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PLATE

AULETE PLAYING ON THE DOUBLE AULOI

FROM

'

THE THRONE OF VENUS

'

5TH CENTURY

The

B.C.

position of the Aulete with head bent over the Auloi, thus relaxing the muscles of
the glottis, implies a melos with a low tessitura such as that of the Hypophrygian H<-monia

Museo

Ludovici,

Rome

THE GREEK AULOS

A STUDY OF ITS MECHANISM AND OF ITS RELATION
TO THE MODAL SYSTEM OF ANCIENT GREEK MUSIC
followed by

A SURVEY OF THE GREEK HARMONIAI IN SURVIVAL

OR REBIRTH IN FOLK-MUSIC
by

KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER

'

fi

fisgrj

de a.Q/uovia

avzfjg xai

rd

fxeyiQ-q

(paiverai re to.

xai at
laopLSTQiav'

ARIST.

FR.

43 BEKKER

With an Introduction by
J.

F.

MOUNTFORD

PROFESSOP OF LATIN IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL

BOUMA'S BOEKHUIS

GRONINGEN

N.V.

PUBLISHER

1970

90-

6088-027-7.

Unchanged Reprint of the Edition

Methuen London 1939.

TO

ELSIE

HAMILTON

AND OUR LONG AND HAPPY FRIENDSHIP

and

to

THE MEMORY
OF THE BEST OF BROTHERS

HARRY ADRIAN BURGESS

PREFACE

FOR

the last three centuries eminent scholars of

many

nations

have attempted to fathom the mysteries of Greek music

without reaching any general agreement. There would,
therefore, seem to be some justification for the introduction at
this point 1 of a new musical fact which bears directly upon the
very foundations of the Greek Musical System.
The aim of the present work is not to supersede what has
gone before, but to open out a new avenue of approach to this
difficult subject.
This study does not, moreover, attempt a
comprehensive survey of the rise and development of Music in
Ancient Greece, but it offers a new conception of the nature of
Modality based upon ascertained evidence. I have, therefore,
confined myself in this study to placing before the reader the
new data with their implications, and to giving an account of
such experimental tests and their results as may prove useful to
other investigators in the

The

field.

which brings the Modes to birth is found

flutes, in which the fmgerholes have been
placed at equal distances, a proceeding which seems to be instinctive and universal.
A new world and a new language of Music
stand revealed, in which surprising adventures and experiences
in theory and practice abound
but, it must be confessed, the
perusal of this volume may put the enthusiasm and patience of
basic principle

embodied

in pipes

and

the reader to a severe

test.

I had for a long time been greatly attracted by the significance

and reactions of harmonic overtones, and I was carrying out
certain experiments on my long psaltery 2 when I came upon
the discovery of the basic principle of Modality, which is described
in Chapter i.
That principle in operation revealed the cause of
1
The latest authoritative pronouncement on the subject by R. P. WinningtonIngram (Camb. Univ. Press, 1936), Mode in Ancient Greek Music, concludes a lucid
and reasoned survey of available evidence on a somewhat despondent note admitting
the failure of the quest, but adding the hope that one day the illuminating hypothesis
will be struck which is to fuse all unrelated parts into a coherent whole.
2
An instrument strung with eight steel strings of the same length, but of different
thickness and weight, and tuned in unison conditions which favour a rich polyphonic
harmonic development, strengthened by the phenomenon of resonance.

vii

THE GREEK AULOS

viii

what has sometimes been termed in writings on Greek music,

the movable Mese
i.e. the Mese placed upon a different degree
of the octave scale in each Harmonia or Species, viz. on the
seventh degree in the Mixolydian
on the sixth in the Lydian
on the fifth in the Phrygian
on the fourth in the Dorian
on
the third in the Hypolydian
and on the second for the Hypophrygian
while in the Hypodorian, the Mese was both Alpha
and Omega. This new orientation inevitably led to a protracted
'

investigation, lasting

and

many

practice of the Aulos

years,

and

its

into the behaviour in theory

mouthpieces, and later of the

primitive and medieval flutes having equidistant fingerholes.

The

results of this investigation constitute the basis of the present

work.

At the inception of this revolutionary idea, which shed a new

upon the Modal System of Ancient Greece, my joy was
tempered by a faint realization of the immensity of the task thus
imposed upon one who was so poorly equipped for the purpose.
Only my intense belief in the Greek genius gave me the courage
to proceed.
In my eventual search through the Greek and
Graeco-Roman sources, for a confirmation of this revealing modal
process, I had the good fortune to enlist the help of Mrs. Elizabeth
Johnson, B.A., who translated viva voce from the Greek and
light

Latin, as literally as possible, in order to afford scope for discus-

sion of passages of vital interest but

now

considered in the light

been of great
For some years
we worked together at regular intervals translating the whole of
Ptolemy's Harmonics, Meibomius and numerous other treatises
and quotations. Needless to say, no such description of the basic
principle of Modality was found in the sources, although Aristotle
(in Fragment 43 Bekker) does name, in a terse statement, the
factors responsible for the Harmonia.
While to the initiated his
few words constitute illuminating evidence, scholars have passed
them by as meaningless. The passage is fully discussed at the
beginning of Chapter v, which treats of the evidence brought
forward in support of my thesis.
It is not suggested that the significance and implications of
the Aulos Harmoniai altogether rule out the system founded upon
the ditonal scale, described by the Graeco-Roman theorists, but
that a corner of the veil, which had for centuries obscured the
Modal System of the Greeks, has been lifted. The fact is thereb]'
revealed that these two systems, the Modal of the Harmonists,
and the non-modal ditonal, were in use contemporaneously in
of the

new

musical

assistance to

me

fact.

These

translations have

in preparing the background.

PREFACE

ix

emphasized by some twelve Polemics

directed by Aristoxenus against the Harmonists (the custodians
of the Harmonia), which I have collected and discussed in
Chapters ii and v. These bitter, and sometimes violent, tirades
contain precious evidence of all the salient points in the system
they bear witness, moreover, to the great
of the Harmoniai
importance and influence of the teachings promulgated in the
Schools of the Harmonists during the lifetime of Aristoxenus.
The separate trails of these two systems are kept in view throughout the book. The culmination is reached when Sebastian Virdung
and Martin Agricola exhibit graphic and textual evidence of an
attempt that was under weigh early in the sixteenth century for
fusing the two systems the Keyboard scale in use by the Church
Greece, a fact which

is

Harmonia of flutes and shawms by town bands,

and among the Folk. The process of transformation is discussed
and illustrated in Chapter vii.
While there is, of course, a plentiful supply of a priori evidence
of the existence of the Aulos Harmoniai, the evidence for the
actual use by the Ancient Greeks of these modal sequences, with
the ratios I have assigned to them on ascertained facts is set
The most striking, positive testiforth in detail in Chapter v.
mony of all is, I consider, first the brief dictum of Aristotle,
already mentioned, on the Harmonia as based upon a number and
equal measure (iao/isrola), and secondly the Harmonic Canon of
Florence, a unique document which reveals the sequence resulting
from an aliquot division by a modal determinant, applied segment
by segment, and to each degree by name in the Perfect Immutable
System. To these may be added the identification of some
half-dozen of Ptolemy's shades of the Genera when arranged
with my statement of the modal ratios of the Tonos.
in sequence
But one of the greatest tributes to the Greek genius offered
by the Art of Music is, in my opinion, the subtle and original
use made of the basic principle underlying the Modal Harmonia,
Here
in the inception of the scheme of Greek musical notation.
it is found that the ingenious idea worked out in this scheme
both duly recognized as
consists in the use of two progressions
sequentially inevitable
on the one hand of the letters of the
Greek Alphabet, and on the other of the arithmetical progression
How the juxtaposition of these two sequences occurs
of ratios.
in the notation of the Tonoi (established in the Tables of Alypius)
expressed
in such a manner that for every letter symbol there is
or implied a ratio number, is explained in Appendix No. i, in
which only a brief interpretation of the system could be included,

musicians, and the


THE GREEK AULOS

for the adequate treatment of the questions involved

would require
a book to itself.
The use I have made of the modal ratios in
the interpretation of the Fragments of Greek Music in Chapter ix
will, I hope, be found useful
they direct our attention to the
:

characteristic modal features of the Harmonia displayed in the

music with great emphasis as closes but whether we should be
justified in regarding this usage as consciously imposed by canons
of composition is doubtful.
These few relics of Greek Music
regarded as prototypes form an apt introduction to our quest
for the Harmonia in survival or rebirth in the Folk music of
;

many

distant lands.

native musician in
Sumatra, for instance, every whit as susceptible as the Greeks,
Hypophrygian Harmonia, thus
affording evidence of the inherent power of these universal modes.
The emergence of the Hypophrygian mode in Sumatra is only
one of many such examples recorded in Chapter ix. The origin
It is startling to find a

to the characteristic features of the

of the Ecclesiastical

Modes

is

traced in Appendix No. 2 to a radical

change of mode from Dorian to Phrygian in the Perfect Immutable

System of the Tonoi.
The possibilities of the adoption of the new language of Music,
derived from the Ancient Greek Harmoniai, for use in modern
composition which have been considered in Appendix No. 3
have for some years been exploited by one modern composer,
Elsie Hamilton, and performances of her compositions given
in London since 19 17 (invariably received with enthusiasm
by the audience) may be remembered by some of the readers.
The general adoption of this new language of music not merely
entails a mastery of the novel intonation of the dialects, as well
as a resigned acceptance of technical difficulties concerned with
musical instruments but unfortunately initial attempts sooner or
later come up against economic barriers which, however, a considerable increase in adherents would tend to minimize.
The
crucial test will ultimately resolve itself into the decisive query
does the new language of music provide increased facilities for

differentiated expression of

and feelings, which

music ?

more

subtle psychological reactions

are unobtainable with the older language of

Finally, future investigators in this

to seek first of

for its verdict

all

domain

is final

modality

be well-advised

the Greek Hypolydian Harmonia)

but

first

If when tested
modern major (i.e.

at discretion.

the pipe should emit a scale resembling our

false conclusions,

will

the reed-blown pipe with equidistant fingerholes,

let

the inquirer not be led to

try the effect of other

mouthpieces

PREFACE
the

more

primitive the better

xi

with a longer stem extruding from

There are two kinds of scale which cannot be

ascribed to a reed-blown pipe, bored according to the principle
of equal measure (i) the ditonal scale, (2) any one scale regarded
the resonator.

as standard.

do not forget what I owe to Mabel Goschen (Mrs. Gerard

Cobb) for it was as a result of the many happy months spent
with her in Dresden in the 'nineties, that our common interest and enthusiasm became centred in the instruments of the
orchestra
it was, in fact, at her suggestion that I began to gather
materials which eventually led to my work in the archaeology
I

of Music.

