for use in the inkjet equipment.
When buying a digital press, the buyer makes a contract with a supplier for the
capital cost of the equipment with installation and training, and will then agree to buy
consumables and maintenance from that supplier. In many cases, the vendor provides the
communications network, front-end application, personalisation software and server along
with the RIP. There are many contractual agreements available covering the capital and
running costs from outright purchase, off-balance sheet lease and total cost of ownership
cost per print. The three components that have to be taken care of from the supplier are:
capital cost and installation of the engine (including training)
consumables (toner and necessary replacement parts)
maintenance (guaranteed service response and regular servicing).
In the case of on-press DI technology, some suppliers provide specialist plate to use with
the machine, e.g. the Heidelberg Quickmaster DI plate cartridge, while other presses use
plates from the established independent plate supply channels. Some suppliers separate
the capital cost of the machine from a maintenance agreement and offer a tiered price for
consumables including ink/toner as well as items such as toner drums or inkjet heads. In
the case of valuable printing systems, the suppliers offer a range of purchase options
(capital purchase, lease or total cost of ownership) with particular benefits for cash flow
depending on the client requirements.
The model from all vendors is fundamentally the same. The base machine capital
cost, whether leased or financed differently, including front-end, paper handling, printing and
finishing options is one component. Then a fixed consumable cost per print or linear length
for web-fed devices (irrespective of web width or print width) is charged with a regular
maintenance cost applied according to usage. Finally, there will be a charge for toner based
on the average coverage involved. This represents a fixed monthly outgoing, irrespective of
the volume of print. So, for a guaranteed level of usage, the prints cost x and any additional
volumes are at a lower price, which means higher volumes through a press result in an
overall lower unit cost, x-y. This means that, in effect, the costs payable to the supplier
depend on the number of prints or length of paper printed over the period in question.
Conventional print processes have developed to provide economic reproduction
of many identical copies. It is expensive to generate the first copy (although developments
are helping to reduce these costs), but the cost of subsequent copies is low. These set-up
costs are amortised across the run length and the unit cost of production drops as the run
increases. The high initial cost is made up of the prepress activities of preparing, imposing
and making the plates and then the press make-ready, time and materials. Digital printing
has no separate platemaking and limited make-ready on press (to choose the right file
from the job queue and change to the correct paper and finishing options). This results in a
low set-up cost but the cost of each subsequent print does not vary no matter what the run
length. When the conventional and digital print processes are compared, there is a
crossover line where digital production becomes more economic than conventional.
Origination and The origination function is the creative and production processes that translate an idea or
prepress for digital concept into a file suitable for printing. The installation of digital printing provides a
printing challenge to the prepress departments of printing companies. As print run lengths drop
with digital print engines, there is a need for many more print-ready files from the prepress
area. This can cause a significant imbalance to conventional printers where a set of plates
might occupy a machine for an afternoon, and with digital printing that prepress work can
be consumed in a matter of minutes. Management must be aware of the changing
dynamic, plan for sufficient capacity and to recover the costs incurred. In the case of a
6
complex personalisation project, there may be many months of development and prepress
work necessary for a few minutes of production on a daily basis. It is necessary to
understand the value to the client and to develop appropriate commercial methods to
operate successfully.
For digital printing, the prepress will be totally digital with the printing almost an
extension of the prepress process. That is one reason for many prepress companies to invest
in digital printing to develop their services as the industry changes. Unlike conventional
printing presses, there are few controls on digital machines to adjust the printed result in
terms of content, position and colour on the run. It is essential that the optimised file is
served to the engine first time or unrecoverable costs will be incurred and time will be lost
as the prepress is corrected. This makes the smooth operation of origination critical to the
success of digital printing.
Origination and design Good design is critical to the success of all printed products, and there is no reason to put
up with poor design just because it is a very short run (perhaps a single personalised copy).
The purpose of the printed product will determine the sophistication of design. An in-house
document may be acceptable with low-resolution RGB images placed in boxes in a word
processing package but, if this is a promotional item for a prospective customer, there is no
substitute for high-quality images in well-set text with a clear page layout.
Conventional digital prepress is an expensive and time-consuming stage but
many developments are coming together to change this. Using sophisticated database
management and flexible templating, pages that have a good design can be constructed
automatically. The growing acceptance of PPML (personalised page mark-up language)
allows the RIPs of digital presses to process personalised data streams more efficiently.
Personalised print PPML is a standard that enables the data handling of variable data jobs by any compliant
mark-up language press. It allows any front-end to talk to any press, rather than having to use a turnkey
(PPML) solution from one supplier. This development will increase the use of variable data
applications making sophisticated projects more cost-effective and simpler to set up. The
reduction in the amount of data with more powerful computers will make it easier to print
sophisticated, effective, customised graphical documents economically on any printer.
Widespread acceptance of PPML will fuel the take-up of high-value sophisticated colour
digital printing.
Technology in Digital print technology has allowed print buyers and producers to respond to emerging
digital printing market demands more effectively than established commercial processes. There are
examples where digital printing may be more economic than conventional litho, or it might
provide a faster turnaround, and cases where the technology competes directly with
conventional and is a replacement. There are other examples where the technology allows
new capabilities such as personalisation, or producing short runs economically, enabling
incremental volume to be produced.
The printing engines have evolved and moved from devices that mimic
conventional presses to those that offer new applications. Many printers are tempted to
install the new technology they read about in journals or see at exhibitions and roadshows.
The correct investment decision is one of the most important facing any printing business,
and getting it wrong can jeopardise the company. Users are adopting digital printing for
one of two reasons:
To achieve what they do now more effectively
They are communicating with consumers in new ways.
If the technology does not offer benefits it will not replace conventional printing. It should
not be forgotten that conventional printing is also changing to improve its competitive
position, and the main benefits should therefore accrue to the user of print.
Digital print There are many technologies available to apply colourant to substrate and digitally print a
considerations document, book, newspaper, brochure, label or poster. All involve at least a three-stage
(often more) process encompassing:
receipt of data;
6
White copy
Make up
to page
Digital photo
Scan
Image library
Asset
management
database
Recipient
profile
database
Design rules
Automated
page make up
Personalisation
Proof (soft)
Prepare PPML
Prepare PDF
Prepare
PostScript
Trap/colour
management
PRINT
Rasterise/
screen
Finish/deliver
Approval
Preflight
check
OK
FIGURE 6.44 Typical prepress workflow for digital printing
processing data (imposing pages, colour management, RIPping files, sending
instructions to the imaging engine);
imaging onto the substrate.
Additionally, there may be a need to incorporate some finishing processes (cutting,
creasing, folding and binding) with the imaging into an integrated line that must be
controlled in tandem with printing. Digital print machines have to be able to receive files
from design, prepress and office applications, and then convert these into a commercially
acceptable product. In many respects, the operation of a digital press is more akin to an
extension of a prepress operation rather than a print manufacturing process. There tend to
be many low-value small quantity jobs (runs of one in the case of personalisation projects)
being produced rather than a few large jobs. This changes the balance between prepress
and printing for many conventional print businesses, so making workflow into the digital
operation difficult to manage.
The speed and capacity of the various systems on the market vary considerably from
a few A4 single-sided prints a minute up to 2500 full-colour duplexed pages on the highest
speed inkjet machines. The requirement for paper transport and control varies significantly
among the machines along with the capital cost and ultimate printed cost of the product.
The range of uses varies from slow home/office devices producing a few business
cards and general stationery through to office and workgroup devices with faster printing
and higher capacity to machines used as print production engines in commercial
companies and in-plant departments. There is a whole series of printers with speeds
ranging up to 2500 A4 ppm, capacity going up to millions of pages a week and format
that extends from web and sheet to ultra-wide (4m+) poster printers. Their capability
ranges from mono, spot-colour, process colour to a wide gamut photo-realistic capability,
and quality that ranges from low resolution mono laser and inkjet through to offset quality
colour. Costs range from less than 100 to 2.5 million. Conventional offset press
manufacturers have spotted a growing threat to their business and developed digital
hybrids of their presses, which can image their plates in situ on-press.
Categories of There are two types of digital printing:
digital printing on-press direct imaging (computer to press), where the plate is exposed to produce
short to medium runs of identical copies;
variable data printing, where a fresh image is formed for each print. Applications may be
for limited personalisation, totally variable production or for short runs of identical copies.
These are shown in Figure 6.45 below.
The technologies and suppliers are different as they attempt to develop
efficiencies. For commercial printing, the trend is increasing productivity (machines are
becoming larger and faster) with improved quality so that it is becoming harder to
differentiate between process colour lithography and digital print. As the productivity
increases, the unit cost of production has fallen so that digital is now the most effective
technology for many print jobs. This is almost a given for mono applications and there are
signs that this is also happening for many short run process colour applications. Figure
6.46 (page 280) is a map of the range of commercial systems available. This shows the
range of on-press imaging and variable data devices that are available or have been
demonstrated as potential systems, positioned as shown in Figure 6.47.
There are benefits and drawbacks associated with each type. This range makes
some form of digital printing appropriate for most print applications with the exception of
long run, high quality markets. Figure 6.47 (page 281) shows the relative positions of
available technologies expressed in terms of the print quality and speed.
As this figure suggests, there are systems available to produce a wide range of
qualities and quantities of print products. Digital printing represents a continuum of
devices with quality, format, capacity and speed options all well covered. The continuum is
broadening all the time.
6
DIGITAL CAPABILITY
S
Technical Dev elopment
S
Digital Developments
S
Digital Developments
S
S
S
DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY
DIGITAL CAPABILITY
S
DIGITAL CAPABILITY
S
DIGITAL CAPABILITY
S
DIGITAL CAPABILITY
S
DIGITAL CAPABILITY
S
S
S
S
S
D I G I T A L C A P A B I L I T Y
S
Short-run PoD
identical copies
Variable data print,
unique copies
Plate
Heidelberg Speedmaster 74DI HP-Indigo w3200
On-press direct imaging (DI): a plate master is
produced digitally on-press, multiple identical
copies are then printed
Variable digital printing: there is no master, each
print is uniquely imaged on demand, with variable
content (and layout) if required
FIGURE 6.45 Schematic of different types of digital printing
On-press imaging
On-press imaging or direct imaging (DI is a registered trademark of Presstek Inc. and
Heidelberg) presses are offset presses that incorporate plate imaging within the press
design. The plate technology for these presses is similar to that used in off-press computer-
to-plate systems, and the plates print multiple copies of the same non-variable image as
conventional offset litho printing. Files are sent from the prepress network direct to the
printing press, and all plates are then imaged simultaneously in register.
The key suppliers of imaging systems for DI are Presstek Inc and Creo. The plate
technology employed is laser ablation on polyester and aluminium plates that require no
separate processing. Pressteks Pearldry plate comprises aluminium or polyester base
coated with a thin layer of titanium dioxide with a top layer of ink-repellent silicone.
The concept is simple and depends on an ablation process. A powerful thermal
laser vaporises the topmost image-forming layers of a printing plate to expose the ink-
receptive base layer. The plate is imaged directly on press without chemicals or film. The
image areas of the plate are exposed under digital control by a thermal laser source. The
laser energy is absorbed by the titanium dioxide layer causing it to ablate (vaporise) and
Wifag 471
Addressing
Scitex Digital Print
Dijit Passport 4300
Cylinder imaging
MAN Roland
DICOweb
Offset litho
Creo SP
Plateless digital
offset
Digital
duplicator
Riso, Dupio
Agfa Litespeed
Asahi switchable
polymer plates
Low-res marking
Domino
Videojet
Scitex Digital
High-speed mono
VersaMark
High-speed colour
Vantage
Low-speed
high-res
proofers
Creo Iris
Epson Colourproof
HP
High-speed colour
Aprion, Xaar
Epson PL-1000
Dotrix the.factory
Mark Andy
Chromos
Mono sheet
DocuPrint 180
Digimaster 9150
Canon IR 85/110
Mono web
Oc VarioStream
IBM Infoprint 4100
DocuPrint 700/1000
Colour sheet
Xerox iGen 3
DocuPrint 6000
Nexpress 2100
Colour web
Xeikon
Nilpeter DL-3300
Colour sheet
HP-Indigo
1000/3000
Colour web
HP-Indigo
w-series
Electrocoagulation
Elcorsy Elco400
Magnetography
Nipson 7000,
8000 & Varypress
(was Xeikon)
Ion deposition
Delphax Imaggia
CR1300
Electrostatic
Oc CSP700
TonerJet
Array
Technologies
FIGURE 6.46 Technology map showing available digital printing systems
release the silicone from the base in these areas (Figure 6.48). The residual material left on
the plate from this process must be removed by cleaning cloths or rollers before the print
run can start. Imaging occurs with ink on the base material being repelled by the silicone
surface. For DI presses using wet litho printing, there are similar ablation plates from
Presstek, Agfa (Thermolite) and KPG (TNPP). The residual material left after imaging with
these plates is fine enough to be taken away by vacuum and the ink/dampening system of
the press, and a prolonged plate cleaning cycle is not necessary.
Heidelberg has led the market for DI presses since the launch in 1993 of the first
on-press imaging system, the GTO-DI. This developed into the Quickmaster DI that was a
specialist design and the Speedmaster 74DI, which incorporated imaging heads onto a
conventional press.
Other manufacturers, such as MAN Roland and Karat, have developed new
concepts with significant changes to traditional offset inking and control. The range of
competitive presses has increased. The direct cylinder imaging of MAN Rolands DICOweb
is also a commercial reality. On-press imaging is an area of significant development for
sheetfed offset press manufacturers attempting to increase the productivity of their
6
Rated print speed A4ppm
1 5 10 100 500 1000
Low
High
Medium
P
r
i
n
t

q
u
a
l
i
t
y
Thermal
transfer
Inkjet proofing
Desktop laser
and inkjet
On-press (DI) imaging:
Heidelberg, Karat,
Ryobi, Adast, Komori
Electrophotographic
colour: HP-Indigo, Xerox
Xeikon, Nexpress
Webfed mono:
Oc, IBM, Xerox
Magnetography
Electron beam
Inkjet marking: Domino, Marconi
High-speed
mono inkjet:
SDP
Wide-format inkjet:
Epson, Scitex, NUR
Sheetfed mono:
Xerox, Heidelberg
Colour inkjet:
Dotrix/Aprion
Colour
copiers
High-speed
colour inkjet: SDP
Elcorsy
FIGURE 6.47 Technology map showing relative position of digital printing processes
machines by automating the set-up and make-ready. The large number of these direct
imaging presses in production indicates the response to the development of digital
printing of the conventional press manufacturers. They are adapting their traditional
machines to compete rather than trying to create a whole new technology strand.
Manufacturers claim that DI offers the ability to make more jobs in less time and finish a
job more quickly. The process eliminates the manual production steps, labour and costs
associated with plate making so enabling printers to be more competitive in a market that
continually demands faster turnaround time, lower run lengths, lower costs with no
sacrifice of quality. A DI-enabled press can be a cost-effective method of printing process
colour jobs at run lengths from 500 to 25,000.
The claimed benefits in the DI concept include:
no cost is incurred with a stand-alone platesetter and particularly the attendant
operator
true offset quality and materials, some models allow spot-colour capability
no floor space requirement for platesetter
the ability to make more jobs in less time and through a job more quickly
seamless integration of plate imaging with press make-ready
images are in register without need for adjustment.
Thermal laser exposure
Titanium dioxide imaging layer
Oleophobic silicone surface layer
Ink-receptive plate base (coated aluminium or polyester)
Image
FIGURE 6.48 Mechanism of laser ablation for on-press plate imaging
These are offset against the weaknesses:
higher cost of the press due to the incorporation of the imaging heads
the press environment is less than ideal for laser imaging
breakdown in the imaging side means that expensive press time is also lost (not true
for all presses).
It is not clear what the future for this technology is. The current installed base is quite low
but it offers the potential of improving the position of litho printing. Creo Inc suggests that
plateless offset printing technology will boost the use of on-press imaging with its Digital
Offset Printing (DOP) technology. This plateless SP (spray polymer) coating system it is
developing involves a reusable substrate that is cleaned of the previous image, sprayed with
a lithographic coating, laser imaged and then printed in a normal manner. This technology
promises significant advantages for printers (although plate suppliers react with considerable
suspicion at the idea of reusable media). Agfa is also developing a thermal-sensitive no-
process coating (Litespeed). This will be sprayed on the plate or cylinder surface and imaged
with a thermal laser. Processing will be completed when non-image areas are removed by the
inking system. This is particularly interesting for DI presses and Komori has indicated support
for it, but the development is not yet a commercial product. Asahi Chemicals in Japan has
demonstrated a polymer-coated plate that is hydrophilic (water wetting) but it has the
capability to switch to being hydrophobic when imaged with an IR (830nm) laser. The
switching is achieved by incorporating microcapsules in the polymer. These burst when
exposed to the laser releasing chemicals that change the colour and the water wetting of the
polymer. If it can be perfected, it provides an ideal plate material for DI presses.
MAN Roland has a DI press using an erasable cylinder system, the DICOweb
(DIgital ChangeOver). The first installation was made at the end of 2001, and was a
commercial heatset web press printing up to 30,000 runs. The cycle involves ink and
previous image being removed using an erasing solution within an integral cleaning device
at the completion of the job. The cylinder is then ready for the next imaging process. The
new image (a polymer resin) is transferred to the plate sleeve from a donor ribbon by laser-
induced thermal transfer using a Creo thermal-imaging head shown in Figure 6.50 (page
284). When the imaging operation is finished, the material transferred is fixed and made
more durable by heat treatment. This is followed by a cylinder conditioning process to
6
FIGURE 6.49 Illustration of a Quickmaster DI printing press
Source: Heidelberg
enhance the hydrophilic nature of the non-image areas. Now the cylinder is ready for
printing by conventional wet offset. The image is claimed to be good for about 30,000
copies, and after that it can be removed and imaged again. The process can be repeated
about 200 times before it is necessary to replace the seamless steel sleeve.
Comparison between DI press and conventional print with CTP
A long-standing criticism of DI technology is of the need to buy multiple plate exposure units
as part of the DI press to run consecutively and then stand idle until the next job change. With
a relatively modern single CTP device, there is normally enough capacity to keep a number of
presses supplied with plates. If the press is relatively new, it will have automation aids to reduce
make-ready time with automatic plate loading, pre-setting of ink and water, adjustments to
paper size and side-lay position. Some printers do pay the premium for DI, but it is not solely an
economic argument although some runs will be cheaper with the use of on-press imaging.
TABLE 6.5 Cost comparison between conventional and DI printing
Speedmaster 74 Speedmaster 74DI
Investment 650,000 1m
Hourly recovery 100 150
Plate costs (0.3mm metal)
~
8m
2
(CTP)
~
10m
2
Employment 2 printers 1 printer, 1 assistant
Prepress (from imposition)
~
7 per plate (28) 0
4 plates 12.80 16
Press set-up 15 min (25) 15 min (37.50)
Costs for four-colour process 65.80 53.50
100 copies 66.8 55.00
500 copies 71.80 62.50
1,000 copies 81.80 77.50
5,000 copies 131.80 152.50
10,000 copies 231.80 302.50
FIGURE 6.50 Schematic of the DICOweb imaging process
Source: MAN Roland
De-imaging Imaging Conditioning
Figure 6.51 shows the relative costs (excluding paper and ink) of printing a process colour
job on the DI and conventional versions of the Speedmaster. The price benefit for DI
technology is gained by saving the prepress costs associated with offline platemaking. The
method of apportioning these costs differs across printers and the cost advantages will
differ. In this example, a computer-to-plate device costing 100,000 including processor is
used to make an average of 40 plates a day. One operator runs the equipment and is paid
20,000 pa. The equipment finance is some 40,000 pa with 10,000 for space/power,
1,000 a week working out to 5 a plate, labour is 2 a plate, a total of 7.
The crossover point in this example is about 1500 copies, but it varies according
to the specific economics of individual operations. If a cheaper DI machine, such as the
Karat74 were included, the hourly rate would be lower. Polyester plate costs are lower so
the crossover line would be at a higher run length.
The costs of data preparation, imposing and preparing plates for output are not
considered, and these do not change between on-press and offline imaging.
6
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Speedmaster 74DI Conventional Speedmaster 74
10,000 5,000 1,000 500 100 Set-up
Run length

s
t
e
r
l
i
n
g
FIGURE 6.51 Cost comparison for conventional and DI production
Printer duplicators
An interesting niche, halfway between on-press imaging and variable data printing, is
offered by the digital duplicator, which is available from Riso and Duplo. The machines
combine scanning and direct links to a digital original to produce a master, a special
material that has the image produced as an array of small holes. This is wrapped around a
drum and paper pressed against the surface squeezing ink through the voids. The quality is
limited but the technology offers economical production of low run lengths at speeds of
120ppm. The ink drum can be quickly changed to offer spot-colours but tight registration is
impractical. Duplicators are designed to bridge the gap between the variable data printer
for short runs where quality is not paramount.
Variable data printing technologies
The major technologies used commercially are electrophotography (laser printing) and
inkjet. These technologies are packaged into many commercial systems with alternative
front-ends (RIPs and servers), paper handling capabilities and finishing equipment. In
addition, there are several potential innovative alternatives with electron beam imaging (ion
deposition), magnetography, toner jet and elcography in various stages of development.
Electrophotography technology
Laser printing is the most widely used digital printing technology. The basis of the operation
developed from Carlsons original patents on xerography, through photocopying into digital
printing. The basis of the technology is to create a latent image of electrical charge that is
used to selectively attract toner, and then to pass the toner to the paper. At the heart of a laser
printer is a photo-receptive drum coated with a light-sensitive photoconductive material that
loses a positive charge when light falls on it. The surface of the drum is positively charged by a
corona and laser light is shone onto the surface through an array of rotating mirrors in a series
of adjacent scan lines as the drum rotates. The laser is modulated (switched on and off) by a
controller that uses the pattern of incident light to expose the photoconductive drum point by
point. The particular image pattern is a bitmap image created from the RIPped data file. This
creates a latent image of charge on the surface of the drum that rotates in front of oppositely
charged tiny magnetic colourant particles.
The dry toner is a fine powder made up of a mixture of coloured toner and
magnetisable carrier particles. HP-Indigos liquid electroInk comprises electrically
chargeable particles dispersed in a liquid. The latent image is then developed by
depositing toner particles onto the surface of the photoconductive drum. The developer
(toner + carrier) is attracted to a magnetic roller and forms a magnetic brush that applies
the toner to the image drum. Because the toner has a positive charge, it sticks to the
negative, discharged areas of the drum and not to the positively charged non-image area.
The more the drum is exposed, the more toner will be attracted to the drum. As the
imaging removes toner from the development unit, new toner is added to the developing
unit by an automatic toner dosing system.
With the toner pattern in position, the drum rolls over a sheet of paper that
moves along a belt underneath. The paper is negatively charged by a transfer corona that
is stronger than the negative charge of the electrostatic image, so the paper can pull the
toner powder away. By moving at the same speed as the drum, the paper picks up the
image pattern exactly. To keep the paper from clinging to the drum, it is discharged by
a corona after picking up the toner. This process is not 100% efficient, and some toner
remains on the drum and has to be removed by cleaning with a static pad or charged
rotating roller. Cleaning may be improved by using a pre-charge scorotron to charge toner
remaining on the drum and increase its attraction to the cleaning roller. After cleaning,
the drum surface passes under a discharge lamp. This bright light exposes the
photoreceptor surface erasing the electrical image. The drum surface then passes the
charge corona wire, which reapplies the positive charge. The process is shown
schematically below in Figure 6.52.
After transfer, the toner is still held on the paper only electrostatically and a final
fixing process is required. This may be heat, or heat and pressure to melt the toner and
fuse it into the fibres at the paper surface. Rollers will typically approach 200C, and the
high temperature is necessary to cause the toner to quickly melt. There are other methods
of fusing such as the use of solvent vapour or high-intensity flash.
6
Laser source
Mirror (rotating)
Corona charger
Discharge lamp
Cleaner
Transfer corona Discharge corona
High temperature and
pressure fuser
Finished print
Paper
Toner particles
Toner hopper
Developer drum
Laser beam sweeping
across imaging drum
Bitmap data
Rotating photoconductive drum
FIGURE 6.52 Schematic showing the mechanism of laser printing
The first colour systems simply married four direct imaging drums together to lay
down cyan, magenta, yellow, and black toner. Synchronising these steps reduced speed
and challenged registration resulting in slow machines and poor image quality.
Manufacturers developed indirect mechanisms of carrier and blanket transfer, individually
and with a shared transfer step, to improve speed and quality. The latest Xerox iGen3
machine uses a single integrated carrier and transfer blanket. These developments, shown
below, have allowed improvements in colour quality, while developments in paper handling
and image fixing improve productivity and product durability.
Manufacturers are attacking the physical limitations for very fast, high-resolution
electrophotographic engines. Lasers are limited in resolution and there are turbulence
effects of powder toners, which may limit their speed, while the need for fusing toner to
paper limits the range of substrates and may lead to curl and need for conditioning.
Colour systems
The high-quality colour market was opened up in 1993 with the launch of the first Xeikon
(Agfa Chromapress) and Indigo machines. Since then there has been a lot of expensive
development with Xerox and Heidelberg (through the NexPress venture with Kodak)
entering the market. Xerox has the highest number of machines installed with their
successful Docuprint 2000 series, which is primarily aimed at office and corporate markets
requiring relatively small quantities. Indigo was taken over by H-P in 2001 providing the
resources to compete with Xerox and Heidelberg. Xeikon still offers its systems but lacks
the depth of development capital that can be obtained by its competitors.
C
C
p
FIGURE 6.53 Schematic showing development of image transfer in colour toner laser
printers
Using the correct substrates and providing the origination has been optimised for
digital printing these machines can provide high-quality process-colour print, and certainly
at equivalent levels to good quality lithography.
Potential developments in toner based laser printing
Future developments in laser printing include new laser sources with laser diodes and edge
emitting blue lasers offering lower costs and better resolution. A potential drawback of laser
printing has been the toner technology, with turbulence effects limiting the potential speed
and the fused result showing uneven gloss and non-planographic surface. Recent
developments of emulsion aggregation, where toner particles are grown to a uniform size,
distribution and spherical shape may provide better quality and productivity while it is
cheaper to make than conventional toner. The claimed benefits are sharper images and text
because there are no large particles blurring edge definition and less toner will be needed as
smaller, more uniform particles will cover the sheet with a thinner toner layer with the same
visual result. Manufacturers claim reductions of up to 40%. Wax may be incorporated into
the toner to stop sticking to the surface of the fuser rollers without using fuser oil, which
might leave a residue on the print. This should reduce lost time spent cleaning the fuser.
Liquid toner electrophotography
HP-Indigo uses liquid toners, and its electroInk can be produced in a wide range of colours
allowing spot-colour printing. The basic imaging principles are the same as with dry toner,
but the toner construction is different. The toner pigment is suspended in an electrically
insulating fluid, typically a paraffin-like material, and is attracted out of suspension by the
charged image on the OPC drum. Since the toner is in a liquid, it is in some ways easier to
6
Imaging laser
OPC drum
Scorotron
Toner ink supply
Cleaning
wipers
Inking drum
Duplex
Sheet
delivery
Sheet
feeder
RIP
Heated
offset cylinder
Impression
cylinder
FIGURE 6.54 Schematic of the HP-Indigo printing mechanism
control. As a result, the particle size can be significantly less (12 microns) than in a dry
toner system providing the potential for higher resolution on paper.
Inkjet printing systems
Inkjet printing has existed for many years in a simple form, and it is the dominant home and
small office technology. High quality is achievable on photorealistic imaging and the
technology is widely used to generate graphic arts contract proofs on modestly priced
equipment. As the power and versatility of computers has increased higher quality images
could be created and then transferred to paper at very high speeds, facilitating inkjet
printing. With inkjet, the image is created directly on the substrate and this involves
movement of the substrate and/or inkjet head to image the area to be printed. The goal of
inkjet is to print text and colour images that rival the quality, speed and cost of conventional
lithographic processes while maintaining the advantages of variable data printers. A further
advantage is the capability of using spot-coloured inks for corporate applications.
The principle involves directing small droplets of ink from a nozzle onto the surface
to be printed. There are different methods of producing droplets but a common feature is the
control of droplet position on the substrate by their response to high frequency digital
electronic signals. Droplet formation involves the application of a controlled pressure on the
liquid ink in its reservoir as it flows into the printing nozzles so that it is broken into droplets.
This is achieved by applying various technologies. There are two major types of inkjet
technology: drop-on-demand and continuous stream printing. The technologies have moved
from simple, low-resolution alphanumeric code printing to fast, good quality colour printing.
Manufacturers have been attracted to inkjet technology because it offers very high speed,
low ink cost and is a one step, non-contact process. Inkjet print heads are used in fax
machines, wide-format printers and in digital proofing systems for high-quality reproductions.
As the imaging units get faster, they are being used in more high-volume applications.
The process is non-impact, only the jet of ink makes contact with the printing
surface. Inkjet can be used to print on any shape of texture or substrate, while most other
digital printing is limited to a narrow range of papers. The two categories of inkjet printing
are shown schematically in Figure 6.55 (overleaf).
Continuous jet inkjet is a system where an unbroken stream of ink is forced
through a narrow nozzle under pressure. The resulting high velocity breaks the ink stream
into droplets, and the size and frequency of droplets produced is determined by the surface
tension of the liquid ink, the pressure applied and the nozzle diameter. To ensure regularity
of size and spacing of droplet formation, a high frequency pulsating pressure is applied to
the ink. This is achieved by applying a high frequency alternating voltage (up to 1MHz) to
a piezoelectric crystal attached to the ink reservoir.
Controlled placement of the individual ink droplets is obtained by inducing an
electrostatic charge on them as they leave the nozzle. The charged droplets pass through a
set of like-charged plates, and these repel and deflect the droplets to the required position
on the substrate. The amount of deflection and the consequent positioning of the droplet
on the substrate are decided by the size of charge induced on the droplets as they leave the
nozzle. This in turn is controlled by the size of digital signal supplied to the charging plates
by the digital raster file input. The size of charge carried by a droplet depends on the
voltage supplied by the plates as it leaves the jet. The charge magnitudes on the plates are
set at predetermined values and have up to 32 levels of charge. A charge level of 0 would
allow the droplet to pass undeflected into the gutter and a charge level of 32 would cause
maximum deflection. In this way we define image and non-image and create one dimension
of the image matrix, the other is movement of the head or substrate. Single continuous jets
are extensively used for in-line coding, numbering and addressing systems where they are
capable of printing at web speeds up to 20m/sec or 100,000 articles an hour.
Alternative systems are used in multiple inkjet heads formed by an array of
closely spaced nozzles with each producing a stream of droplets. These have no variable
charge applied to the deflection plates. The image-forming droplets are not charged but
fly straight to the substrate while unwanted droplets are charged and deflected into the
gutter. The operation is therefore simpler than the single inkjet application, but the
precision of nozzle assembly is considerably more demanding.
Drop-on-demand, or impulse, printing differs from continuous in that the pressure
applied to the reservoir is not continuous. It is applied only when a droplet is needed in
response to digital electronic signals from the imaging computer. Since no deflection of
droplets is needed, guttering and re-circulation are not required, so simplifying the design
and construction of the printer. Translating the digital signal into a rapid change in
pressure is achieved by heating, or using a piezoelectric effect. As with continuous inkjet
it is possible and normal for these nozzles to be combined in an array.
6
FIGURE 6.55 Schematic of the two types of inkjet printing
Piezoelectric technology is growing in popularity for most forms of drop-on-
demand print head because it is one of the simplest ways to generate drops electronically.
The technology makes use of the piezoelectric effect, a phenomenon whereby small
electronic impulses are delivered to suitable crystalline materials causing them to expand.
When incorporated in the ink reservoir, the piezoelectric effect causes pressure pulses to be
created in the ink that relate to the data pulse train. Droplets are generated intermittently
according to the electronic signals received. A typical construction comprises an array of
nozzles, each with its own piezoelectric crystal.
Thermal inkjet or bubble jet technology, as shown by the Canon bubble jet
printer, uses a small heating element to create pressure droplets on demand in an ink
reservoir. A small quantity of ink present in each nozzle is heated by a resistive heating
element actuated by the digital data stream. The ink instantly flashes to vapour next to
the heat source and expands to create a bubble. This forces an equivalent volume of ink
droplet through the nozzle and onto the substrate. The heat is switched off, the vapour
cools and contracts and draws more ink out of the tank by capillary action. It is simple and
cheap to make, but the physics of evaporation and condensation put limits on speed. The
heat soak effect means that nozzles have to be placed a certain distance apart, and
complicating attempts to improve resolution. The high temperature that the ink must
withstand also places some restrictions on the ink formulation.
A hot melt or phase-change inkjet is similar in principle to bubble jet printing in
that an impulse heater is used to create droplets on demand. The difference is in the ink. It is
supplied in solid sticks with one for each printing colour. The stick is melted into a reservoir
where it is kept fluid by a heating element. The hot liquid ink is pumped through a nozzle
using thermal drop-on-demand technology. The ink solidifies on reaching the substrate and
because it is not substantially absorbed by the substrate, high colour saturation with a wide
colour gamut is achieved. An alternative approach has the inkjet heads creating a composite
image on a warm drum and the image is then transferred to the paper.
Continuous inkjet printing involves shooting a fine stream of ink that breaks into
predictable size droplets that can be individually deflected by an electrical current onto a
substrate. Controlled placement of droplets is obtained by charging them as they leave the
nozzle and passing through like-charged plates to repel and deflect the droplets to the
required position. The main advantages of continuous inkjet are extremely high speeds;
systems can run in excess of 1000fpm producing more than 4000 A4 pages a minute. They
have the ability to print in a wide range of physical environments and on many substrates
including irregularly shaped objects in packaging.
In both technologies it is normal for nozzles to be combined into an array
improving the speed of printing when they are controlled and stitched together.
The first inroad of inkjet into commercial printing was the wide range of large-
format printers used for one-off posters and signage, point of sale and vehicle livery.
Low-volume, high-quality machines have transformed the proofing market. It is only in the
last few years with on-press and stand alone colour systems from Kerning Digital and
Scitex Digital Printing, that the promise of inkjet is being realised in graphic arts
applications. The inkjet head technology has developed to a level where it can provide
solutions and these are gradually being developed into complete industrial systems.
Scitex Digital Printing introduced its high-speed binary continuous inkjet digital
printing system in 1999, the VersaMark family of products. These are capable of print
speeds of 2200 pages a minute with a print resolution up to 600dpi, and an operating
cost claimed to be below offset. SDP claims that the VersaMark offers the fastest printing
speeds and lowest imaging costs of any digital colour system on the market.
Wide format inkjet
Wide format inkjet machines are used for posters, vehicle livery, packaging, point of sale
and limited-run art prints. The technology is increasingly attacking short-run silk screen
markets with larger, faster machines appearing to produce on a variety of paper and
plastic substrates with fade and weather-resistant inks.
The quality in terms of resolution and colour gamut can be excellent, with ten-
colour devices not uncommon to match deep, vibrant colours. Wide format machines can
be fitted with laser, blade and diecutting peripherals so allowing in-line production of
irregular shapes such as envelope or packaging blanks to prepare personalised or
prototype mock-ups.
Novel printing systems As well as inkjet and laser printing, there are several innovative approaches that work
technically and offer interesting potential.
6
FIGURE 6.56 Schematic showing an array of inkjet heads
Electron beam imaging or ion deposition
Electron beam imaging, or ion deposition printing, has been developed by Delphax. For
some time the company was owned by Xerox, but in 2002 Check Technology acquired
the company and changed its name to Delphax. The technology is similar to
electrophotography with the major difference being that instead of charging a
photoconductive drum and then creating a latent image by exposing it to light, the
electrostatic image is formed directly using an ion or electron beam source that is
controlled by the digital computer output. The imaging drum is a more robust, hard
dielectric material that accepts the charge from a beam of electrons.
Delphax claims that electron beam imaging is more efficient than laser toner
allowing potentially faster, more robust engines to be produced.
Magnetography
In this application, the drum has a hard magnetic coating containing large numbers of
minute magnetic domains that can be aligned by the strong magnetic fields created in the
recording heads. In these printers, the information to be printed from the computer is
written with an array of tiny electromagnets. They are selectively energised to create a
latent magnetic image on the surface of the revolving drum. The magnetic write heads
perform the same function that the laser performs in electrophotography. During one drum
revolution, the image is developed, transferred to the substrate and then the drum is
erased to prepare it for the next image. This process enables extremely fast and reliable
continual printing that is ideal for high volume, variable text and on-demand applications.
The image is developed via exposure to magnetic toner particles, and the developed image
is then transferred and fused to paper.
2. Toner application
3A. Pressure fusing
Paper
Transfer drum
Erase rod/cleaning
Toner hopper
EBI print head
1. Image placement
4. Toner and charge
removal
3B. Radiant heat
or flash fusing
FIGURE 6.57 Direct electron beam imaging engine from Delphax
Source: Delphax Technologies
Electrocoagulation
Elcorsy is a Canadian company that operates in the photo-finishing market. The company
has a multi-colour printing device based on a technology called electrocoagulation. This
involves pigment being precipitated (coagulated) onto the surface of a metal drum in
response to electrical charges transferred from the print head. A doctor blade removes
excess liquid ink, and the remaining image is transferred onto the substrate.
Papers for digital printing
On conventional printing presses there is virtually no limit on the type of paper that can
be used. On digital presses, the paper impacts performance. Coated stocks are a serious
problem in electrographic printing because the paper has to hold an electrical charge. In
coated paper the clay used is an inert insulator so coated stocks don't always work well.
Moisture level affects the toner transfer efficiency. Too much moisture causes the paper to
leak charge and if it is too dry, the paper is too resistive and again does not accept toner
as designed. Manufacturers are reformulating many papers to accept toner, and some are
plastic-based using fillers that combine pulp and plastic to provide the feeling of coated
stock without having the problems of coated stock. Older digital printers were limited by
the weight of stock that they could handle but the new generation printers that use carrier
blankets can handle up to 400gsm card.
The issues to consider when deciding what paper to use are presentation (sheet
size and reel dimensions), properties (paper is an inherent part of the printing process in
digital printing, it is advisable to always use a properly accredited source), the packaging
of the paper to prevent moisture loss or uptake and the particular finishing requirements
to avoid scuffing, cracking and waviness.
6
FIGURE 6.58 Schematic of the magnetography printing process
Ideally a paper should be matched to a particular printer. In the case of dry
toners the sheet should be smooth and free from curl. It is difficult to make a fast sheetfed
machine, and the higher the speed the more likely that there will be jams. Operators are
needed to feed paper and clear the jams. Some days it runs fine, and others have problems
because of the paper being moved at high speed. The speed of the 200ppm screen device
is due to a twin-engine design, one for each side of the paper. Most sheetfed machines
print on one side of the paper, and then turn it over and run it through again. The second
pass uses paper that already has fused toner on it and there is a possibility of curl that can
cause a jam. Sheetfed machines have limitations on the speed of paper. The more toner
applied, the higher the likelihood of problems. Screen has bypassed that problem by
coming up with the two combined engines to get higher speed as a result.
Much work is being performed to produce specially coated papers and films
suitable for digital printing. The major press suppliers operate an approval system for
stocks (Pira International acts as an independent qualifier on behalf of the Xeikon web
press range) to test substrates for printability (image quality, fastness) and runnability
FIGURE 6.59 Elcography system
Source: Elcorsy Technology Inc.
properties. Particularly important is the effect of the substrate on the mechanism of
printing. A slight lint build up may be a slight annoyance for offset but will block inkjet
nozzles requiring expensive refurbishment of the head. It is important to consider the
impact of the stock on the operation of the press.
Other major concerns include the effects of fusing on drying out the sheets
causing cracking, and of the build up of static on sheets at delivery. As well as adversely
affecting the subsequent handling of the material, there is the concern of damaging the
press in some way. As the volume of paper converted increases there will be more problems
solving by the paper makers and press manufacturers to overcome these issues.
The Scitex Digital Print inkjet systems have particular requirements because of
the use of water-based ink that leads to paper-related strike through, dimensional
instability and subsequent ink marking. This is particularly acute for heavily inked duplex
jobs and needs the use of specially coated papers. Such papers are some two to four times
more expensive than standard grades, and are necessary to obtain consistently good
results while optimising print quality and runnability. Users test a range of papers from
many suppliers for suitability with their inks analysing performance and cost to select the
most appropriate paper.
In applications with heavy coverage, it is necessary to use graphics prepress and
colour skills to minimise ink coverage through under colour removal techniques to replace
neutral colour areas of CMY with black ink. This example is one of the few where
traditional prepress skills complement the data handling skills necessary for delivering
digital data streams. Because of the data format and offline RIPping before printing, there
is no possibility of adjusting colour at the production stage and the result is totally
independent of the operator. This means that the colour settings and control have to be
determined at the design stage of the job. Early inkjet jobs have required much
prototyping and testing, and as more experience is gleaned the quality obtainable has
improved. The best quality and productivity results will be produced from the correct
combination of paper, colourant and imaging system in tandem rather than looking at
individual components.
Die-stamping Die-stamping is the traditional method of producing a relief image on paper or board. Its
modern counterpart is thermography but, unlike that process, die-stamping is considered to
give a superior finish embossing both sides of the sheet. It also has the capability to be
used for multicolour images in close register. When used without printing ink (or blind) a
simple embossed logo can give a unique effect to notepaper.
The process
A steel die is made photographically, or by etching, engraving or manually. Methods of die-
production can be similar to letterpress blockmaking with the image intaglio and not in
relief (a female die). Separate dies are made for each colour required. In the die-stamping
press, the die is positioned face uppermost and the paper for printing is placed between
6
the die and its counterpart the male die made from card. Impression has the effect of
forcing the paper into the female die; the force impression being adjusted until the male
produces the finest detail from the female die. Inking of the die takes place before each
impression. Power presses are fitted with automatic feed and inking, and printed sheets
may be dried by an infrared unit. Blind embossing will normally be done on a cutting and
creasing platen.
Applications
The normal application of die-stamping is to produce prestige letterheads, paperback book
covers, packaging, note papers, envelopes, invitation cards, wedding stationery and
cartons. Multi-colour work using metallic foils are used by this process. The best paper and
board for die-stamping contain rag fibres, but it can produce a suitable finish on most
paper substrates.
Thermography Thermography is a cheaper alternative to die-stamping. It produces a raised image, usually
glossy, but without the embossed image on the reverse of the sheet.
The process
The thermographic print is produced by dusting a freshly printed image (in the required
colour) with a transparent thermosetting powder. The powder sticks to the wet ink and the
rest is removed (usually by vacuum). The sheet is passed under a heater, which softens the
powder and causes it to swell slightly to produce a relief image. High-gloss, semi-gloss and
matt finishes are available. The amount of relief given to the image can be adjusted by
selecting different size granules. The prints are normally produced by offset lithography.
Limitations
Hand dusting is the most common method used but is naturally slow and print runs are
limited. Automatic systems are faster when the thermographic unit is inline with the
printing press. Multi-colour thermography is in its infancy. Soft absorbent papers are not
recommended. Hard-sized papers and rag-based papers hold their colour better under heat
than papers containing wood pulp. This is especially true where large solids (which require
more heat) are included in the image. Cast-coated papers may distort under heat, but
relative success may be obtained with one-sided cast-coated board. Ivory and matt boards
are recommended. Considerable difficulty has been encountered with the use of
thermographed business stationery in laser printers where the heat softens the
thermosetting powder. There is much development around one-set resin powder for
thermography to overcome this problem.
Choosing the appropriate print process
There are many ways of producing a print job and each offers different costs, quality levels
and timescales. To the inexperienced buyer, there is a bewildering array of potential
printing processes offered by the market. Print salesmen promote their companys
capabilities to attract jobs and use capacity to earn a return on the high investment. But
the messages to buyers can be contradictory as they listen to some of the almost 100,000
printing companies across Europe giving them a different message.
There is no best printing method that will apply to all businesses and market
requirements. The inkjet technology used to print BT phone bills is not suitable for printing
Vogue magazine or packaging for Kelloggs cornflakes. Gravure or offset for your
catalogue? Litho or flexo for the carton? Silkscreen or offset for the credit card? Digital or
litho for the short-run brochure? Long or short grain? B1 or B2?
Buyers need to consider the capability, quality, run length, timescale and cost of
each process that will determine which one they choose (then they come to selecting the
supplier 250 business cards will not be a job for a large magazine house). This chapter
presents the choice of processes, and then looks at offset in a little more detail. This is
unlikely to provide definitive answers to the absolute selection of a process but is aimed to
be a guide providing some questions and issues to consider.
Project specification The initial stage of choosing the appropriate technology is to plan the project, and its
value will determine the amount of time to spend at this stage. The key considerations
include:
product specification (design, content, size, pagination, life-time, finishing)
cost (paid to supplier, internal and overall project)
quality (fitness for purpose, mono, spot, process, wide gamut)
run length (single run or many small runs with updates)
timescale (when needed).
The relative importance of each will vary for each project. For a financial analysts report,
the most important factor is to have the copy in the hands of the stockbroker at 8am. A
make-up advertisement insert must have flawless, high-quality printing for the models face
and the plastic packaging for bacon must have the correct air barrier properties.
Product specification The end product will determine which printing and binding combination is required, and
the specification will often disqualify many processes.
For point of sale on a thick board, silk-screen or wide format inkjet are the only
processes capable of providing the high saturation colours required. A two-piece metal can
be printed dry offset on a mandrill as part of the metal extrusion and coating process of
the can manufacturing line. A cheque that has to conform to document processing
specifications has to have water fugitive security inks in the background, and wet litho is
not suitable. Most printed products are not so self-determining; many magazines or books
7
The Print and Production Manual Choosing the appropriate print process
could be equally well printed through digital, offset or gravure technology and some books
still use flexography.
Cost The economics of the product will be the most important factor for most print buyers, and
a key element of decision making for others. It is important to consider the overall cost of
buying print, and not simply concentrate on the price paid to the supplier to comply with a
strategy of minimising the overall cost. This means that clients should look beyond the unit
cost of production and work to reduce the costs across the supply chain.
The following table shows the broad cost implications of the main processes.
TABLE 7.1 Cost implications of printing processes
Litho Flexo Gravure Digital
Image master Plates are relatively cheap High cost of plate material Cylinder production is very No image master needed
and quick to produce relative to litho, longer to expensive, long runs are (except for on-press DI
prepare and mount a flexo needed to defray high cost technology)
plate of cylinder
Run-on costs Low, but waste is generally Low, often in-line packaging Gravure run-on is lower than Highest unit cost of copy
higher than gravure from or envelopes to reduce litho with ability to print on production
ink/water balance issues. subsequent costs poorer quality paper
Sheetfed needs folding
Quality Excellent, capability of Lowest reproduction quality Some fuzziness of type, Latest machines approach
many colours and although continually excellent colour reproduction mono and process colour litho.
special effects improving. Good for spot even on poor quality paper Inkjet quality still limited at
colours high speed
Format flexibility Web offset has fixed cut Variable cylinder sizes Variable cylinder and short Totally variable, sheetfed
off and a plate gap causing provide optimum use for grain folding provides limited to A3+ (although
process waste. Totally web carton work maximum flexibility for larger formats have been
variable in sheetfed publication work announced.
Most suitable for Short (sheetfed) to long Envelopes, packaging Long publication runs, Ultra short run, fast
(web-fed) runs of most repeating packaging turnaround work,
printed products personalisation. Consider for
products needing regular
updates instead of a longer
single run
Quality Quality judges how fit the final product is for the purpose it is intended. For printed items,
this involves reproduction quality, materials, printability and binding characteristics, but there
is also quality of service, delivery performance against schedule to take into account. Much
print quality is a subjective assessment by the customer who asks: Is it what was wanted?
Different printing processes provide degrees of printability. Characteristics of
gloss, print contrast, colour saturation, resolution, consistency of solids, colour gamut, will
be largely determined by the printing process. Whatever the process, the buyer must
explain their requirements clearly to the supplier and maintain realistic expectations. The
use of analogue quality measurement systems allowed quantitative assessment of print
quality, and similar systems are being developed for the digital workflows that will aid
quality across all processes.
Files should be generated following specific, or industry, guidelines, and films
and proofs produced independently of the printer should comply with some form of
technical specification. Many printers issue technical standards based on how their presses
perform, which specify the form in which they require films to be supplied and proofed.
However, there are generic standards that have been produced for specific sectors
of the industry. As digital transmission of files replaces the provision of film separations,
the need for specification of colour separations for periodicals is being replaced by
guidelines for digital production, the pass4press from the PPA and FIPP (International
Federation of the Periodical Press) Practical Guide to Digital Production Learning to Fly
together with the emerging PDF/X standard.
For coldset newspapers, there is UK Offset Newspaper Specification (UKONS) in
the UK and Specifications for Non-heat Advertising Print (SNAP) in North America. The ISO
technical committee for graphic technology has been working to develop a common set of
technical specifications for the different processes. These are specified as follows under
standard ISO 12647 Process control for the manufacture of halftone colour separations,
proof and production prints:
Part 1 (1996) Parameters and measurement methods
Part 2 (1996) Offset lithographic processes
Part 3 (1998) Coldset offset lithography and letterpress on newsprint
Part 4 (under development) Gravure
Part 5 (2001) Screen printing
Part 6 (under development) Flexo Printing.
Run length The number of copies required is one of the most important selection criteria. The
economics of initial set-up are significant for all print processes (even digital) but the
subsequent running costs are relatively low, comprising materials, machinery and
production time. The make-ready must be amortised across the rest of the run so the longer
the run, the less important is make-ready.
The high cost of a gravure cylinder means it will be economic only for longer runs
while offset platemaking is fast and cheap providing more flexibility for short to medium
runs. Web printing uses more expensive machines than sheet, and wastes more paper so is
used for longer runs than sheetfed. Digital printing has no separate platemaking stage, so
it is most suitable for low runs and personalistion.
Timescale for In some cases, a need for immediate delivery means that the buyer will use whatever
delivery process has available capacity but, with suitable planning, the delivery time is less critical.
The shorter the time available for a job, the less choice there is for the buyer. The time
7
taken for printing, finishing and distribution depends on the processes uses. A faster
process generally means the job will take less time, but the time for prepress, work in hand
and the necessary stages must be considered.
The batch production nature of printing means that print companies have the
best chance of optimising their work if they have reasonable lead times. There is less
chance of batching similar jobs together and obtaining manufacturing efficiencies if jobs
are placed at short notice.
The speed of the process will determine the time of printing. The relative speed of
technologies ranges from the fastest, gravure, followed by web offset, flexo, sheetfed litho
and digital. In-line gravure and flexo solutions allow parallel processing, and sometimes
save the time of separate collation, folding and binding. Digital technology can allow a
short time for the first complete copy in a parallel process rather than the previously
necessary serial production of conventional printing. Digital printing has changed a lot of
the restraints of delivery times. The capability of printing a complete job on a variable data
digital press in one pass, instead of having to print different sections, means that initial
quantities may be ready quickly and allow the bulk run to be produced conventionally over
a longer time.
Influence of the The colour, smoothness, absorbency, substance and opacity of the substrate have a marked
substrate affect on the appearance of the final printed reproduction. White and smooth papers (e.g.
coated art papers and smooth cartridge papers) will produce good image detail, colour
saturation and range of tones.
Absorbent and rougher papers (e.g. matt cartridges, bonds, mechanical printings)
produce a more limited tone range and colour fidelity is reduced. Inks tend to print dirtier
than on coated papers because the light-scattering properties of the surface are different.
Rough papers require a coarser screen to avoid excessive dot gain, which limits the
fineness of detail that can be produced.
Colour separations should be made for the type of substrate to be used, which
reduces some of the effects of poorer quality papers but can never completely compensate.
The printing process and substrate together determine the range of tones that can be
produced. Table 7.2 below gives some typical figures, expressed in density units.
TABLE 7.2 Typical density ranges of substrate/process combinations
Paper type Litho Flexo Gravure
Coated 1.71.9 1.41.6 1.82.0
Uncoated 1.41.6 1.01.2 1.61.8
Newsprint 1.01.2 0.91.2 1.31.6
Plastic film 1.82.2 1.62.0
A dense range will give good colour saturation and detail throughout the tone range.
At lower density ranges, shadow detail will usually be sacrificed to preserve highlight
and mid-tone gradation, unless instructions to the contrary are given.
Showthrough from the other side of the sheet may be significant on some papers
and detract from the quality of a design. This applies particularly to periodical and
newspaper printing. Large areas of light uniform tones are best avoided.
Book printing Book printing is one of the markets that has embraced new technology, particularly digital
printing, to change the economics of production. The uniform nature of the product with
sections and cover makes books suited to digital printing, with short runs increasingly
being produced digitally.
TABLE 7.3 Which process: books
Digital Offset
Sheet Web Sheet Web
Run length Single copies available, From short to medium, Short to medium runs Medium to long runs. All
generally very short run in some cases long runs lengths for very high
pagination titles to minimise
gathering during binding
Format Non A4/A3 results in Totally variable cut off, Totally variable, large Fixed cut off and folder for
high paper waste width of press will format sheetfed machines particular format
determine the number of to minimise number of
pages printed across that sections in bindery
will affect costs
Make-up of book Mono, limited spot colour. Mono text sections or Mono, spot and full colour Mono text sections, some
Covers from colour book blocks with specials (metallics long run standard format
machines and DI and varnishing) colour
In-line processing Machines can be configured with in-line trimming and Separate folding and In-line folding, separate
binding lines. Book can be imposed and printed in one binding binding
pass, covers added and bound
Print-on-demand Changing the supply chain for book production and Book printers set up specialist systems to allow simple
distribution, allowing distributors and bookshops to ordering and reprints from customers, many also employ
produce single copies to order digital technology
Issues Publishers can reduce their print orders and maintain The industry suffers from large quantities of unsold books
authors in print. Competition from electronic e-books distributed to shops that tie up capital and have to be
re-pulped. Minimum print runs make it uneconomic to
keep titles in print
7
Magazine/catalogue printing
TABLE 7.4 Which process: magazines/catalogues
Sheetfed litho Web offset Gravure
Most versatile of the processes. Short runs of Coldset and heatset possible for mono and Gravure is best suited for long runs. Quality is
very high quality. Multi-colour capability full colour processes. Paginations from good on lower-quality paper than offset, and
with spot and extended process colour. 16pp to 96pp (twin web) possible. Fixed the variable cut-off allows low paper wastage.
Odd formats and special sections, covers cut off length (except for some stationery Folders are simple and allow in-line finishing
and throw-outs. applications) mean paper wastage is higher and stitching so save on separate binding.
on non-standard sizes, microgap and gapless Wide presses provide high pagination
designs reduce waste. Simple, low-cost signatures, so high pagination (126pp) to be
prepress for litho platemaking with set up finished and bound; so reducing gathering
linked to CIP4 data. Cover presses allow stations needed for high pagination products.
additional colours and coatings to be
printed with sheeters and folders providing
great product flexibility.
Eight to 12 unit perfecters allow single pass Complex newspaper presses can be used for Fastest printing process allows high runs to
production of sheets. Some machines have semi-commercial work, some have heatset be printed quickly reducing production
reel infeeds to take advantage of lower cost ovens on some newer presses. schedules. Prepress tends to be lengthier than
for web paper. for offset with cylinder preparation and set up
Maximum speed is about 15,000sph, less for variable cut off.
for larger than SRA1 format.
No significant heat assisted drying. Grain Typical paper surface temperatures are Ink drying is at lower temperature than offset
direction can be varied to make all finished 100140C during the drying process. This on a unit basis. This allows wet on dry printing
products long grain. dries the paper and causes waviness in the with good ink trapping. The paper does not dry
product as it takes up moisture unless out and so there is little waviness as paper
sophisticated remoistening is used. reabsorbs moisture.
Water-based coatings allow silk and semi- High gloss finishes possible from heatset Lower gloss than heatset, often cheaper grades
gloss finishes, UV drying provides high gloss often demanded by advertisers. of paper used to get equivalent quality.
and capability of spot varnishing in-line.
Grain direction can be varied to make all Short grain and long grain presses mean that Generally short grain folding allows very fast
finished products long grain. A3 and A5 products have different grain web speeds and in-folder finishing.
direction to A4 (or equivalents).
Huge choice of suppliers (about 6000 in UK). Wide choice of suppliers (maybe 100 in UK). Limited choice in UK, more in Europe.
Higher cost of sheetfed paper although set Reels lower cost than sheets, non-standard Lower quality of paper in comparison to offset
up waste can be reduced by re-use of waste sizes may increase lead-time for materials. for same print quality, less uniform surface
sheets. necessary.
Litho sheetfed There are many sheet and web production houses competing for work as technology
or web-fed? advances provide an ever-changing arena of competitive advantage. Assuming the priority
to be the best quality for the best price, the factors that will influence the choice of process
will be:
longer runs of the order of 20,000 copies or more will be better suited to web offset
sheetfed offers more print units for wider gamut of process colours and special effects
with in-line varnishing
the higher web-press speed, with its combined folding and finishing, will meet tight
deadlines better than the sheetfed press
the web press is better able to print on lower-weight papers than a sheetfed press, but
is restricted on the upper limit of paper grades
web presses offer only a limited range of standard trim sizes and folding options. Non-
standard sizes and finishing processes are better handled by sheetfed litho.
The production cycle, or length of time on machine, can be crucial in establishing the cost-
effectiveness of one process over the other. The web offset presses deliver perfected, folded
sections, ready for finishing in one pass at comparatively high running speeds. To do the same
job, sheetfed litho normally involves first printing all the sheets on one side, drying and then
printing on the reverse to back them up. Folding them is a separate operation. This situation
has now improved with the arrival of the eight-unit and above sheetfed perfecting presses.
Folding is still a separate operation, but it does enable the sheetfed printer to compete better
with the web printer, particularly for those run-lengths that are only just viable for web printing.
Sheetfed and web offset printing prices are not the same. Not only does the
separate cost of folding need to be added to the sheetfed price, but also the paper can be
a determining factor. Paper bought on the reel will be cheaper than the same paper
bought in sheets, but web offset paper wastage will certainly be higher and the value of
the paper that needs to be purchased has to enter the equation. High-volume sheetfed
presses can use cheaper web paper with a sheeter at in-feed.
Where price and delivery time are evenly matched, sheet offset printing can
sometimes offer more flexibility when either format or final pagination is not known until a
late stage, or when there is likely to be a need to reprint in small quantities. The question
of oddments in magazine or bookwork can be important. Oddments can normally be more
effectively printed sheetfed, either by using a smaller machine or by printing on a smaller
sheet size.
Long-grain or short- There are many configurations of web press, and the paginations per revolution and
grain web offset number of webs can be varied along with the orientation. Machines were developed to
lower the unit cost of manufacture. Presses have faster paper speeds, multiple webs and
wider machines to increase conversion rates. One way was to develop short-grain 32-page
(16pp to view) presses. Instead of aligning A4 pages around the cylinder in portrait format,
the pages are rotated by 90 to landscape orientation. Short-grain folders are generally
much simpler than long-grain, using a former design rather than chopper cylinders, so
allowing faster paper conversion. This results in a thinner, wider cylinder producing
sections with the grain running parallel to the head rather than the spine. A 32-page long-
grain press typically has a circumference of 1260mm (1248mm with microgap) and
maximum width of 945mm web width for A4. The short grain press has a circumference of
890mm (878mm with narrow gap) and a maximum width of 1300mm. The mechanics of
the press are similar to the conventional format with faster cylinder rotation and similar
paper speeds. At the same paper speed a short-grain press yields 40% more printed
sections than a long-grain machine. The investment cost is slightly higher for the larger
short-grain machine, the power consumption is higher but manning and other fixed costs
are the same as a long-grain machine.
7
There are now wider versions offering 48pp (96pp twin web) formats. Short grain
offers potential productivity benefits over long grain. It also provides flexibility in section
height by varying the width of the paper, and providing possible paper savings for some non-
standard formats assuming that the page width that does not change is suitable. It is widely
used for long run wire stitched products. In the case of perfect bound products, there may be
significant cockling as sections reabsorb moisture post drying unless a re-moistener is used.
Short grain presses can have gluing, stitching and trimming in-line in the folder to deliver
finished 32pp (and 64pp in the case of twin-web machines) magazines and brochures. Short
grain production should be considered for medium to high runs of wire-stitched products. The
drawbacks with short grain is the grain direction of the product leading to wave across the
product rather than parallel to the spine, and the need for wider reels than are used for the
commoner long grain production that can cause longer lead times for paper supply.
Strengths/weaknesses The great range of alternative processes that survive and prosper shows the way a mature
of alternative printing industry has diversified and specialised. There are no hard and fast rules defining printing
processes processes, and individual suppliers will provide different solutions according to their
commercial pressures and the potential opportunities they spot.
Quality and technical To get the best or even acceptable print quality, it is necessary to recognise the
process specifications characteristics of a process and bear these in mind when selecting one. In situations where
aspects of production or the product dictate the use of a particular process, it is desirable
to consider its characteristics when the job is at the design stage. There are in fact two
aspects to consider:
890 mm
cut off
32pp short grain press
1300 mm wide
Plate
1260 mm
cut off
32pp long grain press
945 mm wide
Plate
Plate lock up
Colour bars
Paper
direction
FIGURE 7.1 Difference between long grain and short grain web production
the inherent limitations of a process, which make it more or less suitable for certain
types of image reproduction;
the technical specifications for the process, which define the printing characteristics
and the prepress requirements.
Printing processes have different capabilities when it comes to coping with different
subjects, and these fall into the following categories:
type matter
fine lines
tone reproduction
solid areas of colour
process colour reproduction.
The limitations of any printing process should be considered before a design is created or
films produced.
Type matter Offset litho: Good, clear and sharp edges except for piling. Tiny type is legible, even
reversed out.
Flexography: Satisfactory if delicate type styles and those with fine serifs are avoided.
Small sizes that are reversed out are unlikely to work well.
Gravure: Edges are fuzzy with cell pattern noticeable, and small type is not so legible so
delicate type styles and those with fine serifs are avoided.
Screen: Edge definition is poor from coarser rulings; avoid small serif faces and reverse
out of heavy solids.
Digital printer: Good, electrophotography is similar to offset litho so long as resolution is
600dpi or above and type size is not too small. Inkjet is generally lower resolution and
there may be character spread on some absorbent stocks.
Fine lines Offset litho: Excellent reproduction.
Flexography: Ink squash and spread is likely to be apparent and fine lines may break
up and are best avoided.
Gravure: Fine lines tend to break up, avoid if possible.
Screen: Same as gravure, screen edge effects are noticeable.
Digital printer: Good, similar to offset litho from electrographic. Inkjet suffers from
lower resolution.
Tone reproduction Offset litho: Excellent, even on uncoated papers.
Flexography: Satisfactory, but difficult to produce good gradation in light tones and
smooth vignettes. Best with thin plates and UV ink systems.
Gravure: Good, but light tones will appear speckled if the paper is not well suited to
the process and shadow tones are frequently mottled in monochrome reproductions.
Screen: Generally poor and requires coarse screen rulings which can be acceptable if
view distance is great.
7
Laser printer: Good, although screen rulings and reproducible grey levels may be restricted
by the imaging resolution.
All processes: Suitable calibration and adjustment is required to allow for the increase in
tone transfer characteristics (dot gain) of the process.
Solid areas of colour Offset litho: Very good on all types of substrate.
Flexography: Very good, but can be poor if a compromise anilox specification is used in
order to print in combination fine tone values or text.
Gravure: Reasonably good but solids can appear mottled with some colours.
Screen: Excellent, high saturation possible, and ink surface may be like a paint surface.
Digital print: Can be good, but poor if unit is not well maintained. Early machines showed
significant banding problems that have been largely overcome.
Process colour Offset litho: Excellent on suitable paper and good results are also possible even on quite
reproduction poor uncoated papers.
Flexography: Good where platemaking and press conditions have been well adjusted for
process colour.
Gravure: Excellent on good paper and satisfactory on lower-quality papers if acceptably
smooth, but poor on unsuitable surface papers.
Screen: Not widely used for process colour because of the coarse screen rulings required,
which make it suitable only for products like posters.
Digital printer: Good, but screen rulings and reproducible grey levels may be restricted by
the imaging resolution particularly in inkjet.
The main strength of flexo lies in its simplicity and relatively low cost. It is
particularly suited for single colour and linework (solid areas of colour). Close
registration can be difficult on envelope machines, but allowances in prepress can give
improved results. Heavy ink coverage is possible but may lead to expansion and
deformation of the paper.
Flexo is a direct application of ink from the relief plate to the paper. This always
results in a degree of image squash. This is the identifier when examined under a linen
tester. Because of the non-planographic nature of the plates, flexo cannot hold the detail
available in lithography. Small dots cannot be printed and the resolution in flexo is limited
compared to litho. This results in a noticeable screen pattern at 80120lpi compared to the
achievable 175+lpi of litho.
TABLE 7.5 Comparison between major print processes
Flexo Litho Gravure Digital
Run lengths from a few hundred to many Used for runs between one copy to Generally longest runs for publication Generally low run lengths, personalised to
hundred thousand. With care plate millions of copies work, from 200,000 to 5m+. With low thousands. Inkjet and web mono work
cylinders may be reused many times with packaging regular reprints of short for longer runs
just parts of the plate replaced runs are cost-effective
Variable cut-off available by changing Heatset web has fixed cut-off and plate Cylinders can be replaced to provide Totally variable print depth on web
cylinders gap so may waste paper. Stationery low paper waste with no plate gap machines allowing efficient use of
presses can swap cylinder to provide material and ability to produce very
variable depth for forms. Sheetfed has long posters
many paper and board sizes allowing
best use of material
Stack press registration capability is Excellent multicolour registration Excellent multicolour registration. Electrophotography provides good
limited, better from common impression Wet on dry overprinting registration, some front to back issues
with colour duplexing that involves drying
out the sheet between imaging
Specialist prepress required for well Much software development for Digital workflows have been used for Straightforward to produce optimised
trapped files. Care when handling optimising production and quality. CTP many years for standard publications press ready files for variable data and
close or butt registered jobs provides high quality plates, with data with analogue engraving. Laser on-press imaging
For packaging the thickness of the to aid press set up and make-ready engraving now speeds up cylinder
plate has to be taken into account preparation even more
Plate material is expensive, some Low cost plates produced via CTP High cost of cylinder preparation Effectively no specific prepress costs after
applications just place portions of plates very quickly. preparation of file for printing, little make-
onto cylinders to reduce cost. Plate ready required. On-line finishing allows
processing is lengthy with drying of plates single pass production of saleable material
Relief plates result in image squash Clear, crisp text and dots from Very good tonal colour reproduction Limited range of formats and spot colours
planographic process. Doubling and with variable colour depth. May be some on high quality toner systems, text and
slurring are rectifiable faults haloing of dots and type linework may be jagged on lower resolution
devices and inkjet
Limited resolution of halftone screen, High frequency screens (175+lpi) show Limits on mechanical cylinder Commercial inkjet is limited in
frequency 80-120lpi, results in no patterning. FM screening eliminates engraving but no noticeable artefacts resolution, toner-based systems provide
noticeable dot patterning in images moir patterning excellent results
Minimum dot size provides limited Full tonal range is achievable Wide tonal range available across Excellent tonal range available from
quality in highlight reproduction and lower quality papers modern colour devices
filling in shadows
Matt result, use Pantone U colours Ink system can give high gloss with a Reasonable gloss levels, spot colours Toner based systems provide non-
(uncoated) sealer or overprint varnish, can match either pantone U or C planographic result with variable gloss
cleaner Pantone C (coated) colours according to coverage. Wide colour
gamut allows reasonable spot colour
matching but few real spot colours
available except for inkjet
Six colour machines very common Sheetfed machines with 12 units are Publication machines are four-colour Most digital is mono and process colour,
for multicolour work common, five colour web offset machines process, for packaging multiple spot inkjet offers pigmented spot colour
are available but most heatset is colours are common
four-colour process
Water-based inks may result in paper Few problems of paper expansion during Very stable paper stock, liquid inks Inkjet with water based inks may lead to
expansion printing; shrinkage during drying that will do not cause expansion paper expansion, marking and
cause rippling when the print absorbs strikethrough
moisture from the atmosphere unless
remoisteners are used
Limited colour saturation of inks Denser inks available than for flexo Widest range of density available Wide colour gamut available from inkjet,
from gravure inks toner based systems very close to litho.
HP-Indigo devices provide spot colour
mixing systems
Plate wear and damage can happen at Plate wear is rare and occurs very With good handling gravure cylinders Imaging drums and transfer blankets
any time, the printer must carefully gradually, replacement plates are are very hardwearing and can be re- are delicate and regular replacement
monitor image through the run cheap and quick to produce used many times in applications such is necessary
as long run packaging or wallpaper
Ink properties vary through the run, Ink more consistent, care to avoid Some viscosity adjustments are made Very consistent colour throughout the
will require viscosity monitoring piling is necessary, automatic washing automatically on the run run and across the sheet
and adjustment alleviates this
Plate plugging may cause problems Piling may cause problems Dot skip may be a problem Toner drum marking and inkjet nozzle
clogging
Many machines are integrated into Web-fed machines have folders, some Publication gravure presses have finishing Folding, slitting and stitching available
conversion lines for envelopes, extrusion finishing options of stitching and gluing in the folder, stitching, gluing and with on many machines both sheetfed and web
for flexible and barrier packaging, cartons electrostatic charge to aid flat folding
7
Economic comparison The costs of producing a printed product vary according to the chosen method of
between short-run production. A common choice will be for the production of a short run of colour leaflets or
colour litho, on-press brochures where relatively new digital printing (on-press imaging or variable data) is
(DI) and variable becoming a viable alternative to offset.
digital printing The costs associated are built up as follows. Variable direct costs of paper and
labour will be accounted for in a similar manner. Obviously there is no separate labour
and material component in prepress as there is no platemaking stage but there are costs of
data preparation and setting up the press that must be accounted for.
It is the machinery cost, consumables (ink/toner, imaging parts) and treatment
of necessary maintenance that are treated differently. Digital printer vendors will supply
the print engine, data handling/server/RIP and network, paper transport, finishing,
maintenance as well as consumables. The ongoing relation lasts over the life of the
investment that may well change with upgrades and developments as technology matures.
In conventional printing, the press supplier sells and installs the printing machine.
Consumables are bought on the open market from the preferred supplier and most
maintenance is handled internally. Parts may be bought from the press manufacturer but
they would become involved only in major repairs and overhauls. This provides the
conventional printer with a wide choice of competing suppliers. There is no similar
independent well-established support network for digital printers. The systems are delicate
and many manufacturers will specify that branded consumables and spare parts should be
used. If they are not, performance guarantees and support may not be available.
When buying a digital press, the buyer makes a contract with a supplier for the
capital cost of the equipment with installation and training, and will then enter an
agreement to buy consumables and maintenance from that supplier. In many cases, the
vendor provides the communications network, front-end application, personalisation
software and server together with the RIP. There are many contractual agreements
available covering the capital and running costs from outright purchase, off-balance sheet
lease and total cost of ownership cost per print. The three components that have to be
taken care of from the supplier are:
capital cost and installation of the engine (including training)
consumables (toner and necessary replacement parts) and
maintenance (guaranteed service response and regular servicing.
In the case of on-press DI technology some suppliers provide specialist plate to use with
the machine, e.g. the Heidelberg Quickmaster DI plate cartridge, while other presses use
plates from the established independent plate supply channels. Some suppliers separate
the capital cost of the machine from a maintenance agreement and offer a tiered price for
consumables including ink/toner as well as items such as toner drums or inkjet heads. In
the case of high value printing systems, the suppliers offer a range of purchase options
(capital purchase, lease or total cost of ownership) with particular benefits for cash flow
depending on the client requirements.
The model is fundamentally the same from all vendors. The base machine capital
cost, whether leased or financed differently, including front end, paper handling, printing
and finishing options is one component. Then a fixed consumable cost per print or linear
length for web-fed devices (irrespective of web width or print width) is charged with a
regular maintenance cost applied according to usage. Finally, there will be a charge for
toner based on the average coverage involved. This represents a fixed monthly outgoing,
irrespective of the volume of print. So, for a guaranteed level of usage the prints cost x, any
additional volume is at a lower price so higher volumes through a press result in an overall
lower unit cost, x-y. This means, in effect, that the costs payable to the supplier depend on
the number of prints or length of paper printed over the period in question.
Conventional print processes have developed to provide economic reproduction
of many identical copies. It is expensive to generate the first copy (although developments
are helping to reduce these costs), but the cost of any subsequent copies is low. These set-
up costs are amortised across the run length and, as the run increases, the unit cost of
production drops. The high initial cost is made up of the prepress activities of preparing,
imposing and making the plates and then the press make-ready, time and materials.
Digital printing has no separate platemaking and limited make-ready on press (to choose
the right file from the job queue and change to the correct paper and finishing options).
This results in a low set-up cost but the cost of each subsequent print does not vary no
matter what the run length. When the conventional and digital print processes are
compared, there is a crossover line, at the point where digital production becomes more
economic than conventional.
The table below shows how the costs of a print job, excluding the necessary
prepress component, compare between conventional offset, on-press DI printing and toner
digital printing.
TABLE 7.6 Unit costs of varying quantities of a colour print job
Run length Conventional DI Digital
1 75.01 25.02 5.10
10 7.51 2.52 0.60
100 0.76 0.27 0.15
500 0.16 0.07 0.11
2500 0.04 0.03 0.10
5000 0.025 0.024 0.101
7500 0.020 0.022 0.101
10,000 0.018 0.022 0.101
15,000 0.015 0.021 0.100
20,000 0.014 0.020 0.100
25,000 0.013 0.020 0.100
The press set up costs for a printing an A3 colour leaflet are nominally 75 (109) for
conventional printing (platemaking and make-ready), 25 for on-press direct imaging set
up and 5 for the digital press. Subsequent copy costs are set at 1p for conventional offset,
2.2p for DI and 10p for variable data digital. In operation the actual costs may vary but the
general comparison holds. This is shown below. Note the logarithmic scales.
7
The figure demonstrates that for short runs, variable digital printing is the most
cost-effective production method. At run lengths of up to 250 copies there is a crossover
and DI printing is the most economical; above 30004000, conventional printing is more
cost-effective. The figures involved are not selling prices; they are generic cost estimates for
conventional and digital print production. Within organisations the internal costs are
continually reviewed and refined to remain competitive and to reflect production efficiencies
as they occur. If this theoretical exercise were performed over a range of alternative print
products the result would be similar curves. The difference may not be so pronounced for
some mono products, and the crossover point may differ within different environments.
0
0.10
1.00
10.00
100.00
1 10 100 500 2,500 5,000 7,500 10,000 15,000 20,000
U
n
i
t

c
o
s
t
Digital Conventional DI Printing
25,000
FIGURE 7.2 Unit cost comparison of conventional offset, on-press DI and variable
digital print
Printing inks
Ink is the medium that transfers a pigmented image onto the substrate in a printing
process. Ink is a significant proportion of the cost of a printed job, often accounting for
510% of the cost of a finished job. Printing ink is a homogeneous mix of ingredients such
as liquid or paste. It is not a particular chemical compound but a colloidal suspension of
pigment in a varnish vehicle with other additives. The formula of ink is based on a coloured
pigment or extender that is finely dispersed in a resinous vehicle, and sometimes with a
drying agent present.
The ink is formulated to give the final print its required characteristics, to perform
well on the printing press involved and to be economic. Certain components have been
found to be potentially hazardous and have been phased out of formulations. Guidelines
on suspect materials are published and updated regularly in America by the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA), and the British Coatings Federation (BCF) in the UK.
Basic ink formulation Some of each of the following materials is present in nearly all inks:
pigment, the colouring agent
solids, usually resins, that form the binder for the pigment after the print is dry
(sometimes in conjunction with the liquids below)
liquids that make the ink fluid on the machine and may be involved in the drying
process (when combined with the resins it is referred to as the vehicle because it
carries the colour and other solids to the substrate)
additives are included in the formulation to modify press performance characteristics
or to meet end-use requirements.
TABLE 8.1 Typical contents of conventional oxidation drying sheetfed ink
Ingredient Analysis % (by weight)
Pigment Organic and inorganic colourants 1322%
Vehicle Comprising vegetable oil, alkyd and hard rosin ester 4575%
Solvent Petroleum distillate (mineral oil) or soya oil 1030%
Additives Rheological extenders 05%
Wax 010%
Dryers 03%
Anti-oxidant 01%
The bulk of the ingredients are mixed together and then dispersed in a specialist grinding
mill, which is normally a triple roll or a bead shot mill. The part formulation is tested and
then the rest of the components, normally liquid dryers and solvent, are added to make the
desired rheology. Specialist manufacturers produce a wide variety of inks formulated for
their customers' processes and particular requirements. Ink users specify ink by
performance characteristics and for the particular end-use print requirement.
8
The Print and Production Manual Printing inks
Pigments Pigments are obtained from a variety of organic and inorganic sources. The most common
pigment is carbon-black (soot), which is used for black inks. It is manufactured by burning
mineral oil with a restricted air supply. Other pigments are much more difficult and
expensive to manufacture or refine and can be very varied chemically. As a consequence of
this, inks of different colours can require chemical adjustments to the vehicle and
additives. The result of this is that inks of different colours do not behave identically on the
printing press or when drying. Their permanent characteristics may also differ.
Additionally, there is considerable price variation between colours, and some cost
up to four times as much as the others for the same volume.
Vehicle The vehicle, or varnish, will consist of oils, resins or alkyds. All litho and most letterpress
inks are oil-based. Screen, gravure and flexographic inks are resin-based, but use a solvent
that acts as a volatile carrier for the vehicle and, in turn, holds the pigment. There is
research, due to environmental considerations, into using water as the solvent, but at
present this is restricted to printing, both by gravure and flexography, on paper substrates
and products such as sweet wrappers. For each process, different vehicle formulations are
available offering particular features to suit different requirements. These are mostly used
to meet the technical needs of the printer, but sometimes they are relevant to the end user
who might want characteristics such as non-tainting formulations for food packaging.
Additives Additives will include dryers, anti-oxidants, extenders, fillers and slip agents. The ink
manufacturer will add those additives anticipated to meet most requirements, but printers
often mix in other additives to obtain characteristics to meet particular or unusual
requirements. The most common additives are the following:
Dryers
Different mixtures are formulated depending on the printing process used, substrate, speed of
drying, additional production processes and the end use. Paradoxically, excessive addition of
drying additives can slow, or prevent, satisfactory drying. Additionally, with the litho process,
excessive dryers can react with fount solution chemicals and cause printing problems.
Extenders
Extenders are inorganic substances that increase the area covered by the pigment and
improve transfer. Materials include whiting, barytes, aluminium hydrate, blanc fixe.
Distillates
These are high-boiling hydrocarbons that alter the rheological characteristics of an ink to
enable it to flow more freely.
Anti-oxidants
These modify the open-time of the ink on the press and the subsequent drying on the substrate.
Waxes
These are used mainly in packaging grade inks to improve the slip and scuff resistance of
the finished sheets. On no account should inks with wax additives be used when sheets are
to be varnished or laminated subsequently.
Printing process All of the traditional printing methods use inks that need to be fluid on the printing
requirements machine but become solid when on the print. Each process also requires specific qualities
and properties that are appropriate to its individual needs.
Offset lithography Offset litho inks are relatively viscous with high tack for good transfer, and a high pigment
concentration. This is needed because the printed ink film thickness in offset litho is much
less than in other processes. The ink film thickness of dry litho ink is not normally more
than two microns. Conventional lithographic inks must be oil-based to enable the
planographic process to work, and the inks must function and print well in combination
with the fount solution. The fount solution must be able to emulsify with the ink, but not
excessively, and this should not hamper the performance of the ink. To avoid drying on the
roller system, the inks must not contain readily evaporating liquids.
Gravure Liquid ink is needed to enable the thousands of minute cells of the gravure cylinders to
readily transfer ink and replenish with ink. Gravure ink is often supplied at a higher
viscosity than is required on the press, and the viscosity is reduced with additional solvent
before printing. Gravure deposits a greater ink film thickness on the substrate compared
with offset litho, and is similar to that for letterpress. The small, enclosed ink system
enables relatively volatile materials to be used in these inks.
Flexography In flexography, a liquid ink is required that is similar to gravure ink but is generally thinner
(and specially formulated not to attack the soft rubber or polymer plates used). Inks will be
solvent, or increasingly water based, with increasing amounts of UV curing systems. These
use low-viscosity acrylate monomers to provide the necessary liquid condition.
Screen Screen inks are usually semi-liquid with good flow characteristics to allow for free passage
through the screen/stencil apertures. Consistency can vary from gel inks with thixotropic
properties to the longer-gloss finish inks. They are not usually supplied in a press-ready
condition and require reducing with an appropriate thinner to provide the correct viscosity
for printing. The range of inks available is large. One major supplier lists more than 50
different types, which reflects the diversity of the process. Inks can be formulated to
provide specific properties related to the application.
Digital printing Variable data digital printing uses two major technologies: toner and inkjet. Dry toner
system comprises a mixture of pigmented toner and magnetisable carrier particles while
liquid toner from HP-Indigo comprises electrically chargeable particles dispersed in a liquid.
8
Developments of emulsion aggregation, where toner particles are grown to a uniform size
distribution and spherical shape, may provide better quality and productivity while it is
cheaper to make than conventional toner. The claimed benefits are sharper details, as there
are no large particles blurring edge definition, while less toner will be needed as smaller, but
more uniform particles, will cover the sheet with a thinner toner layer and still get the same
visual result. Wax may be incorporated into the toner to stop sticking to the surface of the
fuser rollers without using fuser oil, which may leave a residue on the print.
