Journal of the History of Sufism, 4 (2003), 1-13.

Kenneth HONERKAMP

AB ABD AL-RAHMN AL-SULAM (D. 412/1201)
ON SAM, ECSTASY and DANCE


Toward the end of the formative period of Sufism (10-11th centuries CE)
Ab Abd al-Rahmn al-Sulam composed several treatises that provide us
with precious insights into sam and the nature of the ecstatic states that
may arise during sessions of sam.
1
The present article is based on Sulams
Kitb al-sam,
2
and augmented with material from two of his as yet
unpublished manuscripts, Mahsin al-tasawwuf,
3
and Kitb fusl f al-

1
In this paper I intend to deal exclusively with Sulams views on sam as a Sufi devotional
practice. By Sulams times, the termsam had come to include music, singing, and the use of
musical instruments. In Kitb al-sam Sulam restricts himself to the devotional aspects of the
spiritual assembly in which poetry (no music is mentioned) is recited and the states of grace and
ecstasy induced during such assemblies. I have also tried to allow Sulam to speak for himself as
much as possible without excessive analysis. For an historical overview of sam see J . During,
Sam, EI, CD edition and N. Prjawd, Du Risla dar sam, in Marif 3 (March: 1989),
pp. 3-72.
2
Kitb al-sam has been edited twice. Both editions depended upon the same manuscript. Kitb
al-sam, ed. N. Prjawd, Majma-yi thr-i Ab Abd al-Rahmn al-Sulam (Tehran:
Markaz-i Nashr-i Dnishgh, 1990-1993), 2/14-25 and ed., Al Aqila Arsn, in Majallat al-
Tawrth al-Arab (Kuwait: 1985), vol. 1, pp. 80-94. My textual references are to the edition of
Dr. Prjawd. I have chosen to use N. Prjawds edition because of his excellent introduction
to the text and the relative availability of the Tehran edition for those seeking access to the
Arabic text. Sulam indicates that Kitb al-sam is a summary of another work he composed on
sam that he refers to as Masalat al-sam, this work has not come down to us. Sulam, Kitb
al-sam, pp. 20, 22.
3
Kitb mahsin al-tasawwuf, Ms. 1027 Q, fol. 197r. to 212r., Manuscript Library of Rabat,
Morocco. I have prepared a critical edition of this and several other manuscripts by Sulam and
hope to see thempublished soon by Markaz-i Nashr-i Dnishgh in Tehran. For a summary of
this texte see : Jean-J acques Thibon, La Relation Matre-Disciple ou Les lments de
lAlchimie Spirituelle daprs trois manuscrits de Sulam, in Genevive Gobillot, d., Mystique
Musulmane, Parcours en Compagnie dun Chercheur: Roger Deladrire (Paris: ditions
Cariscript, 2002), pp. 105-114.
Kenneth HONERKAMP 2
tasawwuf.
4
Kitb al-sam was the first monograph dedicated specifically to
sam,
5
and became the model for later works on the subject, either in its
form as a judicial defense of the practice of sam,
6
or in substance as a
commentary on the nature of sam -- its principles, attributes, and
etiquette.
7

The works of Abd al-Rahmn al-Sulam al-Naysbr (d. 412/1021) form
the major part of the body of reference for our knowledge of the personalities
and paths of the formative period of Islamic mysticism.
8
Although criticized
by some, he was highly respected by his contemporaries for his knowledge of
hadith and his devotion to the principles of Sufism. Sulams heritage not
only extends to the books and treatises, but also involves his students, many
of whom were well known scholars who played a central role transmitting the
teachings of the early Sufis.
9