During the many years spent

so

many kind

services,

in the preparation of this volume,

rendered by colleagues and fellow-workers

in this field of research, gifts of general literature, musical instru-

ments, photographs, &c, have been lavished upon me, that I am

glad to be able to recall and associate with me in this publication
the names of the many who have encouraged and stimulated me

my

Foremost of all my grateful thanks are due to my

Hamilton (of Adelaide, South Australia), for
her unvarying readiness to help on this work in every possible
way, so that I have been able to devote these many years to the
investigations and experiments upon which The Greek Aulos is
based, and to the research for confirmatory evidence in the literary
sources.
As a composer, Elsie Hamilton has, besides, shown
herself ever ready (as may be read in Appendix No. 3) to co-operate
in the endeavour to make the new (old) language of Music,
founded upon the Harmonia, a practical reality in the music of
our own day, and of the immediate future a project which finds
itself checked ever and anon by economic barriers.
To Professor J. F. Mountford, I am deeply indebted for one
of the rarest gifts from one worker to another, namely a disinterested and constant interest displayed over many years, not
only in the somewhat revolutionary thesis of this volume, but
in

work.

close friend, Elsie

extended generously also to the smallest

details.

He

has willingly

discussed difficult issues, and offered shrewd and pertinent criticism, valuable advice and encouragement.
To my lasting regret,

however,

I realize that

the disclosure, during our long correspon-

new but unpublished ideas and data, may have caused

postpone his own separate contributions to the study of

dence, of

him

to

Greek Music.

Warm
and

appreciation and heartfelt thanks are due to

efficient secretary,

my

devoted

Miss Annie Copperwaite, who has been

THE GREEK AULOS

xii

of the greatest assistance to

diagrams and tables

me

in typing the chapters

in the boring of

pipes and finally in preparing the work

helped very materially in carrying out
task of revising chapters, written over
in correcting proofs and in making the

innumerable

copying

flutes

and

when she
the exceptionally heavy
a long period of years,
for the press,

index.

am

deeply indebted also to the Institute of Archaeology, in

the University of Liverpool (and primarily to Professor John
Garstang and Sir Robert Mond), who have granted me the distinction of holding their fellowship in the Archaeology of Music
continuously since 191 5. The confidence they have shown during
this long period in the value of the work I had undertaken has
been an unfailing source of strength and inspiration to me.
I also offer sincere thanks to Sir Robert Mond for his appreciative interest and for various contributions in aid of my investigations, of books, and musical instruments, including two
interesting sets of panpipes from Sicily, tuned to the modal
intervals of the Harmonia, and for a case containing some 50
flutes, obtained for me from Egypt, most of them precisely bored
to give one of the Harmoniai (see Table XI).
To Mr. A. H. Fox Strangways I owe much, and notably my
initiation into the mysteries of cents, some twenty years ago.
On
important questions of origins of scales and musical systems, our
views tend to diverge fundamentally. I have, indeed, spent many
hours on end with him in stimulating and enjoyable discussion,
but on certain issues there is invariably a clash of opinions, without any hope of convincing the opponent. Nevertheless, the fact
that both are so keen adds zest, so that in spite of all we remain
I

friends.
I

gladly take this opportunity of recording

my

indebtedness

Miss Maisie F. Grant (daughter of Mrs. Grant of

Liverpool), a most enthusiastic, gifted and highly efficient student
of all this lore concerning the Harmoniai. During her travels in
many parts of the East, she did valuable work measuring flutes
notably in the Cairo Museum testing and comparing data with
the modal monochord
discussing scales, &c, with native musicians and Arabian professors, and carefully noting results.
From
her visit to South Africa she brought back many musical instruments
she induced friends in India to collect flutes for her.
All of these valuable specimens and data she bequeathed to me
when her early death in Egypt deprived me of a valued collaborator.
My hearty thanks are due to many besides for gifts of instruments
the late Mrs. Ludwig Mond and Sir Robert Mond
to

to the late

;;
;

PREFACE

xiii

Feroza (Mrs. P. A. Narielwala of Bombay)

Mr. George Kaufmann, M.A.
the late Mr. H. A. Burgess
Mr. T. J. Bezemer
(Holland)
Mr. Soekawati of Batavia
Mr. C. Lekkerkerker,
Director of the Bali Institute (Colonial Inst, in Amsterdam)
Mrs. Elizabeth Ayres Kidd (of Winnetka, 111., U.S.A.); Miss
Marian Storm (of Uruapan, Mexico) Canon Galpin Dr. A. N.
Tucker ; the Egypt Exploration Society, and to Mr. O. H. Myers,
Director of Excavations at Armant, Egypt. To Miss Anita Berry,
Hon. Organizer of the Arts League of Service Miss W. Roelvink
and Miss Mary Wilbers (Holland)
Miss Carita Stenbeck (Finland)
Miss Florence Pertz for an album of gramophone records
Die Musik d. Orients ', and finally for constant supplies of wheat
and oat stalks, and river reeds to Mrs. W. Copperwaite and Mrs.
Percy Gurney of Clifton, Beds.
For gifts of books, pamphlets, off-prints and photographs, my
sincere thanks are due to the late Mrs. Ludwig Mond ; Dr. Otto
Andersson
Professor J. F. Mountford
the late Mr. A. J.
Hipkins Professor Dayton C. Miller (Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.)
Professor Jacques Handschin (Zurich)
the late Miss Hortense
Panum (Denmark) Dr. Rudolf Wagner (Furth) M. Theodore
Reinach ; M. Victor Loret
M. Victor Ch. Mahillon (Brussels)
M. Ed. Pottier (Louvre, Paris) Professor Dr. Joh. Wolff ; Dr.
E. M. von Hornbostel
Baron Alex. Kraus (Florence and Fiesole)
Sir Donald Tovey
Professor Percival Kirby (Johannesburg)
Dr. Manfred Bukofzer (Basel)
Mr. L. Langwill (Edinburgh)
Mr. A. A. Pearson (Folk Song) the late Dr. W. G. McNaught
Professor H. J. W. Tillyard, and Miss V. C. C. Collum. 1
For permission to reproduce unpublished tables and data I
am greatly indebted to Dr. Jaap Kunst (Batavia and Amsterdam)
;

'

(see

Chapter

viii).

to use passages

to his late father's

Brazilien.

To

To Herr

E. Koch-Griinberg for authorization

from E. M. von Hornbostel's Appendix
book, Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern von N. W.

and

tables

the Director of the British

Museum for permission

and likewise to M. Alex. Philadelpheus,

Director of the National Museum at Athens
and to Dr. Legrain,

to reproduce photographs,

Museum at Philadelphia for a full-size

Ur (see Table XIV and PI. 18).
I am also grateful for all the kind assistance given to me in
the Reading Room at the British Museum by the Superintendents,
Director of the University

photograph of the Pipes of

past and present, especially to

Ellis,
1

M.A., and

also to

Mr. G. Barwick, and to Mr. A. J.

Mr. F. G. Rendell, F.S.A. (assistant

The Music of Growth, by Collum (Partridge, London, 1933), and

the Shoo King (tr. by W. H. Medhurst, Sen.).

extracts

from

THE GREEK AULOS

xiv

and

to Mr. A. H. Smith of the Graeco-Roman

department.
I am glad to acknowledge here also how stimulating has been
the effect of the generous appreciation of my work, bestowed
upon me by Sir Percy C. Buck and Sir W. H. Hadow and others,

superintendent)

on various

Nor do

occasions.
I forget finally

how much

owe

to staunch

and valued

friends for so readily proffering assistance of every kind

my

to

Busch with whom, as a creative musician,

I have enjoyed many stimulating and fruitful discussions on
aspects of music of vital interest to my subject.
To my friends
Miss Zabelle Boyajian (for information on Armenian folk songs)
to Miss Netta Peacock, and Mrs. Elizabeth Johnson, B.A., for
friend William

their willing help in checking references at the British

Museum.

To

Muriel Campbell with special reference to Anthropology, and

Cameron in respect of Palaeography also to Mrs. Ethel
to Miss Dorothy Fraser
and to Mr. and
Mrs. R. Chatwin.
Finally, my grateful thanks to Dr. A. Maud Swanson for her
wise and stimulating care and interest during the strenuous

to Jessie

Gillespie (Australia)

months of 1937-8.

KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER
HlGHGATE
London, N.6

INTRODUCTION

WHAT
arid

was the nature of Greek music and how did it differ from
our own ? A full and complete answer to these questions would
be of enormous interest both to the student of Greek literature
philosophy and to the musician who concerns himself with the develop-

ment

of his

The

art.

curiosity of the

in the third

book of

Greek scholar

is

aroused especially by a passage

Plato's Republic (398c~399e),

discusses the music suitable for his Ideal State.

where the philosopher

The

education of the

was not to consist of the acquirement of accomplishments, it was not to be even a merely intellectual process, but primarily
With this ethical end in view, Plato was prepared to include
a moral one.
music as one of the studies of a young person. By a suitable training in
music of the best and most fitting kinds, the child would be guided to
In a perfect world
virtue and his soul would be led in the right path.
good music was to be no less important than good and moral literature.
Some types of music current in Greece were regarded by Plato as unsuitThe scales (ag/uovlai), such as the
able for use in his Commonwealth.
Mixolydian and the Syntonolydian, in which lamentations were composed,
and those which, like the Ionian and the Lydian, were adapted to effeminate
and two scales only, the Dorian and the
or convivial songs were rejected
Phrygian, were left which would represent the noble endurance of a brave
man in battle or the sobriety and moderation of a citizen at peace. This
view of music, which is analogous to Plato's application of moral criteria
to the judgement of literature, is something more than a young man's
dogmatism
for it is reiterated in the Laws (Sizb), a work written when
To the
Plato had a still wider experience of men and affairs behind him.
end of his life he held that music is in itself the representation or reproduction in another medium of goodness or badness in the soul, and that
by hearing good music a child is brought into contact with a good soul
and so through music is assisted on the path towards virtue.
Nor does this doctrine arise from some personal idiosyncrasy of Plato
While
for in his Politics (viii, 4-8), Aristotle expresses a similar view.
admitting that it is legitimate to make use of music simply as a relaxation,
he is quite clear that music has a tendency to form the moral character
and influence the very soul.
citizens of this State

It is in rhythms and melodies [he says] that we have the most realistic imitations
of anger and mildness as well as of courage and temperance and all their opposites
and of moral qualities in general. This we can see from actual experience ; for
when listening to such imitations we suffer a change within our soul. But to acquire

xv

THE GREEK AULOS

xvi

the habit of feeling pleasure or pain upon the occurrence of resemblances is clearly
allied to having the same feelings in the presence of the original [p. 1340a].

little later (p.