HP-Indigos electroInk comprises toner pigment that is suspended in an
electrically insulating fluid. Since the toner is in a liquid, it is in some ways easier to control
than a dry powder. As a result, the particle size can be significantly less (12 microns) than
in a dry toner system giving the potential for higher resolution on paper. The wide range of
inks now available for the Indigo presses appears to indicate that the toners for these inks
may be easier to manufacture and produce a wider range of pigments.
Inkjet inks use soluble dyes in water or solvents and care is needed to avoid drying up and
clogging the nozzles. Pigmented systems are now in use with fine dispersions allowing
more lightfast and resistant print to be available along with 100% UV curing formulations.
Ink drying The basic drying methods are chemical (polymerisation) and physical (the deposition of a
mechanisms dry film by solvent removal). Almost all drying mechanisms are based in some way on
these either singly or in combination. The choice is to a large extent dictated by the
printing process and the need to maintain press stability on the one hand, and adequate
drying on the other.
Chemical drying Oxidation
methods Oxidation is the chief way by which sheetfed offset and letterpress inks dry. The ink
vehicle takes oxygen from the air in a chemical reaction that causes it to harden
(polymerise), and binding the pigment with it. The reaction is slow and it takes several
hours to achieve a rub-proof ink film.
Polymerisation heat assisted
The oxidation polymerisation process can be speeded up by heat, and IR driers are used on
sheetfed offset presses for this purpose. There are also two component ink formulations
that are designed for this method of drying.
Polymerisation UV assisted
Ultraviolet curing inks and clear varnishes contain a photoinitiator and use ultraviolet light
to cause almost instantaneous polymerisation. These ink systems can be used only with
specially equipped printing presses. The method is commonly used in sheetfed offset litho
and is becoming more widely used in screen and flexography. The dry ink film is hard,
scuff-resistant and is favoured for packaging applications.
Polymerisation electron beam assisted
Electron beam curing uses similar ink formulations to those of UV but it is bombardment
with electrons that initiates the curing mechanism. The capital cost of drying equipment is
high but it is being accepted more widely, particular in web carton printing.
Physical drying Penetration (or absorption)
methods In the simplest form of penetration drying, the ink does not become solid but is taken into
the pores of the paper. This achieves a dry print but it is not rub-proof, and it is only
possible on absorbent papers. The method is used mainly for newspaper printing by
letterpress and web offset litho where it is referred to as coldset.
Quick-setting
Penetration is the first stage of quick-set drying inks. The second stage is oxidation. Quick-
setting inks contain two oil components: a thick resinous/drying one and a thin one. They
are blended to be stable on the press and in the tin. When printed onto coated papers, the
thin phase is quickly drawn into the fine pores and the resinous portion is left set on the
surface. This finally dries by oxidation. Quick-setting inks are widely used in sheetfed offset
and letterpress. High-intensity short wave IR drying units are often used to accelerate both
the penetration and oxidation process on sheetfed presses.
Evaporation
Solvent removal by evaporation is used in gravure, flexo and screen. As there is only limited
opportunity for evaporation on the press, compared with litho and letterpress, fast-
evaporating solvents can be used. In inks formulated to dry by evaporation, the solvent is
evaporated away either naturally or using high temperatures to leave a resin film that sets,
or polymerises, on the substrate and binds with the pigment. Web offset heatset inks dry by
evaporation, but also by oxidation. The solvents have to evaporate more slowly to avoid
drying on the litho inking system. Evaporation takes place at a higher temperature, and this
requires significantly greater amounts of energy than is required for flexo and gravure inks.
Precipitation
This method relies on the fact that some liquids are liquid only in certain circumstances.
The main examples of this are vehicle systems that exist and remain stable only while the
system is alkaline. As the water evaporates and/or the system is neutralised by the paper,
the resin bonds the pigment on the paper surface. This method of drying is mainly used by
flexography.
Particular properties may be required either to meet the technical requirements
of the printing process or press. There may also be particular features of the graphic design
or requirements of the end user that may require modifications to the ink. It is vital that
the end user explains to the printer any special features that are required otherwise the
inks used may ultimately be unsuitable.
8
Specific ink properties Special characteristics that might be required by the process or printer could include:
ink colours for wet-on-wet printing may be tack graded to ensure that there is good
transfer when one ink overprints a different colour ink as it passes through a
multicolour press;
inks that will dry well on the stock to be used. For instance, cartridge, art and cast-
coated stocks require different ink formulations (although the addition of special
dryers may often be adequate);
inks that will dry hard enough to resist scuffing in subsequent operations, such as
folding and binding. Matt-coated papers and boards have a deceptively abrasive
surface, particularly when calcium carbonate has been used extensively in the coating
mix. Elimination of scuffing problems can never be guaranteed;
special inks that will give optimum results with fine screen halftones or FM screening;
special inks that will produce particularly dense solid areas. The requirements of an
ink for halftones and for solids are different: solids and halftones in the same forme
should ideally be printed as separate impressions. In high-quality process colour work,
this difficulty is sometimes overcome for black solids by printing a tint of the cyan in
register to increase the density of the black;
special inks that are compatible with subsequent varnishing or film lamination. Some
colours give few problems, but others either bleed, change hue or mottle. Purples and
reflex blues are perhaps the most susceptible, and tests should always be made to be
certain of avoiding problems. In particular, wax additives (which are used frequently
in carton work) should never be added to inks that are to be subsequently varnished
or laminated.
Often the end users requirements will be the same as the printers. For example,
the end user may also want good scuff resistance so that a carton or the cover of a
brochure does not easily get scratched in use.
Additional special characteristics include:
particular colour hues. These are best specified by referring to one of the internationally
recognised colour matching systems such as Pantone. The process colours are specified
by ISO for the litho process. It should be noted that ink colour varies considerably
depending on the paper used with coated papers giving rise to less variation than
uncoated papers. Additionally, metamerism can be a problem. This is a phenomenon
where colours can shift considerably in hue under different lighting. Ink manufacturers
try to minimise this characteristic by an appropriate choice of nonmetameric pigments.
When colour requirements are critical, it is sensible to match ink colour under the same
lighting conditions as will eventually be experienced rather than under printers
standard lighting. Supermarkets frequently have their packaging colour-matched under
lighting conditions the same as in the stores. Where inks must match under a wide
range of lighting conditions, it may be necessary to consult the ink manufacturer.
Manufacturers have a wide range of non-standard pigments available, but these may
be more expensive than the standard range or less satisfactory in other respects;
different tones of black are available. Most usually, neutral-toned or blue-toned blacks
are used, but others such as brown-toned and bronze-toned are available. Pantone
does a special black that is neutral-toned and of the correct pigmentation to give the
anticipated result when used in a colour-mixing formula;
high-gloss or matt finishes. Inks are available that cover the full range of finishes.
Those at the extremes generally have other disadvantages and are not so easy for the
printer to use. Consequently, the printer may make an additional charge for their use
to take this into account as well as to recover their higher cost. When printing special
colours, additional charges may also be made for the same reasons and also because
the ink consumption of some colours may be higher than average due to the differing
specific gravity of each colour;
any printed item that is liable to be exposed to direct sunlight or other ultraviolet
radiation should have lightfast inks specified. Lightfastness is measured on the blue
wool scale of which eight is the highest for printing inks. The minimum level for
exposure to daylight for a few days is six. Cyan and black are usually at least this, but
magenta and yellow may not be. Most ink manufacturers offer a colour set of greater
lightfastness;
food grade inks may be required for certain packaging or insert leaflets to avoid
contamination by toxins or odour;
resistance to finger marking may be needed. Some ink colours (such as reflex blue)
react particularly strongly to finger moisture and grease, and so are best avoided for
covers and for packaging. In all cases, varnishing or lamination will considerably help
the maintenance of unspoiled work;
specialist inks such as fluorescents and metallics are available for most processes.
Note, however, that a key colour or primer frequently needs to be underprinted to
achieve a satisfactory result (in much the same way as a tint of cyan is often printed
under a black solid). That means allowance may have to be made for an additional
print working when using such inks.
Health and safety All inks and printing mediums must conform to UK and EC health and safety regulations.
They must be clearly labelled, and any hazardous substances contained in them must be
indicated on the label. Inks used for printing childrens clothes and toys must conform to
the United Kingdom Toy (Safety) Regulations 1974. Product liability legislation is also
relevant in this context, especially with regard to packaging.
Possibly the most significant emphasis is now on environmental considerations.
The Environmental Protection Act is one instrument affecting the printer but increasing
pressure is coming from new and impending EC legislation. Both printers and publishers
need to be aware of the listings of many hazardous substances (including inks and some
chemicals used in printing) that must not be discharged into rivers or sewers. It is wise to
assume that most of the inks and chemicals used in printing or prepress departments
should not be discharged into public waterways.
8
Printers criteria for Printers will categorise ink according to the following criteria:
ink selection Ink type. Which printing process is involved, e.g. gravure, silk screen, UV curing,
flexography, heatset, coldset, offset lithography, waterless offset, letterpress? Each
process requires different ink in terms of pigmentation, viscosity and vehicle formulation.
Ink drying mechanism. How does the wet printed ink form the permanent film on the
substrate surface? In some cases the ink does not chemically dry, and in coldset
lithography the ink is absorbed into the paper surface and typically shows low rub
resistance. A more sophisticated method involves a physical separation process where
low viscosity ingredients are absorbed into the paper causing a crystallisation effect of
the rest of the ink formula as it sets. This setting may be speeded up by exposure to
infrared radiation. In heatset and some metal printing, the low viscosity mineral oil
component is driven out of the ink by heating the print in an oven. Much sheetfed ink
dries by a conventional oxidation chemical reaction over quite long time spans.
Instant ink drying is available when radiation curing ink systems are used, using
either ultraviolet or electron beam radiation. Cross-linking ink systems have been
developed for the new generation of Indigo digital offset presses.
Colour. The shade of an ink is probably its most important property after cost. The hue
is compared with a colour sample or to defined colorimetric values and strength, the
pigmentation and transfer characteristics on press. Standard four-colour process inks
may be specified to match international standards such as BS 4666 or DIN/16538-9.
Spot colours may be specified to match an accepted colour communication system such as
Pantone, and allowing final colours to be accurately determined by the graphic designer.
Alternatively the client may supply a coloured sample for the ink supplier to match, and
provide laboratory prints on a particular paper or substrate for the client to approve.
Mileage. Ink mileage is a measure of the amount of print per unit quantity of ink.
Purchase price is a poor determinant of value for printing ink, and more expensive ink
will often provide better value. If the ink has a higher pigment loading and good
transfer characteristics, the desired colour may be achieved from a lower film weight.
This means that the ink will produce more copies. Ink should always be costed as price
per 1000 sheets of printed work rather than a price per weight or volume.
It is relatively straightforward to compare the mileage of alternative spot colour
inks of the same shade on press by working out the number of sheets per unit weight
of special colour. It is more difficult to accurately measure the mileage of a process ink
in publication work. Here the pages continually change between sections and ink is
often pumped to the duct automatically from a central store.
Performance on press. The ink industry is competitive and suppliers spend much time
and money improving the performance of inks. There should be no cases where ink
performance significantly reduces the press productivity by slowing running speed or
causing repeated press stops. If this does occur, the first reaction should be to clean
the press and dampening system and check the mechanical order. If a problem
persists, contact the ink supplier or try an alternative manufacturers product.
Environmental criteria. Some inks are formulated to minimise their impact on the
environment. This may involve replacing mineral oils with a renewable source such as
vegetable oils, or reducing the solvent levels to reduce emissions, and creating water-
based inks for flexography or gravure.
Designing ink to perform well on press without the need for potentially damaging
press chemicals and cleaners might also provide benefits. Much of the offset industry
would like to run with no isopropyl alcohol in the dampening, and reducing the use of
cleaning solvents will lower cost and improve the environmental performance.
Ink packaging should be designed to minimise waste. Bulk supply of inks and
varnish may be pumped into holding tanks at the printer or in reusable containers.
Small quantities should be provided in recyclable (after cleaning) containers, which are
designed to minimise waste at the printers. Conventional oxidation drying ink should
be sprayed with anti-oxidant and packed in vacuum-sealed tins rather than having a
paper or plastic skin across the surface. These skins are classed as special waste.
Final print properties. Most applications demand that the final print must show some
special properties. There are many British and International Standard Test Methods to
determine the printed ink performance properties. These include:
Print gloss
Degree of lightfastness (BS1006 or ISO 787/15)
Degree of heatfastness
Suitability for subsequent laser printing
Rub resistance (BS 3110)
Slip
Low mar properties, resistance to finger marking
Physical degradation (BS4321)
Water/soap/alkali/oil and grease/chemical resistance (BS 4321/BS560)
Suitability for subsequent lamination or varnishing
Odour and taint (BS3755)
Print to not be organoleptic in food packaging
Permanent record
Security applications
Release properties
Heat seal resistance
Adhesion to substrate, scuff, scratch and peel resistance
Flexibility (elasticity and plasticity)
Photochromic or thermochromic properties
Opacity
Glueability (hotmelt or PVA adhesives)
Suitability for blister packaging
Suitability for deep freezing
Conformity to Toys (Safety) Regulations (BS 5665 pt3, EN 71 pt3)
Recyclability and deinkability.
8
The printer must notify the final requirements to the ink maker who will ensure the correct
formulation. In many cases, a sample print may be necessary for the final user to test.
Ink manufacture Ink makers rigorously control their ingredients and manufacturing to produce a stable,
controls consistent product. Many are accredited to ISO9000 and there should not be significant
variation between batches of ink within limits agreed with the printer. The available test
methods characterise many ink properties in a laboratory but may not directly correlate to
press performance. During the formulation and manufacture of paste inks, inkmakers will
test the key ink properties of:
Shade and strength
The pigments used in ink are the most expensive raw materials involved. Using modern
spectroscopy-based colour match prediction systems, the ink maker has the tools to provide
the most cost-effective blend of pigments for the printer. Information on the particular
lighting conditions that a colour will be viewed under must be provided to avoid unwanted
metamerism effects. The ink maker will keep master samples of the approved ink together
with test prints for subsequent comparison.
Ink hue may be compared visually and colorimetrically with standard samples
and test prints to test the consistency of different batches. Strength is checked in a bleach
test where an amount of ink is diluted with opaque white (with yellows a weak opaque
blue) until it matches the strength of the diluted standard.
Tack
Tack is the stickiness of a paste ink; a resistance to splitting of an ink-film. Tackmeters
measure tack by distributing a fixed volume of ink over two temperature-controlled rollers
rotating at a fixed speed. A third small roller attached to a pressure transducer is placed on
the rig and the force exerted in the standard rotation is measured. The higher the force,
the higher the tack. Different instruments and conditions of speed and temperature mean
that inter-instrument comparison is not possible.
Normally the tack measurement is recorded when the ink is evenly distributed
and the reading stabilises after about one minute. The change in tack over time is a good
indicator of press stability. An unchanging tack reading over some 10 minutes indicates a
stable ink, which is normally an important contributor to trouble-free press performance.
The press stability may result in slow initial setting and then drying on paper, however.
Tack measurement may be made more sophisticated by adding fount solution to the ink on
test and then monitoring the tack over time to determine stability of the emulsified ink on
rollers. Low tack ink is used with uncoated paper to avoid picking and linting problems. In
four-colour printing, ink makers may tack-grade the process set so that the first ink printed
has the highest tack. This should aid ink overprinting and avoids contamination of inks by
colours that are already printed. It is important in waterless or dry offset, but in
lithography the key property is the tack of the printed ink-water emulsion.
Rheology
The viscosity of paste inks is their resistance to flow when a force is applied. Viscosity will
determine the ink performance on the high-speed rotating roller chain on press. Plastic
viscosity and yield value may be measured on falling rod, cone-and-plate, axial or
concentric cylinder viscometers. In gravure printing, the ink viscosity is adjusted on press
by adding solvent to the supplied ink to optimise transfer from cylinder to paper.
Fineness of grind
Printing ink is an homogeneous mixture of raw materials, and part of the formulation may
be a fine powder of pigment, extender or wax. Good dispersion to avoid aggregates and
adequately wet the powder with ink vehicle is needed for good performance on press. Ink
makers will test for the physical size of particles present using a steel Hegmann gauge.
This takes a sample of the ink onto a graduated groove and draws it down the channel
with a steel blade. As the channel becomes shallower, any particle will be pulled through
the ink fluid showing lines in the ink. The gauge has a depth indicator, and normally an
offset ink should not contain any particles above 45.
Water pickup
This is the amount of water, or fount solution, that an offset ink will absorb quickly when
forming a stable ink-water emulsion under agitation in the laboratory.
Flow
The flow of a paste ink is tested by letting a fixed volume flow down a vertical plane after
agitating the ink to overcome any thixotropic properties. It is important to transfer on press
and vital to avoid blockages in any central ink pumping to the duct system.
Ink setting and drying characteristics
Ink may dry by radiation curing, heatsetting or oxidation drying on a glass slab with a
slowly moving pointer disrupting along the film until it dries. The setting characteristic of
a conventional drying ink is measured by pressing paper against a print over time and
observing how much wet ink is transferred from the printed film.
Ink makers will test samples against a master standard to ensure consistency
between batches. Tests are designed to simulate printing. The main limitation to ink testing
in laboratories is the lack of dynamic conditions in which fresh ink is continually replenishing
the ink being used. In cases where ink makers test on their own press, the conditions will
rarely match those used commercially. The printer must test the ink on the press under
normal production conditions to determine its initial press performance (printability and
runnability) and the final print properties. If satisfactory, extended ink trials will determine
longer-term press runnability and allow the buyer to conduct a commercial evaluation.
Manufacturers may lower the raw material cost of ink by reducing the amount of
pigment present, and lowering the selling price. An apparently attractive price may result
8
in higher costs for the printer if a higher ink film thickness is necessary to match the
required density. This may cause problems with drying as well as resulting in increased
usage. Every job in commercial printing is different so obtaining an accurate comparison of
four-colour process ink mileage from different suppliers is difficult. Comparing the relative
costs of different suppliers is necessary if the printer wants to ensure the best value.
A simple test to compare process ink mileage between two ink suppliers is
necessary. Choose a suitable long-run job and run the first 40% of the job with ink from
supplier A. Towards the end of this part of the run, allow the ducts to empty and then,
during the middle 20% of the run, change to ink from supplier B. It is important to achieve
a similar result so ensure comparable density and dot gain readings as well as the visual
comparison. Then run the final 40% of the job with the second supplier. Note the quantity
of each colour from each supplier used together with the total number of sections
produced. It is then possible to compare relative ink mileage as use per 1000 copies or as a
percentage of the standard ink from the main supplier. Then compare relative costs from
each supplier and make a purchasing decision on the relative amounts to buy on the true
cost basis.
There are several formulae used to calculate the correct amount of spot colour
ink to order for a particular job. For offset lithographic sheetfed printing the formula is:
N A F S I
Kg required =
178
where: N = number of sides of paper
A = area of print, expressed in square metres (m
2
)
F = format of print. Solid colour = 1, reverse out lettering = 0.7, mostly illustrated
= 0.4, normal illustration = 0.3, heavy type = 0.2, light text = 0.15
S = type of stock. Art paper = 1, coated mechanical = 1.2, super calendered = 1.4,
newsprint = 1.8, carton board = 2, cartridge = 2.2
I = type of ink. Black = 1, machine overprint varnish = 1 other colours = 1.1,
ultraviolet curing ink = 1.1, fluorescent colours = 1.4, opaque colours = 1.5,
metallic inks = 1.6, opaque white = 1.8.
This formula is a start, and a more accurate method will come from a good relationship
between the printers' estimators and ink supplier to develop the correct estimating
measure for the particular plant. The use of in-plant colour mixing from single pigment
base inks means that problems of over- or under-ordering quantities can be overcome as
special colours are mixed on demand at the printer. In some cases printers allow ink
makers to supply a technician to take control of ink handling for the plant.
Paper
For runs of significant length, paper is the largest cost of most print jobs and it will define
the characteristics of the finished printed product. In future, good printability and runnability
of paper will become even more important. The ideal printability characteristics of paper are
a smooth, strong surface, maximum whiteness and brightness with maximum opacity. Better
and more widely used measures will develop at specific printers and generally in the industry.
The range of papers available will still provide a rich choice for specific publishing needs. A
fashion magazine, childs annual, annual report, business form and a 2000-page catalogue
each has different needs from different types of paper. A newspaper selling colour
advertising will look for whiteness and brightness unlike a financial section printed on a pink
sheet. In the future, the methods of choice will be more quantifiable.
The paper-making Paper is sometimes defined as a felted sheet of fibres formed on a fine screen from a water
process suspension. Apart from fibres, paper contains fillers or extenders, such as clay or chalk,
and surface coatings made from a range of materials. Vegetable (mainly wood) fibres are
Fibrous components the major source of raw material although some man-made synthetic fibres are used in
speciality or security grades. Vegetable fibres include:
stem fibres, e.g. woods (softwood, hardwood), basts (flax, hemp, jute, bamboo),
grasses (esparto, straw, bagasse)
leaf fibres, e.g. manila, sisal
fruit fibres, e.g. seed hairs (cotton), pods (kapod) and husks (cour).
Of all vegetable fibres, wood provides the main source of fibre for making paper. The figure
is about 90% worldwide and about 98% in the UK and North America. The leading non-
wood fibre is straw, followed by bagasse and bamboo that are used principally in China,
India, Pakistan and Mexico.
Wood fibre can be divided into:
softwood fibre from coniferous trees, e.g. fir, pine, spruce
hardwood fibre from deciduous trees, e.g. oak, beech, birch, eucalyptus, maple.
Wood fibres are made into a pulp in the course of making paper and the
resulting softwood or hardwood pulps have different qualities. The main characteristics of
softwood pulps are:
long fibres
high strength.
The main characteristics of hardwood pulps are:
short fibres
good bulk and opacity.
Most papers contain a mixture of pulps depending on the qualities of the grade required.
Apart from wood, the other important source of raw material for making paper is waste
paper: white waste (sometimes called pre-consumer waste, or broke), or printed waste
(post-consumer waste).
Fibre obtained from trees to be made into pulp is known as virgin fibre or primary
fibre; fibre obtained from reusing paper is known as secondary fibre. In their natural state,
wood fibres consist of long, narrow tubes composed of three main compounds:
9
The Print and Production Manual Paper
cellulose
hemicellulose, a compound similar in nature to cellulose
lignin, a resinous compound that binds the fibres together.
The cellulose-based constituents are required for making paper, and the lignin constituents
are impurities that must be removed during pulping. The aim of pulping is to separate the
fibres in the raw material and allow the cellulose fibres to form a free suspension in water.
Pulping Three basic methods of pulping wood fibre can be used:
mechanical
mechanical/chemical
chemical.
Mechanical pulping removes the lignin from the fibres by physical means. Mechanical/
chemical pulping removes it by a mixture of physical and chemical means and chemical
pulping by entirely chemical methods.
Mechanical pulping
The most basic form of mechanical pulp is produced from coniferous softwood trees only
(mainly spruce). After felling, the trees are selected, cut into suitable lengths and debarked
in a rolling open drum called a tumbler drum debarker.
The debarked logs are forced against a revolving grindstone in hot water. The
resulting mix of pulp and water is sent over a series of increasingly fine screens that
remove any remaining lumps or splinters shives until the final mixture is completely
dispersed. Plain and basic mechanical pulp produced this way is known as stone
groundwood pulp (SGW) to differentiate it from the purer mechanical /chemical pulps
(below). Process variables include the stone surface, speed, pressure, temperature,
consistency and type of wood.
Advantages of this process include an extremely high yield with low effluent
level. The resulting pulp cannot be used on its own to make printing paper but is the
principal component of mechanical publishing grades, which are used for low-cost news
and magazine papers. It has good opacity, high bulk, good printability and is cheap.
The disadvantages include low surface brightness and shade, lack of strength
and durability, rapid discoloration and weakening with age due to the high residual
lignin content.
Mechanical/chemical pulping
Several processes have been devised to produce mechanical pulps that are purer than the
basic SGW product. They differ from SGW in that they use wood chips as the starting point
of the process rather than whole logs. The first common step in the process is that, after
cutting and debarking, the logs (or wood scraps) are fed into a chipper that reduces them
to chips a few millimetres long.
Refiner mechanical pulp (RMP)
The chips are suspended in water and passed continuously through a series of disc refiners.
The discs shear the chips into smaller and smaller pieces until they form a pulp that can be
screened and bleached in the same cycle of operations as for conventional SGW pulp.
Advantages: wider range of woods can be used, waste wood and sawn timber
scraps can be used, and a slightly purer pulp results.
Disadvantages: as for SGW, but slightly reduced discoloration with ageing and
slightly stronger tensile strength.
RMP is also known as refiner groundwood pulp (RGP).
Thermomechanical pulp (TMP)
The chips are steamed at 135C to soften the lignin before they are passed through a
system of disc refiners. This allows the lignin to be separated more easily and causes less
damage to the fibres.
Advantages include stronger pulp, use of a wider range of trees, faster drainage
and reductions in debris. The smoothness and porosity of finished papers is improved, and
there is less discoloration with age.
Disadvantages include lower yield, lower brightness and opacity and softer
surface resulting in increased risks of linting or fluffing when printing.
Chemi-thermomechanical pulp (CTMP)
In a process one stage beyond TMP, a chemical stage is added that dissolves the lignins in
the wood chips before they are refined. The advantages include: in finished papers, quite
close in quality to many woodfree grades, long fibre length, good strength, good
brightness and a high yield (sometimes called high-yield pulp).
The disadvantages are that it is expensive to produce, often little cheaper than
woodfree pulp and finished papers are liable to some discoloration.
Biochemi-thermomechanical pulp (BCTMP)
This is a variant of CTMP using biological and chemical processes. The advantages and
disadvantages are similar to those of CTMP, but it is easier to dispose of effluent and fewer
chemicals are used.
Chemical pulping
The aim of chemical pulping is to reduce or dissolve the lignins in the wood by chemical
rather than physical means. In this way, the fibres separate more cleanly from each other
and fewer impurities remain in the final stock. Chemical pulping yields the purer and
stronger forms of pulp known as woodfree (i.e. free of groundwood pulp). The absence of
mechanical forces that tear and bruise the fibres means fibre lengths can be maintained
and a stronger, more resilient paper can be made.
9
Two main processes are used: the sulphate (or alkaline) method, and the sulphite
(or acid) method. Most modern pulp mills run the more environmentally friendly sulphate
method, and the sulphite method is the older traditional method.
Sulphate process
An alkaline process, sometimes known as the kraft process, it can be used for both
softwoods and hardwoods. Caustic soda (sodium hydroxide), sodium sulphide and sodium
sulphate are cooked with a continuous feed of wood chips inside a continuous digester
(Kamyr digester). After two to three hours, the fibres separate easily and maintain their full
lengths yielding a pulp that will form strong, well-formed paper. The process yield is high
and effluent disposal relatively easy.
Sulphite process
This is an acid process associated particularly with softwoods, especially spruce. Calcium
bisulphite and sulphur dioxide in water are introduced into a digestion tower filled with
wood chips. The chips and the liquid are cooked together for between six and 24 hours to
remove the cellulose fibres. Compared with the sulphate process, the yield is low. A variant
of the sulphite process is the bisulphite process in which the calcium bisulphite is replaced
by sodium, magnesium or ammonium bisulphite.
The advantages of chemical pulping include stronger and longer-lasting papers
with better colour and brightness. The disadvantages are that it is much more expensive
than mechanical or mechanical/chemical pulping, the yield is lower, there are more
effluent problems and reduced choice of tree stock.
Bleaching
The next stage in making paper and the final stage in pulp making is bleaching. The
object of bleaching is to whiten, purify and stabilise the pulp without too much damage to
the fibre. This can be done continuously or in batches. Most modern bleaching is carried out
as a multi-stage process. Two main sets of chemicals are used in bleaching: those based on
chlorine, and those based on oxygen, ozone or hydrogen peroxide. In many countries,
environmental laws prevent the use of chlorine for bleaching. Oxygen and hydrogen
peroxide bleaching processes are more environmentally friendly and are growing in use.
The degree of bleaching that a pulp will undergo is affected by the qualities
required in the final paper. Processing variables include: dwell time, bleach temperatures
and the condition of the unbleached fibre.
Stock preparation Stock preparation embraces the whole sequence of final processes that must take place to
redisperse the pulp, add to it any chemicals or other loadings or fillers needed and bring it
to the final furnish (recipe) and consistency required for the paper making machine.
In an integrated pulp and paper mill (i.e. one in which the pulping and paper
making facilities are on the same site), finished pulps are kept liquid and pumped to the
stock preparation area of the paper mill.
In non-integrated pulp mills, the final slush pulp mix is drained over a wire
gauze-covered cylinder or series of drying screens, pressed out, and is sheeted for transport
in bales to the paper mill.
Breaking
Breaking is the process of returning the pulp sheets to liquid form. It is carried out in a
hydrapulper or slusher, a large circular metal tank in which the baled sheets of pulp are
dispersed in water using high-shear blade mixers. This is the point at which other
ingredients will be added.
Sizing agents
These are added inside the furnish to improve a papers water-resistance and prevent ink
from feathering on its surface when the paper is printed. The quantity of size used varies
with the grade of paper being produced:
unsized, e.g. blotting paper
slack sized paper gives fast ink penetration, e.g. newsprint
medium sized paper is a compromise between excessive absorption and speedy
drying, e.g. uncoated book stock
hard sized, e.g. offset litho cartridge papers.
The traditional sizing chemistry uses rosin, alum and casein. Alum (aluminium sulphate),
however, is mildly acidic and several synthetic, chemically neutral sizes (also known as
alkaline sizes) have been developed as alternatives. (One chemical family of synthetic size
is known by the abbreviation AKD, standing for alkyl ketene dimer.)
Loadings and fillers
These are minerals or compounds added to the stock to improve the opacity, formation,
printability, dimensional stability or other characteristics in the finished paper. Printings
and writings may contain up to 30% fillers. The most common are:
china clay gives a smooth surface for printing (especially for illustration printing) and
accelerates ink drying. It has a unique combination of firm, smooth, pliant properties;
calcium carbonate gives hardness, opacity and whiteness. It is an increasingly
common alternative to china clay, principally in conjunction with alkaline sizing, to
give properties of brightness, light fastness and opacity, but it tends to be more
abrasive than clay;
titanium dioxide is used for opacifying, but it is expensive. It reduces the efficiency of
any optical brightness agents (OBAs) present and is usually used in conjunction with
china clay or calcium carbonate. Titanium dioxide is used where already high filler
levels reduce runnability lightweight publication/magazine grades demand high
strength with opacity;
optical brightness agents (OBAs)/fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs) are chemical
compounds used to improve whiteness and fluorescence;
9
Wet strengths are chemicals used to improve wet strength. They include
formaldehydes, polyamides, and sulphuric acid (greaseproof).
Chemical additives
Antifoamers are used to disperse the froth or foam produced during stock preparation.
Retention aids are used to keep the fillers in the paper from falling through the wire
of the paper-making machine. These include sodium silicate and gum.
Slimicides are chemicals used to keep down the presence of slime producing microbes.
These include chlorine and chloramines.
Colouring materials pigments and dyes are used for colouring/whitening.
Refining (beating)
From the hydrapulper, the stock is pumped through a series of cone refiners. These are
enclosed conical containers holding a series of metal blades that rotate from a central
shaft against static blades built inside the outer casing. The fibres are mechanically
modified: they are teased apart, separated and fibrillated so that their walls collapse and
become fragmented. The purpose of this is to make the fibres spread and absorb more
water, as this will enable them to bond more readily on the wire of the paper-making
machine at the next stage.
The time allowed for the refining stage is critical in determining the
characteristics of the finished sheet:
prolonged refining reduces the length of the fibres dramatically and beats water into
them so that they will bond without air and produce a paper like greaseproof paper
on the wire of the paper machine;
excessively short refining will not fibrillate the fibres in the pulp enough to allow them
to mesh tightly on the wire, and the result will be a soft, bulky sheet like blotting paper.
The paper-making After stock preparation, the treated liquid suspension is ready to be released onto the
machine paper machine. The design of machine used for practically all paper production (as
opposed to card or board production) is the Fourdrinier. These machines have two main
process areas: a wet end consisting of a wire section and a pressing section, and a dry end
consisting of a dryer section and a calender section.
Wet end
At this stage the stock is 99% water, and 1% fibre and filler. It is delivered uniformly onto a
moving mesh belt through a head box (flow box).
Head box
Many types include an open head flow box, hydraulic flow box, pressurised flow box and
vacuum flow box. The flow box keeps the fibres dispersed and prevents them from
flocculating (clogging together) so that a consistent and even formation can be achieved.
Slice
A gate slice, or projection slice, projects an even amount of fibre onto the wire in its cross-
direction. Adjustments affect the substance and bulk of the finished paper. Fibres tend to
align in the direction of flow giving a paper its characteristic grain or machine direction.
(The direction at 90 to this, across the wire, is known as the cross direction.)
The wire
The wire is a moving belt across which the fibres have been distributed. The stock flows
along the wire and the excess water (white water) drains through to leave the web of
paper forming on its surface. Types of wire include:
phosphor bronze, the original types
synthetic, which have replaced phosphor bronze wires and are now used for almost all
grades.
The wire is the drainage and forming element of the machine. Synthetic wires are used
because of greater stability, better control over de-watering, reduced wire mark and
longer life. Drainage is helped by table rolls, foils and suction boxes that draw the white
water down by suction. The two surfaces of the newly forming paper have visually
different characteristics:
the wireside (also known as the underside or wrong side) is the underside and it has a
poorer, rougher surface due to the drainage of the excess water in the stock through
the machine wire;
the topside (also called the felt side or right side) is the upper side, and is often
smoother since the longer (denser) fibres tend to settle first.
Dandy roll
The dandy roll is a hollow roll with a variety of possible coverings, but usually metal wire.
Its main functions are:
9
FIGURE 9.1 Schematic of a Fourdrinier paper machine
to consolidate the sheet by compacting the fibres
to apply a watermark
to give a flatter top surface and improve the distribution of the fibres.
Dandy roll coverings (supported sleeves) give finish characteristics to this side of the web,
e.g. wove, laid, watermark.
Press section
At the end of the paper wire, the partly formed paper web is drawn off the wire into the
press section of the machine. It is transferred to an endless felt belt that passes through
a series of rollers that compact the fibres and remove as much water as possible. In this
process, the moisture content is reduced to 6070%. The amount of pressure and the
dwell time in the press section affect both the bulk and the finish of the paper. Open,
bulky, book antique laid and wove grades need less wet pressing; smooth machine finish
(MF) printings need more.
Drying section
The web passes through graded steam-heated drying cylinders with low temperature
cylinders initially and high-temperature cylinders further down the line. If the early banks
of cylinders become too hot this can cause problems such as picking, cockling and dye
migration. The web is supported around the cylinders by further belts made of felt. At the
end of the drying section, the moisture content is down to a final 28%.
Additional operations during the drying process may include:
surface sizing. This involves the application of size, using a size press, to the surface of
the paper (as distinct from into the furnish, where it is added at the breaking stage).
This is done to control the absorbency and porosity of the surface. A coating mixture
containing pigment may also be added at the size press. Size presses used to consist
of a simple bath with two rollers forming a single nip, but now they resemble coating
heads in their design and sophistication;
machine calendering. This is the use of polished steel rollers at the end of the paper
machine to give a smooth finish known as MF;
machine glazing (MG). A smoothly polished, steam-heated cylinder gives a smooth,
glazed finish to one side of the paper.
Finishing
A variety of off machine options are available after the base paper has been made.
Supercalendering
This is different from machine calendering. The finished web is passed through further
polished steel and fibre-packed rollers, which give it a polished, smooth surface. Papers
treated in this way are known as SC papers.
Coating
Coating a paper increases its opacity, improves surface smoothness and ink hold out
(important for litho printing, and especially for illustration printing), and enhances ink gloss.
The two main coating pigments used are china clay and precipitated or ground calcium
carbonate (chalk). China clay is smooth, hard but pliable; calcium carbonate is bright and
white, but more abrasive. An alkaline substance, it is seldom used in acid papers that
contain alum/rosin sizing. China clay is inert and can be used in papers with any furnish.
Binding agents include casein, starch, synthetic resins or latex compounds (now most
common). These allow the coating mix to be thicker but still flow easily, and provide a
flexible coating receptive to a good gloss with calendering. Other additives may include pine
oil or silicone-based defoamers, preservatives and wax-based chemicals to enhance gloss.
Coating processes
The different coating methods possible give a range of options in coat weight, coat density
(which affects the rate of ink penetration), the degree of smoothness achieved, and in the
degree of print gloss and density. Coating may be carried out on or off the paper-making
machine. Some common methods are:
roll coating. A light coating is transferred to the paper by roller, and usually followed
by air-knife smoothing;
blade coating. A faster process that produces good print quality with less coating. A
thin steel blade spreads the coating to produce a flat, even surface. It is either left as
a matt finish or supercalendered to produce a gloss finish. It combines good quality
with reasonable cost and is the most common coating method;
air-knife coating. The coating is levelled and the excess removed by a stream of
compressed air (air knife). It can produce high coating weights. With a good base
paper, it produces good print quality with minimum supercalendering. It is a faster
process than brush coating and has replaced it for producing art paper;
brush coating. The coating is distributed over the base stock by a series of brushes,
some stationary and some oscillating. Replaced by other methods except in specialist
applications;
cast coating. The coating is dried by passing the coated paper under pressure over a
hot, polished cylinder leaving it with a perfectly smooth, high-gloss surface without the
need to compact the coating by supercalendering. Produces excellent ink receptivity.
Slitting
Paper reels of the full deckle (paper machine width) are slit and rewound to the desired
width and diameter for the printing press.
Sheeting
Sheeting is usually performed by paper mills but can be handled by specialist paper
converters. The two main methods are:
9
rotary trimming. A rotary trimming machine cuts the web at predetermined intervals;
precision sheeting. A more accurate, often computerised, version of rotary trimming
that has now largely replaced it.
Mill converting and packaging
All mills are now able to control accurately the moisture content of paper so, immediately
after production, the mother reels are slit and wrapped before shipping or being sent for
sheeting. Slitting and sheeting is carried out under controlled atmospheric conditions to
prevent dimensional changes occurring due to gain or loss of moisture.
Packing specifications
Packets
Where possible, specify moisture-proof wrappers strong enough to avoid splitting when
handled. Sheets are usually packed in multiples of a thousand or parts of a thousand
depending on the quality and weight of packet. The size, substance and weight of each
packet should be clearly labelled.
Pallets
Pallets must be strong enough to carry the load required, should allow four-way entry by a
standard fork-lift truck and have feet strong enough to allow safe stacking. The pallet base
should be flat and even and be slightly bigger than the sheet size to avoid edge damage.
Binding straps should not be too tight in order to avoid distortion or damage. Waterproof
wrappers or shrink wrapping should be used around the outside of the finished stack.
Reels
Reel covers should be secured to the flat ends and reels should be moisture proof wrapped.
Seasoned wood or plastic core plugs should be fitted to prevent damage if dropped. Reels
should be stored on their end to avoid distortion.
Markings and protection
A full description on all packets/pallets/reels is important and should include:
quality
quantity (weight, number of sheets or length in the case of a reel)
size
grammage
colour
making order number
grain direction
on reels, it is important also to indicate the unwind direction and whether the reel is
wound topside in or out (i.e. whether the feltside as opposed to the wireside faces
inward or outward).
Transportation loads should be adequately protected from the weather and thoroughly secured.
Hand-made paper
Hand-made paper for specialist use is made sheet by sheet with the wire immersed in a
hand-held wooden frame (deckle). It is generally of special furnish, traditionally rag
content. The resulting properties include permanence and durability.
When making hand-made paper, it is usual for the deckle edges to be left uncut
(feathered edges) and for traditional characteristics such as watermarks to be included. Its
manufacture requires craft skills that are extremely expensive. It is feasibly specified only
for top-quality specialist purposes such as craft printing and binding, or for artists paper.
Hand-made paper is traditionally made in three finishes ranging in decreasing smoothness,
from hot pressed (HP), through not hot pressed (NOT) to rough.
Boardmaking
Board is usually defined as paper above an agreed substance (220225gsm in UK, and
250gsm in many other countries). It can be single-ply or multi-ply. The multi-ply structure
consists of top liner, under liner, middle and back liner. Much of the making process is
similar to paper. Points to note include:
Furnish
Basically the same as for paper, and ranging from high-quality bleached pulps down to
recycled waste paper. Stock treatment is basically the same as for paper. If waste paper is
used, more cleaning and screening may be required. Board is generally given a lesser
degree of beating/refining in order to ensure efficient drainage.
The liner plies are often given conventional beating and refining to develop their
strength while the middle stock is hardly given any mechanical treatment and just simply
broken then lightly refined.
Manufacture
In multi-ply board, the plies may be combined on-machine or off-machine. In the case of
on-machine boards, either Fourdrinier or vat process machines may be used. In the case of
the Fourdrinier manufacturing process, the board is built up on the wire from a series of
Inverform units each of which contains a head box depositing successive layers on each
other. The vat boardmaker consists of several vats or cylinder units, in-line containing a
revolving large hollow cylinder. Each cylinder picks up a layer of stock and deposits it on
the underside of a moving felt that carries the first ply of board. The layers are built up
progressively, and at the end of the wire the board is removed for drying.
In the case of off-line finishing, the resulting boards are known as pasted boards
to distinguish them from the homogeneous product that comes off a single machine. A
number of webs of board are unreeled in parallel to each other; adhesive is applied to the
top surface of all but the top sheet, and a pressing cylinder finally brings all the reels
together to create a single reel of thicker board. The edges are slit to provide flush edges to
the new reel.
9
Finishing
The range of operations in finishing corresponds to those for paper and can include: calendering,
supercalendering, coating, slitting, sheeting, conditioning and, finally, packing for despatch.
Choosing a suitable Three factors need to be taken into account when choosing a suitable paper:
paper the characteristics of the paper
the requirements of the printing process
knowing the variety of papers from which to choose.
Paper characteristics Those characteristics formed during the paper-making process are shown below:
TABLE 9.1 Paper characteristics
Characteristics Formed by Desirability of characteristics
Brightness Type of pulp Essential for white printings and writings
Degree of bleaching
Amount/type of chemical additives (eg optical
brightening agents also known as OBAs)
Opacity Type of pulp Printings, book paper, writings
Degree of beating/refining and type of loading,
e.g. clay, precipitated calcium carbonate (pcc) or talc
Tensile strength Type of fibre Packaging papers, map papers, web offset
Degree of beating/refining grades
Wet strength Degree/type of wet strength agent used Packaging papers, label papers, map papers
Permanence Type of fibre, paper chemistry, Share certificates, legal documents, archival
Type of sizing papers
Dimensional stability Method of forming Laser printing grades, business forms,
Amount of beating/refining litho printing papers, label papers
Amount of sizing, fibre orientation and type of drying
Rigidity Type of pulp (high bulk) Positive feeding and delivery on printing machine,
Amount of stock preparation ease of converting, creasing and laser printing
Ink hold-out Type of coating, sizing and calendering High-quality printing papers
Sizing Degree/type of sizing agent added Prevents water-based inks from feathering,
improves pick resistance
Picking resistance Binders used in the coating mix Printing papers, especially litho
Caliper/tracing paper Type of fibre, beating/refining Greetings card board, bulky book, tracing paper
Degree of compression
Gloss Type of coating Glossy magazines, art papers etc.
Degree of calendering
Paper varieties These are the main varieties of paper available defined by the paper makers recipe (furnish):
(furnishes)
Bulky mechanical
Mechanical pulps are the cheapest pulps and are produced by grinding debarked
thinnings from forestry management. After grinding, the wood fibres are bleached and
refined, and chemical or mechanical processes are used to produce grades such as CTMP
(chemi-thermomechanical).
They are used for low-cost paperbacks, newsprint and wallpaper, and can be
printed letterpress, web offset litho, gravure or flexo. Mechanical papers have high bulk,
good formation and dimensional stability and quite good opacity, but tend to be weak, lose
strength and colour on ageing. They can be bleached to approximately 80% brightness.
They can also be coated for use in magazines and as low-cost printing paper.
Substances (grammage) available are normally right through the range.
Part mechanical
These are used for cheaper printings and writings (e.g. telephone directory) and are
somewhat stronger than papers made from 100% mechanical pulps. Part mechanical
papers contain a significant percentage of sulphate (woodfree) pulp to give them added
strength, and they may be printed litho as well as letterpress and gravure. The proportion
of woodfree to mechanical pulp in a part-mechanical paper varies with the grade required.
Part-mechanical papers can also be coated to improve ink hold-out and produce an
improved print finish.
Recycled
Environmental groups and European legislation have encouraged the use of recycled fibre.
Apart from the traditional uses in the production of boxboard and fluting, recycled fibres
are now a principal component of test liner, newsprint and even office copier and business
stationery. The early problems of inconsistency, dusting and fibre pick have now been
overcome and, in many cases, the recycled papers perform as well as virgin grades.
Woodfree
These are papers that contain only chemically produced pulp or less than 10%
mechanically produced pulp. The properties of the papers vary according to the type of
pulp used, amount of stock preparation, type and quantity of additives and the finish that
the paper might receive. Environmentally friendly grades include ECF (made with pulp
chlorine bleached using environmentally approved methods) and TCF (made with pulp
bleached without the use of chlorine).
Esparto
Esparto has high bulk and opacity, good smoothness and dimensional stability, good
formation and good compressibility. It is mainly used for high-quality printings and for coating
base. Softwood pulps or rag fibres are often included in the furnish to improve strength.
Manila
Manila has strong fibres producing very strong paper. It is mainly used for envelopes and
wrappings.
9
Cotton (rags)
This is used to impart softness, permanence, durability, dimensional stability, bulk and
opacity. Now used mainly for banknote paper, and formerly in durable papers and high-
quality writings. Cotton linters (from the flower part of the cotton plant) have largely
replaced rag-based pulp in machine made papers.
Eucalypt
Eucalypt is widely grown in managed forests in South America and the Iberian peninsula.
The pulp from eucalyptus trees has unique paper making properties enabling the
production of smooth, bulky, uniform papers without the need for heavy refining.
Paper ordering A formal order form is preferable if ordering paper regularly. Publishers ordering paper for
delivery to a printer should always confirm the printers requirements.
TABLE 9.2 Paper ordering
Specifying sheets Specifying reels Specifying markings/delivery
Title of job; Maximum diameter of reels; Marking: you will normally want paper
paper name; maximum reel width; name, substance, weight/quantity, reel
quantity of sheets; maximum reel weight; number, direction of winding. Name of
substance; substance; publication or publisher, if appropriate.
caliper; caliper; Delivery notes should carry all information
long/short grain; meterage on the reel; marked on the sheets/reel. Time and date
printing process; splices normally no more than two of delivery should be arranged with printer.
number of colours to be printed; per reel, taped both sides, and giving
packing ream wrapped or packed parallel edges after the join; Imperfections
on pallets. winding normally wireside out, tight and There should be no cuts, nicks or edge
even, with no baggy centres or edges; damage and the surface should be free
wrapping: normally wrapped in from slitter dust.
waterproof paper with ends protected
by cardboard, suitable for vertical
stacking if necessary.
Paper finishes Mechanical, recycled or woodfree papers have a number of finishes that include:
Machine-finished (MF)
This is a paper that has been dried in contact with the drying cylinders on the paper-
making machine to create smoothness and uniformity on both sides.
Matt-coated
The base paper is coated with a coating mix that usually contains a mix of latex/starch
and ground calcium carbonate/china clay. The best matt-coated papers give a smooth
non-reflective surface with low abrasivity and good ink hold-out. Typical descriptions are
velvet, silk or matt art.
Gloss-coated
Paper that has received this type of finish is also known as gloss art paper. The coating is
applied, and then the web is passed between two rollers. One is highly polished steel and the
other is fibre packed. This gives the paper a smooth surface with a high-gloss finish. Most
high-quality art papers are coated at least once, and sometimes three times, on each side.
Machine-glazed (MG)
A paper that has been dried against a polished drying cylinder. This gives one side of the
paper a smooth, glossy appearance while the other remains relatively rough.
Chromo paper
A paper that is coated and then supercalendered (polished) on one side only. Used for
greetings cards and label stock.
Cast-coated paper
A paper that is coated in the conventional way but with the coating dried by passing the
wet-coated web around a highly polished drying cylinder. This form of coating gives an
improved gloss finish to the surface of the web. A variant of this process is known as
Trulux, which uses a calendering process in which the soft coating is encouraged to flow
under pressure and heat.
Specialist papers Kraft (bleached or unbleached)
Produced from sulphate wood pulp, it is the strongest of all papers. It is used mainly for
wrappings but kraft pulp can be added to other furnishes to increase strength.
Hand-made paper
The furnish is usually cotton, and in the form of rags or cotton linters. Hand-made paper
has good dimensional stability, random fibre orientation with good permanence and
durability. It is extremely expensive to make and is mostly used by artists for watercolour
painting or for other specialist jobs.
Carbonless paper (NCR)
NCR (no carbon required) produces copies when pressure is applied to the top sheet of a
set. The set is made with special coatings on the appropriate sides of the sheets. Coated
front (CF) is a receptive clay while coated back (CB) contains microcapsules that break
under pressure releasing a colour former that reacts with the clay to form an image where
the two coatings are in contact. It is used in multi-part business forms for delivery notes,
invoices, order forms and pads.
Heat-sealable paper
This uses a coating of heat-activated adhesive. Activation can either be instantaneous or
delayed (useful where direct heat may damage the surface or product). It is used for labels.
9
Pressure-sealable paper
Pressure-sealable paper uses a special polymer coating that is printable but bonds under
pressure. It is used for mailers.
Self-adhesive paper
Applied to a silicone-coated backing sheet from which the permanently sticky paper can be
peeled off when ready to be stuck down.
Gummed paper
This type of paper is coated with an adhesive that is activated by water. There are two
types: conventional gummed paper and dry particle gummed. The former is cheaper but
suffers from severe curling problems. In the latter, the particles of adhesive are suspended
in an emulsion before coating and drying resulting in a flatter product. Gumbreaking
involves passing the gummed paper over a static bar at a sharp angle to craze the gum
and reduce the tendency to curl. An ingenious particle-gummed paper is produced by a
form of rotary screen printing.
Boards Unlined chipboard
This is made entirely from waste paper and is relatively cheap. Grey and used where
appearance is not important, it contains a large amount of shive and is usually used for
tube winding and ridged boxes.
Lined chipboard
Types include white-lined chipboard, Kraft-lined chipboard, mottled (white) chipboard and
test-lined chipboard. Test liner contains a mixture of virgin fibre and recycled waste board.
Straw board
Straw board is produced from unbleached straw pulp by light chemical treatment.
Digestion is usually with slaked lime (calcium hydroxide). Its applications include envelope-
backing postal stiffener material and boards for hardback books.
Pulp board
Made completely from chemical wood pulp, sometimes on an inverform type machine. This
grade can be uncoated or coated depending on the end application. Uncoated grades
might be used for food packaging while coated grades might be used for paperback covers,
brochures and greeting cards. Thickness generally ranges from 0.190.41mm. Pulp board can
also be castcoated to use with high-quality products such as cosmetics and toiletries.
Coated board
The coating is usually confined to white-lined chipboard and carton boards. The coating is
carried out on the board by blade or air knife. The usual amount of coating applied varies
from 818gsm. It can be used for board games and shop displays.
Artboard
This is made in the same way as art paper except that board weights usually start above
220225gsm.
Alternative substrates In addition to paper-based substrates, there are many alternatives used for more specialist
printing applications such as metals, plastics, glass and foils. These often have particular
surface characteristics that require special inks, treatments and printing processes to ensure
good printability and adhesion of the final print to the material. Plastic films are widely
used in packaging, labelling and card production. Flexo, often using specially formulated
low-odour and taint inks, is the most common print process for these applications. To ensure
good bonding of ink on the surface, the film is often corona discharged at the entrance to
the printing press. Exactly what occurs during the process is a matter of scientific conjecture
but one effect is to raise the free surface energy of the surface. This will gradually decline
after treatment, hence the benefit of an in-line application. The energy can be measured
with Sherman dyne-treatment liquids. These are a range of mixtures of liquids with varying
surface tension. A little is dabbed onto the material and the energy level is indicated when
a continuous film is formed with no beading.
Litho printing on PVC and polypropylene sheets are widely used in plastic card and specialist labelling
plastic, metal and markets. The packaging industry uses plastic containers that are usually printed in the
glass final shape while metal printing can be done on a flat sheet or the finished product. There
are several problems associated with this printing. The surface is not absorbent and ink
drying has to be totally chemical with oxidation drying and UV curing the principal
methods. Water remains on the surface so the level of damping has to be minimised when
printed. Relief and waterless offset are often used.
The inks have to be formulated to adhere well to the substrate. This is often the
most important property of the ink over printability and runnability considerations. It is
necessary to stop and clean the presses regularly and to develop accelerated adhesion
tests to check the quality of the product.
Problem types and There are occasions when paper faults cause printing problems.
testing methods
Printing defects Hickeys can occur with any of the main printing processes. They are random spots on the
associated with paper printed surface, and each consists of a dark spot surrounded by a white halo. They are
caused by solid particles of ink skin, paper debris, damper roller lint or debris from the ink
rollers that attach themselves to the printing surface.
Depending on the cause and severity of the problem, the remedies may include
changing the ink, changing the damper covers or fitting a hickey removing device. A quick
fix is often to run the paper through the first unit blind (to remove lint) or change the paper.
9
Linting (debris piling) mainly occurs with letterpress and litho, and usually when running
uncoated grades. Loose fibres on the paper surface are picked up by the blanket, which in
turn breaks up the print reproduction on the following sheets. Remedies: decrease ink tack,
check fount concentration, reduce press speed, use vacuum brush on press feedboard and
increase water feed to plate.
Surface picking can occur on letterpress and lithographic printing process. The fibre or the
coating of the paper is lifted from the surface and can be due to too high an ink tack or
insufficient binder in the paper stock. Remedies: reduce ink tack, reduce press speed,
increase impression cylinder pressure, use a harder blanket, increase water supply to the
dampers or change paper stock.
Chalking occurs mainly with letterpress and litho printing and coated papers. The dried
print can be easily smudged when rubbed. This problem occurs because the ink vehicle
drains into the paper leaving the pigment with insufficient binder to hold it together. It is a
characteristic of highly absorbent papers having an open pore structure, e.g. cast-coated
papers. Not to be confused with matt rub (see below).
Cheesy drying is a similar effect but is caused by over-emulsification leading to a soft ink
structure after drying, particularly when too much alcohol is added to the fount. Remedies:
change ink or reduce ink tack, reduce water supply to damper, reduce acidity of fountain
solution, use correct fount concentration, check and correct water or fount conductivity. A
sealer or varnish may provide a fix.
Mottle can occur on any printing process. The print, especially in solid areas, appears to be
blotchy and can be due to uneven absorption characteristics of the paper stock, or poorly
formulated ink. Remedies: increase ink tack, reduce supply of ink, increase blanket to
impression pressure, and change the ink or the paper.
Set-off can occur on most printing processes. Traces of the ink on the printed side of a
sheet are transferred to the back of the following sheet in the delivery pile. Possible
remedies include: reduce delivery stack height, use quick-set inks, use a paper with higher
absorbency characteristics, use an anti-setoff spray or a delivery pile spacer.
Ink-rub or matt-rub is particularly associated with illustrated work printed on matt art
paper. The ink on the sheet is abraded by the paper surface with which it is in contact. This
causes a form of set-off known as micro rub, or smudging, either in the delivery pile or in
the later stages of the finishing/binding process. Some papers are worse than others in
this respect. Remedies include: change ink to a full oxidation drying grade, or one
formulated for matt papers, use anti-set-off spray, use a varnish/sealer, reduce delivery pile
height, reduce quantity of ink, check for overemulsification or incorrect fount addition,
allow more time for drying and change paper to as near a neutral pH paper as possible.
Show-through is when the printed image can be seen through from the opposite side of
the sheet due to the opacity of the paper being too low for the job being printed.
Strike-through is similar to show-through, except that it is caused by ink penetrating
through the sheet. Remedies: use a less absorbent or porous paper, reduce the printing
pressure, adjust the ink supply or use quick-set ink.
Ghosting mainly occurs in litho printing processes and on gloss-coated grades. The printed
image on one side of the paper appears as a ghost on the printed image of the other side.
This is due to chemical ingredients in the first print affecting the wettability characteristics
of the reverse side of the paper. It often appears after varnishing or lamination. There are
no remedies. For prevention, air the stacks thoroughly before printing the second side; or
print the second side with minimum delay.
Blade scratches occur only on blade-coated papers and are caused by dirt or coating mix
getting caught under the coating blade and causing a series of fine channels to be formed.
It is usually detected at the mill, and is unlikely to affect a large proportion of a making.
Remedy: change the paper reel or try another pack.
Distortion can appear in the form of wavy or tight edges in a stack or reel of paper:
wavy edges are caused by the stack having a lower moisture level than the
surrounding atmosphere. Paper expands in the cross machine direction when it
picks up moisture, and the longer edges are accommodated by the development of
edge wave;
tight edges are caused by the stack having a higher moisture level than the
surrounding atmosphere. The paper releases some of its moisture to the atmosphere,
which causes the edges of the sheets to become tight and the centre of the sheets to
become baggy.
Remedy: dont unwrap paper until ready for use, but keep it in the press room for at least
24 hours before use. Protect it from atmospheric moisture in between successive print runs
by using film wrap or stack hoods.
Creasing occurs when an uneven moisture content in the sheet causes creases at the edges
and back of the printed area. If the edges are wavy, creases tend to occur on leave edge
corners; if tight, they tend to occur in the centre of the sheet. Remedy: packed paper should
be left to adjust to room temperature before opening.
Tail end hook is caused by the paper sticking to the blanket too tightly when pulled off by
the delivery grippers. Remedy: use of a heavier paper or make adjustments to ink tack,
blanket or dampers.
9
Reel defects Web breakage can be caused by too much tension on one or both edges due to loss of
moisture and shrinkage, wrinkles, slime spots, or any type of rupture or poor splicing.
Burst reel is caused by the reel having been wound with too much tension. Remedy:
remove outer laps of the reel or if the burst is too deep, reject the reel.
Telescoped reel is due to the reel being wound with insufficient tension.
The only remedy is to have the reel rewound.
Reel out of round is caused by the reel being stored on its side. It can cause misregister
when printing due to the variation in tension that will occur. The only remedy is to make
sure reels are stored correctly on end.
Web wrinkles appear due to compressive forces in the cross machine direction, which are
caused by uneven moisture profile or a misalignment of rollers on the paper machine or in
the conversion process.
Chain marks are caused by uneven caliper from one edge to the other. The reel will be
travelling at slightly different speeds from one edge to the other causing the paper to
slightly twist and cause a distortion in the form of chain marks.
Papers for digital print To get the optimal printability and runnability from a digital printing system, it is
important to use the correct substrate. As the manufacturer most often supplies the
colourant, the choice of paper is critical, particularly for the new inkjet machines. Paper of
guaranteed quality can be provided by using materials accredited by the equipment
manufacturer. Users want a wider range of papers, and the ability to use heavier grades
and more prestige branded woves.
On conventional printing presses, there is virtually no limit on the type of paper
that can be used. On digital presses, the paper impacts performance. Coated stocks are a
serious problem in electrographic printing because the paper has to hold an electrical
charge. In coated paper the clay used is an inert insulator and coated stocks dont always
work well. Moisture level affects the toner transfer efficiency; too much moisture causes the
paper to leak charge and if it is too dry, the paper is too resistive and does not accept
toner as designed. Manufacturers are reformulating many papers to accept toner. Some are
plastic-based using fillers that combine pulp and plastic to provide the feeling of coated
stock without having the problems of coated stock. Older digital printers were limited on
the weight of stock that they could handle but the new generation of printers that use
carrier blankets can handle up to 400gsm card.
There are several issue to consider when deciding which paper to use:
presentation (sheet size and reel dimensions), properties (paper is an inherent part of the
printing process in digital printing, it is advisable to always use a properly accredited
source), the packaging of the paper to prevent moisture loss or uptake and the particular
finishing requirements to avoid scuffing, cracking and waviness.
A paper should ideally be matched to a particular printer. In the case of dry
toners, the sheet should be smooth and free from curl. It is difficult to make a fast sheetfed
machine because the higher the speed, the more likely that there will be jams. Operators
are needed to feed paper and clear the jams. Most sheetfed machines print on one side of
the paper, turn it over and run it through again. The second pass uses paper that already
has fused toner on it and there is a possibility of curl that can cause a jam. Sheetfed
machines have inherent limitations on the speed of paper. The more toner applied, the
higher the likelihood of problems.
Much work is being performed to produce coated papers and films that are
suitable for digital printing. The major press suppliers operate an approval system for
stocks (Pira International acts as an independent qualifier on behalf of the Xeikon web
press range) to test substrates for printability (image quality, fastness) and runnability
properties. The effect of the substrate on the mechanism of printing is particularly
important. A slight lint build up may be a slight annoyance for offset but will block inkjet
nozzles requiring expensive refurbishment of the head. It is important to consider the
impact of the stock on the operation of the press.
Other major concerns include the effects of fusing on drying out the sheets
causing cracking, and of the build up of static on sheets at delivery. As well as adversely
affecting the subsequent handling of the material, there is the concern of damaging the
press in some way. As the volume of paper converted increases, there will be more problem
solving by the paper makers and press manufacturers to overcome these issues.
Papers for inkjet systems have particular requirements because of the use of
water-based ink that leads to paper-related strike through, dimensional instability and
subsequent ink marking. This is particularly acute for heavily inked duplex jobs and
requires the use of specially coated papers. Such papers are significantly more expensive
than standard grades, and are necessary to obtain consistently good results while
optimising print quality and runnability. As the technology becomes more widely used, the
cost premium for inkjet will fall. Users test a range of papers from many suppliers for
suitability and imaging system in tandem rather than looking at individual components
with their inks, analysing performance and cost to select the most appropriate paper.
In applications with heavy coverage, it is necessary to use graphics prepress and
colour skills to minimise ink coverage through under colour removal techniques to replace
neutral colour areas of CMY with black ink. This example is one of the few where
traditional prepress skills brilliantly complement the data handling skills necessary for
delivering digital data streams. Because of the data format and offline RIPping before
printing, there is no possibility of adjusting colour at the production stage, and the result is
totally independent of the operator. This means that the colour settings and control have
to be determined at the design stage of the job. Early inkjet jobs have required much
prototyping and testing; as more experience is gleaned the quality obtainable has
9
improved significantly. The best quality and productivity results will be produced from the
correct combination of paper, colourant and print engine.
Testing methods Most of the characteristics of paper that are routinely checked during its manufacture are
described below, and the procedures that are in use for doing this. Standard testing
Paper tests conditions are 23C at 50% relative humidity (RH). Note: RH is the ratio of the absolute
humidity (actual amount of water vapour in the atmosphere) to that of air saturated with
water vapour at the same temperature and pressure.
Apparent density
(BS3983 1982) Apparent density is the weight of 1cm
3
of paper or board expressed in
grams per centimetre cubed. Formula: (units gcm
3
)
grammage / caliper (m) of one sheet
Ash content
(ISO 2144, 1987/BS3631, 1994) Ash content is the amount of loading or filler in a paper.
The residue left after combustion of the paper is expressed as a percentage of the original
weight of the sample. The paper sample is put in a crucible, placed in a furnace at 575C
and burned until only a white ash is left. The average ash content from an uncoated
cartridge paper may be between 10% and 15%, but the quantity of filler that is used tends
to vary widely as paper makers strike a balance between strength, opacity and freedom
from dusting or linting.
Bulking thickness
Also known as caliper (BSEN 20534 1994) or the thickness of a single sheet, bulking thickness
is tested by measuring the thickness of a number of sheets with a static load applied. The
instrument used is a precision dial micrometer and measurement is expressed in micrometres
(m), e.g. a 50gsm sheet may have a caliper of 65 m. Formula for bulking thickness:
reading on micrometer / number of sheets measured
Brightness (whiteness)
(BS4432:2 1995) Brightness is the reflectance factor of a paper at an effective wavelength
of 457mm using a D65/10 degree illuminant. The instrument used is the Elrepho 2000,
which uses a conversion factor to calculate the reflectance. The result is expressed as an
ISO brightness factor. A typical reading for a 80gsm bond sheet might be 85 ISO.
Burst
(BS3137 1995) Burst is measured by the maximum pressure in kilopascals that can be
sustained by a circular area of paper immediately before rupture. Instruments used include
pneumatic testers (e.g. Schopper, Dalen) or hydraulic testers (e.g. Mullen). The results are
expressed in kilopascals or pounds per square inch. If the result is expressed in lb/sq. in. it
may be converted into kPa by multiplying the result by 6.895. A typical result for an
80gsm bond sheet might be: 25lb/sq. in. or 172.4kPa.
Fibre content test
The fibre content test measures the type and amount of fibre in the furnish of a paper or
board. It can only be done by microscopic analysis. A sample is prepared on a slide and
stained to enable fibre identification. The slide is placed under a microscope and the
following points noted:
length of fibre
width of fibre
type of lumen (the hollow central channel within the fibre)
type of fibre end
any surface marking
any other marking.
Where more than one fibre is in the furnish, a fibre count (ISO 9184 BS 7463 1991) will be
necessary to determine the percentage of each type of fibre.
Folding endurance
(BS ISO 5626 1993) Folding endurance is measured by the number of double folds required
to cause rupture in a strip of paper 15mm wide. This test should be carried out in both
machine direction and cross direction. The instrument used is known as the Schopper. The
result is expressed as the number of double folds before fracture.
Formation
The two extremes of formation are described as wild or even, and it is assessed by holding
the sheet up to a light source and viewing it. A wild formation is where there are clumps of
fibre, and the sheet appears uneven and patchy. An even formation is where the fibres are
distributed evenly throughout the sheet.
Furnish determination
Phloroglucinol solution is used to determine whether a paper has a woodfree or
mechanical furnish. If the paper remains yellow when the stain is applied, it is said to be
woodfree, i.e. only chemically produced pulp has been used in the furnish. If the paper is
stained red, the paper contains mechanically produced pulp. The depth in shade of the red
stain indicates the percentage of mechanical fibre present. This is a comparative test only.
Gloss
(TAPPI T480 OM-85) This test is usually carried out on supercalendered art paper/board. It
is determined by the intensity of an angled beam of light (typically 75) that is reflected
from the sheet of paper/board. The result is expressed as a percentage. The usual result for
a glossy board should be 60% or more.
9
Grammage
Also called basis weight (BS ISO 536 1995), or substance, it is defined as the weight in
grams of a sheet one square metre (gsm). A sample is cut to a known area, usually 10x10cm
and weighed on a balance under standard test conditions. The formula for determining
grammage (g/m
2
, or gsm) is:
1 sq. metre weight of sample / area of sample
Internal tearing resistance
(BS EN 21974 1994) Internal tearing resistance is measured by the mean force, expressed in
millinewtons, required to continue tearing of an initial cut in a single sheet of paper. Four
sheets with the same grain direction and cut to a specific size are usually torn together.
The initial cuts are of a specified length and made on a specially designed hand guillotine
supplied with the tear tester. This test is carried out in both machine and cross direction.
An average result for a typical 80gsm bond sheet might be 440490mN.
Moisture content
(BSEN 20287 1994) All paper naturally contains a certain amount of moisture, typically
about 37% in printings and writings and as much as 10% in newsprint. The moisture
content is determined by taking a representative sample, placing it in a sealed container to
be weighed. The sample is placed in an oven for a minimum of four hours at 105C, and
then replaced in the same sealed container and reweighed. The difference in weight (i.e.
the moisture content) is expressed as a percentage of the original weight:
loss in weight 100 / weight of original sample
Opacity
(BS 4432:3 1996) Opacity is the ratio of the reflectance of the surface of a single sheet of
paper with a black backing, to the reflectance of a wad of the same paper thick enough to
be completely opaque. The instruments used are the EEL Opacimeter (obsolete) and the
Elrepho 2000. The result is expressed as a percentage; 9193% is typical.
TABLE 9.3 Typical opacity readings
Paper Newsprint Bank Bond Matt coated Supercalendered
Substance (gsm) 49 45 60 70 80 90 100 115 135 170 90 100 115 135 170
Reading (%) 91 70 80 83 87 91 93 95 96 98 90 92 94 95 97
Note: Readings may vary by + or 1%, eg for a 100gsm supercalendered paper 9193% would be typical
Porosity (Bendtsen)
(BS6538:2 1992) Porosity (Bendtsen) is measured by the flow of air in millilitres per minute
through an area of 10cm
2
at an overpressure of 150mm water column. The apparatus
consists of a clamp holding the paper securely, a means of applying a steady air pressure
difference across the sheet and a means of measuring the rate of flow of air through the
test piece. The instrument usually has two or three measuring tubes on it so that a wide
range of measurements can be obtained. The average result for an 80gsm bond sheet
might be 380ml/min.
Porosity (Gurley)
(BS6538:3 1995) Porosity (Gurley) is a measure of the time taken to displace 100ml of air
through a circular area of one square inch. The instrument consists of an outer and inner
cylinder. The outer cylinder is filled with a given quantity of special lightweight oil. The
inner cylinder is open ended and has a clamp at the top end to hold the sample tightly
against the inner cylinder. The inner cylinder is graduated in 100ml and the result is
expressed in seconds.
pH value
(BS2924 1983) The pH value is the degree of acidity/alkalinity of a substance. The pH
scale ranges from 114 with seven being neutral. Below seven is acidic, and above seven is
alkaline. The pH of a hot or cold water extract of the paper is the most accurate method;
surface pH in a water drop can be measured using a flat electrode attached to a pH meter.
A quick comparative method is to use a smear of indicator solution, but generally this will
give a reading 12 units lower than the extract method. Most European papers are now
neutral or alkaline giving an extract pH of 6.58. This is because synthetic neutral sizing
has replaced the traditional acid-sized papers. The acidity of a paper was usually
associated with slow ink drying, but now the main need for pH checks is partly to confirm
whether a paper has archivability.
Roughness (Bendtsen)
(BS4420 1997) Roughness is measured on the same instrument as Bendtsen porosity but
with a different measuring head. It is the extent to which the surface of the paper deviates
from a plane. The measuring head, when placed on a smooth plane hard surface, will
allow no air to escape. When it is placed on the surface of the paper, that will be rougher,
the amount of air that escapes is measured in millilitres per minute. This test must be
carried out on both top and wire side as the results may differ. A possible result for an
80gsm bond sheet might be 400/420ml/min.
Sizing degree
(BSEN 20535 1994) Sizing degree is measured by the Cobb test using a short metal
cylinder with a cross sectional area of 100cm
2
and height of about 5cm. The sample is
clamped between the metal cylinder and the rubber base, and 100ml of water is poured
into the cylinder. After 45 seconds the water is poured off and after one minute the sample
is blotted to remove any water remaining on the surface and the sample is weighed. The
result is expressed as the amount of water in grams taken up by one square metre of
9
exposed surface in one minute. The figure obtained determines the degree of sizing, i.e.
30+ soft-sized; 2030 medium-sized; 020 hard-sized.
Stiffness
(BS 3748 1992) Kenley instrument. Stiffness is measured by the force required to bend a
5cm test length through 15.
Surface strength
Dennison wax pick (TAPPI T459 om-93) This test determines the highest numerically
designated wax that does not disturb the surface of the sheet when it is applied to the
sheet and then pulled away. The waxes are graded according to the degree of tack that they
have with 1 being the least tacky and 23 having the greatest tack. A paper that would be
suitable for four-colour litho printing would have a Dennison wax figure greater than 11.
IGT pick test
(BS 6225:2 1982 (1995)) ISO 3782/3 IGT is the Dutch manufacturer of the testing
instrument. The test determines the printing velocity at which surface picking occurs using
a complicated procedure involving a low viscosity oil and a special printing unit applied at
an accelerating speed. Four-colour litho printing would normally require no picking at a
minimum reading of 135cm/sec.
Tensile strength
(BS EN ISO 1924:2 1995) Tensile strength is a measure of the minimum force, in newtons,
required to break a strip of paper 180mm long and 15mm wide clamped at both ends.
A tensile tester is used and tensile strength is measured in kilonewtons per metre.
The formula for tensile strength is:
kN/m = tensile reading (N) / 15
Wet strength retention
(BS2922 1995) The paper is burst (using a hydraulic burst tester). The sheet is then
submerged in water for 15 minutes, the excess water is blotted off and the sample is again
burst. The result is expressed as a percentage of the wet burst to the dry burst. A wet
strength paper should have a minimum reading of approximately 50%.
Board tests
Board is tested mainly by the same methods as paper. Additional tests that are carried out
include:
Scott Ply Bond
(TAPPI UM 403 1991) Scott Ply Bond is measured by delaminating the board using double-
sided tape and two plates that are separated at high speed.
Creasing
Creasing tests are carried out on carton boards with a creasing rule to evaluate the
creasing qualities in both machine and cross direction. The test determines the extent to
which the board is likely to crack when creased then folded.
Environmental The paper industry is not a net consumer of trees but a net provider. Trees for making
commentary paper are grown, harvested and replanted like any other crop. In most western European
countries at least two trees are planted for every one cut down. In Finland and Sweden,
Forest management the rules stipulate three. Further, reforestation programmes seek to increase biodiversity
and maintain sustainability of wood production. The result is that in virtually every country
in Europe, tree coverage is steadily increasing rather than decreasing. Some 15% of the
worlds annual wood consumption is used for pulp and paper and very little native forest is
cut down specifically for this purpose.
Tropical and temperate natural forests are being cleared to provide living space,
to secure grazing land for cattle, and provide timber for furniture and construction.
Replanting of hardwood forests to provide wood for making paper is now common in
countries such as Brazil, Chile, Thailand and Indonesia.
Pollution Pulp and paper makers are aware of the environmental effects of their production
processes and are seeking to reduce emissions to air, water and land. An example is the
pulp industrys change to chlorine-free bleaching processes reducing the possibility of
generating potentially toxic by-products. Natural shades (off-whites) of paper require less
bleaching chemicals than are required to achieve bright whites and have now gained
acceptance.
Recycling In western Europe and the US, virgin pulp derived from trees accounts for just under half of
all fibre used for paper. The remaining fibre is derived from recycled paper, mostly post-
consumer waste. In the UK, the figure was 62.3% recycled fibre (Mill consumption of waste
paper pulp equivalent 3,674,600 tonnes, Paper Federation Reference Statistics for 1996).
The paper industry has always made use of recycled fibre in the form of broke
generated from paper production and converting. This is known as pre-consumer waste. In
countries with insufficient virgin fibre sources, such as the UK, Germany and Japan,
historical use has also been made of post-consumer waste paper. The use of post-consumer
waste has, therefore, been driven traditionally by market forces. In recent years, further
increases in use have been stimulated by government policy resulting from environmental
concerns, particularly to reduce the use of landfill and to reduce consumption of energy
and resources.
9
The global waste paper recovery rate was 40% in 1994 and this will continue to
grow within the limits set by collection and sorting costs, effects on paper quality and the
environmental impact of de-inking technologies. New developments in de-inking
technology have resulted in the recovery of high-grade fibre that is used to produce high-
quality printing and writing grades.
Energy conservation
The reduction of energy consumption is a priority for paper makers. An example is the co-
generation of electric power and low pressure steam. There has also been an increase in
the amount of energy generated internally from waste.
Water conservation
Much progress has been made in recycling the water used in paper making. Most mills are
aiming to produce closed systems that continuously recirculate water within the paper
machine system.
Measurements Sheets are usually specified by either an internationally agreed range of the International
and calculation Standards Organisation (A, B, C series) or a range of metric variations on the old imperial
sizes (mostly for bookwork).
The international British Standard BS4000 1983. The International ISO range is based on three series of
ISO range interrelating sizes, which are designated A, B and C. The sides of the sheet are always in
the ratio 1:2, the subdivision from one size to the next one down is denoted by a higher
numeral and is made by halving the length of the longest side (e.g. A2 is half of A1).
Trimmed size is defined as the final dimensions of a sheet of paper.
Untrimmed size is defined as the dimensions of a sheet of paper, untrimmed and
not specially squared, sufficiently large to allow a trimmed size to be obtained from it as
required.
A series
The A series comprises trimmed sizes designed for standard printing and stationery needs:
A0 = 1m
2
; A1 = 0.5m
2
and so on.
RA sizes are for normal trim work.
SRA sizes are for bleeds or extra trim.
B series
The B series comprises trimmed sizes falling between A sizes that are designed for large
items, e.g. wallcharts.
C series
The C series comprises sheets for envelopes and folders to take A series contents.
Useful metric Area square metre m
2
units and symbols Dimensions millimetre mm
centimetre cm (1cm=10mm)
metre m (1m=100cm=1000mm)
Grammage grams per square metre g/m
2
or gsm
Mass gram g
kilogram kg (1kg=1000g)
tonne t (1t=1000kg=1,000,000g)
Thickness micrometre, micron m
millimetre mm (1mm=1000m)
Bursting strength kilopascal kPa
Internal tearing millinewton mN strength
Temperature degrees Celsius C
Relative humidity percentage %
Sheet count standard ream 500 sheets
Machine direction indicated by symbol (m) e.g. 640 900 (m) long grain sheet, 640 (m)
900 short grain sheet
Paper sizes
TABLE 9.4 A sizes
Sheet size Millimetres Inches
4A 1682 2378 66
1
/
4 93
5
/
8
2A 1189 1682 463
3
/
4 66
1
/
4
A0 841 1189 33
1
/
8 46
3
/
4
A1 594 841 23
3
/
8 33
1
/
8
A2 420 594 16
1
/
2 23
3
/
8
A3 297 420 11
3
/
4 16
1
/
2
A4 210 297 8
1
/
4 11
3
/
4
A5 148 210 5
7
/
8 8
1
/
4
A6 105 148 4
1
/
8 5
7
/
8
A7 74 105 2
7
/
8 4
1
/
8
A8 52 74 2 2
7
/
8
A9 37 52 1
1
/
2 2
A10 26 37 1 1
1
/
2
9
Figure 9.2 below shows the progressive reductions down from A0 to A5 and each size is
half the previous one. In the diagram on the right, it is clear that each size has its sides in
the same ratio of 1:2. (1:1.412)
TABLE 9.5 C series
Sheet size Millimetres Inches Common use
4A 1682 2378 66
1
/
4 93
5
/
8
C0 917 1297 36
1
/
8 51
C1 648 917 25
1
/
2 36
1
/
8
C2 458 648 18 25
1
/
2
C3 324 458 12
3
/
4 18
C4 229 324 9 12
3
/
4 takes A4 sheet flat
C5 162 229 6
3
/
8 9 takes A5 sheet flat
C6 114 162 4
1
/
2 6
3
/
8 takes A5 folded once
C7/6 81 162 3
1
/
4 6
3
/
8 takes A5 folded twice
C7 81 114 3
1
/
4 4
1
/
2
DL 110 220 4
3
/
8 8
5
/
8 takes A4 folded twice
A1
148 mm
A0
1
1
8
9

m
m
8
4
1

m
m
5
9
4

m
m
4
2
0

m
m
2
9
7

m
m
2
1
0

m
m
210 mm
297 mm
420 mm
594 mm
841 mm
A2
A3
A4
A5
A0
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
FIGURE 9.2 A series size relationships
TABLE 9.6 RA sizes
Sheet size Millimetres Inches A4 pages A4 pages
to view from sheet
RA0 860 1220 33
3
/
8 48 16 32
RA1 610 860 24 33
7
/
8 8 16
RA2 430 610 16
7
/
8 24 4 8
TABLE 9.7 SRA sizes
Sheet size Millimetres Inches A4 pages A4 pages
to view from sheet
SRA0 900 1280 35
3
/
8 50
3
/
8 16 32
SRA1 640 900 25
1
/
4 35
3
/
8 8 16
SRA2 450 640 17
3
/
4 25
1
/
4 4 8
TABLE 9.8 B series
4B 2000 2828 78
3
/
4 111
3
/
8
2B 1414 2000 55
5
/
8 78
3
/
4
B0 1000 1414 39
3
/
8 55
5
/
8
B1 707 1000 27
5
/
8 39
7
/
8
B2 500 707 19
5
/
8 27
7
/
8
B3 353 500 13
7
/
8 19
5
/
8
B4 250 353 9
7
/
8 13
7
/
8
B5 176 250 7 9
7
/
8
Substance
Paper weight or substance is defined as the weight in grams of one square metre of one
sheet of paper (i.e. an A0 size sheet). It is reported as grams per square metre (abbreviated
to gsm).
Volume
Paper volume basis (a measure of caliper or thickness) is the measure of thickness in
millimetres of 100 sheets of the paper in 100gsm. As a unit of measurement, it is referred to
as volume and abbreviated to vol, e.g. for a vol 16 paper, 100 sheets of 100gsm of the paper
will have been measured as 16 mm thick. Alternatively, the caliper of a single sheet can be
measured in micrometres (also called microns) and for which the symbol is m.
Board, however, is always sold by thickness rather than weight and this is
normally measured as the thickness of a single board in micrometres, although it can
sometimes be measured in millimetres. Standard stock thicknesses are 200, 230, 250, 280,
300, 400 and 500m.