4
Kitb fusl f al-tasawwuf, Ms. 1204, fol. 195v. to 126r., Ben Yusuf Library in Marrakesh,
Morocco. This manuscript is among those mentioned in note 3. For a summary of this text see:
J .-J . Thibon, La Relation Matre-Disciple ou Les lments de lAlchimie Spirituelle daprs
trois manuscrits de Sulam, pp. 114-123.
5
J . During, EI
2
, Sam, Al-Sarrj, in al-Luma has summarized an early treatise on wajd by
Ab Sad b. al-Arb (d. 341/952) that predates Kitb al-sam. This treatise, however, has not
reached us. See al-Luma, ed. Abd al-HalmMahmd and Th Abd al-Bq Surr, (Cairo: Dr
al-Kutub al-Hadtha, 1960), pp. 383-89. For more on Ab Sad b. al-Arb see: Sulam,
Tabaqt al-sfiyya ed. Nr al-Dn Shurayba (Cairo: Maktabat al-Khnj, 1969), pp. 427-30.
6
For examples of works dedicated exclusively to a more judicial defense of sam see: Kitb al-
Sam, Ibn al-Qaysarn (448-507/1056-1113), ed. Ab al-Waf al-Margh (Cairo: Muhammad
Tawfq Awda, 1970). In another work, Al-Qaysarn included sam in his defense of other
commonly criticized conventions of the Sufis, i.e., dance (raqs), tearing garments (tamzq al-
kharqa), and mirth (mizh). See Safwat al-tasawwuf, ed., Ghda al-MuqaddimAdra (Beirut:
Dr al-Muntakhib al-Arab, 1995), pp. 298-349. Muhammad al-Shdhil al-Tnis (820/1418-
882/1478), Farah al-asm bi rukhas al-sam, ed. Muhammad al-Sharf al-Rahmn (Tunis:
Dr al-Arabiyya lil-Kitb, 1985) is a scholarly defense of sam and music by a well-known
Sufi and Malk scholar of Tunis.
7
Works dealing with the more experiential elements of sam may include a judicial defense of
sam but their orientation is more towards the devotee than the scholar. For examples of these
works see: al-Sarrj, al-Luma, pp. 339-382; al-Hujwr, Kashf al-mahjb, trans. R. Nicholson,
(Gibb Memorial rev. ed. 2000), pp. 393-420; al-Kalbdh, al-Taarruf, ed. Ahmad Shams al-
Dn (Beirut: Dr al-Kutub al-Ilmiyya, 1993), pp. 178-179; al-Qushayr, al-Risla al-
Qushayriyya, ed. Marf Zurayq and Al Abd al-Hamd Baltaj (Beirut: Dr al-Khayr, 1993),
pp. 335-350; al-Makk, Qt al-qulb, ed. Sad Nasb Makrim(Beirut: Dr Sdir, 1995), pp.
119-121; al-Ghazl, Ihy ulm al-dn, ed. Muhammad al-Dl Balta (Beirut: al-Maktaba al-
Asariyya, 1996), 2/363-412; Ahmad b. Ajba (1747-1809), al-Futht al-ilhiyya f sharh al-
mabhith al-asliyya, ed., al-Shaykh Abd al-Writh Muhammad Al (Beirut: Dr al-Kutub al-
Ilmiyya, 2000), pp. 151-168.
8
For detailed accounts of Sulams life and works see G. Bwering, The Qurn Commentary
of Al-Sulam, in W. B. Hallaq and D. P. Little, eds., Islamic Studies Presented to Charles J.
Adams (Lieden: E.J . Brill, 1991), pp. 41-56; Cornell, Rkia, Early Sufi Women (Louisville, KY:
Fons Vitae, 1999), pp. 15-37. For an in-depth overview of Sulams life, times and teachers see
Nr al-Dn Shuraybas introduction to Sulams, Tabaqt al-sfiyya, pp. 11-64.
9
Among his best known students were Ab al-Qsimal-Qushayr (d. 465/1073), Ab Nuaym
al-Isbahn (d. 430/1038), al-HakimMuhammad b. Abd Allh al-Naysbr (d. 405/1014), and
Ahmad b. Husayn al-Bayhaq (d. 458/1066).
AB ABD AL-RAHMN AL-SULAM 3
Sulam was born in Nishapur in a prestigious family well respected for
their involvement in intellectual and spiritual pursuits. From an early age he
had contact through his father, Husayn b. Muhammad b. Ms al-Azd (d.
348/958) and his maternal grandfather,
10
Ab Amr Isml b. Nujayd al-
Sulam (d. 360/971) with a major spiritual tradition of Nishapur, the
Malmatiyya
11
Sulam dedicated his early years to the study of theology,
jurisprudence, and hadith. In addition, he was initiated into the teachings and
practices of Sufism by the leading scholarly figures of Nishapur.
12

Throughout his life he actively participated in the transmission of hadith and
the sayings of Sufi authorities from previous generations. In this fashion, he
could situate and class the mystical experience of the founding fathers of
Sufism within a synthetic vision founded upon his experience as an initiate
and heir to the Malmatiyya tradition of Nishpr. His many books and
treatises, addressed to a broad spectrum of readers, testify to Sulam being
more than a scholar, Sufi biographer, and mentor; he was a school in
himself. To a large extent it was through the works of Sulam that teachings
of the Malmatiyya of Nishapur and the Sufis of Iraq would become
integrated, establishing the norms that would determine the character of