(&Q[iovuu),

most

1342a) he says

but not

all

in the

'
:

Clearly

same way

we must make use of all scales

we must use the

for education

ethical (rjdixwTaraig) scales.'

We ourselves appreciate the transient effects of music on our emotions

and we understand that some kinds of music are exciting and others soothBut our likes and dislikes are determined by considerations of melodiousness or cacophony, or by the skill of the composer's harmonies and
counterpoint, or by the almost intellectual pleasure in formal developments.
We do not praise or condemn a musical work because of its possible effects
on our own souls or characters, or even on those of our neighbours. Whether
Plato and Aristotle were right in attributing such power to music need not

ing.

concern us here

the essential point

is

that they associated with their

Their testimony

various scales (aQ/zovtai) distinctive categories of feeling.

confirmed by

many

lyric, tragic, and comic

and most strikingly by the anecdote of the composer Philoxenus,
who found it impossible to write a dithyramb in a scale other than the
Phrygian usually associated with that type of poem. This well-attested
sensitivity of the Greeks is not to be explained by supposing that in aesthetic
appreciation they differed fundamentally from ourselves. The reason must
be that their music was capable, in some way which modern music is not,

in this matter

is

passages in the

poets,

of expressing clearly the varying shades of feeling.

The musician is attracted to the study of Greek music not merely

because any manifestation of the art of organized sound is of interest to
him ; but largely because of a widespread impression that the music of
Western Europe is in some obscure way derived from that of ancient
Greece. There is a tradition that St. Ambrose of Milan, in the second
half of the fourth century, took four modes from the Greeks
and made
them the basis of ecclesiastical music
and that later Pope Gregory the
Great added four more. This tradition does not account for the fact that
the Church system has eight modes, whereas the ancient Greek system from
which they are supposed to be taken had only seven or for the fact that
the interval sequences of the Church modes do not correspond with what
we know of the Greek modes of the same names. The tradition, indeed,
is not based on any solid authority
so far as St. Ambrose is concerned,
it seems that his innovation was the introduction, not of
modes hitherto
unknown to Western Europe, but of antiphonal singing from the Greek
Church of Antioch
and Pope Gregory's services to Church music con'

',

'

'

sisted in the systematization of the corpus of antiphons already existing,

setting up of a school at Rome for the training of Church singers.

it is true that the Church modes, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian,
&c, do bear names which, by some channels and for some reason, must

and the

Nevertheless,

have been derived from Greece

and the tracing of that connexion, however tenuous it might prove to be, is a fascinating inquiry for musicologists.
Furthermore, such common musical terms as
tetrachord ',
tone ',
melody ', harmony ', diatonic ', chromatic ', enharmonic ', and dia;

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

INTRODUCTION

xvii

whether that continuity is

simply a vague one of modified theory or whether it is a more solid one
settled
without an adequate
which
cannot
be
a
question
of practice is
knowledge of Greek music itself.
The
sound
like
?
answer
to the question
Greek
music
then,
did
What,
for the total impression made by a piece
could in no case be a simple one
pason

all testify

',

to

some kind of continuity

of music depends

which

upon

number

of factors.

To commence

with a point

we

should need to

know some-

not of fundamental importance,

is

thing of the timbre of ancient instruments and something of the principles

The
of voice production which were admired by singers and listeners.
importance of differences of tonal quality can easily be appreciated by
comparing the effects of performing the same piece of music on a harpsichord and on a modern piano, or by listening to the same piece on a recorder

and on

modern concert

Were

flute.

the ancient lyres and citharas and

other stringed instruments which are depicted in vase paintings of the

timbre of the harp, or were they more like the banjo and guitar ? Was
the aulos (avXog), which modern translators generally render by the word
flute or was it more like the clarinet or oboe ?
methods of voice production favoured by welland approved by critics that we accept
them as entirely natural but one has not even to go outside Europe to
realize from the singers of genuine folk-song that a shrill, nasal, and forced
vocalization, which would be anathema in the concert hall of a city, can
be acclaimed as a satisfying and artistic achievement. Would the songs
sung by a Greek tragic chorus remind us of the choir of St. Paul's or of
the peasant in the uplands of Andalusia ? Much of the charm of our
music lies in its form, in the interplay of contrasting and complementary
themes, and in the development of a melodic or harmonic idea. We
'

flute

We

',

really like a

are so

modern

accustomed

to the

trained and sophisticated singers

;

cannot assume, however, that even the separate stanzas of the shorter songs
of the Greek lyric poets were set to a simple recurring melody ; still less

can

we

conjecture the form of the music of an elaborate dithyramb or the

principles of composition

which guided the musicians who competed

in

those contests of aulos and cithara playing which were features of the

Greek games. Indeed, of all the possible features of Greek music, the
only one which we can feel certain of being able to apprehend from the
range of our

own

experience

is

the Greeks' neglect of

harmony

certain that their choruses sang in unison or at the octave,

for

it is

and that the

instrumental accompaniment was in unison with the voice except for a

few passing notes.

The points which have just been mentioned, however, do not include
the most important question which needs to be answered about Greek
music.
Even when we have reconstructed as accurately as we can a Greek
cithara and found that it has a full round tone, and discovered that the
aulos had a quality approximating to that of an oboe, we can gain no useful
conception of Greek music until we have acquired some definite information about the Greek scales.
We need to know on what principles they
were constructed, what intervals composed them, what tonic or focal point
b

THE GREEK AULOS

xviii

how

they possessed,

they were used in relation to one another, and,

if

pos-

We

how they developed historically.

need a clear understanding
not only of the Harmoniai (dgfiovim) of which Plato and Aristotle speak,
but also of the other scales, Octave Species (etSrj rov dta naowv), Tonoi

sible,

&c, which are mentioned by Greek writers.

Our modern pianoforte scale with its twelve equal semitones

(tovoi),

octave

is

to the

the worst possible approach to the understanding of Greek music

compromise designed to secure as

complete a freedom as possible of modulation from one key to another.
The nature of this compromise is easily understood if we start from the
fact that the physical basis of sound is a series of pulsations in the air.
The rate at which these vibrations succeed each other determines the pitch
of a note, so that the more vibrations per second there are, the higher in

for this scale

pitch

is

is

a comparatively recent

the note produced.

musical interval, therefore, can properly

be defined only by expressing the ratio between the vibration frequencies

of the two bounding notes.
Now the interval called an octave is produced
by two notes whose frequency ratio is 2 i
and a Perfect Fifth by notes
whose frequency ratio is 3 2. Two notes which are seven octaves apart
have a frequency ratio of (2 i) 7 which represents a relation of 1 to 128
and two notes which are twelve Perfect Fifths apart have a frequency ratio
of (3 2) 12 which represents a relation of 1 to 129745.
The pianoforte
scale ignores this difference between 128 and 129-745, and while keeping
the octaves in true intonation adjusts the Fifths by flattening so that twelve
of them coincide with the seven octaves.
In an analogous way the lesser
concord of the Third is also adjusted, with the result that while there are
:

twelve equal semitones within the pianoforte octave, not a single note

is

There is no doubt that this tempered scale has in

some ways widened the boundaries of the art of music, but it has done
so at the expense of some blunting of our ears.
Though we enjoy the
in just intonation.

'

'

brightness of a Perfect Fifth played on the open strings of a violin, our

ears have

grown accustomed

to accepting a

'

tempered

'

Fifth as

if it

were

Perfect.

In dealing with Greek music, therefore, we must be prepared to put

out of our heads all conceptions derived from our modern scale. Nor is
an acquaintance with our major and minor modes likely to help us to
for apart from the
understand the variety of scales used by the Greeks
fact that our major and minor now involve false intonations, the differences
between them the flattening of the third and sixth degrees in the minor
are not as striking or as significant as their similarity in having a common
Tonic and Dominant. The difficulty a modern musician has in distinguishing between scales of different structure from our own is shown by
our reactions to Byzantine, Hindu, Arabian, and Chinese music. They all
sound foreign to us, despite the difference between them, much in the
same way that French and German sound simply foreign to a monoglot
Englishman. To understand Greek music we must be ready, if necessary,
to learn another musical language and train our ears to its separate dialects.
How then are we to discover the nature of the Greek scales ? The evidence
'

'

'

'

'

'

INTRODUCTION

xix

and it is necessary to say something about them if the

be placed in its true relation to earlier work.
Naturally one would turn first of all to the Greeks themselves to see
what they have to tell us about their own music. In the poets and prose
writers there are many allusions to the art of music
but with few exceptions they are of a vague and general nature and afford no clue to the
fundamental principles. Here and there, as in the dialogues of Plato, there
are more technical references
but they are of such a kind that a wide
acquaintance with the musical theory of the Greeks would be necessary to
understand their implications. Whereas Plato used musical analogies to
elucidate his philosophical argument, we should have to work back from
his philosophy to understand his musical illustration.
However, there is
still extant in Greek a corpus of theoretical writings on music which amount
to not less than six hundred moderate sized pages.
The most voluminous
of these writings are
the considerable fragments of the treatise on the
elements of music (called ag/xovivA aToiysla) in three books from the pen
is

of various types

present book

to

is

of Aristoxenus (flourished about 320 B.C.), the pupil of Aristotle

three books on music {nsol fiovoixfjg) by Aristides Quintilianus,

the

who

wrote probably during the first or second century of the Roman Empire
the three books (rd dofiovixd) by Claudius Ptolemy, the great Alexandrian
mathematician of the second century after Christ
and finally the incom;

pete commentary on Ptolemy written by Porphyrius in the third century.

but not always of inferior impor-

Chief amongst the works of lesser extent

tance

are

number

of discussions of acoustic

the corpus of Problems attributed to Aristotle

and

artistic

questions in

a series of simple acoustical

propositions scientifically demonstrated by Euclid

(fl.

300

B.C.) in his Division

a short but very lucid treatise

of the monochord (xarazo urj xavovoq)
(elaaycoyi]
dofioviy.r/) formerly attributed to Euclid but written probably
;

by a

certain Cleonides of uncertain date

a section on concords in the
mathematical work of Theon of Smyrna (fl. a.d. 120)
and three short
elementary treatises by Gaudentius, Nicomachus, and Bacchius who wrote
;

between the end of the first and the end of the fourth centuries of our
era.
Mention must also be made of a work on music (nsgl fxovaixfjq)
attributed to the young Plutarch, in which matters of theory are mingled
with snippets of musical history
and of Athenaeus (fl. a.d. 230) in the
fourth and fourteenth books of whose Deipnosophistae there are many
anecdotes relating to music and musicians.
From such a bulk of material it might be thought that little would
remain unknown of Greek music and that all problems would be capable
of easy solution.
But such is very far from being the case for several
reasons.
In the first place, these theoretical writings are of such varying
date that they range over not less than six centuries
and though a comparatively late writer may often be relying for his information upon a much
earlier authority, it is not always easy to ascertain the parts which have
such authority behind them
and in any case there is very little, if anything, which can be traced back to the writings of Lasus of Hermione
(fl. 525 B.C.), Hippasus of Metapontum (fl. 500), Glaucus of Rhegium (fl.
450),
;

THE GREEK AULOS

XX
Philolaus

How

(fl.