9
Weight and volume Derived from Imperial sizes, they allow for a 3mm trim at the head, foot and fore-edge of
(metric system) the page. Standard sheet sizes are as follows:
TABLE 9.9 The metric range of book publishing papers
Trimmed Untrimmed Quad sheet Pages Pages
Name page (mm) page (mm) (mm) to view from sheet
Metric Crown 8vo 186 123 192 126 768(m) 1008 32 64
Metric Crown 4to 246 189 252 192 768 1008(m) 16 32
Metric Large Crown 8vo 198 129 204 132 816(m) 1056 32 64
Metric Demy 8vo 216 138 222 141 888(m) 1128 32 64
Metric Demy 4to 276 219 282 222 888 1128(m) 16 32
Metric Royal 8vo 234 156 240 159 960(m) 1272 32 64
Metric Royal 4to 312 237 318 240 960 1272(m) 16 32
Reels: sizes are usually made to order, the width determined by the requirement of the printing machine.
BS4000 also recommends the following for printers board and cover paper.
TABLE 9.10 Recommendations for printers board and covers
Printers board untrimmed Cover paper untrimmed
Sheet size stock sizes (mm) stock sizes (mm)
SRA2 450 640 485 640
Royal 520 640 520 780
Postal 570 730 640 970
SRA1 640 900
Calculating the number of sheets required for a job
pages print run
sheets required = plus allowance for overs
pages per perfected sheet
Calculating the weight of paper in the job
length (mm) width (mm) gsm
1. = kgs/1000 sheets
10
6
Example: the weight of 1000 sheets of 120gsm paper size RA1 is
610 860 120
= 62.95 kg
1,000,000
2. kgs/1000 sheets required
= weight of paper in the job (tonnes)
10
6
Example: the weight of 16,500 sheets of the above paper is:
62.95 16,500
= 1.039 tonnes
1,000,000
Calculating the cost of paper for the job
Weight of paper in the job tonne rate = cost of paper in the job
Example:
8000 copies of a 128pp monochrome book trimmed size 216 138mm, printing 32
to view on 888 1128, 80gsm paper at 600 per tonne:
128 8000
(i) Sheets required = = 16,000 + 4% overs = 16,640
64
888 1128 80
(ii) Weight of paper = = 80.1 kgs/1000
10
6
80.1 16,640
then = 1.333 tonnes
10
6
(iii) Cost of paper = 1.333 600 = 799.80
Calculating the weight of a magazine or book
mm mm gsm
1
/
2 pages
= weight (grams)
10
6
Add 20 grams for a paperback cover. Add 100 grams for a hardback case.
Calculating the cost of paper in a magazine or book
Weight of paper (grams) tonne rate
= cost (pence)
10
4
Number of sheets in a tonne
10
6
= number of sheets in one tonne
kgs/1000
Number of copies of a job obtainable from a given number of sheets
sheets available pp per perfected sheet
= copies, less allowance for overs.
pages in job
Calculating sheet size required
Always check with the printer before finally ordering paper in your calculated sheet size.
The allowances given below are averages and may vary up or down according to the needs
of the particular printing machine being used and the working methods employed.
1. Establish the maximum sheet size of the machine you plan to use.
2. Take the trimmed size of the job (article/magazine/book).
3. Add 6mm to the depth dimension and add 3mm to the width dimension to give the
untrimmed size.
9
4. Multiply the depth by 2/4/6/8 width by 2/4/6/8 to get the nearest depth and
width figures to the maximum sheet size.
5. a) If the job is monochrome unbled, no further allowance is needed.
Round up the figure you now have to the nearest 10mm in both directions.
b) If the job is monochrome bled add the following and then round up to the
nearest 10mm in both directions:
15mm on the leading edge for grippers,
12mm on the leave edge for handling,
6mm on each side edge for handling.
c) If the job is four-colour bled add the following and then round up to the nearest
10mm in either direction:
15mm on the leading edge for grippers,
30mm on the leave edge for colour bars,
6mm on each side edge for handling.
Example:
Colour book trimmed size 251 203 mm bled to be printed on a Roland Ultra 5:
1. Maximum sheet size Roland Ultra 5 = 890 1260
2. Trimmed size of book = 251 203
3. Untrimmed size of book = 257 206
4. Nearest approx. sheet size = (257 4) = 1028
(206 4) = 824
5. Short dimension: 824mm + 45mm = 869mm
Long dimension: 1028mm + 12mm = 1040mm
Rounded up = 870 1040mm sheet size
Calculating the meterage required for a job
1. Meterage for one section = machine cut-off (m) print run plus allowance for overs.
2. Meterage for whole job = number of sections in the job meterage per section.
Calculating the weight of this meterage
m m gsm
= weight of paper in the job (tonnes)
10
6
Calculating the cost of this paper
Weight of paper in the job tonne rate = cost of paper in the job
Example:
80,000 copies of a 128pp colour book, trimmed size A5, printing on a web with a reel
width of 640mm and cut off 450mm. 80gsm paper at 550 a tonne:
a) 1. Meterage for one section = 0.45 80000 = 36000.
Plus 15% overs = 41400
2. Meterage for whole job = 8 41400 = 331200 metres
b) Weight of this meterage =
0.64 331 200 80
= 16.957 tonnes
10
6
c) 16.957 550 = 9326.35
TABLE 9.11 Spoilage allowances
Sheetfed work
Add 2% per colour to the printers allowance for multi-colour work
Printing quantity printers allowance binders allowance total spoilage allowance
10002500 4.0% 2.5% 6.5%
25005000 3.0% 2.0% 5.0%
500010000 2.5% 1.5% 4.0%
10,000+ 2.5% 1.0% 3.5%
Web-fed work
Add 3% per colour to the printers allowance for multi-colour work
Printing quantity printers allowance binders allowance total spoilage allowance
10,00015,000 11.0% 1.0% 12.0%
15,00025,000 9.0% 1.0% 10.0%
25,00075,000 7.0% 1.0% 8.0%
75,000+ 5.0% 1.0% 6.0%
Reference should be made to the printer for the exact figures he requires. However, typical figures for monochrome sheet- and web-fed litho are
shown here.
Calculating the weight of a magazine or book
mm mm gsm
1
/
2 pages
= weight (grams)
10
6
Add 20 grams for a paperback cover. Add 100 grams for a hardback case.
Calculating the cost of paper in a magazine or book
Weight of paper (grams) tonne rate
= cost (pence)
10
4
Calculating bulk where the volume of a paper is known
gsm volume
1
/
2 pages
Bulk (mm) =
10
4
9
Calculating caliper
gsm volume
Caliper (microns) =
10
Calculating volume where caliper and substance are known
caliper (microns) 10
Volume =
gsm
US measurement Most of the world uses the metric system of grams and metres outlined above. The main
and calculation exception to this is the United States of America whose system retains much in common
with Britains old Imperial system.
The standard units of measurement for weight are: pounds, hundredweights
(100lbs) and tons (2000lbs). Paper size is measured in inches and quantity in reams (500
sheets unless otherwise specified).
Weight and size information
Substance is identified by basis weight.
Basis weight = weight (lbs) of a ream of paper cut to its basic size.
A papers basic size depends on its grade. The basic sizes for the common paper grades are:
Paper Basic size (inches) Equivalent in mm
Cover boards 20 26 508 660
Newsprint 24 36 610 914
Book papers 25 38 635 965
A book paper of basis weight 60lb is written as 25 3860(500).
Caliper calculations Grammage and basis weight conversion
Convert from one to the other using a multiplying factor. See Table 9.12.
Note that different multiplication factors are applied to each basic size.
For rough calculations with the most common 25" 38" basic size papers the factors to
retain are:
lbs to gsm : multiply by 1
1
/
2 (the exact factor is 1.4800)
gsm to lbs : multiply by
2
/
3 (the exact factor is 0.6757)
Substance number
The term substance number is sometimes used as an alternative to basis weight,
particularly for bond or writing papers. For example, a bond paper with basis weight 20lb
can also be called substance 20.
M weight
Basis weight is often converted into the weight of 1000 (M) sheets (instead of a ream
or 500 sheets). So a book paper with a basis weight of 60lb has an M weight of 120lb.
For a book paper of basis weight 60lb this would be written as:
25 38120(M) (instead of 25 3860(500)).
Prices
Usually expressed as dollars per 100lb (divide by 100 to give price per lb).
Calculations
Price per 1000 sheets
M weight price per lb
Weight of paper required when using paper in its basic size
M weight number of sheets required
lbs =
1000
TABLE 9.12 Conversion factors for basis weights and grammage
Basic size to convert from gsm to lb/ream to convert from lb/ream to gsm
(inches) multiply gsm by mutiply lb/ream by
17 22 0.266 3.76
20 26 (cover boards) 0.370 2.70
20 30 0.427 2.34
22 38 0.438 2.28
22
1
/
2 28
1
/
2 0.456 2.19
25
1
/
2 30
1
/
2 0.553 1.81
23 35 0.573 1.75
24 36 (newsprint) 0.614 1.63
25 38 (book papers) 0.675 1.48
Weight required using non-standard (not basic) sheet size
First calculate the M weight of the non-standard size:
non-standard size basis weight
1. Weight of 500 sheets =
basic size
Example:
Weight wanted of non-standard size 23 29 using a 60lb book paper:
23 29 60
Weight of 500 sheets = = 42.1lbs (round up to 42)
25 38
Then apply the M weight to the formula for calculating paper in its basic
size.
2. M weight = 2 basis weight
9
Calculating weight in reels
The formula for reels is essentially the same as for non-standard sheet.
Calculate the M weight as 1000 sections where the dimensions of one section are defined
as the reel width by the machine cut off:
Example:
Weight of a 40lb book paper in reels with a width of 34
1
/
2" and a machine cut off 23
9
/
16":
23
9
/
16 34
1
/
2 40
Weight of 500 sections = = 34lbs
25 38
Therefore M weight = 68lb
Now apply the formula:
M weight number of sections required
= total weight in lbs
1000
Linear footage on a reel
reel weight basic size 500
Linear footage =
reel width basis weight
footage on a reel 2
Number of sections out of a reel =
machine cut-off (inches)
Thickness
Thickness of paper and board is measured by one of two related methods:
bulking number = number of sheets that will bulk to one inch under test conditions.
per inch (ppi) = twice the bulking number (because one sheet = two pages).
Standards for testing are laid down by TAPPI (Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper
Industry), PO Box 105113, Atlanta, Georgia 30348, US.
TABLE 9.13 Weight (lb) per 1000 sheets of standard sheet sizes and weights of book papers
Sheet size Basis weight (lb) 25 38" ream
(inches) (Equivalent gsm)
30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 100 120
44 52 59 67 74 89 104 118 148 178
17
1
/
2 22
1
/
2 25 29 33 37 41 50 58 66 83 99
19 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 100 120
23 29 42 49 56 63 70 84 98 112 140 169
23 35 51 59 68 76 84 102 118 136 169 203
24 36 54 64 72 82 90 110 128 146 182 208
25 38 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 200 240
28 44 78 90 104 116 130 156 182 208 260 312
32 44 88 104 118 134 148 178 208 238 296 356
35 45 100 116 132 150 166 198 232 266 332 398
38 50 120 140 160 180 200 240 280 320 400 480
42 58 154 179 205 230 256 308 358 410 512 614
TABLE 9.14 Weight (lb) per 1000 sheets of standard sheet sizes and weights
of cover boards
Sheet size Basis weight (lb) 25 38" ream
(inches) (Equivalent gsm)
50 60 65 80 100 130
135 162 175 216 270 351
20 26 100 120 130 160 200 260
23 35 155 186 201 248 310 402
26 40 200 240 260 320 400 520
35 46 310 392 402 496 620 804
Table 9.15 American book sizes
Name Size (inches) Name Size (inches)
Medium 32mo 3 4
3
/
4 Medium 12mo 5
1
/
8 7
2
/
3
Medium 24mo 3
5
/
8 5
1
/
2 Demy 8vo 5
1
/
2 8
Medium 18mo 4 6
2
/
3 Small 4to 7 8
1
/
2
Cap 8vo 7 7
1
/
4 Broad 4to (up to 13 10) 7 8
1
/
2
12mo 4
1
/
2 7
1
/
2 Medium 8vo 6 9
1
/
2
Medium 16mo 4
1
/
2 6
3
/
4 Royal 8vo 6
1
/
2 10
Crown 8vo 5 7
1
/
2 Super Royal 8vo 7 10
1
/
2
Post 8vo 5
1
/
2 7
1
/
2 Imperial 8vo 8
1
/
4 11
1
/
2
Note that the American usage is to express the width dimension of the book first. The sizes quoted are not
absolute and may vary slightly.
So which paper should be used, and how should the choice be made? The paper must fit
the publishers cost and quality requirement and should represent the most cost-effective
choice for the printer. Paper can be specified in terms of three categories of properties:
Service properties Properties designed into the paper by the manufacturing mill
Performance properties How the paper performs at the printer
Commercial Properties Agreed between paper supplier and customer.
These criteria can be used to determine the best choice. A publisher (the term is
used to refer to any client of a printer) will consider the service and commercial properties
of a paper while the printer has to assess all three types of property.
Individual printing companies will assess paper performance on their machines,
using measures of runnability to determine their acceptance of a particular grade. Modern
paper machines make large tonnages of paper extremely quickly and consistently, but they
may spoil the effort through poor finishing, presentation and delivery techniques
damaging the paper before it gets to press. Mills and suppliers should work more closely
with printers to understand better how they use the paper and so to improve performance.
The batch-to-batch consistency of paper is vitally important and will be more so in future.
Printers will no longer be able to offer out-of-specification print to customers, or afford the
consequences of poor runnability. Printers will work with their preferred suppliers to
develop the process for the benefit of each other to give publishers a better service.
9
Service properties These properties are the design and manufacture of paper at a mill. A mill will choose the
of paper ingredients and method of manufacture of their paper taking the economics, performance on
the paper machine and finishing line, subsequent performance on printing press and final
product properties into account. It is the balance between the paper machine and printing
press performance that sometimes causes problems between the supplier and printer.
Paper is a complex organic material made of an enormous number of cellulose
fibres, coating and various bonding elements. Papers vary through raw material selection,
method of manufacture and type of paper machine, surface coating and finishing. The
service properties determine the end use of paper and may be used as a method of
classification. It is the overall mix of properties that determines the suitability for any
particular publishing application.
Each property will affect how a printer can treat the substrate on the press. The
list can act as a check list for buyers to consider when placing a paper order. There are
more than 50 British Standard test methods to determine the service properties of paper.
In the US, the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI) publishes
methods for testing paper and board, and individual laboratories in mills, merchants and
printers use a variety of these tests, together with particular routines they have developed
to characterise paper samples.
There is little correlation between the instruments used in different laboratories
in mills and printers, and certainly not between different countries, although several bodies
are working to calibrate to a standard. PIRA International offers a calibration service that
is helping standardisation. The Confederation of European Paper Industries (CEPI) offers a
range of calibrated test materials and protocols to laboratories to calibrate their
instruments. Despite these initiatives, at present there is no absolute result and the
recorded numbers from different testing sites cannot be directly compared. Providing
quantitative comparisons of available papers can be a useful marketing tool for printers to
give the publisher an informed choice of the particular grade.
There are many paper mills manufacturing and selling into the well-developed
global paper market, and they often use local paper merchants as part of the distribution
channel. West European and Scandinavian paper suppliers have served the UK well and
are being joined by suppliers from America and eastern Europe. There are many grades of
paper, from uncoated newsprint to triple-cast coated woodfree grades. Each is designed
and manufactured to have different properties for a wide range of end uses. There is no
standard paper nomenclature system to define the type and grade of paper, so a
lightweight coated (LWC) from supplier X may be mediumweight coated (MWC) from Y.
9
TABLE 9.16 A list of service properties of paper and board
The paper grade
Which type of paper or board, see Table 9.17.
Raw material content
The major ingredient of paper is cellulose fibre, mostly pulp from farmed softwood or other plants. As well as fibre, paper will contain mineral
fillers, sizes and chemical additives such as alum, retention aids, dyes or optical brighteners. If the paper is coated, the coating may contain
pigments, adhesives, dispersants, hardeners and preservatives.
Pulp may be recycled from used paper and board, or from virgin fibre. There are two main grades of pulp: mechanical, where the fibres
are physically separated by grinding up logs and wood chips under great pressure in water; woodfree pulp is manufactured in a chemical
refining process that dissolves the lignin present in wood. Woodfree pulp is more expensive than mechanical. It gives the paper greater
strength and shows less tendency to yellow in sunlight. The pulp will be bleached during manufacture using traditional chlorine or more
modern oxygen bleaching. The chlorine content is a live issue and important for environmental awareness concerns, and chlorine-free paper
is often a successful marketing ploy.
Method of manufacture
Most printing paper is made on large, fast-running machines based on the Fourdrinier design. This is a wet method where the raw material
ingredients are mixed in a suspension in water, the furnish. This carries the raw material to be distributed evenly into a thin film on a moving
belt that forms the web of paper. This web is then dried by filtration, pressing and evaporation to give a dry product with a moisture content
normally between 37%. The paper may be surface treated during the drying stages. It may be sized to improve surface strength and render
it resistant to penetration by water, or have one or more pigment or polymer coatings applied to impart a particular smooth glossy or matt
finish. The jumbo paper reels may then be calendered to improve the smoothness before being slit and wound into smaller reels for printing
or sheeted then packed, labelled and despatched.
Basis weight
This is the weight of a known area of the paper. In Europe it is expressed as grams per square metre (gsm), and pounds per ream (1,000
square feet), normally referred to as lbs, in North America. Paper is traditionally sold by weight so accuracy in basis weight is important for
the printer to ensure that sufficient sheets or length of paper for the job is delivered. There is a trend that printers and publishers should
encourage to specify quantities of paper by the number of sheets or metreage of reels. Modern winding and sheeting equipment at paper
mills are able to provide accurate measures of length or number of sheets in a package.
The lower the basis weight of paper, the lower the cost of printed product distribution through the postal service. Lowering the basis
weight increases the unit cost of paper, and may incur higher printing costs through slower running. At close to 225gsm, paper becomes
board. Web printing is rare on paper above 200gsm with the product sheeted rather than folded.
Caliper
Is the thickness of a sheet, and normally measured in microns (). Paper bulk is the ratio of thickness to grammage, Bulk = Caliper ()/gsm.
The bulk determines the volume of paper reels, sheets and printed product. The higher the bulk, the greater the number of reels and pallets
that will affect the logistics and warehousing needs.
Knowing the caliper is necessary to calculate the final spine thickness for a book at the design stage to allow for cover dimensions and to
adjust page imposition in thread-sewn and wire-stitched products to allow for the effect of page creep.
Dimensions
The size of sheets, reel width and diameter of reels are important to ensure that the minimum of waste is produced. Normally, the smallest
size paper that will produce the product is best. In some short run sheetfed printing, the extended make-ready involved in setting a new size
of paper may make it economic to use a small range of standard sizes to reduce make-ready. Sheets must always be square to allow good
feeding through press and folder.
Grain direction
This is the alignment of the long dimension of most fibres that occurs during paper manufacture on a Fourdrinier machine. When paper
absorbs moisture, it expands much more across the grain than in the direction of the grain. For this reason it is preferable to run long-grain
(grain parallel to the axis of the press cylinder) during offset multi-colour printing of large sheets to minimise fan-out misregistration. In
binding, the grain direction affects performance in finishing machines and the properties of the final product.
Moisture content
Paper typically contains between 37% water by weight when supplied from the mill. Paper is a hygroinstable material and its dimensions
change when the water content changes. Individual fibres absorb water from the atmosphere when the relative humidity is higher than the
paper. This causes them to swell in thickness and the dimensions of the sheet change. When in a reel or a stack, it is the paper at the edge
that is affected first as the bulk of the paper acts to insulate the interior from the outside.
Reels and sheets are wrapped with waterproof material before shipping. The printer should allow paper to come to the temperature of the
pressroom before unwrapping and then use it immediately to avoid uneven absorption of moisture causing tight or slack edges to piles or
reels. In heatset printing, the sections may shrink too much if the base paper has a high moisture content. Often sections may require re-
moistening to avoid problems of web-wave, especially when perfect bound with the grain direction perpendicular to the spine. Using paper
with a suitable moisture content may overcome such problems.
Moisture may be determined by drying paper in an oven and measuring the weight loss, using short-wave spectroscopy or with a sword
hydrometer in a stack of paper.
TABLE 9.16 A list of service properties of paper and board (continued)
Gloss
Gloss is a measurement of light reflection from both sides of a flattened sheet using a specular gloss meter. Generally it holds that the higher
the unprinted paper gloss, the glossier the colour printed result.
Opacity
Opacity Is the transparency of the paper. It is measured by comparing the intensity of a light source with and without the paper placed
between the source and analyser. The higher the opacity, the more difficult it is to see the print on the reverse side and next page in a
magazine or book.
Internal bonding (Scott Bond)
For paper manufactured on a twin-wire Fourdrinier machine and for any coated paper or board, the Scott bond is the force required to split a
single sheet apart.
Surface smoothness
This is typically determined by an air leakage measure between the paper surface and a flat ring or an optical scatter measurement. The
smoother the surface, the more uniform is the lay of printed ink although uneven absorption may affect the printed appearance.
The smoothness will affect the slip of the printed sheet, determining the stability of piled sheets in a stack and the performance of
cartons in a filling line.
Water absorption
Water absorption is the amount of water absorbed by the paper when a known area is in soaked in water and then dried after a set time.
Low water absorption is important for lithographic printing and in end use applications where the print may be in contact with moisture,
such as in packaging frozen goods. Papers used in these ways will contain sizing agents.
Oil absorption
This is the time taken for the paper to absorb a drop of oil placed on the surface. There is some correlation with strike through, where ink
from one side of the paper penetrates the paper to show on the other side. The speed will indicate the relative setting speed for conventional
oxidation drying inks. If the ink sets too fast, the film may chalk and show rub or scuff and, if too slow, there may be drying problems.
Uneven absorption may lead to an uneven ink lay and an appearance of mottling. Mottle may be due to uneven coating and can be
tested by applying a coloured liquid to the paper surface and examining the pattern after some time. This is done either visually or with
some form of image analysis.
Shade and brightness
The absolute shade is a colorimeter or spectrophotometer measurement of the paper surface using a particular quantitative colour space. For
example, CIELUV, CIELch or the more widely used CIEL*a*b* where:
L* = lightness (0 = black, 100 = white);
a* = green/red 120 = green, +120 = red;
b* = blue/yellow 120 = blue, +120 = red. In both a* and b*, 0 = neutral grey. When taking an absolute colour measurement, the angle of
observer and illuminant of the calibrated instrument must be defined. Paper makers use the ISO brightness measurement that is rigidly
defined by ISO standard 2469 for paper that does not contain an optical brightener. Fluorescence under UV light tests for the presence of
optical brightening agents. This can be visually compared with a range of standard samples to give a quantitative measure. Examining paper
under ultraviolet light often clearly shows patterns and unevenness in the paper surface that may contribute to printability problems.
The brighter the paper surface, the higher the maximum ink contrast that will give a brighter looking printed result.
Strength
Paper strength may be expressed by measuring the resistance to burst, tensile, tear resistance, stiffness and fold endurance. All except burst
are markedly different in grain and cross-grain direction. Paper strength is a function of the choice of furnish and the amount of beating the
pulp undergoes, and so more refined, woodfree pulps give better strength than mechanical grades. The amount of fibre in the paper is also
critical, and generally the strength increases with increase in grammage.
There is some relationship between strength and performance on press. Often the higher the strength, the better the runnability for a web
although there is no direct correlation. Strength measurements may provide a good idea of the consistency of the paper making within a
batch or across many makings.
Stretch
Stretch is the amount of distortion that a test piece of paper of known dimension undergoes when a constant rate of load is applied in a
tensile tester before the paper ruptures.
Surface strength
The tendency for the surface to break up may be tested by coating with a tacky fluid on the IGT printability tester and examining any surface
disruption, or by the wax pick test.
Special coatings
These include impregnating the surface with waxes or plastic to produce impenetrable barriers for liquid packaging materials, or thin plastic
foils for particular colour and appearances.
TABLE 9.17 Some of the many available printing papers
Newsprint Uncoated paper containing 80% mechanical pulp
Uses newspapers
Improved newsprint Newsprint with the surface finished on machine
Uses newspaper, colour supplements
Super calendered 75% mechanical sized uncoated paper between 4590gsm. Different grades (SC/WSOP) are designed for offset and
gravure, the surface is smoothed by calendering
Uses magazines, brochures
Film coated Low coating weights applied on a non-blade coater part mechanical paper
Uses catalogues, magazines, brochures
Bulky mechanical High bulk coated or uncoated papers
Uses childrens annuals, comics, paperback books
Short dwell coated Mechanical paper with low weights of on-machine coating
Uses bulky magazines
Lightweight coated Mechanical with between 710gsm coating weight on each side of (LWC) the paper in a final weight range between
4565gsm, glossy or matt finish
Uses magazines, brochures
Mediumweight Higher weight range coated mechanical, 75100gsm
Uses glossy magazines
Super LWC Double (or Triple) coated mechanical, 60115gsm
Uses high gloss magazines/brochures
Fine paper Woodfree (by definition a woodfree paper contains less than 10% mechanical pulp) paper for writing, drawing and
printing between 40150gsm
Woodfree lightweight Thin papers, coated or uncoated that may contain rag pulp up to 40gsm
(Bible papers) Uses applications requiring low weight and bulk, catalogues, timetables
Art Woodfree coated paper, matt (smooth) or glossy
Uses high quality colour books
Cartridge Woodfree uncoated paper
Uses books
Cast coated paper Woodfree, heavily calendered, smooth, glossy paper
Uses paper labels
Cast coated board Heavier version of the paper, often cast coated only on one side
Uses glossy covers, folders
Carton board Wide range of heavy, often multi-ply, thick board
Uses Magazine and brochure covers, packaging
Many other papers are made for non-printing applications from lightweight cigarette
paper, to sanitary application, greaseproof paper and heavy corrugated kraft liner board.
The feel and appearance of these grades differ. People respond differently to the same
information printed on various papers. Researchers in Finland put forward the concept of
characterising paper as an information carrier. This develops the idea that the paper
surface determines how a human observer understands and absorbs information printed
on it. The optical properties of contrast, reflection, colour and light diffusion are important
in the presentation of information. For example, many advertising agencies prefer a white,
bright, high-gloss paper in mass circulation glossy magazines to get their message across
to readers. Generally, as the paper quality improves (and increases in price), so the
information capacity increases. Figure 9.3 schematically represents the relation between
information capacity and grade price for typical publication papers.
The information capacity is a difficult property to quantify and is probably
outside the scope of most printers to use on an everyday basis. The boundaries of the
9
different grades demonstrate the limitation of particular grades, and so newsprint can
never carry as much easily understood information as a coated woodfree art grade. For
specific marketing purposes, such measurements are useful when making a publishing
decision on the grade to use. This type of measure may be important to print and paper
when comparing its performance against new electronic media.
A printer or publisher may construct a simple database of service paper
properties to allow interested personnel access to this information. Paper suppliers will do
this for their product portfolio, but they are reluctant to release to the market their internal
comparisons with competitive papers. It is important that a consistent system of paper
coding is in use, to identify paper by:
Paper trade name
Paper grade
Grammage
Manufacturing mill
Supplying agent or merchant.
Recording the laboratory measurements of service properties means that papers can be sorted
according to any service criteria. This means the glossiest, most opaque lightweight coated
paper from the myriad available may be quantitatively chosen for print tests if that is the clients
I
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y
Paper unit price
Woodfree art
Super LWC
Light weight coated
Short dwell coated
Film coated offset
Improved SC
Super calendered (SC offset)
Super calendered (SC rotogravure)
Improved newsprint
Newsprint
FIGURE 9.3 Schematic representation of the information capacity of a range of
publication printing papers
requirement. Such information can be a useful marketing tool for the printer, particularly when
the customers experience of paper is limited. The mechanisms of selling paper often involve
merchants re-branding paper. In some cases this involves taking papers from different sources
and giving it the same name, which leads to confusion on press. It is the original mill and
finisher that determine the papers characteristics, and not any subsequent labelling for
marketing and distribution purposes. When service properties and performance measurements
are made, the identity of the paper involved is required to ensure validity of the data.
Properties to put on a database include:
Grammage, particularly to compare with the quoted value
Caliper
Presence of mechanical pulp
Gloss
Surface smoothness
Opacity
Surface shade and fluorescence
Moisture content
Burst strength
Tear resistance
Tensile strength and stretch.
All these service property tests are on discrete samples of paper, and typically using just a few
A4 pieces. The results are useful in defining a type of paper and then checking inter- and
intra-batch consistency. If problems occur at the printer, examination of the service properties
is useful in troubleshooting. Any changes from the standard may suggest some
manufacturing problem.
Service properties may indicate the expected printability of a paper, but do not
define it. Laboratory simulations of printing provide useful guidelines using apparatus such as
the Prufbau, Duncan-Lynch or IGT printability testers. Only the printed result on the machine
that the job is to be printed on will adequately define the printability. Printability is simply
the perception of the print by an individual and is influenced by many factors. Crucially, a
persons perception is not a measurable property as it is determined by the brains response to
visual stimulus. The individual who matters most is the customer. However, being the graphic
arts, everybody else who sees the result will also express an opinion. A commercial definition
of acceptable printability is: The result that satisfies the customer for every copy.
There are problems involved in quantitatively defining printability. The visual
characteristics determine the appearance of print so it is important that it is examined
under suitable viewing conditions. This will ensure consistency when considering
characteristics of:
Comparison with proofs and originals
Colour gamut, saturation and balance
Highlight and shadow detail
Print sharpness
9
Spot colour definition
Gloss
Print contrast.
These are reasonably easy to define, measure and quantify using a densitometer,
colorimeter or spectrophotometer. It is less easy to measure the more intangible properties
of lift, life, thin and zing, which are terms commonly bandied about.
Printers listen to what the customer is looking for on press. There are ways of
altering standard conditions to achieve the result. These involve the application of skills
developed by the pressman over time but are ultimately down to empirical trial and error.
These take time and waste materials. The trend for print personnel is to marry the
strengths of craft skills with a more technical approach as there is not enough time and
money in a job to allow leisurely experimentation on press.
Good printability results from a consistent, even paper surface. Different grades
of paper have very different surfaces that alter the appearance of the print through dot
sharpness. Smooth, glossy paper receives ink readily to give a sharp result. Uncoated paper
has a rougher surface that, on a micro scale, is full of hills and channels. To get good ink
lay, a heavy squash with compressible blankets is necessary. This engenders high dot gain.
Different ranges of dot gain are not problems. They are process phenomena that should be
recognised and taken into account during the repro stage and particularly the proofing
process chosen. High dot gain limits the printability of the rougher grade in achieving high
print contrast, colour saturation and sharpness.
The shade of the paper governs the maximum contrast a halftone dot can
achieve. Ink on paper printing is a subtractive colour process with the ink pigmentation
removing part of the incidental light that is reflected back from the paper surface. If the
stock is dull and yellowy-grey, then the range of reproducible colours is limited and the
printability is poor. Improved printability comes from smooth, white, opaque paper.
The combination of surface properties of shade, smoothness and opacity enables
some grades of paper to produce a more pleasing printed image to most people. When a
bright, white, smooth opaque paper is used, the print has bright colours, a wide dynamic
range, maximum saturation in the shadows with open mid-tones and detailed highlights.
The printer tries to achieve the most pleasing result on every stock he uses. Customers
complain when they see variation through the job or that the print does not match the
proof. The most common complaints concerning printability refer to inconsistencies
between (and within) batches of paper. Invariably a consistent grade of paper with inferior
service properties will produce an overall better job than an inconsistent better grade.
A workable solution to define and determine printability for most printing jobs
will develop. Probably there will be a multitude of solutions for the different printers and
requirements across the world. The key factors are mid-tone and shadow dot growth with
the balance of cyan, magenta and yellow. Whatever monitoring system is in use, regular
measurement throughout the run will ensure more consistent printability.
Performance Paper runnability through printing presses will become an increasingly important issue
properties of paper between printer and paper supplier in the future. Service properties tend not to correlate
well with the press runnability. Paper mills tend to concentrate on the paper machine
How the paper spending a great deal of money on monitoring and control systems to increase the
performs at the productivity and consistency of the jumbo intermediate reels. Paper finishing seems too
customers site. often to be the poor relation with performance of the slitter, winder or sheeter and
wrapping stations overlooked. Delivery to the printer may result in reels and pallets being
handled many times with the risk of damage. The printer will expect and demand paper to
be in perfect condition upon delivery.
In reel-fed printing, paper is stressed as it passes through the press. Web tension
will vary in the reelstand and infeed (particularly when a festoon reelstand is in use),
between the printing units, through the oven, over the chill rolls in the case of heatset; and
in the folder. Roll-fed paper has an inherent strength with areas of weakness. There may be
obvious defects such as a slime hole, a crease, or a nick in the edge. An area of paper may
contain slightly less fibre but more coating. Perhaps the reel has an imperfect edge from
an unsharpened knife or maybe uneven tension from the winder. A fast unwinding roll
containing more imperfections will be more likely to break than a perfect one. A modern
web press will print paper with tacky ink and water at speeds of up to 3000ft a minute.
The paper path may be through many additional guide rollers and any slight imperfection
may result in a break, losing press time for the printer.
Like printability, runnability is a widely used term with many interpretations
depending on individual perspective. The areas of interpretation concern what is good,
acceptable or unacceptable runnability, with disagreement between the printer and paper
maker not unknown. The runnability of paper is simply the actual production speed of the
job through the press to the agreed specification.
There are micro and macro paper properties. A paper reel may be considered as a
mass of potential imperfections. The higher the incidence of imperfections in a reel, the
more likely a web break is. Tests on discrete samples cannot detect these imperfections.
Traditional test methods may not be relevant to develop paper suitable for printing at
higher speeds. Paper makers should consider alternative methods based on performance at
the end user.
Press statistics will provide the information on which grades to use for printers,
and the best performers with least problems. As in many other manufacturing industries,
statistical process control techniques will provide the basis for runnability improvements.
Quantitative runnability measurements of the running speed of the press, waste, metres (or
sheets) of paper per break or per wash can be calculated from shopfloor data. This requires
the total number of copies (Nt), the number of good copies (Ng), the press running time
(Tr), time taken for paper related problems (Tp), and the number of press stops for breaks
and washes. Shopfloor data collection systems can automatically record these data or it
may be manually entered on a machine docket.
9
The key information to process is a measure of gross running speed, which is
defined as:
Gross Speed = Ng / (Tr + Tp)
Gross speed is a quantitative measure of runnability to rank and assess papers. The higher
the gross speed, the better the paper. This allows a company to place a value on the
runnability, which is used in determining which paper is used for any job. This measure can
also be used to improve the productivity and reduce the waste by eliminating papers with
the lowest gross speeds. Manual collection and assessment of this information is time
consuming and difficult. With automatic shopfloor data collection into expert management
information systems, more data can be processed to information and intelligence.
The paper problems will be breaks, jams and stops for washes. The biggest
runnability problem in web printing is the paper break. The press stops and between 20
minutes to an hour of production time is lost together with up to 2000m of paper on a
twin-web press. This is irrecoverable dead time. During one month in a factory with five
web presses, there was an average of three breaks on every press per day. At a generous
allowance of 20 minutes a break, this represented more than 4% of standard press time.
This equates to another two extra full press weeks each year, for each press, of production
capacity lost. It is an enormous amount of potential revenue and equivalent to 10 weeks of
press running lost through poor runnability.
It is sometimes possible to determine the cause of the break. The minder pieces
together the two ends and finds a slime hole, a cut edge or a poorly prepared mill splice.
The printer later presents these to the mill as evidence of poor paper. On other occasions,
there are other clear reasons for the break: improper preparation of the reelstand splices,
mechanical fault in the folder or tar from the oven cause breaks that are internally due to
the printer. The largest category of breaks falls into the no evidence bracket. There is no
clear evidence of a paper fault or a press problem but the break occurs and press time and
paper is wasted as a result. The gross running speed does not differentiate between causes
of break and downtime, but it is the gross speed that concerns the printer.
The other major contribution to both sheetfed and web press downtime caused by
paper is through the gradual build up on the blankets and plate. This piling will affect the
printed image and must be removed by washing blankets, and sometimes plates, to clear
the build-up and debris. Manual or automatic blanket washing wastes time and paper. The
solvent and cleaning agent used may contaminate the fountain solution, affecting the
lithographic performance and causing more wastage and downtime. Blanket build-up
should be avoided wherever possible by judicious choice of paper and control of press ink
and water chemistry. The most common cause of paper-related piling is poor adhesion of
the paper surface. It can be physically pulled onto the sticky ink-covered blanket, in extreme
examples a linting problem. When samples are scraped off the blanket, the presence of
fibres or coating material proves the poor surface properties to be at fault. On web presses,
ink from the first unit often builds up on the final blanket. High oil absorption of the paper
may cause a phase separation of the ink leaving a tacky residue that picks off onto the final
blanket. In such cases, paper is a contributory factor to poor runnability.
The paper may conform to the manufacturers specification and perform
particularly well on other jobs and presses at other printers it invariably does. It just does
not suit particular conditions and the printer will exercise his right of choice to use a paper
that does perform well. When paper is bought by a publisher and supplied to a printer,
there must be a mechanism for all parties to agree on acceptable performance.
Commercial The BPIF publishes a booklet, British Paper and Board Trade Customs, that covers trading
properties of paper terms and conditions for the supply of paper (see Chapter 3). The publisher promotes this as
A compilation of the customs and practices that have been found by individual British mills
Conditions of supply to be practical and valuable in handling their sales. These terms may not be so valuable to
negotiated between their customers and have not helped a great deal of conflict between printer and supplier
supplier and customer over the years. Particular areas of concern include the amount of paper to be delivered
compared to the order and actions in the case of dispute or poor performance. The printer
requires the precise amount of the particular paper to be delivered on time in perfect
condition. Anything less is not acceptable.
Most printing companies are small, buy small quantities of bespoke paper from
merchants and the situation is generally well served. With larger printers or publishers
ordering larger quantities, however, the merchants terms are less beneficial to the customer,
particularly a jobbing printer using a wide variety of different types and sizes of paper. A
look in the warehouse of most large print houses shows an area of redundant stock
containing part reels and pallets of sheets left over from completed jobs. It may be possible
to use this paper up for make-ready, in a similar later job, or to sell it to a waste merchant or
broker at a significant loss. Either way, it ties up capital in slow moving stock costing money.
Paper has traditionally always been sold by weight and the terms and trading
conditions reflect this. However, paper is always printed by area (length for web and
number of sheets for sheetfed). Gross reel weight includes packaging and the core
incorporating some 12% by weight into the paper wastage of the printer. This must be
taken into account when calculating the required amount of paper for a job. Reducing
paper waste is a major thrust for printing companies, typically placing much effort on the
actions of pressmen but less on the administration support. Two major areas that
immediately reduce waste are buying by area and specifying exact quantities for delivery.
It is impossible to manufacture paper so that the basis weight is totally
consistent. Paper machines have sophisticated control systems and paper weight varies
about a mean level, and when sold by weight the tendency is for paper to be slightly
above the nominal weight. Paper that is 58gsm instead of the nominal 57gsm inherently
includes almost 2% of waste. This is outside the scope of any pressman to recover. On a
sheetfed application, overweight paper results in a shortfall in sheets available for use;
in web, the paper may run out before the last section is completed.
9
For a specific job, an estimator or account handler will calculate the amount of
paper required according to the systems of the particular plant. It is interesting
occasionally to check the quantities that different personnel come up with, and check with
technical and production the smallest quantities they require. A source of paper saving is
to use a slightly narrower reel if possible. When ordering paper, the supplier will supply a
quantity close to the ordered amount, typically to a tolerance of 2%. Printers rightly fear
under delivery to their customers, and so they typically allow a comfort zone of extra paper
to be delivered.
The printer cannot print on this hidden source of waste and even the best-run
printroom cannot save this waste. More stringent contract review and agreement can
eliminate the problem quickly. The paper supplier can use precise basis weight and
quantity delivered as a source of competitive advantage to sell a major benefit to the
printer and increase their market share.
The paper should arrive at the printer in the same perfect state that it left the
mill. A printer must take into account that paper supply is a global market and paper often
travels vast distances before being delivered. Paper should be checked before printing and
any damage identified and claimed back from the supplier or haulier. With exact quantities
and working to strict deadlines, there may not be enough time for re-supply in the event of
problems. It is vital to eliminate damaged and out-of-specification paper to gain the
economic benefits of precise quantities and timely delivery.
Binding and finishing
Most products need to be finished after printing before they are ready for sale or use.
Some printing machines and systems offer online finishing but the diversity of products
means that most finishing remains offline using specialist cutting, folding, gathering and
binding equipment. Applying ink or colourant onto paper is only a small part of the issue.
Guillotining All cutting machines have the same basic components and are used in both productive
and cutting (i.e. print) and non-productive (i.e. white paper) guillotining. They range from small, single-
knife guillotines for cutting white (i.e. blank) paper for small offset presses to large,
Guillotines computer-controlled, robotic-aided machines capable of cutting large quantities of work
to a higher standard.
White-paper cutting machines range up to 150cm in length (the length of the
cutting area) and are used for trimming or cutting flat sheets before printing. Robotic
equipment may help the loading of the guillotine (using a flying carpet system) for cutting
large quantities of paper such as cut sheets for office use. Increasingly, this is carried out at
the paper mill with automated slitting, cutting and wrapping from jumbo reels to reduce
handling and processing costs.
In the productive area, guillotines range from small hand-operated machines to
large-format automatic and programmable models. The size of the guillotine is the
measurement taken across the table between the side frames or side gauges, and the size
range is from 52cm upwards. The machines have many uses including cutting half sheet
work (multiprint covers and leaflets), stationery items, promotional material and labels.
Label cutting is a specialist field and requires a machine capable of cutting large
quantities of work with great accuracy. It is essential that machines be fitted with a
computer capable of storing and reproducing data relevant to the work. The computer
holds the required label sizes in the memory allowing the machine to reproduce them in
sequence for fast, accurate production in a competitive field.
Programmable machines are common as the volume of work, even of a general
nature, requires the accuracy and speed of which these machines are capable. Many
programs can be stored at any time and repeated when the same format is finished.
The main parts of a cutting machine are:
the clamping mechanism
the knives
the cutting sticks
the back gauge
the side gauges.
All guillotines will have sophisticated guarding and control mechanisms to improve the
working conditions and safety of the employees. Infrared beams in the cutting area will
stop the machine when any movement is detected, and the clamp and knife operate
only when at least three buttons are pushed simultaneously (two hands at either side
and a foot).
10
The Print and Production Manual Binding and finishing
Clamping mechanism
The aim of the clamp is to hold the substrate firmly during the cutting cycle. Too little
clamp pressure will allow the work to be pulled forward causing undercut on the pile being
cut. Too much clamp pressure can cause indentation on the top sheets. These sheets will
be wasted (and sometimes waste can be too high in relation to work).
Hydraulic clamping mechanisms permit a variation on the pressure applied to
suit either a soft (easily deformed) paper or a hard (coated or hard-sized) paper.
Knives and knife action
Most guillotines are fitted with a double-action knife mechanism. The knife beam descends
at an angle and becomes parallel only at the bottom of its stroke. This puts less strain on
the beam and enables the machine to be less bulky in its structure.
The knives are made of mild steel with hardened steel fused on the back edge
(the only part that makes contact with the substrate) to provide the cutting edge.
The knife bevel has an angle of 1924, according to the types of papers being
cut. The standard bevel for general work is considered to be 22; a finer bevel of 19 is
used for soft papers, and coarser bevels are used for hard papers and boards. Double
bevels are used to provide resistance to chipping. Blunt knives are changed as required to
maintain accuracy and re-ground.
Cutting sticks
Single-knife guillotines work by making a cut through the substrate into a solid piece of
material. This material is made from either plastic or compressed paper and is designed not
to blunt the knife.
Back gauge
The back gauge is power-operated to push the material into the correct cutting position. It
is serrated to intermesh with a matching grid in the clamp face. This allows the back gauge
to be drawn in to about 25mm for strip cutting. A clamp plate is normally attached to
prevent marking of the top sheets.
Side gauges
Side gauges are used to position the substrate before cutting. They are set at right angles
to the knife and allow the paper to be positioned for accurate cutting either manually or to
push the material into the final position.
Book trimming machines
Where there is a requirement for a large number of books to be cut, single-knife guillotines
are not capable of satisfying the production needs and specialist book trimming machines
are employed.
Three-knife trimmers Three-knife trimming machines use a double clamping action. The primary clamp receives
a pile of books, feeds it into the cutting position and goes back for the next pile. At the
cutting position, a secondary high-pressure clamp holds the books while the cutting takes
place. The cutting is also double-action, and the head and tail are cut in one action and
the fore-edge in a subsequent action. This pile is then ejected and the next takes its place
in a continuous process.
Systems that are linked to an adhesive binding line have the highest capacity
and obtain 1520 piles a minute (depending on the thickness of the book), which may
translate into as many as 14,000 books an hour. Freestanding machines are capable of
1015 piles a minute while manual machines achieve 45 piles a minute.
Single-copy trimmers Single-copy trimmers are designed for coupling to other units and completing insetted
saddle-stitched products. After stitching, the books travel on the transfer unit and are
usually cut singly, some machines gather and trim two or more at once, and are then
finished. Production is timed to the capacity of the insetting and stitching unit.
Saddle-stitched books are usually processed with a shearing action of the top
knives and fixed lower knives. The books are fed into the cutting unit by chains or belts,
clamped and cut head and tail, then fore-edge. Some machines reverse this cutting
process (fore-edge first), but handle two books within the cutting unit. Output of up to
18,000 copies an hour is possible depending on the thickness, type of work, size and length
of run. Most machines can be fitted with an extra knife for splitting two-up work.
Folding machines The folding scheme and the imposition of the printed pages on a sheet are interdependent.
Most trade houses would use standard impositions of eight, 16 or 32 pages with all folded
at right angles, i.e. each fold at 90 to the preceding one. The industry does have a
standard imposition scheme introduced by the British Printing Industries Federation (BPIF).
It is used in book-finishing houses and is an essential tool in the planning process of multi-
page books and magazines. Detailed knowledge of the folding process and sheet travel
will ensure the imposition is laid down correctly allowing the pagination to follow
sequentially.
Folding machines are produced in many types, sizes and configurations, but the
three main types of machine are:
knife-folding
buckle-folding
combination folding.
Of these the latter two are the more common.
Knife-folding machines The knife-folding principle is fairly basic. The sheet to be folded is taken by tapes to the
folding position where it is aligned by a gripper or wheel into a side-lay against a back
gauge. After positioning, a knife (a thin piece of metal, normally with a serrated edge)
descends and pushes the sheet between the nip of reciprocating (inward rotating) rollers.
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The rollers emphasise the fold and direct the sheet to subsequent folding positions until
the desired folding scheme is completed.
Knife folders are relatively slow (10004000 copies an hour) but accurate. Since
they also use sheet controllers to avoid deformation and perforators, and slitters to aid the
folding process and expel excess air, they are suitable for folding very thin stock (bible,
manifold, airmail). With adjustment to the machine, thick papers can also be accommodated.
Buckle-folding machines Sometimes referred to as plate folders, the principle of buckle-folding machines is to
encourage the sheet of paper to fold or buckle at its weak point. The sheet to be folded is
guided over to a side lay, either on rollers or tapes that then take the sheet between a pair
of revolving rollers. The gripped sheet is then directed into a fold plate (like a metal
envelope). The sheet enters the fold plate and is driven forward by the gripping rollers until
the front edge strikes the fold gauge (which has been set to the required position). As the
front edge of the sheet cannot now travel further into the fold plate, the sheet distorts
(buckles) at its weakest point, i.e. where it is not supported. The sheet is then directed
(from the point at which it has buckled) into another pair of reciprocating rollers and is
folded. Where a fold plate is not required, a deflector is put in its position and the sheet is
directed through the bank of rollers to the next folding position.
Deflectors are often attached to the plate for easy changeover of folding imposition.
A much wider range of impositions is possible on an all-plate or buckle machine, and a
bank of up to six parallel plates is not uncommon. It is also possible to get a number of
folding positions into a small space, unlike with the knife folder.
Knife
Flat sheet
Folded sheet
Folding rollers
FIGURE 10.1 The principle of knife folding
The buckle folder is at its best folding middle-range, 80120gsm substances.
To help the folding processes, creasing and perforating wheels are positioned within the
bank of rollers. This breaks down the fibres especially in the cross-grain direction. Good
production is possible on these machines as the sheet is always in motion.
Combination folding Combination folding machines use both the knife-folding and bucklefolding principles on
machines one machine. They have the advantage of speed through the first-fold folding plates and
accuracy when folding at right angles and cross-grain. A typical layout would be three to
four plates in the first position followed by two knives at right angles to the plates and
each other. When using the knife on a combination machine, it is essential to have some
form of timing device or microswitch so that the sheet to be folded arrives under the knife
when it is in the up position.
Combination folding machines can be used for folding straightforward sections
but will also handle a wide range of paper stock and more complicated folds for brochures
and maps. They are capable of perforating, creasing and slitting two, three or multiple
printed sections.
Quality control in Due to the nature of the substrate, ensuring accurate usable sections requires sheet
folding machines control measures and operator awareness. Various faults reoccur during the folding process
and it is necessary to check the work. Chief among these are:
Creasing of the sheet during its travel through the roller train can occur at any time
because of the hydroscopic nature of the material. This requires diligent checking by
the operator to ensure consistent quality;
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Gripping
rollers
Sheet
Deflector
Fold plate
Reciprocating rollers
FIGURE 10.2 The principle of buckle folding
Inaccuracy of the finished section due to folding out of square. With every printed job,
the finishing department follows the grip and side lay used on the press. If the back-
up varies, or the press is not consistent in its production, this will be emphasised
during the folding process;
Another source of inaccuracy is in not having enough sheet control mechanisms in
place. The paper will often distort under the speed of the process and the optimum
speed will depend on the grammage and nature of the substrate.
Computer controls The latest technology involves computer control of the setting sequence. This enables
repeat jobs to be stored, and microprocessors reset the various parameters of plate setting
and side lays. These are expensive additions and are a consideration only on the more
expensive equipment.
Print enhancement It is becoming increasingly possible to adapt folding machines for a range of other finishing
additions processes. The following are among the more common print enhancement additions.
Thread sealing
Folding machines can be adapted to do thread sealing, where thread is inserted into the spine
of a printed section to strengthen the binding. The purpose of the thread is to act as a binder
for the adhesive (usually hot melt) when making book bocks. The resulting bond is stronger
than perfect or unsewn binding where the complete spines of the sections are removed.
Burst binding
Burst binding is used, like thread sealing, to strengthen the binding. This process involves
inserting a serrated rotary knife into the last set of folding rollers and has the effect of
removing small slots of the paper, called bursts, in the back of the fold. During the binding
process, the bursts allow the adhesive to penetrate further into the spine and produce a
stronger bond.
Section gluing
Section gluing can be used for binding a small number of pages (up to 16). It entails
placing a gluing unit in front of the first folding position where a thin line of glue is drawn
down the sheet. The glue application is timed to ensure that only the area for attachment
is covered. After folding, such products can be finished on the machine by the addition of
knives and slitters.
Direct mail requirements
Many of the processes required by direct-mail publicity material can now be accomplished
in the folding process. Manufacturers offer perforating, strip or side gumming, coating and
inkjet printing on specialist folders. The input can be reels into a sheeter or sheets and in
some cases it may be carried out in-line with printing.
Pressing units
Sections can be reduced to an even thickness with the addition of a pair of heavy metal
rollers, positioned after the last folding position, and applying pressure. This is an essential
aid for many subsequent binding operations and will increase productivity in those areas
where bulk uniformity is important.
Noise limitation
The recognition that ear defenders are required ensures that manufacturers reduce the
decibel level of the folding operations. High-speed folding machines are equipped with noise
hoods over the folding plates that ensure that the levels of noise are at acceptable standards.
Gathering
Gathering is the placing of folded sections in the correct sequence on top of each other
before binding. Small quantities can be produced by hand, and volume production will
require the assistance of expensive and complicated equipment. Gathering machines work
on the conveyor-belt principle: piles of sections of the same sort are placed in stations
called hoppers along the belt in section sequence, and one of each section is fed on the
belt sequentially to make up one copy of the job when completed. There is often a control
mechanism that monitors the thickness of a gathered product and rejects the product
when an error is detected. The control will automatically switch the gatherer off when
multiple errors are detected.
Collating
The term collating can be used in two different senses. Traditionally, collating is the
process of checking gathered sections to ensure they are in the right order. This is done
visually with the aid of printed marks. The marks can be back marks (most usually) or they
can be added to the folio (page) number on the first page of a section.
Back marks are printed step marks about 5mm high and printed in a pre-
determined position so that they are visible on the back when the section is folded. When
all the sections are gathered correctly, the black steps fall in a regular and unbroken
progression down the back of the spine (for which reason they are also known as black
steps or back steps). If gathered incorrectly, the sequence is broken or out of line. Marks
added to the first page number of a section are usually in the form of a letter A on the first
section, B the second and so on, but leaving out the letters I, J, V and W to avoid
confusion. If the book exceeds 22 sections, the sequence restarts with AA, BB and so on. In
more sophisticated collating operations, the use of a star indicates that sections have to be
insetted into each other before gathering, e.g. A*, A**, A*** would show that section A
consist of three pre-insetted sections before gathering.
With the development of sheet-collating machines, the term may now simply
mean gathering. Such machines gather single leaves for multi-part form sets, pads,
carbonless sets and other sequential repetitive work. Some have crash numbering or inkjet
printing to allow personalisation of the sets.
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Insetting
Insetting (or inserting) is the placing of sections inside each other in the form of a V before
saddle-stitching. Normally the larger, and therefore thicker, sections, e.g. 32/48pp, are
placed inside the thinner 8/16 pp sections.
Inserting
Inserting is the placing of material promotional advertising, reply cards and schedules
into the finished product. Inserting imposes no restrictions on the binding method of the
finished product and the insert may have been saddle stitched. Material can be inserted
randomly or, should the customer so require, it can be placed within a particular section or
after a specified page, but at greater cost. To distinguish the operation from insetting, it is
sometimes referred to as loose inserting.
Bundling
Bundling is the compression of folded sections under controlled pressure to ensure bulk
uniformity.
Books
Bundling is necessary in the production of case-bound books when the cases (hard covers)
are to be drawn on to the book blocks offline. Consistency of the book block ensures that
the spine thickness of the case will meet the quality criteria and allow mechanisation of
the process.
Magazines and newspapers
Bundling is particularly necessary in high-production inline insetting, stitching and
trimming lines where the speed of the operation requires automated loading procedures.
The compressed sections can either be placed end-to-end to form a log about a metre long,
or they can be positioned around an inner wheel and rolled into a circle. A roll can hold up
to 500,000 pages and is unrolled into the hopper or box on-demand. The log system
employs a similar principle with flat-feed conveyors transporting the sections into the
hopper. Only high-volume production can exploit this production technique, as the initial
installation cost of the system is very high.
Tipping
This expression covers both tipping-in and tipping-on. Tipping-in refers to the fixing of a
single leaf (a tip or tip-in) inside a section by pasting a strip along the back edge of the tip
and pressing it in position inside the section. This may be a planned operation a
frontispiece, for example, or an illustration that must appear next to a specific reference
or, more commonly, an unplanned operation to correct a mistake. Tipping-in almost
invariably has to be done by hand. It is laborious (and consequently expensive) if the fold
between the relevant pages needs to be slit before the tip can be fixed in. Tipping-on refers
to the fixing of a single leaf to the outside of a section: endpapers are tipped on to the
front and back section of a book before gathering and, unless the run is very short, the
operation is usually done by machine.
Guarding
A guard is a strip of stout liner, usually a strong paper (such as manila) about 5mm wide,
which is used either for attaching to the edge of a single leaf that is then wrapped around
the outside of a section and sewn on with it, in order to secure the leaf into a book, or as a
reinforcement to be attached to the folded back of a section in order to strengthen it.
In the case of a single leaf, guarding is an expensive but secure alternative to
tipping-on but does depend, of course, on the position of the tip being on the outside of a
section. In the case of section, guarding is often used to reinforce the first and last sections
of dictionaries and encyclopaedias where there is considerable stress on these two sections
when the book is frequently handled.
Punching and drilling
Round holes can be produced either by punching or drilling. Sheets to be placed into ring
binders are invariably drilled due to the volume required and smaller jobs might be
punched (especially if the drilling machine is set for production runs). Shaped holes can be
punched by using a shaped steel upper and lower casting or steel-forged dies. Dies can be
of any shape. The pre-cut material is forced against them under pressure and the sharp die
edge cuts away the undesired waste leaving the required shape, e.g. bottle labels.
Creasing and scoring
Creasing Thicker material, such as card, is easier to fold if the fibres have been pre-
deformed or creased. This can be achieved either by using a creasing rule fitted to a
carton-making die against which the carton is impressed, or by a rotary action using an
upper and lower creasing wheel. Thick paper or board covers are creased prior to
attachment to the book block, resulting in a crisp edge to the finished product. Other
reasons for creasing are to assist folding of card, e.g. birthday cards etc.
Scoring requires a definite cut into the top third of the material. Economies of
scale in box-making processes often result in cross-grain work and the only method of
ensuring a definite fold across the grain of a box is to score the substrate and then cover
the offending feathered edge with another material. This is not uncommon in the fancy
box making industry where quality work and specialised production is the norm.
Perforating
The need to be able to perforate and separate sheets as part of a production process is
becoming more common. Where high-volume production is required, perforation can be
carried out inline with the printing process, e.g. postage stamps. Pinhole perforation and
slit-perforation are offline alternatives. In pinhole perforation, an upper male die is
10
contacted with a female die below through about five sheets of 100gsm paper, in a treadle
operation. In slit perforation, a circular wheel with a serrated edge runs between two lower
wheels and perforates a sheet of paper passed between. Production of slit perforation can
be reasonably high with a skilled operator.
Index cutting
Index cutting, as the name suggests, is the cutting of a pre-printed leaf or series of leaves
to indicate sectional divisions within a printed product. A thumb index is where a semi-
circular, thumb-shaped recess is cut at the required page, e.g. in dictionaries, bibles.
A stepped index is used in the production of telephone directories or address
books to indicate the start of an alphabetical section. A tabbed index extends from the
page and is used to signal the start of a new section or area (e.g. catalogues, motor
manuals, part works).
Banding and counting
To ensure the customer receives the correct print quantity, it may sometimes be necessary
to band and count. With, for example, a very large order of labels in the packaging
industry, multiple printed sheets are counted before cutting. After cutting, the individual
labels are banded using strips of paper in a designated number.
Padding
Padding is a cheap form of binding that is used to produce notebooks, writing pads and
sets of NCR forms. Loose leaves of paper, either printed or plain, are collated and glued
with a board at the back and drawing on, i.e. positioning, a cover on the front. The binding
permits the individual sheets to be torn from the top without wrecking the glued spine.
Soft cover binding In most cases, one of two methods is commonly use to bind a magazine, pamphlet or
paperback book:
insetting and saddle-stitching
gathering and adhesive (perfect) binding and other forms of sequential binding.
The techniques have remained fairly stable on the surface but the impact of
computerisation has seen significant increases in productivity and capability in the bindery.
The set-ups of repeating jobs can be stored allowing reduction in make-ready with
presetting of stream feeders and trimmers. A popular trend in America that is starting to
impact in Europe is the use of selective binding techniques, where a book is made from a
selection of available sections chosen according to the profile of the end recipient.
Journals, magazines and promotional catalogues are developing into dynamic means of
communication. The selective make-up of printed products with varying degrees of
personalisation inkjetted onto sections and covers, inserts and glued in merchandise
samples and order cards make the product more useful, but place greater demands on the
production methods.
Saddle-stitching Saddle-stitching is a fast, effective and relatively cheap form of binding. Folded sections
are placed inside each other in the form of a V and are bound with wire staples. There are
constraints on the thickness (extent/volume) of the finished product if bulging at the spine
is not to occur, and if the book or magazine is to open flat without the reader having to
crease the spine or the pages. Although thin books and lighter-weight papers (70gsm and
lower substances) will allow the books to open flat, thicker books and heavier papers will
require creasing by the reader to get them to open flat.
The operation might be performed manually with small runs. However, the nature
of machine design means that runs of less than 500 copies, and up to six sections, can be
economically produced by machine. Of course, large production runs have to be completed
on high-speed machines and in-line combination units are necessary.
Stitching machines are configured in-line, consisting of:
feeding boxes or hoppers for sections and covers
transfer and stitching
trimming
inserting
inkjetting (may be on some feeders)
stacking and wrapping
palletising.
Quite complex configurations are possible with multiple cover stations and feeders
providing flexibility of pagination and maximum speed to push two streams into one
trimmer. A relatively new innovative design combines several gathering and stitching units
in a rotating drum configuration, allowing fast operation of multiple lines.
Feeding boxes or hoppers
Up to 12 boxes may be fitted for the initial insetting of the sections, with the inside text
placed in the first hopper and the cover in the last. The sections are fed over a continuous
chain where lugs, known as flight bars, head up the sections to ensure accuracy. There is
no theoretical limit to the number of sections that can be insetted, but the thickness of the
paper and the number of pages in each section are a limiting factor.
On thick books, the outside sections require the imposition to allow for the thrust
of the V formation around the inner sections. Pages should be shingled (centre margins
reduced for sections away from the centre). If this is not taken into account, there is the
possibility of trimming into the text or illustration area on the inner sections. The magazine
or book will normally have been imposed and folded so that the thicker sections are placed
inside the thinner ones to minimise this danger. The cover can be folded and placed over
the chain or can be left flat, and creased and folded on a special folder feeder hopper. This
is a great advantage when finishing cover-board or substrates heavier than 160gsm. Most
machines allow a card or glue attachment hopper to be positioned anywhere on the
insetting line. A simple hoist system removes the selected hopper and places the card/glue
attachment into the desired position.
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Transfer and stitching
Insetting completed, the books are positioned under a caliper device before saddle-
stitching. On high-production machines, the speed of operation requires section control
detectors to minimise incorrectly insetted sections being stitched. These devices eject the
incomplete books into a reject tray. The incomplete books can be taken apart and the
sections redistributed into the appropriate hoppers. The stitching operation places two or
more staples, depending on the size and make-up of the book, into the spine before
directing into the cutting unit.
Today, the wire used tends to be stainless steel of a varying thickness to suit the
books being stitched, but aluminised wire, plastic (Teflon) coated and copper wire are all
available should the product destination demand. Due to the high cost of the combination
unit, computers are necessary to reduce non-productive time and waste.
Trimming
Stitched books are accurately positioned under the cutting area. The book is clamped
firmly and trimmed in a double operation with the head and tail being cut first followed by
the fore-edge. On some machines this process is reversed but the end result is the same.
Some machines gather the books in pairs before trimming, allowing the speed of the
action to be halved and so ensuring accurate finishing. Two-up work is also possible within
the parameters of the machine enabling the speed of production to be almost doubled.
Inserting and inkjetting
The product can be opened after trimming, and loose inserts placed between the open
leaves. There is control of the opening, and inkjet print heads can be placed to put a
subscription address onto the cover or to personalise the inserts. Catalogue personalisation
and subscription renewal notices for magazines are high value operations performed on
the binding line.
Stacking and wrapping
High-volume production requires delivery to match output. A compensating stacking
device equalises the swell on the spine of the books due to the wire thickness. Piles of
books are ejected into a wrapping unit where they can be labelled automatically before
despatch. High-volume magazine production is generally carried out on linked machines
that are capable of outputting more than 20,000 copies an hour (cph). The speed of
production depends on many factors: the age of the equipment, the competence of the
operator, the weight of the paper, the number of sections and the number of copies to be
produced. For any job, the machine will be set to an optimum speed determined by the
particular combination of these factors.
Note that whereas in magazine work it is common practice to complete all the
operations of insetting, saddle-stitching and trimming in-line, it is not uncommon where
small runs of small products are being processed for each of these operations to be carried
out individually on free-standing, unlinked equipment.
Binding methods similar to saddle stitching
Thread-stitching is much like saddle-stitching except that cotton thread is used instead of
wire. The process is used for childrens books where the staple could cause injury and for
some short-run prestige books.
Saddle thread-sewing or singer-sewing is an alternative, less common, binding
method more favoured on the Continent than in the UK. The endpapers are frequently
wrapped and sewn with the printed pages of the book rather than tipped-on to the book block.
Gathering and Thicker magazines and books require an adhesive binding. This method is also known as
sequential perfect binding or, in book binding, as limp unsewn binding.
section binding Quality control in any form of limp unsewn binding should include checking the
even application of the adhesive, and ensuring that the covers are drawn on square.
Note that a significant enhancement in quality can be made by specifying that
the adhesive is applied to the book block in a strip about 4mm wide of the spine on either
side. The cover is scored with corresponding lines 4mm to either side of the spine lines.
When the cover is drawn on, a glued 4mm hinge is thus formed at the front and back,
which gives the binding extra strength at no extra cost.
The sequence of production is as follows:
gathering
adhesive binding
cover application
inkjet personalisation (may also be done on the feeders)
inserting
trimming
wrapping/sealing
palletisation.
Gathering
The folded sections are gathered together on top of each other to form a pile. Gathering
can be performed manually for small runs, but mechanical feeders or hoppers are used in
high-volume production. In mechanical production, the sections are loaded into a line of
feeders, last section furthest from the binding operation, which deliver them to a chain.
The chain collects the sections and forwards them to the binding operation.
Adhesive (perfect) In the adhesive or unsewn binding operation, the book block is fed into the binding area
binding by a clamp. The gathered book is jogged to ensure the heads and spines are positioned
before final clamping. The book block is then introduced to a circular cutting disc that
grinds a pre-determined amount from the spine (usually 3mm) leaving an uneven spine
that can easily take glue. This milling operation is omitted (by removal of the cutting disc)
when binding sections that have been thread-sealed or burst-folded. During the milling
operation, the spines are roughened to ensure greater coverage of the adhesive. The book
block spine then travels over the glue application roller or rollers that apply a film of
adhesive, either cold glue (usually synthetic polyvinyl acetate PVA) or hot glue.
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The hot glue or hot melt is almost universally synthetic and is either hot PVA or
ethylvinylacetate (EVA). Stronger polyurethane adhesives are available but, due to their
toxic nature, have to be carefully contained with the fumes treated before being expelled.
To obtain an adequate bonding on certain materials (thick board or coated stock), a two-
shot method can be employed, providing that the machine is adapted for this. In this
process, a film of cold glue (water-based PVA) is first applied and dried using infrared
dryers. Another film of hot PVA or EVA is applied in the binding line sealing the original
bond. This ensures a strong bond of water-based adhesive while maintaining high-speed
production due to the quick-drying properties of the hot melt. Hot melts can have varying
open times the length of time the adhesive will be tacky enough to attach the book
cover and after which the book can be handled of between eight and 16 seconds.
Hot melt glues cool quickly on application and then crystallise over the next
couple of days so gaining maximum binding strength after the binding is finished. Most
binders tend to err on the safe side and apply more glue than is necessary. This leaves a
thick film at the spine that may start to thread during trimming, and may crack at cool
temperatures when the product is opened. Highly glued titles do not lay flat at opening.
They have a tendency to close and the reader often forces the book open resulting in a
broken spine. New adhesive technology based on polyurethane resins (PUR) provides for a
much thinner film of flexible glue. These reactive hot melts polymerise in a chemical
reaction when they come into contact with water in the atmosphere and in paper fibres.
The result is a stronger bond and a book that is easy to open, even in the case of cross-
grain titles. For the binder, a different pre-melt system is needed to keep the adhesive dry
before use. A short pot-life makes housekeeping more important and keeping bound copies
stable over a few days, to develop the maximum bonding before testing the books, is a
change to traditional methods.
Covering and trimming
After binding, the cover is fed to the book block by a timing mechanism. The cover feed
usually presents the pre-creased cover to the book block within a few seconds of the
application of the adhesive, depending on the speed of the machine. The covered product
is then either taken from the delivery hopper and manually trimmed on a single-knife
machine (for small runs), or fed into a three-knife pile trimmer (longer runs). In high
volume production, the binding line is combined with an automatic trimmer that takes the
books in pre-determined piles to the pile trimmer. The trimmer cuts first the head and tail
of the pile, and then the fore-edge.
It is common in paperback book production to impose print and bind books two-up
(head to head to minimise the plate requirement). This effectively doubles the speed of
binding by producing two books from each cycle and incorporating a book saw or splitter to
separate the final products. In some cases, two separate titles may be produced together if the
quantities and pagination are identical, and a sophisticated conveyor system to keep the two
streams separate is then required. The pile of books is then ejected for delivery to the inserting,
inkjetting, stacking and wrapping unit, as in the high-speed saddle stitching operation.
Limp sewn binding Limp sewn binding is a common specification for paperback books that require greater
durability than perfect binding allows. The most common specification is section-sewn
continuous, where the cover is drawn onto the sewn book block. The main operations are the
same as for limp unsewn binding except that the sections are sewn together rather than
milled away at the spine before the covers are drawn on. The drawing-on operation is often
performed on an adhesive binding machine in which the milling unit has been disconnected.
Since the objective in section-sewing a limp book is to achieve extra security in
the binding, factors that will influence this choice are:
the use of matt-coated or gloss art papers
particularly long extents (multi-section)
types of book that will have frequent handling (e.g. reference, works, dictionaries)
where the period of use will be over many years.
Note, too, that books containing illustrations laid over double-page spreads will normally
require sewn binding (or special imposition for unsewn binding). Sewn binding helps a
book lie flat when opened. Unsewn books will tend to resist opening wide and are opened
flat only by creasing the pages, or by wrenching the book open and jeopardising the glued
binding. Section-sewing is always more secure than adhesive binding, but is
correspondingly more expensive.
Stab- or side-stitching With stab-stitching or side-stitching, the books are gathered into book blocks and stitched by
driving a wire staple through the spine area about 34mm from the edge. The books are
then wrapped (a cover is attached) and trimmed. There are major drawbacks with the process
that outweigh the fact that it is the strongest, most permanent and secure form of binding:
the book make-up has to allow wider back margins for the spine to take the wire
stitches, losing page area;
the book will not open flat and so will be difficult to handle;
the wire stitches (even though flat wire is available) will inevitably show through the
cover with the subsequent loss of appearance;
the stitching process is slower and less suitable for volume production.
The advantage of the process lies in the strength of the binding; it is used for the products
in which pages becoming detached would be unacceptable, e.g. chequebooks, bank
passport books, some catalogues.
Side-sewing The side-sewing process is the same as side-stitching except that thread, rather than wire,
is used as the bonding agent. The operation requires special equipment and it is a
relatively slow one, but the appearance of the finished product has merits in the
production of childrens books, especially in the US.
10
Selecting the process A decision to either inset and saddle-stitch or gather and adhesive bind must be made
before production, as the imposition of the pages on the printed sheet will differ between
saddle-stitching and perfect binding. Of course, beyond a certain thickness, the decision
can only be to adhesive bind. The advantages it carries are that the cover spine can be
printed and used for promotional purposes, and the book opens out and lays almost flat
for ease of reading. Also, the adhesive book product is perceived to have more coffee-table
appeal, but it should be remembered that the cost of perfect binding would normally be
higher than saddle-stitching.
Hardcover (cased) Conventional production line bookbinding is sometimes known as edition binding. Leather
binding binderies or small specialist hand binderies cater for more expensive or specialised
bookbinding requirements, whereas edition cased binding imitates the true bound book in
appearance but not in structure. The true bound book has the boards attached to the body
of the book; the cased book has the hard case made apart from the book and assembled
with the text only at the final stage. Cased binding can be either sewn or unsewn and, as
with limp binding, there are options within each. Unsewn encompasses adhesive-
bound/burst-bound/notch-bound while sewn may be section-sewn
continuous/thread-sealed/side-sewn.
It is important that the following aspects of cased binding should be monitored:
Folding Check that the folding is square and if it does not appear to be so, check the
back-up and imposition of the printed sections;
Rounding and backing Rounding is often inadequately carried out on sewn work, and
is notoriously difficult to do effectively with unsewn work;
Backlining Check the quality of linings used. Occasionally only one lining is used,
which both weakens the backs of the sections and allows the risk of glue seeping
through and causing the backs to stick to the case hollow;
Case-making Check bubbling or smearing underneath the case material, and check
the case hollow for strength;
Boards Take precautions against warping in more quality-conscious work;
Blocking Inaccurate application of heat or pressure can cause imperfect transfer of the
foil to the material. Particularly rough or heavily embossed materials can benefit from
a run of blind blocking before foil blocking in order to ensure that the surface will
accept the foil properly;
Casing-in and forming Check that the shoulders, grooves and hollows are properly
formed. A square-back, shoulderless case should always be avoidable;
Jacketing Check that the jackets are trimmed correctly 12mm less than the depth of
the board prevents the risk of scuffing the jacket at top and bottom and that jackets
are wrapped around the books accurately;
Packing Cased books are best packed with spines turned alternately left and right,
which allows space for shoulders and joints.
Sequence of events Conventional section-sewn cased binding is the most common specification, and these are
the operations:
1. The printed sheets are folded (off press) to a predetermined imposition.
2. The folded sections are bundled.
3. The first and last sections in the book are separated out and have the endpapers
tipped-on.
4. The sections are gathered on a gathering machine into book order.
5. The gathered sections are collated.
6. The collated sections are thread-sewn on either semi-automatic or automatic sewing
machines. The standard section-alongside-sections sewing method is known as French
sewing, continuous sewing or section sewing, to differentiate it from inset singer
sewing and from side sewing.
7. The books are divided off according to the collation marks, and at this stage they are
called book blocks.
8. Each book block is forwarded on for final back-lining and then casing in, using either
in-line equipment or freestanding equipment, generally following this pattern of
operations:
(a) Nipping (crushing, smashing) to remove air from the sections.
(b) Glueing a light coating of glue is applied to the sewn backs to secure the
sewing threads.
(c) Three-knife trimming to give correctly trimmed blocks.
(d) Rounding and backing to put a round into the shape of the book block and a joint
below the shoulder. The name of this operation is often abbreviated to R&B
(rounding and backing), or R&J (rounding and jointing). Rounding is performed by
an oscillating former bar and the backing (or jointing) is carried out by two nip bars.
(e) First and second linings are applied to the glued and sewn spines the first
lining is of expandable mull and the second of stout kraft paper as a stiffener.
(f) Head and tailbands are added if specified.
(g) Casing-in where the endpapers are glued up, and the bookblocks are fed inside
the pre-formed cases and then pressed.
(h) The cased books are jacketed by hand or by a jacketing machine.
A number of linked systems bring in line all the later operations of bookbinding as
outlined in stage 8 above.
Cased binding Thread-sealing techniques, when used in edition cased binding, replace the conventional
variations on the section-sewing process at stage 6 by thread-sealing each section in-line with folding at
sequence of events stage 1. Stages 7, 8(a), 8(b) and 8(e) are then omitted.
Side-sewing techniques can be used to replace the conventional section-sewing
process (stage 6) when extra durability is required. This specification is uncommon (and
expensive) in the UK and Europe, but much more common in the US.
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Unsewn edition cased binding follows the same general principles described above,
with the exception that instead of being sewn, the book block is perfect-bound and backlined
using a flexible mull lining at stage 6, and stages 7, 8(a), 8(b) and 8(e) are omitted.
Burst-binding and notch-binding techniques are also used in cased binding. At
stage 6, the burst or notched book-blocks are adhesive bound and lined, and again stages
7, 8(a), 8(b) and 8(e) are omitted.
Case-making Cased binding
Saddle wire stitching, and particularly saddle thread sewing, can also be specified in cased
binding. In this process, the main text is saddle-stitched or thread-sewn, endpapers are
added to the stitched book block and the whole is then cased in exactly the usual way.
Saddle-thread-sewn, or singersewn, case-bound childrens books are quite
common in the US and on the Continent, but less so in the UK. Cases are made on a
case-making machine. Such machines are set up to stick the pre-cut binders boards to the
chosen covering material in the prescribed positions for the size of the book. The pre-made
case is usually blocked using a copper or zinc binders brass (die). This uses heat and
pressure to impress coloured foil (usually silver or gold) onto the case to form the lettering.
The blocked case is affixed to the endpapers to complete binding at stage 8(g) above.
Materials
The material used to cover the boards in the making of the case for a hardback book is
known as the covering. The covering used in most edition cased books will be a dyed,
embossed and reinforced paper rather than a cloth. In roughly ascending order of cost and
durability, the options are:
non-woven materials paper or plastic-coated paper
woven materials starch-filled or nitrocellulose-filled woven cloth
leathers.
Non-woven materials
Plain fibrefelts: dyed embossed and reinforced papers, from 105gm-2 upwards
Over-printed fibrefelts: base paper similar to plain fibrefelts, but in heavier weights up
to 155gsm
Pyroxilin-coated fibrefelts: reinforced and lightly plasticised papers
Over-printed, pyroxilin-coated fibrefelts: pyroxilin-coated fibrefelts with over-printed
patterns
Vinyl-coated papers: papers with a tearproof, washproof surface
Plastic-coated fibres: heavy duty, embossed, imitation leather finish.
Woven materials
Whiteback cloth: cotton filled with starch, dyed and coated on one side only, calendered.
Leather-cloth: plasticised cotton, dyed-through, calendered
Art canvas: loose wove, strong cotton with a tissue lining
Buckram: heavy duty, stiff, dyed-through and coated cotton-base.
Leathers
Goat hides
pig skins
calf skins
vellum
sheep skins
forels
reconstituted leather.
Most non-woven and woven materials are supplied in 100m rolls about 1m wide, and are
charged per running metre. The more expensive non-woven materials are heavier in
substance, have more expensive overprinting and are coated with nitrocellulose or other
plastifiers to give surface protection and extra strength.
Woven materials cost more according to the fineness of the cotton weave, and
the degree of dyeing, filling and coating applied to the base cloth. Note that man-made
fibres, particularly rayon, now replace cotton in some of the woven-cloth qualities and
provide a characteristically uniform, precise and even base surface for dyeing and coating.
Leathers are charged according to area and quality of hide. Expert advice is
recommended when ordering leather. Production runs in these materials are rare.
Boards
The usual types of boards available for case-making are:
chipboard or thamesboard the cheapest form of board, made from waste paper
Eskaboard or grey board a cross-grain board designed to prevent warping
millboard waste paper furnish with some flax or hemp for extra strength.
Chipboards are usually provided to one of the following specifications, listed here with
approximate equivalents:
1700 microns 0.070" 1200gsm
2000 microns 0.080" 1400gsm
2300 microns 0.090" 1600gsm
Warping is the main problem associated with boards. While this risk can never be
eliminated, the following precautions will minimise it:
Specify that all boards should be cut long grain (i.e. with the grain direction parallel
to the head-to-tail dimension of the book);
Specify that the grain direction of the covering material must be parallel to the spine,
and also the endpapers, if possible;
Use the heaviest weight and best quality of board consistent with the budget;
Allow boards time to mature both before production and afterwards in transit. Pack
books in porous materials, not plastic, if manufacturing with high humidity (e.g. the
Far East) for sale in an area of lesser humidity (e.g. Europe).
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Specialist Note that the methods and costs involved in true hand-binding bear no relationship to the
bookbinding method and cost structure for conventional flow-line edition binding, and true hand-
binding is normally viable only for single or low-quantity presentation copies, prestige
monographs and specialist limited editions.
Certain categories of work combine both flow-line methods and hand methods,
notably bible binding and account book binding. In these cases, folding and sewing might
well be conventional, but extra strength and attractiveness is brought to the binding by
(for example) edge-gilding, the use of marbled endpaper and an attractively blocked
leather-covered binding case. The cost structure here will depend on the quality of
materials specified and the proportion of hand to edition work, but it may well be viable
for production quantities where a high selling price can be obtained.
When dealing with hand-bound editions it is important to take specialist advice.
Hand-binding operations include the following:
Folding is often done by hand using a bone folder to make especially sharp folds.
Sewing Traditional hand sewing might be specified as either on tapes or on cords. Such
sewing is carried out at a sewing frame that carries tapes or cords. The pages of each
section are sewn through and to each other incorporating the tapes/cords in the structure
of the sewing. A hand-sewn book on tapes/cords is extremely tough.
Endpapering Endpapers in traditional hand-binding are made tough by using a double-
fold sheet reinforced with cloth. This is sewn in with the main book block instead of being
merely strip glued, as in cased binding. Marbled endpapers are often used.
Forwarding A typical sequence of operations might be:
1 Trimming the book-block
2 Gilding or edge-colouring: gilding might use real or imitation gold leaf applied by
hand or machine; edge-colouring can be done either by the application of a dye with
a sponge or by spraying
3 Rounding, done by hand with a hammer
4 Backing or jointing, again done by hand with a hammer and a range of special tools.
5 Backlining with strong mulls and kraft papers.
Casemaking The case is attached to the book block, not just by the endpaper-glueing
process, by securing the boards to the book block using the ends of the tapes or cords used
in the sewing. Where cords have been used, the boards are drilled and the cords are laced
into the holes. Where tapes have been used, a split or made board is slit through for about
one-third of its width and the tapes are secured inside the slit.