10
Of the four citations that Sulam attributes to his father in Tabaqt al-sfiyya, Sulam cites two
narrations fromIbn Munzil (d. 320/932) and one fromAb Al al-Thaqaf. Sulam, Tabaqt
al-sfiyya, pp. 271, 366, and 361. Al-Qushayr refers to Ibn Munzil as Shaykh al-Malmatiyya,
al-Qushayr, Rislat al-Qushayr, p. 435. Both Ibn Munzil and Ab Al al-Thaqaf had
frequented Hamdn al-Qassr (d. 271/885) and Ab Hafs (d. 270/883), who were considered to
be among the founders of the Malmatiyya of Nishapr. Ibn Nujayd had been one of the best-
known companions of Ab Uthmn al-Hr (d. 298/910). Al-Hr, a respected scholar of Shfi
law and hadith, was among the founders of the Malmatiyya. Sulam wrote of Ibn Nujayd: He
was among the most illustrious mashyikh of his times. He was unique in his practice of the
path, due to his concealment of his interior state and the manner in which he guarded his intimate
moments [with God]. He heard, narrated, and dictated hadith. He was a reliable narrator
(thiqqa). He died in 360/971. Sulam, Tabaqt al-sfiyya, pp. 454-457.
11
For the Malmatiyya see: Abdlbk Glpinarl, Melmlik ve Melmler (Istanbul: Devlet
Matbaas, 1931); Sulam, Rislat al-malmatiyya, ed. Ab al-Al al-Aff (Cairo: Dr Ihy al-
Kutub al-Arabiyya, 1945); Sara Sviri, HakmTirmidh and the Malmat Movement, in
Leonard Lewisohn, ed., Classical Persian Sufism: from its Origins to Rumi (London: Khaniqahi
Nimatullahi Publications, 1993), pp. 583-613; Fritz Meier, Khurasn and the End of Classical
Sufism, in Essays in Islamic Mysticism and Piety, trans. J ohn OKane and Berndt Radke,
(Leiden: E. J . Brill, 2000), pp. 215-217. Alexander, Knysh, Islamic Mysticism, A Short History
(Leiden: E. J . Brill, 2000), pp. 94-99. HakmTirmidh, Kitb ithbt al-ilal, ed., Khlid Zahr
(Rabat: Muhammad V University, 1998), pp. 24-25; K. Honerkamp, The Malmatiyya of
Nishapur, Their Origins and Teachings, in Three Early Sufi Texts (Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae,
2003), pp. 91-110. Also see the collected presentations fromthe International Conference on the
Malmatiyya and Bayrm Orders held in Istanbul in J une, 1987 in N. Clayer, A. Popovic, and T.
Zarcone, eds., Melmis-Bayrmis (Istanbul: Les ditions Isis, 1998).
12
Murd b. Ysuf al-Daws al-Shdhil reports that Ab Sahl al-Sulk (d. 369/980) a scholar
of the Shfi school, gave Sulam his first initiation into Suf invocation practices (dhikr) and
supervised himin a retreat of forty days. Cited by Kister in Sulam, Kitb db al-suhba, ed.
M.J . Kister, in Oriental Notes and Studies 6 (J erusalem: The Israel Oriental Society, 1954), p 4
of the Arabic introduction. Abdurrahmn al-J m reports that Ab al-Qsimal-Nasrabd (d.
367/977-8), another well-known scholar of Shfi law, invested Sulami with the Sufi mantle
(khirqa). Al-J ami, Nafaht al-uns, ed. M. Tawhdpr (Tehran: Kitfursh Mahmd, 1959), p.
311.


Kenneth HONERKAMP 4
Islamic mystical thought and practice in the ensuing centuries.
KITB AL-SAM
Kitb al-sam is the earliest example we have of a treatise on the Sufi
practice of sam. Accounts of the Sufis of the mid-3rd/9th centuries onward
contain multiple references to poetry and ecstatic states related to the
recitation of particular lines of poetry.
13
As testified to by Sulams own
example, Sufi circles of this period included scholars of jurisprudence and
hadith, yet there seems to have been little judicial argumentation on the legal
status of sam until Sulams time.
14
Early works dealing with sam were
intended for Sufis (or would be Sufis) and treated the experiential facets of
sam and its inner states and outer requisite behavior (adab). For Sulam the
adab of sam protected the devotee, on the one hand, from his more
mundane inclinations and lent authenticity to the experiential states of
sam.
15
As Sufism became a recognizable modality of Islamic spirituality,
concerts of sam, like other Sufi rituals, came under attack from
traditionalist scholars of hadith who considered these Sufi practices an
innovation (bida). Sulam composed Kitb al-sam in response to this
criticism.
16
Employing traditions drawn from hadith,
17
accounts of the
Companions, the Imams of the schools of jurisprudence, and early Sufi

13
In Tabaqt al-sfiyya, Sulam cites over ninety examples of poetry recited by or for Sufis.
Poetry was employed pedagogically to stir emotions of love and longing and to induce ecstatic
states.
14
N. Prjawd, Du risla dar sam, p. 22. Even those who avoided sam, such as the
Malmatiyya of Nishapr, were not averse to the practice itself. When asked why he did not
attend concerts of sam, a malm responded: We have not abandoned the sessions of sam
out of disdain or denial; but out of the fear that the states we hide would be revealed. Sulam,
Rislat al-malmatiyya, pp. 103-104.
15
This explains why, in Sulams references to sam in his other works, the adab is such a
central issue. See Sulam, Rislat al-malmatiyya, pp. 112, 117; Usl al-malmatiyya wa-
ghalatt al-sfiyya, ed. Abdalfatth Ahmad al-Fw Mahmd (Cairo: Matba al-Irshd, 1985),
p. 184; and Jawmi db al-sfiyya, 260-61, Sulk al-rifn, 405, Kitb nasm al-arwh, 419-
424, in Tisat kutub f usl al-tasawwuf wal-zuhd li-Ab Abd al-Rahmn Muhammad b. al-
Husayn al-Sulam, ed. Sleymn tesh (Beirut: al-Nshir lil-Tib wal-Nashr wal-Tawz
wal-Iln, 1993).
16
The most vehement criticismof Sufi sam and Sulam came a century later at the hands of
Ibn al-J awz (d. 510/1116). See Ibn al-J awz, Talbs Ibls, ed. Ayman Slih (Cairo: Dr al-
Hadth, 1995), pp. 230-273. Then in the 14
th
century Ibn Taymiyya (d. 728/1328), the well
known Hanbal jurist, severely criticized Sulam for the views expressed in Kitb al-sam. See
Ibn Taymiyya, Kitb al-sam wal-raqs (Cairo: Maktaba Muhammad Al Subayh, n.d.), pp.
321-323. L. Pouzet has analyzed the complex question of the Hanbal opposition to sam and
the social context in which the debate over the legality of sam took place in the 13
th
and 14
th