440),

Heraclides Ponticus

(fl.

or Archytas

400),

(fl.

390).

we decide whether a piece of theory penned in the first century

Roman Empire is applicable to the music of Pindar and Aeschylus ?

can

of the

Between the sixth century B.C. and the beginning of our era the art of
music must inevitably have undergone some changes, and the innovations
of practice must to some extent be reflected in the presentations of theory.
The earlier Greek writers, for example, down to and including Plato and
Aristotle, speak of Harmoniai, but in the theory books surprisingly little
is said of such scales
in their place we read of Octave Species (e'tdrj rov
did. naawv), Systems {avarrjfiuxa), Tonoi {xovoi).
What change of practice
does such a change of nomenclatare conceal ?
In the second place, the theoretical writers frequently offer us a great
deal of elementary information which we do not need, and seem to omit
just those points about which we require most guidance.
Naturally they
were writing for their own times and their own purposes ; some, like
Aristoxenus, were concerned with stressing their own point of view and
deriding their opponents
others, like Cleonides, frankly reduced their
subject to its smallest dimensions
and all of them were handicapped by
the inevitable inability of a theorist to do more than give the osteology
;

of the

art.

A third and most vital inconvenience arises from the fact that the
two schools which are not reconcilable the Pythagoreans
and the Aristoxenians
and the information we derive from a given writer
is largely coloured by the doctrines of the school to which he adheres.
According to tradition, Pythagoras (fl. 500) introduced from Egypt into
Europe the knowledge of mathematical acoustics
whether that be true
or not, it is certain that his immediate successors had some knowledge of
mathematical
ratios
those
which are connected with the physical basis of
sound. They perceived that a string which played a certain note was just
the
length
of
a
twice
string, of the same tension, which would play the
or again, if you placed a movable bridge or stop one-third
octave above
string
playing bottom Doh, the remaining two-thirds
of the way along a
would play the note Soh a Perfect Fifth above. Now the Pythagorean
of
philosophy
attributed
great power and influence to Number and
school
believed that the whole of the Universe could be reduced to a set of numerical
of
music,
though a hasty observer might say that it
relations.
In the art
was based on nothing more than pure sensations with no objective validity,
the Pythagoreans found a clearly demonstrated set of ratios such as they
more than anything else, music seemed to bring them into
were seeking
close contact with that Number which they looked upon as the Ultimate
Although this discovery gave to the art of music a philosophic
Reality.

theorists fall into

sanction,

it

did not lead to a satisfactory, comprehensive, or even trustworthy

for fundamentally the Pythagoreans were more interested

mathematics than in music, and they tended to reduce the divinity
They judged musical intervals
to a mathematical proposition.
not according to the pleasure they gave the ear, but according to whether
their ratios could be reduced to one or other of their favourite formulae,

theory of music
in their

of the

Muses

such

2n, n

INTRODUCTION
i. In their investigations

xxi

they were interand consequently we cannot feel

certain that in their discussions of musical intervals they have not selected
just those which suited their immediate need
and it is beyond doubt
as

jti,

ested in obtaining the

'

right answer

',

that they neglected the other scales in favour of the Dorian.

From

their

pseudo-musical speculations there grew the doctrine of the Harmony of

the Spheres according to which the sun, moon, and planets, as they went
along their orbits, were supposed to make sounds which could be identified
with the notes of the Dorian scale ; and such guesses at the foundations
of the cosmos did more than the legitimate mathematical investigations to
withdraw the study of music from its proper track.
Sharply distinguished from this metaphysical theory of music is the
system which was first enunciated by Aristoxenus. For him pure mathematics and physics had no attraction. He postulated that in music the
ear is the sole and final arbiter and that a mathematical formula has little
or nothing to do with music.
In this he was absolutely wrong, so far as
theory goes
and so far as the art of music is concerned, he was only
partially right.
Ears differ in sensitivity and one naturally asks what kind
of ear is to be the sole criterion
is it to be the ear of a highly critical
;

musician or of the average listener

data of a system of musical theory

To

is

rely only

to use a

upon the

ear for the

rough-and-ready method

;
'

and Aristoxenus himself was content to speak vaguely of a semitone

without any precise definition of what he meant by the term. As an
adjunct to this doctrine was his contention that the progression of sound
from low notes to high could be regarded as a continuous line, at any
point of which the voice could rest, and any section of which could be
divided into any number of equal parts. Aristoxenus found it easy to
assert that a tone is the difference between a Perfect Fifth and a Perfect
Fourth and that a semitone is exactly half that interval. But the Pythagoreans would have told him, and modern acoustics would confirm them,
that the tone which is the difference between a Perfect Fifth (ratio 3 2)
and a Perfect Fourth (ratio 4 3) is represented by the ratio 9 8 (= f -f- f)
and that since the ratio 9 8 cannot be equally divided unless we use surds
'

(3

:2V 2),

there can be no interval which

when taken

twice will produce

such a 9 8 tone. This linear conception of intervals, however, lies at the

very root of the Aristoxenian theory and proves to be a quite impenetrable
barrier to a proper knowledge of the nature of Greek scales.
It would be
:

grotesque to suggest that this theory can be entirely neglected or to deny

from it we can infer much that is worth knowing but for the fundamental question about the size of the intervals of the Greek scales it is
too unscientific to be of real service.

that

Nevertheless, since the Aristoxenian theory, especially as expounded

in the later treatises, has a superficial lucidity

the most painstaking students of Greek music,

here

its

major features.

System

At

its

basis

is

which has misled some of

it

will

be well to indicate

a two-octave scale called the Greater

a very rough idea

might be obtained by playing the white notes of a pianoforte from A to

Perfect

{avoTr\jia rileiov /xelov),

of

which

THE GREEK AULOS

xxii

This System consists of fifteen notes, each with a distinctive name,

separated from each other by a tone (T) or a semitone (S), and grouped

a'.

into tetrachords

P<

g
S

a.
K
>H

<"

o>

2
a

>

d<

-K

>

c
*

i
^

*3
^

o
"

.2
2

2
g

5 a
ffiall-lffieiH
a

i?

-.a

.3

si

H
*

9,

5>

S,

W
hri

P<

1
s
g
I
J
-i2PHE-'(ZE-<(^

.a

;a

;a

|T|S|T|T|S|T|T|T|S|T|T|S|T|T|
(ABCDEFGabc
d

a)

Tetrachord

Tetrachord

Tetrachord

Hypaton

Meson

Diezeugmenon Hyperbolaion

Tetrachord

Each of the seven successive octave scales which could be found in this
long scale was called an Octave Species, and to each (in the treatise of
Bacchius) a distinctive

Mixolydian
Lydian
Phrygian
Dorian
Hypolydian

Hypophrygian
Hypodorian

name

is

given

Hypate Hypaton-Paramese (B-b)

Parhypate Hypaton-Trite Diezeugmenon (C-c)
Lichanos Hypaton-Paranete Diezeugmenon (D-d)
Hypate Meson-Nete Diezeugmenon (E-e)
Parhypate Meson-Trite Hyperbolaion (F-f)
Lichanos Meson-Paranete Hyperbolaion (G-g)
Mese-Nete Hyperbolaion (a-a')

Besides the four tetrachords of the Greater Perfect System there was
Synemmenon, of which Mese was the lowest

another, called the tetrachord

The sequence from Proslambanomenos through the tetrachords

Hypaton, Meson, and Synemmenon to the Nete Synemmenon was called
the Lesser Perfect System (avarrjfia xeXeiov sXaxxov)
and the five tetrachords Hypaton, Meson, Synemmenon, Diezeugmenon, and Hyperbolaion,
with the Proslambanomenos at the bottom formed the Perfect Immutable
This P.I.S. was not
System (= P.I.S.
avarrj/ua xe.le.iov d/uexdpoX.ov).
of one fixed pitch, though the relative positions of the intervals composing
it were unalterable.
According to the pitch of the Proslambanomenos the
P.I.S. was called the Hypodorian Tonos, Dorian Tonos, Hyperdorian
Tonos, &c. In other words, these Tonoi, of which fifteen were recognized,
and the range from
were transposition scales in the Aristoxenian theory
the lowest note of the Hypodorian to the highest note of the Hyperlydian
of
octaves.
was a tone in excess
three
Superimposed, as it were, on this theory of the Systems and Tonoi is
the theory of the genera (yevrj), according to which each of the five tetrachords of the P.I.S. might have a diatonic, a chromatic, or an enharmonic
form. If the figure i represents a tone, the genera can be represented
note.

thus

INTRODUCTION
High

(avvrovov) Diatonic

Soft (fiaAaxov) Diatonic

xxiii
i

"2

Tonic {xoviaTov) Chromatic

Hemiolic (rj/Mofaov) Chromatic
Soft (fxa/.ay.ov) Chromatic
:

Enharmonic

The
it

and

li

9"

If

Aristoxenian theory thus outlined has a certain neatness to

is

easily

apprehended

but, apart

description of intervals,

in its

it

in

is

from the

many

fact that

it is

commend

unscientific

and

respects unsatisfactory

problems in itself. This is not the place to subject it to

thorough analysis
but three points may be mentioned. Firstly, the
doctrine of the genera -which must be an attempt to bring the subtle
raises a host of

intonations of the practical art within the scope of the theory

would

imply that there was not only a diatonic Lydian octave species consisting
of T T S T T T S, but also an enharmonic Lydian octave of i 2 i i 2 I !
Yet it seems incredible that such a scale, beginning and ending with a
quartertone interval, could have had any existence except in theory
we
can conceive neither how it originated nor how it entered into practice.
Secondly, there is not in any Aristoxenian writer a single hint of the tonality
of the Greater Perfect System as a whole
nor is anything said about the
tonality of the various Octave Species.
Yet it is quite as important for
the understanding of a musical scale to know what is its focal point as it
;

is

to

know

the size of

ingless except

of the scale.

when

And

its

intervals

for the intervals are musically

related to a tonic,

thirdly, there

which need not be the

mean-

first

note

the tantalizing problem of relating the

is

Octave Species to the Harmoniai of the earlier writers. The names are
attached to the Species only in Bacchius
and his list contains names,
like Hypodorian, which are never applied to any Harmonia and yet omits
;

names

like

Syntonolydian.