Covering A typical covering might be leather or partial leather. The leathers most
frequently used in bookbinding are:
goat skin probably the most commonly used leather, and also called Morocco
Niger Morocco (Nigerian goat), Turkish goat, crushed levant and ordinary levant are
the more usual qualities;
pig skin very durable, but also stiff and inflexible so it is suitable only for large,
heavy books;
calf less durable than either goatskin or pigskin. It has a naturally smooth surface
and great flexibility;
vellum made from the inside of calfskin, it has a beautiful surface but is expensive
and difficult both to handle and to tool;
sheep skin soft and smooth-surfaced with reasonable durability;
forels split sheep skin, less expensive and less durable;
reconstituted leather, which is available at the cheaper end of the range.
Finishings are elaborate hand-tooled and decorative effects achieved by using onlays or
inlays of skivers thinly pared leathers in contrasting colours or by impressing gold or
coloured decorations the surface of the leather covering. Special hand tools are required.
Quarter-bound and half-bound styles are commonly adopted. In the quarter-
bound style, the spine is covered in one material (often leather) while the sides are covered
in another (often cloth or marbled paper). The half-bound style adds to this with leather
edges at the top and bottom corners of the book.
Mechanical binding The major forms of mechanical binding are:
plastic comb binding
spiral binding
wire O binding
ring binding
plastic welding.
All mechanical binding is relatively slow and labour intensive. The requirement for
mechanical binding is to reduce the pages to single leaves. Folded sections may be
trimmed all round after gathering, depending on the finished size and the printing
method. The binding style then requires the drilling of holes along the spine: typically two
or four holes for ring binding, a succession of holes for plastic comb, wire O or spiral
binding. Spiral and wire O tend to be used where permanency is required calendars,
office manuals. Plastic comb and ring binding are used when the publication is likely to be
updated on a continual basis.
Plastic comb binding Plastic comb binding uses a comb of plastic circles (unjoined down one edge) that is
opened along the length of the book and inserted through the pre-punched holes of the
contents.
Spiral binding Spiral binding uses a malleable wire. A mandrill within the binding machine shapes the
wire, and the soft wire is then inserted into the pre-punched holes of the contents.
Wire O binding Wire O binding uses multicoloured plastic-covered wire. It is extensively used for calendars
with the machine design enabling a continuous process of gathering, drilling, inserting the
10
wire and hanger, and closing. Also in some books where the ability to open flat and fold
back on the spine is important, e.g. road atlas titles.
Ring binding The ring binder is the simplest form requiring two or four 6mm holes to be drilled centrally
on the pages. The drilled pages are then placed into a pre-manufactured binder.
Plastic welding Plastic welding is another form of specialist binding used on ring binders, cases, wallet
covers and other containers. A plastic welding machine uses a high frequency band that
generates heat between opposing electrodes. The material is fused together under pressure
to form a strong bond. Both clear and opaque PVC is available in various calipers and
finishes, and can be welded and heat creased at the folds or joints. The PVC can also be
foil blocked or screen printed.
Varnishing and Varnishing and lamination are generally treated as alternative finishing techniques,
laminating although combinations of both can be specified matt lamination with spot varnishing,
for example. Varnishing is sometimes seen as merely a cheaper alternative to lamination,
but this is to underplay the merits of a good gloss-varnish finish.
Varnishing Varnishing is normally performed by running the printed sheets through varnishing rollers
that may or may not be in-line with the printing machine. Varnish can be applied either to
the whole sheet, or to particular areas (spot varnishing) in the same way as printing inks.
Special care needs to be taken with drying.
Note that varnish offers scuff resistance and gloss (in varying degree depending
on the process) but, in contrast to lamination, adds no extra strength to the substrate.
Printing inks must be chosen which are suitable for the type of varnish that is to be used.
There are different grades of varnish for different purposes:
machine varnish
water-based emulsion sealing varnish
ultraviolet varnish.
It is common for an all-over finish or spots to be applied on a standard printing unit of a
conventional offset lithography press (often using the damper system to achieve maximum
thickness), or through a specialist coating unit. In five- and six-unit presses, the last unit
can be given over to the varnish in the same way as the other units are given over to a
particular colour of ink.
The varnish may be formulated like transparent, unpigmented ink, or a specialist
material. This will be an oleoresinous alkyd-based material providing a thin film, relatively
low-gloss material. Water-based acrylic emulsion varnishes applied through coaters are
increasingly common. These are available in various levels of gloss and, when printed over
conventional ink, can replace anti set-off spray powder, drying quickly to allow fast
turnaround of work. Warm air dryers further speed the drying allowing additional high
gloss UV coatings to be applied in-line. Ultraviolet curing varnishes have an acrylate base
that polymerises under ultraviolet radiation. The formulations vary to provide different
degrees of gloss, resistance and specialist finishes.
Coating machines typically apply varnish by a roller over the sheet. Spot patterns
may be applied from a relief plate, and care is needed to ensure the varnish does not
affect the plate. An alternative is to use silkscreen to apply the patterned varnish.
Lamination Originally introduced in the 1940s, developments in the methods of application of both the
adhesive and the film laminate have laid the ground for increasing usage. Laminating is
now used extensively on book jackets and covers, CD covers, magazines, postcards and
publicity material. In the production process, both webs and sheets can be laminated. It
should be noted that with sheet lamination, the printed sheets are overlapped slightly as
they are applied to the reel of laminate that may cause a slight indentation in the back
edge. Film laminates are thin plastics, cellulose acetate, polyester (mylar and melinex) or
orientated polypropylene (OPP), supplied in reels. They can be either gloss or matt finish.
The film can be applied to the substrate by wet or dry lamination.
In plastic card production, a surface laminate is often part of the manufacturing
process. Typically these are thin sheets of transparent PVC that are glued and heat sealed
under pressure to the printed surface.
However the process is carried out, lamination has a significant effect on the
printed appearance. There are physical, chemical and optical effects that result in
significant tonal dot gain and colour shifts during the process. This change must be
accounted for at the printing stage. Small test laminating devices are available that will
allow proper evaluation of the print; a quick and dirty method of assessing the effect is to
place some clear adhesive tape on the surface.
Wet lamination
Wet lamination is by far the most extensively used process. Both webs and sheets can be
laminated. The process first involves the application, through a coating head, of adhesive
to the film laminate. Solvents or water-based adhesives may be used, depending on the
film type and the requirements of the finished laminate.
The solvent or water is next removed from the adhesive by passing the film web
through a drying tunnel where the heat causes the solvent to evaporate and the adhesive
to become tacky. The tacky film web travels to the nip of the laminating pressure rollers,
where it meets the printed web/sheets. Together they are passed under high pressure
between the heated rollers to ensure total contact.
Although dry enough for light handling immediately afterwards, the adhesive
needs to cure for up to 24 hours to give a permanent, non-detachable bond between the
film and substrate surface. Insufficient curing can lead to problems. Guillotining, creasing
or embossing laminated sheets immediately after lamination may lead to delamination or
lift of the film from the substrate. UV lamination, in which a UV adhesive is cured by
exposure to ultraviolet light passing through the laminating film after nipping to the
substrate, is used for high-speed processing of long-run work.
10
Dry lamination
Dry lamination is achieved by using film that has been pre-coated with either a heat seal
synthetic resin or a pressure-sensitive adhesive. The film is contacted to the printed sheet
and bonded by heat or pressure. Dry lamination is mostly used for small-scale production
or when technical problems prevent wet lamination being used. The film, which is
considerably thicker than that used for the wet process, is more expensive because it has
been pre-coated with the adhesive. Maps, documents, warning signs and identity passes
are typical examples of its uses.
Specification and When choosing varnishing or film lamination, there are several technical factors that should
choice of materials be taken into account in the selection and processing of materials for the job. These are:
for varnishing and sheet/reel allowances
laminating quantity allowances
paper and board quality
the use of set-off spray in the printing process
ink formulation
proofing.
Sheet/reel allowances
No extra margins are required for UV varnishes applied by roller coating as the web or sheet
is completely covered with varnish. Lamination does require extra margins around the image
area for technical reasons and to ensure that any bleeds are fully covered by the laminate.
When sheets are laminated, they are overlapped slightly where they are to be gripped, as
they are fed into the machine. The film runs off the trailing back edge of each sheet and
contacts onto the leading edge of the following one after a small gap caused by the
overlap. The front (gripper) edge of each sheet stays unlaminated and each trailing edge is
liable to carry a small indentation at the point where the following sheet tucks under it. The
two side edges of the sheet must also be left free of film for the side-lays (see Figure 10.3).
No extra margins are necessary at the head and foot of the image area for reel lamination,
but at least 5mm is required for each side margin, so the maximum width of lamination
coverage is 10mm less than the full width of the web.
Quantity allowances
It should be remembered that additional meterage or sheets would be required by the
varnisher or laminator to set up the equipment before starting the full production run.
Typical allowances are:
up to 5000 sheets 5% overs
500050,000 3% overs
50,000100,000 1% overs
over 100,000 between 0.5% and 1% overs.
Paper and board quality
The quality of a UV-varnished surface will depend on the smoothness and absorbency of
the board or paper. Paper and board for varnishing should have good varnish hold-out and
a surface oil absorbency test (SOAT) result in more than 60 seconds.
Film lamination is a little more tolerant. Most types and calipers of paper and
board can be laminated successfully if supplied flat and at a stable moisture content
(relative humidity 5055%). However, the quality of substrate chosen will have a bearing
on the quality of the final finish. So, whenever possible and especially when pre-grained,
rough or absorbent boards are selected a proof is advisable.
Anti-set-off spray
Where varnishing or laminating is taking place offline, the laminate operator can improve
matters by tapping the sheets, end-on, to dislodge the loose particles before placing the
sheets in the in-feed. If this fails to produce the desired result, the only option may be to
clean each sheet by hand, which is an expensive and time-consuming solution. It is also an
impractical one on long runs. Avoiding the excessive use of set-off sprays is by far the
cheapest solution, or using water-soluble materials.
Excessive use of anti set-off spray in any area of the printed sheet will be
highlighted both by varnishing and laminating causing a silvery appearance. In the case of
varnishing, too much anti-set-off spray will prevent good laydown and result in a poor and
uneven finish. To minimise the problem, the smallest amount of finest grain spray and even
application should be ensured. The best results can be obtained by printing with UV-cured
inks, or using an emulsion coating in place of the anti-set-off spray. The emulsion coating
should be chosen carefully after discussion with the UV varnisher.
10
FIGURE 10.3 The extra margins required when laminating sheets
Ink formulation
The choice of printing ink should always be made with regard to the type of finish that is
to be applied to the print. The printer can choose inks that are formulated for use with
varnished or laminated products and do not compromise printing quality. Such inks should
have the following characteristics:
drying quickly on the selected substrate and with low residual solvent content;
no anti-slip and scuffing agents, e.g. wax, polythene, silicone;
strong pigment so that application and the use of anti-set-off spray can be minimised;
pigments should be resistant to solvents used in the lamination process (as defined by
BS4342 Test method 4).
Metallic inks carry with them specific technical problems and should be approached with
great caution. There are two main problems:
migration of lubricants to the inks surface causes reticulation in varnishes and
prevents laminating adhesives adhering properly;
poor cohesive bonding between the flakes of metal in the ink causes poor scratch
resistance in varnishes and delamination of laminates.
Fluorescent ink always cause problems and it is advisable to see proofs wherever metallic
or fluorescent inks are part of the specification.
Proofing
Proofing is recommended where an exact colour match is required as both UV varnishing
and lamination do alter the optical qualities of an inks surface, and can produce an
apparent colour shift by highlighting the dominant colour value of the ink pigment.
Blocking and Embossing, or die-stamping, and plate sinking are ways of making a printed area stand in
embossing relief. Both are common in the production of paperback fiction books. Embossing is
achieved using a raised die and a hard base produced from embossing powder.
Embossing and The reverse process is used for plate sinking. The effect in both cases is the same: the
plate sinking substrate is distorted around the image giving a three-dimensional effect. Pre-printed
sheets can have the important area image, title, and author highlighted for greater
impact. There are hand-operated machines for small runs and semi-automatic cutting and
creasing machines, fitted with the male and female dies, for larger-scale production.
Hot foil stamping For cased books, the processes of machine blocking, or hot foil stamping, imitate to a large
(blocking) extent the earlier hand-tooling processes of bookbinding. For paperback books, blocking
can also be used in conjunction with embossing to enhance the raised image. Security
printing applies holograms to high-value paper documents, currency tickets and plastic
cards in a similar manner using specialist holographic foils.
The process uses either a metallic or pigmented foil that is produced in rolls of
various widths. The foil is brought in contact with the substrate under heat and pressure,
and releasing the pigment onto the surface in a permanent bond. The foil or pigment is
covered by a film consisting of four elements: the carrier, wax releasing agent, adhesive
and the pigment. Under the influence of heat and pressure, the block that is placed in the
machine impresses the foil or pigment onto the substrate.
Blocking can be done in more than one run and in more than one colour.
Blocking designs for case covers need to be reasonably bold, as the process is not attuned
to the transfer of fine detail.
Making the block
The block can be made of any hard-wearing material, but commonly zinc or brass, and can
be re-used many times if the setting operation is carried out with care. Spine blocks, or
chemacs, are made photomechanically from artwork supplied as film or increasingly from
digital files. The image is exposed onto a light-sensitive coated copper plate, and the
sensitive surface hardens where the light falls. In development, the plate is washed to
remove the soft coating while the hard coating covering the image remains in place. The
surface of the copper plate is next etched with acid. In the image areas, the coating
protects the metal from the acid, and the image stays unbitten. In the non-image areas the
acid eats away the metal to leave the image standing proud.
Packaging: carton The packaging industry is huge and diverse, and its requirements result in an input in the
and box making print finishing arena. Carton and box making is usually the manifestation of much creative
design, planning and printing and finishing, and plays an important role in much point-of-
sale promotion. Main areas of production can be identified:
corrugated and fibre board containers;
rigid boxes;
carton manufacture;
plastic materials in packaging and polystyrene mouldings, vacuum formed platforms,
flexible wrappings and laminates are also commonplace.
Corrugated and Corrugated and fibreboard containers offer the maximum protection for packing glass and
fibreboard containers other breakable goods, and for the transport of large objects. They are also widely used as
a final pack for moving quantities of small goods to stores and shops.
The principal method of production is to feed the container blanks into a
machine that combines printing and slotting. Rubber stereo plates are the usual printing
medium used, in conjunction with alkaline inks, and the sheet of printed material then
passes directly into the slotter unit. Here, a series of adjustable rotary punches and
counterparts set across a shaft cut away the material to form slots that give the shape to
the flaps of the finished container. At the same time, creasing discs put the lateral creases
in and form the sides. Speeds of up to 15,000 blanks an hour can be achieved depending
upon the quality of substrate. Make-up in this section of the industry includes folding and
partial closing of the construction by gluing, wire-stitching or taping using suitable hand-
fed or automatic methods.
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Rigid boxes There has been little growth in the market in recent years but rigid boxes are still in great
demand in sectors of the packaging industry. The boxes are made and stay rigid and offer
maximum protection for smaller objects, e.g. jewellery boxes, gift presentation packs for
the cosmetic, perfumery and confectionery industry and in the shoe-making area. The
point-of-sale properties of goods can be greatly enhanced by using high-quality covering
papers. The four stages in the manufacture of rigid boxes are:
cut and score blanks;
corner cut;
corner stay;
cover with paper.
Cutting and scoring the blank is usually done on a rotary cutting and scoring machine
with a series of rotary drivers set along a shaft to the various measurements required. A
sheet of board is fed into the rollers and, as it passes through it, is cut and scored to the
required dimensions. The machine is reset (if the box is not square) and the other
measurements cut. For larger quantities, a double-rotary machine with right-angle cutting
and scoring assemblies produces finished blanks in one pass through the machine.
The unwanted corners are next cut from the prepared blank. Powerful machines
will process one or two corners simultaneously, four to six blanks thick. The third stage
requires that the blank be erected to its three-dimensional shape and held there by
gummed tape at the corners. The tape may be glued, water reactivated or heat reactivated
using a thermoplastic adhesive and is processed one, two or four corners at a time.
In a mechanical method of box covering, a wrapping machine is used, the glue
being previously applied to the cover by a sheet-gluing machine. A specially prepared block
is mounted on the machine and will fit exactly into the open rigid box that has the glued
cover correctly positioned to its base. The movement of the machine pushes the box and
cover downwards, with the cover being drawn over, tucked in and ejected.
Cartons The carton sector is one of the main sectors of packaging. Everyday household items such
as toothpaste, soup, tea, sugar, cereals and cosmetics are bought in a carton, and the
sector continues to grow.
A carton usually starts its life as a hand-made sample into which will fit the
object that the customer wants to pack. At this stage, details need to be studied carefully
to ensure that the customer will get the most suitable and economic carton. Factors
include the weight of goods to be packed, style of the carton best suited to the needs of
the product, economics in relation to sales, printing method to be used and the quality of
the board suitable for the process.
Having studied these points and decided the style of carton required, a suitable
caliper and quality of board is selected and a carton made. This will be of the correct size
for the measured object and other items that may have to be included such as leaflets.
Making best use of the grain direction, the complete shape of the carton is drawn in
reverse on the back of the board to be used and the lines indicating creasing area are
creased by using a rule and stick. The shape of the carton blank is cut out with a knife and,
where necessary, pieces of cutting rule are bent to specific shapes. Technological advances
allow the production of samples digitally with CAD systems linked to a plotting table. The
printed material may be produced on a digital press, along with short-run promotional
packs. The blank is then checked for size and assembled. The goods are fitted in and, if
satisfactory, the sample is submitted for approval. The sample maker will keep a register
showing size, style, board used and sample for future reference. Once the carton style is
approved, a one-off master cutting forme is prepared to the exact sizes. Samples are cut
from this forme, and accurate drawings are supplied to the artist to prepare the artwork.
A pilot test run may be cut from this same forme to check the cartons suitability for
automatic packaging machinery. When finally approved, the job goes for platemaking and
printing. Proofs are produced in colour on the correct material, cut to shape and a
complete printed carton presented for approval. A layout sheet can now be prepared
showing the number of cartons to be on the sheet correctly in position and this should
agree with the original estimate.
Most cutting and creasing dies are still made as a wooden one-piece die. The
carton shape is drawn onto plywood and this has to be repeated for the complete number
of cartons on the sheet. This means that if a particular job is 20 cartons on a sheet, then
all 20 cartons are drawn onto the surface of the wood by hand, correct to size and in
position to fit the printed sheet. To prevent the plywood from breaking into several small
pieces when the rule slots are sawn, small areas (bridges) are left and the position for
these is now selected and marked. Drill holes are made at strategic points to enable a
jigsaw blade to be inserted into the wood and saw around the drawn shape.
Rules are then cut to size, shaped, bridged and inserted into the wood. As
bridges have been left at the side, top and bottom of each block, the rules will be slotted
or bridged to allow a good fit over the uncut portion of the wood block. Rules are made in
many varieties and thicknesses. There is a standard height for cutting rules but the height
of the creasing rule is governed by the caliper of the paperboard to be used. The thickness
of the cutting, and particularly the creasing rule, are also relative to the caliper of the
paperboard from which the carton is to be made.
Much die-making still requires the use of a jigsaw machine, normally with circular
saw and rotating drill attachments. The accuracy of the die relies entirely on the skill of the
die-maker, and there no adjustable gauges that can be used to assist in following the
required shapes. The digital methods are encroaching with dies produced by a CAD system
linked to a laser operation. A metal guillotine for cutting the rule to random or repeat sizes
is followed by various small machines for bending, bridging and lipping as required. A
grindstone is used for small adjustments with the assembly being completed on a
composing surface. Tolerances of less than 0.4mm are needed to ensure that the cartons
run smoothly through packaging machines.
At this stage, the prepared die is rubbered up. A specially prepared rubber is
placed alongside the cutting rule in steps about 6mm wide and 1mm above rule height.
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The rubber is compressed when pressure is applied. As the pressure is released it will
resume its normal height and, in doing so, will force the board away from the rule.
The main types of cutting and creasing machines are as hand or automatically fed
platen, cylinder and autoplaten. The platen is used mainly for short runs and is usually
hand-fed. This machine will produce approximately 600800 impressions an hour on stocks
up to and beyond 2000 microns caliper. Showcards are also cut on the larger type platens.
The cylinder machine is usually fitted with an automatic feeder and runs up to a
speed of 3500 impressions an hour. It is used for longer runs on medium-caliper materials
while an autoplaten has the platen in a horizontal position and is fully automatic at
speeds of 600010,000 impression an hour.
The preparation and make-ready varies on each type of machine, to apply a
patched-up sheet to level the cutting impression and to ensure that all cutting knives are
cutting evenly. A stencil matrix provides the female part that allows the creasing rule to
crease the board. After the sheets have been cut and creased, the cartons have to be
broken or stripped. In this operation the cartons can be stripped out by hand leaving the
waste area behind. On autoplaten machines, it is possible to completely strip and separate
cartons while the sheet is passing through the machine but this is dependent mainly on
the length of run and set-up time.
The stripped cartons are then ready for the make-up operations of gluing,
stitching, window patching and waxing. In the case of a carton to hold a tube of
toothpaste, the side seam is glued on the carton-gluing machine. First, the glue flap of the
carton is folded over 180 and brought back to the flat plane while simultaneously the
third crease is similarly treated.
The glue flap receives a line of glue as it passes over a glue wheel and creases
two and four are folded by bars and belts so that the glued flap half is stuck to the inside
of the side panel. A belt ensures that the glued joint is under pressure while the glue sets,
the belt travels much slower than the previous part of the machine and the cartons are
delivered on top of each other and slightly staggered. As the cartons are delivered at the
end of the machine, they pass through a collection system that automatically slows them
down and directs them into the outer cases ready for delivery to the packaging machine.
Mailing, packing, distribution
and freight
Printed products have to be distributed to customers and then on to the final user or
consumer. It is important that the products arrive in good condition and on time. Stock
products will be warehoused and distributed as needed while bespoke items will go straight
into the distribution systems. As well as using a vehicle to deliver products to the client
warehouse, some printers have developed specialist distribution to ensure their magazines
arrive on the newsstands early, or have mailing experience; others are content to allow
specialist logistic and distribution companies or the postal systems to distribute their products.
Printing and There are many systems to print base stock, personalise, fold and insert into envelopes for
inserting all types of communication from document factory, direct mail, transactional mail,
subscription and fulfilment. The content may be generic or highly targeted and
personalised to an individual. Digital printing is increasingly important, with overprinting
starting to be challenged by complete full-colour inkjet personalisation.
Specifying bulk Packing is best specified with reference to the parcel size required, the method of transport
packing to be used (or distance involved) and the conditions available for storage.
Typical specifications for bulk packing of printed material might include:
packed in binders parcels (brown waterproof paper)
properly labelled
shrink-wrapped in specified parcel sizes
cartoned in cardboard boxes strapped on pallets
strapped loose on pallets with board coverings at the head of stacks
palletised and containerised.
Parcels
Parcels should be specified by reference to the number of copies required per parcel up to
a maximum size, normally recognised as 13kgs. The British Post Office will not handle more
than 22.5kgs in a bag.
Pallets
Where work is to be palletised, the exact sort and size of pallet should be specified to
ensure that pallets can be handled both at the binders and the customers warehouse.
The European standard (Europallet) pallet size is 10001200mm, four-way entry.
A maximum pallet weight of 1000kgs (just under one imperial ton) and a maximum height
of 1219mm (4 ft) are commonly specified. A pallet of this size might typically carry
10001250 books of average 8vo size (say 216138mm), or about 2000 96-page A4
magazines (typical weights about 500kgs a pallet).
Containers
Containers are of two standard sizes: 20ft8ft8ft (6.10m2.44m2.44m) and
40ft8ft8ft (12.20m2.44m2.44m) Typically, a 20ft container will contain 24 pallet-loads
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The Print and Production Manual Mailing, packing, distribution and freight
(six pallets lengthwise, two pallets widthwise and two layers); and a 40ft container will
contain double this amount. A typical 20ft container load might be 30,000 books of
average 8vo size, or 50,000 A4 magazines (a weight about 1213 tonnes on each container).
Book packing for With the advent of important internet retailers (e.g. Amazon), direct distribution to
postal distribution individuals has significantly increased. The choice of packing for single copies of books to
be mailed depends almost entirely on the facilities available in the publishers or printers
warehouse. Large publishers will have their own preferences for the use of boxes and/or
envelopes and kraft wrapping, and will often have manual or automatic lines constantly
wrapping to a set specification.
A universal method of despatch for books and other printed material needing
protection is the Jiffy Bag, an envelope in which lightweight protective material is
sandwiched between the inner and outer paper layers of the envelope. These are available
in a variety of sizes.
Corrugated board is also widely used for protection inside envelopes or other
forms of wrapping, as are book-sized boxes. Books are sometimes shrink-wrapped
individually but usually to protect them before sale rather than for mailing purposes.
Specialist distributors often shrink-wrap books (with other products) onto a corrugated
board and pack into boxes with bubble-wrap to protect the contents in transit.
Magazine and brochure There are five main methods of wrapping and labelling magazines for postal distribution:
wrapping for postal conventional paper and manila envelopes with a label fixed on the address side with
distribution magazine and PPI (Printed Postage Impression of the mail-house) printed on the envelope
wrapping in kraft paper and labelling on the outside
polywrapping in plastic film with the label on the outside or the inside
inserting in plastic envelopes with the label on the outside or the inside
mailing without wrapping but with the address label fixed to the front or back cover
of the magazine, or inkjetted onto cover.
Paper envelopes
With extended runs for magazine printing, escalating costs and the advent of automated
wrapping techniques, this conventional method of preparing magazines for mailing is
declining. The main disadvantages are the additional weight of the heavier substance of
paper forming the envelope compared with paper wrapping or plastic film, which leads to
higher postal costs. There is automation that can be applied to the process of inserting A4
size range magazines, but it is still rarer than C5 and Dl inserting.
Some publishers still regard conventional envelopes as the most authoritative-
looking form of wrapping especially for serious material such as academic journals, and
there is debate over the additional protection afforded compared with other methods.
Where confidentiality is important or where the product is sensitive, a conventional
envelope is still often the only practicable medium, although opaque polythene is available.
Paper wrapping
Kraft paper is usually used for wrapping, but strong printed white sheets are sometimes
preferred for aesthetic reasons. Automatic wrapping on a machine will either involve
folding an A4 magazine in half or wrapping it flat. A5 sizes are wrapped flat. The
magazine is delivered from the machine in a sleeve of paper which encloses it tightly and
which will not float off in transit.
Labels are fixed to the outside of the paper wrap manually or by machine, but
direct inkjetting onto the package is increasingly replacing separate production and
application of labels. Manual wrapping usually involves rolling the magazine rather than
folding it and is sometimes preferred to a folded wrap since there is no crease for short
subscription runs.
Plastic wrapping
Plastic wrapping is increasingly replacing the paper wrapping business. The use of transparent
plastic polywrapping for magazines and brochures is widespread. It is the most cost-effective
as volumes have increased and specialist automated machines have been introduced.
Plastic wrapping from rolls of film is normally automatic and speeds of up to
15,000 units an hour can be achieved. Leading machine suppliers include Sitma and
Norpak. The technique is broadly the same. Wrapping lines can be specified to a variety of
requirements depending on the work. Printed items travel along a conveyor belt and are
then enfolded in a sleeve of plastic film that is heat sealed along the centre join by a
heated rocker element. A cross-sealer cuts and seals the plastic across the length at pre-set
intervals finishing the total enclosure of the product.
Labelling is mostly inkjet, either onto the product or outside of the mailer into pre-
determined positions. Plastic for wrapping is available in different gauges, which provide
varying degrees of strength but have different weights. Unless unusually bulky, A4 magazines
of average extent are often mailed in 35 micron gauge film, while a heavy, glossy mail-order
catalogue may use 80 micron gauge. A high-density plastic is available down to 18 microns
and although this may work out no cheaper than 35 micron on an area calculation, the
reduced weight can make significant differences in mailing costs on very long runs.
The polythene can be overprinted with one or more colours, and a 3in white strip
is mandatory for most European postal systems. Many clients will print promotional
material on the wrap.
Plastic envelopes
Plastic envelopes or bags such as Polylopes are more expensive than polywrapping for long
standard runs. They tend to be used for complicated requirements or shorter runs. Inserting
can be automatic or manual and sealing can be by machine or self-sealing by hand. They
are available in a variety of sizes and as units or on reels for automatic feeding. Like sheet
film, plastic bags can be made in a range of gauges and strengths. Most are preprinted
and can be addressed by inkjet or application of a sticky label.
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Direct labelling
Direct labelling is increasing in America and most European post systems will accept the
method. Labels are applied or inkjetted onto the front or back cover and the item is posted
without wrapping. Sometimes a sticker is applied to stop the title opening and becoming
damaged in the post.
The advantage is there is no additional weight created by wrapping materials.
The disadvantage is that the magazine is unprotected on its travels. There are two further
considerations for the publisher to take into account:
the label either obscures part of the front cover design or part of the back page which,
if it is an advertisement, may be unacceptable to the advertiser;
this method precludes the sale of loose inserts that would fall out.
Postal distribution The commercial activities that are being carried out by postal systems in different countries
services are rapidly changing. Most have been privatised and de-regulated by national governments,
and there is increasing competition between service providers. The inevitable result will be
consolidation of national providers (certainly across Europe), with new services providing
better deals to mailers. The opening of markets to competition is occurring with many
distribution companies looking to attack some of the traditional markets for national postal
providers. The consequence of this is that there are new products and services being
introduced, so it is necessary to keep in contact with developments.
The main distribution services for printed items are listed below. Detailed
information on these and the whole range of postal services, both inland and overseas, may
be obtained from sales representatives of postal systems. By doing part of the work of the
postal distribution system, the mailer can gain the benefit of significant discounts on price.
Inland services Mailsort
Mailsort is the name for the range of postal services offered by Royal Mail to organisations
that produce or handle large volumes of mail for delivery within the UK. It is a range of
discounts against standard postal tariffs by the mailer handling some of the work of the
postal service. This is mainly connected with the sorting and presentation of mail that would
otherwise be undertaken by the mail service provider. The level of discount achievable
depends on the service required. Similar operations are offered by all other major postal
authorities across the world. In the UK the range of products and service levels include:
Mailsort 1400
Mailsort 1400 (for letters and packets) involves sorting the mailing into approximately
1400 selections, based on UK Delivery Offices. It does not generally involve any level of
machine sorting by Royal Mail.
Mailsort 700
Mailsort 700 for letters involves only sorting the mailing into about 700 selections based
on the requirements of our mail centres automated sorting machines. To do this, mail
items must have an approved customer barcode applied.
Mailsort 120
Mailsort 120 for letters involves sorting the mailing into approximately 120 selections based
on large geographical areas. To do this, mail items must have either a customer barcode
applied, or use an Optical Character Recognition (OCR) font for printing the address, as
well as meeting clearly defined design criteria. Unlike Mailsort 1400 and Mailsort 700,
Mailsort 120 is available only as a first or second class service.
Presstream
Presstream is a periodical distribution service that is tailor-made for publishers who regularly
mail large volumes of magazines and journals. Presstream is a two-tier service with
Presstream 1 targeted at next-day delivery for periodicals published and posted ten times a
year or more frequently, and Presstream 2 aiming at delivery within three working days for
periodicals published and posted at least twice a year. Like Mailsort 1400, Presstream
involves sorting the mailing into approximately 1400 selections based on UK delivery offices.
It does not generally involve any level of machine sorting by Royal Mail. It is available as a
first or second class service. All Presstream services are exclusively for publications.
Walksort
Walksort is designed for large national mailings, letters or packets, or those destined for a
high number of addresses within a specific area. It involves sorting the mail right down to
the level of individual postal walks (of which there are about 80,000 in the UK). It does
not involve any level of machine sorting. It is available as a first or second class service.
Service levels Products that provide discounts for distributing direct mail and individual printed matter
offer a range of service levels.
Mailsort 1/Walksort 1 are for letters and packets targeted for delivery the next working
day after posting. They are discounted against the cost of first class postage.
Mailsort 2/Walksort 2 are for letters and packets targeted for delivery within three
working days after posting. Discounts are against second class postage rates.
Mailsort 3 is for letters and packets targeted for delivery within seven working days.
Higher discounts than service 2 are available.
Presstream 1 is for publications targeted for delivery the next working day after posting.
Presstream 2 is for publications targeted for delivery within three working days after
posting.
Presstream Premium is a specialist service for delivering publications in certain urban
areas. It allows you to deliver items to the Royal Mail as late as 12.30am for delivery
same day, Monday to Saturday.
Mailsort 3 Deferred Delivery option is available only for Mailsort 3. This lets a client
prepare and lodge a mailing with the postal service for delivery within a five-day time
window enabling it to coincide with other media exposure, such as a TV or newspaper
campaign. The complete mailing must be lodged between seven and 28 days before the
commence delivery date, and the entire posting handed over within 20 working days.
The mailing will then be completed four working days after the commence delivery date.
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The key for all the discounted services is to pre-sort the mailing into post office distribution
centres. This can be done by pre-sorting the address file against the Postcode Address
Finder (PAF) file of addresses and then printing the delivery labels in the appropriate order.
When the envelope or package is fulfilled, the mailer sorts them into individual tagged
mailbags that are caged and picked up to go straight into the postal distribution system.
There are two categories of mail in any mailing: directs and residues. These are
the numbers of items that postal services will offer discount against, currently in the UK
this is 25 items for letters and five for packets. Each location has its own mailbag, and for
a direct this will contain at least 25 letters. If there are fewer (or there is no post code) the
mail is categorised as a residue that carries a lower discount. To obtain the maximum
discount, there should be a minimum of residues normally achieved by maximising the run
to provide the highest number of pieces for each area. In the UK a mailing of 10,000
pieces may achieve only 4% directs while a 100,000 mailing will be at some 96% directs.
International services Sorted contract service (for pre-sorted printed matter)
Sorted Priority
This services offers:
full airmail service to all countries, five to seven days delivery outside Europe, three to
five days for Europe
for direct bag consignments, see the M-Bag option
zonal rates on a per kg basis or item and kilo
percentage discounts available for large-volume users.
Sorted Standard
Available to 90 destinations outside Europe for the despatch in bulk of printed paper
items, this service offers both speed and economy by combining air and surface transport.
Sorted Standard provides a much faster delivery service than can be achieved by using
normal surface post, but at a charge often considerably below the standard airmail rate.
It also offers:
the M-Bag option (see box) for direct bag consignments
zonal rates
discounts for large-volume users.
Sorted Economy
This service offers:
worldwide service with delivery as for ordinary letters and printed papers, i.e. one to
three months
zonal rates
discounts for large-volume posters.
Unsorted Service (letters and print without pre-sorting)
This is an airmail service for customers sending more than 2kgs of international letters and
printed papers abroad per collection. The service is worldwide and ideal for
correspondence, financial mail, travel schedules, reports and personalised mailshots. It has
a simple price structure based on a two-stage weight step and a two-zone (Europe and
Rest of World) geographical split. Payment is in cash or on account using postage paid
impressions and there are collection facilities.
General conditions are:
mail to be sorted into the two zones described above
items must have airmail/par avion labels
items to be bundled and bagged (the materials are provided)
weights and dimensions are the same as for ordinary letters
standard of service as for ordinary airmail letters.
The M-Bag option
The M-Bag service can be used to send newspapers, magazines and books to the same address, and offers significant cost savings. M-Bags
cannot be used for personalised mail or mail containing enclosures of commercial value. This is a special service to customers who regularly send
large numbers of printed papers to a single address (for example a distributing agent or bookseller) in another country. Available to all
countries, it allows for complete bags to be forwarded to a particular addressee abroad (known as the agent). M-Bags cannot, however, be sent
to HM Forces addresses or HM Ships overseas.
A made-up M-Bag constitutes one postal item and must not contain any items to a person other than the agent to whom the bag as
a whole is addressed.
Most of the necessary materials (bags, labels, forms) are provided by the Royal Mail, and the poster (the service user) then packs and
labels the bags and presents them to the Royal Mail ready for despatch abroad in conformity with international postal requirements. The Royal
Mail instructs customers staff how to do the job.
Although not essential, it is recommended that the contents of M-Bags be made up into individual packets addressed to the agent, so
that the packets can be safely sent on their way even if the outer bag labels become detached or if the contents become separated from the
bag. Where individual packets are made up, the normal limits of weight and size for printed papers given in the Royal Mail International Service
Guide may be ignored, but in these circumstances particular attention should be given to the standard of packaging.
M-Bags may be used in any Sorted Service stream, i.e. Sorted Priority, Sorted Standard and Sorted Economy, depending upon the
speed of the service required. Charges are assessed on the total weight of the bag and the service used, with a minimum bag charge for 13kgs.
Maximum weight is 11kgs.
M-Bags cannot be accepted for registration or insurance. All bags are associated with, and consigned as, part of the ordinary letter
mails being despatched by the Post Office to the respective destination abroad, as appropriate.
Airsure
The Royal Mail offers online tracking and tracing with Airsure. The items leave on the first
available flight and they receive priority handling abroad, and with Airsure your mail is
electronically tracked all the way to its final delivery address. Airsure is available to a
limited number of countries although Royal Mail will continually add destinations. It
currently costs 4 an item on top of the airmail postage.
Swiftair express letter service
Swiftair is an international express letter service with signature on delivery available to all
countries. The service caters for airmail letters, printed papers and small packets. The
weight limits are: 2kgs for letters, small packets and most printed papers, and 5kgs for
certain books and pamphlets.
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Swiftair items receive special handling in the UK and express delivery in those
countries of destination, which operate an express delivery service. Items must either be
handed over a Post Office counter or included in firms collections (but kept separate from
other correspondence to ensure proper handling). Each item must bear a Swiftair label and
this should be fixed to the top left corner of the address side.
A fee must be paid in addition to the normal postage. Items can also be
recorded, registered or insured to most countries on payment of the appropriate additional
fee. (For all these fees see the Postal Rates Overseas leaflet or compendium.)
A Certificate of Posting will be supplied free of charge on request at the time of
posting.
Because of the special treatment in this country and also in many countries abroad,
the Swiftair service cuts down on delay risk. Royal Mail International aims for Swiftair items
to be flown to the country of destination on the day after posting (subject to availability of
flights) and delivered at least one day earlier than the ordinary airmail services.
Outside the EU, Swiftair items containing merchandise must bear the small green
Douane CN22 label. If the value of the merchandise is more than 270 (391), the CN23
form must be used.
Airsure and Swiftair prepaid plastic self-seal envelopes for a range of pack sizes
and weights can be bought from any Royal Mail post office or online.
Parcelforce International Datapost
This is a guaranteed timetabled express delivery for documents and merchandise to more
than 239 countries. It features:
reliability backed by comprehensive insurance (up to 5000 per item for loss or
damage, plus consequential loss insurance from 100 up to 5000 per consignment)
competitive prices, generous size and weight limits
versatile accounts facilities.
For on-demand collection and full details of prices and services available to specific
destinations, phone free on 0800 224466.
International Direct mail
Direct mail is a popular and cost-effective direct marketing tool available to the
international marketer. Advantages are:
campaign effectiveness can be easily measured
target audience can be accurately selected
mailings can be personalised either by name or job title
it is flexible in size, content and timing
it enables database building
it is a versatile means of advertising, e.g. mail-order, sales lead generation, customer
loyalty building, fund-raising, market research, product launch, conference and
exhibitions promotion.
Reply facilities
To encourage quick responses to mailings, an International Business Reply Service is
available to most countries. From the UK, the Royal Mail will provide continually updated
lists. This facility enables overseas customers to reply to mailings without them going to
the expense of paying postage. The advantages are:
it stimulates response
replies are returned by airmail to the designated UK address
it is easy to use the customer has only to post the pre-printed, reply-paid envelope
or card
the single design for all participating countries saves on print and organisation costs
it is simple and economical a single fee covers the cost of the annual licence and
the first 1000 responses in that year
it facilitates measurement of campaign effectiveness and database building.
Alternatively, International Reply Coupons (IRCs) can be sent (available from larger post
offices). These are exchangeable by the respondent for stamps representing the minimum
international postage payable for reply to the UK.
International Admail
International Admail offers a reply-paid device that is pre-printed with a local address. This
perceived local presence, especially when used with the Direct Entry service, can break
down customers reluctance to replying overseas and boost response rates. Royal Mail will
supply the local design specifications so your reply device matches local postal designs.
Export distribution As a general rule, sea freight is usually the cheapest method of getting large quantities of
printed matter distributed overseas; air freight is usually the most expensive.
Shipping Sometimes trucking can be the best method of getting goods to specific
destinations in Europe, especially if good consolidation services are available. Before
making a decision, it is advisable to consult a freight forwarder who has the strength of
service in the area of Europe where you need to send your goods.
Distribution charges can vary wildly, even within the particular modes. The
reasons for the variations are complex. Be aware that prices obtained one month will
almost certainly be out of date a few months later. When goods are exported, it is essential
to ensure that all documentation satisfies the importers governments regulations. In
general, books have a zero rate of import tax (duty) and customs clearance depends only
on having the correct documents with the customer (or his agent) by the time the
consignment arrives.
Sea freight rates are nearly always quoted per cubic metre of cargo, which then
has extras added normally fixed charges relating to port congestion and oil prices.
Sailing frequencies to small countries can be erratic, and vessels can often be
bound for one particular port but unload the cargo at another port for onward
transmission to the original destination. This is done when there is little cargo for one
particular port and the economics do not warrant the vessel calling there.
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Apart from the main commercial routes, schedules can vary from those advertised
and often changes are not notified until the last minute. Consequently, if shipments are to
be made to infrequently served ports, or are made on vessels with many ports of call, it is
advisable to try and get the goods to the customer at least two months before he actually
requires them in order to allow for shipping delays.
Air freight The speed at which air cargo travels means that documentation must be meticulously
prepared. Customs regulations often require an invoice to be sent with the goods so that
they can be immediately cleared at the destination.
Air freight rates are usually quoted in sterling or US dollars per kilo and often
there are break points on the scale charges, which differ from airline to airline.
Consignments of less than 45kgs are usually penalised quite heavily, but a sliding scale
reduction can usually be obtained for those of more than 100kgs. In addition to the freight
rates, there are minimum customs clearance charges and inland transport charges. These
are fixed additions to the freight costs and vary from country to country.
As a general rule, anything under 20kgs or a low-value consignment is better
sent by air-parcel since these fixed charges do not apply. Valuable consignments of less
than 20kgs can often be sent cost-effectively by courier who will provide full tracking and
tracing of the consignment, normally over the internet.
In addition to the normal freight rates, more companies are offering
consolidation services that operate on a periodic basis usually once a week at the
weekend. The rates that can be obtained if a consolidation service is used can dramatically
reduce the cost of air freight. However, there is a price to be paid in time.
Having the correct documentation is essential for any exporter, and
documentation starts when the order is taken. The following is a check list of points that
should be gone through to ensure that the final documentation will be correct:
If there are any import restrictions in a particular country, ensure that the customer
has the necessary documentation such as, for example, the necessary import licence
or foreign exchange allocation licence;
Be aware of customs regulations and banned or prohibited items. Some countries
require a certificate of origin (CO) and/or a consular invoice to accompany the goods,
in addition to any other documentation. A certificate of origin may need the
involvement of the local chamber of commerce. A consular invoice needs the
commercial invoice to be sent to the importers consulate for stamping and approval
before the goods are despatched;
Ask if there is a requirement for the shipment to be inspected before it is shipped. This
is known as obtaining clean report findings. This process can take anything up to
three weeks from the time that the goods are packed and ready to be shipped until
clearance for shipping is given, and you will need to have all invoices and shipping
documents ready at the time of inspection. Note that when an inspection before
shipment is known to be a requirement, a pro forma invoice will always have to be
raised before the official order being given;
If the country is remote, check on vessel frequencies before promising delivery dates;
If the transaction is by letter of credit, ensure that the expiry date is well behind the
shipping date.
Common documents are listed below.
Air waybill
An air transport term for the document made out on behalf of the sender as evidence of
the contract of carriage by air freight; it is also called an air consignment note. The air
waybill contains the following details:
the place and date of execution
the place of departure and the place of destination
the name and address of the consignor
the name and address of the first carrier
the name and address of the consignee
the nature of the goods
the number of packages, type mark and numbers
the weight, quantity, volume or dimensions of the consignment
the name and address of the party who is liable for the payment of the freight and
incidental charges.
Documentation
if the goods are sent for payment cash on delivery, the price of the goods and, if
necessary, the amount of expenses incurred
where required, the value specially declared for insurance by the carrier
where required, the amount of the value declared to the carrier increasing the liability
the number of parts of the air waybill
a list of the documents handed to the carrier to accompany the air waybill
the time fixed for each completion of the carriage and a brief note of the route to be
followed
a statement that the carriage is subject to the rules relating to liability established by
the Warsaw Convention
the freight, incidental expenses, date and place of payment.
Bill of lading
A bill of lading fulfils three important functions:
it is the receipt issued to the exporter by or on behalf of the shipping company for
goods accepted for carriage;
it is evidence of a contract between two parties and will include an undertaking from
the shipping company to deliver the goods in the same condition as they were received;
it is a document of title to the goods.
Usually prepared by the exporter or freight forwarder, the bill of lading should contain a
description of the goods, terms of carriage, name of the vessel and the port of discharge.
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It is then signed by the shipping company and issued in sets of one or more,
known as negotiable bills of lading.
Any one set gives title to the goods, the number of copies comprising a full set
being shown on each. If the carrier receives the goods in apparent good order, a clean bill
of lading will be issued. If, however, the shipping company considers there is a defect in
the goods or their packing, the bill of lading will be claused to this effect. These bills are
known as claused or dirty bills of lading and may provide the buyer with contractual
reasons for refusing to accept the goods.
Importers will normally require an exporter to produce bills of lading as evidence
that goods have been shipped on board. When a bill of lading merely states received for
shipment, there is a risk that the goods are lying on the dock waiting for the next vessel.
Title to the goods passes on endorsement and delivery of an original bill of lading.
The shipping company will release the goods at their port of destination against
presentation of the first original bill of lading it is, therefore, essential that proper control
be exercised over these title documents. Non-negotiable or unsigned bills of lading not
forming part of a set are sometimes supplied for statistical purposes.
When goods are shipped on cost, insurance and freight (CIF) or on cost and
freight (CFR) terms, it is important to ensure that freight is paid and that bills of lading are
marked accordingly.
Carnet
This is an international customs document allowing temporary duty-free import of certain
goods into certain countries. There are two types: ECS for commercial samples, and ATA for
exhibitions. Carnets are obtainable from the major chambers of commerce.
Certificate of origin
The certificate is completed by the exporter and then submitted with copies of the
commercial invoice to the chamber of commerce for authorisation. In the case of Arab
countries, there is an Arabic version of the form that must be certified by the Arab/British
Chamber of Commerce in London.
Methods of payment Some countries insist on all invoices being certified by an authorised person. The most
common form of certification is: We hereby certify this invoice is true and correct and the
Certified invoice only one issued by us for the above goods.
Consular invoice An importing country may insist that goods are accompanied by an invoice that is certified
by its own consul in the exporting country.
Inspection certificate Certain countries, notably African countries, require inspection of consignments (usually
when the invoice value is over a certain amount). On receipt of an order, a pro forma
invoice is raised and sent to the importer. The importer obtains an import licence
(sometimes called an import declaration form (IDF)), which prompts the inspection
company in the UK to raise a request for information (RFI) form that must be completed
before an inspection can be carried out. Once inspection is completed, the order can be
despatched. The exporter must then submit a copy of the final commercial invoices and
details of despatch, at which point a clean report of finding (CRF) is issued. Without a CRF,
customs clearance cannot be completed.
Collection system
The seller collates all the documents that are required by the buyer. The documents are
entrusted to the sellers bank (the remitting bank) with detailed instructions of the action
the bank is to take. The bank sends the documents to its correspondent bank in the buyers
country repeating the sellers instruction.
The correspondent bank (the collecting bank) approaches the buyer and attempts
to collect payment, holding the documents until payment is received. When payment is
made, the documents are released to the buyer and payment remitted to the seller.
The handling of collections by banks is in many cases regulated by rules drawn
up by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC). Anyone entrusting documents to a
bank for collection is recommended to obtain and read a copy of these rules. However, the
system is well established and, providing that full instructions are given to the bank at the
beginning of the process, there is little risk of error as long as the buyer is willing to take
up the documents.
Bill of exchange (B/E)
Documents sent for collection of funds are frequently accompanied by a bill of exchange
(sometimes referred to as a draft or a bill for collection), which is distinguished by being a
negotiable instrument, i.e. title to the money that the bill represented can be transferred to
another party by simple endorsement to the bill. The time at which a bill is due for
payment is known as the tenor of the bill:
Immediately at sight draft
Future date at usance payment.
Immediately at sight draft
Where payment is made on sight of documents, a bill of exchange serves little useful function.
It may be advisable to dispose of it in the drawees country it may be liable to stamp duty.
Future date at usance payment
Where payment is to be made some time in the future, a bill of exchange provides a way of
allowing buyers to take possession of the documents and, therefore, the goods that they
represent while giving sellers an assurance that they will receive payment when it is due.
This is done by requiring drawees to accept bills by writing words to that effect on them
and signing their acceptance.
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The addition of an acceptance to a bill of exchange imparts an existence
completely separate from the documents to which it relates. It also separates it from the
underlying trade transaction and enables bill holders to take advantage of the protection of
the extensive legislation governing the operation of bills of exchange (in the UK this is based
on the Bills of Exchange Act 1882). If the bill is not paid after being properly presented at
maturity, the holder is able to sue its acceptors as well as any or all of the previous holders of
the bill. This extends right back to the original drawers. The security afforded by this right has
facilitated the development of the bill of exchange as a financial instrument.
For exporters, the use of a bill for collection means that they may safely part with
documents relating to goods despatched overseas. This may include the bill of lading,
which represents actual title to the goods, as the documents will be released to the buyers
only when they have either paid for the goods or given a solemn undertaking by
acceptance of a bill of exchange that payment will be made at a future date.
If payment or acceptance is not forthcoming, the sellers documents remain in
the hands of the banks acting as their agents. In this way, control over the goods can be
maintained and steps taken for their protection pending resale or return. For this reason, it
is important to give full instruction to remitting banks when entrusting collection to them
for details of what to cover in these instructions.
CAD
CAD stands for cash against documents c/o bank. Goods and documents are sent to a
bank with instructions that they are to be handed over to the buyer only in exchange for
the sum due.
Letter of credit (L/C)
There are many forms of letters of credit, but basically it is a letter addressed by a bank in
the importing country to a bank in the exporting country authorising the latter, under
certain conditions, to advance a sum of money.
The only form providing a complete security of payment to the exporter is the
confirmed irrevocable letter of credit. This letter of credit carries the absolute guarantee of
the issuing bank and is confirmed (guaranteed) also by the home bank acting as the agent
of the issuing bank. It cannot be cancelled (revoked) or amended without the consent of
the beneficiary (the exporter), the opener (consignee) and the two banks concerned.
The exporter will be advised by the home bank acting as agent for the issuing
bank of the terms of credit. These will usually state that certain specified goods must be
despatched by a stated date and must be accompanied by specified documents. On
presentation of the necessary documents, the exporter receives immediate payment.
Documents required under a letter of credit are usually:
a bill of lading
an insurance policy (or certificate)
a commercial invoice.
In addition, other documents, such as a consular invoice and certificate of origin, may be
required to meet customs requirements. There are a number of points to be watched
carefully when a letter of credit is received, among the more important being:
Is the letter of credit irrevocable? Is it confirmed by a recognised bank?
Are the names and addresses of opener and beneficiary spelt correctly?
Do the expiry and shipping dates give sufficient time to assure payment?
Is the L/C amount sufficient to cover the order plus all charges?
Is the description of the goods correct?
Is the quantity correct?
Is trans-shipment prohibited where this is physically impossible?
Are part-shipments forbidden when there are likely to be several consignments?
Is shipment permitted from any port in the UK, or only one named port?
Does the L/C request a certificate of insurance or insist on a policy?
Can properly executed documents be obtained in time to conform to the letter of
credit, e.g. the consular invoice, certificate of inspection and certificate of origin?
In the event of any discrepancy being found, the matter should be taken up immediately
with the bank and the customer requesting the necessary amendments. Rarely will a bank
accept documents that do not conform exactly to the requirements of a L/C (letter of
credit). Points in the journey are identified by contractual terms called incoterms.
Ex Works (EXW)
Goods simply need to be placed at the disposal of the buyer at a named place of delivery.
This is usually the sellers premises, but it should be noted that the seller has no responsibility
for loading the goods or ensuring that they leave the factory or warehouse grounds.
Free carrier (FCA)
The seller must deliver the goods into the custody of the carrier named by the buyer at
the specified terminal. This often refers to an inland depot in the UK that might be a
Customs clearance depot, or, in cases where the goods are a full load direct from the
exporters premises, the point at which the goods are loaded onto the vehicle provided by
the buyer or are handed over to the carrier. This term is appropriate to all modes of
transport, that is:
Sea. Container base or a full container load taken over by the sea carrier
Air. Airport
Road. Carriers depot or full load loaded on buyers vehicle
Rail. Goods or loaded wagon handed over to rail carrier.
Free alongside ship (FAS)
The seller must deliver the goods alongside the named vessel at the named port of
shipment. This is quite unusual in the UK.
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Free on board (FOB)
The seller must deliver the goods on board the vessel named by the buyer and bear the risk
of loss or damage until the goods cross the ships rail at the port of shipment. While it is
common for the seller to actually book the shipping space, it should be noted that,
technically, it is the buyers responsibility. The expression FOB with services describes the
situation in which the seller arranges the space booking.
Cost and freight (CFR)/cost, insurance and freight (CIF)
When goods are sent CFR, the seller must arrange and pay for the carriage of the goods to
the named port of destination. When goods are sent CIF, the seller must also arrange the
cargo insurance of the goods to the named port of destination.
Terms of trade
However, in both of these cases, the risk of loss or damage to the goods passes at ships
rail at the port of shipment, in exactly the same way as with an FOB contract. While this
might appear to be a contradiction, it is possible for an overseas buyer to make a claim on
the insurance taken out by the exporter, in that there is a transfer of insurable interest at
the ships rail, port of shipment. Thus the terms CFR and CIF are definitions of who pays for
what, rather than who is responsible for what.
Carriage paid to (CPT)/Carriage and insurance paid (CIP)
With goods sent CPT, the seller arranges and pays for the carriage to the agreed point,
which will invariably be a depot at destination. When goods are sent CIP, the seller also
arranges and pays for cargo insurance to the agreed point. In both of these cases the risk
of loss or damage to the goods passes at the same point as in a CFR contract, i.e. when the
first carrier takes over the goods, which will be at the UK depot or where the full load is
taken over. Just as with FOB, CFR and CIF contracts, in which the risk passes at ships rail,
port of shipment, the same logic applies to FCA, CPT and CIP and the risk passes when the
first carrier takes over the goods.
Delivered ex ship (DES)
The seller arranges and pays for the carriage to the named port of destination, and must
place the goods at the disposal of the buyer on board the vessel.
Delivered ex quay (DEQ)
The seller arranges and pays for the carriage to the named quay at destination and must
place the goods at the disposal of the buyer, cleared duty paid.
Delivered at frontier (DAF)
The seller arranges and pays for the carriage to the named point of delivery at the frontier.
There is no obligation to arrange cargo insurance and risk passes at the frontier.
Delivered duty unpaid (DDU)
The seller arranges and pays for carriage to the named place of destination. There is no
obligation for insurance and the import clearance charges are the responsibility of the buyer.
Delivered duty paid (DDP)
The seller must make all arrangements, and pay the costs, of delivery to the specified
destination. There is no obligation to arrange insurance. In the cases of DDU and DDP, the
specified destination is often the buyers premises.
An examination of these terms will reveal immediately that an ex works contract
is much easier for the exporter than a DDP contract. However, the seller must consider
what the buyer might prefer in terms of a package deal rather than simply take the easy
way out by quoting ex works.
Also, the exporter should appreciate that for several of these terms, the
obligations for transport and insurance, often to overseas destinations, differ from the
point at which the risk of loss or damage passes from the seller to the buyer.
The final point to make about the selection of appropriate trade terms is relevant
to the introduction of the relatively new terms of FCA, CPT and CIP. Their introduction
reflects the increased use of electronic messages rather than paper, and the changing
nature of international movements. The traditional port to port transit of goods, where the
ships rail was an important point in the journey, has given way to the depot to depot
movement of unitised (mostly containerised) loads.
What this leads to is the, almost heretical, statement that FOB, CFR and CIF are
actually obsolete for the majority of exports and imports. The fact that they are still the
most commonly used terms is somewhat unfortunate.
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FIGURE 11.1 The Incoterms used by the trade
The function of a freight forwarder can vary from a comprehensive service
including packing, full documentation, customs clearance, pick and delivery all from non-
technical instructions by the customer to a specialised service covering any part of the
freight operation, e.g. customs clearance of a package at an airport and its delivery to a
recipient at the other end.
The customer is buying both information and service, and may need one or other
or both in varying degrees. Functions can, therefore, cover packing, delivery and associated
clerical activity, or only a particular complicated part of a limited consignment.
Freight forwarding: Freight forwarders specialise either in market areas, types of commodity or methods of
agents and services freight and it is important to find a company with the right interests.
Choosing a freight The Institute of Freight Forwarders has lists of members, but membership is not compulsory
forwarder and the Institute has no legal responsibility to the customer. The best method is to seek
quotations for specific and typical tasks, and compare costs and methods. Ask for detailed
explanations on procedures and methods of freighting.
A customer whose needs are specific and limited might well find a small
forwarder that specialises in the type of business required; a customer without their own
shipping department, but with widely varying and continuous demands, is likely to need
one of the bigger international forwarders to provide a flexible range of services.
There are about 3000 freight forwarders in the UK, but more than a third are
small operations with only a few customers, serving limited markets. The larger agents with
international connections advertise widely but often still specialise, so comparative costing
of services is essential. A useful additional test is for the customer to ask the forwarder for
the names of similar customers and ask their views on the service provided.
Functions of a A customer with diverse needs may be well advised to use different freight forwarders who
freight forwarder specialise in different markets or methods of despatch. Air freight and sea freight, for
example, involve vastly different disciplines, and a company based at Heathrow which
spends most of its time arranging customs clearance on air freight of weekly magazines
may not be the right operator to organise the containerisation of loads of books from
Hong Kong to Southampton. Equally, freight shipments to west Africa and the Middle East
have very specific requirements in terms of documentation and logistics that require an
experienced company. In an enquiry, specify clearly whether you want a packing service,
whether you need transport arranged at every stage or only in part, whether or not you
need total help with documentation and how important deadlines are to your delivery.
Consolidation A freight forwarder should be able to advise on whether consolidation is feasible, but some
have much better access to consolidation arrangements than others. Broadly, consolidation
consists of arranging groups of freight from different customers into economic units. There
may be delays in waiting for the consolidation unit to be arranged, but there may be
substantial savings. Air freight and sea container consolidations to popular locations are
quick, effective and are widely used by all types of manufacturer. Some of the bigger
printers are now able to offer consolidation services, especially those who have started
mailing and despatch operations which tie-in with their production facilities.
Insurance Never assume that a transport company insures its freight for the clients benefit. Transport
companies and agents involved in the transport of freight often do have insurance cover,
but normally it is to protect their own liability and rarely covers the case of the client who
will want to make a claim on his own behalf. A good starting point, therefore, is to discuss
with the agent, freight forwarder, or transporter whether he has insurance and, if so,
whether it serves your purposes. Frequently it will not.
Insurance through the freight forwarder
There is some advantage in establishing whether it is possible, or sensible, to arrange
insurance through your freight forwarder. Although this may not immediately appear to be
the cheapest form of insurance (one would expect the extra work caused to the freight
forwarder to be charged in some way), it is often the most economic alternative in the long
run for a variety of reasons. First, the freight forwarder knows (or should) the insurance
market from having traded extensively in the sort of transport involved. Second, he has the
advantage of an established trading relationship with a broker or insurance company and
this is likely to make quotations and claims easier. Third, he is likely to have the advantage
of a volume of business and can use his buying power to negotiate competitive rates.
Insurance through a specialist broker
Alternatively, use a specialist insurance broker that has knowledge of with transport
insurance. This is likely to be a sensible route for a company transporting small amounts of
freight (especially in the UK) without the help of a freight forwarder. Such a company is
unlikely to have extensive contacts in the insurance industry, but can be assured of a
sensible proposal by obtaining competitive quotations from brokers. Dealing direct with an
insurance company is, of course, possible and in many cases desirable, but it may be costly
in terms of time and effort spent in identifying the most suitable company and the most
competitive quotation. Many big printers and publishers deal direct with insurance
companies and have found this the most cost-effective system, but that is because they are
transporting large volumes on a constant basis and have great experience of the market.
Premiums are normally calculated as a percentage of the total sum insured and it
is, therefore, necessary to be pragmatic if you are to avoid unduly large premiums. It is
impossible to give advice for all circumstances, since much depends on your assessment of
the scale of the disaster if something goes wrong with the shipment. This may range from
total bankruptcy, say in the case of a very large order being delivered by a small company, to
an annoying hiatus, say in the case of a small order and a large company. A common form of
cover is known as CIF plus 10%, which embraces the insurance of the goods at manufactured
cost, the insurance cost and, of course, freight plus 10% of the total to cover other items.
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Print supply chain Printers and their customers are increasingly looking to save time and money across all
impacts areas of the print supply chain. Examining areas outside the design, prepress, printing and
finishing arenas offers opportunities to save hidden costs by doing things differently.
Printers may broaden their service offerings to manage stock on behalf of a client, allowing
them to manufacture in as efficient a method as possible. Others take the opportunity to
produce in a different manner to provide overall improvements across a whole chain.
Business process As well as the technological developments, digital printing allows suppliers to change the
re-engineering supply chains of several industries. Many digital print users are moving from being a
opportunities manufacturer to a service provider. Two markets where the application of technology will
through the use of change the shape of part of the supply industry are books and packaging. In both these
digital printing sectors the position of printing in the supply chain is set to change as publishers, brand
owners and retailers act to improve their profitability.
Packaging industry change
The development of inkjet machines offers the possibility of decorating irregular shapes
and surfaces. Using print-on-demand techniques, with printing an integral part of the
filling or packing line, can provide radical change for the typical supply chain. There are
great potential savings from minimising warehousing costs (of product and packaging)
that would be balanced against the higher unit cost of the digital print. The technology
has considerable appeal to marketers in providing significant savings of cost and time in
developing new products and helping them lower their time to market. This might involve
changing product ingredients at short notice to take advantage of changing commodity
prices or on-pack promotional offers.
An early example is the integration of printing into some pharmaceutical
packaging filling lines. There is considerable interest being shown by retailers looking to
reduce costs and time. In the conventional carton printing process, there are five points of
stock storage before any product gets to the retailer.
To eliminate these stock holdings, a digital on-demand carton printing operation
might be set up, either at the product manufacturer or at a contract filling/packing operation.
In both instances, the printing process is integrated into the filling operation. Product is
packed only in response to an order from the retailer and directly despatched to the store for
shelf filling and selling. This dramatically reduces the turnaround time and eliminates need for
stocks of printed cartons, packed goods and stocks in the distribution chain.
When product is filled at the manufacturer, a further efficiency may be gained by
manufacturing product to order instead of distributing stock, as well as the packing/filling.
This eliminates the bulk storage of product. There may be an option for a digital printer to
work with the manufacturer to operate and install the digital print line in partnership as
the manufacturer is unlikely to have the core skills.
Taking this further, a retailer may choose to operate an in-store manufacture and
pack system, or have the product delivered in bulk and fill on demand. This scenario allows
potentially significant efficiencies for large retailers but places new demands on the
printing/filling operation. The line should require a very low (ideally zero) skill operation,
running at relatively low speeds with no need for maintenance. To be widespread, such
lines will also be low capital to provide the distributed operation.
The above examples involve considerable co-operation between printer, publisher
or product manufacturer and retailer. Digital printing offers packagers the potential for
producing personalised products and a variety of standard pack designs. In pharmaceutical
carton manufacture, end user details might be incorporated onto the box, perhaps in large
print for an elderly patient making the carton more secure.
Book publishing change
Many book printers have embraced digital printing in order to offer publishers very low
print runs, so allowing more titles to remain in print. Digital book printing is a major sector
11
Raw
materials
Manufacture
product
Bulk storage
of product
Filling
Packing
Packaged
goods store
Distributor
warehouse store
Retailer
(stock)
Retailer
(shelf)
Retailer
(shelf)
Storage of
printed cartons
Raw
materials
Board
manufacture
Carton board
stock
Carton printer
converter
FIGURE 11.2 Outline of conventional carton packaging supply chain
Raw
materials
Manufacture
product
Distribution
Retailer
(shelf)
Consumer
Raw
materials
Board
manufacture
Carton board
stock
Carton printer
converter
Integrated
filling/
printing line
FIGURE 11.3 On demand manufacture of product and carton/filling supply chain
Raw
materials
Manufacture
product
Bulk storage
of product
Print/fill as
required
Retailer
(shelf)
Consumer
Raw
materials
Board
manufacture
Carton board
stock
Make
product
In-store
FIGURE 11.4 In-store printing and filling operation
of the European printing market, and estimated to be worth some 1.15bn in 2003. There
are two business models for printing books digitally:
In the on-demand model, the publisher or self-published author pays a fee to get a
book into the system, and then pays a much smaller printing fee for each copy of the
title. Books are printed when needed, possibly singly, by distributors and book sellers,
e.g. Ingrams Lightning Source. Transactions with the book buyer are handled by a
bookstore passing orders on or via web e-procurement. For printing on demand at
book shops, a distributed system with printing and binding equipment is needed. It
must be a compact system to produce the textbook block, colour cover, perfect
binding and trimming. It must be easy to use by retail personnel and low investment
in order to justify the production of a few copies a day.
The short-run scenario involves printing small batches of books, perhaps 20500
copies, as a standard order placed by the publisher and the printer. From the
publishers perspective, there is no operational difference between short-run digital
printing and ordinary offset runs. In both cases, books are shipped to the warehouse
or the distributor where they wait until orders are received. The advantage of digital
printing is that less working capital is tied up in the print run than if offset is used,
although the unit cost of each book is higher. Most are produced as part of the
manufacturing capability of a book-printing company or group as a short-run arm.
The book publishing market suffers from high costs involved with unsold books and
maintaining lists in print.
Traditional book manufacturing used mostly offset litho printing and binding. The
books are made for stock, which is supplied into publishers warehouses and then distributed
to the retail bookshops. Internet booksellers are now established retailers, often having their
own warehouse and using courier services or the post to deliver titles to consumers.
With digital printing technology, the concepts of the virtual warehouse and in-
store production become reality. In the virtual warehouse printing is still centralised but
books are digitally printed on demand. For these books there is no stock and no need for
warehousing. Systems are being offered to allow the virtual concept at printer or
distributor. They can receive files and orders remotely to satisfy clients regardless of
location. Printing may be at a printer or somewhere in the distribution chain, eliminating
the conventional printing stage and the need to transport books into the distribution
centre. Users of such systems claim a mutually advantageous situation for customer,
bookseller, publisher and author. The loser is the conventional printer and warehouse.
With on-demand printing there is reduced waste. Evidence suggests that up to
30% of stock in the chain remains unsold and may have to be repulped. As many books
are supplied to retailers on a sale-or-return basis there are clear opportunities to increase
efficiency with the print-on-demand model. Publishers then produce only books that have
been ordered. Taking this one stage further leads to in-store production shown in Figure
11.6 (page 429). In this scenario a low-cost, easy-to-operate, digital print-and-bind system is
housed within the bookstore to produce a book for the customer while he waits.
11
These are a couple of examples of how digital printing offers a better way of doing some
things. As time goes on, this list will expand and develop as supply chains are improved.
Publishers
warehouse
Printer
binder
Publisher
Wholesale
distributor
Retailer
Internet
retailer
ISP/telecom
network
Consumer
Internet retailers
warehouse
Post/courier
service
Raw materials
(paper glue)
Editor
Illustrator
Designer
IPR Owner Author
FIGURE 11.5 Conventional book supply chain
11
Publisher
In-store digital
print on demand
Consumer
Editor
Illustrator
Designer
IPR Owner Author
Retailer
FIGURE 11.6 In-store production for books
Production control systems
Previous versions of this manual have reproduced various forms used in the genesis of print
projects, which were aimed primarily at publication work. Several of these have been
updated and retained.
They have been printed on unnumbered pages with no running heads so that
you may photocopy or reproduce them if you wish, and add your company name where
appropriate. No permissions or fees are necessary.
Alternatively, you may adapt them for other purposes. It is impossible to cover
every type of product or every production process, and you are free to modify the forms,
convert them to electronic files or use them as you wish. Over time, there will be greater
use of electronic versions based on a print production standard, probably JDF with
expert help available to specify and track any print project through its development.
The reason for having analogue or electronic forms is to provide a check list of
actions to ensure that all aspects of managing a print job are covered. There are three
basic stages to follow:
commissioning
manage production
project completion and performance monitoring.
Individual companies will have their own internal budgetary procedures, and the following
is offered as a generic catch-all.
Commissioning It is important organisations check that a proposed print project is justified financially where
it is appropriate (a published item will recoup costs, a marketing piece provides maximum
benefit for expenditure). The first details of an intended project should provide estimates of
costs and, where applicable, revenues to determine an outline cost-benefit for the project.
Potential marketing revenue is offset against editorial, production and distribution costs,
perhaps in several alternative quantities or specifications. This provides the information to
determine the viability of the project, and the approval to proceed is given.
The next stage is to provide more accurate costing information along with the
timetable of events and changeovers needed. This defines the specification of the piece in
detail, possibly requesting alternatives for quantity and paper weight. There should be a
formal method of comparing quotes and reaching a decision about the approved supplier.
Orders for design, prepress, printing, finishing and distribution can then be placed.
Manage production Design and prepress work is placed with a record of transmission of any digital files
maintained (this is a significant benefit for asset management systems that incorporate a
full audit trail). Text, images and make-up must be signed off and approved, with final files
being finished and preflighted according to the printers requirements, and files transmitted
along with any hard copy proofs. This formal record serves as a materials hand-over note so
that both parties have a record of what has been sent in the event of query. It is important
to allow enough time for checking proofs and, if necessary, taking corrective action.
12
Substance gsm
for attention of freight forwarding company
For the attention of: Date
Salesman / Div Quote Required By
Quantity No. of Makings No. of Deliveries
Sprocket Punched Cut Sheet Book Pad Cut Sets
Depth Width No. to View Parts Per Set Sets Per Pad/Book
Part Material Front Reverse Horizontal Vertical Special Features
(state if for Laser use) Punches, etc.
Marketing/Pricing Information
Bindery Details
Special Notes
Customer Full Name and Address, new prospects include TEL, FAX & POSTCODE
GENERAL PRINTING ENQUIRY FORM
Numbering Details
Others: please describe
Collating Details - Continuous Stationery
Previous Reference
Ink Perforations
(Pantone Ref, if available)
Form Title/Reference Number:
The Print and Production Manual Production control systems
The acceptance of estimates and placing of orders provides a base specification,
but it is important to record and agree any variations to the specification, and agree any
charges that may result as they occur. The paper order lays out the details needed by a
paper merchant or mill to fulfil the paper requirement.
Clear delivery and despatch instructions are necessary along with proof of
delivery. When preparing material for export shipping, it is vital to have to hand the details
of how the material is packed and how the forwarding agent should proceed with the job.
The airfreight form serves as a check list of what is needed to communicate effectively with
the freight-forwarding company.
Project completion The final invoice amounts should be compared to the estimate, together with an
and performance assessment of the on-time delivery and quality, to assess the performance of the suppliers.
monitoring An actuals v. estimates record will use the information from the detailed estimate to
compare with the invoice, and highlight any changes. The use of a formal performance
record allows objective comparisons of suppliers to be made over time.
Use of management The base of a management information system is the collection and analysis of data to
information systems better manage a function. Printing and publishing involves a huge amount of detail, and
using a computerised system allows the data to be tracked and sorted. This can be used to
improve the productivity of staff and the efficiency of the plant.
The printing industry adopted these systems in the late 1980s and used a variety of
specialist software suppliers to provide management tools. The particular requirements of
printing, a batch manufacturing process involving many inputs and production stages, can be
complex. The first suppliers were specialists to the print industry and created computerised
estimating and costing systems to handle the requirements of individual print businesses.
These were largely successful and the larger printers readily accepted the high cost and drawn-
out implementation plans that were needed. It was the larger printers that both needed and
could afford systems, but their complexity led to a raft of solutions being available.
The capabilities improved as computers became more powerful and software
improved. Printers could buy specialist modules to help the various facets of their
businesses such as raw material purchasing, stock control, production planning and
scheduling, finance functions, tracking customers and leads. Shop floor data collection
systems allowed real-time monitoring of machinery activity, from prepress to the bindery.
Tools to allow management control became easier to use and justify financially.
Each of the available modules was developing and becoming a useful tool for the
business to control itself. The next change, which is still maturing, was the arrival of the
internet and the need for the real-time sharing of information, not only within a printing
plant but also with customers, suppliers and partners. Each module not only has to be able
to communicate with sister modules, but also with a myriad of other systems. Early
integrators provided links to specific systems, often at great cost and time to allow
suppliers to link in to their larger customers. These integrations are fraught with difficulty
as there is far more to consider than a simple mapping of like-for-like fields across two
databases. Early pioneers had degrees of success but quickly faced the prospect of
expensive multiple work that needed to be done quickly. When the customer is large and
security conscious, such as a financial institution, the costs of compliance can outweigh the
benefit of the business. The way to develop compatible systems, and make integration a
straightforward process, is to adopt a standard method to which all systems should comply.
Most installations are of products that are specific to the printing/graphic arts
industry. These are from dedicated software houses that now have much experience of
printing. Additionally, there are two other competing sources: major enterprise resource
planning (ERP) software houses such as SAP, Oracle, PeopleSoft, Baan, JD Edwards,
Lawson, and from vendors of equipment that offer network control over devices within a
workflow solution. It is possible to link these systems as standards for communication
emerge from Heidelberg, MAN Roland, Fujifilm, Agfa and Creo.
There has been significant consolidation among MIS suppliers over the last few
years, particularly with the fall-out of e-commerce dotcom suppliers who joined in the late
1990s. The big thing that is happening now is the requirement for systems to communicate
with clients, suppliers and partner organisations.
Print-specific These companies have developed software to help management effectively run printing
MIS suppliers companies. Most offer a range of scalable modules for specific parts of a print business.
Users select the modules they need (often after a consultation process) and implement
them with plant-specific production statistics and cost information. The range of choices
broadly encompasses the following:
Administration/customer service
Job specification and job planning
Request for quotation
Estimating
Works instructions/job bags
Job costing and invoicing
Sales analysis
Order processing
Financial reporting
Budgeted hourly rates
Multi-divisional accounting
Accounts or accounting link
Accounts receivable
Accounts payable
General ledger
Nominal ledger
Inventory management
Payroll/personnel
12
Purchasing
Vendor qualification
Purchase orders
Purchase ledger
Materials
Outwork
Services
Sales
Request for quotation
Contact management
Order entry
Pricing targets
EDI
Sales analysis
Sales ledger
Sales management and marketing
Production
Production control
Stock control
Schedule
Job tickets
Time and cost
PDF workflow tools
Loading and scheduling
Shop floor data collection
Direct machine interface and data collection
Section tracking
Finished goods
Inventory control
Warehousing
Despatch
Shipping
MIS functions
Security
Performance reporting
Management report writer
Executive information system.
In addition to helping maximise internal production efficiencies, the role of systems has
developed, and particularly over recent years. MIS is no longer a stand-alone tool used
within a print company; it is now part of a wider system allowing fast access for remote
sales staff, customers and suppliers.
Electronic methods There have been many examples of electronic specification, quotation, ordering and
of production control tracking of jobs, but it is only recently that these worked effectively to benefit both buyer
and provider. The early examples of the dotcom printing vendors were largely unsuccessful;
not because the technology did not work, but because it did not provide sufficient control
of the jobs and allow a relationship to develop that gave confidence to both parties. It is
true that most suppliers have to learn the particular requirements of their customers, and
these needs vary greatly. Instead of having to spend the manual sales and customer
services time and effort in understanding requirements, there are tools that help smooth
the complexities of the print supply chain. These make it easier for clients, sales and
administrative staff to provide the necessary information for smooth project completion.
There is real-time access to up-to-date information and the other great benefit that is
provided by electronic production control is a total audit trail detailing the activities
carried out.
12
There are many successful suppliers offering this service. Each print project can be
specified afresh, or as an amendment to a previously ordered job. A detailed specification
containing as much detail as is necessary is generated that defines the job.
FIGURE 12.1 Client online print ordering screen for standard and bespoke jobs
According to the level of complexity, suitable suppliers capable of meeting quality and
delivery would be chosen to quote.
12
FIGURE 12.2 Typical outline specification
They would fill in details from standard estimating systems according to the request for
quotation. When a successful estimate is accepted, the job goes live with the system
monitoring the transmission of files and meeting of production schedules.
The first types of print product to benefit were standard business stationery
documents such as letterheads, envelopes and business cards. Suppliers would provide a
standard template that would allow customers to enter their personal details to instantly
generate the document and allow the client to approve and order the job.
FIGURE 12.3 Estimating screen from supplier
This shows the approved artwork for a clients business card. It is set up so that the
personal details can be changed by simply typing the correct information into a range
of forms.
12
FIGURE 12.4 Business card ordering routine, selecting correct template
When all the data is entered, the user selects a preview option to display a proof of the
finished card. Users do not need any graphics experience or knowledge of print technology
to create their product.
FIGURE 12.5 Entering personal details into form
Business cards can be complex, so vertical justification may be needed if the individual
does not have a business mobile, or additional fields like direct phone or fax can be
positioned correctly. When satisfied that the information is correct, the order button is
pressed and an order produced.
12
FIGURE 12.6 Viewing personalised card details
The details are presented and, provided the user has the correct level of authority, the order
is posted. At the same time, the systems automatically generate the printable file
(generally a PDF) that is sent directly into the imposition system, and taking time out of
the prepress and administration at the printer. With online asset management systems, the
degree of sophistication of products can extend far beyond stationery requirements. The
identity style guide can be made available with the correct typefaces and logos provided in
standard document templates to preserve the corporate identity. Project management is
the setting up of complex checks for actions to happen within a timetable, and ensuring
that the most complex and repetitive tasks do not slip through the net. There are many
potential competing systems available, and www.aiza.ltd.uk is one.