centuries. See L. Pouzet, Prise de position du sam en Orient musulman au VIIeme/XIIeme
sicle, in Studia Islamica 57 (1983): pp. 193-234. Ghda al-MuqaddimAdra suggests that
Sulams Kitb al-sam may have been one of the reasons that caused the jurists to speak out
against sam after a long silence on the issue. See Ibn al-Qaysarn, Safwat al-tasawwuf, p. 71
of the introduction.
17
Sulm augments his response in Kitab mahsin al-tasawwuf with the Qurnic verses 39:18,
50:37, 8:23, and 42:212.
AB ABD AL-RAHMN AL-SULAM 5
authorities, Sulam demonstrates that poetry and sam have been an
accepted aspect of Islamic spirituality from the first generation. He stresses,
however, that the question of judicial legitimacy is secondary to
understanding the multi-faceted aspects of sam as they relate to the states
and stations of the aspirants on the Sufi path. I will therefore concentrate, in
the following pages, upon Sulams treatment of sam as a devotional
practice rather than as a set of judicial proofs.
The prelude to Sulams defense of sam comprises a brief restatement
of the question at hand and a lengthy commentary on sam as understood
and practiced by the Sufis of his time.
It has reached me May God bestow His graces upon you
that certain scholars in your region have reproached the people
of realized knowledge (ahl al-tahqq) for their practice of
sam, saying that at best one should regard sam as a
frivolous pastime (lahwa) and repent. Should, however, the
person making this allegation examine his reason and look
carefully at the traditions of the Prophet (sunnan), the accounts
of the Companions and Imms after them, and the practice
(sayr) of the righteous elders of this community, he would
realize the inaccuracy of his statement.
18

In his initial response Sulam agrees with these critics opinion as it
applies to sam as practiced by the common folk (awm), declaring it
blameworthy and deserving repentance. He differentiates, however, this
profane sam from the devotional sam of the Sufis; ascribing to their
sam a broad range of categories and to the audience (mustamin) a
hierarchy of spiritual states and degrees of experience. The sam of the
devotees (murdn) incites them to exemplary comportment and worthy
states,
19
while the people of realized knowledge (ahl al-haqiq) find repose
and relief in sam when their states and stations weigh upon them.
The sam of the devotees (murdn), those who frequent Sufi
circles (tbin), and ascetics (zuhhd) is both admonition and
good guidance. It is a rebuke, an exhortation, and a cleansing
from the impurities that linger from their past misdeeds and
indiscretions. Sam provokes within them fear, hope,
compassion, detachment from the world, patience, and
acceptance of Gods decrees. There is no reason therefore [for
the critics] to find fault with sam. In fact, should they sense
hardness in their hearts or indolence in themselves, it behooves

18
Sulam, Kitb al-sam, p. 14.
19
I employ the termdevotee (murd) to refer to those aspirants who are new to the teachings
of Sufism. In contrast to the termdevotee, I use the termpeople of realized knowledge to
refer to those Sulam calls al-muhaqqiqn or ahl al-tahqq. I amemploying the terms Sufi and
aspirant as generic terms for all those who aspire to follow the Sufi way.


Kenneth HONERKAMP 6
them to listen that their hearts be raised up and enlivened
therein to obedience. The sam of the people of realization
and experiential knowledge (marif) is repose for them from
the rigors of their states. When overcome by the moment they
fear their inability to bear the weight that descends upon them
and they seek rest in the states of sam. Perhaps sam may
lighten their burdens or increase them in states of ecstasy
(wajd) to find [the Real] (wujd).
20
When relieved of their
burdens they are calm and still. When increased in wajd they
cry out and are agitated. Only one of their number could
comprehend their states.
21

Sulam, through his Malmatiyya heritage, taught that individual human
states are reflective of a hierarchy of subtle centers of consciousness.
22
For
Sulam the multifaceted nature of sam resulted from the disparate states of