Since the theoretical writers

fail

to give us

all

the information

we are compelled to turn to other possible sources

we may mention first the Greek musical notations,
for instruments

and the other

ultimately on alphabetic signs

for the voice.

and

of evidence.

we desire,
Of these

was used
Both notations are based
of which one

in the treatise of Alypius (of uncertain

we have an almost complete list of the signs and verbal descriptions

them for all three genera in the fifteen Tonoi. As the art of music
we may well suppose that some

date)

of

develops, the need for a notation arises and

kind of notation was in

common

use

at least as early as

the time of Pindar.

Presumably the notations we possess contain within them a kind of kernel

or nucleus around which there have been later accretions
and if we could
decide what are the original signs which formed that nucleus, we should
have some evidence for the state of music at the time when the notation
was first evolved. The most generally accepted interpretation of the signs
is due to the investigations of Fortlage and Bellermann, published independently in 1847, according to which the lowest note of the lowest Tonos
is equated with the F below the bass stave, and the highest note of the
;

THE GREEK AULOS

xxiv
highest

Tonos with the

above the treble stave.

The

Tonos with the notes of

are equated for each diatonic

intervening signs

minor

the intervals are assumed to be approximately those used in

scale and

modern

music.

Many

writers have felt doubts about the validity of this interpretation

for in

many

of

details

its

interpretations
safely

unless

be s^id
it

accepted.

no theory of Greek music

is

This much, however, can

be near the truth

likely to

provides a satisfactory account of the notation as

and explains how

is

made
has been commonly

attempts have been

it

not homogeneous. But though various

to solve the problems, none of the alternative
it

we

possess

it

arose from an earlier and less complicated scheme.

third-type of evidence

lies in

the few fragments of music in Greek

notation which we still possess. The most extensive are the Delphic Hymns
which were composed during the second century B.C. and contain nearly
two hundred bars of tolerably consecutive melody. The hymns to Nemesis,
the Sun, and the Muse, attributed to a certain Mesomedes, were composed

during the second century of our

and very

brief

The

era.

other pieces are incomplete

only one of them, the fragment of a chorus from the

music Plato
and Aristotle might have heard. These fragments are not only of widely
differing dates of composition, but their interpretation is dependent upon
that of the Greek notation in which they are preserved.
Whatever they
may seem to teach us about the principles of musical composition or even
about the tonality of the Greek scales, they cannot of themselves give us
any information about the Greek intervals.
Finally there is the evidence which ancient instruments may provide.
Not even a well-preserved lyre or cithara could be of any value to us
for the testimony of such instruments is entirely dependent upon the
tension of their strings. With wind instruments, however, the case is
somewhat different for provided that they are not too seriously damaged
and by good fortune the Historia
it is possible to make facsimiles of them
Plantarum of Theophrastus (fi. 300 B.C.) and the Historia Naturalis
of Pliny the Elder (fl. a.d. 70) contain valuable information about the
reed mouthpieces which were a vital part of instruments of the aulos
type.
But the instruments preserved from antiquity are few in number
(see Howard,
The AvXog or Tibia in Harvard Studies in Class. Philol,
In the circumstances it is perhaps not surprising that little attenVol. iv).
tion has hitherto been devoted to the records of Greek music lying dormant
in these auloi.
Howard, indeed, did make facsimiles of them
but his
results are unsatisfactory because he did not probe deeply enough into the
acoustic problems involved or define with the necessary precision the intervals of the scales.
But it is just this line of investigation, scientifically
conducted and correlated with the records of instruments not of Greek
Orestes of Euripides, has any definite claim to be the kind of

'

'

provenance, that

is

the foundation of the present book.

Before passing to a brief survey of modern studies of Greek music, it

worth while to point out that some kind of theoretic knowledge of the
subject has never entirely died out in Europe.
The fact that so many of
the Greek treatises on music were written during the Roman Empire shows
is

INTRODUCTION

XXV

Greek theory was felt to be a sufficient account of music long

after the Greek states had lost their political independence and the cultural
hegemony of the world had passed from Athens to Alexandria and then
The Romans themselves were not moved by music as were the
to Rome.
Greeks, and in the great Roman writers there are only the most casual
references to the art
and much of the serious musicuninformative
and
making even in the Empire was due to professional musicians of Greek
succinct
account
of the Aristoxenian theory
there
is
a
However,
origin.
in the De Architectura of Yitruvius, the architect who lived in the Augustan
century,
Martianus
half
of
the
fifth
Capella gave an outIn the first
age.
line of musical theory in the ninth book of his De Nuptiis Philologiae, and
composed
separate
work
on
music in which the
Boethius
a
a century later
theory differs from what we find in the Greek writers more through misthat the

understanding than through

Cassiodorus, which contains a

monks

new

of the

foundation

deliberate

at

In the Institutiones

intent.

compendium

of

of

knowledge useful for the

is a section on music

Vivarium, there

which is clearly based on Greek authorities of whom Gaudentius, Alypius,

and Ptolemy are mentioned by name. The writers on ecclesiastical music
(contained in Scriptores Ecclesiastici de Musica, edited by Gerbert, 1784)
had little or no knowledge directly of the Greek theorists, but relied to a
but a great deal of
great extent upon Boethius and upon one another
their theory is an attempt to adapt a garbled version of Greek theory to
the facts of the music of their own times and their pages bristle with
Hypermixolydians and netes diezeugmenon
Dorians
Phrygians
It was only gradually that an adequate theory for the ecclesiastical modes,
based on the doctrine of the four Finals, was evolved, somewhere between
and though by the eleventh century
the eighth and eleventh centuries
the doctrine of Authentic and Plagal modes had established itself and
much of the Latinized Greek jargon had been jettisoned, nevertheless the
influence of Greek theory persisted in the attribution of names like Dorian
and Lydian to the Church Modes.
The scholars of the Renascence were too busily occupied with their
studies of the literary masterpieces of Greece and in the search for new
;

'

',

'

',

'

'.

'

manuscripts of standard authors to devote their attention to so subsidiary

and except for the Latin translations of Euclid
a subject as Greek music
;

and Cleonides by Georgius Valla (1498) no attempt was made to study

Greek musical theory. In the sixteenth century there appeared only the
incompetent Latin translation of Aristoxenus by Gogavinus (1542) and the
Greek text of Euclid with a Latin translation by Joannes Pena (1557).
The next century, however, saw the publication of all the remaining treatises
of importance.
Jan van Meurs published the Greek text of Aristoxenus,
Alypius (without the Greek signs), Nicomachus, and Bacchius between
1606 and 1623. In 1652 M. Meibom, a better scholar than van Meurs
though prone to prefer his own ingenuity to the evidence of his manuscripts, re-edited Aristoxenus, Bacchius, Euclid, Nicomachus, and Alypius
(with the musical signs), and published Gaudentius and Aristides Quintilianus for the first time.

The

first

edition of the

hymns

of

Mesomedes

THE GREEK AULOS

XXVI

was published by Vincenzo

of Geometry in the

Gallilei in 1581.

University of Oxford,

of Ptolemy (1682) and Porphyrius (1699).

Wallis equipped their editions with notes

To John

Wallis, Professor

we owe the first editions

Van Meurs, Meibom, and

and commentaries which,

though restricted for the most part to the interpretation of the particular
author under discussion, did nevertheless gradually extend knowledge of
the subject as a whole.
In particular, Wallis appended to his edition of
Ptolemy a chapter (De Veterum Harmonica ad Hodiernam comparata) in
which he skilfully gathered together such information as could be derived
from the theorists and completely outdistanced the account which Athanasius
Kircher published in his Musurgia Universalis (1650) before Ptolemy and
Porphyrius were available. In the eighteenth century, knowledge of Greek
music filtered through to purely musical works, and writers like Hawkins
and Burney included chapters on the subject in their general histories
of music.

In the nineteenth century by far the most important name connected

is that of Rudolf Westphal, professor of Greek at Moscow,
not only edited Aristoxenus and Plutarch's de Musica, but in a series
of lengthy volumes attempted to fuse all our information derived from
theorists, antiquarians, and classical writers into a coherent whole.
With
his wide erudition he was able to elucidate many matters of detail
but
at the basis of his work was a belief that the Aristoxenian system of theory
provided the essential key which, with a little manipulation, would unlock
all the secret places.
He does, indeed, make use of Ptolemy and the
Pythagorean writers
but they are subsidiary to the charms of Aristoxenus,
the difficulties of whose system were not apprehended by Westphal, much
less squarely faced.
His exposition was given an even wider currency by
the publication of the two volumes of F. A. Gevaert's Histoire et Theorie
de la Musique de VAntiquite (1 875)
and later writers who have undertaken
the difficult task of presenting a comprehensive account of Greek music,
such as H. Riemann in his Handbuch der Musikgeschichte and M. Emmanuel
with the study

who

been influenced, if not domby the example and methods of Westphal and Gevaert. Neverthehas been suggested above, the Aristoxenian system cannot, by its
very nature, tell us anything like the whole truth about the Greek scales.
Dissatisfaction with the solutions of Westphal and his followers has tended
to grow since the publication of the Orestes fragment of music in 1892
and of the Delphic Hymns in 1893
for these pieces were not easily
accommodated to the Aristoxenian scheme. The interpretation of the
notation, which was forced into support of Aristoxenus, has been assailed,
notably by A. Greif (in Revue des Etudes Grecques, 1909) and by C. Torr
(On the Interpretation of Greek Music, 1896)
and further studies of
difficult passages of Aristides Quintilianus and Plutarch, which were brushed
aside by Westphal or treated in an unconvincing fashion, have emphasized
the distrust of Aristoxenus. The present position is fairly summed up by
Mr. Winnington-Ingram in his recent book, Mode in Ancient Greek Music.
in Lavignac's Encyclopedic de la Musique, have
inated,

less, as

(1936)

INTRODUCTION
Not even
of

xxvii

the main course of development of Greek music, far less the full details

modalities, can be established on the evidence.

its

It is a result to

give rise to

pessimism
and the prospects of further advance in our knowledge are not bright.
Yet complete despondency is as unnecessary as it is ignoble. Every student
of the subject must from time to time have the feeling that there is a certain amount
of evidence, particularly concerning the earlier stages of Greek music, that is still
unrelated together, and must hope that one day he will strike upon the true, the
;

illuminating hypothesis which

is

to relate

it.

So we come to the present book. Miss Schlesinger needs no corn^

mendation to any one who is aware of her established reputation -as a
historian of musical instruments or
'

The

who

has read her important chapter

Significance of Musical Instruments in the Evolution of

the Introductory
basis of her

work

Music

'

in

Volume
is

of the Oxford History of Music (1929).