FIGURE 12.7 Sending approved order to supplier
General reference tables
General reference Metric tables
tables Symbol Prefix Multiplication factor
p pico 0.000000000001
n nano 0.000000001
micro 0.000001
m milli 0.001
c centi 0.01
d deci 0.1

da deca 10
h hecto 100
k kilo 1000
M mega 1000000
G giga 1000000000
T tera 1000000000000
P peta 1000000000000000
Length
10 ngstrm = 1 nanometre
1000 nanometres = 1 micrometre
1000 micrometres = 1 millimetre
10 millimetres = 1 centimetre
10 centimetres = 1 decimetre
10 decimetres = 1 metre
1000 metres = 1 kilometre
1000 kilometres = 1 megametre
Weight
1000 milligrams = 1 gram
10 grams = 1 dekagram
10 decagrams = 1 hectogram
10 hectograms = 1 kilogram
1000 kilograms = 1 tonne
Area
100 sq millimetres = 1 sq centimetre
1000 sq centimetres = 1 sq metre
10000 sq metres = 1 hectare
100 hectares = 1 sq kilometre
13
The Print and Production Manual General reference tables
Capacity
1000 millilitres = 1 litre
100 litres = 1 hectolitre
10 hectolitres = 1 kilolitre
Volume
1000 cu millimetres = 1 cu centimetre
1000 cu centimetres = 1 cu decimetre
1000 cu decimetres = 1 cu metre
1000 cu metres = 1 cu decametre
1000 cu decametres = 1 cu hectometre
Computer memory
8 bits = 1 byte
1012 bytes = 1 kilobyte (k or kb)
1012kb = 1 megabyte (Mb)
1012Mb = 1 gigabyte (Gb)
1012Gb = 1 terabyte (Tb)
1012Tb = 1 petabyte (Pb)
Conversion metric Metric Multiplication factor Imperial
to imperial Length centimetres 0.3937 inches
metres 3.2808 feet
metres 1.0936143 yards
kilometres 0.62137 miles
Weight grams 0.03527 ounces
kilograms 2.20462 pounds
tonnes 0.984207 tons (2240 lbs)
Area sq centimetres 0.155 sq inches
sq metres 10.7639 sq feet
sq metres 1.9599 sq yards
sq kilometres 0.3861 sq miles
hectares 2.47101 acres
Capacity cu centimetres 0.06102 cu inches
and volume litres 1.7598 pints
litres 0.2200 gallons
Velocity kilometres per hr 0.62137 miles per hr
metres per sec 3.2808 feet per sec
Temperature degrees Celsius 5/9 (+32) degrees Fahrenheit
Typographical Points and Picas (Anglo-American standard)/Didots and
measurements Ciceros (European standard)
Inches Millimetres
Anglo-American point 0.013837 0.351
Pica 0.166044 4.218
Didot point 0.0148 0.376
Cicero 0.1776 4.511
Conversion factor Picas to Ciceros
1.069596 (1.0696)
Conversion factor Ciceros to Picas
0.9349324 (0.9349)
Conversion table: points to inches and millimetres
Anglo-American Didot
Point size Inches Millimetres Inches Millimetres
1 0.0138 0.351 0.0148 0.376
3 0.0415 1.054 0.0444 1.128
6 0.0830 2.109 0.0888 2.256
7 0.0969 2.460 0.1036 2.631
8 0.1107 2.812 0.1184 3.007
9 0.1245 3.163 0.1332 3.383
10 0.1384 3.515 0.1480 3.759
11 0.1522 3.866 0.1628 4.135
12 0.1660 4.218 0.1776 4.511
14 0.1937 4.920 0.2072 5.263
18 0.2491 6.326 0.2664 6.767
24 0.3321 8.435 0.3552 9.022
Screen rulings
Lines per inch Nearest equivalent Paper surface
lines per cm
65 26 newsprint
85 34 newsprint
100 40 MF
120 48 MF/matt coated
133 54 MF/matt coated/art
150 60 matt coated/art
175 70 art
200 80 art
13
Paper sizes Stock sizes for normal trim work
Sheet size Millimetres Inches A4 pp to view A4 pages from sheet
RA0 860 1220 33.9 48 16 32
RA1 610 860 24 33.9 8 16
RA2 430 610 16.9 24 4 8
Stock sizes for bleed trim work
Sheet size Millimetres Inches A4 pp to view A4 pages from sheet
SRA0 900 1280 35.4 50 .4 16 32
SRA1 640 900 25.3 35.4 8 16
SRA2 450 640 17.8 25.3 4 8
A series sheet sizes
4A 1682 2378 66.3 93.6
2A 1189 1682 46.8 66.3
A0 841 1189 33.1 46.8
A1 594 841 23.4 33.1
A2 420 594 16.5 23.4
A3 297 420 11.8 16.5
A4 210 297 8.3 11.8
A5 148 210 5.9 8.3
A6 105 148 4.1 5.9
A7 74 105 2.9 4.1
A8 52 74 2 2.9
A9 37 52 1.5 2
A10 26 37 1 1.5
B series for posters
4B 2000 2828 78.8 111.4
2B 1414 2000 55.7 78.8
B0 1000 1414 39.4 55.7
B1 707 1000 27.9 39.4
B2 500 707 19.7 27.9
B3 353 500 13.9 19.7
B4 250 353 9.8 13.9
B5 176 250 7 9.8
C series for envelopes
Sheet size Millimetres Inches Common use
4A 1682 2378 66.3 93.6
C0 917 1297 36.1 51
C1 648 917 25.5 36.1
C2 458 648 18 25.5
C3 324 458 12.8 18
C4 229 324 9 12.8 takes A4 sheet flat
C5 162 229 6.4 9 takes A5 sheet flat
C6 114 162 4.5 6.4 takes A5 folded once
C7/6 81 162 3.3 6.4 takes A5 folded twice
C7 81 114 3.3 4.5
DL 110 220 4.5 8.6 takes A4 folded twice
Metric book and sheet sizes (quad sheets)
Trimmed Untrimmed Quad sheet Pages Pages
Name page (mm) page (mm) (mm) to view from sheet
Crown 8vo 186 123 192 126 768(m) 1008 32 64
Metric Crown 4to 246 189 252 192 768 1008(m) 16 32
Metric Large Crown 8vo 198 129 204 132 816(m) 1056 32 64
Metric Demy 8vo 216 138 222 141 888(m) 1128 32 64
Metric Demy 4to 276 219 282 222 888 1128(m) 16 32
Metric Royal 8vo 234 156 240 159 960(m) x 1272 32 64
Metric Royal 4to 312 237 318 240 960 1272(m) 16 32
Imperial book and sheet sizes (quad sheets)
Trimmed page Quad sheet Pages from
Name (mm) (inches) (mm) (inches) sheet
Crown 8vo 184 124 7.3 4.8 762(m) 1016 30 40 64
Crown 4to 248 187 9.8 7.4 762 1016(m) 30 40 32
Large Crown 8vo 197 130 7.8 5.1 813(m) 1067 32 42 64
Demy 8vo 216 140 8.5 5.5 889(m) 1143 32 42 64
Demy 4to 279 219 11 8.6 889 1143(m) 35 45 32
Royal 8vo 248 156 9.8 6.1 1016(m) 1272 40 50 64
Royal 4to 311 251 12.3 9.8 1016 1272(m) 40 50 32
13
Other imperial book and sheet sizes
Trimmed octavo Trimmed quarto Quad sheet size
mm inches mm inches mm inches
Foolscap 165 105 6.5 4.1 210 168 8.3 6.6 686 864 27 34
Largepost 203 130 8 5.1 260 206 10.3 8.1 838 1067 33 42
Medium 222 143 8.8 5.6 286 225 11.3 8.9 914 1168 36 46
Imperial 273 187 10.8 7.4 375 276 14.8 10.9 1118 1524 44 60
Typography
Measurement All printing measurements derive from the term point, which was the base unit of
and terminology measurement used in the early days of printing to describe the common sizes of type. In
those days, it was used with no particular sense of precision. Founts were cast in 6 point
Systems of size, 10 point size, 24 point size and so on, but were known more commonly by name: the
measurement 6 point size came to be known as Nonpareil, 8 point as Brevier, 10 point as Long primer
and the commonly used 12 point size as Pica. The common names and approximate sizes
are shown in the box (page 454). Of these names, only the point and pica have survived to
the present.
A disastrous fire in a Chicago type foundry in the 1870s led to a call for
standardisation and the point was defined at 0.013837 inches, the pica at 0.166044
inches. These subsequently became the accepted and exactly defined units of
measurement for all typographical purposes in America and Great Britain.
In Europe, a similar move to standardisation had already been under way using a
slightly different definition of the point as its standard the didot point and its
equivalent to the 12 pt pica, the cicero. This system called the Didot system continued
and has become the standard system used in Europe. Didot points and picas are some
seven per cent larger than Anglo-American points and picas.
Anglo-American point = 0.013837 inches (0.351 mm)
Didot point = 0.0148 inches (0.376 mm).
All modern DTP and typesetting systems can be set up to Anglo-American points/picas,
Didot points/ciceros, inches or millimetres. The important Anglo-American measurements
to remember for quick calculation purposes are:
Point size Inches Millimetres
1pt 0.014 (72 per inch) 0.35mm
12pts (1 pica) 0.166 (6 per inch) 4.2mm
72pts (6 picas) 1.000 25.4 mm
Table 14.1 gives the exact conversion table.
TABLE 14.1 Conversion table: Anglo-American and Didot point sizes to
inches/millimetres
Anglo-American Didot
Point size Inches Millimetres Inches Millimetres
1 0.013837 0.351 0.0148 0.376
3 0.041511 1.054 0.0444 1.128
6 0.083022 2.109 0.0888 2.256
7 0.096859 2.460 0.1036 2.631
8 0.110696 2.812 0.1184 3.007
9 0.124533 3.163 0.1332 3.383
10 0.138370 3.515 0.1480 3.759
11 0.152207 3.866 0.1628 4.135
12 0.166044 4.218 0.1776 4.511
14 0.193718 4.920 0.2072 5.263
18 0.249066 6.326 0.2664 6.767
24 0.332088 8.435 0.3552 9.022
14
The Print and Production Manual Typography
These figures are derived from the measurements as they were originally defined:
1 Anglo-American point = 0.013837in
1 pica = 0.166044in
1 didot pt = 0.0148in
1 cicero = 0.1776in
The conversion factor from Anglo-American to Didot is 1.069596.
The conversion factor from Didot to Anglo-American is 0.9349324.
The conversion factor from inches to millimetres is 25.4.
Old Anglo-American names for type bodies and their approximate sizes
Name Point size Name Point size
Minikin 3.5 Two-line brevier 16
Brilliant 4 Great primer 18
Diamond 4.5 Paragon 20
Pearl 5 Two-line small pica 22
Agate (or Ruby) 5.5 Two-line pica 24
Nonpareil 6 Two-line English 28
Emerald 7 Four-line brevier 32
Brevier 8 Two-line great primer 36
Bourgeois 9 Two-line paragon 40
Long primer 10 Two-line double pica 44
Small pica 11 Canon (or four-line pica) 48
Pica 12 Five-line pica 60
English 14 Six-line pica 72
Terminology Much of the terminology used in typography derives from the days of metal type. A single
letter, numeral or other component in a type alphabet is known as a character or sort.
The parts of a metal type character are shown in Figure 14.1.
FIGURE 14.1 The parts of a metal type character
Each point is positioned on a cartesian co-ordinate system that has its origin on the
character's base line (the line on which letters without descenders rest). The horizontal
distance between the origin and the leftmost edge of the character is called the left side
bearing (it may be negative, positive or zero). All characters have a width, and this is the
distance from the current character's origin to the origin of the next character. The distance
between the right edge of the character and the width is called the right side bearing. The
size of a type character (e.g. 10pt) is the size of the body of the character, its top-to-toe
dimension. Solid lines of 10pt type, therefore, measure ten points from the top of capital
letters to the bottom of such characters as g or y.
Extra vertical spacing between lines of type is known as leading. This is because
in the days of metal setting, lead rules of 1pt, 2pts, 3pts thickness were inserted between
each solid line of type in order to space out the lines.
Type that is set without leading is known as solid (e.g. 10pt Times solid). Type
that is leaded is described either as leaded or as on another particular body: e.g. 10 pt
Times, 2pts leaded; or 10 on 12pt Times (usually written as 10/12pt Times).
The width of a type character is known as its set. The set-widths of characters
within an alphabet vary enormously but, in all except the more eccentric fonts, m is the
widest character, n is the average character and i is the narrowest character.
Different manufacturers approach the allocation of set-widths to characters
within the alphabet in different ways, but usually they choose measurements by reference
to the width of the m (the widest letter) in the font. For example, where the m is given to
be 1000 units, the smallest unit might be one-thousandth part of this; the n, that is
classically half the m, will be 500 units; the i, 300 units.
Because the n is the average character in width terms for any composition font,
single characters of setting are often loosely referred to as ens. In an average 11pt book-
setting typeface, an 11pt en will be about 5pts wide (0.07in or 1.75mm), which works out at
about 14 characters for each linear inch. Standard Courier-style printout (identified as
typewriting) is designed to either ten characters to the linear inch (Pica) or 12 characters
to the linear inch (Elite). Book typography, therefore, tends to be much more economical
word-for-word than typescript.
An em is double the width of the en. As well as describing the type character m,
the term em on its own, or pica em, is also used to mean pica or 12 points. This rather
confusing shorthand comes about because the width of the em in the commonly used pica
size (12pt) was itself 12 points wide, and the use of the term to mean 12 points has stuck.
An em of set, on the contrary, means the width of the em in the particular font concerned,
but this term is rarely used.
A character like g or y extends below the baseline, and is called a descender; a
character like k or l extends above it, and is called an ascender. Most Latin (and Greek
and Cyrillic) fonts have certain standard heights: the height of a lower case letter (without
an ascender) is called the x-height, the height of a capital letter is called the cap-height
and the height of the ascenders is called the ascender height (some, but not all, fonts have
14
the ascenders and capitals at the same approximate height). Usually these will not be
exactly the same for all characters; the letter O is usually slightly taller than the letter I,
but they both are within the range of the cap height for the font.
The font itself has an ascent and descent associated with it. In the old days of
metal type, nothing could ascend above or descend below these values but now accents
and ascenders may reach above the font-wide ascent and descenders below it. However,
the concept is still a convenient one to retain. It is true that in almost all cases, the
characters will not ascend above or descend below the font-wide ascent and descent. The
sum of the ascent and descent is the size of the font. The point size of a piece of metal
type was determined by this value (essentially the height of the metal block holding the
character). In a PostScript font, the local co-ordinate system is independent of the final size
at which the font will draw. By convention in PostScript, the sum of the ascent and descent
is 1000 units, while in TrueType it is usually a power of two, and often 2048.
Fonts and type families Font, or fount as it used to be in British spelling, is a word whose definition has changed in
recent years to accommodate computer technology. In the days of metal type and the early
days of phototypesetting, a fount referred to a single weight, a single size and a single
design (plus italic) of a typeface: 12pt Plantin medium roman with italic, for example, was a
fount; 14pt Plantin medium roman with italic was another fount. In todays usage, font is
often synonymous with typeface, meaning the main version of the typeface in its medium
upright version properly called roman. All sizes are obtained by computer enhancement.
The design variants, such as italic and bold, generally have to be ordered separately.
The basic components of the roman set of characters will comprise:
an upper case alphabet
a small caps alphabet
a lower case alphabet
ligatures, dipthongs, figures, punctuation marks, signs and symbols.
Here are the Plantin roman designs for these (set in 10pt):
Caps: ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Small caps: ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Lower case: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Ligatures: , , ,
Dipthongs: fi, fl
Figures: 1234567890
Punctuation marks: , . ; : ? ! " "
Reference marks: * (asterisk), (dagger), (double dagger),
(paragraph), (section) || (parallel)
Miscellaneous signs: ( ) (parentheses), [ ] { } (brackets), & (ampersand)
Accented letters: (acute) (grave)
(circumflex)
(diaresis)
(cedilla) (tilde)
Mathematical signs: + = < > / |
Commercial signs: % @ $
Not all typefaces will be supplied with a specially designed or truecut small caps alphabet
(that will differ from the same alphabet two sizes smaller by having slightly strengthened
character strokes to reflect the look of the main type size more accurately).
Figures (numerals) may be:
lining (also known as aligning or modern), in which the numerals sit on the baseline
with the other characters;
non-lining (also known as hanging or old-style), in which the numerals extend either
side of the baseline.
Few typefaces are supplied with non-lining figure designs. Ligatures may not always be
provided. Punctuation marks will distinguish the hyphen, the en-rule and the emrule.
In addition to the roman characters, versions of most characters will be supplied
as italic designs and as bold designs, but normally without truecut small caps. A basic type
font will therefore comprise three designs and seven alphabets:
roman caps, roman small caps, roman lower case
italic caps, italic lower case
bold caps, bold lower case.
Here they all are in 11pt Plantin:
Roman caps: ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Roman small caps: ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Roman lower case: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Italic caps: ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Italic lower case: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Bold caps: ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Bold lower case: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Beyond the medium, italic and bold designs of a typeface, other variants, whether in
weight or set-width, stretch out in all directions. The whole agglomeration of weights and
widths from a basic design is sometimes called a type family.
Weights traditionally progress as follows:
ultra-light
extra-light
light
semi-light
medium
semi-bold
bold
extra-bold
ultra-bold.
Some typefaces are supplied as designs with these names (e.g. Helvetica Light, Rockwell
Light). Others can be made by digitally altering the medium or bold versions in the output
device.
14
Design variants: weights
Light
Medium
Bold
Extra-bold
Widths traditionally progress as follows:
ultra-condensed
extra-condensed
condensed
semi-condensed
medium
semi-expanded
expanded
extra-expanded
ultra-expanded.
Again, some are supplied (e.g. Helvetica Condensed); others can be created digitally.
Setting to a measure
Type is set to a measure (line length) expressed in picas (ems or pica ems), millimetres or
inches. Lines can be:
ranged left (or unjustified, ragged right)
justified, in which all lines are the same length
centred
or ranged right (or ragged left).
Ranged-left setting (unjustified or ragged right) is indicated in the following way:
10/12 pt Plantin R/L 18 picas
This is an example of 10 on 12pt Plantin
typesetting ranged left (unjustified or ragged
right) across (a measure of) 18picas. This is an
example of 10 on 12pt Plantin ranged left.
Justified setting is specified:
10/12pt Plantin 18 picas justified
This is an example of 10 on 12pt Plantin across
(a measure of) 18 picas justified. This is an
example of 10/12pt Plantin across (a measure
of) 18 picas justified. This is an example of
10/12pt Plantin across (a measure of) 18 picas
justified.
Centred setting is indicated:
10/12pt Plantin centred over 18 picas
centred across (a measure of) 18 picas. This is
an example of 10 on 12pt Plantin centred
across (a measure of) 18 picas.
Ranged-right (unjustified, ragged left) setting is indicated:
10/12pt Plantin R/R 18 picas
typesetting ranged right (ragged left) across (a
measure of) 18 picas. This is an example of 10
on 12 pt Plantin type ranged right.
Design variants: Set-widths
Ultra-condensed
Extra-condensed
Condensed
Semi-condensed
MEDIUM
Semi-expanded
Expanded
Extra-expanded
Ultra-expanded.
Word spaces within a line may be:
fixed (unjustified setting)
variable (justified setting).
The standard fixed word space is the mid space, half the width of the average en character
(and a quarter the width of the em). The standard variable word space starts at a thin,
around 20% of the em, and may extend out as far as an em or more. Traditionally, word
spaces were described in fractions of an em:
hair space 6 to the em 17%
thin space 5 to the em 20%
mid space 4 to the em 25%
thick space 3 to the em 33%
en space 2 to the em 50%
em space 1 to the em 100%.
While this terminology is still used in a loose sense, all modern DTP and typesetting
systems offer infinitely smaller increments.
Figure 14.2 shows the features that are used to describe typefaces and styles.
14
Typeface characteristics Typefaces are distinguished from each other by the following characteristics:
Weight the general density or colour that may be spindly or robust
Character fit that may be loose or tight
Proportions the relationship of the x-height to the cap height
Appearing size that may be large or small
Stress the angle of shading in the letter strokes may be:
oblique (diagonal, stressed at 45)
vertical (upright, stressed at 90).
Diagonally stressed letter forms look more calligraphic and relaxed. Vertically stressed
letter forms look mechanical and formal (see Figure 14.3).
Serifs A typeface may or may not have serifs. If it hasnt, it is termed sans serif; if it
has, the serifs may be bracketed or unbracketed and oblique or horizontal in angle.
The weight of the serifs in relation to the main strokes of the letters can be distinctive:
hairline (thin) at one extreme,
slab (thick) at the other.
Earmarks quirks or distinguishing features. The letters Q, f, g, j, w, are often very
distinctive. Note, however, that each typeface company has patented its own
interpretation of the traditional classic typefaces, and each one differs in a number of
ways, subtle or otherwise, from the interpretation of his competitors. Similarly, each
manufacturer will take a popular design, remodel it to a greater or lesser degree, and,
for copyright reasons, might market it under a new name. This element of creative
reinterpretation sometimes alters the earmarks as well as other basic characteristics, so
a certain amount of judicious interpretation is sometimes needed.
Typeface classifications British Standard 2961, drawn up in 1967, offers nine classifications.
1. Humanist 6. Lineale
2. Garalde 7. Glyphic
3. Transitional 8. Script
4. Didone 9. Graphic
5. Slab serif
FIGURE 14.2 Typeface terminology
Descender
The traditional nomenclature in operation before BS2961 is used, however, and is
annotated alongside the British Standard classification where the two coincide. A few
examples of each typeface are given, set in 11 pt, with a note of the particular earmarks
that distinguish them.
Humanist
Traditionally known as Venetian typefaces, examples include: Centaur, Cloister Old Style,
Horley Old Style, Kennerley, Veronese. Features:
light in weight, oblique stress, calligraphic in origin;
bar of lower case e inclined as in script handwriting;
bracketed serifs.
Centaur
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Centaur: Small x-height, long ascenders and descenders. Italic cap Q and italic lower cases
are very distinctive.
14
FIGURE 14.3 Stress can be oblique or vertical. With obliquely stressed letterforms,
the serifs are generally oblique; with vertically stressed forms they are horizontal
FIGURE 14.4 The weight of serifs in relation to the main strokes of the letters can be
distinctive, ranging from hairline at one extreme to slab at the other
Horley Old Style
Horley Old Style: Open bowl on roman lower-case g. large upper loop on italic lower-case k.
Garalde
Traditionally known as Old Face or Old Style. Many of the most popular traditional
bookwork typefaces come into this category. Examples:
Bembo, Caslon, Ehrhardt, Garamond, Old Style, Plantin. Features:
less calligraphic in appearance than Humanist styles
oblique stress, but with horizontal e bar
traditional bookwork appearance.
Bembo
Bembo: Extended upper stroke in roman lower case f. Cap height lower than ascender line.
Distinctive italic lower case y with foot serif.
Caslon
Caslon: Rather loose fit and light in colour. Apex of roman cap A has a double point. Cap Q
in roman and italic have tail in a horizontal position below the O.
Ehrhardt
Ehrhardt: Rather narrow appearance. Distinctive looping serif on roman lower case g.
Curved bar on roman cap A. Distinctive backward-springing italic lower case w and y.
Garamond
Garamond: Serifs on roman lower case m and n are dish-shaped. Roman cap T has heavy
serifs at each end of cross-bar. Italic letterforms are irregular. Note particularly inward-
curling lower case h.
Plantin
Plantin: Large x-height, rather dark in colour. Roman lower case k has no foot serif. Roman
cap P has unclosed bowl.
Sabon
Sabon: A modern design based on Garamond. Characteristic roman lower case f. Italic
lower case f is very condensed with straight tail. Italic lower case j has straight tail.
Transitional
These are typefaces based on Plantins types of the mid-18th century in Britain. The
transitional aspect is between the oblique, calligraphic inspiration of Garalde/Old Style
faces, and the more mechanical, vertical stress of the Didone/Modern faces (see below).
Examples: Baskerville, Caledonia, and Scotch Roman. Features:
axis of curves now vertical in stress. Rather more engraved in appearance
bracketed oblique serifs (as Garalde).
Baskerville
Baskerville: Lower case roman g has unclosed lower bowl. No serif on middle peak of roman
w. Curly cross-bar on italic cap T.
14
Didone
Traditionally known as Modern typefaces. Examples: Bodoni, Corvinus, Modern Extended,
Walbaum. Features:
abrupt contrast between thick and thin strokes
axis of curves completely vertical in stress
horizontal top serifs, sometimes unbracketed hair-line.
Bodoni
Bodoni: Strong thick/thin contrast. Horizontal foot serif on roman lower case b. Horizontal
serif on roman lower case q. No bracketed serif on roman lower case t.
Walbaum
Walbaum: Open, light, square in appearance. Roman lower case g has backward-springing
joining stroke. Roman lower case w is an unusual and distinctive design.
Slab-serif
Otherwise called Egyptian. Typefaces have heavy, square-ended serifs, with or without
brackets. Examples: Cairo, Century, Clarendon, Egyptian, Playbill, Rockwell.
Egyptian
Egyptian: Very black, monoline, with thick, unbracketed serifs. Mainly used for display. Cap
R has a very rounded tail.
New Century Schoolbook
New Century Schoolbook: Closely related to slab-serif typefaces but with slightly slanted
serifs and some old-style letterforms. Roman lower case t has thick bracket to cross-bar.
Italic lower case f has an almost straight tail.
Rockwell
Rockwell: Many related weights and condensed/expanded versions. Distinctive horizontal
serif over cap A in roman and italic.
Lineale
Typefaces without serifs, otherwise known as sans serif. Four distinctions are made:
Grotesque
Neo-Grotesque
Geometric
Humanist.
Grotesque
Lineales with 19th century origins. Rather angular and gothic in appearance. Examples:
Grot 215, Headline Bold, Sans No. 7.
Grotesque
Grotesque: Many variations available on the basic design. Angular, upright in appearance.
Roman lower case f has an abrupt curve at the head. Roman lower case t has sheared-off
main stroke. Roman and italic lower case a retain bowl and top-stroke rather than plain
bowl design.
Neo-Grotesque
Later designs, more rounded, open and monoline in weight. Examples: Helvetica, Univers.
14
Helvetica
Helvetica: Many weights and versions available. Lower case y in roman and italic has curly
tail, roman cap G has vertical down stroke outside bowl, roman cap Q has angled tail going
through bowl.
Univers
Univers: Many weights and versions available. Lower case y in roman and italic has straight
tail, roman cap G has no down stroke, roman cap Q has tail horizontal to baseline.
Geometric
Lineales constructed on simple geometric shapes, e.g. circle or rectangle.
Examples: Erbar, Eurostile, Futura.
Eurostile
Eurostyle: Square, mechanical appearance. Roman lower case t has unusual design. Roman
cap Q has distinctive appearance.
Futura
Futura: Lower case j and t are a single straight down-stroke. Lower case q has no top-stroke.
Humanist
Based on the proportions of Humanist or Garalde lower case, with shading and stroke
contrast. Examples: Gill Sans, Optima, Pascal.
Gill Sans
Gill Sans: Available in many weights and versions. Lower case g has two-bowl form. Italic
lower case p has thin stroke commencing bowl to left of main stroke.
Optima
Optima: Clean lines with notable thick/thin contrast. Lower case f has thickened stroke at
head. Lower case g has two-bowl form and horizontal serif. Cap J extends below baseline.
Glyphic
Typefaces based on a chiselled rather than a calligraphic form and used in display sizes.
Each design is distinct from all others and is best identified by direct reference to a type
catalogue. They are blunt, elephant-foot serifs. Examples: Albertus, Chisel, Festival, Latin.
Script
Typefaces that imitate cursive writing. Two distinctions are made:
Formal, examples are Marina and Palace Script
Informal, examples are Flash, Mistral and Pepita.
Graphic
Typefaces that appear to have been drawn graphically rather than written. Examples:
Cartoon, Klang, Libra, Old English.
Hybrids
The traditional category of 20th-century book faces are mainly hybrid in origin and are
defined under BS2961 by reference to their double origin, e.g. HumanistGaralde,
GaraldeDidone. Examples: Goudy Old Style, Lectura, Melior, Photina, Pilgrim, Spectrum.
Goudy Old Style
Goudy Old Style: Note roman lower case f, g, i, j; roman cap Q; italic lower case throughout
is distinctive.
14
Palatino
Palatino: Note roman lower case t; roman cap Y; all italic lower case is very calligraphic.
Perpetua
Perpetua: Note roman lower case a, f, r; extremely small appearing size; italic lower case f, g.
Times
Times: Note thickening of stroke on lower case; long, straight stroke on roman cap G; italic
cap Q.
Typographic design In clockwise order from the left-hand side of the page, the margins round a type area are
and specification called the back margin, head margin, fore-edge margin, and foot margin. The two inside
margins that make up the white space across the gutter on a double-page spread are
called the combined back margins or combined backs.
In specifying margins, it is conventional to state only the back margin and head
margin along with the measure (length of line) and depth of page, so letting the fore-edge
and foot margins make what they will.
A suitable type measure (line length) for a conventional book or magazine page is:
7075% of the total width, remaining white space divided in the proportions 1:1.5,
back to fore-edge margin
7585% of the total page depth, remaining white space divided in the proportions
1:1.5, head to foot margin.
Example: apply this to a 216 138mm Metric Demy 8vo page:
Width of the page is 138mm = 33 picas
Therefore a suitable type width is between 23 and 25 picas.
If 23 picas: back margin 4 picas, fore-edge margin 6 picas
If 25 picas: back margin 3.5 picas, fore-edge margin 4.5 picas.
When the calculation leaves scope for two back-margin options, it is often better
to go for the larger of the two. This allows more tolerance in the folding and binding
processes and is particularly important in cross-grain books (see Chapter 10).
Depth of the page is 216 mm = 51.5 picas
Therefore a suitable type depth is between 38.5 and 44 picas.
If 38.5 picas: head margin 5 picas, foot margin 8 picas
If 44 picas: head margin 3 picas, foot margin 4.5 picas.
When specifying type depths on a page, it is important to make clear whether
the depth is the inclusive depth or the exclusive depth (referring to the running head). This
is an example that avoids ambiguity:
10 on 12pt running head + 12pt white line + 42 lines 10 on 12pt (504pts) + 12pt
white line +10 on 12pt foot folio.
When the calculation leaves scope for two head margin options, it is often better
to go for the smaller of the two. This is to avoid the visual risk of the text falling off the
page. Visual centring of type on a page is surprisingly high (about a third of the way
down). In a well-balanced page, the back margin will tend to be similar to the head
margin, or slightly smaller than it. Clockwise from the back margin, the following
proportions work well: 2/2.5/3/3.5. In the example above the proportions of the larger
margin version would be 2/2.5/3/4, which is reasonably close to this.
FIGURE 14.5 Type area and margins
14
Choosing typefaces Selecting a typeface for a job is often a question of personal taste more than anything
else, but there are several practical factors worth considering as well.
Standardisation Consider the following:
The typeface range/collection held by the supplier or yourself. Do you want or need
to add to it? Some publishers and typesetters aim to standardise on a particular range
of fonts or font suppliers collection Bitstream, for example for reasons of economy
and of output standardisation;
Updating requirements. A standard collection is desirable so that files can be rerun
with no possibility of font clash or error;
Special requirements. Maths and science setting makes heavy use of special
mathematical symbols and characters. Many of these are designed in Times, so
sticking to Times for the main text is sensible;
Typographic niceties. Not all fonts are supplied with true small caps, for example.
Type of publication
Sans serif faces are notoriously hard to read for long periods, and are best avoided for long
magazine articles, book work or other publications that demand continuous reading. Italic
styles too are hard on the eye for continuous reading.
Paper
The paper to be used for the job should have an influence on your choice:
a delicate, spindly typeface will fare badly on a bulky news or antique wove;
a heavy, high-contrast face will look dazzling on art paper;
Recently designed faces often work better in integrated illustration formats than the more
classic old-face styles.
Set-width and appearing size
Set-widths and the appearing sizes of typefaces can vary dramatically. It is most important
never to specify 10 on 11pt, or whatever, without specifying the precise typeface (and even a
particular manufacturers design of that typeface). In isolation, 10 on 11pt means very little,
and guarantees only that the baseline of each line of type will be 11pts away from its
fellows. Font designs for the same nominal size can differ enormously, and 10 on 11pt in
one face might have the appearing size of 9 on 11pt in another or 11pt solid in yet another.
Not only will the appearance of the page be affected, but also the castoff
content. For example, a page containing 45 lines of 10 on 11pt type set across 24 picas
renders 540 words in Linotype Perpetua, but only 425 words in Linotype Melior a 25%
difference.
Design variants
Manufacturers designs of the same nominal typeface can differ considerably. All
manufacturers have their own versions of Times, Plantin, Garamond, Helvetica, Univers,
and so on (sometimes called by that name, sometimes given a different name), and each
has subtle or sometimes not so subtle design alterations made for copyright reasons.
That is why it is important to see samples of the typeface you are specifying in the
particular version you are to use.
Readability
Generally speaking, what matters more than the choice of any particular typeface is:
how the type is arranged on the page
the proportions of leading and measure to the appearing size of the type
the way white space is used
the way a double-page spread looks.
Typefaces do set a general mood or look but, by and large, positioning, colour and layout
are much more important to the reader, and to the success or failure of a design.
Specifying magazine In designing magazine or book work, house style or series requirements often play a part.
and book work When this is not the case and a typographical design needs to be built from scratch, the
following notes may be helpful. By and large, they represent conventional wisdom.
When an outside supplier does the typesetting, the typesetter will expect a
complete type specification that may be usefully provided either as a form completed by
hand, a word-processed template (highly convenient for books of similar format) or an
instruction to follow a publication of similar style.
If files are being supplied, some or all of the formatting information may already
be in the files, in which case the instructions will be mainly to do with confirming finished
type sizes and styles and with page make-up requirements.
When a manuscript is being supplied for keying, the typesetter will need to create
all the formats at the time of keying.
Appearing sizes
Monotype Bembo: Font designs for the same nominal size can differ enormously, and 10 on 11pt in one
face might have the appearing size of 9 on 11pt in another, or 11pt solid in yet another.
Monotype Perpetua: Font designs for the same nominal size can differ enormously, and 10 on 11pt in one face
might have the appearing size of 9 on 11pt in another or 11pt solid in yet another.
Monotype Plantin: Font designs for the same nominal size can differ enormously, and 10 on
11pt in one face might have the appearing size of 9 on 11pt in another or 11pt solid in yet
another.
14
Structure
It is necessary in book work to specify all elements of the book, and the order in which they
should run. The following list gives the conventional order and positioning (recto/verso).
Prelims
half-title page opening recto
advertisement verso
title page recto
copyright page verso
dedication recto or last verso of prelims facing the first page of main text
acknowledgements verso
contents list recto
list of illustrations verso/recto
list of abbreviations recto/verso
foreword recto
preface recto
introduction recto.
Main text
part recto
section or chapter
sub-section
main text repeated.
Endmatter
appendix/appendices recto
notes recto
glossary recto
vocabulary recto
bibliography recto
index recto.
Body text setting and subsidiary text setting
The basic page specification, type area and margins should be specified and described as
explained previously. The size of type should be appropriate to the type area.
The most commonly used typefaces for continuous body text are serif faces such
as Baskerville, Bembo, Century, Garamond, Plantin, and Times.
Sans serif faces Helvetica, Univers and so on are harder to read in continuous
text and are generally not advised for long stretches of type.
The old adage Never set type to longer than half its point size in inches may be
useful to remember, but this does allow an extreme case even so: for a Demy 8vo book,
with a type measure of 24 picas or 4in, for example, the adage would allow the smallest
continuous-text size to be 8pt, whereas in practice anything much denser than 9 on 10pt
would test the readers patience. More normally 10pt, 11pt or even 12pt would be correct.
Leading is best judged by the character of the typeface itself: fonts with small
appearing sizes (e.g. Bembo, Perpetua) need little leading, while fonts with large
appearing sizes (Melior, Plantin, Walbaum, Times) need at least one or two points in
composition sizes.
Extracts
Extracts inside the main body text are frequently set one or two sizes smaller than the main
text size. Conventionally, extract text may be any combination of the following:
marked by space above and below
set in a reduced type size/set solid/set in italic
indented at the left/indented at both left and right.
Footnotes/endnotes
Footnotes are generally set two or three sizes smaller than the body text and, ideally, are set at
the foot of the page containing the reference mark. Depending on the complexity of the text
or the deficiencies in the page make-up software, footnotes can, if necessary, be relegated to
the end of the chapter containing the reference or to the end of the book (in which case they
become endnotes), but this is generally less satisfactory from the readers point of view.
Captions
When specifying picture captions, bear in mind that the length of the average entry might
best determine the general style. If a roman font is chosen, the amount of space separating
caption from body text is crucial if the reader is not to confuse caption with text.
If files are being transferred, the main text type and extract, footnote and other
subsidiary types should have been marked electronically to help identification and
typesetting to the correct finished sizes. If a manuscript is being supplied for keying, these
elements should have been sidelined in the manuscript for the typesetter.
Display headings
Composition sizes (up to 14pt) are normally expressed in points and picas, but specifying
larger sizes of type or specifying type that floats inside a given area is often more
conveniently done in:
x-height
cap-height
inches/millimetres.
Display heads are normally specified by giving the drop from the head of the page (i.e.
including the margin) to the baseline of the first line of type, or in lines/picas/millimetres
off the exclusive type area to the baseline of the first line of type.
14
In the case of chapter heads followed by text, the number of lines of main text to
appear on the chapter opening page can also be specified along with the space between
the baseline of the heading and the first line of text. Display heads can be ranged left,
right or centred in the same way as headlines, and it is common practice to let headline
and heading positionings echo each other.
Part openings are often treated typographically in much the same way as the
title page. Part openings are normally announced on a new recto (right-hand) page with
the backing verso (left-hand) page blank. Section or chapter opening pages might start
new pages, right-hand pages only, left- or right-hand pages (as they fall) or they might
simply run on from the body text of the previous section/chapter (separated by a few lines
of space).
Subheadings
If files are being transferred, all subheads should have been marked electronically to make
identification and typesetting to the correct finished sizes easier. If manuscript for keying is
being supplied, all subheads should have been marked A, B, C and so on in the manuscript
for the typesetter.
Subheads are conventionally typeset as either:
cross-heads, which straddle the main type measure. Usually centred over the measure,
they are used for greater emphasis than a boxed head
boxed heads, which are ranged left on the main type measure. There are two types:
shoulder heads, which occupy a line alone and text starting either flush or
indented below. Shoulder heads are frequently used to break up text into
subsections. They are often set as text bold, and balance well with about two to
three times as much space above as below;
side heads, which have the main text running on in the same line. Side heads are
often set as text caps or italic and are normally subsidiary to shoulder heads.
The conventional levels of importance in headings, in descending order, are:
display heading (chapter or part)
cross-head
shoulder head
side head.
Headlines and folios
A headline is the phrase or word that runs over the top of book pages to indicate position
inside the book. A running head is a headline that is repeated, unchanged, throughout
(usually the book title). Headline or running head text should not be supplied inside text
files but left to the typesetter to generate in accordance with the type specification.
Page make-up programs generate folios (page numbers) automatically; running
heads are only semi-automatic, and in degrees depending on the sophistication of the
program and the variability of the headline. Conventional arrangements in book work
differ depending on whether the work is fiction or non-fiction. When it is desirable to have
headlines in fiction, the most common arrangement is to have the book title on all verso
pages (so the verso headline is unvarying throughout the book) and the section or chapter
title on the recto (varying between chapters). If there are no section/chapter titles, the
book title might then be the running headline both verso and recto.
Small format paperbacks commonly have no headline. Likewise, a non-fiction title
with a fairly simple structure might carry the book title as a headline on the verso and the
section/chapter title on the recto. More complicated works might carry the section/chapter
title on the verso (varying between chapters) and the next level of subheading on the recto
(varying between pages). Dictionaries and encyclopedias would carry the name of the first
entry on the verso and the last entry on the recto (varying page to page).
Conventional positioning of headlines might be:
centred
ranged to fore-edge margin, or indented 1/2/3/4 picas in
ranged to back margin, or indented 1/2/3/4 picas in
separated from text by one line space.
Note that less than one line space below is frequently sufficient separation from the
main text.
Typographical arrangements that work include:
italic, either text size or one size larger
letter spaced small caps of the text face
fine rule between headline and first line of text.
Note that small caps (letter-spaced) may often be visually preferable to text-sized caps.
Folios are conventionally either ranged with the headline at the head of the
page, or placed alone at the foot of the page, and separated from the text by a line space
(a half-line might sometimes be adequate) at the same size.
Whether figures are lining or non-lining will depend on the general style of the
publication and the typeface being used (note most typefaces do not carry non-lining
figures as a matter of course).
Conventional positioning of headlines with folios might be:
folio ranged to fore-edge margin with the headline centred on the text measure
ranged to fore-edge margin, separated from headline by 1 or 2 picas
ranged to back margin, separated from headline by 1 or 2 picas.
Where folios are separate from running heads, at the foot of the page it is usual to range
them in the same manner: both centred, ranged with fore-edge margin.
Prelims and endmatter
In design terms these are often best tackled last. Any of the main prelim matter, if
extensive, can be set one or even two sizes down. If this is done, it is good practice to
reduce the type measure a little on the pages affected and scale down the sizes of the
headings in proportion. This is particularly true for the contents page. The same thing
14
applies in the endmatter: notes, glossaries, vocabularies, bibliographies and indexes often
benefit from being set one or two sizes smaller.
The title page needs special care, and should reflect the general look of the rest
of the book (centred or ranged-left style, same use of italic, bold). Any text to be centred
visually on the page needs to be placed quite high. Remember that the visual centre of a
page is around two-thirds the way up.
Detailed points of There are many points of typographical nicety that can also be specified, some of which
typographic style might reasonably form part of a house style. The following is a set of detailed instructions
for book work setting and page make-up that you may find useful to choose from.
Punctuation setting Quotes Use single quotes and double within single unless otherwise instructed. In
quote-within-quotes, use hair-space between double and single quote marks.
En-dashes used parenthetically should be word-spaced.
Em dashes might be set either close-up to previous word or word-spaced according to
context follow copy.
Full points, commas, colons, semicolons to be set closed-up to preceding word.
Followed by word space.
Ellipses Three dots or four, according to context (the fourth dot is a full point that might
precede or follow the three-dot ellipsis. Follow marked copy. Whether three- or four-dot,
the spaces between dots should be fixed with a thin space. The space on either side of
the ellipsis should be word-spaced, except where the first dot is the full point.
Spacing parameters No more than two successive lines of text to begin or end with the same word
Phrases or groups of words that appear in successive lines must not be set in the same
position in both lines
Paragraph indent one em of set
No extra word space after punctuation
Word spacing: minimum 17% of the em, average 2228% of the em, maximum 100%
of the em
Letter spacing within text not allowed. For display caps and small caps: narrow 5%
of the em of set extra; medium 10%; wide 15%
Kerning of relevant cap combinations (LY, YA etc) permitted
Feathering (vertical justification) not allowed.
H&J/word breaks As a general principle, divide words in the same way as they are split into syllables
when pronounced
Place a single vowel before a hyphen rather than after, so allowing the second part of
the broken word, beginning a new line, to start with a consonant, e.g. rumi-nate not
rum-inate; tele-vision, not tel-evision; commu-nism, not commun-ism
Compound words such as milli-metre should be split only at the logical breakpoints
Minimum stub to be three letters
Dates, initials and names not to be split unless in extreme cases
For general rules, follow (one of):
Hart, Harts Rules for Compositors and Readers at the University Press Oxford
Butcher, Copy-editing. The Cambridge Handbook
Collins, Authors and Printers Dictionary
No more than two successive lines to end with hyphens; then no further hyphens
allowed within two lines
Prelims: use roman numerals; then arabic numerals begin with first page of main text
unless otherwise indicated on individual typescript
Paragraphs: set first line of opening paragraph or section within a chapter full out.
Indent first lines of subsequent paragraphs one em of set
No widows at tops of pages (or if absolutely unavoidable, accept a limited number per
book provided the lines are at least half full). At no time are two widows on the same
spread acceptable
Last word on a right-hand page must not be hyphenated.
Page depths must be equal across each spread (or, if absolutely unavoidable, spreads may
be left one line long or short, but facing pages must always be equal).
At least four lines of text must appear on the final page of each chapter.
If a new run-on chapter or section within a chapter falls near the foot of a page, at
least two lines and preferably three must appear at the foot of the page. It is not
acceptable for the last line of a new section/displayed extract to appear at the top of
a page
If line spaces marked in the copy fall at top/foot of a page, insert an asterisk, centred
on the measure, at the foot of the previous page.
Headlines and folios Headlines In main text, set book title on versos, chapter title on rectos, unless
otherwise instructed; in frontmatter/endmatter sections set section title (e.g. preface,
index) on both rectos and versos
Folios No folio on part titles or versos, or on opening pages of sections/chapters.
Always set folio on chapter ends and final page of book.
14
Glossary
A The A series is an international ISO range of paper sizes
reducing from 4A at 16822378mm through A0 at
8411189mm to A10 at 2637mm, with subsidiary RA and
SRA sizes. Each size folds in half to preserve the same
proportions of 1:2 at each reduction. See also B, C.
A&I Abstracting and indexing. The act of making
summaries and indexes for books or journal articles.
A format paperback Mass market paperback of trimmed
size 178111mm.
A/D conversion See analogue to digital conversion.
a/w See artwork.
ablation mechanism of imaging plates by vapourising
surface material using a laser (see DI printing).
abrasion resistance Measured resistance of a material
surface (e.g. paper) to abrasion.
absolute humidity Quantity of water vapour in a unit
volume of atmosphere.
absorbency The degree to which paper takes up contact
moisture measured by a standard test. In optics, a
transparent materials degree of suppression.
absorption Absorption or penetration is one of the four
principal ways by which inks dry; and is associated most
readily with coldset web-offset printing on newsprint. The
other three methods are oxidation, polymerisation and
evaporation.
abstract Short summary of the contents of an academic
paper or scientific article.
AC Authors correction. See authors corrections.
accelerated ageing Testing of paper to determine
strength loss through ageing.
accents Marks added to letters in some languages
to indicate stress, e.g. (acute e) in French.
acceptance testing The process by which a
manufacturer tests a new system to demonstrate
that it works. See also beta testing.
access The ability to retrieve data from a computer storage
medium or peripheral device.
access fee Fee charged by a museum or gallery for the
facility of photographing items in its collection. Also called
a facility fee.
access provider See internet service provider.
access time The time taken to retrieve data from
a computer storage medium or a peripheral.
accession number Serial number used in a library
indexing system that shows when the new book was
first acquired.
accessions New books added to a library.
accordion fold Parallel folds in paper, which open like
an accordion bellows, each in an opposite direction from
the preceding fold.
accordion insert Periodical insert with accordion fold.
achromatic colour An intermediate grey level in the
monochromatic grey scale in computer graphics.
achromatic separations Colour separations produced
by CCR (complementary colour removal). The black printer
carries more detail than with conventional separations and
the tertiary, or complementary, elements of any colour hue
are removed. Also called ICR (integrated colour removal) or
GCR (grey component replacement).
acid resist Acid-resisting coat on printing plate.
acid-free paper Generic term to describe paper that is
free from acid-producing chemicals which reduce longevity.
See permanent paper and neutral sized paper.
Acknowledgements page Page of a book in which the
author gives his list of sources and references.
Acrobat A technology produced by Adobe Systems Inc.
that allows documents created on one computer system to
be read and printed on other systems. The technology uses
portable document format (PDF) files, which are produced
either directly as a print option in the source application or
by running PostScript code through a program called
Acrobat Distiller. All formatting information is embedded in
the compressed file and graphics and font information can
also be included. If the fonts in the document are not
present on the system where the document is viewed,
Multiple Mastering technology is used to simulate those
The Print and Production Manual Glossary
fonts. Acrobat can be used for proofing (particularly in
conjunction with ISDN) and for electronic publishing,
although the facsimile of the printed page is not always
an ideal format for viewing onscreen.
across the gutter Printed over the gutter margin of a
book.
acrylic A polymer based on synthetic resin and used for
surface coatings among other applications. Acrylic coatings
are tough, flexible and waterproof.
ADAR Air-dried all rag paper.
ADC See analogue-to-digital converter.
add-on board An expansion board (or card) that is
inserted into one of the computers expansion slots to
provide additional features such as additional memory,
communications or graphics.
addendum Late addition to book after printing, often as
a pasted-in slip.
additive colour The production of colour by blending
different colours of light. Colour (RGB) computer monitors
and television sets use additive colour. Blending equal
amounts of red, green and blue light gives white light and
other combinations give other colours. This should be
contrasted with the way in which we normally see, using
white light, when the colour perceived is made up of the
wavelengths reflected by an object, with those absorbed or
subtracted.
Subtractive colour is used in printing (see CMYK).
additive primaries Red, green and blue that when
added together as light appear as white. Known also as the
light primaries. Their complements or opposites are
known as the light secondaries: each one is made up of
two colours out of the three, taken in turn. They are cyan
(i.e. minus red), magenta (i.e. minus green), yellow (i.e.
minus blue).
additives Substances added to ink to control such things
as drying and permanence.
adhesive binding Binding style for books and magazines
involving the application of a hot-melt adhesive to the
roughened or ground back to hold the pages and cover
together. Also called cutback binding, perfect binding,
thermoplastic binding, threadless binding.
Adobe Inc. Californian software company that developed
PostScript. Important font supplier and responsible for PDF
development.
Adobe PhotoShop See PhotoShop.
ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line is a two-
way voice and data communications channel allowing
up to 8Mbps download and 256Kbps upload. It is
asymmetric because the download speed is different
to the upload speed.
advertorial Magazine article written by an advertiser
with the aim of boosting a product or products.
against the grain Folding or cutting at right angles to
the grain of the paper. Contrast with the grain.
AGV Abbreviation for automatic guided vehicle, a
driverless or robot cart that travels round a factory floor
carrying materials/finished products. Used extensively in
modern newspaper printing plants and automated
warehouses.
air bar Bar on a web offset press that conveys the web
of paper. Tiny holes in the bar float the web on a minute
cushion of air, preventing set-off.
air knife coater Device that applies a jet of compressed
air to the coating on a web of paper to achieve a smooth
level film while fluid.
air knife cooling Cooling using jets of compressed air.
air shear burst Break in paper reel caused by trapped air.
air waybill Air transport term for the document made out
on behalf of the sender as evidence of the contract of
carriage by airfreight. Also called an air consignment
note.
air-dried paper Paper is dried by passing the web
through warm air with only minimum support rather
than on steam-heated cylinders. Used for high-quality
production.
air-dry pulp Pulp with a standard moisture content of
10%.
alcohol damping The use of isopropanol as a component
chemical in the damping solution in a litho press.
alcohols Solvents used in some inks.
algorithm An arithmetical computer routine in the form
of programmed instructions that perform a recurring task.
aliasing A possible result of displaying or printing an
analogue or continuous image in a digital format so that
the image is split into cells. This can create a jagged or
pixellated image and is particularly noticeable on low-
resolution devices and in fine detail. (See also
anti-aliasing, moir).
align To line up type, horizontally or vertically, using
a typographical criterion, e.g. base alignment.
aligning numerals See lining figures.
alkali resistance Quality in paper that resists staining
or discolouration by alkaline materials.
all rag paper Paper made from rag pulp.
alpha test Early testing of a software package before
a beta test.
alphabet A set of all the characters, digits and symbols
used in a language or work.
alphabet length Length of a lower case type fount.
alphabetic character set One that contains letters, but
not digits, but may contain control and special characters.
alphanumeric Relating to the full alphabetic and
numeric character set of a machine.
alphasort To sort data into alphabetical sequence.
alum Aluminium sulphate. One of the main components
in papermaking size.
ambient conditions Those conditions pertaining to the
surrounding medium (temperature, noise).
ambient noise level A random and uncontrollable noise
level in a circuit or at a location. See noise.
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Creates standards for a wide variety of industries, including
computer programming languages.
American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII) A data transmission coding
standard designed to achieve compatibility between data
devices. Each symbol in ASCII code consists of seven data
bits and one parity bit for error-checking purposes. This
combination allows for 128 code combinations. If the eighth
bit is not used for parity checking, a total of 256 code
combinations is possible.
ampersand Symbol (&) for the word and.
analogue Information that can vary in a continuous
fashion (e.g. loudness of sound), containing no
discontinuous elements. (See also digital)
analogue proof Proof produced by mechanical means
from physical materials, (e.g. Cromalin proof produced from
film) as distinct from a digital proof produced from a
computer file.
analogue-to-digital conversion Conversion of
information from analogue form to digital (so it can be
represented in a computer), e.g. scanning.
analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) A device
that produces digital output from an analogue input,
e.g. a scanner.
analyst A person who defines problems and suggests
procedures for their solution.
anamorphic distortion Scaling in which one dimension
of a subject is reduced/enlarged to a different proportion
from the other dimension.
anchor A marker for the beginning or the end of a
hypertext link to indicate where a graphic or other imported
information is linked to the main document text flow.
angle cutting Web sheeting at an angle rather than
cutting horizontally to the machine direction.
aniline ink Volatile ink that dries very quickly. Used in
flexography.
anilox roller Roller used in flexography that applies
aniline ink.
animal-sized paper Paper treated by passing it through
a bath of animal size (gelatine).
anodised plate Printing plate used for offset litho and
specially coated to prevent oxidation.
ANSI See American National Standards Institute.
ANSI character set The character set adopted by ANSI
as the standard for computers; also the character set used
by Microsoft Windows. Unlike the ASCII character set,
ANSI uses all eight bits, so that the character set comprises
256 characters. The printable characters of the ASCII
character set have the same code in both the ANSI and
ASCII character sets. ANSI characters that are not displayed
on the keyboard are accessed using the alt key on a PC
keyboard and the option key on a Macintosh keyboard. In
Windows the characters can also be accessed using the
Character Map utility.
anti set-off powder Fine spray sometimes applied on
litho printing machines at the delivery to prevent set-off.
anti-aliasing Ways of improving the display of analogue
or continuous images in digital formats by reducing the
pixellated appearance or reducing the creation of artefacts
when the colour resolution is low. Can use either
dithering or grey levels. (See also aliasing, jaggies,
hinting)
anti-halation backing Coating on the back of
photographic film that prevents halation.
anti-oxidant Ingredient in an ink that extends the open
time of an ink on press.
anti-rust paper Paper with additives that protect metal
surfaces against rusting.
anti-tarnish paper Paper with additives that protect
bright metals against tarnishing.
antique A printing paper with a rough finish but good
printing surface that is valued in book printing for its high
volume characteristics. Also called antique wove.
APACS Association of Payments and Clearing Services. The
UK trade association of banks and building societies that
exchange payments for customers. It also has responsibility
for the cooperative aspects of money transmission and
other payment-related developments.
aperture Lens opening on a camera, expressed as an
F number.
apochromatic Lenses that focus blue, green and red in
the same plane.
apparent density Weight of paper per unit of volume.
apparent specific gravity See apparent density.
appearing size The physical size of a type, as opposed to
its nominal point size. Two typefaces of the same point size
can have very different appearing sizes.
appendix Addition to a book or document following the
main text.
Apple Computer Inc. Manufacturer of the Macintosh
range of computers.
applet See Java applet.
application software Programs that are applied to solve
specific problems such as business systems.
aquafuge water-soluble inks used in security printing
aquatint Type of print using mottled areas designed to
resemble water-colour painting.
aquatone Form of collotype printing using a finescreen
gelatin-coated plate and offset printing.
arabic figures The numerals 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on, as
distinct from Roman I, II, III, IV. Evolved from Arabic
symbols. Arabic figures can be typeset as lining or
non-lining figures.
arc lamp Lamp that produces light by a current that arcs
across two electrodes, usually of carbon (thus, carbon arcs).
Used as a light source in photography or plate-making.
architecture The design or arrangement of components
in a microprocessor.
archival paper A paper with long-lasting qualities,
usually with good colour retention. See also permanent
paper.
art canvas Loose wove, strong cotton with a tissue lining.
Used in bookbinding.
art paper Paper coated with china clay and polished to
a high finish.
artboard Woodfree board coated to a high finish for fine
printing of halftones.
artificial parchment A paper that simulates parchment.
artwork Original illustrative copy or typesetting ready for
reproduction at pre-film stage.
ascender The part of a letter extending above the
x height, as for example in b, d, h, k and l. (See also
descender)
ASCII American Standard Code for Information
Interchange.
ash or ash content Residue of paper after incineration,
gauged by standard test. Represents the amount of
loadings and fillers (mineral content) in the paper.
aspect ratio The ratio of width to height. Common uses
are to describe a pixel, display screen or a graphic.
Although square pixels (1:1) are considered preferable,
most displays use aspect ratios of about 5:4. The aspect
ratio of graphics will not always appear to be the same
on paper as it does on screen (partly because the pixel
aspect ratio is not 1:1).
assembly Bringing together film separations to make up
rows of pages and produce final imposed foils for
platemaking. Also called planning. asterisk Star-shaped
symbol (*) often used as a footnote reference mark.
ATS Animal Tub Sized Paper sized after manufacture
with animal gelatine.
attribute Property or characteristic. Within the DTD (see
document type definition), attributes may be defined for
SGML (and HTML) tags or elements, as well as possible
values for an attribute. Within a document instance, a tag
may include a particular value for an attribute. Attributes
are also used within SGML to define the position of cross-
references and their targets. Within typography, attribute is
used to mean type style, such as italic or bold; in paint and
draw programs, attribute refers to line weights, colours
and styles, as well as to the colours and styles of fills.
audit trail In workflow management, the facility to keep
track of all successive versions of documents with
information on when changes were made and by whom.
authentication Verification of the identity of a person or
process. In a communication system, authentication verifies
that messages really come from their stated source. (See
also digital signature, encryption)
authors corrections Corrections made by the author on
proofs and changing the original copy, as distinct from
printers errors or literals made by the typesetter.
Authors corrections are by convention marked in blue;
printers errors or literals are marked in red.
author-date A bibliographical reference system
comprising the authors name and date of publication,
e.g. Smyth, 2003.
automatic error correction Referring to the detection
and correction (usually involving retransmission) of
transmission errors. The degree of correction will be
dependent on the error checking codes employed and
equipment configuration.
automatic feeder Device on a printing or folding
machine that draws paper into the machine.
automatic heading The positioning of a heading
on consecutive pages by means of a generic instruction
at the start of a project. Common on modern page
make-up systems.
automatic pile delivery System on printing machines
that jogs printed sheets into an orderly pile and gradually
lowers the accumulating stack.
autopaster See flying paster.
autotracing The conversion of a bitmap to a vector or
outline image.
azerty Keyboard arrangement used in France as
alternative to the standard qwerty keyboard arrangement
of characters. Accommodates accents.
azure laid Blue-tinted laid paper, usually used for
stationery.
azure wove As azure laid but without characteristic
laid lines.
B The B series is an international ISO range of sizes
designed for large items (wall charts, posters) and falling
between the A series sizes.
B format paperback Mass market paperback of trimmed
size 198126mm.
B/W Black and white.
back 1. The binding edge of a book. The back margin is
the space between the type and bound edge. 2. In binding,
to form a shoulder on each side of the spine. See backing,
rounding and backing.
back lining Strip of paper or fabric glued to the spine of
a book to give reinforcement strength. See also first and
second linings.
back margin The margin of a book nearest the spine.
back number Copy of a previous issue of a periodical.
back swell A build-up of thread or glue at the spines
of books during binding causing the spines to swell
undesirably.
back-edge curl Distortion of the back edge of a sheet of
paper usually caused by heavy solids too close to the back
edge. Also, tail-end hook.
back-of-book Pages in a periodical following the
editorial; often classified advertising.
back-up The act of duplicating data for security purposes.
back-up ad Advertisement published in conjunction with
an insert or editorial announcement.
backbone The primary connectivity mechanism of
a hierarchical distributed system.
backer card Display card fixed to back of dump bin
or stand.
background processing Low-priority tasks, in a multi-
tasking environment, that are performed when
higher-priority programs are inactive. In word processing,
performance of a task such as printing while the operator
completes other tasks.
backing In binding, the operations that form a shoulder
on each side of the spine. Also known as jointing. In paper
the carrier sheet for a peel-off stock release paper, often
silicone coated.
backplane The wiring and connecting units that allow
a computer to be connected to its peripherals.
backs Combined back margins of a book.
backslant Backward sloping typeface, i.e. opposite
to italic.
backwater Liquid containing dissolved ingredients in
papermaking process, that passes through the wire when
stock is deposited. Also known as whitewater.
bad break Undesirable end-of-line hyphenation of
a word.
bagasse Fibre sometimes used in papermaking obtained
from sugar cane.
baggy paper Loosely wound web.
band strapping Enclosing a stack of printed material
with a strong, thin plastic band to secure it. The machine is
a band strapper.
bandwidth Technically, the difference, in hertz (Hz),
between the highest and lowest frequencies of a
transmission channel or the range of frequencies required
to transmit a signal. However, as typically used, the rate
at which data can be sent through a given
communications circuit.
bank Grade of lightweight writing and printing paper
used for correspondence, multi-part sets. Weights over
60gsm are known as bonds.
banner 1. Large headline on advertisement or newspaper
story. 2. Poster or cloth strip containing an advertising
message.
barcode A horizontal strip of vertical bars of varying
widths, groups of which represent characters. There are
various different standards but each symbol typically
contains a leading quiet zone, start character, data
character(s) including an optional check character, stop
character and a trailing equate zone. In addition to
conventional barcodes, there are also radial and two-
dimensional coding systems, that are used for specialised
applications such as automatic warehousing.
baryta Heavy grade of coated paper sometimes used for
reproduction proofs.
base alignment Aligning characters of different sizes on
the same line.
base paper Paper to which a coating is to be added. Also
called body paper or body stock.
baseline The line on which characters are based, that is,
the line along the bottom of characters, such as a, b and c,
that do not have descenders (as in j, p, q and y). Line
spacing is measured between baselines. Leading is extra
spacing added, based on the strips of lead (the metal) that
compositors used to add between the blocks of type.
Base-T ethernet Network on standardised twisted pair
cable, 10-, 100- and 1000- versions are available with the
numbers relating to Mbits Sec
-1
of bandwidth
basic size American paper term for the specified sheet
size used to define basis weight. Different papers have
different basic sizes: the basic size applied to book papers
is 2538in.
basil Grade of leather produced from sheepskin and used
in the production of account book bindings.
basis weight or substance 1. The weight of a material,
usually paper, defined in grammes per square metre.
2. (US) Weight in pounds per ream of paper cut to basic
size. Typical US weights for book papers are 50lb
(equivalent to 74gsm), 55lb (equivalent to 81gsm), 60lb
(equivalent to 89gsm).
bastard progressives Set of progressive proofs showing
every possible colour combination of the four process
colours.
bastard size Non-standard size of any material or format.
beard Distance from the bottom of the x-height of a
piece of type to the bottom edge of the body.
beater (beating engine) Large vat used midway through
the papermaking process to refine liquid pulp. Replaced in
modern papermaking by the cone-refiner.
beater-sized pulp Paper making furnish to which the size
is added during beating rather than at a later stage in the
process. See internal sizing; engine sizing; sizing.
beating Part of the papermaking process where fibres are
mechanically treated in a cone-refiner (beater) to modify
their characteristics to those required by the desired paper
quality in manufacture. Also, refining.
Bekk smoothness Measurement of smoothness of paper
surface using the Bekk instrument.
benchmark test A routine designed to evaluate the
performance of a device under typical conditions.
bespoke software Software written for a specific
application for a single customer. Also, custom software.
beta testing The stage at which software is tested under
real conditions before general release. See acceptance
testing.
Bzier curve Geometric curve whose shape can be
defined through a series of intermediate points called
control handles.
bf Bold face. See bold.
bible paper Very thin, strong, opaque printing paper used
where low bulk, or weight, is needed. Originally made for
bibles and prayer books, also used for dictionaries and air-
mailed publications.
bibliography List of books and articles relating to a
written work, usually given at the end of the work. Each
item in the list may include details of author, title or
publisher.
bill of exchange A common payment instrument for
exporters, defined as an unconditional order in writing,
addressed by one person to another, signed by the person
giving it, requiring the person to whom it is addressed to
pay on demand or at a fixed and determinable future time,
a sum certain in money to the order of a specified person,
or to bearer.
bill of lading A statement of goods being carried by sea,
used as a document of title by the consignor, and as a
receipt by the shipping line.
bimetal plate Lithographic plate where the printing
image area base is usually brass or copper, and the non-
printing area is usually aluminium, stainless steel or
chromium. Used for long runs.
binary system (base two) A method of working with
numbers based on only two digits, 1 and 0. Used in all
digital computing systems because 1 and 0 can represent
on and off, or connected and disconnected. All data input
into computer systems and transferred over
communications links is therefore converted from the
everyday decimal system to binary. Octal and
hexadecimal systems (based on 8 and 16) are also widely
used in computing, essentially because they are based on
powers of 2.
binder 1. Device for holding loose-leaf sheets. 2. Person
who does bindery work.
bindery Place where binding is carried out.
binding 1. The process of fastening printed sheets
together and securing them in a cover. 2. The bound part
of a publication, i.e. cover, stitching.
binding board or binders board Board used in the
covers of a case-bound book. Usually good quality and
single-ply. See case board, grey board, millboard,
unlined chipboard.
BinHex A Macintosh format for representing a bit. An
acronym for binary digit, the smallest item of information
that a computer can hold, being either 1 or 0, essentially
representing a switch being open or closed. More
meaningful information is handled by using combinations
of bits, called bytes. In serial communications, bits are
transferred one at a time.
bit rate The rate at which digital information can be sent
across a communications system, measured in bps or kbps
or Mbps.
bitmap A two-dimensional array, in which pixels are either
on or off, i.e. black or white, or 1 or 0. Can easily be stored
in a computer. Often used to describe the image itself.
Unlike vector graphics, bitmaps cannot be resized
without loss of quality. If a bitmap represents a coloured
image, there will be more than one bit for each pixel,
i.e. each colour will have its own bits. (See also raster,
1-bit, 8-bit and 24-bit colour.)
bitmap font (raster font) A font in which each
character is stored as an array of pixels (or a bitmap).
Such fonts are not easily scalable (see aliasing and Figure
1), in contrast to vector or outline fonts (like those used
in PostScript and TrueType). In practice, bitmap fonts
need to be stored in all the sizes required, that not only
limits their functionality but also takes up space on the
storage medium, particularly at large sizes. Of course, all
fonts are bitmapped when displayed on-screen or printed.
The difference between outline and bitmap fonts is that the
bitmaps for outline fonts are created on the fly.
bitmapped font A typeface generated as a bitmap
rather than a vector outline and of a fixed point size.
bits per second (bps) A measure of bandwidth or data
transmission speed.
black and white Single colour black only originals or
reproductions as distinguished from multicolour. Sometimes
called mono or monochrome.
black letter Also called gothic. A type style based on
a style of handwriting popular in the 15th century.
black printer The black plate in four-colour reproduction
used to give correct neutral tones and detail.
black-step collation Method of ensuring sections of a
publication are gathered in the correct sequence. The outer
fold of each section is printed with a rectangle or short
thick rule. The position of the rule on each section is such
that when the spine of the complete publication is viewed,
the rules form a stepped pattern. See also collate.
Blackberry range of mobile computer devices that allows
users to stay connected with secure, wireless access to
email, corporate data, phone, web and organiser features.
blackening Paper defect associated with calendered
paper where areas darken. Can be caused by paper being
too damp when calendering.
blad Sample pages of a book produced in the form of a
booklet and used for promotional purposes.
blade coater Machine for blade coating.
blade coating Paper coating method where a surplus of
coating is applied to the web and then levelled and
controlled by a flexible steel blade.
blade cut Paper defect where a blade scratch cuts
deeply into the web.
blade scratch Paper defect where there is a hair-like
indentation in a coated surface running in the grain
direction. Caused by a particle lodged behind the blade
during coating.
blade streak Paper defect that is similar to a blade
scratch but larger and caused by a larger particle.
blade-coated cartridge See coated cartridge, blade
coating.
blanket A rubber-surfaced sheet clamped around the
cylinder of an offset litho printing press that transfers the
printing image from plate to paper.
blanket contamination Occurs where undesirable
material becomes attached to the litho blanket and
interferes with print quality.
blanket cylinder The cylinder around which the blanket
is clamped.
blanket-to-blanket Printing configuration where two
blanket cylinders act as opposing impression cylinders
printing both sides of the sheet or web simultaneously.
bleach-out Underdeveloped bromide print used as a basis
for a line drawing. The bromide print is bleached away after
the drawing is finished.
bleaching Part of papermaking process where chemical
treatment is used to purify, whiten, brighten and improve
permanence of the pulp. Treatments include exposure to
chlorine, chlorine dioxide and alkalis.
bleed Printed matter running off the cut edge of a page.
The bleed allowance beyond the trimmed size (see trim) is
usually 3mm to ensure a clean cut-off.
blind 1. Blocking or stamping of covers or jackets without
metallic foil or ink resulting only in an indentation or
embossing. 2. Used to describe a litho plate where the
image has lost its ink receptivity.
blind blocking Blocking or stamping of covers or jackets
without metallic foil in order to smooth down, indent, or
emboss the surface. Also called blind stamping.
blind keyboard Typesetting keyboard with no visual
display (e.g. screen or marching display) or hard copy of
keying.
blind stamping See blind blocking.
blind stitch The stitch that joins the books together in
the sewing process. It is this stitch that is cut to separate
one book from the next. See also kettle stitch.
blister Paper defect usually occurring during heatset
drying of coated papers where clearly defined bubbles form
on both sides of the web.
blister cut Paper defect resulting in a web cut often
diagonally to machine direction.
blister pack Packaging method using a sheet of plastic
holding bubbles of air that form a cushion of protection.
blister packaging object packed in front of a printed
card and heat-sealed in by clear plastic.
block Transmitted information regarded as a discrete
entity, often identified by starting and ending delimiters.
block-pull Proof of a printing block.
blocking 1. Binding operation to impress a design or
lettering into a book cover, often filling the impression with
metal or pigment foil. 2. Fault where stack of printed
sheets stick together as the ink dries.
blocking fee See holding fee.
blottings Grade of highly absorbent papers.
blow-up To enlarge photographically; or a print so made.
blue wool scale Scale of light fastness for inks. Eight is
the highest for printing inks. Six is the minimum level
required for exposure to daylight. Yellow and magenta inks
tend to be less light fast than black and cyan.
blurb Brief description of a book, usually for the jacket.
board General term for paper above 220gsm (although
sometimes applied to substances down to 200gsm). The
term includes numerous grades ranging from those of one
finish throughout, to those made from combining several
plys of the same or different furnishes. Boards may be
uncoated or coated one or both sides. See also case
board, paperboard.
board hollow In case-making, a spine hollow made of the
same board as the front and back boards. Used particularly
in childrens books.
body 1. Typesetting term for the size of the body of type,
e.g. 12pt = a 12pt body. 2. Ink making term describing the
viscosity of the ink.
body copy or body matter Text pages as distinct from
prelims, endmatter, index.
body paper See base paper.
body size Same as typesetting term body.
body stock See base paper.
body text The main text of a book.
body type The type used for text, rather than for
headings, usually between eight and 1pt. Conventionally,
a serif typeface, but this is not always the case in modern
typesetting. For electronic publications, there is much
controversy over the most effective type sizes and styles for
screen viewing.
bold Heavier version of a typeface, as distinct from light or
medium. Sometimes abbreviated to bf (bold face).
bolle-a Letter a with a small circle over it used in a
number of Scandinavian languages.
bolt Folded edge of a printed section (other than the
binding fold) that is removed in final trimming.
bond Range of heavier substance printing and writing
papers often used for letterheads, invoices. Similar papers
of lighter substance (under about 60gsm) are known as
banks bonded ink One suited to hard-sized papers,
drying by oxidation rather than penetration.
bonding strength Measurement of a papers resistance
to picking and delamination when printing.
book block Book at the binding stage after sewing or
perfect binding but before forwarding operations have
been carried out.
book jacket Protective wrap-around to a book, usually
made of paper.
book paper Paper with characteristics good for book
printing but also used more generally.
book proof Page proofs paperback-bound in the form of
the finished book.
bookmark A mark to indicate a position in a document
(used, for example, in Acrobat files). Also used to describe
a URL to a document, that may be on the same server or a
different one. Web browsers save a file of bookmarks and
thus allow quick location of pages and frequently
referenced documents.
bookplate Printed (and often specially designed) label
glued onto the fly-leaf of a book to show who owns it.
bookwork Production of books.
Boolean search A search formalism using logical
operators such as AND and OR.
boot or bootstrap Computer term for necessary
instruction procedures where programs are loaded and
activated prior to operating.
borders Decorative designs usually edging the page
or type.
bound books Term sometimes used for books where the
coverboards are attached to the book before applying cover
material or affixing endpapers. Much stronger than cased
books and expensive to produce.
bounding box A rectangular space on the page that is
defined by dragging the mouse diagonally. Type can be
placed or typed into it.
bowl Typographical descriptive term for enclosed part of
a letter, as in a, p or o. Also known as a counter.
boxboard Card used in carton-making.
boxed heading A ranged-left heading, as distinct from
a cross head that is centred.
boxhead ruling Space at head of a ruled column where
headings are to be inserted.
BPIF British Printing Industries Federation.
BPOP Bulk packed on pallets. Refers to consignments of
sheets.
brace Form of bracket { }, mainly used in tables.
brackets Pairs of marks ( ), [ ], used in text. Also called
parentheses.
BRAD British Rate and Data. Publication listing all UK
publications and their advertising specifications and
requirements.
brass A die made from metal and used for blocking,
e.g. spine brass that is used for blocking the spine of a case
prior to casing in. A true brass is made by engraving the
metal, brass, mechanically. The normally used brass is
produced photomechanically on copper or zinc. See
chemac.
break-line Term for the short last line of a paragraph. See
also club line, paragraph, widow.
break-up Pull apart a letterpress forme and distribute
the type.
breaker (breaking machine) Vat used in the first
stages of papermaking to break down the crude pulp and
dissolve it in water. Replaced in modern papermaking by
the hydrapulper.
breaking length Measurement of the limiting length of
a uniformly wide strip of paper where the strip held by one
end breaks due to its own weight.
breaking strength Paper measurement to determine
comparative strengths.
breve Symbol placed above a vowel to show it is
pronounced short.
brevier Obsolete type size, about eight point.
brightness A measure of how much light is perceived
by the eye. The more correct term is luminance, but
brightness is important in some methods of representing
colour in computer graphics.
bristol Good quality paperboard with smooth finish.
British Standards Institution British national
coordinating body for technical standards in industry.
broadband High-capacity data transfer network, over
4Mbps.
broadcast A transmission either addressed to two or
more stations at the same time or a transmission to
multiple, unspecified recipients. (The terms narrowcast
and personalcast have been coined to describe more
focused transmission)
broadcast quality video Flicker-free video (more than
about 30 frames per second) at a resolution of about
800 640 pixels.
broadsheet Newspaper size approximating to A2 when
folded.
broadside Traditional standard sheet size from which the
sub-divisions of quarto, sexto, octavo derive.
brochure Promotional booklet about a company or
product, often produced to a high quality to create an
image of success.
broke Defective paper discarded during manufacture and
usually re-pulped. Usually marked xxx. See also retree.
broken ream Part of a ream of paper left after use.
bromide Photographic light-sensitive paper used in
photographic reproduction or phototypesetting, producing
a positive image.
bronzing Process for obtaining a metallic printed effect.
Metallic or bronze powder is applied to printed sizing ink
while the ink is still wet giving a metallic lustre.
brown mechanical pulp Mechanical paper pulp
produced from boiled or steamed wood.
browser A program for displaying web pages
brush coating Method of coating a web of paper where
the coating mix is distributed by a set of stationary and
oscillating brushes.
BS Number given to a British Standard published by the
BSI (British Standards Institution).
buckle folder Machine for sheet folding where the sheet
is bent or buckled by a metal plate. Also called a plate
folder. The main alternative folding method is knife
folding on a knife folder.
buckram A heavy and strong binders cloth made from
woven textile stiffened with size.
bug Computer term for a defect interfering with a
computer operation (non-documented software feature!).
bulk Paper term used to describe the degree of thickness
of paper. Measured by caliper, volume or ppi (pages per
inch ) (American).
bulk basis Obsolete paper term describing the thickness
(32nds of an inch) of 320 pages in 60lb quad crown
(68gsm).
bulk between boards The total thickness of a book
block without counting the thickness of the front and
back boards.
bulk wrapping Wrapping several copies of a periodical,
as distinct from individual wrapping.
bulking dummy A blank book to show the paper being
proposed and the bulk that this paper will achieve.
bulking index American paper measurement of bulk
formed by dividing the thickness of a sheet (in inches) by
its basis weight, or the inches of thickness per pound of
basis weight.
bulking number American paper measurement of the
number of sheets that bulk to one inch in thickness under
standard pressure. Multiply bulking number by two to give
pages per inch (ppi).
bulky mechanical Grades of paper made predominantly
from mechanical pulp to a specific and high bulk, e.g. as
often used for cheap paperback books.
bullet A large dot used for display and ornamentation.
bulletin News sheet.
bulls eye See hickey.
bump exposure Photographic term describing method of
increasing highlight contrast when producing a halftone by
removing the screen briefly to remove any dots in the
highlight area.
bundling Compressing the folded sections at the
beginning of the binding process in a special bundling
press that squashes the sections flat and expels the air
from them prior to further processing.
burst Rupture of a paper web due to one of a variety of
causes, e.g. the reel being too tightly wound or air trapped
into the reel when winding.
burst binding A form of unsewn adhesive binding where
the sections are burst or punched along the spines,
typically on a web printing press, thus giving extra adhesion
between sheets as well as sections when the sections are
bound. Also known as punch binding. See also notch
binding.
burst factor A measure of the bursting strength of
a paper.
burst index A measurement of paper bursting strength
relative to grammage under standard test conditions.
bursting strength The strength of a paper to resist
a uniformly distributed pressure under test conditions.
business press Periodicals directed to the business and
professional sectors.
byline Writers or journalists name on an article or
newspaper story.
byte A combination of eight bits, generally used to
represent a character. There are 256 permutations of the
eight 1s and 0s and, therefore, 256 characters can be
represented in principle. Bytes, kilobytes (1kb = 1024 bytes)
and megabytes (1Mb = 1024kb = 1,048,576 bytes) are also
used to describe the size of both computer random access
memory and disk storage memory. Transmission speeds,
however, are given in bits per second.
C 1. A high-level programming language developed for the
UNIX operating system on Digital Equipment Corporation
PDP 11/70 minicomputers. 2. The C series is an
international ISO range of sizes for envelopes, designed
to accommodate stationery in the A series sizes.
C format paperback Paperback of trimmed size
234156mm.
c&sc Capitals and small capitals, i.e. words that begin
with capitals and have the other characters in small caps
the height of the lower case body size.
C1S Paper coated on one side.
C2S Paper coated on both sides.
cache To store documents or images, usually locally, after
they have been accessed over the internet in order that
future access can be achieved more quickly. If a document
or image is not available in the cache, the browser has to
return to the internet to retrieve it. Cache is also used as a
noun describing the place where the files have been
cached. In computing generally, cache has the meaning
of storing temporarily, usually to allow other information
or programs to be loaded into memory.
CAD/CAE Computer-aided design/engineering.
CAD/CAM Computer-aided design/computer-aided
manufacture.
calcium carbonate Chalk pigment used as a filler in
some papers and as a white coating mix.
calcium hypochlorite Used for bleaching paper.
calender A set of rollers on a paper machine that give a
smooth finish to the web as it passes through by applying
pressure. Calendered paper has a smooth, medium gloss
finish. See also supercalender.
calf Leather of high quality used in bookbinding.
calf cloth An imitation leather binding material.
caliper The thickness of a sheet of paper or board,
measured with a micrometer and usually expressed in
thousandths-of-a-millimetre (microns).
caliper shear burst Web break during winding caused
by variations in roller nip.
calligraphy Art of handwriting or script drawing.
callout Text to point out/identify parts of an illustration.
camber Convex surface of a roll of paper.
Cameron belt press A web book press that, linked to a
binding line, can print, gather and bind a substantial book
in one pass. Used primarily for paperbacks.
cancel 1. To remove a leaf in a book and replace it with
another. 2. Reprinted sheets for replacing cancelled leaves.
canvas Bookbinding cloth of good strength. Also known
as art canvas.
canvas note A type of embossed stationery that
simulates canvas.
cap height The height of the capital letters in a particular
typeface or font. (See also x-height.)
capillary rise The distance liquid travels vertically up
a strip of paper, measured by standard test.
caps Capitals. Upper case letters, e.g. A, B, C and so on.
See also lower case.
caption Text accompanying and describing an illustration.
carbon black Intensely black pigment used in ink
manufacture.
carbon paper Light paper coated on one side with
transferable colouring agent for producing copies by
impression onto an underlying sheet.
carbro Continuous tone colour print.
card See board.
cardboard Any stiff sheet of card, usually comprising
several layers of paper pasted together.
carding Thin spacing of lines of type.
caret Proof readers mark indicating an insertion.
carriage paid Refers to a deal where goods are delivered
with the freight element paid by the sender. See also cif.
carrier sheet Sheet of paper inside film wrapping that
carries the address label.
carton Cardboard box for packing.
cartouche Decorative box framing a piece of text.
cartridge Printing or drawing paper with good
dimensional stability, high opacity and good bulk.
Often used in bookwork.
case Refers to whether letters are capitalised (upper case
letters) or not (lower case letters). The term comes from the
days when typesetters used metal type and stored the
letters in wooden type cases: the capitals were usually kept
in the top, or upper, case; the small letters were kept in the
bottom, or lower, case.
case board Board used for case making, typically Dutch
grey board or unlined chipboard. Typical caliper/gsm
ranges are from 1725 microns/1120gsm at the lower end up
to 3000 microns/1750gsm.
case material The material, or imitation cloth, that
covers the case boards to form the case of a hardback book.
case-bound Referring to a book with a hard case. Also
described as cased. See also limp-bound.
casein glue Near-acid-free glue used in book binding and
in making coated papers.
cassie Damaged paper at the top and bottom of a ream.
cast coated Paper given a high gloss by pressure from
a polished, heated cylinder before the coating dries.
casting 1. The process of forcing molten metal into a
mould to create a character or slug of type. 2. Producing
stereotypes in newspaper printing. A casting box is used
for this purpose.
casting off Calculating the number of pages a given
amount of copy will make when set in a given type face
and size to a given area.
Category 6 (5e/7) cabling developing standard for
the performance of network wiring overseen by the
telecommunications industry association (TIA)
Cataloguing in Publication data A system operated by
the British Library offering classified entries that publishers
can print on the imprint pages of their books to facilitate
library cataloguing, bibliographical compilation. The
equivalent in the US is the Library of Congress (Lib
Con) number.
catch line A temporary heading on a manuscript or proof
for identification.
catch-stitch See kettle stitch.
catch-up, scumming Ink/water balance problem on
a litho printing plate resulting in a colour filling in or
being removed.
catchword(s) Word or words highlighted in some
manner, such as first and last words on dictionary pages
repeated in the headline.
cathode ray tube Video screen activated by
electron gun.
CCD See charge-coupled device.
CCI See computer-controlled inking.
CCR Complementary colour removal. See achromatic
separation.
compact disk read-only memory (CD-rom) A data
provision using the same physical format as audio
compact disks. Up to 650 Mbytes of data can be stored
on one CD-rom.
compact disk-recordable (CD-R) Type of compact disk
on which data can be overwritten (compare CD-rom). The
disk combines magnetic and optical technology so that
during the writing process a laser melts the surface of the
disk, thereby allowing the magnetic elements of the surface
layer to be realigned.
cell A fixed length of data for transmission, as used in
asynchronous transfer mode. Also used in other ways,
for example to describe parts of tables or spreadsheets.
cellulose Complex fibrous substance forming the walls
of plant cells, and the prime raw material in pulp.