20
Wajd, wujd, and tawjud are terms that have long been employed by early Sufi authors in
their discussions on sam. Wajd (pl. mawjd) is traditionally defined as an unexpected
encounter on the level of the heart that induces states that are neither sought after nor striven
for. See al-Sarrj, al-Luma, Kitb al-wajd, pp. 375-389 and p. 418; al-Kalbdh, al-
Taarruf, p. 132; al-Qushayr, al-Risla al-Qushayriyya, p. 62; al-Hujwr, Kashf al-mahjb, pp.
413-15. Wajd may or may not be accompanied by movement, sighing, or crying out. The early
writers did not regard it, however, as a trance state. Tawjud refers to striving to attain a state of
wajd or even emulating a person in a state of wajd. Wujd, is by far the most difficult termto
grasp. Ibn al-Arab defines it as Finding (wijdn) the Real (al-haqq) in ecstasy, Futht al-
makkiyya (Cairo: 1911), 2/538; trans. W. Chittick, The Sufi Path of Knowledge (New York: State
University of New York Press, 1989), p. 212. For an in-depth look at these three termsee: W.
Chittick, The Sufi Path of Knowledge, 212-13. In the follow discussion I will employ the Arabic
terms within the bounds of the above definitions. Al-Qushayr contextualized these three terms
saying, Tawjud is the outset, wujd the end; and wajd is the center, between outset and end.
See al-Qushayr, al-Risla al-Qushayriyya, 63.
21
Sulam, Kitb al-sam, p. 14.
22
For the Malmatiyya, individual human spiritual states were reflected within a hierarchy of
subtle centers of consciousness. These centers were referred to as the rh, sirr, qalb, and nafs.
These centers resonated with certain levels of reality. At the summit of the hierarchy was the
Divine made manifest to the rh (spirit). The sirr (innermost mystery) resonated to the spiritual
or angelic realm. The qalb (heart) resonated to the intermediate realmbetween the mundane and
spiritual realms and the nafs (ego-self) resonated to the worldly or mundane realm. Within this
hierarchy each subtle center was aware of the realms that were below it, but not vice versa. The
ruh, being the highest, is the only center that encompassed the totality of multi-leveled spiritual
reality, while the nafs, defined by the mundane realm, was imprisoned upon itself, forced to
reside in a state of unawareness (ghafla). An interesting aside to this discussion of these centers
of consciousness and their affinities within a multi-leveled scheme of reality is to be found in the
words of the eighteenth century Moroccan Sufi, Ibn Ajba, who said, As long as the rh is
imprisoned in a state of ghafla it is called the nafs. Ibn Ajba, Kitb sharh salt al-qutb Ibn
Mashsh, ed. Abd al-Salmal-Imrn (Casablanca: Dr al-Rashd al-Hadtha, 1999), p. 29-30.
This hierarchical view of the subtle centers of the soul is a salient aspect of the manner in which
Sulam treats sam as a means in which the spiritual realities of each realmresonate within the
subtle centers of the murd, inducing in himstates of wajd. For more on these centers of
consciousness see: Sulam, Rislat al-malmatiyya, p. 100. Also see Richard Hartmann, As-
Sulams Rislat al-Malmatja, Der Islam 8 (1918): pp. 164-165 and Sulam, La Lucidit
Implacable: ptre de Hommes du Blme, trans., R. Deladrire (Paris: Arla, 1991), pp. 16-17,
58-67.
AB ABD AL-RAHMN AL-SULAM 7
the aspirants, as he explains, Sam is one, but the color varies according to
the audience.
23
The ego-self (nafs) of some aspirants may revert to its
capricious self-seeking nature under the influence of sam while others may
find release from their bondage to the nafs through their intimacy with God.
Sulam underscores the reciprocal nature of the listeners inner state and the
very manner in which he hears in the following citation ascribed to J unayd:
Sam corresponds to the [state of] the listener. The most
exalted thing one can hear is the Qurn It is a restorative
remedy, a mercy, good guidance, and a clear message, while
the basest thing that one may hear is poetry. The Qurn,
however, may be a punishing rod to one who hears it, despite
its being a remedy and mercy, while poetry may instill wisdom
in the heart of hearer, though it is but vain speech.
24
Beyond these diverse states of the devotees are the states of those who
have attained to the state of realized knowledge (al-muhaqqiqn). They may
hear falsehood or vain speech as the truth,
25
while those who have not
attained to this station may listen to the truth and hear falsehood. Sulam
concludes the discussion, returning full circle, as he classifies the listeners
according to a hierarchy of subtle centers from which each hears.
Among the categories of listeners are those who listen by
individual inclination (hazz) and whim (zann), those who listen
with their inward state, present in the moment (waqt), and
those who listen with wajd, wujd, and tawjud. There are
also those who are heard for (yusmau lahu) and those who are
heard from.
26
They all differ according to their states, graces
and state of the narrator.
27

Sulam also categorizes sam in accordance with the hierarchy of the
stations attained by the aspirants themselves.

23
Sulam, Kitb al-sam, p. 15.
24
Ibid.
25
Sulam cites here the example of a man of the early community who fell unconscious upon
hearing a seller of wild thyme cry out y satar al-barr. When asked, upon regaining
consciousness, what had occurred he replied, My heart was present [with God] and I thought
heard himsay al-sa tar al-Br.. (The Last-day you will see the Maker).
26
This is reminiscent of the Hadith Qudsi known as the hadith al-wal, I amhis hearing by
which he hears and his sight by which he sees . al-Bukhr, ed. Mustaf Db al-Bugh
(Beirut: Dr Ibn Kathr, 1990), Kitb al-riqq, Bb al-tawdu, pp. 5/2384-2385. Al-Shawkn
(d. 1250/1834) devoted an entire work to this hadith. In a long section he cites various
interpretations of scholars of hadith and Sufis shaykhs for the termsam as employed in this
hadith. See al-Shawkn, Qatr al-wal al hadth al-wal, ed. IbrhmIbrhmHill (Cairo: Dr
al-Kutub al-Hadtha, 1979), pp. 428-440.
27
Sulam, Kitb al-sam, p. 17.