The
an investigation extending over nearly a quarter of

a century into the capabilities of wind instruments, both of the type of

the primitive flute and of the primitive pipe, to which latter category the
It is an especially important feature of the author's work
is firmly founded
knowledge of the instruments concerned. A considerable
number of pipes and flutes from various parts of the world have been
collected and played upon
their scales have been carefully noted down,
their intervals accurately measured
and the results have been repeatedly
checked and compared with one another. Alongside of these actual specimens, facsimiles have been made of such of the remains of Greek auloi
as are available for accurate measurement and of a number of ancient
pipes found in Egypt
they have all been fitted with mouthpieces whose
individual properties have also been subjected to rigorous tests.
The
striking result of these investigations is that a simple principle seems to
have operated in the Greek aulos as it does in many primitive pipes their
fmgerholes are placed equidistantly and the effective length of pipe and
mouthpiece combined is a multiple of the distance between the holes.
The practical and theoretical consequences of this principle of equal
measurement are worked out in great detail in the following pages, and
the reader is introduced to a widespread, natural, and almost inevitable
musical language whose existence has hitherto been unsuspected by theorists.
The author, however, has done more than experiment with actual pipes
and facsimiles of pipes. She brings the results of her practical acoustics
into relation with the written testimony of the Greeks
and in an appendix
she demonstrates how the Greek musical notation was originally designed
for the Harmoniai and expanded to meet the needs of later times.
The
line of investigation here pursued is in principle simple
in its working
out it is full of surprises. Though this book upsets many of our previous
notions of the intervals of the Greek scales, and especially of the way they
were related to one another, there can be no doubt that all further study
of Greek music will be indebted to Miss Schlesinger's pioneer work.
It
is, I venture to think, the most original and illuminating contribution yet
made to a difficult and fascinating subject.

aulos belongs.
that

on a

it

has not been confined to paper calculations, but

practical

J.

F.

MOUNTFORD

CONTENTS
THE ORIGIN AND GENESIS OF THE HARMONIA ON THE AULOS
DEMONSTRATION OF THE MODAL PRINCIPLE IN OPERATION

Introductory.
Outline of the Theory of the Harmoniai. Equal Measure
in Acoustic Theory.
Modal Determinants (= M.D.). The Mixolydian
Harmonia. The Genesis of the Modal Material of the Mixolydian Mode.
The Mixolydian Harmonia in the Diatonic Octave. The Lydian Harmonia.

The Phrygian Harmonia. The Dorian Harmonia. The Hypolydian

Harmonia. The Hypophrygian Harmonia." The Hypodorian Harmonia.
Bastard Hypodorian. The Aulos as Origin of the Harmoniai. The

The

Modal System based upon the Operation of the Principle of Equal Measure.
The Ethos of the Mode based upon the characteristic Features peculiar to
each Harmonia. Professor H. S. Macran
the overlooked factor '.
'

THE AULOS
The Aulos

as

ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN

The a priori Claim. The Importance of the

as Starting-note bears a different Ratio in each
Equidistant Fingerholes on Aulos or Flute cannot
The Management of the Breath-stream in play-

Mode-bringer.

Mouthpiece.

Mode

THE HISTORY OF GREEK MUSIC

The Tonic

(Arist. Quint.).

produce Equal Intervals.

ing the Aulos. The Two Types of Mouthpiece. The Primitive Doublereed Mouthpiece preserves the Integrity of the Modal Scale. The Beatingreed Mouthpiece.
The Influence of Tongue-length and Width on
Pitch exhibited in the Beating-reed Mouthpiece. Fundamental Structural
Change in the Harmonia brought about by the Unique Properties of the
Beating-reed Mouthpiece. Significance of the Aulete's Attitude while
playing the Aulos, illustrated on Vase Paintings at the British Museum.
The Musical and Technical Significance of the Aulete's Two Movements,
while playing, which are denoted by Aristotle, Aristoxenus and Plutarch
by the opposites avaa-nav and Karao-nav. Polemic directed by Aristoxenus
against the Aulos.
The Effect of increased Pressure of Breath on Pitch
and Harmonics. Aristotle on the Aulos and its Mouthpieces. Theophrastus on the Mouthpieces of the Aulos. Technical and Musical Possibilities of the Double Aulos.
change of Mode on the Aulos. Ptolemy's
Reference to the Beating-reed Mouthpiece of the Auloi. The Feats of
Pronomus, the Theban. Macrobius on the Position of the Fingerhole.
Find of Fragments of Auloi at Meroe by Professor John Garstang (Liv.
Univ.).
The Feat of Midas of Agrigentum.

THE AULOS, PART II THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

ITS MOUTHPIECES AND MODALITY
The Reactions of Reed-blown Pipes. The Incidence of Length in Wind
Instruments in the Determination of Pitch. The Incidence of Diameter
in the Mouthpiece.
The Open Pipe The Closed Pipe. .Fundamental
:

Resonance and the Determination of Pitch. Part played by the Mouthpiece

The Double-reed Mouthpiece. The Proper Note of the
Mouthpiece. The Determination of Pitch from Length on a D R Mp.
Significant and Unique Property of the Double-reed Mouthpiece.
The
Struggle for Mastery between Mouthpiece and Resonator. The modus
operandi of the Proportional Law productive of the Harmonia-on the Aulos.
Puzzling Properties of the Aulos and its Mouthpieces. Unsuspected Factor
in the Interior of the Aulos.
The Arche dominates the Inner Reactions
of the Aulos Resonator.
The Plan of the Harmonia in the Interior of the
Aulos. How the Modality of an Aulos may be judged. Bulbs on an Aulos
are a sign of a change of Harmonia. Ten Main Points concerning the Doublereed Mouthpiece. The Beating-reed Mouthpiece. The double Movement of the Tongue of the Beating-reed Mouthpiece. Implications of
the Feat of Midas of Agrigentum.
Plato on Empiricism in Aulos Music.
xxix

of the Aulos.

THE GREEK AULOS

XXX
CHAP.

PAGE

Momentous

significance of shortening the

Tongue

of the Beating-reed

Mouthpiece. Change to Elaborate Playing on the Aulos.

Performance
of Aulos Loret xxiii with Beating-reed Tongue of Mouthpiece shortened
by one-third. Piper persuaded by Pythagoras to change the Modality
of his Aulos from Phrygian to Dorian Spondaic. Examples of the Performance of Reed Mouthpieces under various Conditions. Concerning
the Octave Relation in Auloi (Porphyry's Comm. on Ptol., i, 8). Notes
on Debatable Points in the Quotation from Porphyry. The Ethos of the
Harmonia.
IV

THE HARMONIA AS MODAL BASIS OF THE PERFECT IMMUTABLE SYSTEM

AND OF THE TONOI AND THEIR NOTATION

138

Introductory. Evolution of the Greater Complete System from the Species

of the Seven Harmoniai. The Four Periods in the Development of the
Greek Musical System. The Nomenclature of the Degrees of the Scale
The Onomasiai Kata Thesin and Kata Dynamin. Modal Implications
of the Historical Development of the Kithara. The Practical Basis of the
Species.
The Order in which the Species occur is the Reverse of that of
the Harmoniai and of the Tonoi.
Omega, the Common Tonic of the
Harmoniai. Birth of the Tonos. Modal Significance of the Tetrachord
Synemmenon. The Modal Basis of the P.I.S. confirmed by Ptolemy's
Formulae. Modal Origin of Ptolemy's Syntonic Chromatic. The Seven
Harmoniai restored by Ptolemy through the Mechanism of the Tonoi.
Four Stages in the Development of the Tonos marked by a change of
Starting-note.
Stage I
Hypate Meson as Starting-note and Modal Pivot.
Stage II
Hypate Hypaton as Starting-note now becomes the Modal Pivot.
Stage III
The Modal Pivot changes to Proslambanomenos as Startingnote.
Stage IV
Fundamental Modal Change in the P.I.S. from Dorian
to Phrygian.
The Tonoi as Curtailed Modes.
:

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE MODAL SYSTEM

The Harmonia's Modal Principle of Equal Measure confirmed by Aristotle.
The Evidence of the Canon of Florence. The Common Modal Startingnote according to Aristides Quintilianus. The Mese as Arche. The 12

70

Polemics of Aristoxenus against the Harmonists. Polemics 1 and 2

Concerning the Harmonia. Polemic 3
The close-packed Scales of the
Harmonists. Polemic 4
Concerning the Tonoi. Polemic 5
Notation
as the Goal of Harmonic.
Polemic 6
The Theory of the Aulos and of
the Pipe-scales. Polemic 7
The Aulos as the Foundation of the Order
of Harmony.' Polemic 8
Eratocles and the Harmonists in general treat
only of the Octave. Polemic 9
Concerning Systems. Polemic 10
Eratocles determines the Species by the Recurrence of the Intervals.
Polemic 1 1
The Harmonists assert that Points of Pitch consist of Ratios
and Rates of Vibration. Polemic 12
On the Twenty-eight Consecutive
Dieses.
The Characteristic Ratio 1 1 /io of the Dorian Harmonia, ascending
from the Tonic, Hypate to Parhypate Meson. Eleven, the only Determinant Number that could place Mese upon the Fourth Degree of the
Scale.
The Ratio 11 /io as first Diesis on the Tonic confirmed by Aristides
Quintilianus (p. 123M.).
Further support for the use of Ratio 11/10 in
the Tonos from Ptolemy. Definition of the Diesis by Aristides Quintilianus (p. 123 M).
The Ratio 11/10 as Spondeiasmos and Eklysis. The
Ekbole, interval of Five Dieses. The 28 Dieses of the Harmonists according to Aristoxenos and Aristides Quintilianus.
28 as the Ratio Number
of the Mixolydian Tonic, and as Hypate Hypaton in the Tonos.
Brief
:

'

'

'

Recapitulation.