Cellulose acetate is used in making film.
central processing unit See CPU.
centre To position type centrally in a given measure.
centre notes Notes placed between columns of a page.
centre spread The two facing pages at the centre of
a signature.
centrifugal cleaner Device that removes unwanted
material from paper fibres by centrifugal force.
Centronics interface An alternative name for a parallel
interface. (Centronics was a printer manufacturer in the
early days of microcomputing.)
cerfs (kerfs) Grooves cut into the backs of sections into
which the thread cuts.
certificate authority A body that attests to or confirms
the identity of a person or an organisation and issues
digital certificates. Used in secure communications.
certificate of origin A certificate stating details of
where a commodity has been manufactured.
CGATS see Committee for Graphic Arts Technical
Standards.
chad The waste punched out of paper tape or cards.
chain lines The wider watermark lines that run at right
angles to the narrow laid lines on laid papers.
chalking Powdering of ink that has not adhered properly
to paper.
chancery Style of italic such as Bembo.
chapter drop White space between the head of the
chapter title and the head of the type area of a book.
chapter head Chapter title and/or number.
character A representation of a single unit of meaningful
data, e.g. a letter or a number, usually using ASCII or
ANSI coding.
character code Numeric representation of a character.
See, for example, ASCII.
character compensation Global reduction or expansion
in character fit by adjustment to the normal set width
values resident in a typesetting systems computer. Also
called track kerning or tracking.
character count Total number of characters and spaces
in a piece of copy.
character entity A way of describing a character, using
only ASCII characters, that is used in SGML and HTML
(see entity). The character is usually delimited by & and ;
so that, for example the Greek letter alpha () might be
represented as α. The delimiters can be changed
in the SGML declaration. character fit. Space between
letters that can be reduced or expanded.
character formatting The application of a format or
style (including such factors as typeface, typestyle, indents,
space before and after) to a single character, or group of
characters in a desktop publishing system or word
processor. Compare with paragraph formatting.
character recognition Reading characters by machine,
often for digital storage. Also, optical character
recognition, OCR.
charge-coupled device (CCD) An array of light-sensitive
transistors, arranged across a scanner head, one for each
pixel or unit of resolution. They convert the reflected light
signal into bitmap information. Sensors may be only
bilevel or they may measure grey levels.
charting Transforming numbers into graphical
representations (pie charts, bar charts).
CHC paper Paper impregnated with cyclohexylamine
carbonate, used to deacidify old books.
check bit, digit An extra digit calculated automatically
from other digits in a data item and used to check its
accuracy.
chemac A copper die used for blocking. Made by
photochemical methods, unlike a true brass that is
engraved on brass by hand.
chemi-thermomechanical pulp (CTMP)
Thermomechanical pulp that undergoes further chemical
bleaching, resulting in a pulp not far below the quality of
woodfree pulp. The very best quality of mechanical pulp
made.
chemical ghosting Ghost images on sheets caused by
the chemical reaction of inks.
chemical pulp Pulp obtained from wood or other plant
sources by chemical removal of impurities rather than
mechanical processing.
chemically pure paper Acid-free paper used in
preserving old books or maps.
cheque paper Special paper used for cheques and having
a surface that betrays attempts at alteration.
chill roll Cooled roller, used for setting ink after drying in
a web-offset machine.
china clay White clay used for loading and coating paper.
chinese white Paint used in re-touching artwork.
chip or microchip 1 An electronic component containing
extensive logic circuits. 2. Woodchip used in pulp making.
3. Trim (US).
chipper A machine that chips logs after debarking.
chlorine bleaching The bleaching of wood pulp using
chlorine dioxide.
chlorine dioxide A gas used in the bleaching processes
of chemical pulp. Environmentally dubious, and being
steadily superseded by hydrogen peroxide bleaching
processes.
chlorine-free paper Paper bleached without the use
of environmentally harmful chlorine compounds.
chroma Purity of colour.
chromatic aberration The inability of a lens to bring
light of all colours to a common point of focus. See also
apochromatic.
cicero The basic typographical unit of the Didot
point system. (See font size.)
CIELAB Commission International de L'eclairage L*a*b*.
Method of mathematically defining colour values.
Alternatively LUV and Lch methods define colour by hue
and saturation and position within the colour wheel.
cif Carriage, insurance and freight. A price quoted cif
includes all charges up to delivery at the quayside at the
port of destination. Contrast FOB.
CIP data See Cataloguing in Publication data.
CIP3/4 Committee for the Integration of Prepress
Press, PostPress and Process Standard for the transfer
of job information from administration systems to
production equipment, allowing automated set up to
reduce make-ready.
ciphertext Encrypted information, that will require a
password or key to decrypt. The converse of ciphertext
is plaintext.
circular Printed leaflet distributed to prospective
purchasers.
circular screen Halftone screen that can be rotated to
obtain proper screen angles for colour halftones.
circulation Total copies of a publication distributed.
citation A mention or reference in an academic or journal
paper to a published work. The status of academic journals
is assessed on the number of citations their papers receive
in other journals.
citrix A client server computer architecture that delivers a
suite of software products and services to provide access to
any device, over any network to any application or
information source.
classified Advertisements for job vacancies, articles for
sale set in columns and sorted by classification.
clay See china clay.
clean Correct a proof, or a list of names and addresses.
clean line An electrical power line dedicated to one
machine and therefore not subject to spiking.
clean proof A printers proof in which there are no errors.
cleat binding A method of binding single leaves using
a form of side-sewing.
click-and-drag Pressing a button on a mouse (or other
pointing device), holding it down and dragging the
mouse to the required position before releasing the button.
(See also drag and drop.)
clickable image An image displayed on a screen, that
when pointed at with a mouse and the mouse then
clicked, initiates some action on the computer.
client application In Windows, an application whose
documents can accept linked or embedded objects.
client-server A mode of network computing in which a
distributed computing system is split between one or
more server tasks that accept requests, according to some
protocol, from (distributed) client tasks, asking for
information or action. There may be either one centralised
server or several distributed ones. This model allows clients
and servers to be placed independently on nodes in a
network. Client-server computing allows more effective use
of computing resources, higher performance, greater
flexibility, simpler upgrades and (for some applications)
greater reliability and data integrity. See citrix.
clip art Computerised art, often copyright-free, that can
be used in both conventional and electronic publications.
A successor to the book of clip art, from which illustrations
really were clipped.
clipboard A temporary storage area to which text and/or
graphics can be copied or cut and from which the stored
material can be pasted. In most systems only one item can
be stored at a time, but there is software that allows more
items to be stored on a longer-term basis.
clipping path Outline or silhouette around an illustration
or shape that determines the cut-out area or printing
boundary for that illustration.
clock A regularly occurring signal that provides a timing
reference for a transmission and is used to synchronise
reception of a data stream.
close up Reduce spacing between characters of type or
other elements on a proof.
closed user group A sub-group of users on a network,
who can communicate only with other members of the
sub-group.
closing date See copy date.
cloth binding The use of cloth to cover the boards of
a case-bound book.
cloth joint A strip of cloth that strengthens the joints of
a bound book (usually attached to the endpapers).
cloth lined paper Paper backed with linen or muslin for
additional strength.
cloth-centred paper Paper with a linen centre, often
used for maps when much refolding is anticipated.
clothings Pieces of leather or cloth fixed at the backs of
stationery books for strengthening.
club line Strictly, the short last line of a paragraph at the
bottom of a page. But also used frequently as a synonym
for orphan too, and therefore by extension to mean any
short line at the foot of a page.
CMOS, complementary metal oxide semiconductor
integrated circuit fabricated in a single pass containing
multiple components, including photoreceptors for digital
photography.
CMYK Abbreviation for colour processing based on the
four process printing colours: cyan, magenta, yellow and
black (the key K distinguishes black from blue).
coat weight The amount of coating on a base paper
expressed as dry weight on a given area, i.e. gsm.
coated cartridge Dull-finish coated paper, normally
blade-coated, and commonly used for printing colour books.
coated paper Paper coated with china clay or similar to
give a smooth surface suitable for halftone reproduction.
coat weight is the amount of coating on the base paper,
expressed as dry weight on a given area, i.e. in gsm.
coating 1. Light sensitive surface applied to litho plate.
2. Clear protective varnish applied to printed surface for
protection. 3. china clay mixture used on paper. See
coated paper.
coating binder That part of a coating formulation whose
purpose is to bind the pigment system to the body stock
and to obtain many of the desired properties of the final
coated paper, such as pick and water resistance, ink
receptivity, flexibility, gloss and blister resistance. Binders
are obtained from natural sources like starch, casein and
soya protein or can be produced synthetically.
coating mix or coat mix or coating slip White
suspension of china clay or calcium carbonate and other
pigments, that is applied to base paper by blade or roller
and when dry forms the matt or gloss coat.
coating slip See coating mix.
coaxial cable (coax) A cable with a solid or stranded
central conductor surrounded by insulator, in turn
surrounded by a cylindrical shield, that is solid or woven
from fine wires. It is used to carry high-frequency signals
such as television, video, radio and other
telecommunications transmissions. The shield is usually
connected to electrical ground to reduce electrical
interference.
Cobb size test A measurement of the sizing of paper by
water absorbed under specified conditions.
cocked-up initial Initial letter in a new line that is larger
than the characters in the rest of the line, but which sits on
the same baseline as them. Compare drop initial.
cockle Puckered finish to a sheet of paper created during
the drying process to add crispness.
cockling Wavy edges on paper caused by unstable
atmospheric conditions.
code A character string or line of symbolic instructions to
a computer.
code conversion The process of altering the numeric
representation of one group of characters to that required
by a different system, language or process.
cold colour colour containing blue tones.
cold melt An adhesive such as PVA that is applied for
binding purposes at room temperature.
cold start The act of starting a computer after the power
supply has been switched off before. At this stage the
device has no operating programs in memory and these
have to be loaded from backing store or ROM.
coldset Web printing in which the ink is allowed to dry by
penetration on an absorbent paper without heat. See also
heatset.
collage Image comprised of a number of items collected
together as a visual whole.
collate Loosely used to mean gather; but, strictly, to
check the gathered sections to establish that they are in
the correct sequence. Collating marks on the back folds
assist in this.
collating marks Black marks on the back folds of
sections in sequential positions used for checking that the
sections are in the correct order after gathering.
collotype printing A short-run, screenless printing
process using gelatin-coated plates to produce continuous
tone reproduction.
colophon A printers or publishers identifying symbol,
printed on spines and title pages.
colour Colours are usually represented on screen using the
additive RGB system, in which either a colour image may
be stored as three separate images (one for each of red,
green and blue) or each pixel may encode the colour using
separate bit fields for each colour component. Subtractive
CMYK and/or Pantone representations of spot colours
are used for printing.
colour bars Coloured strips on four-colour process proofs
showing densities across a sheet and revealing other
printing characteristics.
colour blanks Printed sheets with illustrations only but
no text. Produced in this way typically in expectation of
language changes for co-editions.
colour breaks The separate colour overlays for each
overlay in a four-colour set (US).
colour cast An excess of one shade or hue in a subject for
reproduction or in a printed subject.
colour gamut The range of colours that can be
produced in subtractive colour printing by combining
inks of the four process colours (CMYK) or can be
displayed on a screen using additive GB. Note, however,
that there are some colours that cannot be made up of a
mixture of red, green and blue phosphor emissions and thus
cannot be displayed on a screen.
colour guide Instructions on artwork indicating colour
requirements.
colour resolution The number of bits per pixel in a
colour image. (See 1-bit, 8-bit and 24-bit colour.)
colour separation Separating full colour into the four
process colour channels
colour sequence The order in which the four process
colours are printed.
colour splits Instructions for the allocation of correct
printing colours to individual components of a piece of
integral artwork.
colour swatch A sample of a specified colour.
colour transparency A full-colour photographic positive
on film.
colour-matching system Method of colour specification
by matching the colour required to one in a swatch of
colours provided as a set. Each colour in the swatch has its
ink-mix formula described. An example is the Pantone
matching system (PMS).
coloured edges Dyed edges on a book block.
coloured tops Dyed tops on a book block.
column 1. Vertical area of print comprising lines of the
same measure. 2. Regular newspaper article.
column balancing The automatic adjustment of columns
to create a visual evenness.
column centimetre See column inch.
column guides The dotted, vertical, non-printing lines
that mark the left and right-hand edges of the columns of
text to be created. See also margin guides, ruler guides.
column inch A newspaper measure of text space: one
column wide and one inch deep.
combination folder A machine combining a buckle and
knife folder.
Comdex Computer and communications trade show and
exposition held in Las Vegas.
coming and going An imposition in which two copies of
a book result from one set of plates.
command A computer instruction specifying an operation.
commercial register Colour printing to a register
tolerance of plus or minus one row of dots.
Committee for Graphic Arts Technical
Standards (CGATS) The organisation tasked with
creating standards for the graphic arts industry in the US
by ANSI.
commodity papers White general-purpose papers
produced in enormous quantities by the larger paper mills.
communication The electronic transfer of data between
different hardware. Also known as comms.
communication system A system or facility providing
information transfer between persons and/or equipment.
The system can consist of a combination of individual
communication networks, transmission systems, relay
stations and tributary stations, together with terminal
equipment capable of interconnection and interoperation,
that forms an integrated whole. The individual components
must serve a common purpose, be technically compatible
and employ common procedures and protocols; they must
respond to some form of control and generally operate
together.
communications protocol A set of signals that
computers can use when they want to exchange data.
These signals make it possible for computers to send and
receive information and to check that the information has
been transmitted and received correctly. There is more than
one set of protocols and a computer, or group of computers,
may use different protocols in different situations.
communications speed This is normally specified in bits
per second (bps) or multiples such as kbps or Mbps. Often
described as the bit rate.
comp 1. To compose. 2. A compositor. 3. A
comprehensive layout (US): a layout showing everything
in position.
comp list List of periodical subscribers receiving
complimentary copies.
compatibility The ability of two pieces of electronic
hardware to emulate each other and to communicate
with each other.
composition sizes Types under 14pt in size. As distinct
from display sizes.
computer graphics The use of computers to display and
manipulate images and drawings. Images can be stored as
either raster (bitmap) or vector graphics. Computer
graphics are used in a wide range of applications, as well
as in publishing.
computer output on microfilm (COM) (Or computer
output micrographics) Direct output from computer onto
microfilm or microfiche.
computer-to-plate (CTP) System that exposes plates by
laser or thermal imaging techniques directly from data
supplied from a computer
computer to press (CTPr) Direct digital imaging engine
computer-controlled inking The use of equipment that
sets and monitors correct in kflows on the press and makes
automatic adjustments for make-ready and during running.
concordance Index listing the main words used in a large
work in alphabetical order, giving reference points and
explanations.
condensed type A typeface with narrow characteristics.
conditioning See mature.
cone refiner In paper making, the cone-shaped piece of
machinery into which the stock is pumped from the
hydrapulper in order to undergo further beating or
refining. After this stage, the stock is cleaned in a series
of centrifugal cleaners and finally pumped to the
headbox for the beginning of the Fourdrinier process.
configuration The arrangement of peripherals into a
computer system.
conformability The degree in which a paper surface will
change shape to contact ink on the press.
connected dot Halftone dots joined together.
connector Connectors are the parts on the ends of cables
that actually make the connection to another piece of
hardware. Both the part on the end of the cable and that
on the hardware that it plugs into are called connectors,
and they are described as either male or female.
constat Short for continuous stationery.
consumable textbook A book that can be written in by
the student and therefore can be used only once.
consumer press Periodicals circulating widely among the
general public (as distinct from trade and technical press).
container boards Boards used in manufacturing box
containers.
contents page Page of a book or magazine explaining
the contents and where they appear.
Continuous Acquisition and Lifecycle Support
(CALS) Note that what the acronym stands for has
changed several times. Originally a US Department of
Defense standard for electronic exchange of data with
commercial suppliers. Now, more generally, a global
strategy intended to bring about more enterprise
integration through the streamlining of business processes
and the application of standards and technologies for the
development, management, exchange and use of business
and technical information. Includes SGML for the
documentation aspects; a CALS Document Type
Definition has been defined. This gives particular
attention to coding tables and is widely used outside
CALS applications themselves.
continuous pulping Pulp produced in a constantly
running digester.
continuous stationery Reel stationery used on
computer printers and other automatic machines.
continuous tone An uncountable range of colour
variations or shades of grey such as occurs in a photograph
or painting, that cannot be directly reproduced. All such
images must go through a halftone process in order to be
reproduced. In the halftone process the image is broken
up into a series of discrete dots that, when printed, give the
illusion of continuous tone.
contract proof Colour proof or set of colour proofs that
define the expected standard for the printed job and which
are used by the printer as the accepted match for quality.
There is a lively debate between publishers and printers on
whether digital proofs can be viewed as contract proofs,
since the technologies of digital proofing and wet printing
are so far apart.
contraries Unwanted material in paper or stock.
contrast Wide range of tonal gradations.
contrast ratio opacity Paper opacity measured by the
TAPPI method of gauging reflectance from a backed sheet.
controlled circulation Magazine or newspaper
distribution free to selected names or groups of readers.
convertible press A press that will print either one colour
on each side of the sheet in one pass, or two-colour on one
side of the sheet in one pass.
converting Sheeting, re-reeling or changing the format of
sheets or reels of paper. The person who carries this out is
known as a converter.
cookie A World Wide Web mechanism through which
servers can obtain information stored on the client side,
usually as part of a browser implementation. Storage of
such information is an automatic process that occurs as the
Web is accessed. A common use of cookies is to identify
registered users of a website without requiring them to sign
in each time they access that site.
cooking Treating pulp with heat, water and chemicals.
copier paper Paper used in photocopying machines.
copy To transfer a copy of text and/or graphics to
the clipboard, while leaving the original in place. (See
also cut.)
copy date Scheduled date for delivering copy to a
publisher or printer.
copy prep Copy preparation. Putting instructions on a
manuscript to ensure understanding of the requirement.
copy-dot scanner Scanner designed to capture pre-
screened page films digitally so they can be included in
the data going into a CTP or similar all-digital system.
copyboard Holding frame for material being
photographed for reproduction.
copyfitting Determining the typographical specification
to which a manuscript needs to be set in order to fill a
given amount of space.
copyholder Proof reader who reads aloud to a colleague
who checks text.
copyright The exclusive legal right of the author of a work
(or whoever he or she transfers that right to) to make and
distribute copies, prepare derivative works, and perform and
display the work in public.
copyright page Title page verso of a book containing
bibliographic information. Also known as biblio page.
cording Putting cord into stationery as a form of loose
binding.
corona wire Thin wire in a laser printer that gives a
charge to the powdered toner particles as they cross it.
corrugated Packaging grade of cardboard made by
sandwiching fluted kraft paper between sheets of
cardboard to absorb any impact.
corruption An unsatisfactory alteration of data during
transmission or while held on a backing medium.
cotton content paper See rag paper.
cotton linters Cotton seed-hair fibres used in fine paper.
couch End of the wet end of a paper machine where the
web is passed to the press section.
counter Centre part of a letter enclosed by strokes, such
as the bowl of an o. Also, bowl.
counting keyboard Keyboard that has logic for
justification purposes.
country code A two-letter abbreviation used for a
particular country. The codes are based on ISO 3166 and
used as the top-level domain for internet hostnames in
most countries, although the code for the US, us, is hardly
ever used.
cover Outer section of a periodical, bearing its title.
covering 1. See case material. Non-woven materials,
woven materials and leathers comprise the most commonly
used coverings. 2. The fixing of a book cover to the spine
and endpapers.
covering power The opacity achieved by a printing ink.
cpi Characters per inch. Unit of measurement of type in
a line.
cpo In direct mail, cost per order.
CPU Central processing unit. The computing unit in an
electronic system.
CTP See computer-to-plate.
cracked edge Broken edge on a web of paper.
crash 1. Serious hardware or software failure in a computer
system. 2. Muslin cloth or mull as a first lining on the spines
of the sections in a cased-bound book.
crash finish Linen-look finish on imitation cloth.
crawler See spider.
crawling Contraction of ink on paper when it has not
penetrated the surface.
crease 1. Impress an indented line across a sheet of paper
or board to assist folding. 2. A folding fault that leaves a
crease in the sheet, hence creasing.
creep 1. Blanket movement during printing. 2. The effect of
the back margins of the outer pages in a printed section
becoming narrower than the back margins of the inner
pages, due to the thickness of paper across the fold. Needs
to be compensated for in imposition by shingling.
creping Crinkling paper to create a soft, elastic sheet.
critical path The sequence of events that takes the
shortest time. Analysis of the critical path ensures that
events on the path are never delayed, while events on
less critical paths may be if necessary.
CRM Customer relationship management/marketing.
Techniques for organisations to understand individual
customer activities and use the information to provide
tailored offers to individuals. CRMdrives personalised
digital printing.
crocking Dry ink rubbed off after printing.
Cromalin DuPonts leading proofing technology,
Originally analogue and now digital, using inkjet.
crop Cut back part of an illustration to give better effect
or achieve better fit.
crop marks Marks printed on a printed sheet, that
indicate the edge of the intended physical page. They can
also act as registration marks if more than one colour is
to be printed.
cross direction Across the web of paper.
cross fold A fold at right angles to the direction of the web.
cross grain Used to denote that the grain of the paper in
a book runs at right angles to the spine, not parallel to it
(which is preferable). Also used to refer to endpapers as
book-covering materials in which the grain is at right angles
to the spine.
cross head A sub-heading ranged centrally over text. As
distinct from a boxed head which is ranged left.
cross sealer Blade in film-wrapping machine that cuts
and seals ends of wrapping.
cross-machine tension burst A paper break at the
winding stage.
crossmarks See register marks.
crown Standard size of paper measuring 384504mm
(metric system).
crushing Paper defect affecting a small area and showing
as a visible surface fault.
cryptography The study of encryption and
decryption. Usually involves taking plaintext and
applying various encryption algorithms to produce
encrypted ciphertext. The security of a cryptosystem
usually depends on the secrecy of (some of) the keys
rather than on the algorithm itself.
crystallisation Condition of an ink layer that will not
accept a second ink overprinting.
CSWO Coldset web offset.
CT Continuous tone.
CTP Computer to plate.
CTMP See chemi-thermomechanical pulp.
cumulative index An index that combines several other
indices.
curl Sheet distortion leading to a tendency to roll up.
cursives Typefaces that simulate handwriting without
joined characters.
cursor The screen symbol that indicates where the action
initiated by the next keystrokes or mouse click will take
effect. Cursors in character-based interfaces are either
a block or an underline (sometimes flashing), while in a
graphical user interface (GUI) the cursor can consist of
any icon chosen by the software developer or the user.
curtain coating A paper coating system in which the
coating is injected horizontally across the web.
custom Non-standard, or specially commissioned.
cut To copy text or graphics to the clipboard but, unlike
copy, also to delete the original from the current file.
cut and paste Areas of text or graphics are defined and
stored for subsequent insertion into another area, page
or file.
cut flush Binding style with the cover cut flush with
the pages.
cut marks See crop marks.
cut-back binding See adhesive binding.
cut-in index Divisions cut into edge of book to indicate
alphabetical steps.
cut-in notes Notes in an outside margin of a page but
which the text runs round to some degree.
cut-line Mark left on negative or printed copy by failure
to spot out a shadow left by an edge of patched-in artwork
on CRC.
cut-off The web press measure of length of sheet cut,
determined by the plate cylinder circumference. Measured
in inches or millimetres.
cut-out Illustration with background painted out or
removed by process work.
cut-size paper Small-sized paper sheets for stationery.
cut-through index See step index.
cut-to-register Paper with a watermark in the same
position on each cut sheet. Compare cutting ahead.
cutscore Blade in diecutting that scores for folding.
cutting Sheeting web paper.
cutting ahead Cutting watermarked paper regardless of
watermark positions. Compare cut-to-register.
cutting marks Marks on copy that indicate cutting lines.
cwt Hundredweight. The short cwt (US) equals 100lb, the
long cwt (UK) equals 112lb.
cyan The blue colour used in process printing.
cyberspace Term to mean all the information available
on computers worldwide that is available through networks
and the internet.
cylinder In printing, the structure that carries the printing
plate or blanket on the printing press.
cylinder dressing Sheets of paper around the impression
cylinder of a letterpress printing machine that improve the
definition of the print by providing a cushioned impression.
cylinder machine 1. A paper machine that makes paper
on a mould revolving in pulp. 2. A letterpress printing
machine that uses a revolving cylinder to make the
impression.
cylinder mould machine A paper machine that makes
high-quality mould-made paper by forming the paper on
a cylindrical mould that revolves in the stock.
cyrillic alphabet The Russian alphabet.
dagger Dagger-shaped symbol used as a footnote
reference mark. Usually follows the asterisk in order of use.
dailies National daily newspapers.
damper Roller on a litho press that transfers moisture to
the plate prior to inking.
dancer roller Roller on a web offset press that controls
the tension of the web.
dandy roll Cylinder on papermaking machine that
impresses patterns and watermarks on the surface.
dash A character, similar to but longer than a hyphen. An
en dash is the width of N in the font being used and an
em dash the width of M. While the hyphen has clearly
established uses, how em and en dashes are used depends
on the style of a publication and on the country in which
they are being used.
DAT See digital audio tape. The abbreviation is also
used within computing generally to mean dynamic
address translation.
data Information recorded in a quantifiable, i.e. digital,
manner. Data is the plural of datum (Latin for given) but is
today almost always used as a singular collective noun.
data compression Techniques used to reduce file size in
order to cut down either the amount of storage needed for
a given amount of data or the time taken to transmit it
over a communications link. Often (but not always) this
data is text.
Data Encryption Algorithm (DEA) An ANSI standard
identical to the Data Encryption
Standard (DES) data encryption key (DEK) Used for
the encryption of text and to calculate integrity checks (or
digital signatures). (See cryptography, EDIFACT.)
Data Encryption Standard (DES) The encryption
algorithm developed at the US National Bureau of
Standards. It operates on 64-bit blocks of data and is based
on a 56-bit key. DES is identical to the Data Encryption
Algorithm (DEA). DES has been implemented in both
hardware and software.
data integrity The degree to which data can be trusted
or assumed correct.
data protection legislation Legislation that seeks to
protect persons from three potential dangers: the use of
personal information that is inaccurate, incomplete or
irrelevant; the possibility of personal information being
accessed by unauthorised persons; and the use of personal
information in a context or for a purpose other than that for
which the information was collected. The legislation usually
covers only personal data in digital form and is concerned
with three general categories: factual data about an
individual; subjective judgements and expressions about an
individual (judgemental data); and statements of intent,
rather than statements of opinion (intention data).
data transfer rate or data rate The speed at which
data travels from one device to another. This can vary
greatly, in that data transfers within computers using
internal buses are very fast, while transfers via modems,
over analogue lines, can be much slower.
data transparency Transmission such that a signal is not
modified by the communications system in any way.
data validation The process of checking that data
corresponds to agreed criteria.
database A structured container of data of any type.
There are several different types of database that are more
or less appropriate for different applications.
database query language A language in which users of
a database can (interactively) formulate requests and
generate reports. The best known is SQL. Such requests will
often be made over a network using a client-server
approach.
database server A computer in a network that holds
and manages a database (the back end), while the user
only manipulates data and applications (the front end).
Database servers should be distinguished from file servers
in that with file servers it is necessary to download large
parts of the database to the user or client because the
database software has not been designed for a network. It
was the development of later, network-aware software that
allowed the use of the database server.
day glow Proprietary name for fluorescent inks.
DDAP Digital Delivery of Advertising for Publication. An
association of ad agencies, prepress companies, publishers,
printers and their vendors aiding the acceptance of digital
delivery of advertising material for magazines.
dead white A white with no modelling tint.
debarking Stripping bark from logs prior to their being
pulped.
debris Used to describe paper dust or edge dust that finds
its way onto the offset printing blanket.
debugging The detection and correction of errors in a
computer program before it goes into use.
deciduous trees Hardwood trees that shed their leaves
every year.
deck Term used in multi-unit web offset imposition, where
a section is being formed from running one web under
another into the folder. After cut-off the two sheets are
folded together to form a section (typically two 16pp sheets
folded one inside the other to yield one 32pp section). A
deck is the top side of the top web, and B deck is the lower
side of the top web; C deck is the top side of the lower
web and D deck is the lower side of the lower web. Colour
locations may appear in different positions according to the
configuration used. See colour fall.
deckle The width of a papermaking machines web.
Deckle boards retain the stock on the wire. Deckle edge is
the untrimmed feathering edge of paper. Deckle frame is
the rectangular frame that contains the stock on the wire in
handmade paper.
decryption To restore information that has been
encrypted, i.e. to restore plaintext from ciphertext. (See
cryptography, encryption.)
dedicated An item of equipment or electronics used
for only one type of application and maybe only running
one program.
dedication Inscription by the author dedicating a book to
an individual. Carried among the prelims.
dedupe or deduplicate In data-processing, running a
program that identifies and eliminates duplicate entries in
a database (typically in a mailing list).
deep-etch plate Litho printing plate made from positive
film in which the printing areas are recessed below the
surface. Used for long runs.
default In computing, the parameters defined by the
designer or programmer that will be used in the absence
of alternative input by a user.
definition The degree of detail and sharpness in a
reproduction.
deforestation The depletion of natural forest resources
by indiscriminate felling.
degradation The deterioration of communications signal
characteristics.
dehumidification Removal of humidity from the air.
deinking Removing ink and other unwanted chemicals
from printed waste paper to recover and re-use fibre content.
del Delete. Proof readers instruction to erase text or other
matter.
delamination Separation of surface from paper by ink
tack or separation of film laminate from its substrate, often
caused by impurities trapped between the film and the
substrate.
delimiter The character used at the beginning and end of
SGML/HTML tags. In the reference concrete syntax
(the usual way of encoding using SGML, also used by
HTML), the opening delimiters are < for a start-tag and
</ for an end-tag, while the closing delimiter is >
for both start and end-tags.
demodulation The extraction of information from a
modulated carrier signal.
demographic edition Edition of a publication designed
for a specifically targeted sector of the readership with
advertising limited to that edition.
demy Standard size of paper 444564mm (metric
system).
density Measurement of the tonal value of a printed or
photographic area. Density is the light stopping, or light-
absorbing, ability of an object. In mathematical terms it is
the reciprocal (opposite) of transmission or reflection, and
it is measured by the formula, incident light divided by
transmitted (or reflected) light expressed as a logarithmic
value (power of ten). Logarithmic values are chosen to
reflect the fact that perceived density proceeds in steps of
twice as much as last time, not linearly. In practice this
means a measuring scale of 0.0 at the lightest end of a
subject measured by a densitometer (100% transmission/
reflection of light) up to 3.0 at the farthest end (0.1%
transmission/reflection of light).
density range The range of contrast between the lightest
area and the darkest area of a piece of artwork or
photograph (see density). A good transmission density
range in a transparency for reproduction should be between
1.8 to 2.4, with no less than 0.3 in the highlights and no
more than 2.7 in the shadows as the outer parameters.
densometer Instrument that measures the air resistance
of an area of paper.
depth of field Area that remains in focus between close
and distant objects in a photograph.
descender The part of a letter extending below the
character baseline, as for example in j, p, q and y. (See
also ascender.)
desensitise Treat an offset plate with chemicals to ensure
that the non-image areas do not retain ink.
designation marks Identifying letters at the foot of each
signature of a book that confirm the sequence. See also
signature.
develop Use chemical or other process to produce an
image on photographic paper or a printing plate.
developer Material used to remove unexposed coating on
a litho plate.
DI Direct imaging technology in which printing plates are
imaged in situ on press
diacriticals Marks above and below letters, such as
accents or the cedilla.
diagnosics Programs designed to trace faults in a system
or program.
dial-up A temporary, as opposed to dedicated, connection
between machines that is established over a public
switched telephone network.
diaresis Two dots over a vowel to indicate stress, for
example .
dictionary A file used by a word processor or frontend
system to check spelling or hyphenation. A dictionary can
be a true dictionary, that contains all words that can be
hyphenated with their hyphenation points, or an exception
dictionary that lists only exceptions to logical rules, and is
used to hyphenate words in conjunction with a
hyphenation logic program.
Didone Group of typefaces previously know as Modern,
e.g. Bodoni.
Didot The European measure of type. Based on a point of
0.376mm (0.0148in) Abbreviated to D.
Didot point system A method of measuring type size,
used in Europe. (See font size, cicero.)
diecutting The cutting of paper or card with steel rules on
a press to give cut-outs or folds in printed material.
die-stamping An intaglio printing process from a steel
die giving a relief surface on the paper.
die case Monotype matrix case.
digest-size A page size the same as Readers Digest,
i.e. 57in.
digester The container in a chemical pulping system in
which wood is processed with chemicals to extract the
fibres.
digit A character that represents a whole number.
digital Meaning coded as numbers, digital signifies the
use of two states on and off, low and high, black and white
to encode, receive and transmit information. Should be
contrasted with analogue, that implies continuous variation.
digital audio tape (DAT) A format for storing music, in
digital form, on magnetic tape.
digital camera A camera that records images in digital
form rather than on photographic film. There are both video
digital cameras and still image digital cameras.
digital data service (DDS) The class of service offered
by telecommunications companies for transmitting digital
data as opposed to voice.
digital display A display that shows discrete values as
numbers (as opposed to an analogue signal, such as the
continuous sweep of a hand on a clock).
digital papers Papers specially formulated to be used
with digital presses.
digital printing (DP) Printing directly from computer
data, electrophotography and inkjet are the leading
technologies.
digital proof Any proof produced directly from a
computer file rather than a via a physical medium such
as film or bromide.
digital signature Data at the end of a message that
both identifies and authenticates the sender of a message.
Uses public-key encryption. With a one-way hash function
the sender generates a hash-code from the message and
then encrypts this with his or her private key. The receiver
decrypts the received hash with the senders public key and
compares it with a hash code generated from the data. If
the two hash codes are the same, this confirms that the
sender is who he or she claims to be and that the message
has not been corrupted.
digital video (versatile) disk (DVD) Successor to the
CD, which is single-sided and contains only one layer. The
DVD can be dual-layer and double-sided. Its maximum
storage capacity is 17 Gbytes, equivalent to four full-length
feature films.
digital workflow system Prepress system for managing
the flow of made-up pages from creation through proofing
to imposition on plate.
digital-to-analogue conversion (DAC, D/A
conversion) Conversion of information from a digital
form (as information is held in a computer) toanalogue
form (such as sound), for example in a modem for
transmission over analogue telephone lines.
digital-to-analogue converter A device that converts
a digital value to a corresponding analogue form. Compare
analogue-to-digital converter (ADC).
digitise To convert an analogue signal, such as video,
graphics or sound, into a digital format so that it can be
input, stored, displayed and manipulated by a computer or
transmitted over a digital communications system.
dimensional stability Ability of paper to retain its shape
despite variations in moisture content or mechanical stress.
DIN Deutsche Industrie Norme. The German standards
institute. DIN paper sizes, now renamed ISO have been
adopted as the European standard. See also A series.
dingbat A term for typographical characters, such as
arrows, stars, hearts and snowflakes also called
ornaments. Zapf Dingbats is a symbol font that is
provided as standard with most PostScript printers.
dip coating Coating method in which the web is passed
around a roller immersed in coating solution.
diphthong Letters placed together as in , . Contrast
ligature.
Direct selection A group of postcode districts (or sectors)
for sorting Mailsort mail. It allows bags to go unopened
to a local area delivery office, rather than be sorted at an
intermediate office.
direct litho Litho press system that transfers the image
direct from the printing plate without offsetting it to a
blanket first.
direction of travel Direction in which web moves
through a paper machine or press.
directory An index file containing details of all other files
held on disk.
dirty 1. Typesetting with many errors introduced at the
keyboard. 2. Copy with many handwritten amendments.
disc refiner Machine that refines pulp by rubbing fibres
between vertical rotating discs.
disc ruling A method of ruling stationery with metal
discs.
discrete speech In voice recognition technology, speech
that contains short pauses between words to improve the
recognition process.
discretionary hyphens Hyphenation points for words,
either held in the hypenation exception dictionary of a
front-end system or introduced while keyboarding new text.
They indicate where a word may be broken if it needs to be
hyphenated at the end of a line. Discretionary hyphens will
overrule any logical hyphenation program in use.
disk drive A device that writes information to or reads
information from a magnetic disk. See disk.
display adapter Also called graphics adapter and
video controller, that part of a computer circuitry that
interprets data so that it can appear on the screen as text
or graphics.
display ads Advertisements displayed to occupy part or
all of a page rather than set in columns.
display face A typeface designed for display sizes rather
than for composition sizes.
display matter Typography set and displayed so as to be
distinguished from the text, e.g. headings. Hence display
sizes are sizes of type from 14pt upwards.
Display advertisements Those using display faces.
display papers and boards Papers and boards used for
point-of-sale or exhibition purposes.
Display sizes Sizes of type larger than 14pt, i.e. used for
display rather than text.
display tube See cathode ray tube.
display type Type used for headlines or title, rather than
for text (see body type). These typefaces are usually 14pt
type or larger. Some typefaces are designed specifically for
this use, while other expert sets have special versions of
particular typefaces intended for use as display faces.
dissolving pulp Highly-processed and pure chemical
pulp.
distortion A corruption of a signal as a result of changes
to the waveform.
distributed computing (distributed data processing,
DDP) The dispersal of computing power, storage and
applications throughout a number of computers connected
through a network, rather than concentrating computing
on a mainframe. (See also client-server.)
distributing rollers Rollers on a press that distribute ink
from the duct to the inking rollers.
distribution See diss.
dithering A technique used in computer graphics to
create the appearance of additional colours and shades of
grey. As a bit can only be on or off, depending on the
colour resolution (bits per pixel) or number of grey
levels, there will be a limit to the number of colours (or
grey levels) that can be displayed. However, as the dots that
make up a conventional halftone illustration are much
larger than a pixel, pixels are grouped in ways that fool the
eye into thinking that it is seeing more shades of grey (by
using pixel groups making up different shapes) or
additional colours (by combining pixel combinations of
different colours that the eye integrates). Dithering is also
used in anti-aliasing.
ditto Typographic symbol () for repeat the above matter.
document Any printed piece or communicated content.
document architecture Rules for the formulation of
text-processing applications. These are not part of SGML,
but may be used in conjunction with SGML to control the
structure and semantics of a document.
document reader An input device that reads marks or
characters, usually on specially prepared forms and
documents, such as cheques.
Document Style Semantics and Specification
Language (DSSSL) An ISO standard (ISO 10179) that
defines how to transfer information about the presentation
of an SGML document to formatting software, associating
style sheet information with a document instance.
SGML, by definition, says nothing about how a document is
to appear, either on paper or onscreen. DSSSL is intended to
formalise the process of associating appearance
information with the SGML structure.
Document Type Definition (DTD) The definition of a
document type in SGML. This is a formulation of the
hierarchy of the document and the definitions and
relationships of the elements that make up that hierarchy,
together with their mark-up tags and their attributes,
the rules for applying the tags and definitions of entities.
The DTD actually forms part of an SGML document, but in
many SGML applications is not seen by the user, for
example in HTML, that is defined by a DTD. Other well
known and widely used DTDs are the CALS DTD and the
American Association of Publishers (AAP) DTD, which has
been revised and published as ISO 12083.
DocuPrint Leading sheet-fed high-speed laser printer
family from Xerox
dog-eared pages Corners of pages that are inadvertently
folded over during processing. When the book is trimmed
and the corners corrected the untrimmed portions protrude.
domain A group of computers on the internet whose
hostnames share a common suffix, the domain name.
Domains often indicate a country, e.g. .uk, or a type of
organisation: .com (commercial), .edu (educational), .net
(network operations), .gov (government). Within the .uk
domain, there is the .ac.uk subdomain for academic sites
and the .co.uk domain for commercial ones. Other top-level
domains may be divided up in similar ways.
domain address The name of a host on the internet
that is part of the hierarchy of internet domains.
dongle A hardware security component sold with a
software package and without which the package is
rendered unusable. The dongle is inserted into the
computers serial port, external expansion port or internal
expansion slot.
dot 1. The individual element from which a halftone
reproduction is made up. 2. Synonym for pixel. Dots per
inch (dpi) is the standard measure of resolution, expressed
as dots or pixels, for faster image output systems.
dot gain The increase in the size of the dots in a halftone
illustration when they are printed on the paper (using a
printing press, rather than a computer printer). The
magnitude of the dot gain will depend on the characteristics
of the press, the paper and the ink. If there is cooperation
between the originator of the artwork and the printer, it is
possible to use software to adjust the colour curves and even
dot size to obtain the image that is desired. New calibration
routines are necessary for use with CTP.
dot slurring Elongation of dots at their trailing edges.
dot spread Unacceptably enlarged dot size formation
during printing.
dotless i An i available in some photocomposition founts
for the purpose of accommodating ligatures.
dots per inch (dpi) The resolution of a printer or
scanner is measured in dots per inch. For a printer it is the
number of dots of toner placed on the paper (in both
directions), while for a scanner it is the number of charge-
coupled devices per inch.
double black In printing four-colour process illustrations
and heavy black solids together, refers to printing the black
twice: once for the halftone, and once for the solid. Permits
better control of ink weight and tracking.
double elephant Drawing paper measuring 2740in.
double roll A second press roll over the printing surface
when extra inking is required.
double spread Print going across two facing pages.
double tone ink A printing ink that creates an extra tone
on drying, due to spreading.
double-black duotone A duotone created from two
black plates. Used in very high-quality work to extend the
ranges available.
double-click To click twice on the button of a mouse.
While single-clicking usually means selecting an icon,
double-clicking almost always means that the command
associated with the icon or with a file name should be
executed. If a file name is double-clicked, then this is
equivalent to (single-) clicking on the name to select it and
then (single-) clicking on the OK button.
double-coated Coated paper that is given two coats
either side instead of the normal one. Gives increased
smoothness and consistency to the sheet.
double-duty envelope Envelope that can be reused by
the recipient.
double-page spread Facing pages in a book or
periodical.
double-tone halftone A colour plate printed slightly out
of register to create a duotone effect.
doubling A second out-of-register image produced during
a single impression. Caused by the ink on the blanket
remaining wet after impression and transferring back from
the blanket cylinder to the following sheet. If the following
sheet is out of register it appears as a double image.
doughnut hickey A hickey with a white halo around it.
DOVID Diffractive optically variable image device: a
hologram is the most common example.
down-time Non-productive time when a printing machine
is being maintained or made ready.
download To transfer data from a distant computer to a
local one. The opposite of upload, although the distinction
between downloading and uploading is not always clear,
except that downloading often refers to transfer from a
larger host system (especially a mainframe) to a smaller
client system.
Downcycling the effect of deterioration suffered by
cellulose fibres during a recycling process, this limits the
number of times paper can be recycled.
downloadable fonts Fonts that can be sent to an
imagers memory from an outside storage source rather
than being resident on the printers own fount cartridge or
in ROM.
DP See Digital printing.
dpi See dots per inch.
DPS See double-page spread.
drag To move the mouse cursor while holding down the
mouse button and then, at a new position, to release the
button. Used on scroll bars, to move icons, to resize
drawings, to select text and for many other tasks.
drainability The rate at which paper stock parts with
water when drained.
draw down A thin film of ink spread on paper with a
spatula to evaluate its shade.
draw program A program used to create and edit objects
(lines, circles, squares) using a vector approach, such as
Bzier curves. Should be contrasted with a paint program,
that is used to edit and manipulate bitmaps. It is usually
possible to import bitmap graphics into draw programs,
but not to edit them. If a bitmap is autotraced, then a
vector graphic is produced that can be edited in the
draw program.
draw-in Binding method in which the section threads are
pulled through cover boards and glued.
draw-type graphic A graphic created from a series of
geometric elements stored in memory as distinct from a
graphic created by invoking x-y coordinates. Also known as
an object-oriented graphic or vector graphic. Contrast
bitmap graphic.
drawn-on cover A binding style in which the cover is
glued directly onto the spine. Also known as wrappered.
drier A mechanical device, such as a gas oven, used to dry
ink on heatset web machines.
driers Additives in printing ink such as cobalt, manganese
and resinates that accelerate drying.
drilling Perforating a pile of sheets with holes for special
binding methods, such as loose-leaf.
driography (waterless offset) Litho plate making
process in which the non-image areas are silicone rubber.
drop cap(s) Drop capital. A letter or letters at the
beginning of a paragraph that extend beyond the depth of
the rest of the text line. Also called drop initial(s).
Compare cocked-up initial.
drop guides Guides on a printing machine that position
the sheet ready for the grippers.
drop heads See dropped heads.
drop-out halftone Halftone in that the highlight areas
have no screen dots and simply show the white of the
paper. Also known as a deep-etch halftone.
dropout Characters lost in data transmission for whatever
reason.
dropped heads Chapter headings positioned a few lines
below the top of full text pages.
drum scanner Scanner with cylindrical platen for
mounting transparencies to be scanned, as distinct from
a flatbed scanner.
DRUPA A major printing technology exhibition held in
Dsseldorf (hence DRUck PApier) every four years.
dry back The loss of gloss of an ink as it dries.
dry indicator size test Method of measuring papers
water resistance. See also Cobb size test.
dry picking resistance The picking resistance of paper
in dry conditions.
dry pulp Pulp in dry sheets.
dry transfer lettering Sheets of typographic characters
which can be transferred onto paper by rubbing.
dry-mounting A method of photographic mounting that
uses pressure-sensitive backing.
dry-up See scumming.
drying section The last part of the papermaking
machine, after the press section, which completes the
drying of the web.
drying time Time taken for the ink on a printed sheet to
dry enough for further work to be done on the sheet, e.g.
binding or extra printing.
DSSSL See Document Style Semantics and
Specification Language.
DTD See document type definition.
duct Ink trough on a printing press. The duct roller
regulates the amount of ink released.
dull finish enamel An enamel paper with a low gloss.
dummy Mock-up of a book or other piece of printing to
indicate specifications.
dump bin Point-of-sale container for easy stacking of
goods.
duoformer The duoformer paper machine has an
additional wire running on top of the normal machine wire,
which draws water from the topside of the web, producing
an evenly formed sheet. As distinct from the twin-wire
process, which has two separate webs of paper which are
brought together before pressing.
duotone A black-and-white photograph (or other artwork)
that is reproduced using two colours, both near to black.
Two halftone images are generated, one of which is slightly
underexposed and the other slightly overexposed, and they
are printed one on top of the other. The effect is to give a
more striking image, together with more control to the
designer, who can vary the proportions of the two images.
Tritones and quadtones are also possible.
duplex cutter A sheeting device that cuts two different
sheet lengths from the web simultaneously.
duplex paper Paper with a different colour on each side.
duplex printing Double-sided printing.
duplicator Small office machine for short-run
reproduction from a stencil.
duplicator paper Special absorbent paper for duplicating
from a stencil master.
dust jacket Paper wrapper of a book carrying the title
and authors name.
dusting Accumulation of powdered paper on the non-
printing areas of a blanket.
DVD See digital versatile disk
Dvorak Keyboard layout in which the keys are positioned
so as to be most readily accessible to the fingers that most
often use them. Contrast azerty, qwerty.
dye A soluble colouring matter (pigments are insoluble).
dye mask Special sort of colour film used when colour
separating transparencies by camera to assist with colour
correction. See also masking, trimask.
dye transfer Photographic process producing colour
prints with dyes that are selectively absorbed.
dyed through In bookbinding, a dyed-through cloth is
dyed on both sides, not just on the surface. Contrast
whiteback.
dyne testing See Sherman tester.
e- Prefix indicating a process changed by being conducted
electronically via computer (email, e-procurement)
EAN European Article Number. See barcode.
earmark Particular characteristic or feature of a typeface
that distinguishes it from all others and assists recognition.
earpieces Small advertisements on either side of a
newspapers mast-head.
easer Printing ink additive used to reduce tack.
EBCDIC See extended binary-coded decimal interchange.
ECF Elemental chlorine free. Relates to pulp and paper
manufacture. ECF pulp is one stage less pure than TCF,
totally chlorine free, pulp.
edge cutters Water jets on a paper machine that clean
off the edges of the web on the wire.
edge decoration Coloured dyes, marbling transfers or
gilding on trimmed book edges.
edge gilding Gold-leaf edging on a book.
edge tear Broken edge of web.
edge tearing resistance Resistance of paper to the
further development of a small edge tear.
edgeboard connector The most common method of
connecting add-on printed circuit boards to computer
hardware.
EDI See electronic data interchange.
EDIFACT See ISO 9735.
edit Check, arrange and correct data or copy before final
presentation.
editing terminal Visual display unit capable of retrieving
a file and editing the contents prior to processing.
edition All the copies of a printed work from the same set
of type or plates.
edition binding Conventional, production line,
casebound binding.
editor A software utility employed to aid the production
and modification of source programs.
editorial 1. Publications formal views on a subject
expressed in a special column. 2. The editorial matter (as
distinct from advertisements) in a publication.
edutainment The integration of interactive education
and entertainment services or software.
eggshell antique Bulky paper with a slightly mottled
surface, like that of an egg.
Egyptian Type style with a squared serif.
Ektochrome Alternative name for transparency.
Electrocoagulation Digital printing process from The
Canadian Elcorsy company, .a potentially fast colour
technology.
electronic data interchange (EDI) (Or electronic
dissemination of information) The exchange of certain
business documents such as orders, invoices, bills of
lading in standard format between organisations, using
electronic mail. Can include electronic funds transfer.
electronic dissemination of information (EDI) See
electronic data interchange.
electronic document Any document that is held in
electronic, as opposed to print-on-paper, form.
electronic journal (e-journal) The electronic equivalent
of a paper-based journal or magazine.
electronic mail Transfer of documents of messages
between computers.
electronic mark-up Generic codes inserted into a text
being sent on disk or down the wire that identify headings,
different levels of text. The generic codes can be converted
into typesetting commands by means of a look-up table at
the time of output. See also generic mark-up and ASPIC.
electrophotography Leading digital printing technology
involving incidence of laser or the reflection of light from an
original onto an electrically charged drum. Areas affected
by the light lose their charge. Toner, retained by the
charged areas, is fused to paper, thereby creating an image.
Laser printers use this principle for output.
element A structural part of an HTML or SGML
document. The name and usage of an element, together
with its attributes, are defined in the Document Type
Definition. Elements are coded within the document
instance by using tags. For example, within this glossary,
the element for SGML defined as entry would be coded as
<entry>SGML</entry>. (See also start-tag, end-tag.)
ellipsis Three dots indicating an omission.
elliptical dot Elongated dot giving a smoother gradation
of tone in midtones.
em 1. Width of the body of the lower case m in any
typeface. 2. Standard unit of measurement (also called
pica). One em equals 0.166044in.
em dash An elongated hyphen (the width of capital M in
the font in use) that is used within printed (and electronic)
documents as a form of punctuation. Different publishers
and different nationalities have different conventions about
how the em dash and en dash should be used. (See dash.)
embossed finish Surface pattern pressed in paper.
embossing See blocking.
emulsification Dispersion of water into another liquid,
e.g. when water soaks into the ink on a litho plate and
degrades the image.
emulsion Photosensitive coating on film or plate. Hence,
emulsion side.
emulsion varnish see water miscible coatings
en Half the width of an em. The width of the average type
character, so is used as the basic unit of measurement for
casting off copy.
en dash An elongated hyphen (the width of capital N in
the font in use), that is used within printed (and electronic)
documents as a form of punctuation. Different publishers
and different nationalities have different conventions about
how the en dash and em dash should be used. (See dash.)
There are two almost universal uses of an en dash. The first
is to indicate a range, as a substitute for the word to (or
through in the US), for example pp 2030 (pages 20 to
30), while the second is to denote a relationship, for
example speed is a timedistance relationship.
enamel paper Paper coated on one side with a very
high finish.
Encapsulated PostScript (EPS) A graphic created
using PostScript code.
enclosure Contents of a mail shot.
encode To code groups of characters.
encryption Conversion of a plaintext file to
ciphertext, so that it can be used or understood only by
those who have the information to decode or decrypt it.
end of file (EOF) The physical termination point of an
amount of data or the mark used to indicate this point.
end or end leaf See endpaper.
end-of-line decisions Decisions on hyphenation or
justification made either by the operator or automatically
by the typesetting system.
end-tag The tag that indicates the end of an element in
SGML or HTML. For example, this entry could be
represented as <entry>endtag</ entry>, where </entry>
is the end-tag. Although this syntax is that usually used, it
can be modified in the SGML declaration, if so required. The
logical structure of a document may mean that end-tags
are not always necessary, because they are implied by the
next start-tag or another end-tag. Whether or not end-
tags should be included for particular elements is defined
in the Document Type Definition (DTD).
endmatter The final parts of a book after the main text:
appendices, notes, index.
endpaper Strong paper used for securing the body of a
book to its case. Endpapers may be plain, coloured,
marbled. and should be specified with the grain direction
parallel to the spine.
endsheets Endpapers (US).
engine sizing Sizing paper in the beating machine or
refiner rather than at a later stage in manufacture.
engine-sized pulp See beater-sized pulp.
English finish Smoothly calendered book paper.
entity A code used in SGML and HTML. There are two
types: the first is the character entity, used to code non-
ASCII characters using ASCII coding, while the second use
is as a kind of macro and inclusion facility. The second use
is not currently implemented in HTML.
envelope paper Paper made for high-speed envelope
diecutting machines.
envelope-stuffer Mail shot promoting or advertising
products or services, sent out in an envelope.
EOL End of line.
EOT End of tape.
epigraph Quotation in book prelims.
epilogue Closing section at the end of a novel or play.
EPS See Encapsulated PostScript.
equilibrium moisture content Moisture content of
paper at the same relative humidity as its environment.
erasable storage Storage medium that can be erased
and reused as required, i.e. a floppy disk.
erratum slip Slip of paper pasted into a book and
containing list of authors post-press corrections.
error correction See error detection and correction.
error detection and correction Detection of errors in
transmitted or stored data and the correction of them.
escrow Deposit of information with a third party for safe-
keeping. The practice is used for the deposit of software
source material to ensure that it will be available should
the supplier cease to trade. It is now being used for deposit
of encryption keys by the US government.
esparto Long-fibred grass used in pulp for papermaking.
esquisse Rough layout or design.
Ethernet A local area network technology
EtherTalk An implementation of AppleTalk on an
ethernet LAN, allowing a Macintosh to connect into
ethernet networks; the Macintosh must have an ethernet
interface card installed.
even small caps Small capitals without full capitals.
even working A total of pages in a publication that can
be produced entirely by printing sections of the same
numbers of pages (16s, 32s). See also oddment.
everdamp paper Transfer paper for laying down images
on lithographic plates.
exception dictionary Computer store of words that do
not hyphenate in accordance with the machines rules of
logic. See also hyphenation.
exception dictionary and discretionary hypens.
exclusive type area Type area exclusive of headline and
folio. The type area inclusive of headline and folio is known
as the inclusive type area.
expanded type Typeface with characters wider than the
normal fount.
expert set (Or expert collection.) A font with an
extended character set, including such characters as true
small capitals, non-aligning (or old-style) numerals and
additional accented characters. The term expert set is used
by monotype while Linotype and Adobe use expert
collection.
export To copy out from one program into another,
typically from a word processing program to a page
make-up program.
export filter A program that converts text from one
format and code structure into another.
extended ASCII An alternative term for high-level
ASCII.
extended binary coded decimal interchange
(EBCDIC) An eight-bit character code set, a number of
variants of EBCDIC are used but more generally ASCII is
the standard.
extended type See expanded type.
extenders Ink additives used to increase coverage. Typical
extenders include whiting, borytes, blanc fixe.
eXtensible Markup Language (XML) A simplified
version of SGML, developed under the auspices of the W3
Consortium with the aim of enabling SGML to be served,
received and processed on the web in the way that is now
possible with HTML. XML has been designed for ease of
implementation and to be interoperable with both SGML
and HTML. One area in which XML has an advantage over
SGML is that it is designed to handle international
character sets corresponding to ISO 10646.
extensible paper Paper that has tear-resistance due to
stretching properties.
extent Length of a book in pages.
extract Quoted matter within a text, often set indented
and in a smaller type size.
extranet The extension of an intranet to allow access
to other, authorised, users and organisations.
F number Defines the aperture of a lens at different
settings, and is obtained by dividing the focal length of
the lens by the diameter of the aperture. Also referred to
as f-stop.
f&g sheets Folded and gathered sheets of a book.
f-stop See F number.
face 1. The printing surface of a piece of type. 2. A style of
type, i.e. typeface.
face-down feed When the side of the sheet to be printed
faces downward on the feed board.
facing Lining of fibreboard.
facing editorial Appearing opposite editorial pages. A
special position used when ordering advertisement space.
facing pages Pages that face each other in an open book
or magazine. Also double-page spread.
facsimile 1. Exact reproduction of a document or part of
it. 2. Machine that copies and transmits documents by
telecommunications. Hence facsimile transmission.
facsimile transmission or fax Method for the electronic
transmission of printed material by means of special
transmitting and receiving equipment. The document to be
transmitted is scanned at a resolution of around 200 lines
per inch; the signals are sent along conventional dial-up
telephone lines; at the receiving end, a thermal imaging
head writes a facsimile of the transmitted message: Group 1
defines analogue transmission taking four or six minutes
per page; Group 2 defines analogue transmission taking
two or three minutes per page; Group 3 defines digital
transmission taking less than one minute per page; Group 4
defines digital transmission over ISDN. While Groups 1 to 3
are for black and white only, Group 4 will also handle
colour.
fade-out See ghosting.
fair copy A correction-free copy of a document.
fair dealing A provision in copyright law that permits the
copying of an otherwise protected work for the purposes of
criticism, review, or private study.
fake duotone Imitation duotone obtained by printing the
halftone in one colour (normally black) over a flat screen
tint of another colour (lighter). Contrast duotone.
fake process Colour separation achieved by means of the
artist producing separate overlays.
family A series of founts related to the basic text roman
face.
fan-out Moisture-distorted edges of paper on the press,
creating waviness in the sheet.
fanfold A web of paper folded into connected sheets by
alternate folds across the web.
fanning-in The condensing of the image on the trailing
edge of a sheet caused by the sheet stretching temporarily
on the press.
FAQ Frequently asked question(s). Selected, sometimes
summarised and specially listed to help newcomers to a
particular topic.
Fast ethernet A networking protocol that provides
bandwidth of 100Mbps, as opposed to the 10Mbps of
original ethernet, being superseded by gigabit ethernet.
fastback binding See tightback binding.
fastness Resistance of colour to fading. See also
lightfast ink, blue wool scale.
fax See facsimile transmission.
feathering 1. In printing, ink-spread on inadequately sized
paper. 2. In typesetting, the addition of fractional parts of a
point of leading between all lines in a page to stretch the
text to a predefined depth. A form of vertical
justification.
feature 1. Newspaper or magazine article. 2. Specially
promoted item of merchandise or characteristic of
that item.
feed board The surface over which paper is passed to the
printing mechanism of a press.
feed edge Edge of a sheet presented to the lays of
a press. Also called gripper edge, leading edge, or
pitch edge.
feed holes Holes in paper tape used by the sprocket on
the mechanical reader to feed the tape in.
feeder The mechanism on a press that separates and lifts
sheets into the printing position.
feet The base of a piece of metal type.
feint ruling Horizontal pale blue lines running across
stationery.
felt finish A finish to paper created by felts with special
weaves.
felt-side Top side of paper formed on a paper machine
wire. As distinct from the underside or wire side.
festoon In web offset printing, an arrangement of long
loops at the paper feed that allows paper to be tensioned
during autopasting on the fly using a flying paster.
fibre The cellulose constituents in wood pulp.
fibre cut Damage to the web on a papermaking machine
caused by a bundle of fibres.
fibre optic cable A protective glass or plastic cable
containing a pure fibre of the same material, used to
transmit light from LEDs or lasers in the communication
of signals.
fibre optics The technique of communicating data by
the transmission of light through plastic or glass fibres.
fibre puffing Coated paper surface roughening caused
by heatset drying on a web press.
fibre-optic transmission A transmission method that
uses modulated infrared or visible coherent light, which is
transmitted down multiple optical fibres. Optical fibre is
less vulnerable to external noise than other transmission
media and is cheaper than copper wire, although it is
much more difficult to connect. In addition, it is more
difficult to tamper with the signal (to monitor it or inject
data in the middle of a connection), which makes fibre
optics appropriate for secure communications. The light
beams do not escape from the medium because they are
totally internally reflected. Each fibre can carry many
signals (a single fibre can transmit 200 million telephone
conversations simultaneously) and, as the frequency is high
(10141015Hz), the information transfer rate is also high.
fibrefelt Another name for imitation cloth.
fibrilla Part of cellulose fibre separated during the
refining process.
fibrillation In papermaking, the process of roughening
the outside of the fibre to increase bonding capabilities.
field A predefined area of a computer record.
FIFO See first in first out.
figure 1. A line illustration referred to in the text of a book.
2. A numeral, either in Arabic or Roman form.
file Text, or any collection of related records held on a
computer in structured form.
file compression The compression of data in a file,
usually to reduce storage requirements or transmission
time.
file conversion The process of changing either a file
medium or its structure, usually required because of the
introduction of new software or hardware.
file management An established procedure for the
creation and maintenance of files.
file server A computer in a network that holds files that
can be accessed by users on the network. File servers often
also act as print servers, while database servers
provide database intelligence such as transaction
processing, indexing, logging, security and so on. Storing
files on a file server means that it is unnecessary to have
multiple copies stored on individual computers, which saves
disk space and makes controlling and updating files easier.
file transfer Copying a file from one computer to another
computer over a network or a direct connection.
File Transfer Protocol (ftp) A client-server protocol
that enables a user on one computer to transfer files to and
from another computer over a TCP/IP network (often over
the internet); ftp is also used to describe the client
program that the user executes to transfer files.
fill The pattern and the colour inside an object produced
in a draw program. The parameters controlling the fill are
almost always handled separately from those controlling
the outline of the object.
fill character A character, typically a space, that is added
to a set of characters to make the set up to a given size.
filler advertisement Advertisement used to occupy
redundant space rather than booked for insertion.
fillers Pigments added to the furnish of paper to improve
the printing or opacity characteristics.
film polyester based material coated with light-sensitive,
silver-based emulsion that is opaque when developed. Still
in wide use by imagesetters but quickly being superseded
by digital production methods.
film processor Machine that automatically develops,
fixes, washes and dries exposed film.
film recorder An output device that captures data and
records it onto film, usually at high resolution. (See
imagesetter.)
film wrapping See plastic wrapping.
filter An electronic or optical device that removes
unwanted frequencies from a signal. A program which
converts one file coding structure into another. A control
within a firewall machine that blocks transmission of
certain kinds of traffic.
filter factor The extra exposure necessary to counteract
the light-reducing effect of a filter.
Finder The file and memory management system
generally used in the Apple Macintosh. Finder allows only
one program to be run at a time.
fine papers High-quality printing and writing papers.
fine screen A screen with ruling over 120 lines to an inch.
fines Small fragments of fibre remaining after refining.
fingerprint A method of software protection in which
a unique signature is written to a floppy disk. When the
program is run, a test sequence checks for the presence of
the signature and disables the program if it is absent.
finish The type of surface on a particular grade of paper,
e.g. machine finished or supercalendered. Also, varnish or
lamination on a cover or jacket.
finishing Bindery processes taking place after a job is
printed and bringing it to its final form ready for despatch,
i.e. folding, stitching, cutting, inserting.
FIPP International Federation of the Periodical Press.
firewall A security barrier to prevent external access to a
system, by hackers. The firewall is intended to protect other
machines at the site from potential tampering via the
internet.
FireWire A fast data transfer standard for use with Apple
computers, capable of transferring data at 400Mbps.
first and second linings The two linings applied to the
back of the book in case binding. The first lining is normally
mull, a form of muslin cloth, the second lining normally
kraft, a strong form of brown paper.
first and third Printed sheet that contains pages one and
three after folding. See outer forme.
first colour down The first colour printed on a sheet
when more than one colour is being used.
first proof The earliest proof used for checking by
proofreaders.
first revise The corrected proof made after errors noted
on the first proof have been re-set.
first-level heading First (and most important) level in a
series of headings in a book.
fit Space between letters that can be reduced or
expanded. See character compensation, character
fit, kerning.
fixed back Book back glued directly to the back of the
pages. Also fastback, tightback binding.
fixed length record A record that is of the same length
as others with which it is associated.
fixed position Set location for an advertisement within
a periodical, often specified by reference to other material,
e.g. facing leader page.
fixed space The amount of space between letters and
words which cannot be varied for justification needs.
Contrast variable space.
flag In general, a variable or quantity that can take on
one of two values (often on or off). May be a bit (within
operating systems) or a byte in some programs. In
communications bit-oriented protocols, a unique bit pattern
used to identify the beginning and end of a frame.
flat 1. Lacking contrast when printed.
flat artwork Artwork that is drawn on a solid base and
that cannot always be directly scanned.
flat ASCII A text file that contains only ASCII (seven-bit)
characters and uses only ASCII-standard control characters.
Thus it includes no (eight-bit) embedded codes specific to
a particular program or output device, and no meta
characters. Also called plain ASCII. SGML files are flat-
ASCII in that all non-ASCII characters are represented by
character entities. (See also flat file.)
flat back Bound with a flat back (as distinct from
rounded). Also, square back.
flat etching Etching of a plate in a tray of solution.
flat file A representation of a database or tree structure
as a single file from which the structure can be rebuilt. The
file will often be in flat ASCII form, but may also contain
accented characters represented by eight bits.
flat plan Diagrammatic scheme of the pagination of a
magazine or book.
flat wrapping Wrapping a magazine with film or paper
without folding it.
flatbed A press with the printing surface flat rather than
curved as on a rotary press.
flatbed proofing press A litho flatbed press designed
to produce machine proofs from colour separation plates
in limited numbers.
flatbed scanner A scanner with a flat platen, rather than
a rotating drum.
flax tow Linen fibres used in paper making.
fleuron Typographical flower ornament used for
decorative purposes, a dingbat.
flexiback binding Binding with reinforced spine using
paper or fabric lining.
flexography Relief printing process using flexible,
deformable plates.
flexstabil binding Binding method used for heavy books
and catalogues. A centre portion of the back of the book is
scooped out, flooded with glue and resealed, prior to the
cover being drawn on. Extremely durable binding method.
flier Promotional leaflet or handbill.
float Centre a piece of artwork in an area which is too
large for it.
floating accents Accents that are not tied to a given
character in type fount and can therefore be positioned
over any letter.
flocculation Ink-mixing fault caused when pigment floats
as particles in the ink vehicle rather than dispersing
smoothly. Solid areas have a spotty, pimply appearance.
flooding Excess of ink on a printing plate.
floppy disk Small flexible plastic disk used for storage of
information on computers. The standard size disks are 3.5in.
floppy disk drive A device into which a floppy disk may
be loaded and from which data may be read or written.
flotation de-inking Removing ink from recycled paper by
creating a froth which can be skimmed off.
flow The spread of ink over press rollers.
flowchart The sequence of steps in a computer program.
fluff Loose surface fibres on paper. Also, lint.
fluorescent ink Ink with extreme brightness qualities
which react to ultraviolet light. Fluorescent papers have
fluorescent pigments added. Fluorescent whitening is
included in pulp to add brightness to paper.
flush centre, left or right alignment of text to the centre,
left or right of the column or page. (See justification.)
flush cover A cover trimmed flush with the pages of the
text of the book.
flush left/right Type aligned with either the left or right-
hand margins.
flying paster Pasting mechanism that joins a new reel of
paper to that currently running out on a web press without
stopping the press.
flyleaf Plain sheet in a book next to the covers. Usually
pages 34 of the front endpaper.
FOB Free on board. Carriage paid only up to the point of
placing goods on board a vessel at the departure port.
Contrast cif which includes carriage payment up to the
point of placing goods on the quayside at the arrival port.
focal plane The plane where light entering a lens forms
a sharp image.
focus Sharpness of definition in photography or in
projection of a product or service.
fog Unintended light penetration of photographic
materials.
FOGRA Forschungsgesellschaft Druck e.V. A German
graphic technology research association. It undertakes
research to develop and apply printing technology and to
help the printing industry to use the results obtained.
foil 1. Carrier for planned films 2. In book binding, short for
stamping foil: a plastic film coated with clear or coloured
lacquer and a thin layer of condensed aluminium that is
used to block covers. The aluminium and coloured top
lacquer detach from the plastic carrier under heat and
pressure from a blocking brass during the blocking process
to leave the design or lettering engraved on the block
transferred into the surface of the case material with the
thin coloured metallic layer on top. Popular colours are
gold, silver and holographic designs.
foil papers Papers with metallic surface.
fold-out Folded sheet in text that opens out beyond the
page size. Also, gatefold, throw-out.
folding boxboard High-quality carton makers board that
has good scoring and folding characteristics.
folding endurance Measure of deterioration of paper
along a constantly repeated fold.
foliation The numbering of manuscript pages.
folio 1. Page number at the head or foot of a page of text.
2. Sheet of copy.
FolioViews A viewer, mainly for textual information,
although links can be made to graphics. Requires
structured documents, but not necessarily SGML. Can
provide its own database structure.
follow style Instruction to compositor to set to the
publishers specified style.
Font (fount) A complete set of all of the characters
making up a typeface.
font metrics The detailed design specifications of a font,
that include the widths of individual characters, the
x-height, how tall the capital letters are, the kerning
pairs and many other items.
font size In the UK and US, font size is usually given in
points (1 point = 0.351mm) and 12 points make up a pica,
the basic unit of typographic measurement. Elsewhere in
Europe, point sizes and measurements are given using the
Didot system, based on a 12pt cicero, equal to 12.8 British
points, so that 1 Didot point = 0.376mm.
foolscap Paper size measuring 13in1in.
foot Bottom of a book or page.
footer In conventional books the running footline that
sometimes appears at the bottom of each page. (See also
header.)
footnotes Notes explanatory to the main text, set in
smaller type at the bottom of the page.
footprint The surface area of a machine
force card Male die used in die-stamping.
fore-edge Outer edge of a book, opposite the binding
edge.
foreword Introduction to a book, not written by the
author. As distinct from a preface.
format Trimmed page size, or physical specification for
a page or a book.
Format Output Specification Instance (FOSI) An
SGML-marked-up document that uses the CALS output
specification as its Document Type Definition (DTD). A
FOSI contains formatting information structured according
to SGML. FOSI styles define all features of composition:
font, leading, quadding, spacing (about 125 characteristics
in all). FOSIs map SGML documents to appearance-based
mark-up ready for composition by a FOSI-capable system.
FOSIs were originally intended for print but can equally be
applied to composition on-screen. FOSIs use the same
constructs as documents but apply them to format instead
of to structure and content.
formation The fibre distribution of a sheet of paper. The
two extremes are described as wild or even.
forme The printing surface as imposed and mounted
ready for printing. By extension, a flat of pages imposed for
printing one side of a sheet.
forme rollers Rollers in contact with the plate on a press.
former folder Type of web press folder which draws
paper over a kite to make first fold. As distinct from a
ribbon folder.
forwarding Binding stages after sewing till casing-in.
fountain Damping solution reservoir on a press. Fountain
rollers measure out the damping solution to the damping
rollers.
fountain solution Solution of water and chemicals used
in litho to prevent the non-printing areas from accepting
ink. Also, damping solution.
four-colour process See CMYK, colour separation.
Fourdrinier Papermaking machine named after the
brothers who invented it. Uses a wire belt to convey the
wet paper.
fourth cover Outside back cover of a periodical.
FPO For position only. Using a low-resolution version of
a graphic on a desktop computer for speed then replacing
with the high-resolution version at final output.
fractal An irregular fragmented geometric self similar
shape. The term was invented by Benoit Mandelbrot in
1975. Fractal objects contain structures that are nested
within each other, so that each smaller structure is a
reduced version of the larger form, although not identical.
frame A sequence of contiguous bits, enclosed by
opening and closing flags, transmitted over a serial link.
A frame generally contains its own addressing and error-
checking information and is sent between datalink layer
entities. The size of the frame will depend upon the
protocol used. Also a single image that forms part of a
series that make up either a video or an animation.
frame grabber A device that allows a single frame of
a video to be captured and subsequently used as a still
image.
frames A browser facility that allows the screen to be
broken into several different areas, some of which may
remain static, acting as a menu, while new information is
downloaded into the main screen area.
free sheet 1. Periodical or newspaper distributed free to
its readers. 2. Woodfree paper (US).
free surface energy Measurement of the ink receptivity
of plastic substrates, tested by dyne or Sherman fluids.
free-text search Searching text files for any combination
of characters, often words. Search engines that are able
to carry out free-text search often include Boolean
facilities and proximity searching so that, for example,
one can search for the occurrence of a group or string of
characters within, say, 20 words of another group or groups.
Such engines are usually based on indexing and the
approach should be contrasted with keyword search.
freeness Measure of purity in woodfree pulp (i.e. the
degree to which the pulp is free of lignin traces).
freeware Software made available by the author at no
cost. The author still retains copyright and thus it is not
quite the same as public domain software (PDS). (See
also shareware).
freight forwarding The organisation of freight handling
for customers. A freight forwarder can offer a variety of
services, ranging from a comprehensive service including
packing, full documentation, customs clearance, pick up
and delivery of all his customers freight, to a specialised
service offering any part of the freight operation.
French fold The fold used on Christmas cards that folds
a sheet into four pages, exposing only one side of the sheet
and leaving the join at the edges.
French groove In binding, the groove or channel left by
bringing the case board slightly away from the shoulder of
the book. Also, joint.
French sewing Plain, conventional sewing. Also called
section sewing.
frequency The number of repetitions per unit time of a
periodic waveform. The number of cycles per second for an
electromagnetic waveform is expressed in hertz (Hz, kHz,
MHz or GHz).
friction glazing Form of glossy finish imparted to paper
by a special calender.
frisket Device on a hand-press for holding down paper
during printing.
front end General term for all the parts of a photosetting
system before the output unit/imagesetter, e.g. input
keyboards, screens or editing terminals.
front of book Part of a periodical before the bulk of the
editorial pages, often dedicated to advertisements.
frontispiece Illustration on the page facing the title page
of a book.
frontmatter Prelims of a book.
ftp See File Transfer Protocol.
ftp archive See archive site.
fugitive inks Inks that fade or change colour in unstable
atmospheric conditions or in bright light.
full capitals or full caps Full-sized, regular capitals as
distinct from small capitals.
full colour Four-colour process.
full duplex Data transmission in both directions
simultaneously. Contrast simplex, half duplex.
full measure Complete width of a column of text.
full point Full stop.
full run All the editions of a newspaper.
full-bound Binding style in which the case covering
material is one piece of cloth or leather. As distinct from
quarter-bound, half-bound, or three-quarter bound.
full-out Set flush with no indentations.
function codes Codes that control the function of a
phototypesetter or output device rather than generating
characters.
furnish The components in a paper.
fuzz Loosely bonded fibres projecting from the surface of
paper.
fuzzy logic In the context of word searching, fuzzy logic
programs encompass words that look or sound very similar
to the word required, e.g. a search for the name Smith
might also pull in Smithe, Smythe, Smyth, Smitt.
FWA Fluorescent Whitening Agent. A loading similar to an
OBA added to paper to increase whiteness and brightness.
gamma A measure of contrast in photographic processing.
gang printing Running more than one job on the
same sheet.
gapless Refers to the elimination of any gap on the
printing cylinder, so allowing smaller waste trim in the
printed product and higher running speeds.
Garalde Generic term for the group of typefaces also
known as Old Face.
gas plasma display An alternative to the cathode ray
tube in a VDU, a gas plasma display consists of a sealed
unit made from two sheets of flat glass filled with a
neon/argon gas. Conductors are etched onto the glass
plates (vertical on the front plate, horizontal on the rear
plate) and images are formed when currents coincide at
conductor junctions.
gate Part of a computer circuit that tests a precondition in
a program, e.g. the statements and and or.
gatefold A page in a magazine or book which folds out to
double its size.
gateway A communications device or program that
passes data between networks that have similar functions
but dissimilar implementations. Should not be confused
with a protocol converter.
GATF Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, Pittsburg, US.
gather Collect sheets or signatures of a printed job into
the correct sequence for binding. See also collate.
Gb Abbreviation for gigabyte.
GCR See grey component replacement.
gear streaks Marks on a printed sheet caused by the
gears on a press cylinder.
GenCode A generic coding project set up by the US
Graphics Communications Association. An important
precursor of SGML.
Generalised Markup Language (GML) The generic
markup language developed at IBM in 1969; the principal
precursor of SGML. The acronym originally comprised the
initials of the three inventors, Charles Goldfarb, Edward
Mosher and Raymond Lorie.
generic coding Coding the structure of a document
rather than its typographical constituents.
generic mark-up A method of adding information to
text, indicating the logical components of a document, such
as paragraphs, headers or footnotes. SGML is an example
of such a system. Specific instructions for layout of the text
on the page do not appear in the mark-up. Essentially the
same as generic coding, the difference in emphasis
between the two terms is more one of usage than of any
real difference in meaning.
ghosting An unintended faint printed image caused by
problematic ink conditions, normally ink starvation.
GIF (Graphics Interchange Format); .gif is also the
filename extension for files in Graphics Interchange Format.
gilt in the round Fore-edge of a book gilded after the
book has been rounded. Achieves better cover than gilt in
the square: gilded before rounding.
giveaway Free promotional leaflet or gift.
glair Substance that bonds gold leaf to leather.
glassine Tough but partially transparent paper used for
protective purposes and for overlays on artwork.
glazed vellum Vellum paper with a glazed surface, used
for decorative documents.
Global Network Service (GNS) The service that
connects national PSS services. Formerly known as
International Packet SwitchStream (IPSS).
global search and replace The facility of a computer
program to find all examples of a word or group of words in
a file and replace them with an alternative.
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)
The standard for digital cellular communications.
gloss art Shiny art paper, as opposed to matt art or
coated carriage which have a dull finish.
glossary Alphabetically arranged list of terms and their
meanings.
glossy Photographic print with a glossy surface.
glueability Measure of speed of paper adhesive bonding
and its strength.
glyph The actual shape of a character, as opposed to
its identity within a character set. Whether two
representations of the same character in two different
fonts constitute one or two glyphs is not agreed, as long
as they are basically similar, so the sans-serif gs in the
typefaces Arial (g) and Helvetica (g) can be regarded as
two glyphs or two representations of the same glyph.
However, the letter g in the Times typeface (sideways
spectacles) is definitely a different glyph. It is possible for
several characters to make up a single glyph (for example, a
ligature), while equally a single character may be composed
of more than one glyph.
Glyphic Typeface based on a chiselled rather than
a calligraphic form.
glytch (glitch) Program error.
GML See Generalised Markup Language.
Google leading internet search engine
gold foil Paper with a foil coating. Gold leaf comprises
thin sheets of real gold.
gothic See black letter.
gradient fill Another term for a graduated fill.
graduated fill A gradual shift from one colour to another,
from a dark tone to a light one in an object fill. An ideal
graduated fill avoids banding.
grain direction Direction of fibres in a sheet of paper.
Long grain describes fibres running parallel with the
longest side of a sheet; short grain along the shortest
side. See also machine direction.
graining 1. Mechanical roughening of a litho plate to
retain water. 2. Treatment of paper, board, or laminated
board to give a textured effect.
grainy Photographic film or print with coarse grain visible
usually due to high speed of film.
grainy edge Surface roughness on edges of web caused
in the drying process.
grammage Weight of paper expressed as grams per
square metre.
graphic file format The format in which graphics are
stored and transmitted. There are two main types: raster or
bitmap graphics (in which the image is stored as a
bitmap) and vector or outline graphics (in which the
image is stored using geometric formulae). There are many
different file formats, some of which are used by specific
computers, operating systems or applications. Some
formats use file compression, particularly those that
handle colour.
graphic papers Papers for printing or writing.
graphical user interface (GUI) (Pronounced gooey.)
An interface that allows users to choose commands and
other options by pointing to a graphical icon or by pulling
down a menu and then activating the choice, either by
using the keyboard or by clicking with a mouse. Provides
what is often thought of as a more user-friendly
approach than a command line interface.
graphics The creation, modification and manipulation of
(usually static) graphic images. The two basic forms are
bitmap or raster graphics and vector graphics. In
general, bitmapped graphics are handled using paint
programs, able to access individual pixels or groups of
pixels, while vector graphics are handled using draw
programs, which allow the manipulation of graphics as
mathematical objects. A third way of representing images
uses fractals. Graphics are stored in a wide variety of
graphic file formats.
graphics adapter See display adapter.
graphics insertion Text and pictures photoset in one
operation.
Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) (Pronounced with
a hard G, as in gift.) A graphic file format in which
images are compressed with the LZW algorithm.
graphics primitive In a vector (object-oriented)
graphics program, one of the basic graphic units,
e.g. circle, rectangle, line.
graphics scanner An input device that allows images
on paper to be input into computer systems as bitmapped
graphics files.
gravure printing Process in which recesses on a cylinder
are filled with ink and the surplus removed with a blade.
The paper contacts the cylinder and lifts the ink from the
recesses.
gray scale See grey scale. Gray is the US spelling and is
widely used.
greaseproof Translucent paper with high resistance to
grease penetration.
greeked text Simulated text used to display small type
on a screen. Line breaks in greeked text correspond to the
correct breaks in the text simulated.
grey balance The ability to print a neutral grey from four-
colour printing plates with no coloured tinges showing
through. Monitored by a grey balance patch on colour bars.
grey board or Dutch grey board Homogeneous case
board made from newsprint furnish. Grey board or unlined
chipboard are the normal boards used for case making.