Kenneth HONERKAMP 8
Sam is the practical experience (tajriba) of the devotees, the
clarity (bayn) of the muhaqqiqn, the arousal of desire of the
people of divine love (al-muhibbn), solace for the hearts of the
righteous (al-sdiqn) and the rending the veil [of self-
deception] from those engrossed in vain discourse (mubtiln).
28

Sulams defense of Sufism stresses the integral nature of sam within
Sufi methodology. The derivation of a legal ruling, although important, is
too simplistic to be compatible with the intricacies of sam. Primary to the
permissibility of sam for Sulam is the spiritual state and station of the
aspirant. The judicial status of sam depends upon the station of the
aspirant; as Sulam relates from Ab Sahl Muhammad b. Sulaymn:
29
Sam is a laudable practice (yastahibbu) for the people of
realized knowledge, permitted (yubhu) for the pious people of
scruples and ritual worship, and reprehensible (yukrahu) for
those who listen as entertainment.
30

The diversity among aspirants and the capacity of the nafs to follow its
own caprices led the Sufis to prescribe prerequisites for those wishing to
attend sessions of sam.
31
Only those who fulfilled these conditions were
considered to be the people of sam, for them sam was licit. Sulam
describes one of them:
He is who has sought to perfect himself outwardly, through
spiritual training and striving while inwardly he seeks
perfection through reflection and self-appraisal. He occupies
each moment with behavior in accordance with the example of
the Prophet (sunnan). There is no portion left for him in his
nafs, nor has he any claims upon creation and that which it
comprises. As I heard my grandfather Ab Amr Isml b.

28
Ibid., 24.
29
Muhammad b. Sulaymn al-Sulk (d. 369/980) frequented Ab Bakr al-Shibl (d. 334/946)
and was a scholar of jurisprudence and among the most knowledgeable of the Sufis of his age.
See Ibn Mulaqqin, Tabaqt al-awly, ed. Nr al-Dn Shurayba (Cairo: Matba Dr al-Talf,
1973), p. 215 and the references cited there.
30
Sulam, Kitb al-sam, p. 16.
31
Sulam refutes a mistaken notion many claimants to Sufismhad concerning sam. He states:
[Among the Sufis] a group has mistakenly assumed that tasawwuf is making utterances (qawl),
ecstatic dancing (raqs), participation in sessions of listening to the melodic recitation of poetry,
and making pretentious claims and exaggerated expenditures on gatherings. [They have come to
this conclusion] because they saw some of the worthy elders enjoying sessions of sam from
time to time. Such as these are mistaken for they do not know that every heart is polluted with
something of the mundane. [Therefore] sam is not permissible advised for any frivolous
heedless ego-self (nafs). Moreover, it is forbidden, and latter opinion is the most authoritative.
J unayd May God be pleased with him said to someone who has asked himabout sam,
When you see a devotee attracted to sam, know that there remains in him (f nafsihi)
something of frivolity. See Sulam, Usl al-malmatiyya wa-ghalatt al-sfiyya, p. 184.
AB ABD AL-RAHMN AL-SULAM 9
Nujayd say: Sam in only licit (hall) for one whose heart is
alive and his nafs is dead; as for one whose heart is dead and
his nafs is alive, sam is not licit for him.
32

These prerequisites or adab were an aid to the realization of the inner
states of sam. As a general principle adab provided a normative basis of
conduct for the devotee upon the spiritual path. The adab of sam required
an attitude of detachment from ones ego-self (nafs) and individual
inclinations (tab). For Sulam the adab of sam represented a methodology
that opened the individual to experiential knowledge of God and insured the
authenticity of the ecstatic states (mawjd) that may arise during sam.
WAJD
In the same manner that the character of sam corresponds with the
station and experience of the aspirant, the intensity of wajd induced during a
concert of sam depends on his state, knowledge, love, and ardor. In Kitb
al-sam and Mahsin al-tasawwuf, Sulam alludes to wajd within the
context of his discourse on sam but does not go into detail.
33
In another
work, Fusl f tasawwuf,
34
however, he devotes two lengthy passages to wajd
bringing to the discourse his distinctive awareness of the hierarchical nature
of spiritual experience. Sulam affirms that sound ecstatic states (mawjd, pl.
of wajd)
35
have signs and characteristics that are discernible in the inner
attitudes and outward comportment of the Sufi. These inner attitudes are
founded first and foremost upon experiential knowledge of God (marifa),
His names and attributes. As the aspirant assimilates these divine attributes
they manifest inwardly in him as fear, hope, awe, compassion, patience,
contentment with Gods decrees, certainty, veracity, love, and fervor.
Outwardly he watches over his inner disposition, conforms to the law in
permitted things and shuns the prohibited, his sustenance is licit and he
regards all his actions as blameworthy.
When he listens to invocation (dhikr) or sam he experiences
wajd, and through this wajd, induced by his experience of

32
Sulam, Kitb al-sam, p. 16.
33
Both these works, given their polemical methodology, seemdirected to a Sufi community
attracted to erudite intellectual discourse.
34
This work is a collection of short discourses, most probably delivered in the small Sufi lodge
(duwayra) where Sulam taught in Nishapur. It represents a rare example of the intimate
mentor/student dialogue that marked Sufismbefore the formation of formal Sufi orders. Wajd,
when seen as an aspect of marifa, pertains to the domain of the teachings directed to
experienced aspirants, which in the case of Kitb al-fusl are Sulams own students.
35
Al-Qusharyr cites, on the authority of the early mentors (mashyikh), that, Al-wajd comes
unexpectedly, while mawjd are the fruit of recited litanies (awrd). Whoever augments his
daily practices increases in his blessings fromGod. See Al-Qusharyr, al-Risla al-Qushayra,
p. 62. Sulam uses the plural here within the context of his discourse on sam, I have therefore
treated mawjd in this instance as the plural of wajd.