VI

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE WITH EQUIDISTANT FINGERHOLES

EMBODYING THE HARMONIA (FLUTE i)
The Harmonia installed on Aulos and Flute. The Significance of Diameter
Modal Flute. The Aulos alone gave birth to the
Harmonia. The Harmonia on the Flute. Formula No. 1 (v.f. from Length).
Formula No. 2 (Length from v.f.). Formula No. 3 (to find the Position of
Hole 1). The Significance of the Increment of Distance (I.D.). The Four
Aspects of the Increment of Distance. Nine Aspects of Allowance in
respect of Diameter in Modal Flutes. The Classification of Modal Flutes.
The Three Experimental Sensa Flutes. The Modal Sequence of the
Hypophrygian Harmonia on Flute Sensa C '.
in the Acoustics of the

'

220

CONTEXTS
VII

xxxi

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE IN THEORY AND PRACTICE

24

Five Important Factors in the Acoustics of the Modal

Introductory.
Flute Recapitulated. Extension of Compass by Half-stopping in the
Flute.
Extension of Compass by Cross-fingering in the Modal
Experiments on the Mond Flute in the Theory and Practice of
Flute.
Demonstration of the Significance of Formula No. 3
Cross-fingering.
Further Examples
in the Pitch-determination of the Cross-fingered Note.
demonstrated on Flute Sensa C '. Cross-fingering as a Means of TransiThe Evidence of Virdung
tion from one Musical System to another.
and Agricola on Cross-fingering. Agricola's Cross-fingering tested in
Practice.
Hypolydian Flutes cross-fingered give the Authentus Protus.
The Diameter in Cylindrical Tubes in Octave Relation
the Chinese
Formula. Purity of Intonation in Modal Flutes, in spite of Excess
Diameter in Upper Half of Pipe. Types of Flutes other than Transverse.
The Transverse Flute in Ancient India Treatises by Bharata and SarangImplications inferred from Sarangdev's Table of 15 Modal Flutes
dev.
with Equidistant Fingerholes. The Transverse Flute in Evolution in
Europe. The Ditonal Scale adopted by the Arabs. The Duplication of
the First Tetrachord in the Octave Scale. The Modal Flute in SyroArabic Sources
Al-Farabi's Evidence. The Influence of Diameter
recognized by Ptolemy. Al-Farabi describes Flutes and Pipes with Equidistant Fingerholes.
The Lute Accordance No. 3, introduced by Ishaq alIshaq's Classification by Courses
Mausili (Fourth, Fifth, Fourth).
(Majari) corresponding to the Modal Species. The Wosta of Zalzal
(= Ratio 27 22) implies the use of the Lydian Species of M.D. 27. Further
Modal Implications of the Wosta of Zalzal. Our Minor and Major Modes
are akin to the Majari through Wosta (Min. Third), or through Binsir
(Maj. Third) of Arabian Lute Accordance. The Modal Scales of the
Octoechos traced in Ishaq's Classification of Melodies, and in his Lute
Accordance. Al-Farabi and Al-Kindi stress the Ditonal Scale
Ishaq
al-Mausiii the Modal Species of the Harmonia. The Modal Flute based
on Proportional Modality breaks new Ground.

Modal

'

VIII

SURVEY OF THE SCALES AND SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF

FOLK MUSIC
Brief Inquiry into the Origins of Folk Music.
The Origins
of Scales.
The Evidence of Vedda Music. The Evidence from Greenland.
Brief Survey of Scales or Musical Systems forming the Basis of Primitive and Folk Music.
Scales derived from a Cycle of Ascending Fourths
or Descending Fifths, on a given Fundamental
128 v.p.s. Dorian
Harmonia or Pentatonic in Transition with a Sixth Step ? Ditonal Scale
from Cycle of Fifths or Hypolydian Harmonia ?
separate Origin for
the Pentatonic and Heptatonic. The Myth of so-called Equal-stepped
Scales.
Dr. Erich M. von Hornbostel. Hornbostel's Cycle of Blown
Fifths (Blasquintenzirkel).
The Basis of Hornbostel's Theory of the
'Blasquintenzirkel' in his own words (Engl, and Germ.). Entails the
Falsification of an Acoustic Principle.
The Lay View of the Influence of
Diameter on Pitch. The Alleged Flatness of Overtones from Closed
Pipes repudiated by Acoustic Law. The Records of Brazilian Panpipes
blown by Hornbostel actually exhibit Overtones, pure, sharp and flat,
where all are alleged to be flat. Correct and Faulty Methods of Blowing
Panpipes. Analysis of Results given in Figs. 67 and 68. Even the Results
obtained by Wrong Methods of Blowing suggest the Harmonia as Origin.
The Antique Peruvian Flute ' San Ramon ' is in a different Category from
the Panpipes.
Dr. Manfred Buko ef's Strictures on the Blasquintenzirkel.
Evidence from an Agariche from Bolivia
all Overblown Fifths,
pure. Is there in Closed Pipes a natural Balance between the Interior
Length
Diameter and the Exte or Length omitting Diameter ? The
Blowing of the Panpipes has provejl to be the Undoing of the Theory of
Blown Fifths. Unequivocal Rejection oi the Thefery of the Blasquintenzirkel.
The Contribution of Dr. Jaap Funst from the Music of Java and
The Harmoniai, identified from Dr. Kunst's Records as Origin of
Bali.
the Slendro and Pelog Scales of Java and Bali.
The Flutes from Java and
Bali embody the Harmoniai in their Equidistant Fingerholes.
Duplication
of the First Tetrachord on the Fourth or Fifth Degree in Evidence in some
Javanese and Balinese Scales. The Music of the Folk in South Africa.
The Music of the Bantu Folk of South Africa based upon the Harmonic
Series.
The South African Natives have discovered the Different

Introductory.

C=

'

'

291

THE GREEK AULOS

xxxii

PAGE

CHAP.

Open and Closed Pipes, closing them at will to increase the

Compass. A Kind of Transverse Flute in use by the Venda, Swazi,
Pedi, and other Tribes.
Reactions of

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA AS SURVIVAL OR REBIRTH IN FOLK MUSIC

IX

35

Indications of the Survival or Rebirth of the Harmonia.

Evidence of the
Practical Use of the Harmonia in Ancient Greece.
Fragment of Pindar's
First Pythian Ode in the Hypophrygian Harmonia.
The Fragment displays
all the Hypophrygian Modal Characteristics, and five closes on the KwXa.
'
The three Hymns attributed to Mesomedes The First
To the
Muse ', in the Hypophrygian Mode. The Second
To the Sun ',
in the Hypophrygian Harmonia.
The Third
To Nemesis ', in
the Hypophrygian Species. The Epitaph of Sicilus may be read in the
Hypophrygian or Phrygian Species.
Fragment from the Orestes of
Euripides in the Hypophrygian Species. The Paean Fragment in the
Berlin Papyrus (discovered by Dr. W. Schubart in 1918)
Hypophrygian
or Phrygian Species. Discovery of a Christian
(in the Oxyrhynchus
Papyri)
Pseudo-Hypophrygian Species. The
Delphic Hymns
The Delphic
No. 1 in the Hypolydian Harmonia. The Delphic
No. 2 in the Dorian Harmonia. The Prototypes of Greek Music
all exhibit the Modal Characteristics of the Harmonia.
The Characteristic
Intervals of Folk Music defined by Ratios, Vibration Frequencies and
Cents.
The Modal Characteristics of the Harmonia in Early Medieval
Chants. Hucbald's Evidence. Survival of Modal Pivots in early
Medieval Liturgical Chants. The Era of Polyphonic Music heralds
the Wane of the Harmonia in Liturgical Chants. Brief Reference to the
Canon of Florence and to the Divisions of the Monochord. Crossfingering on the Flute as Evidence of the Survival of the Harmonia in the
Sixteenth Century. The Dorian Harmonia in Folk Music
Evidence
from the Incas of Peru. The Scale of the Dorian Harmonia of M.D. 11

Hymn

Hymn
Hymn

'

'

Hymn
Two

Hymn

Hymn

Evidence from Hindostan, Hungary

Evidence from New Mecklenburg, Turkey and the Jews
of the Yemen. The Lydian Harmonia in Folk Music. The Phrygian
Harmonia in Folk Music. Evidence from Synagogue Chants from
New Mecklenburg, Rumania, The Pawnees, Peru and Sumatra of the
Hypophrygian Harmonia. The Hypodorian Harmonia in Folk Music.
The Mixolydian Harmonia as Rag Malkos in Hindostan. The Hypolydian
Harmonia in Folk-song
e.g. in East Greenland.
The Closing of the
Cycle
from Ancient to Modern Greece.
erroneously diagnosed as Penta tonic.

and Rumania.

RECORDS OF MEASUREMENTS AND PERFORMANCE

(i) OF AULOI,
(2) OF FLUTES, PRECEDED BY EXPLANATORY NOTES
:

APPENDIX I A BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE MODAL BASIS OF THE SCHEME

OF GREEK NOTATION
The Older Accepted Interpretation by Bellermann. The System of
Notation based upon Modality. The Priority of the Vocal Notation.
The Main Features of the Vocal Notation. Important Facts indicated by

408

519

Mese as the Modal Nucleus of the System of

Notation in each Tonos. Tests as a Challenge to the Accepted Interpretation of Bellermann.
Test I. Test II. Test III. Test IV. Test V.

the System of Notation.

APPENDIX II
THE ORIGIN OF THE ECCLESIASTICAL MODES
THEIR
RELATION TO THE MODAL SYSTEM OF THE HARMONIAI
Recapitulation of Stages in the Development of the P.I.S. The Modality
of the P.I.S. transformed from Dorian into Phrygian.
The Rise of a New
System of Conjunct Modal Scales The Birth of the Plagal Modes. Two
:

531

Examples of the New Independent Conjunct Modal Scales based upon

Proslambanomenos. The Octoechos in use in the Greek Church in the
Fourth Century a.d.
Confirmation from Arabian Sources. Ishaq's
Majra through Wosta identified as Phrygian Modal Species. Confirmation of the Origin of the Ecclesiastical Modes from the Writings of Early
Medieval Theorists.

APPENDIX III
POSSIBILITIES OF
A NEW LANGUAGE OF MUSIC
THE ANCIENT MODES FOR USE IN MODERN COMPOSITION

541

INDEX

547

7
9
8

DIAGRAMS
PAGE

FIG.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE SEVENFOLD MONOCHORD DIVISIONS