Millboard is used for specific heavy-duty bindings, e.g.
stationery or archive bindings.
grey component replacement (GCR) Colour
separations where the black printer carries more detail than
conventional separations and the tertiary, or
complementary, elements of any colour hue are removed.
Also called ICR (integrated colour removal) or
achromatic separation.
grey levels Separate tones of grey reflecting back from a
continuous-tone original. Grey levels are frequently defined
in 256 steps from pure white to pure black, each step
identified by a different 8-bit number. The grey-level value
of each pixel of an original is sampled by an analyse
scanner in scanning an original and allocated its grey level
value as one of these 256 steps.
grey scale The use of (discrete) shades of grey, from black
to white, to represent an image. If the pixels of a grey-
scale image have N bits, then 2N1 levels can be
represented. If N = 1 the image is monochrome, i.e. black
and white. Grey-scale monitors represent pixels by using
different intensities, often with up to 256 different levels.
Grey scaling is used to represent continuous tone images.
(Note the difference from dithering.) The US spelling of
grey is gray.
grid Systematic division of a page into areas and
positions.
grip Margins needed at the feed edge of a sheet of paper
for the grippers on the press. Also gripper edge and gripper
margin.
gripper Device on a printing press for holding the sheet.
gripper edge See pitch edge.
grotesque Form of sans serif typeface.
ground An electrical connection or common conductor
connected to the earth. Also known as the earth wire.
groundwood American term for mechanical pulp.
groundwood sheet mechanical paper (US).
groupware General applications software intended to
help groups of people working together over a network to
coordinate and organise their activities (workgroup
computing).
GSM See Global System for Mobile Communications.
gsm or gm
-2
Grams per square metre: the measure of
substance of paper or board.
guard Linen or paper put on the back of a book section
to provide additional strength. The process of doing this is
known as guarding a section. The first and last sections of
a heavy reference work may be guarded in this way.
GUI See graphical user interface.
guideline Line on artwork indicating the printing area.
Also, keyline.
guillotine Machine that cuts paper into sheets.
Programmatic guillotines can perform a whole series of
measured cuts without re-setting for each measurement.
gum up To apply gum arabic to a litho plate. Gum arabic
protects the image area and prevents oxidation.
gummed paper Paper coated on one side with adhesive.
gumming Applying adhesive to paper.
gun The component of a cathode ray tube that provides
a continuous stream of electrons. A monochrome display
will have a single gun while colour displays have three, one
each for red, green and blue.
gusseting Waving occurring at the heads of untrimmed
signatures.
gutter Binding margin of a book.
H&J Abbreviation used for hyphenation and
justification.
hair cut Curved cut in a web on a papermaking machine.
hair spaces Very thin letterpress spaces used between
letters in a word.
hairline Very fine line or stroke in a letter. Hairline register
is colour register within half a row of dots.
halation Blurred halo effect in the highlight areas of
a photo, caused by reflection back from the emulsion
substrate.
half duplex Asynchronous communication in which data
can be relayed in only one direction at a time. Two-way
transmission is possible but the transmissions must be
alternate.
half page Advertisement occupying half a periodical
page, horizontally or vertically.
half plate Photo measuring 64in.
half sheet work See work and turn.
half title Title of book, sometimes shortened, printed on
the first right-hand page in the book the half-title page.
Sometimes called bastard title.
half-bound Book case binding style: covered in one
material on the spine and corners, and another material
paper or cloth on the remainder.
half-duplex Data transmission in both directions but not
at the same time. Contrast simplex, full duplex.
halftone Illustration created by dots of varying size,
resulting in the appearance of continuous tone. Therefore,
halftone negative and halftone positive.
halo effect Build-up of ink at edges of printed letters and
halftone dots, creating a darker perimeter to the dot.
handmade paper Paper made by hand in a mould.
Decorative content can be introduced into the pulp. The
edges are deckled.
handbill Publicity sheet, normally printed on one side
only, for delivery by hand.
handling stiffness Rigidity of paper when held,
e.g. stiffness of a newspaper held by the reader.
handout Publicity leaflet for handing out on the street,
at exhibitions.
hanging indent Typesetting style in which the first line of
a paragraph is set full out and the remainder are indented.
hanging punctuation Punctuation marks at the end of
justified lines that are allowed to jut out very slightly in
order to give a visually straight right-hand edge to a
column or page. Effect achievable only on sophisticated
hyphenation and justification programs.
hard carriage return A carriage return that is inserted
by the user, i.e. at the end of paragraph, rather than the
soft carriage return inserted by software.
hard copy Copy written, typed or printed as distinct from
stored in electronic form.
hard disk A rigid magnetic storage disk capable of high
data density and speed.
hard hyphen Hyphen essential to the spelling of a word.
Contrast soft hyphen or discretionary hyphen.
hard-bound See case-bound.
hard-sized Paper with a high degree of sizing.
hard-wired Circuit or program, as constructed by the
manufacturer of a piece of hardware, that cannot be
changed.
hardcover See case-bound.
hardness Resistance of paper to indentation by printing
plate, type or pen.
hardware Computer term for equipment as distinct from
programs (software).
hardwood pulp Pulp made from hardwood (deciduous)
trees, e.g. oak, beech, birch, eucalyptus. As distinct from
softwood pulp.
harlequin Ornamented typographical character.
Harvard system System of bibliographical references
that originated at Harvard University.
hash An index number, otherwise meaningless, that is
generated from a list or series of pointers.
hatch Draw closely-spaced lines in a drawing to give the
effect of tone.
head 1. Top or top margin of a page. 2. Heading.
head margin The white space above first line on a page.
head-to-head, head-to-tail Alternative imposition
schemes for a pair of books or printed covers/jackets, which
are printed as one, and cut apart at the final stage.
headband Cotton or silk cord attached to the top of the
back of a book. See also tailband.
headbox The part of a papermaking machine that
dispenses the stock on the moving wire.
header The portion of a packet, preceding the actual
data, containing source and destination addresses, error
checking and other fields. Also used to describe the part of
an electronic mail message or news article that precedes
the body of a message and includes the senders name and
email address and the date and time when the message
was sent. In conventional books it is sometimes used to
describe the running headline appearing at the top of each
page. (See also footer.)
heading 1. Title of a section or chapter in a work, set in
displayed type. 2. See headline.
headline A displayed line or lines at the top of a page or
a piece of text. See also running head.
heat seal paper Paper coated on one side with adhesive
activated by heat.
heat sealing Closing plastic bags by semi-melting
techniques.
heat transfer Transfer of ink from paper to another
material (e.g. fabric) by heat and pressure. Special paper
and ink are necessary.
heat-resistant splice Join in paper that will resist the
heat of a heatset press.
heatset Drying of ink on paper using heat on a web
offset machine. Hence heatset inks.
help A method of providing information to the user.
hemp fibre Paper making fibre made from rope or the
hemp plant.
hertz A frequency unit equivalent to one unit per second.
In the case of computers, processing speed is reckoned in
megahertz (MHz). Most micros are rated between 5MHz at
the lower end, up to 20MHz at the top.
hertz (Hz) A measure of frequency. One hertz is one cycle
per second; 1KHz = 1000Hz; 1MHz = 1,000,000Hz. (See also
bandwidth.)
hexadecimal system A counting system based on 16,
widely used in computing, essentially because it is based on
powers of two (see binary system). In hex, decimals 015
become 00, 01, 02, 03, 04, 05, 06 07, 08, 09, 0A, 0B, 0C,
0D, 0E, 0F. Decimal 16 is then 10; decimal 17 is 11; decimal 27
is 1B; and so on. The hexadecimal digits are 09, followed by
AF so that, for example, the decimal number 12 is written
as C, while hexadecimal 10 is equivalent to decimal 16.
hickey Spot on a printed sheet caused by dust, lint or ink
imperfections. Particularly noticeable in solids, large type
halftones or tints.
hierarchy An inverted tree structure. Examples in
computing include: a directory hierarchy where each
directory may contain files or other directories.
high key Tonal values lighter than mid-grey.
high resolution High density of detail. Is often used to
describe the number of pixels or dots per unit area in an
image. The higher the resolution, the more information
there is in a given amount of visual space.
high-density plastic Thin, strong plastic film used for
wrapping magazines where weight is critical.
high-level ASCII or extended ASCII The term often
used to describe characters with code numbers from 128 to
255, as the true ASCII character set only includes the
characters from 0 to 127.
high-level language A computer programming language
that uses English-language instructions. Use of a high-level
language then requires a translator program within the
computer to convert these instructions from high-level
language into machine-code. See also low-level
language.
high-yield pulp Synonym for CTMP, or
chemithermomechanical pulp.
highlights Lightest tonal values in a graphic.
hinting A method, to improve the rendering of fonts at
small size or on low resolution output devices. It uses a
series of priorities, either encoded as extra information in
the font or applied using set mathematical formulae, to
correct noticeable distortions, such as uneven stem weight.
PostScript Type 1 and TrueType fonts are hinted.
Hinting is only required for small characters or for printers
with a low resolution when the presence or absence of a
single dot makes a visible difference to a character.
hold Retain matter for subsequent use.
holding fee Also called a blocking fee. The fee charged
by a picture library when a picture is retained by a client
beyond the agreed period.
holdout Resistance to ink absorption of a paper.
hollow 1. Space between the case and the back of the
sewn sections in a hardbound book. 2. By extension, the
material used for reinforcing the inside spine of a case.
Examples include a board hollow, presspahn hollow,
oxford hollow.
hologram or holograph A three-dimensional image
created by lasers.
holography A method of recording and then
reconstructing three-dimensional images (holograms) using
coherent light beams from lasers. The laser beam is split
into two and one part used to illuminate the object. The
light waves scattered by the object are then recombined
with the other, reference part of the original beam and the
interference pattern thus created is stored as a hologram on
a photographic plate. When the hologram is illuminated a
three-dimensional image is created.
homogeneous board A homogeneous board is made on
a Fourdinier machine of one furnish throughout. A
pasteboard is made up of two or more plys of different
papers or homogeneous boards which are pasted together.
hooked An illustration or plate can be hooked in a book
by folding the paper along the edge and wrapping the
edge round the outside of a section. The illustration/plate
is then secured with that section in the binding.
hopper Station on a machine (especially in binding)
where printed sections are stacked and dropped onto a
conveyer belt.
host A computer system that provides services to users of
a network. The host part of an internet address.
hotmelt Type of synthetic resin adhesive used in perfect
binding. Can be used alone (one-shot binding) or in
conjunction with PVA (two-shot binding).
house style See style of the house.
housekeeping File initialisation, creation, maintenance
and back-up tasks.
HSWO Heatset web offset.
HTML See HyperText Markup Language.
http See HyperText Transfer Protocol.
hub A device or computer to which several other devices
are connected (like spokes to the hub of a wheel). The
central node of a network. Hubs provide flexibility in logical
interconnection of networks and data equipment.
hue Essentially, a representation of how colour is
perceived, based on the artists colour wheel from violet to
red (red and violet then being adjacent). The relationship
between hues is thus represented in terms of the number
of degrees separating them on the colour wheel.
Humanist Generic term for Venetian style typefaces.
humidification Addition of water vapour to air.
humidity Quantity of water vapour in the atmosphere.
See also absolute humidity and relative humidity.
Hunter Lab values American scales, used to measure
colour.
hydrapulper Large circular metal tank in which dry pulp
is mixed with water, and other ingredients added, in the
first stages of paper making. The stock from the
hydrapulper passes on for refining in a cone refiner system
prior to release to the paper machine.
hygro-expansivity Growth or shrinkage of paper due to
moisture content. Hence also hygro-instability.
hygrometer Instrument used to measure relative
humidity.
hygrometry Measurement of humidity.
hygroscopic Absorbing moisture.
hyperlink A hypertext link. A reference from some point
in one hypertext document to (some point in) another
document or another place in the same document. A
hyperlink is usually displayed in some distinguishing way,
such as a different colour, font or style, or even as a
symbol or graphic.
HyperText Markup Language (HTML) The underlying
hypertext language of the World Wide Web. HTML is
based on an SGML Document Type Definition (DTD).
(See also XML.)
HyperText Transfer Protocol (http) The client-server
TCP/IP protocol used on the World Wide Web for the
exchange of HTML documents. (See also uniform
resource locator (URL).)
hyphenation Literally, the use of a hyphen to connect two
words or numbers. In typography, however, it is usually
employed to mean the use of a hyphen at the end of a text
line (often when justification is also used, whence H&J
as an abbreviation for hyphenation and justification) to
indicate that a word does not fit completely on that line
and the remainder is at the beginning of the next line.
hyphenation exception dictionary A dictionary of
words, held in computer memory, that if hyphenated by the
normal rules of hyphenation logic may break at an
unacceptable point. When the typesetting computer needs
to break a word at the end of a sentence, it will first refer
to its hypenation exception dictionary to see if the word is
there, and, if so, will break it at one of the discretionary
hyphen points allotted to the word. If the word is not in the
dictionary, it will break it according to the rules of logic
programmed into it.
hyphenation logic Programming to break words
according to logical rules.
hyphenation zone The area towards the end of a text
line within which a program may break the line,
hyphenating the final word if necessary.
hyphenless justification Justification without breaking
words. On narrow measures this creates widely varying
spacing characteristics.
hypo Abbreviation for sodium hyposulphite, a chemical
used to fix photographic images after development.
Hz The standard abbreviation for the unit of frequency.
(See hertz.)
IBC Inside back cover.
ICR 1. Integrated colour removal. See achromatic
separations. 2. Intelligent character recognition.
idiot tape Unformatted tape with no line ending
commands.
idle time Time on a machine when it is not in use for
productive work.
illustration board One-sided heavy drawing card.
image area piling Build-up of lint and ink on litho press
blanket in the image area.
image compression The reduction of the amount of
information required to represent an image, so that the file
size is smaller, which means that it will require less space in
computer memory and storage and takes less time to
transfer over networks and communications systems (See
also JPEG, compression, fractal.)
image file formats There are many formats used to store
images in files: GIF, TIFF, pcx and JPEG are common.
image processing The manipulation of images, usually
using algorithms to, for example, enhance contrast, reduce
noise (remove spots) or change colours.
imagesetter A high-resolution output device that
provides output on film
imitation art Paper loaded with china clay in the pulp
and highly finished to give an art paper appearance. As
distinct from true art paper, which has a china clay surface
applied to a conventional base paper.
imitation cloth Reinforced and embossed paper
commonly used for binding hardback books instead of
cotton cloth. Also, fibrefelt. Contrast woven material.
imitation gold/silver foil Aluminium foil with lacquer
on plastic carrier. Used for blocking the covers of books.
imitation parchment Tough greaseproof paper.
imperfection Printing or binding faults.
import To copy across from an external program into a
current program, typically from a word processing
application into a page make-up program.
import filter A program that accepts input from an
external program and converts it into a format suitable for
the users current program.
imposed colour proofs Colour proofs produced from a
large-format inkjet machine that are imposed to the final
page sequence of the job. The effects of tracking can be
properly considered.
imposition The arrangement of pages on a printing plate
so that, when a publication is folded and bound, the pages
are in the correct sequence.
impregnating Running book binding cloth through
starches or chemicals to enhance its quality or appearance.
impression 1. Pressure of the plate in contact with paper
or blanket at the moment of printing. 2. All the copies of a
book from one printing.
impression cylinder Cylinder that holds the paper
against the printing surface.
imprint Publishers and/or printers identifying text
printed in a book or other work.
in pro In proportion.
inclusive type area Type area inclusive of headline and
folio. Contrast exclusive type area.
incunabula Early printing.
indent 1. Set type further in from the left-hand margin
than the standard measure of surrounding text. 2. In paper
trading, an indent paper is one that is available from the
mill by special making order only, and is not held in
common stock by the mill as a standard line.
index 1. Alphabetical list of subjects contained in the text
of a work, together with their page numbers. 2. The
contents of a file with references for locating the contents.
index board Board suitable for index cards and similar
stationery.
india paper Very thin opaque rag paper often used for
high-quality bibles.
Indian ink Intensely black drawing ink.
indicia Formal mailing information or permit printed on
envelope or item to be mailed.
indirect printing Process where the printing surface is
not in direct contact with the paper, e.g. offset litho.
inferior Small character set below the base line at the
foot of another character.
information retrieval A term used in the context of
obtaining information from online databases in response
to a query formulated in an appropriate way.
infotainment The integration of interactive information
and entertainment services or software.
infrared port Port that accepts data via a wireless
infrared link.
ingrain paper Rough-surfaced paper for book covers.
initial First letter in text when set in such a way that it
stands out, e.g. bigger than its normal cap text size. See
cocked-up initial, drop initial.
initialise Run a program that sets all data values at nil
and prepares a storage medium such as a floppy disk to be
compatible with the system in use.
ink duct Part of printing machine that holds ink before it
is released to the cylinders.
ink flotation sizing test Test that measures paper sizing
by floating paper on ink and calculating penetration time.
ink fountain Device that supplies ink to the inking rollers.
ink hickey See hickey.
ink holdout See holdout.
inkjet A non-impact printing mechanism that forms the
image at high speed by deflecting ink droplets
electromagnetically.
ink mist Ink filaments thrown off the rollers during high-
speed coldset web offset printing.
ink piling Build-up of ink on offset blanket.
ink receptivity Uniform acceptability of ink on paper
surface.
ink rub Smears of ink caused when the surface of an
abrasive paper, often matt art, rubs against the ink film
before it is completely dry. Often occurs during binding.
ink set-off Unintentional transfer of wet ink from one
printed sheet to another in the delivery stack.
ink starvation Ink starvation is caused by the image on
one part of the plate cylinder requiring more ink to cover it
than that particular track of the inking rollers can handle.
inkjet printer A printer that sprays very fine droplets of
quick-drying ink onto the paper. The quality of printed text
is not as good as that on a laser printer at the same
resolution, but inkjet printers provide a relatively cheap way
of printing both monochrome and colour images of
acceptable quality.
inkometer Instrument that measures the tack of ink.
inline Typographic style in which the characters comprise
white inner areas contrasting against the outlined shape.
inner forme The imposed forme that forms the inside of
the sheet when folded and which therefore contains the
second page of the section. Contrast outer forme.
input Data going into a computer system.
insert Plate section placed into the middle of a text
section in a book. Contrast wrap.
inserting Placing loose material inside a section or book.
insertion Inclusion of an advertisement in a periodical.
insetting Placing and fixing one section inside another.
inspection copy Copy of a book sent to a potential
customer (often a school) for inspection prior to buying.
instruction Order in a program telling a computer to
carry out an operation.
intaglio Printing from a recessed image, e.g. gravure, die-
stamping.
integrated circuit Silicon chip.
integrated colour removal ICR See achromatic
separations.
integrated services digital network (ISDN) A
network that provides end-to-end digital connectivity to
support a wide range of services, both voice and data.
Bandwidths vary from 56kbps in the US and 64kbps in
Europe upwards. ISDN has the advantage that lines can be
combined to increase bandwidth.
Intel Company that designs and manufactures the
microprocessors used in most PCs.
intellectual property rights The rights of an author or
creator to the use and re-use of material created by him or
her, including copyright.
intelligent agent An automated network information
gathering tool that searches the internet either to locate
documents on subjects specified by the user or to create
indexes.
intelligent character recognition A form of optical
character recognition (OCR) in which logic or fuzzy logic
is used to aid recognition of letter forms and combinations
of letter forms, making up words.
intelligent terminal A computer, with its own memory
and processor, but not necessarily storage memory, which is
used as a terminal to another system. (On a dumb
terminal all the processing is carried out on the system
accessed.) (See also client server.)
interactive Being able to accept and react to user
input. This generally applies to a program or
communications medium. Thus almost all computer
applications are interactive, while normal television is not
and Teletext is only interactive in that the user can choose
the page to go to.
intercharacter spacing In word processing, the use of
variable spaces between characters which, in conjunction
with variable interword spacing, combine to give an
impression of typeset quality. Also, letter spacing.
interface The physical boundary between two systems or
devices (hardware interface). Also used to describe the
specifications for the protocols, procedures, codes (software
interface) that enable communication between two
dissimilar systems or devices. (See also user interface:
how the user is able to interact with the computer.)
interfacing codes Generic tags used for the electronic
mark up of headings in text.
interlacing A technique for increasing resolution on
graphic displays or screens. The electron beam traces
alternate lines on each pass, providing twice the number of
lines that would appear on a non-interlaced screen. However,
screen refresh is slower and screen flicker may be increased
over that seen on an equivalent non-interlaced screen
because any given pixel is only refreshed half as often.
interleaves 1. Sheets of paper put between wet printed
sheets to prevent set-off. 2. Different types of paper
interleaved with the text paper in a book.
interline spacing Leading: space between lines in text.
internal sizing Rosin, alum or starch sizing added to the
papermaking stock at the refining stage to prevent ink
spread on paper. Also called engine sizing or beater
sizing. As distinct from surface sizing which is carried out
at the size press on the papermaking machine.
International Organisation for Standardisation
(ISO) A voluntary organisation, founded in 1946,
responsible for creating international standards in many
areas, including computers and communications. Some
important standards are listed under their ISO number.
International Packet SwitchStream (IPSS) The service
that connects national public data network PSSs to other
national networks operated by PTTs. It is now known as
Global Network Service (GNS).
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) A system that
provides special characters (IPA characters) and ASCII
equivalents for phonetics (how characters or combinations
of characters are pronounced).
International Standard A standard that has been
approved and published by the International
Organisation for Standardisation (ISO).
International Standard Book Number (ISBN) A
10-digit identification number, individual to each book
(and edition) that is published. While there is no legal
requirement for books to carry these numbers, they are used
by both librarians and booksellers. The numbers are
allocated on a national basis and part of the number is
unique to the publisher of the book, while the last digit
is a check digit.
International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) An
eight-digit identification number that is allocated to each
journal that is published. It remains the same for all issues
and volumes of a journal. Unlike the ISBN, it does not
contain any information that identifies the publisher, but is
an arbitrary number made up of seven digits plus a check
digit. The PII (see Publisher Item Identifier) has been
developed partly to make it possible to identify individual
articles within journals.
internegative Negative for a colour print.
Internet (With a capital I.) The largest internet in the
world, made up of a three-level hierarchy composed of
backbone networks, such as ARPANET, NSFNet and
MILNET, mid-level networks and stub networks. These are
connected using the Internet Protocol (IP). Access to the
Internet is from an Internet Service Provider ISP. Although
the international links within the Internet operate at high
bandwidth, the speed available to the individual user will
usually depend on the speed of the local connection. Many
utilities and services, such as email, newsgroups, ftp, are
available on the Internet, but the World Wide Web is
rapidly becoming the most important way of distributing
and accessing information.
internet (Without a capital I.) Any set of networks
interconnected with routers.
Internet address (Or IP address, TCP/IP address.) The
32-bit host address defined by the Internet protocol and
usually represented in dotted decimal notation, e.g.
158.152.28.130. The address can be split into a network
number (or network address) and a host number unique to
each host on the network, and sometimes also a subnet
address. The way the address is split depends on its
class. The term internet address is sometimes incorrectly
used to refer to a fully qualified domain name.
Internet Explorer Microsofts browser for the World
Wide Web.
Internet Protocol (IP) The network layer for the
TCP/IP protocol suite widely used on ethernet networks.
IP is a connectionless, best-effort packet-switching
protocol, providing packet routing through the datalink
layer.
Internet service provider (ISP) (Also called access
provider.) A company providing a point of presence.
interpreter A program translator.
interword spacing The use of variable interword spacing
to achieve justified text. See intercharacter spacing.
intranet A network providing similar services to those
provided by the internet, but only within an organisation.
(See also extranet.)
introduction Introduction to the subject matter of a book,
as distinct from preface, foreword.
Inverform machine Type of papermaking machine used
particularly in board making. A series of head boxes feed
consecutive layers of wet stock over the main, first, layer at
the wet end of the machine to build up a thick final layer of
stock on the wire.
inverse video (Also called reverse video.) When the
image on the screen appears as a negative, so that the
parts which are conventionally black appear as white and
vice versa. Inverse video is often used to indicate that
something, for example a portion of text, has been selected
for copying, moving, deletion.
invert halftone Gravure printing that uses halftone dot
structures.
IP See Internet Protocol.
IP address See Internet address.
IPA 1. International Phonetic Alphabet. 2. An
abbreviation for Institute of Practitioners in Advertising.
3 Abbreviation for iso-propyl alcohol (propan-2-ol), the
alcohol used in fount solutions and for general cleaning.
IPC Integrated pollution control.
iph Impressions per hour. The normal measure of printing
speed.
IR coating Coating varnish cured by infrared light.
ISBN See International Standard Book Number.
ISDN See integrated services digital network.
ISO See International Organisation for
Standardisation. Also a prefix to the reference numbers
of standards issued by that body. ISO is not actually an
acronym for anything, rather a pun on the Greek prefix iso-
meaning the same; nonetheless, it is an anagram of the
initials of the organisations name. Some relevant ISO
standards are included as separate entries below.
ISO 646 The ISO standard for seven-bit characters. ASCII
is the US equivalent, although it differs in a few bracket
characters. (See ISO 8859.)
ISO 8859 (ISO Latin.) An ISO standard for eight-bit
single-byte coded graphic character sets for the major
European languages that can be represented using Latin
characters. In addition, covers the Greek, Cyrillic, Hebrew
and Arabic alphabets. Latin alphabet No. 1 is often used as
an extension of and replacement for ASCII. ISO 8879
includes some extra characters used in SGML.
ISO 8879 The ISO standard defining SGML.
ISO 9000 and subsets. Standards defining quality
systems.
ISO 9735 or EDIFACT The ISO standard for electronic
data interchange for administration, commerce and
transport. Being superseded by e-commerce.
ISO 10179 The ISO standard for the Document Style
Semantics and Specification Language (DSSSL).
ISO 10180 The ISO standard for the Standard Page
Description Language (PDSL).
ISO 10646 The ISO standard for 32-bit and 16-bit
character encoding, which includes Unicode. Originally ISO
10646 (32-bit) and Unicode (16-bit) codes were developed
separately but, following the failure of the Draft ISO 10646
to be accepted, Unicode was taken within the scope of ISO.
ISO 10744 The ISO standard for HyTime.
ISO 12083 A revised version of the American Association
of Publishers (AAP) SGML DTD, covering books and
academic journals.
ISO 13818 The ISO standard for MPEG-2 compression.
ISO15930-1/2/3 standards that define how to
produce PDF files for printing.
ISO Latin See ISO 8859.
ISO sizes Formerly DIN sizes. International range of
paper and envelope sizes, comprising A series, B series,
and C series.
ISP Internet Service Provider. Company providing
individual and corporate access to internet services at
a variety of speeds and costs.
ISSN See International Standard Serial Number.
issue All copies of a publication with the same content.
issue life Average reading life of a periodical before it is
no longer topical.
italic Specially designed letters that slope forward.
Contrast sloped roman.
ivory board Fine board manufactured by laminating two
high-quality sheets together.
jacket Dust cover on book.
jacket paper High-quality one-sided coated paper used
for book jackets.
jacketwrap US term for jacket paper.
jaggies The visual effect caused by aliasing, so that
curves look like a series of steps. (See also anti-aliasing.)
JANET See Joint Academic NETwork.
Japanese vellum Paper made in Japan from the bark of
the mulberry tree.
Java An object-oriented progamming language,
designed for programming the internet. While it is
possible to write complete programs in Java, one of its
strengths is that Java applets can also be written, which
can be run within browsers providing additional
functionality.
Java applets A form of Java program, dedicated to
performing a particular task, such as reading a particular
type of file, e.g. an MPEG video.
Java beans A platform-independent application program
interface that will enable Java-based applets and objects
to interoperate with other object technologies such as
OpenDoc.
JavaScript A version of the Java language that can be
included directly within an HTML page in order, for
example, to provide interaction between the user and the
host system such as validating entries in a form. JavaScript
lacks some of the functionality of Java, but is thus easier to
learn. Using applications such as LiveWire, it is possible to
produce the equivalent of CGI-scripts.
jaw folder A type of folder in which a partly-folded
section is thrust into a jaw to complete its fold. Typically
one of the units in a web offset folder system. Sometimes
called a nip and tuck folder.
JDF Job Description Format. A standard based on XML
designed to allow easy comprehensive information
interchange between customer and supplier. It may provide
the basis for future administration systems, with the
capability for real-time bi-directional links into specific
manufacturing equipment.
JIS Japanese Institute for Standards. The Japanese
equivalent to the ANSI in the US or the British
Standards Institution in the UK.
JIT See just-in-time.
jitter Small changes in the timing or the phase of a signal
transmitted over a network, possibly leading to errors or
loss of synchronisation.
jobbing General printing.
jog Align edges of a pile of papers by vibrating them.
joint Recessed part of a book case between the inside
edge of the front and back boards and the shoulder,
forming a hinge. Also, French groove.
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) A standard
from the ISO and ITU-T for coding and compression of
colour images. Named after the committee (sometimes also
called the Joint Picture Encoding Group) that designed the
image compression algorithm. JPEG works best on full colour
or grey-scale digital images of real world scenes and not so
well on non-realistic images, such as cartoons or line
drawings, because the technique involves smoothing of the
image and loss of detail. JPEG does not handle compression
of black-and-white (1-bit-per-pixel) images or moving pictures.
jointing The process of forming the joint or groove in
book binding. Also known as backing.
Jordan Type of paper machine refiner.
JPEG See Joint Photographic Experts Group.
jpg The usual file name extension for JPEG files.
jukebox A way of storing and accessing large numbers of
compact discs. Used mainly in document image
processing applications.
jumbo reel The large reel of paper formed and wound up
at the end of a paper-machine.
just-in-time (JIT) Production technique based on the
concept of acquiring materials and components at the very
last moment that still allows production and selling to
schedule.
justification The arrangement of text on a page or screen
so that it is aligned with either the left or right margin, or
with both. Fully justified text has lines of the same length
that are perfectly aligned with both the left and the right
margins. Both margins are even; full justification is
produced by increasing (or sometimes decreasing) the
space either between words (word spacing) or between
letters (letter spacing) or both. Hyphenation is often
used in conjunction with full justification, hence the use of
the expression H&J. Full justification tends not to be used
in electronic publications that are viewed on screen,
particularly if the text wraps when the window size or the
type size is changed.
justify In word processing and desktop publishing, the use
of intercharacter and/or interword spacing to achieve even
left and right margins.
jute Indian plant used to produce pulp for hard papers.
K Measure of computer storage. K = 1024 computer bytes
but often used loosely as 1000.
K and N absorbency Test for comparing rate of ink
absorbency of different papers.
Kalamazoo Proprietary system of scheduling and listing
documents.
kaolin Fine clay used as a filler in paper making.
kamyr digester Digester used in production of chemical
pulp.
Kb See kilobyte.
Kbps Kilobit(s) per second. Transfer rate of 1000 bits a
second. (See bps and Mbps.)
keep standing Instruction to keep type made up for
possible reprinting.
kenaf Type of plant fibre used in paper making.
Kermit A widely used public domain asynchronous
file-transfer protocol, originally developed at Columbia
University and made available without charge. Kermit is
available as part of most communications packages and
available on most operating systems. The UK centre for
Kermit distribution is at the University of Lancaster. Kermit
uses intensive encoding and error detection, and hence is
fairly slow, but very robust.
kern Part of a typographic character projecting beyond
the body.
kerning Adjusting the spacing between two letters to
create a better visual fit, also called aesthetic kerning,
which explains the rationale behind the procedure.
Traditionally meant decreasing the amount of space, but
has come to mean either increasing or decreasing the space
between the letters. Note that this is not the same as
letter spacing.
kerning pairs Pairs of letters that invariably need spacing
adjustments made to them for visual neatness.
Autokerning performs this function automatically.
kettle stitch Stitch joining one signature of a handsewn
book to the next. See also blind stitch.
key A sequence of characters that is used in encryption
and decryption.
key forme The forme or plate positioned first in colour
work. Hence also key negative.
key numbers Numbers on advertisements that identify
the source in which they appeared.
key plate The printing plate that sets the register position
for the other plates.
keyboard The array of keys used to input into a system.
keyword A word that is indexed to improve the speed of
searching. (Contrast with free-text searching.) The term
has a special meaning in SGML to indicate a property of
an element or a marked section.
kicker Short line above a headline, set in smaller type.
kill Delete unwanted matter. Distribute type.
kinetic friction Resistance to sliding of one material
over another.
kiss impression Very light printing impression.
kiss-fit Printing on an offset press different colours that
touch each other, but using no traps. Kiss-fitting is not
always suitable for all printing jobs but when it is, the result
should be clearer than when traps are used.
kite V shaped plate over which the web of paper is drawn
to create first fold.
knife folder A type of folding machine that uses a knife
between inwardly rotating rollers. Contrast buckle folder.
knocking up To line up the edges of a pile of paper.
kraft Strong brown paper used as a second lining, and in
many forms of packing application.
kraft pulp See sulphate pulp.
Kromecote Proprietary name for a cast-coated paper with
glossy finish.
L/C See letter of credit.
label 1. A record that identifies the items stored on a disk.
2. Caption on a technical line drawing.
label paper Paper gummed on one side and usually
coated on the other, for labels.
laced-on-boards Signatures of a case-bound book laced
on to the case boards.
lacquer Synthetic coating applied to a printed piece for
protection or gloss.
laid lines The narrow parallel lines in a laid paper, as
opposed to the wider lines at right-angles to these called
the chain lines.
laid paper Paper with watermark lines parallel to each
other formed by a dandy roll.
lamination Thin plastic film applied by heat and pressure
to a printed sheet for protection and/or appearance. See
also OPP lamination.
lampblack Carbon pigment ink with dull, very black
appearance.
LAN See local area network.
landfill site Area set aside to dump rubbish and waste
into; concern over the space needed for many directories.
landscape The orientation of a picture, screen or page
such that its width is greater than its height. Most screens
are landscape, while most books, and certainly journals, are
portrait.
language In computing, a structured communications
vocabulary using codes and words that can be translated
into the machine code that runs the computer. See high-
level language, low-level language.
large post Standard size of paper 419533mm.
laser An acronym of Light Amplification from the
Stimulated Emission of Radiation (developed from Maser,
where the initial M stands for microwave). Lasers create
coherent light, i.e. with a single frequency and phase. This
has two effects: the energy is concentrated, so that high
powered lasers can be used for applications such as surgery
and welding; and the coherence means that the beam can
carry information. The second property is used in laser
printers, fibre optics and holography.
laser printer A high-speed non-impact device that
employs laser technology to sensitise selected areas of a
photosensitive drum. As it revolves it picks up toner that is
transferred to the paper via heated rollers.
last colour down The final colour to be printed in
colour work.
lateral reversal Change of image from wrong to right-
reading or vice versa.
latex-treated paper Paper impregnated with latex for
toughness.
latin alphabet Western European alphabet
lay Guide on a printing machine that positions a sheet
before printing. Hence, lay edges.
lay down Impose a job.
lay edge Edge of a sheet laid against the front or side lay
of the machine.
layboy A stacking device on a paper sheeter.
layer, layering A technique used within draw programs
for handling vector or object-oriented graphics. Each
object is drawn on its own layer, so that objects can be
placed in front of or behind any other object; this
arrangement can be changed with the draw program. In
addition, most draw programs allow objects to be grouped
on layers (each object still occupies its own layer within that
group layer). This gives great flexibility to the expert user.
layer-on Machine-minder who feeds sheets to the
machine.
layout Sketch of a book or other publication, showing the
plan to work to.
lc See lower case. See also U/L, ulc; caps, c&sc.
LCD See liquid crystal display.
lead time The time it takes for a requirement to be
satisfied.
leader 1. Row of dots used to lead the eye across a page.
2. See editorial.
leading The spacing between lines of type.
leading edge The edge of a sheet or plate at which
printing begins. Also, gripper edge, pitch edge.
leaf Single sheet, comprising two pages.
leaflet Folded printed sheet comprising only a few pages.
leased line A private telephone circuit permanently
connecting two points.
leather Leathers used in bookbinding include goat hides,
pig skins, calf skins, vellum, sheep skins, forels.
leather pulp Pulp made from leather scraps and used for
reconstituted leather coverings.
leathercloth Bookbinding grade of cloth: a plasticated
cotton, dyed-through and calendered.
leave edge The edge of the sheet thatleaves the machine
last as it goes through the printing rollers into the delivery.
LED See light emitting diode.
LED printer A printer, similar to a laser printer, that
uses a bank of LEDs as the image source, rather than a
single laser beam.
ledger paper A strong paper for clerical use.
leg Short column of type.
legend Caption.
legibility The ease with which a page, design or typeface
can be read.
length The flowability of a printing ink. Short ink does
not flow as easily as long ink.
letter of credit L/C A letter addressed by a bank in an
importing country to its agent bank in the exporting
country, authorising the latter, providing an agreed set of
conditions is met, to release a specified sum of money to
the account of the exporter. A Confirmed Irrevocable Letter
of Credit carries the absolute guarantee of the issuing bank
and cannot be revoked unless agreed by all parties.
letter-fit Spacing between characters in a typeface.
Letterflex plate Proprietary letterpress photopolymer
plate, similar to an APR plate.
lettering Hand-drawn typography or a typeface designed
to look hand-drawn.
letterpress Printing from images with a raised surface
which impresses on the paper.
letterspace Space between letters.
letterspacing Adding or reducing the space between
individual characters, as opposed to between words, in a
formatted document. When used correctly, the effect should
be pleasing. However, when done automatically in order to
reduce the interword spacing in justification, the effect
can often be the reverse.
levant Soft, pliable goatskin for bookbinding covers.
Lib Con number See Library of Congress number.
library binding Durable type of case binding used on
books in libraries.
library material Text or pictures held on file for
subsequent use.
Library of Congress number US system for
bibliographical data. The number is printed on the title
page verso.
lick-coated paper Paper with a very light coating. Also
pigmented paper, light-coated paper, size-press
coated paper.
ligature A glyph (or character) that is a combination of two
or more single characters. For example, in many fonts when
an i follows an f, they are printed as a single character fi;
a ligature for fl is also fairly common. In the past, particularly
when hot metal or cold type were used for typesetting, a
whole range of ligatures was used, but their use has become
less common as computer typesetting has developed.
light box Box with glass top illuminated from within so
that transparent artwork can be viewed on its surface.
light emitting diode (LED) A diode that glows red,
green or amber when energised by low voltage.
light pen A device that looks like an ordinary pen, but
which can be used to instruct the computer to modify part
of a screen image. At its tip the pen has a photoreceptor
that emits signals when it receives light from the screen.
light primaries See additive primaries.
light secondaries The complementary, or opposite
colours to the additive primaries.
light-coated paper See size-press coated paper.
lightface Lighter version of a roman typeface.
lightfast ink Ink that will fade less readily than normal
ink on prolonged exposure to strong light. See blue
wool scale.
lightweight coated paper (lwc) Coated paper (often
part-mechanical) below 60gsm.
lightweight paper Normally taken to mean paper less
than 60gsm in substance.
lignin The substance in wood that binds the fibres
together. Removed during the pulping process.
limp binding Paperback binding.
limp-bound Referring to a book with a limp or paper
binding. See also case-bound.
line 1. Rule. 2. Copy that consists of solid black lines
or dots only, and has no intermediate grey tones.
Contrast tone.
line block A relief plate produced from a line drawing.
line gauge Measuring ruler used for copy fitting and
measuring type. Also called type gauge and depth
gauge.
line length Column width.
line mechanical Paste-up of line copy ready for the
camera.
Line work Vector graphics.
Lineale Typeface without serifs, otherwise known as
sans serif.
linen finish Imitation linen texture on paper surface.
linen screen Halftone screen giving a linen effect.
liner Paper used to cover another paper or board for extra
strength, thickness or finish.
line spacing Space between lines of type.
lining Part of the spine strengthening in a case-bound
book. See first and second linings.
lining figures Arabic numerals the same height as
capitals, also known as aligning numerals. As distinct
from non-lining or old-style figures.
link (Also called hotlink.) In hypertext documents,
a connection from one document to another (see also
anchor). Linking is also used within programs and
applications in order to save space by not duplicating
data or to ensure that data is always up to date.
linked image A graphic image that is stored in a
different file from the current hypertext page, so that it is
displayed by selecting a link, although the image may also
be included automatically, depending on the coding of the
hypertext page.
Linotype Metal linecasting machine manufactured by
Linotype.
lint Surface fibres released from paper during printing.
linting The build-up of lint on an offset blanket causing
hickies in the printed result.
Linux Alternative operating system to Windows or MacOS
for computers. It is open source and appeals to many as an
alternative with a large community of developers and
support available via the web. Linux is a free Unix-type
operating system originally created by Linus Torvalds with
the assistance of developers around the world.
liquid crystal display (LCD) Consisting of a sandwich of
two glass plates and a fluid. The liquid darkens when a
voltage is applied, thus creating an image.
list Often used for mailing list.
list broker Someone who sells lists of names and
addresses in specific market-oriented categories.
listing Computer print-out of data or a file.
listing paper The paper used for computer listings,
traditionally printed with light green horizontal stripes and
punched with sprocket holes at the sides.
literal Mistake introduced in text input, often only
affecting one or two characters.
litho, lithography Planographic process in which ink is
applied selectively to the plate by chemically treating the
image areas to accept ink and the non-image areas to
accept water.
live matter Copy that will go to press rather than be
deleted.
loadings Minerals and fillers added to the furnish of
paper.
loan A rag writing paper.
local area network (LAN) A geographically limited data
communications network (typically to a 1km radius or within
a building), that allows resource sharing. A LAN allows
computers to have access to common data, programs and
peripherals.
local loop That part of the telephone network that
links individual premises to the local exchange of the
network operator.
local papers Newspapers circulating in one town or area
of the country.
loft-dried High-grade papers dried in a drying shed to
allow natural evaporation.
log off An instruction issued by a user indicating the
termination of a session.
log on An instruction, issued by a user, requesting access.
A log-on sequence will usually include entry of a name and
password.
logo Company name or product device used in a special
design as a trademark. Shortened from logotype.
long grain Sheet of paper in which the grain direction
(or machine direction) runs parallel with the longest side.
long ink An ink that flows easily.
long run A high printing number for a job.
look through Appearance of a sheet of paper when held
up to the light. Also, formation.
loose leaf Binding that uses steel rings passing through
drilled holes in the paper to hold the sheets together.
lossless compression A term describing a data
compression algorithm in which all the information in
a file is retained, allowing it to be recovered perfectly by
decompression.
lossy compression A term describing a data
compression algorithm in which the amount of
information in the data, as well as the number of bits used
to represent that information, is reduced. The lost
information is usually assumed to be less important to the
quality of the data (usually an image or audio) because it
can be recovered reasonably by interpolation. MPEG, JPEG
and fractal compression are examples of lossy
compression techniques.
low resolution (Often shortened to low-res.) The opposite
of high resolution. While some graphics are just low-
resolution to begin with, other graphics are created or
scanned as complex, high-resolution images (probably for
offset printing). However, to save space, network traffic and
to provide thumbnails for browsing low-res versions are
produced for use in page make-up and placement of the
image. Usually the high-resolution version is merged using
the Open PrePress Interface. (See also resolution.)
lower case Small letters as distinct from capitals.
Abbreviated as lc. The term is derived from the days of
metal type, when the capitals were kept in the top typecase
and the small letters in the bottom (or lower) case. Capitals
are thus sometimes referred to as uppercase letters.
lwc Lightweight coated (paper). Refers to coated papers,
normally with a part-mechanical base, which are 60gsm or
lighter in substance.
M 1 Used to indicate the machine direction (grain
direction) of a sheet when placed against one dimension,
e.g. 890(M)1130 is a short grain sheet.
Mac Common abbreviation for the Apple Macintosh
computer, widely used in publishing work.
machine clothing The various felts and wire materials on
a paper machine.
machine coated Paper coated on the papermaking
machine.
machine code Primary code used by the computers
processor. Few programs are written directly in machine
code, but in a high-level language or low-level
language which is then translated by a separate translator
program into machine code.
machine deckle Width of the wet web on a papermaking
machine.
machine direction The direction in which fibres lay on
the wire of a paper machine, i.e. along the web. Also called
grain direction. As distinct from the cross direction.
machine fill A making of paper which uses the full width
of the machine deckle.
machine finished (MF) Smooth paper calendered on the
paper machine.
machine glazed (MG) Glossy finish to one side of paper
obtained by drying against the polished surface of a heated
cylinder of a Yankee-type paper machine.
machine language See machine code.
machine minder Printer who supervises the running of
a printing machine.
machine proof Proof made by printing from plates, as
opposed to using plastic proofing techniques. Also known
as a wet proof.
machine revise Printed sheet for checking against the
press proof.
macro A combination of commands, used in various kinds
of interactive programs. In an interactive program, a series
of commands can be recorded then played to create the
same effect by using either a function key, a menu
command or a button. Alternatively, macros can be written
essentially as small computer programs, including functions
and conditional expressions. The more complex macros can
take parameters such as a text string or a value for such
items as page number, interline spacing or type size.
made ends See joints.
magazine supplement Magazine inserted in a
newspaper.
magenta Process red. One of the colours used in four-
colour process printing.
magnefite pulp A sulphite pulp made using
magnesium bisulphite rather than calcium bisulphite in
the cooking process. The magnesium waste liquor can be
chemically recovered.
magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR) A
character recognition system in which special characters
printed in magnetic ink are read for rapid input to a
specialist reader. Because magnetic-ink characters are
difficult to forge, MICR is used extensively in banking for
marking and identifying cheques.
mail merge Word processing utility enabling a name and
address file to be merged with a text file containing a letter.
mailshot A single sending of promotional material to
a list of names and addresses.
Mailsort method of obtaining discounts on postage By
pre-sorting addresses into postcode order
mailing list List of names and addresses to which mailing
pieces can be sent.
mailing piece Promotional material mailed out.
make-ready Setting up a printing machine ready to run
a specific job.
makegood Periodical advertisement re-run because the
original was faulty.
making order An order for paper to particular
specifications needing to be made specially rather than
withdrawn from stock.
making-up Assembly of printed sections prior to sewing.
management information system (MIS) Normally a
computerised system to control all financial information to
aid the management function
manifold paper A lightweight paper used for copies or
for airmail. See also bank.
manila A tough paper made from hemp and often used
for envelopes.
manual Book giving instructions about a technique or
details of operation of a device.
manuscript Abbreviated to MS. Typed or handwritten
copy for setting. Also typescript, copy.
marbled paper Paper covered with a marbled design,
used for endpapers of books. True marbled paper is made
by hand: paper is dipped into a bath containing liquid
pigment colours floating on a viscous gum solution, and
then dried. Imitation marbled paper is normal paper printed
with this pattern by litho: this is the sort normally used.
margin guides The non-printing dotted lines in programs
that mark the basic margins of the page within which the
text is fitted.
margins Areas of white space left around printed matter
on a page.
mark-up Instructions on a layout or copy for the
compositor to follow when typesetting or making up pages.
See also electronic mark-up.
mark-up language A language (or meta language)
designed to formalise the mark-up process for text. Mark-
up languages also give facilities for including links to
multimedia items, such as graphics, audio and video.
marked proof The proof on which the printers reader has
marked corrections.
marked section A section of an SGML document that is
to be treated in a special, usually conditional, manner.
markings or marks Identifying description written onto
a label, e.g. the title of a book on a consignment of paper
sent to a printer to show the printer the use for which the
paper has been sent.
mask Opaque overlay that masks out the unwanted
portion of a photograph.
mass market Broadly-based market; in book publishing,
general interest paperbacks.
master 1. A plate for a duplication machine. 2. Original
file from which copies will be made.
master page grid The basic page layout, held in memory
as a job template for the design and kept independently
of the job itself.
master proof Printers proof or readers proof. See also
marked proof.
masthead Graphic device that displays a newspapers
name on the front page.
matrix Also matrice. Mould from which typeface is cast
or photographic master of type fount.
matt or matte Dull finish as distinct from glossy.
mature Acclimatise paper to pressroom humidity. Also
called conditioning.
maximise button In Windows applications, resizes a
window to fill the full screen rather than a small part of it.
Mb Abbreviation for megabyte.
Mbps Megabit(s) per second. Transfer rate of 1,000,000
bits a second. (See bps, kbps.)
McCain sewing See side-sewing.
MD In paper making, machine direction. As distinct
from CD, cross direction.
mean line Imaginary line that runs along the top of the
lowercase letters in a line of text. Also, x line. Compare
base line.
measure Length of line of type.
mechanical binding Binding held together by metal or
plastic coils. See also spiral binding.
mechanical composition See machine composition.
mechanical ghosting Ghosting caused by blanket
irregularities.
mechanical paper Paper made from mechanical pulp.
mechanical pulp Pulp produced mechanically, by
grinding, rather than chemically. There are several sorts. See
stone groundwood mechanical pulp (SGW), refiner
mechanical pulp (RMP), thermomechanical pulp
(TMP), chemi-thermomechanical pulp (CTMP).
media The materials onto which data can be recorded,
i.e. DVD, CD, DAT.
media converter Device that reads from one medium
(normally a disk) and translates its content in order to
output to another medium.
mediumThe means of conveying something; an intermediate.
memory Internal storage of a computer. The memory of a
computer is where it finds its instructions and the data it is
to work with, as well as where it stores its results. It is
organised as a series of locations or cells each of which can
hold one computer word. The locations are given numbers
which enable the computer to identify their positions. See
RAM, ROM.
menu A type of user interface in which the user is
presented with a series of options, from which he or she
can select, either with a mouse or by entering a text string,
often just a number.
menu bar In a graphical user interface (GUI), the bar
across the top of the screen or a window containing the
names of pull-down menus.
menu-driven Software program laid out in the initial form
of a number of questions to which the user replies in order
to action the program.
merge Combine two or more files into one.
meta An HTML tag, defining metadata, which is used by
many of the World Wide Webs search engines, either
as part of the indexing or as part of a keyword search.
meta-information Information about information,
e.g. how it is structured.
metadata Structured data that describes types of
information. Often used for searching, although the data
may not actually form part of the viewable document.
meta language A (computer) language in which the logic
and statements of another language are discussed and
specified. For example, SGML is a meta language in that it
specifies how to do things, rather than what to do.
metallic inks Inks containing metallic powders to give
a gold- or silver-printed effect. Often best printed in
conjunction with a primer.
metamerism The phenomenon whereby certain colours
shift in hue under different lighting conditions.
mezzotint Form of print used to simulate the effect of
painting.
MF See machine finished.
MG See machine glazed.
MHz One million hertz. Most micros are ruled between
520MHz in microprocessor speed.
microchip See chip.
microfiche Sheet film, typically 105150mm, containing
a large number of pages of information photographically
reduced to a very small size and readable only with a
microfiche reader.
microfilm A roll of film, usually 35mm, onto which text
and images are photographically reduced.
microform Generic name for media onto which text or
images are photographically reduced. The main examples
are microfiche and microfilm.
micrometre One-thousandth of a millimetre.
micron Alternative term for micrometre.
microsecond One-millionth part of a second.
Measurement used in computing. Compare nanosecond,
millisecond.
mid tones or middle tones Tonal ranges between
highlights and shadows.
mill conditioned Paper conditioned for normal
atmospheric humidity.
mill finished See machine finished.
mill glazed See machine glazed.
mill waste Broke and other by-products of a paper mills
normal manufacturing processes which can be recycled
within the mill. Paper made using mill waste as a majority
furnish should not really be termed recycled even though
it sometimes is.
millboard True millboard is a very dense hard board used
in stationery binding and for archival use. The term
millboard is sometimes used to describe normal case
boards, which are more properly grey board or unlined
chipboard.
millisecond One-thousandth part of a second.
Measurement used in computing. Abbreviated to ms.
Compare nanosecond, microsecond.
mini-web Small web offset machine typically producing
16pp A4 colour sections (8pp A4 to view). Also known as
narrow-web, or half-size press.
miniscules Lower case.
mips Millions of instructions per second. Measurement of
computer processing speed.
mirror duplication of storage on disk, for example in
RAID systems.
MIS See management information system.
misprint Typographical error.
misregister One colour or more printed out of alignment
with other colours.
mixed furnish Referring to papers that have mechanical
and woodfree pulps in their furnish. Also see part-
mechanical paper.
mixing Usually applied to typefaces of different founts in
one line of text.
mnemonic codes Easily remembered codes: abbreviations
or tags that suggest their meanings (e.g. bd1 = bold style 1).
mock-up A layout or rough of artwork. Also called a
visual.
modem or Modulator/Demodulator Device that
converts analogue communication (e.g. telephone
transmission) into digital form and vice versa.
Modern Late 18th century typestyle, also called Didone.
modern figures See lining figures.
modular Hardware system capable of being expanded by
adding on compatible devices.
moir Undesirable pattern caused by incorrect angles of
screens.
moisture content Amount of moisture in paper,
expressed as a percentage of weight. A moisture content of
around 7 to 8% is recommended for printing papers in
optimum press room conditions (20C, 5565% RH).
moisture welts Wrinkles in a paper roll caused by
moisture absorption after drying.
molleton Cotton material used on damping rollers.
monitor Screen that displays the operations of a machine
in real time.
mono See black and white.
monochrome Literally means one colour, often black on
white (although see bi-level bitmap), but used for grey
scales.
monoline Typeface with all strokes appearing to have the
same thickness, e.g. Univers.
monospaced Letters that have the same set widths, as in
typewriter faces
monotone Illustrative material in one colour.
montage Several images assembled into one piece of
artwork.
morgue Newspaper reference library.
morocco Goatskin with fine grain for bookbinding.
motherboard The printed circuit board containing the
main components of a computer. See add-on board,
expansion board.
mottle Uneven printing in solid areas caused by poor ink
or uneven absorption characteristics in the paper.
mould-made paper Paper either made by hand, or made
on a cylinder mould machine.
mouse Computer input device.
mouse mat A mat on which a mouse can be moved
around. For a mechanical mouse, this is usually a plastic
surface on a foam-rubber backing, while for an optical
mouse, the surface is usually a firmer plastic carrying a
grid ruled in two dimensions.
MP3 Format for storing digital audio files.
Moving Pictures Experts Group (MPEG) (Also called
Motion Picture Encoding Group.) An ISO standard for
coding full-motion video information in a compressed form.
Encoding is done offline while retrieval is performed in
real time. (See MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-3.) MPEG can also
be used for audio files.
MS-DOS The original operating system used on IBM
PCs.
mull Muslin fabric fixed to the back of a case-bound book
under the spine covering. See first and second linings.
multi-disk reader Machine that reads a variety of disks
in different formats and translates their content to output
disks. Also, media converter.
multi-layer headbox A headbox that distributes up to
three different layers of stock onto the wire simultaneously.
multi-tasking The ability of a computer to work with
more than one program at a time without any further
action from the user. In fact, the computer uses time-
slicing to switch between applications, but this happens
so fast that users are unaware of it, although all the
applications slow down to some extent.
multi-user Computer system allowing multiple users
access to the same machine, software and data files.
Multilith Proprietary name of a small offset press in
wide use.
multiplexor Switching device enabling communication
between central storage and a number of peripherals.
Munsell system A colour gradation system which uses
numbers for identification.
mux See multiplexor.
nanosecond One-thousand-millionth part of a second.
Measurement of computer processing speed. Abbreviated to
ns. Compare microsecond, millisecond.
nap roller Leather-covered ink roller.
narrow band Data transmission at speeds of less than
200 bits a second.
narrow-web See mini-web.
narrowcast (Also described as personalcast.)
Transmission of information to a defined group of
recipients. Contrast broadcast.
national characters An expression used for characters of
the Roman alphabet with accents and other diacritical
marks that are used in certain written languages, but not in
English. They are listed in ISO 8859.
natural Case-covering material finish.
NC varnish Nitrocellulose varnish: a high-gloss finish.
NCR (no carbon required) A paper that, being
impregnated with dye, transfers an image onto the sheet
below when written or typed on.
nearside lay The sidelay on the operating side of the
press. See also offside lay, lay.
neckline White space under a headline.
negative Reverse photographic image on film.
negative-working plates Litho plates that are exposed
in the non-image area.
nest To place a program routine within a larger routine.
nested indent A left or right indent applied to a
paragraph or more that insets the text affected inside the
previous margin. Typically used to highlight a piece of
extract setting within main body text.
net A rather loose term, sometimes applied to the
internet itself, at others to specific networks.
network An arrangement of linked computers that
typically draw on a common database of information
resident on a file server while retaining considerable local
processing capabilities.
network application A program, or combination of
program and data, that performs a task over a network,
usually involving more than one computer.
network computer A computer without any local
storage, i.e. with no disks, that is designed to be used on
a local area network (LAN) or connected to a network
via an intranet or even the internet. Because of the
lack of storage, network computers are cheaper than
standard PCs.
network layer The third-lowest layer of the ISO seven-
layer model, which determines the switching and routing
of packets from the sender to the receiver using the
datalink layer. It is in turn used by the transport layer.
IP is a network layer protocol.
network operating system The system software used to
integrate the computers on a network.
neutral sized paper That is sized with neutral pH7, acid-
free size. This gives it considerable qualities of longevity,
but less than those required for the standard of permanent
paper that must be acid-free in furnish as well as surface.
newsprint Paper made from mechanical pulp for the
printing of newspapers, usually between 45 and 58gsm.
next to editorial Instruction to position advertisement
adjacent to editorial text.
nip Pressure point between two rollers.
nipping Pressing a book to flatten the signatures and
remove air from between the sheets. This takes place after
the book blocks are sewn and before they are rounded and
backed, and sent on for further processing. Also known as
crushing or smashing.
no break area In text setting, a defined sequence of
words or characters within which hyphenation is not
allowed for grammatical or contextual reasons.
noise Unwanted signals or information that interferes
with the required information. This may be literal noise in
telecommunications; it may be visual in computer
graphics, where there are, say, spots on an image; or it
may be metaphorical in the sense that a communication
contains irrelevant information that obscures the real
message.
nominal weight American system of specifying basis
weight of paper.
non-consumable textbook Textbook that will be re-used
constantly rather than written in.
non-impact printing Electronic methods of image
transfer without striking paper. See ink jet printer,
laser printer.
non-interlaced Not using interlacing.
non-reflective ink Light-absorbing ink used to print
machine-readable characters.
non-reproducing blue See drop-out blue.
non-scratch inks Inks resistant to marking.
non-tarnish paper Paper free from chemicals that will
tarnish metal surfaces in contact with it.
non-woven material See imitation cloth.
Nordsen binder Device that applies a line of glue
beneath the shoulder of a book block to reinforce the
casing-in process. Useful for heavy books.
notch binding A form of unsewn binding in which
notches are punched in the backs of the sections as they
are folded on the folding machine, and glue applied in
through the notches to hold the leaves together. Also called
slotted binding. See also burst binding.
ns A nanosecond.
NTSC National Television Standards Committee. Also used
to describe the US television format defined by the
committee.
numbering machine On or off-press device that numbers
printed sheets consecutively, e.g. for tickets.
OBA Optical bleaching agent. Added to the furnish of
bright white papers.
OBC Outside back cover.
object A combination of data that has a well-defined,
distinct existence. This may be a graphic object, a group of
database fields (see object-oriented database), a cell in
a spreadsheet, a range of cells, or even an entire
spreadsheet or a video clip. Such objects are handled in
object-oriented programming and used by such systems
and protocols as Object Linking and Embedding (OLE).
object code or object language Machine code, as
translated from a source program.
Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) (Pronounced
ol.) A distributed object system and protocol from
Microsoft.
object-oriented (OO) To do with objects, particularly
the programming and manipulation of non-text items.
object-oriented programming (OOP) A type of
programming that operates on objects, or data structures.
Operations that can be performed on particular objects
form part of those objects, and will be common to all
objects in a particular class.
oblique Slanted, usually used of type, or sometimes
graphics. Note that oblique type, that is, upright type
slanted with the computer, is not the same as italic type, i.e.
a font that has been designed as italic. However, if a sans
serif type is used, it may only be the expert who can tell the
difference ; with serifed faces it should be clear to everyone.
oblong Bound at the shorter dimension. Also, landscape.
OCR Optical Character Recognition. The interpretation of
type-written characters by a machine that scans the text
and stores it in memory, often for subsequent typesetting.
OCR paper High-quality bond suitable for optical
character recognition equipment.
OCR-A A typeface designed to aid machine readability.
Compare OCR-B.
OCR-B A machine-readable typeface that is designed to
be more legible to humans than OCR-A. In accordance with
the specification laid out in this guide, so that it can be
read by Royal Mail automated sorting machines.
OCR readable mail Mail whose address can be read by a
postal service OCR machines that read the printed readable
address on a letter, check the postcode and apply a
phosphor code or barcode. This can then be read by other
machines for sorting.
octavo Abbreviated as 8vo. The eighth part of the
traditional broadside sheet. Used to describe book sizes,
e.g. Demy Octavo.
oddment A book signature with fewer pages than the
others and which has to be printed separately.
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer. An OEM product
is one that is a rebadged and possibly enhanced version of
an original manufactured product, and which sells under its
rebadged name.
OFC Outside front cover.
off-machine coating Coating applied to a paper as
a separate operation. Contrast on-machine coating.
offline The opposite of online, so that data cannot be
transferred, for example, to a printer or a network.
offprint Part of a book or journal printed separately,
e.g. an article from a journal.
offset Printing which uses an intermediate medium to
transfer the image onto paper, e.g. a rubber blanket
wrapped around a cylinder, as in offset litho.
offset letterpress See letterset.
offset paper Any paper suitable for offset litho printing.
offside lay The lay opposite the operating side of a press.
As distinct from nearside lay.
Old Face Early 17th century typestyle. Also called Old
Style and Garalde.
old-style figures Also called non-lining figures.
Numerals that do not align on the base line but have
ascenders and descenders. As distinct from modern or
lining figures.
OLE See Object Linking and Embedding.
on the fly Refers to any process that occurs as output is
being performed, such as the screening of halftones
simultaneously with output to an image recorder.
on-demand publishing The concept of printing books
one at a time from a computer store on demand, rather
than tying up capital by printing for stock.
on-machine coating Coating applied to the base paper
on the paper machine itself. As distinct from off-machine
coating, where the base paper is coated as a completely
separate operation, giving a superior result.
1-bit, 8-bit and 24-bit colour The number of bits of
information (colour resolution) that can be represented
in the pixels (dots) on the screen. The higher the number
of bits, the more colours or grey scales you can have. In
turn, the higher the number of bits, the more memory is
required to handle them, so the number of colours depends
on the size of the computer memory, rather than on the
monitor used. 8-bit and 24-bit are the most commonly used.
1-bit colour is monochrome.
one-shot binding Perfect binding with one application of
hot-melt glue only. As distinct from two shot binding.
one-sided art Paper coated on one side only (such as
jacket art).
onionskin Lightweight cockle finish blank paper often
used for airmail stationery.
online Connected, so that data can be transferred, say, to
a printer or a network. The opposite of offline.
online Connected to the internet.
on-sert Apply a component onto a mailing piece, typically
a plastic (credit) card or ticket.
opacity The quality of opaqueness in a paper. Opacity is
measured in %, with around 90% being an average for
80gsm printing paper.
opaque printing An MF printing paper with high opacity.
OPC organic photo conductor, light reactive material
forming the basis of electrophotographic imaging.
Open Source Software made freely available to users,
suppliers gain revenue from implementation, training and
updates.
open time In binding, the time between an adhesive
being applied and when it sets. In printing, the time an ink
stays fluid on the press.
opening Facing pages.
operating system The underlying computer software
that controls the operation of a computer.
OPI (Open Prepress Interface) System of substituting
high-resolution images with low-res and swapping back at
output to save computer power when image processing was
too intensive for desktop machines.
OPP lamination Oriented polypropylene lamination. The
standard plastic lamination film.
optical brightener Dye that emits visible radiation. Used
to brighten paper.
optical centre The visual centre of a page, about 10%
higher than the mathematical centre.
optical character recognition See OCR.
optical density Light-absorbing capacity of an image
area.
optical letter spacing Space between letters that
accommodates their varying shapes and gives the
appearance of even space.
orange peel 1. Multi-indentation effect on paper.
2. varnishing fault.
order form Form on which a buyer can fill in the detail of
his intended purchase as an order to supply.
original Photograph or drawing to be reproduced.
origination All the processes involved in the reproduction
of original material, including make-up, up to plate-making
stages; and also including typesetting.
ornamented Typeface embellished with decorative
flourishes.
ornaments Another term for dingbats.
orphan The first line of a new paragraph, or a subhead,
that appears at the foot of a page. Considered undesirable.
See also widow, club line.
out of focus Blurred, not properly focused by a camera.
out of register One or more colours out of alignment
with the others in a piece of printing.
out-of-round Distorted paper reel.
out-turn sheet Sheet of paper taken during manufacture
or on delivery as a representative sample for checking
specification.
outer forme The imposed forme that forms the outside of
the sheet when folded and which contains the first page of
the section. Contrast inner forme.
outline Typeface comprising only an outline with no solid
area. Contrast also inline, in which the characters have
white inner areas against a bolder outline shape.
outline font (Also described as a vector font or
scalable font.) A font that is stored in terms of its outline
shape rather than as a bitmap. Because it is a type of
object-oriented graphic, an outline font can be scaled to
any size and transformed, e.g. by sloping or just using the
outline.
outline graphics Another term for vector or object-
oriented graphics.
output Data or any form of communication coming out of
a computer after processing.
outsert Item of promotional material on the outside of,
rather than inside, a pack or periodical.
outwork Operations put out to another company for
reasons of specialism or capacity.
overexposure Too lengthy an exposure of film, causing a
thin, chipped, image. Underexposure leads to a dense,
dark, murky image.
overhang cover Cover larger than the text pages. Also
yapp cover.
overmatter Text matter not used in the final printing.
overprinting Additional printing over a previously
printed sheet.
overrun Copies in excess of the specified print number.
overs See spoilage.
oversewing Attaching single leaves to a sewn book with
thread sewing.
Oxford hollow A hollow on the back of a book that
consists of a tube of brown paper attached to the back of
the folded sections and the inside of the case hollow. Used
for heavy books where reinforcement is necessary.
oxidation Chemical action with the oxygen in the air: one
of the principal ways in which sheetfed offset ink dries.
Oxidation also affects litho plates, attacking the non-image
area. Gumming up a plate helps prevent this.
ozalid Print made by a form of diazo copying process and
often used for proofing film. See also blueprints.
P&L Profit and loss account.
package Set of software bought off-the-shelf rather than
specifically written for a purpose.
packager Organisation that provides complete
publications ready to be marketed.
packet A block, or specified number of bytes, that
contains both control information and data. Can be sent by
connectionless (packet switching) or connection-oriented
communications.
packet switch node (PSN) A computer used in
a packet-switched network to accept, route and
forward packets.
packet-switching network Computer-controlled
communications network in which data is divided into
packets transmitted at high speed.
packing Paper placed under the plate or blanket in litho
to adjust printing pressure.
PAF postcode address file Royal Mails file of all correct
postal addresses in the UK.
page One side of a leaf.
page count Synonym for extent (US).
page make-up Assembly of the elements in a page into
their final design.
page pull test Test to determine the strength of binding
of an adhesive-bound book.
pages per inch Number of pages per inch of thickness.
US measurement of bulk. Abbreviated ppi.
pagination Page numbering.
paint program A software application that provides the
ability to create and edit bitmaps. Also called image-
editing software. (Contrast with a draw program, used
for editing vector graphics.)
pair-kerning The automatic kerning of selected pairs of
letters for better aesthetic effect.
palette An analogy to the paint palette used by artists,
this is a window showing the colours available for use in
a paint or draw program. The colours available in the
palette will depend on the screen resolution (and thus the
number of colours) chosen.
pallet Wooden base on which paper or books are stored.
Also known as skid and stillage. The European standard
pallet size is 10001200mm, four-way entry. A maximum
pallet weight of 1000kg and maximum height of 1219mm
(4ft) are commonly specified. Typical pallet loads might
come to 10001250 books of average octavo size; or around
12,500 sheets of quad demy (one tonne in 80gsm).
pamphlet Booklet comprising only a few pages.
pamphlet binding See saddle stitching.
panel Display board.
Pantone Proprietary name of a widely-used colour
matching system.
Pantone Matching System (PMS) See Pantone.
paper basis weight See basis weight.
paper master Paper plate used on small offset machine.
paper surface efficiency (PSE) Printability of paper.
paperboard Lightweight board in the range
200300gsm. See board.
papeterie Smooth, stiff paper used in greeting card
manufacture.
papier mach Repulped paper with stiffening additives
which can be used for moulding.
papyrus Egyptian reed from which the earliest form of
paper was made.
paradigm Set of norms and values associated with an
operation or environment which becomes the accepted way
of doing things.
paragraph formatting The application of a format or
style (including such factors as typeface, type style, indents,
space before and after) to a whole paragraph. (Contrast
with character formatting, where only the selected
characters are affected.)
paragraph opener Typographic device marking the start
of a paragraph that needs emphasising.
paragraph widow A short line (one or two words)
appearing as the last line of a paragraph anywhere on a
page. To be avoided if possible. (See Widow.)
parallel communication Data transfer in which each bit is
transferred along its own line, in contrast to serial connection,
in which bits are transferred one at a time. Parallel
communication is generally used only over short distances,
mainly because data integrity is lost over longer distances.
parallel folding Folding a sheet with all the folds parallel
to each other. Contrast right-angle folding.
parallel interface An interface over which parallel
communication is carried out. Also called a Centronics
interface.
parallel port See parallel communications. Usually,
parallel port describes the physical connection on a
computer, most frequently used for connecting printers.
parallel transmission Data communications method
where each bit in the computer byte travels in parallel with
its fellows and bytes arrive intact. (Contrast serial
transmission). Widely used for transmission to printers.
See also Centronics interface.
parameter A variable set to a constant value for a
specific operation.
parenthesis A round bracket.
parity In general, being either odd or even. In computing
and communications, however, parity usually means the
number of ones, as opposed to zeros, in a byte or word. A
redundant parity bit is added to each byte and this is set to
make the number of 1 bits in the byte even (for even parity)
or odd (for odd parity). Parity bits are a basic form of error
detection, but will detect only single bit errors because, if
an even number of the bits are incorrect, then the parity bit
will not show this. Also, unlike more complex error
detection and correction systems, it is impossible to tell
which bit is wrong. (See also checksum.)
parser An algorithm or program that is used to check the
syntactic structure of a file or structured document. For
example, an SGML parser checks that a document
instance (i.e. a document coded in SGML) corresponds to
the specified Document Type Definition and will report
any errors. SGML parsers are often integrated with editing
programs so that documents can be parsed as they are
created or edited.
part-mechanical paper Paper containing up to 50% of
mechanical pulp with the balance chemical pulp. Compare
mechanical paper, woodfree paper.
partwork Publication issued in a number of parts which
can be purchased separately and which then combine to
make up the whole.
pass 1. One run through a machine. Also, working. 2. An
operation that realises the completion of a job from input
through processing to output.
pass for press Authorise the final form of a publication
for printing.
pass4press Specification for the creation of PDF files for
printing developed by the PPA.
passive matrix A design of liquid crystal display.
password A secret (or private) arbitrary string of
characters that has to be typed into a computer in order to
allow access to a system or a particular program. Normally
it is not displayed on the screen, so that it remains private.
There are many recommendations about choosing and
changing passwords. The main problem is choosing
something which is easy to remember and yet difficult for
someone else to guess.
paste To insert text or graphics from the clipboard into
an open document.
paste drier Type of drier used in inks.
paste-up Dummy or artwork comprising all the elements
pasted into position.
pasteboard Board made from several laminations of
thinner sheets. Also known as pasted board. Contrast
homogeneous board.
pasted unlined chipboard See unlined chipboard.
path The explicitly routed, node-by-node, internet
address or the link between two machines. Path is also
used in computer operating systems to specify the order in
which directories should be accessed when a program (or
executable file) is called.
PBX See private (automatic) branch exchange.
PC Personal computer.
PDF see Portable Document Format.
PDF/X A series of standards (ISO15930-1/2/3) that
define how to produce PDF files for printing.
PE or printers error Normally a literal in typesetting.
pebble finish Textured surface on paper, added after
making or sometimes after printing.
pebbling Embossing paper after printing with a pebbled
pattern.
peculiars Special characters outside a normal fount
range.
peer-to-peer Network arrangement in which each
computer has equal power: any can hold applications and
data and control network traffic, as distinct from the more
common client-server architecture.
pel See pixel.
penetration One of the ways in which inks dry. See
absorption.
percentage dot area The percentage of a halftone that
is black as opposed to white.
perfect binding Adhesive binding widely used on
paperbacks. Glue is applied to the roughened back edges of
sections to hold them to the cover and each other. Also
called adhesive binding, cut-back binding,
thermoplastic binding, threadless binding.
perfecting Printing both sides of a sheet at one pass.
Such a press is called a perfector.
perforating Punching a series of holes in paper, either as
a coding process or to facilitate tearing off a part.
perforating rules Letterpress steel rules that indent the
sheet.
peripheral Computer input or output device that is not
part of the main CPU, e.g. a printer.
PERL Practical Extraction and Report Language. An
interpreted computer language mainly used for processing
and converting text and text strings.
permanence Papers resistance to ageing.
permanent inks Inks that do not fade. Also, lightfast
inks.
permanent paper Paper that is acid-free and made to
stringent conditions for archival purposes. The accepted
standard for manufacture is laid out in American standard
ANSI Z39 1984 and specifies neutral pH, alkaline reserve,
chemical furnish, and specified tear resistance and fold
endurance.
permissions Permission given to a publisher for him to
reproduce material that is someone elses copyright.
Normally the subject of a fee.
peroxide bleaching The bleaching of wood pulp using
hydrogen peroxide. More environment friendly than
chlorine bleaching that it is steadily supplanting.
Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) A small hand-held
computer, often integrated into mobile phones.
personalcast See narrowcast.
PET Polyethylene terephthalate. The most common plastic
used for bottles, replacing glass.
pH value Measure of acidity or alkalinity of a substance.
7 = neutral; less than 7 = progressive acidity; more than 7 =
progressive alkalinity.
phase alternate/alternating line (PAL) The television
standard used in most European countries. France, which
uses SECAM, is the principal exception. (See also NTSC.)
phloroglucinol Chemical used on paper to test for
woodfree or mechanical furnish. Phloroglucinol is applied to
a paper: if the stain remains yellow it is woodfree; if the
stain turns red it contains mechanical pulp. The depth of
colour of the red stain indicates the percentage of
mechanical fibre present.
photo retouching The modification of bitmap images,
using image-editing or paint programs.
photocopy Duplicate of a photograph or a document
produced on a copying machine.
photoengraving Letterpress printing plate.
photogram Print made by exposure of object directly on
photographic paper.
photogravure Gravure printing in which the cylinder
image is photographically produced.
photolettering Method of setting display-sized type from
photographic founts.
photolithography Lithographic process with
photographically produced plate image.
photomontage Print comprising several other
photographs.
photopolymer Plate coating that polymerises (solidifies)
on exposure to light. Used for long runs.
photopolymer plate Flexo or letterpress relief printing
plate.
photoprint Photographic print.
PhotoShop An image manipulation (paint) program from
Adobe. Probably the most widely used such program in the
graphic arts industry.
phototypesetting Setting type onto photographic paper
or film.
pi characters Special characters outside the normal
alphabetic range and not normally contained in a standard
fount, e.g. special maths symbols.
pic Abbreviation for picture. Plural: pix.
pica A typographical unit of measurement. Each pica is
divided into 12 points. Although originally six picas equalled
0.996 of an inch, in the development of PostScript the
point has been standardised, so that there are 72 points per
inch (thus on a screen with 72 pixels per inch, one pixel
equals one point). Type size is always specified in points.
pick-away See pull-away.
picking The lifting of areas of paper surface during
printing which happens when ink tack is stronger than the
surface strength.
picture element See pixel.
picture list List of illustrations intended for a book drawn
up by a picture researcher.
picture research The process of locating illustrations for
a book from picture libraries, museums, galleries.
pie Jumbled type. Sometimes spelt pi.
pie chart A graphic diagram representing a pie, the
portions of which vary to indicate values or percentages.
piezo Mechanism of generating a droplet of ink in on-
demand inkjet printing.
piggyback form A continuous stationery tractor-fed
carrier designed to feed headed stationery and envelopes
into a printer.
pigment The constituent of a printing ink that gives it
its colour.
pigment foil Foil which is of coloured pigment rather
than imitation gold or silver.
pigmented paper Size-press coated or light coated
paper.
pin feed The method of feeding continuous stationery by
lining up pins on the machines with a series of small holes
in the paper, sprocket fed.
pinholes 1. mall holes in paper surface. 2. Small holes in
the dense black image area of a film that let through the
light, and need to be spotted out using an opaquing fluid.
pinless Refers to the elimination of the standard pin
mechanisms that control paper webs going through folders.
pitch edge The edge of the sheet which is fed into a
printing or folding machine. Also known as the gripper
edge or leading edge.
pixel An abbreviation for picture element (or picture
cell). The smallest resolvable rectangular area that can be
displayed on-screen or stored in memory. In a monochrome
image the pixel may be just black or white but, if grey
scales are used, then each pixel will have its own
brightness, from 0 for black to the maximum value (255 for
an eight-bit pixel) for white. On a colour monitor, each pixel
is made up of a triple of red, green and blue phosphors (see
RGB) and each is controlled by a number of bits (see 8-bit
colour, 24-bit colour). This will affect the palette and
will be related to the screen resolution.
pixel editing The ability to examine and delete individual
pixels, typically around the outside of images, in order to
tidy up outlines.
plain ASCII Means just the real ASCII characters
including none of the extended ASCII characters. (See
flat ASCII.)
plaintext A message before encryption or after
decryption, in its readable form, rather than its encrypted
form. (Compare with ciphertext).
planning All the processes involved in imposition; laying
pages down in imposition sequence ready for plate
exposure.
planographic printing Printing from a flat (as distinct
from indented or relief) image, e.g. litho.
plastic plate Printing plate made of polyester.
plastic wrapping Wrapping magazines in polythene.
plate 1. A one-piece printing surface. 2. Single leaf printed
on separate paper and attached to a book.
plate cylinder The press cylinder that carries the plate.
plate finish High calendered finish given to paper.
plate folder See buckle folder.
plate hooked and guarded Printed plate fixed into a
book by extending the back margin under a signature and
sewing it in.
plate section Printed illustrations separated from the text
matter and often on different paper.
plate size A size of negative or photographic print 86in.
platen Small letterpress printing machine on which the
paper is pressed up against the vertically-held type bed.
plates joined on the guard Two printed plates joined by
adhesive at the back margin to form a four-page section.
platesetter Imaging unit on a ctp device that exposes
the plate either by laser or by thermal imaging
techniques.
platform A combination of a particular computer and
operating system.
plotter Device that draws graphics from computer
instructions using either laser techniques or mechanical
techniques.
plucking See picking.
plug-in A term describing add-on applications
associated with software to extend specialist functionality.
ply Layer of paper or board joined to another for strength,
thus: two-ply and three-ply.
PMS Pantone Matching System. See Pantone.
POD Print on demand. Using digital printing to produce
the required order from a database
PODi Print on Demand Initiative. A group of the leading
vendors of digital printer manufacturers and front-end
suppliers working to promote variable data digital printing.
point (noun) A typographical unit of measure, one-
twelfth of a pica. (See pica for more details.)
point (verb) To locate a cursor, controlled by a mouse
on a screen item
point of presence (PoP) A site, run by an internet
service provider, that users can access. Such a site will
usually have banks of modems and other
telecommunications, together with access to an internet
backbone. PoPs may be geographically distributed to
improve access and keep telephone costs down.
point system The main system of typographic
measurement. 1pt = 0.351mm (0.013837). See also didot,
pica.
point-of-sale (PoS) The place in a shop (or other
business operation) where a sale is transacted, e.g. a
supermarket check-out.
pointing device A device used to control the movement
of a pointer or cursor on the screen, usually in a graphical
user interface (GUI). The mouse is the most common
pointing device.
polymerisation Drying of ink by ultraviolet curing.
polywrap Enclosing a magazine or brochure with plastic
film for mailing
pop-up menu A menu that is brought to the screen by
clicking on a word or icon, which can be anywhere on the
screen, or even in some applications just by clicking the
right mouse button.
pop-ups Cardboard cut-outs that stand erect.
porosity The degree to which a paper is porous to air.
Very open, porous papers give difficulties with feeding.
port An input and/or output connection to or from a
computer.
portable document format (PDF) The format used by
Adobe Acrobat files.
portrait The orientation of a picture, screen or page,
such that its height is greater than its width. Most books,
and certainly journals, are portrait. (See also landscape,
aspect ratio.)
PoS See point-of-sale.
positive An image on film or paper in which the dark and
light values are the same as the original, as distinct from
negative.
positive-working plates Litho plates that are exposed
using positives.
post To send an email message, usually to a mailing list
or a newsgroup. (Contrast with mail, which is generally
used to mean sending a message to specific recipients.)
post, telephone and telegraph administration (PTT)
A provider of a public telecommunications service. May also
be involved with setting national standards and policy on
telecommunications issues.
Postcode (Zipcode US) Alphanumeric code allocated by
postal service to identify the location of an address or
group of addresses.