Kenneth HONERKAMP 10
sam, his being (wujd) is transformed to true being (haqqa).
When dhikr and sam encounter his inner-self (sirr) they find
it resonating with spiritual states. When they encounter his
outward aspect they find him adorned with worthy demeanor
and right conduct. The states of wajd that rush in upon him
conform with his state. If his sam is by God, his being is by
God, and if his sam is by the attributes of God, his being is
Gods preservation of his sirr from the awareness of any other
than God. When his sam is from God, He effaces him from
his own attributes, so that there remains of him neither attribute
nor trace. When his sam is by his human nature, experiential
moment, or discrete state he is between one who errs and one
who hits the mark, all in accord with his moment, states, and
attributes.
36

Sulam remains largely exegetical in this part of his discourse, depicting
wajd and its attendant states as the consequences of a process of spiritual
training and transformation. Wajd, as understood by Sulam and the Sufis of
his time, however, was more than cognitive phenomena on the part of the
aspirant. It often induced intense emotions, cries of joy or sorrow, physical
agitation, and movement.
Sulams treatment of these tangible consequences of wajd affords us a
rare view of the experiential component of sam. Sulam regarded any overt
display of wajd, such as agitation (inzij) or movement (haraka), as
blameworthy in those who hear by God, and in God since this is the station
of reverent awe and extinction in God.
37
For one who had attained to
experiential knowledge of God (rif), however, it was excusable in the case
that he should become distraught over the passing of a fleeting vision of the
divine perfection in creation or be overcome by a state he has no capacity to
bear. Agitation at times may be praiseworthy in a devotee focused upon his
own discrete attributes and states. During sam his past lapses, poor
choices, and indiscretions may be disclosed to him. This is a state particular
to devotees (murdn).
38
Sulam sees movement and agitation that emanate
from the habits of the ego-self as blameworthy in the devotee, but not for the
common folk. Sam and the reactions it brings about in the common folk
may have positive consequences such as admonition and purification. It may

36
Sulam, Kitb fusl f tasawwuf, fol. 206v.
37
Ibid. In this passage Sulam echoes the Malmatiyya viewpoint concerning wajd: Among the
foundations of the Malmatiyya is the principle that when sam acts upon one of realized
knowledge (mutahaqqaq), his reverent awe would prohibit himfrommovement or crying out. I
heard Muhammad b. al-Hasan al-Khashshb say, I heard Al b. Hrn al-Husr say, When true
sam finds harmony in the heart of one of realized knowledge it adorns himwith diverse divine
favors, the first being that his reverent awe overcomes all those present until they neither move,
cry out, nor are distraught, his state is manifest in theirs. Sulam, Rislat al-malmatiyya, pp.
112-13.
38
Sulam, Fusl f al-tasawwuf, fol. 206v.
AB ABD AL-RAHMN AL-SULAM 11
provoke laudable attributes in them as well. In devotees, however, these
states of agitation may cause them to make claims to lofty degrees of
intimacy with God when in reality they are the capricious whims and the
self-deception of the ego-self.
39

In another section Sulam categorizes those who are induced to
movement (al-mutaharrikn) during sam. Among them are those who
naturally enjoy elegant melodies and beautiful voices, the penitent sinner
who listens in sorrow, fear and regret, the devotee moved by the mention of
Gods bounty and compassion, the rif moved by the names of God and His
attributes, and the lover moved by his yearning for the beloved. These
movements, however, are ephemeral and do not last. Then there are those
who have arrived (wsil), who listen, lost to themselves having attained to
the Divine presence. They may move according to their experiential state, but
only as the frailty of servanthood dictates. Then there are those who are well
established in the way (mustaqm). For these latter Sufis, sam in itself has
no influence upon them. In all they hear there is wisdom, in all they see there
is admonition. They hear the Real (al-Haqq) at all times through their
innermost secret (sirr) and their heart. Their hearing is perception, as in the
Quranic verse, Indeed in that is a reminder for one who possesses a heart
or hears while being a witness. [Q 50: 37]. Sulam completes this section
with the mention of those whose outer and inner aspects are so jealously
guarded by God that he possesses no state by which he is known or even
noticed. He is unique, his state and moment are uniquely with God. Sulam
says, his sam is a play of illusion and appearances (al-talbs wal-
ashkl).
40

ADAB
The behavior incumbent upon those who attend a concert of sam are
summed up in the well-known statement of Junayd: The requirements of
sam are three in number: [suitable] brothers, [a suitable] place and [a
suitable] time.
41
These articles of adab became the foundational precepts for
the regulation of sam concerts from Sulams time and are reflected in all
the earlier cited works dealing with sam. Of particular interest in Kitb al-
sam and Mahsin al-tasawwuf is the role of the shaykh as the axis around
which the participants states revolve. Concisely put, the prerequisites of

39
Ibid., fol. 207r.
40
Sulam, Kitb fusl f al-tasawwuf, fol.221v 222r. At the end of this passage Sulam alludes
to the hidden or unrecognized friends of God living among his fellows. This is a concept central
to the teachings of the Malmatiyyaof Nishapr to whomanonymity was a sign of Gods favor.
See Sulam, Rislat al-malmatiyya, pp. 98, 105, 110, 112-114, 117. This archetype comes from
the earliest Islamic times, an example being the hadith, There are many disheveled dust covered
men, [that would be] shoved away frompeoples doors, that if they made an oath on God, He
would make it so. Al-Ajln, Kashf al-khaf, ed. Ahmad al-Qalsh (Beirut: Muassasat al-
Rislat, 1988), 1/512.
41
Sulam, Kitb mahsin al-tasawwuf, fol. 209v.