Posting Docket Four- or five-part document set
describing the make-up of that mailing, that accompanies a
Mailsort, Walksort or Presstream mailing for validation and
invoicing purposes.
poster A single sheet in a large size printed on one side
only for public display.
poster paper One-sided glazed paper with rough
underside suitable for pasting.
posterisation A technique in which the number of
colours or grey levels in a bitmap image is reduced
there is no longer a continuous variation in the shades.
PostScript Adobe Systems page description language.
PostScript fonts See outline fonts,
PostScript interpreter Software that converts PostScript
files to an imaging code command set supported by the
output device.
powdering Build-up of paper dust on a blanket.
powderless etching Method of etching letterpress line
plates in one step.
pp Pages.
PPA Periodical Publishers Association.
PPF Prepress Production Format. Early attempt by prepress
vendors to develop a standard across their equipment,
superseded into CIP3/4 and JDF
PPI Printed Postage Impression. Mark printed on an
envelope or wrapper to indicate postage will be paid
through a mail docket billed by the postal supplier.
ppi Pages per inch. American method of specifying the
thickness of paper.
PPML An XML-based standard that facilitates the data
handling of variable data jobs by any compliant press. It
allows any front end to talk to any press, rather than having
to use a turnkey solution from one supplier
preface Formal statement before the text of a book by the
author. As distinct from foreword.
preferred position Advertisement location that an
advertiser would prefer for his copy if it is available.
preflight checking software Method of systematically
ensuring prepress files are complete and follow
specification for printing
prekissing Paper and blanket making contact too early,
resulting in a double impression.
prelims Abbreviation of preliminary matter. The matter in
a book that precedes the text.
prepress costs All the costs associated with bringing a
job ready for press, up to but not including printing the first
copy. As distinct from press costs.
prepress proofs Proofs made by techniques other than
printing.
preprinted Part of a job printed before the main run
through the press.
presensitised plate Offset litho plate supplied by the
manufacturer with a light-sensitive coating e.g. an offset
litho plate. Often shortened to presen plate.
press 1. Generic term for all periodicals. 2. Printing
machine.
press costs The costs associated with printing and
manufacturing a job from plates onwards. As distinct from
prepress costs.
press proof Proof taken from the press after make-ready
but before the full run.
press release News of an event sent to the press for
publication.
press section In papermaking, the section of the paper
machine where the web of paper is first pressed before it is
passed onto the drying cylinders.
pressing Flattening folded sections before binding.
presspahn hollow Hollow made of a strip of brown
reinforced card applied to the inside of the spine of a
cased book. Less rigid than a board hollow, but more
durable than paper.
Presstream A Mailsort service for the distribution of
magazines, periodicals and newsletters meeting specific
contractual requirements.
pressure-sensitive Adhesive when pressure is applied.
primary (subtractive) colours Yellow, magenta, and
cyan which, with black, make up the four process colours.
primer Print working that acts as a base or undercoat
for a colour which will otherwise lack covering power,
e.g. a metallic silver or gold ink.
print 1. A photograph. 2. A common operating system
command to print a specified file list.
print engine In a digital printer, the mechanical part
that performs the physical printing function. As distinct
from the RIP.
print server A server (or computer) that handles the
printer access and buffering for a network.
print to paper Instruction to the printer to use all
available paper for a job rather than printing to a specific
quantity of copies.
printed circuit board A plastic base with a copper
coating onto which electronic components are attached.
Unwanted areas of copper are removed by acid etching.
printers error See PE.
printing cylinder See plate cylinder.
printing down Laying film over a light-sensitive plate or
paper to produce an image.
printing sequence The order in which the four process
colours are applied.
printings Papers suitable for printing.
printmaking Making fine art reproductions of originals.
printout The text printed out by a computer printer.
private (automatic) branch exchange (PABX/PBX)
A switching telephone exchange located within an
organisation to connect users both internally and to the
public telephone network.
private line Another term for a dedicated circuit or
line.
pro-forma invoice Invoice drawn up to show the value of
goods, and needed either for documentation purposes or to
obtain prepayment.
process blue, red, yellow Used to indicate the cyan,
magenta and yellow colours of the four colour process
inks.
process colour(s) The four colours CMYK, used in
printing and the colour separation process.
process inks Cyan, magenta, yellow and black
formulated as a set of four to print colour.
process set The four process inks.
program The complete set of instructions that control
a computer in the performance of a task.
programmable Any device that can receive, store and act
on a computer program.
programmer The person employed to write, develop or
maintain computer programs.
programming A sequential list of instructions by which
a computer performs its designated tasks.
progressive proofs or progs Proofs of each plate in a
colour set showing each colour alone and in combination
with the others as a guide to colour matching, at the
printing stage.
projection platemaking equipment Equipment such as
the Rachwal or DaiNippon SAPP systems, which make
plates by exposing from 35mm or 70mm roll microfilms
mounted in the head of computer-controlled step-and-
repeat machines. The microfilm contains the pages of the
job shot sequentially; the step-and-project machine is
programmed to locate and expose each page in imposition
order onto the plate.
prompt A message, usually displayed but sometimes
audible, requesting an action from a computer user.
proof A trial printed sheet or copy made before the
production run for the purpose of checking.
proofreaders marks Symbols used by a proofreader in
marking corrections on proofs.
proofreading Checking typeset proofs for accuracy.
proportional fonts See proportional spacing.
proportional spacing Spacing letters in text so that
each takes up its own width, rather than all taking the
same width (see monospaced fonts). Thus m and w
take up a comparatively wide space and i a narrow one.
Virtually all material is now set in proportionally spaced
fonts, whether for printing or display on the screen. (See
also hyphenation, justification.) In one sense, mono-
spaced fonts can be seen as a transient development,
forced on users by the limitations of the mechanical
typewriter; handwriting is, after all, proportionally spaced.
protocol In general, an agreed set of rules on how
something should be carried out. In communications and
networks, these govern areas such as data format, timing,
sequencing, access and error control and syntax of
messages.
proximity search A searching technique in which, for
example, one is able to search for the occurrence of
a group of characters within, say, 20 words of another
group or groups.
PS, ps Both an abbreviation for PostScript and the file
extension which is often used for PostScript files.
PSDN See public switched data network.
PSN See packet switch node.
PSTN See public switched telephone network.
psychrometer Instrument used for determining relative
humidity RH.
PT Precision trimmed (paper).
PTT See post, telephone and telegraph
administration. public carrier A provider of a public
telecommunications service. (See PTT.)
public domain (PD) If intellectual property (books,
computer programs, images) is in the public domain, it is
available to anyone without charge. Most commonly, this
applies to public domain software, which is usually
software developed on behalf of the US government and
which by law has to be available in this way. It is important
to distinguish such software from shareware, which is not
free, or at least free only for evaluation.
public switched data network (PSDN) Usually a
digital network (and of a higher bandwidth than the
PSTN), particularly suitable for data communications.
Generally operated by a PTT.
public switched telephone network (PSTN) A public
telephone network or the collection of them around the
world, operated by PTTs. Sometimes called POTS in
contrast to PSDN.
publication window In DTP, the basic window which
appears when a document is being worked on. It comprises
one or two pages, the pasteboard, page icons, the
pointer, scroll bars, title bar, menu bar.
Publisher Item Identifier (PII) An extension of the
ISBN and ISSN system, introduced by a group of leading
US academic (scientific) journal publishers to provide a way
of identifying individual items, such as articles, within both
books and journals. It also provides a unified identification
system for books and journals.
publishers statement Publishers authorised notice of
circulation and distribution statistics.
pull 1. A proof. 2. A single print for subsequent photo-
litho reproduction, often called a repro pull.
pull down menus Also referred to as pop-up menus.
Options are revealed only when a menu type is accessed,
usually by a pointing and dragging action with a mouse.
Once the option has been selected the menu disappears off
the screen free.
pull-away A section that contains several blank pages
(typically 4pp) either in the middle or at front and back,
which are to be removed before binding. Also, pick-away.
pull-down menu A menu that is brought to the screen by
clicking on a word or icon in a menu bar.
pull-out Part of a publication that can be removed from
the binding and used separately.
pulling Resistance between paper and printing surface.
pulp The raw suspension of wood fibre, which is treated
either chemically, or mechanically, in water.
Chemical pulp Contains many fewer impurities than
mechanical pulp.
pulp board A homogeneous board manufactured to its
full thickness on the papermaking machine.
pulpwood Wood for the manufacture of wood pulp.
punch binding See burst binding.
punch register system Device that punches registered
holes in sets of films or plates for positioning purposes.
PUR binding See reactive hotmelt
pure woodfree See woodfree.
PVA Polyvinyl alcohol, a water-based cold-melt emulsion
adhesive which is flexible when dry and is used particularly
in gluing the spines of cased books and in perfect binding.
See also two-shot binding.
PVC Polyvinyl chloride. 1. Applied as a coating or
impregnated into base paper for durability. 2. Substrate
used in plastic card production.
QA Quality assurance.
QC Quality control.
QMP A quality mark awarded to qualifying mailing houses
that supply enclosing and despatch services for direct mail.
The award has been designed to help the buyers of direct
mail services source proven, high-quality suppliers.
quad Paper terminology for a sheet four times the size of
the traditional broadside sheet e.g. Quad Demy,
8901130mm.
quad left, right or centre To set lines flush left, right or
centre.
quad press Printing press designed for a maximum sheet
approximately 10101400mm (4056in) i.e. a quad sheet.
quadrille Grid paper.
quadtone The use of four colours in combination to
produce a particular effect in printing. May be used to
produce a finer grey-scale effect. (See also duotone.)
quality The whole set of features of a product or service
that relate to its being able to satisfy the needs of the
end user.
quality assurance Abbreviated QA. Umbrella term for all
activities associated with the creation and maintenance of
a quality system within a company.
quality circles or quality control circles Small groups
of company workers called to meet regularly to examine
working practices, bring forward suggestions for
improvement and discuss solutions to quality problems.
quality control System for checking quality of products
during or after manufacture.
quality system Comprehensive, company-wide set of
practices adopted in a firm to monitor the quality of its
products and the effectiveness of its internal and external
operations.
QuarkXPress The leading page layout program.
quarter tone Illustration made by retouching a coarse-
screen halftone print to emphasise the shadows by making
them solid and the highlights by making them white,
following which the illustration is reshot as fine line.
quarter-bound Binding with spine in one material (e.g.
leather) and sides in another (e.g. cloth). Compare full-
bound, half-bound, three-quarter bound.
quarto A page one-quarter of the traditional broadside
sheet size, e.g. Crown Quarto.
quire 1. One-twentieth of a ream (25 sheets). 2. Section or
signature.
quirewise binding Saddle stitching.
quotes Inverted commas.
qwerty Standard typewriter keyboard layout, qwerty
being the arrangement of keys on the top left-hand row
of the board.
R type Colour print made from a transparency without any
intermediate negative. Contrast C type.
r&b See rounding and backing.
R&D Research and development.
radiation drying Use of infrared, ultraviolet and electron
beam to accelerate ink drying, and sometimes glue.
rag paper Paper made from stock containing a
substantial percentage of rag.
ragged Text layout that is not justified. Most text on
screen is ragged right, i.e. the left-hand margin is aligned
while the right-hand margin is not. Ragged left and ragged
centre (ragged on both margins) are also used in books, but
only usually as a design feature.
ragged right Text with irregular line lengths, i.e. with an
even left margin but an uneven right margin.
RAID Redundant arrays of inexpensive/independent
disks.
raised printing See thermographic printing.
RAM Random access memory. RAM is the temporary,
interactive area of memory in a computer in which
programs work and manipulate the data. Data in RAM
is lost when the computer is switched off unless it is first
saved to disk. Compare ROM.
RAM disk A large area of RAM memory that holds some
or all of the contents of a floppy or hard disk enabling far
faster read-write operations. At the end of a session the
contents of a RAM disk are rewritten back to floppy or
hard disk.
ram stacker Machine that condenses stacks of printed
sections ready for binding.
random access Method of directly accessing a specific
address on a computer file without the need for a
sequential process. Random access memory is often
abbreviated to RAM.
range Align (type).
raster The horizontal pattern of lines on a video display
or television that make up the picture. Each line is made up
of a series of dots or pixels. Also used generally (as the
equivalent of bitmap) to describe a similar pattern, as in
raster graphics and raster fonts.
raster data Data held in raster form. Contrast vector
data.
raster font See bitmap font.
raster graphics The same as bitmap graphics, in which
an image is made up of an orthogonal array of bits (or
pixels). Compare with vector graphics.
raster image processor (RIP) A program that converts
a file in a page description language, possibly
containing vector graphics, to a raster or bitmap image
for output. The RIP will create a bitmap at the correct
resolution for the output device, so that the page
description file can be resolution independent.
raster scan The technique of plotting an image by the
selective exposure of dots, line by line, in a series of
horizontal sweeps following a raster pattern or grid.
rasterise Turn into a raster (bitmap) version by scanning
or digitally processing.
rate card Leaflet or kit showing costs of advertisement
space in a publication.
raw data Data before processing or preparation.
raw stock Base paper before coating.
reactive hotmelt Polyurethane (PUR)-based glue that
reacts with moisture to form a strong flexible bond in
perfect bound products.
red hat A company marketing linux OS and applications,
providing development and support.
read-only memory See ROM.
read-write head The component that reads from and
writes to a magnetic disk or tape.
real time Method of computing in which operations are
performed on data simultaneously with input and output.
ream Five hundred sheets of paper.
ream-wrapped Sheets wrapped in lots of 500.
rebind Binding a set of stored sheets, set aside after the
first binding.
reconstituted leather Leather made from pulp of
different leather scraps.
record A discrete block of computer data, typically
consisting of a number of fields.
recovered fibres Fibres from waste paper as opposed
to virgin pulp.
recto A right-hand page.
recycled paper Paper for which the majority furnish is
consumer waste paper of one sort or another, either printed
or unprinted. Paper made mainly from mill waste does not
fall under this definition although it is sometimes rather
misleadingly termed recycled too.
redlining Facility available to use with some word
processing packages which shows where alterations have
been made to a document.
reducers Printing ink additives.
redundancy Inclusion of duplicate information. This is
often used as a check, particularly in transferring
information between systems, so that an additional check
digit or bit is included. See also validation.
reel Roll of paper. Also, web.
reel-stand The unit housing a reel of paper at the feed
end of a web offset press. Newspaper web offset machines
may have up to 15 reel-stands feeding paper
simultaneously. The printed webs are brought together
in the folder.
reel-up The reeling section of a paper machine.
refiner mechanical pulp (RMP) Pulp made by passing
wood chips through a refiner. Midway in quality between
stone ground wood mechanical pulp (SGW) and
thermomechanical pulp (TMP).
refining The second main stage of papermaking after dry
pulp has been mixed in a hydrapulper at the first stage.
The stock from the hydrapulper is further refined in a cone
refiner and, after cleaning, is ready for pumping to the
paper machine. Also known as beating.
reflection copy Copy viewed by its reflected light, e.g. a
photograph, as distinct from transmission copy, which is
viewed by transmitted light. Also known as reflective copy,
and reflex copy.
refusal When one ink film will not print on another.
register marks Marks in the same relative position on
films or plates to enable correct positioning to be achieved.
register pins Pins that locate in holes made by a punch
in a punch register system.
registration The alignment of the different colours in the
printing of coloured material; see CMYK. Registration
marks are printed for alignment purposes outside the area
of the finished publication.
relational database A type of database in which
entries are structured in defined fields, usually of a fixed
length. By using tables that relate to one another by having
a field in common, most information need only be stored
once. Thus, for example, a database may include a table
containing spare parts and another containing customer
details. Ordering a part will entail referencing both these
tables. Relational databases are increasing in their
flexibility but are still not appropriate for applications
including large amounts of unstructured text.
relative humidity (RH) Amount of water vapour in the
atmosphere expressed as a percentage of saturation.
Standard testing conditions for paper are 23C and 50%RH.
Optimum press conditions are 20C and 5565%RH.
relief Printing method using a raised image, e.g. flexo.
remainders Unsold books that are discounted for sale on
preferential terms. Primarily used in relation to books.
remote Located away from main plant or, in the case of
technical equipment, having no direct electronic link with
the main processing plant.
remote log-in Connecting to and using a remote
computer, via a protocol over a computer network, as
though locally attached.
render, rendering The process of applying colour,
shading and shadows to a computer-generated image
on the basis of a mathematical model to make it appear
realistic.
replacement fee Fee paid to a picture library to cover
the cost of replacing a lost or spoiled picture.
repp Writing paper with a patterned surface.
reprint 1. Subsequent printing of the first edition of a
publication. 2. Printing of part of a publication for
promotional or editorial use.
repro Prepress process involving continuous tone
reproduction.
reproduction fee Fee paid for the right to reproduce an
illustration.
reproduction proof A proof taken from type for
subsequent reproduction.
rescreen To take a subject that is already screened
(e.g. a printed photograph) and rescanning it for reuse;
it is important in doing this to avoid moir patterning.
Residue selection Areas defined by a Postcode that
accept mail unable to be sorted into direct selections.
This may happen because there are not enough items to
satisfy the minimum direct selection requirement, or
because it has not been adequately postcoded. Attracts
higher postal costs than Mailsort items.
resiliency Measure of paper surface condition after
printing.
resin coated paper Abbreviated to RC paper.
Photographic paper with good longevity of image used in
photosetting.
resist A protective chemical or coating.
resolution Measurement of image fineness stated in lines
per inch (lpi), dots per inch (dpi), or pixels per inch as
created by a platesetter or imagesetter.
retarders Printing ink solvents that extend the inks open
time.
retouching Correcting a photographic print or
transparency before reproduction.
retree Slightly damaged paper sold at a reduced price and
often marked xx. See also broke.
reversal Creation of white text or images on a black
background. Sometimes referred to as WOB (white on
black). See reverse out.
reverse-reading See wrong-reading.
reversed out Type printing white out of another colour.
revise A revised proof for subsequent reading.
revision control system Programs that store and keep
track of successive versions of a document or series of
documents as they are amended.
RFQ Request for quotation.
RGB Red, green, blue. The (additive) colour system used in
televisions and computer monitors. In a computer display,
signals from three colour signals activate the appropriately
coloured phosphor coating on the screen, creating a colour
image. Compare this with the (subtractive) CMYK system.
Note that the two systems do not always give the same
colour for an equivalent image.
RH Relative humidity.
ribbon folder Web press folder that cuts web into ribbons
for folding. As distinct from a former folder.
Rich Text Format (RTF) An ASCII format for word
processing and related files, developed by Microsoft for
exchange of files between systems. It provides a step
towards structured documents and SGML in that styles
are explicitly coded and can be separated from their
typographic representation
right side In papermaking, the top side or felt-side of
the web.
right-angle folding Folding a sheet with one or more
folds at right angles to each other.
right-angle folds Folds at 90 angles to each other.
right-reading Film that reads correctly, i.e. from left to
right, when viewed from the emulsion side. As distinct from
wrong-reading.
ring binding Binding by means of holes in paper which
locate on metal rings.
RIP See raster image processor.
RISC Reduced instruction set computer. A type of
computer processor architecture. The instructions are to the
processor from the operating system and do not affect
applications, except in that they are intended to increase
processing speed.
river Undesirable formation of word spaces into a vertical
river of white in the text.
RMP Refiner mechanical pulp.
rocker sealer Heated element in film-wrapping machine
that seals centre join.
roll Reel (US usage).
roll coating Coating applied to paper by rollers.
roll wrapping Rolling a magazine to wrap paper around
it for mailing (as distinct from folding).
roll-out 1. Using a roller to spread ink on paper for
sampling purposes. 2. In direct mail, the projection of orders
that should come from a full mailing based on the response
to a test mailing.
rolled Paper glazed by rolling.
rolling ball See trackball.
roman figures Roman numerals such as iii, xviii, xxv.
roman type Upright letters as distinct from italic.
Known as plain or normal in DTP systems.
root directory The top directory in an (inverted) tree-and-
branch filing system. It contains all the other directories.
ROP Abbreviation for Run of Paper. In magazines or
newspapers, material printed as part of the main text.
rosette Pattern created from conventional process dots,
visible at screen rulings of under 175dpi
rosin An important component in papermaking size.
rotary Printing from plates on cylinders.
rotogravure Gravure printing on rotary press.
rough A sketch or layout.
rough proof Proof for identification rather than reading.
rounding and backing Shaping a book so the back is
convex. As distinct from flat back binding.
routine A computer program with a selective task.
routing Cutting away non-printing areas of a plate.
royal Standard size of paper 480636mm (metric system).
rub-proof Ink with good abrasion resistance.
rule A line (of specified thickness).
ruler guides The electronic rulers used for the accurate
alignment of text. See guide.
rules Printing lines, measured in points.
run 1. The activation of a computer program. 2. Number
of printed copies of a publication.
run through Ruled lines stretching from one edge of the
paper to the other with no breaks.
run-around The flow of text around a, usually irregularly
shaped, graphic.
run-length encoding (RLE) A compression algorithm
that replaces sequences of repeated characters (or groups
of characters) with a single character and the length of the
run. It is mainly used for storing bitmaps, since it encodes
the points at which there is a change from black to white,
on to off, 0 to 1, and the distance since the last switch (in
the opposite direction).
run-of-book See run-of-paper.
run-of-paper Advertisement location allocated at the
publishers choice, anywhere in the publication.
runnability Ability of paper to be printed without
problems.
running head A title repeated at the top of each page.
Also known as running headline.
running order 1. Set of notes indicating the order of
events in a production. 2. List of the contents of a printed
work to guide the printer in his imposition.
running text Columnar main text on a page (as distinct
from displayed material).
runtime Cut-down version of a program that is bundled
with another application in order to provide specific and
limited functions.
RW Ream wrapped. RWOP is ream wrapped on pallets.
S paper See stabilisation paper.
s/s Abbreviation for same size in reproduction
specifications.
saddle stitching Binding inset books with wire staples
through the middle fold of sheets.
saddle thread-sewing See Singer sewing.
safelight Darkroom lamp that does not affect
photographic materials.
sans serif type (Sanserif is an alternative spelling.) A
category of type in which there are no serifs, e.g. Avant
Garde, Helvetica, Univers. Sans serif type tends to be used
for display and for headings but less often for text. More
formal documents use serif typefaces, while less formal
documents are more likely to use sans serif faces.
sanserif type See sans serif type.
saturation In colour measurement, the measure of how
much colour (colourfulness is the term used by experts) is
present at a particular brightness.
Save The operation of storing data on disk or tape.
sawn-in-sewing Sewing with cuts in the backs of sections
to take cords.
sc 1. Small caps. 2. Supercalendered (paper). 3. spray
coating technology to allow reimageable DI plates
announced by Creo.
scalable font A font that can be used at any size and
any resolution.
scaling Calculating or marking the enlargement or
reduction of an original for reproduction.
scamp Rough layout. Also, rough.
scan-a-web Method of scanning the image on a moving
web by means of rotating mirror.
scanner Computer-controlled sampling device that reads
the relative colour densities of copy and produces colour
separations.
schedule 1. Sequence of events and deadlines agreed for
production. 2. Schedule of bookings for an advertising
campaign.
score To impress paper with a rule to ease folding.
screen The display device on which computer input (and
some output) is viewed. The term is also used in the
traditional graphic arts industry to describe the halftone
pattern overlaid on a continuous tone photograph so that
it can be reproduced.
screen angles Varied angles of each screen used in
colour halftones to avoid moir patterns. The conventional
screen angles are: black 45; magenta 75; yellow 90;
cyan 105 (15).
screen capture, screen dump Copying the image on the
computer screen (or part thereof) to a file or a printer. Often
used in manuals and books about computer applications to
illustrate what the screen looks like.
screen clash Moir patterning caused by incorrect screen
angles, or occurring when previously printed, screened
halftones are rescreened.
screen finder A plastic viewer placed over a halftone to
determine the screen ruling.
screen font A font that is designed specifically for
viewing on screen.
screen process printing See silk screen printing.
screen resolution In the context of computer monitors,
the number and layout of pixels that make up the image on
the screen. It is expressed as the number of pixels across
and down.
screen ruling The number of lines or dots per inch on a
screen. The conventional screen rulings in common use for
bookwork are 100, 120, 133, 150 lines per inch (40, 48, 54,
60 lines per centimetre).
screened print A print with a halftone screen, typically
a PMT.
Script A series of commands that can be executed as a
single unit.
script A typeface that simulates handwriting.
scroll, scrolling Upwards, downwards or sideways
smooth motion of data across a screen, as if a window were
being dragged across the data. In a GUI environment, it is
usually activated with the mouse, although in other
environments it may be activated by holding down the
arrow keys on the keyboard.
SCSI Small computer system interface (pronounced
scuzzy.) An 8-bit parallel interface used by the Apple
Macintosh and the PC for connecting peripheral devices,
such as disk and CD-rom drives, printers, and tape drives.
SCSI can support high data transfer rates (up to 4 Mbytes
a second). SCSI-2 and SCSI-3 are later versions with wider
data buses, supporting even higher transfer rates.
SCSI device Any device, such as a scanner, CD-rom drive
or external hard disk, that is connected to the computer by
an SCSI port.
scum or scumming Build-up of ink on the non-image
area of an offset plate.
search and replace See global search and replace.
search engine Software that makes it possible to search
files and/or databases for specific terms. The two
principal approaches are Boolean search and free-text
search, which usually involves using indexing. The more
structured the queries, the more precisely a search can be
defined, depending on the functionality of the search
engine.
search fee Fee charged by a picture service to cover the
cost of conducting research in its own files on a clients
behalf.
search key An item to be compared with specified areas
in a database search.
search routine Computer routine for finding specified
words or groups of words in text.
searching Trying to locate required character strings or
words. Examples are keyword searching and free-text
searching. (See also proximity searching.)
SECAM (Sequential Colour and Memory or Systme
Electronique Couleur avec Mmoire.) A television coding
standard used in Europe (mainly in France and some
eastern European countries). (See also PAL, NTSC.)
second cover Inside front cover.
second-generation computers Early computers using
transistors in place of vacuum tubes.
second-level heading Second in number (and
importance) of a series of headings in a book.
secondary colour The colour made by a mixture of two
primaries, e.g. yellow + red = orange.
secondary fibres See recovered fibres.
seconds See retree.
section A folded sheet forming part of a book.
section sewing Conventional sewing, as in most
paperback or hardback books. The full specification is
section-sewn continuous, or French sewn or Smyth
sewn (US).
security firewall See firewall.
security paper Paper incorporating features that make
counterfeiting difficult.
see-through See show-through.
selective binding Choosing only some of the sections to
bind according to recipients profile selectronic binding
self copy paper Carbonless copy paper, see ncr.
self cover Cover of the same paper as text pages.
self-adhesive paper Gummed pressure-sensitive paper.
self-ends First and last pages of a book block used as
endpapers.
self-mailer Printed piece mailed without envelope.
semi-chemical pulp Combination of chemical and
mechanical pulp.
semi-display Advertisements displayed in boxes or
laid out as a full or part-page within classified
advertisement pages.
semiconductor Material used in the construction of
transistors, diodes and photoelectric cells.
sensitivity guide Piece of film with graded density used
to monitor exposure.
separation See colour separation, origination.
separation negative See colour separation negative.
serial device Modems are probably the most commonly
used serial devices, although a mouse and other devices
can be connected in this way. Keyboards are also examples
of serial devices.
serial interface An interface through which data is
transmitted one bit at a time, unlike a parallel interface.
Also described as an RS-232 interface.
serial line Wires, or a telephone line, connecting two
serial ports.
serial port Another term for a serial interface,
although often used to refer to the physical connection
on a computer. (See, in contrast, parallel port.)
serial printer One that prints a single character at
a time. Compare line printer, page printer.
serial to parallel converter A device that converts the
sequential input from a serial transmission device and
passes it on via the required number of parallel lines.
serial transmission Data communications method in
which each component bit of a character is transmitted in
sequence down the wire, and is then reassembled with its
fellows on arrival. Contrast parallel transmission. series
A complete range of sizes in the same typeface.
serif The terminal stroke at the end of a line making up
part of a character. Thus the characters in serif typefaces
(such as the one used for this glossary) carry serifs, while
characters in sans serif (or sanserif) typefaces do not (see
example under sans serif).
serigraphy See silk screen printing.
server A computer that either holds information accessed
by other computers over a network, e.g. a file server or
database server, or provides a service, e.g. a print
server, a dedicated computer that carries out the printing
processes for all computers on a network, reducing the load
on the other machines. The internet is based on a network
of servers. Also a program providing a service to a client
program. (See client-server.)
service level agreement (SLA) Contracted levels of
service provided by a supplier, usually guarantees of on-
time deliveries
service provider See internet service provider.
set-off The transfer of wet ink to another sheet. Typically
occurs at the delivery end of the printing press. Precautions
can include the use of an anti set-off spray.
sew To fasten the sections of a book with thread.
SFL Sheetfed litho.
SGML Standard Generalised Mark-up Language. A
complex generic coding scheme adopted as both an
ISO International Standard and as a BSI British Standards
Institution standard.
SGW See stone groundwood mechanical pulp.
shade The lightness or darkness of a colour, as distinct
from its hue.
shaded watermark Watermark with opaque rather than
transparent appearance.
shadows Dark parts in a photograph or halftone print
represented by 70%100% dot sizes. Contrast highlights,
mid-tones.
shared file One that can be accessed by two systems and
which may be used to provide a means of communication.
shareware Software that may be obtained and tested for
free, usually for a limited time period. It is often distributed
through internet file transfers or on floppy disk. After the
trial period is complete, users are asked to pay a registration
fee to the author or distributor of the package. Payment of
the fee often brings additional facilities or documentation.
sheet The full-size piece of paper for printing, before
folding or cutting.
sheet stock Publishers printed sections held at the
printer for binding up later.
sheetfed Printing by separate sheets as distinct from
reels.
sheeter Machine that cuts reels into sheets.
sheetwork To print both sides of the sheet separately as
two formes, cf work and turn, work and tumble.
sheetwise Printing one side of a sheet at a time. As
distinct from perfecting.
sheetwork To print each side of the sheet from a separate
forme. Each sheet yields one copy. As distinct from work
and turn.
shelflife The usable storage life of a material
(e.g. a plate).
Sherman tester range of mixed chemicals used to
determine the free surface energy of a substrate.
shift A key which, when depressed, gives a different
designation to all the other keys, e.g. turns a lowercase
letter into uppercase.
shift codes Codes employed to increase a number of
addressable characters. By reserving two characters to
perform shift and unshift functions the number of available
characters will be increased by adding shift to each
character to effectively double those available.
shingle The allowance made in imposition for creep,
i.e. the fractional space by which the back margins of the
outer pages of a section need to be increased in order to
make all the back margins appear to be equal when the
section is folded.
shive Coarse fibre in paper or pulp.
shoot Photograph.
short grain Sheet of paper in which the grain is parallel
to the short edge of the sheet.
short ink An ink that does not flow easily. The opposite
is a long ink.
short sheet Sheet with too small a width dimension
mixed in with sheets of the correct size.
short ton American ton (2000lbs) equal to .893 long
(imperial) tons, or .9072 metric tonnes.
shoulder The raised shoulder of the book back which is
formed in the rounding and backing process. The height
of the shoulder should approximate to the thickness of the
board to be used for the case.
shoulder head A form of boxed head that is ranged left
on a line of its own. As distinct from a side head.
show-through Lack of opacity in a sheet of paper to the
point where the printed image on one side of a page is
excessively visible from the reverse side.
shrink wrap Plastic film wrapping.
side head A form of boxed head which is ranged left
and from which the text runs on in the same line. As
distinct from a shoulder head.
side lay The guide on a sheetfed press that positions the
sheet sideways.
side notes Short lines of text set in the margins.
side run An addition to the making on a paper machine
that helps to fill up the maximum width.
side wire-stitching Binding by stapling through the back
margin of the sections.
side-sewing Binding by sewing through the sides of the
gathered sections. Also known as McCain sewing.
side-stabbing Used loosely to describe side wire
stitching. But strictly, a form of stitching where the
stitch on one side of the book penetrates only two-thirds
distance, and a complementary stitch at the other side
completes the securing.
signature 1. The letters of the alphabet or numerals
printed at the bottom left-hand corner of sections to show
the correct sequence of sections. 2. Synonym for section.
silk screen printing Method that employs a fine mesh to
support a stencil through which ink is squeezed.
silurian Paper with a small percentage of long-fibre, dyed
threads giving it a characteristic hairy look. Used for covers
or endpapers.
simplex Communication in one direction without any
provision for transmission in the reverse direction. See also
duplex, half duplex..
simultaneous transmission The transmission of data in
one direction simultaneously with messages transmitted in
the other. See full duplex.
Singer sewing Saddle thread-sewing through the spine
of an inset book.
size Rosin, starch and other chemicals used in
papermaking to control the water and ink absorbency of
the paper. Size can be added either at the refiner stage
(engine-sizing) or on the papermaking machine at the
size-press (surface sizing).
size-press coated paper Paper given a very light
coating (around 4gsm per side) in the size press unit on
the papermaking machine. Also known as pigmented
paper, light-coated paper or lickcoated paper.
sizing 1. Treatment of paper with size. 2. See scaling.
skid A pallet.
skips Missing dots in gravure caused by lack of ink
transfer.
skiver A book covering made of split sheep skins.
SLA See service level agreement
slabbing off Removing several outer layers from a reel of
paper typically because they are unsatisfactory for printing
through damage, dirt, marking.
slave or slave unit A device that uses logic from a
separate CPU.
slice The outlet from a paper machines headbox onto
the wire.
slime spot Hole in paper resulting from a bacterial
growth which developed during the making.
sling psychrometer Device for measuring relative
humidity by whirling in the atmosphere.
slip case Cardboard case for book which displays the
spine.
slip sheeting Placing sheets of paper between printed
sheets to prevent set-off.
slit Divide a web of paper along its length using a disc or
wheel. As distinct from cut, which is to divide a web across
its width using a rotating knife or guillotine blade.
slitter marks Binder where a slit is to be made. Used in
imposition schemes which require this.
sloped roman An imitation italic formed by
electronically slanting the roman of a typeface.
slot punching Punching rectangular holes in paper.
slotted binding See notch binding.
slur Image distortion caused by drag on the printing
machine. Monitored by a slur gauge in most colour bars.
Often caused by an excess of ink on a non-absorbent
coated paper, or machine-gearing wear.
slushing The disintegration of fibres in a liquid.
small capitals or small caps Abbreviated sc. Capitals
the same size as the x-height of the normal lower case, i.e.
about 70% of the size of the full capitals of the same
fount.
smashed bulk The bulk of a book block under
compression during casing-in a hard-bound book.
smashing See nipping.
smoothing press Rollers on a paper machine that
smooth the web before drying.
smoothing roll coating Application of coating to paper
surface by rollers revolving against the web direction.
smoothness Evenness of paper surface.
Smyth sewing Conventional section sewing.
snap to grids Function on graphics packages and
electronic page composition systems which permits elements
of a page to be positioned approximately and then
automatically snapped exactly into alignment to a grid
by a command issued through the mouse by the operator.
snowflaking White dots on a printed piece caused by
water droplets or debris.
soda pulp Pulp produced from hardwood chips cooked in
caustic soda. See sulphate pulp.
soft cover Paper cover as distinct from case boards.
soft dot Halftone dot with soft (etchable) halation
around it.
soft hyphen A hyphen introduced into a word by an H&J
program, as opposed to a hard hyphen grammatically
essential to the word.
soft proof A representation on screen of what will be
printed rather than a proof on paper or in any hard
copy form.
software package A set of programs written for a
specific purpose, e.g. word processing.
software protection Technical and/or legal method
adopted to prevent unauthorised usage.
softwood pulp Pulp made from softwood (coniferous)
trees, e.g. fir, pine, spruce. As distinct from hardwood
pulp.
solid 1. Typeset with no leading between the lines.
2. Printed area with 100% ink coverage.
solid density patches Patches of solid for each of the
process inks in a colour bar testing strip. They reveal print
density for each of the four colours across the sheet.
solid state Electronic components that use solid materials
for current manipulation, e.g. transistors.
solvent Ink dissolver.
sort 1. A single character of type. 2. To order data into
a given sequence, e.g. alphabetical.
sort key Part of a data record used to determine the
position into which the whole record will be sorted.
See sort.
sound card A plug-in board usually for a PC, that
provides output of high-quality stereo sound, controlled by
application software.
source code or source language The programming
language in which a users program is written, usually a
high-level language.
source program Program written in a language that
requires subsequent translating into an object program
which the computer can understand.
SP Spray polymer system from Creo to allow on-press
re-imagable plates
SPC Statistical process control. Techniques of controlling
and improving (manufacturing) efficiency and quality.
spec Specification.
special colour A printing ink colour mixed specially for
a job rather than made up out of the process colour set.
Means an extra printing working.
special furnish Papers made from a special mixture of
pulps for a specific purpose.
special sort Unusual character necessary in a job.
specialty papers Papers for special industrial or
commercial use, often with unusual properties.
specimen Sample page set to show the typography.
speckle See skips.
spectrophotometer Instrument that measures colour.
spectrum Complete range of colours from long
wavelengths (red) to short wavelengths (blue).
speech recognition (Or voice recognition, voice input.)
A technique in which spoken words are interpreted by a
computer system. Most systems must be trained by the
user giving the interpretation of a series of representative
words, and may need training for each individual using the
system. Speech recognition is particularly useful in
ideographic languages such as Chinese.
speech synthesis (Or voice output.) The generation from
a textual or phonetic description of a waveform that sounds
like human speech. The generation of numbers, e.g.
associated with an on-screen calculator, is quite common.
Speech synthesis is also used in voicemail systems.
spelling check program or spellchecker or spelling
checker A computer program that checks the accuracy of
each word of input against the spellings of a dictionary
held in memory and displays discrepancies on screen.
sph Sheets per hour, the standard measurement of
sheetfed printing speed.
spiking Irregular surges in power on an electrical power
line causing interference with sensitive electronic
equipment.
spine The back edge of a book.
spine brass See brass.
spine lettering The words on a spine of a book, often
blocked in gold or silver.
spiral binding Binding using a continuous spiral of
wire or plastic threaded through punched holes in the
back margin.
splice Crosswise joint in a web of paper, secured with
adhesive. See also flying paster.
split boards Cover boards in two layers between which
are glued the edges of the endpapers and section tapes in
hand-bound books.
split fountain or split duct working Colour printing
technique that divides the ink duct to achieve different
colours across different parts of the same roller.
split run Print run of a publication divided in two (or
more) stages to accommodate changes in text, changes of
binding style.
splitting Tearing of paper suface areas on the press.
spoilage Waste incurred during the printing or binding
processes.
spooling Refers to the simultaneous printing of a text
while the user is engaged in some other activity, such as
editing another text. The term comes from the acronym
SPOOL, standing for Simultaneous Peripheral Output
On Line.
spot colour Colour that is usually specified in a document
as a particular, often Pantone, colour, say, for text or
graphical features. This is in contrast to process colour.
spot varnish Varnish applied to selected parts of
a printed sheet. Often used to enhance the sheen of
photographs.
spraying Ejection of ink off the rollers, usually because it
is too thin.
spread Pair of facing pages.
spread coating Method of paper coating using a
controlled flow of coating material onto the paper surface.
spreading Ink creep on printed areas.
spreadsheet A software package designed to perform
financial calculations. Users are presented with a grid of
alphabetically identified columns and numbered rows. Each
intersection forms a cell that may contain text, numerics or
algebraic formulae. As the contents of one numeric cell are
altered, the contents of referenced formulae cells are
updated automatically.
spring back A rounded springy back for stationery books
made of strawboard or millboard.
sprinkled edges Edges of a book block sprinkled with
blobs of ink.
sprocket holes Feed holes in paper tape.
SQL See Structured Query Language.
square back Flat back binding.
square serif Typeface with serifs heavier than the strokes.
squared-up halftone A photograph with right angle
corners, rectangular or square.
squares The parts of a case that overlap the edges of the
leaves on a case-bound book.
stabbing See side-stabbing and side wire-stitching.
stabilisation paper or S paper Photographic paper
used for photosetting output. Has short image-retention
span once processed and cannot be used when
subsequent corrections will be stripped in at a later stage.
Contrast resin coated paper.
stack 1. The calendering unit on a paper machine.
2. Pile of sheets, printed or unprinted.
stacked press Printing press in which the printing units
are stacked one above the other
stampers Hammers used to separate the fibres from rags
in watermills.
stamping See blocking.
stamping die Steel or brass plate used for blocking.
See brass.
stamping foil See foil.
stand-alone A self-contained hardware system that needs
no other machine assistance to function.
standard document A file containing a document that
can be merged with variable information to produce a
letter. See mail merge.
standard testing conditions Officially specified
conditions under which paper is tested: 50% relative
humidity and 23C.
standoff The distance between a graphic and its
boundary. Text that is flowed around a graphic will not
encroach into the standoff area. See also graphic
boundary.
starred roll Paper roll with buckled inner layers caused by
loose winding and forming a star pattern when viewed
from end-on.
start bit The bit that signals the start of a block of data
in asynchronous communications. (See also stop bit.)
start-tag The tag that indicates the end of an element
in SGML or HTML. For example, this entry could be
represented as <entry>starttag</entry>, where <entry> is
the start-tag.
static IP address An IP address that is permanently
allocated to a user.
static neutraliser An attachment on a litho press that
removes static electricity from the paper.
station Unit of a binding or wrapping machine.
stationery binding Binding that allows books to remain
flat when open (to facilitate writing in).
steel engraving Intaglio plate often used to reproduce
fine designs on stationery (e.g. bank notes, share
certificates).
stem Upright stroke of a letter or figure.
step index Index letters in the far edge margins of a book
revealed by cutting the margins away progressively to expose
the letters sequentially positioned from top to bottom
throughout the text. Also known as cut-through index.
step-and-repeat machine A device that exposes the
same image repeatedly according to pre-programmed
instructions.
stet Proofreaders instruction meaning ignore marked
correction, i.e. let it stand as it was.
stiffness Rigidity of a sheet of paper.
stillage Pallet.
stipple Dots used to give a background effect of
colour tint.
stitch To stitch with thread or staple with wire as a
binding function.
STM Scientific, technical and medical publishing.
stock 1. Liquid pulp prior to paper making. 2. (Loosely) the
chosen paper to be printed.
stone groundwood mechanical pulp (SGW) Basic
mechanical pulp, obtained by grinding debarked logs
against a milling stone under heat and pressure. See also
refiner mechanical pulp (RMP), thermomechanical
pulp (TMP), chemi-thermomechanical pulp (CTMP).
stop The ending of a rule where it crosses another line.
stop bit The bit (or bits) that signal the end of a block
of data in asynchronous communications. See also
start bit.
storyboard Illustrated board showing proposed camera
shots or illustration sketches with script and technical
annotation.
strawboard Originally, board made from straw fibres.
Now used loosely to mean case boards of any description.
stream feeder Fast feeder on printing machine or folder
that overlaps sheets as it arranges them for the grippers.
streaming Playing audio or video in real time as it is
downloaded rather than storing the file and playing it
when download is complete. For streaming to operate
effectively, it is necessary to have a connection with a
high bandwidth.
stress Angle of shading in typeface character design.
May be oblique or vertical.
strike-through Too heavy a printing impression that
leads to the printed image bleeding through to the
underside of the sheet.
string A sequence of alphabetic or numeric codes in a
computer program.
string variable Programming variables that may contain
alphanumeric data.
strip and rebind Remove the case of a case-bound book
and rebind as a paperback with a limp cover.
strip gumming Applying water-soluble adhesive to
paper strips.
strip test Use of special paper to test the pH of an offset
fountain solution.
structured document A document that is coded in such
a way as to indicate its structure, rather than its formatting,
so that, for example, there will usually be no concept of
page, although sections and perhaps chapters may be
coded since they are structural elements.
structured programming A method of program design
and structure intended to aid the debugging process.
Structured Query Language (SQL) A language
designed for searching for information within relational
databases, usually within a client-server architecture,
and retrieving the information in a structured form. SQL
commands can also be used to add to or change the
information in a database. SQL has a structure which is
similar to natural language (English), which is intended to
make it easy for non-specialists to use; however, the syntax
must be adhered to, so it is not easy for a novice to use.
Alternatively, it can be embedded in other languages.
stuffed Compressed with the compression utility StuffIt
although the term is also used to describe a file compressed
by other means. See also zip.
stuffer Publicity material sent out in the mail with
other literature.
StuffIt A file compression utility for the Macintosh,
developed by Aladdin Systems Inc. Also used for archiving.
See stuffed.
stump The first half of a hyphenated word at the end of
a line. Some typesetting systems permit the definition of a
minimum stump at the end of turned-over lines, i.e. the
minimum number of letters that it is acceptable to leave
before a hyphen.
stump line The last line of a page ending with a hyphen.
Considered very undesirable.
style Typographically, whether text is bold, italic, reversed
or underlined. The term is also used to describe a set of
formatting characteristics, such as typeface, type size,
interline spacing (leading), indents, hyphenation and
justification parameters and even language, that can be
applied to a paragraph and saved under a defined name.
style of the house Typographic and linguistic rules of a
publishing house. Also house style.
style sheet A combination of styles or formatting (also
called a template) which is appropriate for a particular
type of document. Thus, there will be different style sheets
for letters, invoices, reports.
sub 1. Sub editor, journalist who edits copy. 2. Subscription
to a magazine or journal.
sub heading Secondary level of heading on a printed
piece.
sub routine Set of instructions in a computer program
that perform a constantly repeated operation such as
a mathematical function.
subscript Inferior character. Small character printed
below the base line as part of a mathematic equation.
subsidiary text Extracts, footnotes, and other secondary
text in a book. Typically set smaller than the body text.
substance Paper weight measured in grams per square
metre.
substrate 1. Base paper before coating. 2. Carrier for
another material or coating, e.g. film. 3. Surface being
printed on.
subtractive colour The colour seen when white light is
reflected from a coloured object. Subtractive colour is used
in printing (see CMYK). Screen displays use additive
colour.
subtractive primaries Yellow, magenta and cyan, the
process colours.
suction feeder Machine feeder that uses air blowers and
suckers to separate and lift sheets.
sulphate pulp Also known as kraft pulp. Pulp made
from wood fibres cooked in an alkaline mixture containing
caustic soda (sodium hydroxide), sodium sulphide and
sodium sulphate. Particularly suited to hardwoods, but
increasingly used for softwoods.
sulphite pulp Pulp made from wood fibres cooked in an
acidic mixture containing calcium bisulphite and sulphur
dioxide in water. Particularly suited to softwoods.
supercalender A calendering stack with alternate hard
steel rollers and soft rollers which imparts a high gloss finish
to paper as it slips between them. Usually off-machine.
supercalendered mechanical See WSOP.
superior Small character set above the line especially
used in mathematical statements or to indicate footnotes.
supported sleeve Cylindrical, wire-mesh sleeve that
can be fitted over the body of a dandy roll and removed
when not required.
surface picking See picking.
surface sizing Sizing of paper carried out on the sizing
press of the papermaking machine.
surface strength Resistance of paper surface to picking
or lifting.
swash letter An ornamental character, usually an
italic cap.
swatch Colour specimen printed on paper or a set of
such specimens.
swelled rules Rules that are wider at the centre than at
the ends.
sword hygroscope Probe used to determine the moisture
content of a stack of paper.
synchronous In data transmission, signals coordinated by
timing pulses. Blocks of data are transmitted at a measured
rate dictated by timing devices at both ends of the
interface. Compare asynchronous.
synchronous transmission A communications technique
in which uninterrupted data blocks are transmitted at a
fixed rate, the transmitting and receiving devices being
synchronised. While each block is preceded by special
synchronisation bits, no start and stop bits are used.
syntax The rules of grammar regulating the use of a
language.
synthetic papers Synthetic materials, typically plastic,
which have many of the properties of paper and can be
printed. Usually expensive.
3-G Expensive development in mobile telephone
technology based on Wide Code Division Multiple Access
(W-CDMA); may provide more sophisticated and diverse
range of services on telephones.
tab To determine the points where the text is to align
vertically.
tab index Index letters printed on tabs which are stuck to
the far edge margin of a book.
table Data stored in a form, often an array, that is
suitable for reference.
table of contents generation The computer-aided
compilation of a table of contents by taking specified
headings from text, sorting and displaying them.
tabloid Newspaper size approximating to A3.
tabular material Typeset tables or columns of figures.
TAC Total area coverage. The maximum amount of ink that
can be laid down as overprints to avoid trapping and drying
problems will be determined in the output settings for a
particular print technology at RIPping stage.
tack The viscosity and stickiness of ink.
tacketing Method of strengthening stationery binding
using slips or bands of leather.
tag A generic mark-up tag is one that identifies a
particular attribute: an A heading, for example, in the
mark-up of text. Tags are converted to typesetting by
allocating typographical specifications to them and
translating them inside the front-end of the typesetting
system.
tagged image file format (TIFF) A graphic file
format used for bitmap images. Tiff files can be black
and white, grey scale or in colour.
tail-end hook See back-edge curl.
tail-piece Typographical device at the end of a chapter
or book.
tailband Cotton or silk cord attached to the foot of the
spine of a book. See also headband.
tails Bottom margins of pages.
taping Pasting strips of material to binding sections to
add strength.
TAPPI See Technical Association of the Pulp and
Paper Industry.
tare Weight of an empty container or unloaded vehicle.
taster Small sample of a book, typically a chapter, sent
out by a publisher for promotion purposes.
TCF Totally chlorine free, relating to pulp and paper
manufacture. See also ECF.
TCP/IP See Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol.
tear test 1. Test that determines grain direction in paper
by the ease of tearing. 2. Test to determine strength.
tearsheet Page from printed periodical used as proof or
evidence of publication, especially of advertisement.
Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper
Industry (TAPPI) American professional organisation.
technical press Periodicals concerned with technical
subjects and circulating among specialists in those subjects.
telecommunications Communication via telephone
systems. Telecommunications today range from simple voice
communication over the telephone to complex systems
involving computers, fax machines, modems and related
equipment.
telecommuting The use of computers and
telecommunications to enable a user to work away from
the office.
teleconferencing Either audio-conferencing or
videoconferencing.
telephony See telecommunications. Involving voice
transmission, as opposed to telegraphy.
telescoped roll Reel of paper with progressively
misaligned edge.
template A standard document that can be used as the
basis of a class of documents. Templates are now widely
used in many applications and in most cases any document
can be saved as a template. A similar term is style sheet.
text The body type in a book as distinct from headings
and display type.
text area Area occupied by text on a page, normally
governed by a grid.
text block An area on a page into which the user has
placed text.
text editing Any rearrangement or change performed
upon textual material, such as correcting, adding and
deleting.
text pages The principal matter in a book as distinct from
the frontmatter and endmatter.
text paper 1. Fine quality paper for printed publicity work.
2. The body paper of a magazine or book as distinct from
the cover stock.
texture A descriptor for the graphic properties of a
surface in terms of smoothness/coarseness and regularity.
Approaches used to define texture are statistical, structural
and spectral.
thermal imaging Exposure technique associated with
ctp plates that uses heat to expose the image.
thermal printer A non-impact printer. Heat is applied to
a ribbon carrying waxed ink which is transferred to the
paper in the form of dots.
thermochromic inks Security inks that change colour
with changes in temperature
thermographic printing Relief effect created by heating
special powder or ink on a sheet to give raised typesetting.
thermomechanical pulp Abbreviated to TMP. Superior,
stronger mechanical pulp produced from steam-heated
wood chips.
thermoplastic binding See adhesive binding.
thesaurus A software feature of word processing.
Synonyms for words can be accessed online by highlighting
a word and activating the dictionary program behind it.
thin client A computer with a minimal thin operating
system held locally with access to resources from a remote
server when needed. See citrix.
thinners Solvents added to ink to reduce tack.
thread sealing Binding method using meltable threads
as stitches to secure individual sections before trimming
and forwarding.
thread sewing Conventional sewing. Also known as
French sewing or section sewing.
thread stitching Securing inset books by stitching
through the spine with threads.
threaded Text is threaded when its several parts or text
blocks are linked together by the user into a continuous
story. Threaded text behaves as a single element of
continuous text which the program identifies as such and
keeps together in correct sequence no matter how much the
page layout may be changed, or how many corrections are
inserted or deleted.
threadless binding See adhesive binding.
three-colour process Process work using the yellow,
magenta and cyan without black.
three-quarter bound Method in which the majority of
the case of a book is covered in leather or cloth and the
remainder in a different material.
throw-out A page that folds out of a book or magazine to
a size larger than the book trim. Also fold-out, gatefold.
throwaway Free newspaper comprised largely of
advertisements.
thumb index Index where the alphabetical divisions are
cut into the edge of the book trim.
thumbnail sketch Small rough drawing.
tick marks 1. Alternative term for crop marks or cut
marks. 2. Marks on rulers that define the increments
being measured.
ticket board Pasteboard.
tied letters See ligature.
TIFF Tag Image File Format. A standard format for the
storage of bit-map graphics and scanned images.
tight Laid out on a page so that there is little white space.
tight edges Referring to a stack of paper in which the
edges of the sheets are stretched tight and the centre of the
sheets are baggy. Caused by the stack having a higher
moisture level than the surrounding atmosphere. Compare
wavy edges.
tightback binding Binding in which the backs of the
sections are stuck to the spine of the book, reinforcing its
strength. Also known as fastback binding.
tile In the make-up of publications with a page size larger
than A4, a portion of the page that is printed on a single
sheet of paper. To make the complete page, the various tiles
are assembled and pasted together.
tile, tiling The arrangement of windows in a graphical
user interface (GUI) so that they but rather than overlap
(or cascade).
time-out The use of a timer to limit the period of a
programs operation. Often used in communications, so that
if there is no transmission over a communications link
during a specified time, then the link is broken.
time-sharing Concurrent processing of several jobs or
programs on a computer.
time-slicing The technique used by computers to switch
between concurrent applications and programs.
Effectively a time slot is allocated to each process and the
computer switches between them. On a powerful computer,
the user appears to have access all the time. Time-division
multiplexing uses a similar approach. (See also multi-
tasking.)
tint A solid colour reduced in shade by screening.
Specified as a percentage of the solid colour, and in a
particular screen ruling.
tip in To fix a single leaf inside a section.
tip on To fix a single leaf, or endpaper, to the outside of
a section.
tissue A fine, thin paper used for a variety of purposes
where a delicate, lightweight paper is required.
titanium dioxide Mineral used in papermaking to add
brightness and opacity.
title page Page of a book carrying the title, authors
name and publishers name. Always a recto.
titling Type font only available in full-faced caps.
TMP See thermomechanical pulp.
to view Referring to the number of pages appearing on
one side of a plate or sheet, e.g. 32-to-view = 32pp each
side of the sheet = 64pp unit.
tombstone Basic advertisement for professional services
which conforms to the limitations imposed by law or by
professional associations.
tone Colour variation or shade of grey, as distinct from
line which is solid black only.
toner Chemical used to create image in photocopying
processes.
tonne Metric tonne, equivalent to .984 long (imperial)
tons, or 1.102 short (US) tons.
toolbar An area of a window, usually at the top or
bottom, carrying buttons for commonly used commands.
tooth Rough surface, as applied to a paper.
toothy Having a rough surface.
top of form A character printer feature that advances
paper by one page.
top side The side of a web facing upwards during making,
i.e. opposite to the wire side. Also called the felt-side and
the right-side. Tends to be smoother than the wire-side.
touch screen An input mechanism in which a user can
communicate with the computer by touching a particular
location on the screen with his finger. Touch screens are
most widely used in applications where the users are
unfamiliar with computers, e.g. public information systems.
The point at which the screen is touched is detected either
using a sensitive membrane or as a result of light beams
being interrupted.
touch-tone The method employed in telephony
throughout the US to communicate the keys pressed
when dialling.
tracing paper Transparent paper manufactured for
tracing.
tracing programs See autotracing.
track In printing, the line or strip around the
circumference of the printing plate governed by one inking
key. All items positioned in this track will be subject to the
same density of inking on the press run.
track kerning Global reduction in letter spacing to
achieve a tighter visual effect. The same as character
compensation.
tracking 1. When illustrations are in track on the press,
they are subject to the same density of ink. The tracking of
subjects means their positions relative to each other along
the same track. 2. See track kerning.
tractor feed A printer drive mechanism comprising a
chain or belt equipped with teeth that engage with the
sprocket holes of continuous stationery.
trade houses Companies in the printing industry whose
main work is for other printers. Often specialists in a
specific operation, e.g. laminating.
trade press Periodicals targeted to specific trades or
businesses.
trade publishing The publishing of general interest
books which are sold through the retail bookshop trade.
trade tolerance Allowances for under or over delivery
quantities deemed acceptable commercially.
trademark Unique printing mark identifying a company.
traffic In general, transmissions over the internet, but
usually used to indicate the number of transmissions at any
one time.
Transitional Type style such as Baskerville which evolved
between Old Style and Modern.
transliterate Transcribe into characters of a different
language.
transmission codes Standard code sets used in
computers to represent alphanumeric characters and
numbers. Examples include ASCII and EBCDIC.
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) (Transmission Control Protocol over
Internet Protocol) Network protocols used on many
systems and on the internet. It includes both network
layer and transport layer protocols. The term is often
used to include telnet, ftp and UDP.
transmission copy Copy that is viewed by transmitted
light, e.g. a transparency. As distinct from reflection copy
which is viewed by reflected light.
transparency Full-colour photographic positive on
transparent film for viewing by transmitted light. Suitable
as copy for separation.
transparency viewer Box arrangement with special light
source to enable the viewing of transparencies under
consistent conditions.
transparent In computing, a process is transparent to the
user if he is unaware of it going on. Used particularly of
computer processing that is taking place as an operator is
doing something else.
transparent inks Inks such as process inks that permit
other colours to show through when overprinted and so
produce subsequent mixed colours.
transpose Abbreviated trs. Exchange the position of
words, letters or lines, especially on a proof. Hence
transposition
trap, trapping The overlap between two colours used in
printing to ensure that there is no white appearing between
them as a result of paper movement or poor registration.
Gives a slightly less clear impression than kiss-fit, but
allows for variation in printing conditions.
trichromatic Using three process colours (magenta,
yellow, cyan) to print in full colour.
trim Cut edges off sheets to square up or reduce size.
Hence trimmed size is the size after trimming.
trim marks Alternative term for crop marks or tick
marks.
trim to bleed Trim so that printed solids reach the edge
of the trimmed sheet.
trimask Special photographic mask made of three-layer
film and used in camera separation processes to colour
correct separations as they are made.
trimetal plate Lithographic plate for very long-run
work where three layers of metal are used in manufacturing
the plate.
triplex board Board made up of three layers of thinner
paper or of one central layer lined on both sides with paper.
tritone The use of three colours to produce a particular
effect in printing. May be used (with cyan, yellow and
magenta hues) to produce a finer grey-scale effect. See
also duotone.
troubleshoot To find and rectify a fault.
true small caps Small caps designed as such, rather than
created as a smaller size of main-text capitals (in which
case the strokes frequently look too thin).
TrueType A font system.
trunk A high-capacity communications circuit that carries
many channels.
trunk network The main part of the telephone network
that passes through the country.
turned 1. A table or illustration turned sideways on a page
so as to fit better. Such tables or illustrations should always
be turned so that the foot of them is on the right-hand side
of the page when the book is in normal, upright, position.
2. News setting carried over onto another page.
turned in Cover material turned over the edges of the
board.
turner bar Bar on a web offset press that redirects the
web through a right-angle turn.
turnkey system A system that is complete and designed
for a specific use. With hardware this implies that the
supplier has full responsibility for installation, with software
the implication is that the user may initiate the package
without necessarily understanding or even being aware of
the operating system.
TVI Tone value increases. The increase in area of printing
dots from computer to print; it is an effect of dot gain in
making parts of an image heavy when uncontrolled.
TWAIN Technology without an interesting name.
Standard desktop scanner interface to computers.
twin-wire Smooth board or paper made from two
separate webs which are brought together at the press
section of the twin-wire paper machine. Contrast the
duoformer principle with which it is sometimes confused.
twisted pair A cable in which pairs of conductors are
twisted together in order that crosstalk from nearby wiring
and other noise is randomised.
two-colour press Two-unit machine that can print two
colours on a sheet in a single pass.
two-sheet detector A device for stopping the press if
more than one sheet is fed.
two-shot binding Adhesive binding in which the first
application is of PVA adhesive, the second of hot-melt
adhesive. Compare one-shot binding.
two-sidedness Undesirable differing finish between the
felt-side and the wire-side of a sheet.
tying-up Using cord to secure type for storage.
Type 1 font A PostScript outline font having the
highest typographic quality, mainly because Type 1 fonts
incorporate hinting. As well as the outline specification,
Type 1 fonts also include a screen, bitmapped font
OpenType, has recently been developed with the aim of
removing font-compatibility problems.
type area Area occupied by text on a page.
type family Roman, italic, bold and all other versions of
one typeface.
type gauge A rule calibrated in picas for measuring type.
type height Distance from the foot of type to printing
surface: 23.17mm in the UK and US.
type scale See type gauge.
type series All the sizes available in one typeface.
typeface A set of characters of a particular design. Text
fonts will almost always include the ASCII character set,
but symbol fonts may include a wide range of characters.
Today the term face tends to be used interchangeably with
font, although historically they both had different
meanings, there being several typefaces, e.g. bold or italic
within a font.
typescript Typed copy.
typographer Designer of printed material.
typographic errors Abbreviated to typos. See literals.
u and lc, also ulc, U/L Abbreviation for upper and
lowercase. Instruction to follow copy for caps and
lowercase.
U/L or ulc Upper and lowercase.
UCR See undercolour removal.
UDF See user-defined format.
UGRA A Swiss association for the promotion of research in
the graphics arts industry.
un-shift Keyboard designation for lowercase.
unbacked Printed one side only.
unbundling Referring to the sale of software, training and
services by a computer manufacturer independent of the
sale of hardware.
uncoated paper Paper with no coating and not suitable
for high-quality illustrated work.
undercolour removal Abbreviated to UCR. Technique
that reduces unwanted colour in areas of overlaps. Results
in better trapping and lower ink cost.
undercut The amount of space left for plate packing on
press cylinders.
underexposure Inadequate exposure to light causing a
mostly dense image. Contrast overexposure.
underline 1. Caption (US). 2. A facility to automatically
underline text.
underrun Paper delivery or printing quantities that fall
short of the order.
underside Bottom side of a web of paper. Also known as
the wire-side or wrong-side. The other side is the top side,
felt-side, or right side.
Unicode A 16-bit character-encoding system that is
intended to include all characters in all languages
(including Chinese and similar languages). It forms part of
ISO 10646 and is backwards-compatible with ASCII (7-bit
encoding). Instead of the 128 characters that can be
encoded with ASCII, 65,000 can be encoded with Unicode.
uniform resource identifier (URI) Formerly called
universal resource identifier. A general way of addressing
resources on the web, including uniform resource
locators (URLs) and uniform resource numbers (URNs).
uniform resource locator (URL) A way of specifying an
internet resource, such as a file, a World Wide Web site
or a newsgroup. URLs are used in HTML documents to
specify the target of a hyperlink. An example URL is
http://www.piranet.com/. The part before the first colon
specifies the protocol to be used, that may be ftp, telnet,
Gopher, rather than http (http being perhaps the most
common).
uniform resource number Former name for uniform
resource name.
union paper Special wrapping paper comprising two
webs joined by tar coating.
unit 1. Smallest sub-division into which the em character
width measurement of a fount is divided. Used as the
counting basis for all character widths in a fount. Actual
size varies with the manufacturers system. 2. One set of
printing cylinders with associated machinery. A four-colour
press will have four units, each printing one colour.
unit value The number of units in a character width.
See unit.
universal resource identifier Former name for uniform
resource identifier.
universal resource locator Former name for uniform
resource locator.
UNIX A multi-user operating system allowing several
operators to use the same computer simultaneously.
unjustified Typesetting with even spacing, therefore
having a ragged right edge.
unlined chipboard Case board made from mixed waste
furnish and consisting of a number of plies of thin board
pasted together. See also Dutch grey board, millboard.
unsewn binding See perfect binding.
unsharp masking (USM) Feature that lowers the
background resolution in pre-defined local areas increases
the sharpness of detail in these areas.
unstuff To decompress a file that has been stuffed.
untrimmed size Dimensions of a sheet or printed piece
before trimming.
unzip To decompress a file that has been zipped. See
also WINZIP.
up 1. Running (in the case of equipment). 2. Several at
once: two-up means two copies the same out of one sheet.
update Edit a file by adding current data.
upload To transfer files over a communications link or a
network, usually from a smaller system to a larger host.
The opposite of download.
uppercase Capital letters.
uppercase letters Capitalised letters, such as the first
letter of this sentence. The term is derived from the days of
cold type, when the capitals were kept in the top (upper)
typecase and the small letters in the bottom (or lower) case.
upright Designation for binding along the longest
dimension. Also, portrait.
upward compatibility The ability of one computer to
run programs written for a later model, but not vice versa.
URI See uniform resource identifier.
URL See uniform resource locator.
USASCII USA Standard Code for Information Interchange.
Synonymous with ASCII. Typically, the only difference lies
with the character associated with code 123 (hash in
USASCII, pound symbol in ASCII).
user area That part of computer memory allocated to
user programs, the remainder being reserved for buffers and
operating systems.
user interface The way in which a user interacts with a
program or system. Graphical user interfaces (GUIs) are
increasingly becoming the norm, although command
interfaces are still used. Both of these may also include
menu-driven interfaces.
user-defined format An instruction assigned to an input
key to perform a particular command or string of
commands over and above any normal function. Keys
programmable by the user in this way are known as UDKs,
(user-defined keys), or user programmable keys or macros.
user-friendly A term, perhaps obvious in meaning but
difficult to define, used to describe systems, software and
user interfaces that are easy to interact with, needing
little or no prior training or documentation for the user.
USM See unsharp masking.
utilities Software programs designed as tools to assist in
the development of systems, the recovery of data.
UV fluorescent inks Security inks that fluoresce under
UV light.
UV varnish Ultraviolet varnish. Sometimes installed inline
with a printing machine, a UV varnish unit deposits a high-
gloss varnish dried by exposure to UV light.
V series Series of recommendations for data transmission
over telephone.
V.32 bis Modem protocol allowing data rates of up to
14.4kbps.
V.34 Protocol allowing data rates of up to 28.8kbps.
V.fast A 28.8kbps modem protocol proposed by some
manufacturers before V.34 had been approved.
vacuum frame Contact printing frame using vacuum
pumps to hold copy in position.
validation Checking data to ensure that it is valid, which
may mean that it is complete, accurate or reasonable.
Validation may be carried out in a number of ways,
including comparison with a mask, calculation of a
checksum or parity checking.
value In colour measurement an alternative term for
brightness.
Vancouver system Set system for laying out
bibliographical references much used in STM publishing.
variable A name given to a memory location that is used
to hold the current value of variable data.
variable space Space between words used to justify a
line. Contrast fixed space.
varnish Thin, transparent coating applied to printed work
for gloss or protection.
vat papers Handmade papers formed on a wire in a vat.
vector A line and its direction. Vector instructions given to
a computer enable the computer to calculate and plot the
outlines of graphics and type characters. A programmed
instruction then fills in the outline. Contrast bitmap.
vector data Data held in vector (outline) form.
vector font Another name for an outline font.
vector graphics Another name for object-oriented
graphics. The term arises because graphics are defined in
terms of vectors, or geometric formulae, rather than as
bitmaps.
vehicle Liquid component of ink that serves to carry the
pigment and bonds it to the substrate.
vellum 1. Prepared inner side of calf-skin, used in binding.
2. Imitation of this type of surface on paper.
verification Data validation achieved by keying the
information twice and then performing a character-by-
character check.
version number Identification of a particular edition of
software.
verso Left-hand page with even number.
vertical justification Spacing a column or page of type
to fit a predetermined depth. Automatic process on some
typesetting systems. See also feathering.
vertical scrolling The ability to move text displayed on
a screen up or down a line at a time to reveal other parts
of the text.
video Moving images, conventionally considered in terms
of television images and usually in a recorded form, but
now extended to include moving-image files of all types
and live images capable of being stored on computer
systems and transmitted over networks.
video compression The compression of sequences of
images. Algorithms for video compression take advantage
of there usually being only small changes from one frame
to the next, so that the first frame is recorded using similar
techniques to those for still images (see JPEG, for example)
and then only the differences between frames are recorded.
video display A text or graphics display device which may
be a cathode ray tube, LED or gas plasma display.
Video conferencing A meeting between two or more
groups of people in different places, who can both see and
hear one another using video and audio links. Video
compression is often used but, because of bandwidth
limitations, images are quite often disjointed and may
sometimes break up. See also virtual meeting.
virus A program, usually written anonymously with
malicious or mischievous intent, that attaches itself to
executable program files when these are transferred from
computer to computer. A virus is usually triggered by a
particular stimulus, which may be running the program to
which it is attached or just the system reaching a certain
date, for example.
viscoelastic Flexible enough to return to original size
after stretching.
viscosity Resistance to flow; tackiness.
visual A layout or rough of artwork. Also, mockup.
visual display unit (VDU) The unit of a computer system
containing a screen; usually part of a video display
terminal.
voice action In speech recognition technology, an
operation much the equivalent of a keystroke or mouse-click
that can be invoked by a voice command.
voice activation (Or speech recognition, voice recognition,
voice input.) Giving commands to a computer by speaking
rather than by using the keyboard or mouse. Although
frequently featured in science fiction, it is now a reality.
voice file In speech recognition technology, the file that
contains the users voice model.
voice input An alternative name for speech recognition
or voice activation.
void hickey A hickey appearing as a white spot on the
printed image.
volume 1. Bound book. 2. Thickness of paper expressed
as a volume number (e.g. vol 18) equal to the thickness in
millimetres of 100 sheets of paper in 100gsm.
volumetric A volumetric paper is one which is made to
a guaranteed bulk. Typically an Antique wove.
vouchers Free copies of a periodical given to advertisers
in that issue.
W3 An abbreviation (occasionally) used for the World
Wide Web.
W3, W3C Consortium See World Wide Web
Consortium.
Walksort Discounted postal rates for high-density
mailings where mail is sorted to individual post walks.
WAN Wide area network. A network of micros spread over
a larger area than a LAN, and linked typically by
telecommunication.
warm colours Red and yellow shades.
warp The long threads in a woven cloth that represent the
machine direction. The cross threads are the weft or woof.
wash drawing Black and white illustration with tones
created by grey or black ink or paint washes.
wash-up The cleaning of the printing units of a press prior
to a change of ink or shut-down of the machine.
washing The unintended dissolving by water of pigment
in ink during litho printing.
waste furnish Board or paper furnish consisting of waste
paper packaging, cardboard, newsprint, magazine papers.
water-based inks Used in screen printing, flexo and
gravure.
water finish High finish to paper achieved by damping
the web as it passes through the calender stack.
water immersion size test Test using water immersion
to establish the effectiveness of sizing in a paper as a
water repellent.
water miscible coatings A range of quick drying
resistant sealer coatings to protect and enhance the finish
of printed material.
water vapour transmission rate (WVTR) Test to
determine the waterproof qualities of packaging paper.
waterleaf Moisture-absorbent paper such as blotting
paper or filter paper.
waterless litho Offset litho process using special inks
with plates that do not require damping.
watermark Design impressed into a paper web during
manufacture by the dandy roll.
wavy edges Referring to a stack of paper in which the
edges of the sheets are baggy and the centre of the sheets
are stretched tight. Caused by the stack having a higher
moisture level than the surrounding atmosphere. Compare
tight edges.
wax test Test of picking of paper surface using graded
wax sticks.
web A continuous length of paper (i.e. a roll or reel) as
distinct from sheets.
Web browser See browser.
WebMaster Administrator and contact of a website
web offset Reel-fed offset litho. May be heatset or
coldset. A variety of configurations are possible ranging
from one mono unit with a single reel-stand up to multi-
unit colour presses with up to three reel-stands.
Web page A World Wide Web page, i.e. an HTML
document.
web press See webfed.
Web server A program that serves file and data to web
browsers. (See client-server.)
Website The related set of Web pages operated by a
single organisation or individual, usually identified by a
single IP number (with the first part of the URL the same,
e.g. http://www..
web sized mechanical sc paper See WSOP.
web sized offset printing paper See WSOP.
web tension Adjustable degree of lateral pull on a web
of paper in a web press.
webfed Presses printing on webs of paper rather than
sheets.
webmaster The person responsible for maintaining and
administering a website.
weft The cross threads in a woven material. Contrast
warp.
weight 1. In typography, the degree of boldness of a
typeface style (e.g. light, medium). 2. Loosely, in paper
specification, the substance.
wet printing See wet-on-wet.
wet proof See machine proof.
wet stock Pump in its liquid form or during formation
on the wire.
wet strength Tensile strength of saturated paper.
wet-end The Fourdrinier wire section and the pressing
section of a paper machine.
wet-on-wet Superimposition of colours on a multi-unit
press (i.e. before each colour has dried).
wetting agent An additive that decreases the surface
tension of water.
wf Wrong font. Proofreaders mark indicating an incorrect
typeface has been used.
whip stitching Sewing technique used to join sheets at
the edges.
whiteback Cloth that is dyed on its surface only, with
the reverse side remaining white. Contrast dyed-through
cloth.
whitewater See backwater.
whiting A widely used extender for ink.
whole-bound Full-bound case of a hard-bound book
covered in the same material all over.
wide area network (WAN) A network that covers
areas larger than those serviced by a local area network
(LAN). This usually means that serial communications
are used, either via telephone lines (usually a leased line)
or by satellite.
wideband A communications bandwidth higher than
voice band, but how much higher is undefined. See also
broadband. A wideband amplifier is one that will handle
a wide range of frequencies.
widow The last line of a paragraph, printed at the top of a
page, although sometimes this is described as an orphan
and a widow is defined as the first line of a paragraph at
the bottom of a page. In either case, good typographic
design means avoiding them.
wild card A signifier used in searches to mean anything,
and usually an asterisk or question mark.
Window Portion of a VDU screen dedicated to a
particular file/document. Several windows can be open
on screen at one time, allowing the user to jump from one
to another rapidly. Ideal operating conditions for on-screen
cut and paste.
Windows (3.x, 95, 98, 2000, XP) Suite of operating
systems provided by MicroSoft for the PC and server market,
continually being upgraded to provide additional
functionality and stability.
wing effect The result of out-of-square guillotining of a
book: when the book is opened the edges look like a pair
of butterfly wings rather than being parallel along the tops
and bottoms.
Winzip Widely used data compression application to
reduce the file transfer time in email across Windows
applications.
wire The moving fine mesh belt on which liquid stock is
formed into a web of paper by draining away the water.
Wire-side is the side of the web that rests on the wire (also
known as the underside or wrong side). Wire mark is the
impression left by the wire on the web.
wire stitching See saddle stitching.
wire-binding or wire-O binding Binding method
comprising a continuous double loop of wire running
through slots in the margin of a book.
with the grain In the direction of the length of the
original web. Paper folds more easily with the grain.
Contrast against the grain.
wizard Help feature which guides the user through the
steps of a process.
WOB White on black (i.e. reversed out).
wood pulp Pulp made from wood.
wood-containing Referring to papers which are part-
mechanical in furnish.
woodcut Hand engraving cut into a block of wood for
print-making.
woodfree paper Full woodfree paper contains no
mechanical pulp at all. This is sometimes known as pure
woodfree. It is generally accepted, however, that woodfree
paper may include up to 10% mechanical or other fibre and
still fall within the definition of woodfree.
woodfree pulp Pulp that is processed chemically and
which contains no mechanical groundwood.
woodtype Typographical characters (usually in sizes over
72pt) made from wood. Often called poster type.
woof The cross threads in a woven material. Also, weft.
Compare warp.
word As a computer term, a set of bits recognised by the
computer as the smallest logical unit of information for
processing.
word break Division of a word at a line ending.
word search The process of finding a word within
running text by computer matching. Word searches may be
of several types: free text
searching, that is the simple identification of all
occurrences of a word or phrase, proximity searching,
that allows pairs of words or phrases to be found provided
they are in a certain range of each other; and Boolean
searching that allows word or phrase pairs to be found
based on logical AND and OR statements.
word wrap The automatic wrapping of text onto the next
line when a line end is encountered.
word processing composing, inputting and editing text
through a dedicated word processor or specific word
processing software.
Word processor An editing and formatting program
with which documents, including graphics, can be input,
edited, formatted and printed.
wordspace The variable space between words that may
be increased or decreased to justify a line.
work and back See sheetwork.
work and tumble Printing the reverse side of a sheet by
turning it over on its long axis from gripper to back and
using the same plate. Each sheet, cut in half, yields two
copies from a single set of plates.
work and turn Printing the first side of a sheet, turning
the stack across its short axis, and then printing the reverse
side of the sheet using the same plate and the same
gripper edge. Each sheet, cut in half, yields two copies.
workflow The control of documents and their components
moving around an organisation and its suppliers
work station A desk on which a computer is used.
World Wide Web (WWW, W3) The internet.
wove Paper produced using a plain, woven dandy roll and
therefore without laid lines, as distinct from laid paper.
woven material Genuine cloth, used for case covering.
The two main qualities of woven cloth used for coverings
are single-warp and double-warp buckram. In the case of
single-warp buckram, the standard specification is 40/40,
i.e. 40 strands of thread per linear inch in each direction.
wp See word processor.
wrap 1. See word wrap. 2. Plate section placed around
the outside of a folded text section in a book and bound in.
Contrast insert.
wraparound A word processing facility that moves a
word to a preceding or following line to avoid word breaks
or to allow for deletion or insertion.
wraparound plate Thin relief letterpress printing plate
that is clamped around the plate cylinder.
wrapping Attaching a paper cover by gluing at the spine.
See drawn-on cover.
wrinkles 1. Creases in printed paper caused by uneven
moisture absorption. 2. Uneven surface of ink during drying.
write To record or output electronic data.
write enable A means of allowing data to be written to
magnetic disk or tape. With floppy disks this is achieved by
the removal of an adhesive tab from the disks write-protect
notch. Compare write protect.
write protect A means of preventing data being written
to magnetic disk or tape. With floppy disks, this is typically
achieved by placing an adhesive tab over the disks write-
protect notch, while with magnetic tape the same objective
is achieved by repositioning a sliding tab on a cartridge or
cassette enclosure or by the removal of a file protect ring
from a reel of magnetic tape. Compare write enable.
writings Papers sized for writing without ink spread.
wrong font See wf.
wrong grain See cross grain.
wrong side See underside, wireside.
WSOP Web-sized offset printing paper. A calendered
mechanical paper, mainly used for magazines, but
appropriate for some grades of bookwork.
WWW See World Wide Web.
WYSIWYG Acronym for What you see is what you get
and pronounced whizzy wig what appears on the screen
is a direct representation of what would be printed.
x-height The height of the lowercase letter x in a
particular typeface or font; x is used because it the only
letter that effectively has a clearly defined flat top. The x-
height determines the appearing size of the font, while the
relationship between the x-height and the cap height (the
height of the capital letters) is a characteristic of a typeface
and can affect its readability. Thus a typographic designer
needs to take the differences into account when choosing
a typeface.
x-line Alignment along the tops of lowercase letters. Also,
mean line.
x-y coordinates Horizontal (x) and vertical (y) alignments
used by computers for siting pixels in screen displays or
output.
xerography Electrostatic copying process in which toner
adheres to charged paper to produce an image.
XSLT The eXtensible Stylesheet Language Transformations.
A language designed to transform one XML document into
another or to transform the structure of an XML document.
XML See eXtensible Markup Language.
XP Version of MicroSoft Windows launched in 2002
xx Mark indicating retree.
Xxx Mark indicating broke.
YAG Yttrium/Aluminum/Garnet. A powerful solid-state
laser used for imaging plates in some CTP machines. Often
with Nd (neodymium) as an Nd:YAG.
yankee dryer Steam-heated paper drying cylinder
generating a glazed finish to the paper so treated.
yapp cover Binding material edges which overlap the
case boards to provide a fringed effect. Often used on
bibles.
Zapf Dingbats A typeface, designed by Hermann Zapf,
which includes common dingbats. It is usually provided as
one of the standard fonts with a PostScript laser
printer.
zinc engraving Relief engraving made on zinc and often
used for short-run blocking in preference to a chemac. Also
called zinc.
zip A file format widely used for data compression, for
example in transferring programs and other large files on
floppy disk or over the internet. The files used to
compress and decompress are PKZIP and PKUNZIP. There
is also now a Windows version, Winzip. Note that PKZIP is
shareware and not public domain software, although
the supplier, PKWare, provides runtime licences for Pkunzip.
zip drive A type of super-floppy drive with much higher
capacity and operating at a much higher speed.
Zip-a-tone Proprietary name for patterned line or dot
effects applied as rub-down film onto artwork. See also
transfer type.
zoom In analogy with a photographic lens, to make what
appears in a screen window (in a graphical user
interface) larger (zoom in) so that a smaller area is seen,
or smaller (zoom out), so that a larger area is seen.
Depending on the application, either the magnification
may be selected from a menu or, for zooming in, the cursor
changes (usually to a magnifying glass) and the area to be
zoomed in on is marquee selected. If zooming in is
performed by the latter method, zooming out is usually
achieved by clicking an icon which has the effect of
undoing the last zoom in (marquee selection itself cannot
be used because the desired area of viewing is larger than
what can currently be seen on the screen).

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