Kenneth HONERKAMP 12
sam are as follows:
Only attend a concert of sam with ahl al-sam and those aspirants
whose spiritual states augment your own state.
42
It is generally regarded as reprehensible (makrh) for devotees and
youths to assemble for sam without a shaykh being present or someone
who has exemplary presence and companionship.
43
When there is a shaykh present you should focus your attention on him,
not on your own transient state. Whatever elevated states of sam emanate
from him, their blessing (baraka) will descend upon you.
44

A shaykh that attends a gathering of sam where devotees and youths
are present should inform them that his presence among them is for reasons
of companionship and as an example, not out of obligation [as a necessity of
Sufism].
45
When shaykhs associate in sam with their peers, let each of them
concentrate on his own state without blaming any of their companions
whether they move or are remain motionless.
46

Do not accede to doubt of the words recited in sam and do not blame
anyone who becomes agitated or transported in tawjud, whether you
comprehend their intent or not.
47

Refrain from making suggestions to the reciter.
48

Do not allow sam to become mere emulation (taqld).
49

The best of those who attend a concert of sam are those who discern
between their wajd, wujd, and tawjud during sam. For them sam does
not become a routine or natural proclivity.
50
Do not force yourself to cry out or become agitated except in the case of
intense emotions.
51

DANCE
One of the issues that wajd gave rise to was rhythmic movement, or

42
Sulam, Kitb al-sam, 24.
43
Sulam, Kitb mahsin al-tasawwuf, fol. 210r.
44
Ibid., 209v.
45
Ibid., 210r.
46
Ibid.
47
Ibid., 209v.
48
Sulam, Kitb al-sam, 24.
49
Sulam, Kitb mahsin al-tasawwuf, fol. 209v.
50
Ibid.
51
Ibid.
AB ABD AL-RAHMN AL-SULAM 13
dance. In Mahsin al-tasawwuf, within the context of sam, Sulam includes
dance, keeping rhythm with a baton, and wearing the patched frock as being
among the admissible practices (rukhas) of Sufism. Sulam writes, Dancing
is among the admissible things; it is not, however, considered among the
essential aspects of Sufism.
52
He cites two Qurnic foundations for dance.
We strengthened their hearts and they stood up and said, Our Lord is
the Lord of the heavens and the earth, we will never call upon any deity
other than He. [Q 18:14]. Strike with your foot, herein there is cold water
to drink and wash in [Q 38:42].
Sulam also cites Mlik b. Dnr as saying: It is written in the Torah:
We called out to you in fervor and you did not respond with fervor; we
played the flute for you and you did not dance.
53
In the following curious
citation from Wahb b. Munabbih, dance is a divinely endowed human
attribute from the time of Adam:
When Adam was created, God molded him in the best
semblance and adorned him with the ornaments of the Garden
(al-janna). He put rings on his fingers, anklets on his ankles,
bands on his forearms, and around his neck he placed
necklaces. He crowned him and adorned his forehead with a
wreath and called him by the most beloved of surnames to
Him, Y Ab Muhammad, wander about the Garden and see if
you find anyone comparable to you or if I have created anyone
more wondrously than yourself? Adam turned about the
Garden and not seeing anyone more wondrous than he, began
to swagger (zah) and stride proudly (khatar) through the
Garden. God looked well upon this and called out to him from
the Throne, Swagger on, O Adam, one such as you has the
right to swagger; I have cherished something and created it
without equal.
54
Sulam amends this citation with, From this time on God passed down
this swaggering walk to the descendants of Adam. In the ignorant this
manner of walking is arrogance; in kings it is disdain; and in the friends of
God (al-awliy) it is ecstatic joy (wajd).
55
Sulam also held that keeping a
beat to the rhythm with a baton was a permissible distraction (mubh) similar
in legal status to archery, training horses, and a mans enjoying himself with
his family.

52
Ibid., 210v.
53
Matthew 11:17 and Luke 7:31. It is of interest that Mlik b. Dnr cites this as being fromthe
Torah.
54
Sulam, Kitb mahsin al-tasawwuf, fol. 211r. I have not found a second reference to this
citation in the works available to me.
55
Ibid.



Kenneth HONERKAMP 14
I would like to conclude here, reaffirming that the principles, attributes,
and etiquette of sam as portrayed by Sulam are as relevant today as they
were in Sulams time. The concert of sam has made its way from the
traditional Islamic world to Europe and North America and taken on many
new guises and permutations. The critics of sam have continued to
publicize their polemics against sam, even through the innovation (!) of the
internet. The audience, however, is as reflective today of the multi-faceted
human state as in the times of Sulam. People still attend concerts of sam
seeking purification, inner peace, and repose. In his treatment, Sulam has
contextualized sam within the human condition, from the music lover to the
people of realized knowledge. If the comprehension of an issue is the
prerequisite to judging it, Kitb al-sam has provided us with the key. Note
Sulams suggestion to the critics of sam:
There is no reason therefore [for the critics] to find fault with
sam. In fact, should they sense hardness in their hearts or
indolence in themselves, it behooves them to partake of sam
so that their hearts be raised up and enlivened therein to
obedience.
56

Kenneth HONERKAMP
University of Georgia



56
Sulam, Kitb al-sam, 14.