BY MODAL DETERMINANTS OF THE SEVEN HARMONIAI
THE ARCHAI OF THE SEVEN HARMONIAI IN POSITION IN THE
HARMONIC SERIES ON F AND C
GENESIS OF THE MIXOLYDIAN MODAL MATERIAL RESULTING FROM
THE ALIQUOT DIVISION BY DETERMINANT 14 ON THE F STRING
THE MIXOLYDIAN HARMONIA IN THE DIATONIC GENUS RESULTING
FROM THE ALIQUOT DIVISION BY DETERMINANT 14
GENESIS OF THE LYDIAN HARMONIA BY THE ALIQUOT DIVISION
BY DETERMINANT 1 3
LYDIAN HARMONIA (DIATONIC GENUS) RESULTING FROM THE
ALIQUOT DIVISION BY DETERMINANT 1 3
GENESIS OF THE PHRYGIAN HARMONIA BY THE ALIQUOT DIVISION
BY DETERMINANT 12
PHRYGIAN HARMONIA (DIATONIC GENUS) RESULTING FROM THE
ALIQUOT DIVISION BY DETERMINANT 12 ON C
TO ILLUSTRATE THE FILLING IN OF THE SEPTIMAL THIRD OF RATIO
7 6 ON THE AULOS
THE FILLING IN OF THE SEPTIMAL THIRD ILLUSTRATED IN GREEK
NOTATION
GENESIS OF THE DORIAN HARMONIA THROUGH THE ALIQUOT
DIVISION BY DETERMINANT 22 ON THE F STRING
THE DORIAN HARMONIA (DIATONIC GENUS) RESULTING FROM THE
ALIQUOT DIVISION BY DETERMINANT II. PRIMITIVE FORM
CONNECTED WITH THE NAME OF TERPANDER
DORIAN HARMONIA, COMPLETE OCTAVE SCALE ON F = 88 V.P.S.
RESULTING FROM THE ALIQUOT DIVISION BY DETERMINANT 22
GENESIS OF THE HYPOLYDIAN HARMONIA BY THE ALIQUOT DIVISION
BY 20 ON THE C STRING = 64 V.P.S. THE FINDING OF THE
ARCHE IN THE HARMONIC SERIES
HYPOLYDIAN HARMONIA (DIATONIC GENUS) RESULTING FROM THE
ALIQUOT DIVISION BY DETERMINANT 20 ON THE AULOS
GENESIS OF THE HYPOPHRYGIAN HARMONIA RESULTING FROM THE
ALIQUOT DIVISION BY MODAL DETERMINANT 1 8
HYPOPHRYGIAN HARMONIA (DIATONIC GENUS) RESULTING FROM
THE ALIQUOT DIVISION BY DETERMINANT 1 8
GENESIS OF THE HYPODORIAN HARMONIA RESULTING FROM THE
ALIQUOT DIVISION BY MODAL DETERMINANT 1 6. THE FINDING
OF THE ARCHE IN THE HARMONIC SERIES
THE HYPODORIAN HARMONIA OF MODAL DETERMINANT 1 6 (DIATONIC
GENUS) RESULTING FROM THE ALIQUOT DIVISION BY DETERMINANT 16 ON C
:

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

xxxiii

7
8

12

20
21

22
23

24
25

25

26
27
28

28

29

THE GREEK AULOS

xxxiv

PAGE

FIG.

20.

21.
22.

23.

24.

25.

THE SEVEN HARMONIAI EXPRESSED IN SUPERP ARTICULAR RATIOS OF

LENGTHS OF STRING OR PIPE, TAKEN WITHIN THE OCTAVE
FROM C = 64 V.P.S. TO C = 1 28 V.P.S.
THE MODAL SCALE ON THE DORIAN AULOS
MODES (HARMONIAI) RESULTING FROM THE DISPOSITION OF EQUIDISTANT FINGERHOLES
EGYPTIAN WALL PAINTING FROM A TOMB IN THEBES, SHOWING
musician with double pipes
PL 3. Facing
By courtesy of the Director, British Museum
MOMENTOUS SIGNIFICANCE OF SHORTENING THE VIBRATING TONGUE
OF THE MOUTHPIECE, BY ONE-THIRD OF ITS LENGTH, ON THE
HYPOLYDIAN AULOS OF M.D. 20 WITH 3 FINGERHOLES.
BIRTH OF OUR MAJOR SCALE OF DUPLICATED TETRACI IORDS
TESTS ON B-R. MOUTHPIECES FOR REGIONAL PITCH.
OCTAVE SHIFT
ON TONGUE OF MOUTHPIECE AND HARMONICS
THE DOUBLE AULOI BORED TO GIVE THE HYPODORIAN MODAL
OCTAVE OF MODAL DETERMINANT 1 6
SUGGESTED FEAT OF PRONOMUS, THE THEBAN. THREE MODES
PLAYED UPON THE SAME AULOS BY CHANGING THE EXTRUSION
OF THE MOUTHPIECE
THE POMPEIAN AULOI (WITH REVOLVING BANDS) AND, TO THE
RIGHT, AULOI SURMOUNTED BY A MOUTHPIECE SUGGESTIVE
OF A MODERN CLARINET OR FLAGEOLET
PI. 12. Facing
;

26.

27.

28.

30
39
42

48

52

64
68

70

70

Phot. Brogi.

29.

DRAWING OF THE FRAGMENTS OF AN AULOS WITH REVOLVING BANDS

Candia Museum.

30.

31.

32.

Drawn by

Professor J. L.

BIRTH OF THE SEVEN-MODAL SPECIES OF THE G.C.S. FROM THE

KITHARA OF 15 STRINGS (WITHOUT RETUNING)
CONCERNING THE CONFUSION BETWEEN THE HARMONIAI, THEIR
SPECIES AND THE TONOI, WHICH AROSE FROM THE FACT THAT
THE ORDER OF THE SPECIES IN THE P.I.S. WAS THE REVERSE OF
THAT OF THE MODES IN THE TONOI
EXAMPLES OF THE TONOS WITH ITS HOMONYM HARMONIA AND ITS
SPECIES

33.
34.

36.

38.
39.
40.

157

11

TO 22

73

THE MODAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE CANON OF FLORENCE ACCORDING

TO AUTHOR A
LINES 1-3
175
THE SEVEN HARMONIAI ON A COMMON FUNDAMENTAL F. WITHIN
THE SYSTEM OF THE TONOI, WITH THEIR MODAL RATIOS BY
K. S. AND SYMBOLS OF NOTATION FROM ALYPIUS
I 7%~9
THE DESCENDING MODAL SEQUENCE FROM MESE
1
85
REQUIRED A PHRYGIAN ENHARMONIC SPECIES OF THE P.I.S.
196
THE MODAL RATIOS OF THE P.I.S. IDENTIFIED WITH PTOLEMY'S
FORMULAE FOR THE CHROAI
201
op.

41.

148

between 168-9

THE DORIAN OCTOCHORDAL HARMONIA EXPANDED FROM M.D.

'

37.

142

I55

THE MODAL RATIOS OF THE PERFECT IMMUTABLE SYSTEM, IDENTIFIED with ptolemy's formulae for the chroai
examples of the tonos as curtailed mode, exhibited in three
stages of development from the ancient dorian

harmonia
35

77

My res

cit.,

ii,

',

14

THE DEFINITION OF THE

p.

123M.

DIESIS.

THE

DIESIS

OF ARISTIDES

205

DIAGRAMS

XXXV
PAGE

FIG.

42.

THE ENHARMONIC PYKNON OF THE ANCIENTS

Plut.,

43.

de Mus.', pp. 48-51

(ed.

207

Weil and Reinach

SCHEME OF THE HYPOLYDIAN HARMONIA EXTENDED TO TWO

OCTAVES KATA THESIN AND KATA DYNAMIN, WITH RATIOS OF
THE EKBOLE AND EKLYSIS
This

44.

'

is

the scheme implied in the

Canon

of Florence

by

'

208

(lines 1-3)

THE TWENTY-EIGHT DIESES OF THE HARMONISTS, A SUGGESTION.

(TWO DIESES IN EACH PYKNUMFOUR IN EACH OCTAVE FOR
TWENTY-EIGHT
THE SEVEN HARMONIAI.) TOTAL
THE MIXOLYDIAN HARMONIA AS TONAL AND MODAL SPECIES
THE MIXOLYDIAN AS THE OPPOSITE OF THE HYPOLYDIAN

214

45.
46.

Plut.,

47.
48.

deMus.', Cap. 16,

157

(ed.

Weil and Reinach)

cf.

Figs. 43

2l8

and 45

SCHEME SHOWING CROSS-FINGERING, PERFORMANCE AND RESULT

ON THE MOND FLUTE, NO. 2
THE COMPASS OF THE MOND FLUTE WITH CROSS-FINGERED NOTES
FOR THE FIRST FOUR HOLES
N.B.

49.

'

21

indicates cross-fingering

'

249

N.F. indicates normal fingering

AGRICOLA'S SCHEME OF CROSS-FINGERING

Schiveizer,

247

Pfeiffen des Discant's Scala

2 54~5

und Fundament

(ed.

'

154$, p. 172)

50.

AGRICOLA'S SCHEME OF CROSS-FINGERING FOR THE SCHWEIZER

51.

THE TECHNICAL IMPLICATIONS OF SARANGDEV'S FLUTE, NO. 12

52.

MODAL SEQUENCE IMPLIED BY GROSSET 'S INCREMENT OF DISTANCE,

MODAL DETERMINANT 20
MODAL DETERMINANT 12
MODAL SEQUENCE PRODUCED BY I.D. OF 2 ANGULAS + DIAMETER
OF FINGERHOLE (= -049). MODAL DETERMINANT 12

Pfeiffen (1)

'

Des Discants Scala

See Grosset, op.

53.

54.

cit.,

'

(2)

'

Des Tenors Scala

'

(ed.

258-9

1528, p. 30)

55.

LUTE ACCORDANCE OF ISHAQ- AL-MAUSILI BY FOURTH, FIFTH,

FOURTH, IN THE HYPOLYDIAN SPECIES IN THE MAJRA THROUGH

56.

THE PHRYGIAN SPECIES WITH DUPLICATED CONJUNCT TETRACHORD

ON THE LUTE, WITH THE ACCORDANCE NO. 3 OF ISHAQ
AL-FARABl'S ACCORDANCE OF THE LUTE OF 4 STRINGS TUNED IN
FOURTHS

BINSIR

57.

59.

267
267

268

278

See Kosegarten, op.

58.

266

pp. 353-4

cit.,

280
28l

p. 45

AL-FARABl'S PIPE (AULOS) WITH HIS ARABIAN NOTATION. SCALE

OF PIPE WITH APPROXIMATION TO LUTE SCALE (FIG. 57) between 282-3
AL-FARABl'S AULOS (AS IN FIG. 58) WITH RATIOS OF THE HYPO-

LYDIAN HARMONIA (BY K. S.) COMPARED WITH THOSE OF THE

LUTE WITH ISHAQ 'S ACCORDANCE

284

Cf. Fig. 55

WITH NINE FINGERHOLES BORED FOR THE HYPOPHRYGIAN HARMONIA FROM EXIT, OR FOR THE HYPODORIAN
FROM HOLE I. RATIOS BY K. S.

60.

AL-FARABl'S PIPE

61.

THE ACCORDANCE OF THE LUTE BY ISHAQ.

Cf. Figs. 58

FROM MATHNA AND

62.

286

and 59

TUNED IN OCTAVES

ZIR

THE USUAL ACCORDANCE ACCORDING TO YAHIA AND AL-FArABI

TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE DORIAN AULOS WITH THE RATIOS AND
CENTS OF THE INTERVALS OF THE THREE MODAL SCALES.
(CONJECTURE BY K. S.)

287

288

xxxvi

THE GREEK AULOS

63.

DERIVATION OF THE HEPTATONIC SCALE FROM A CYCLE OF

1 28 V.P.S.
7 ASCENDING PERFECT FOURTHS FROM C
THE PARENT HEPTATONIC AND ITS SPECIES DERIVED FROM THE CYCLE
OF FOURTHS ON C AND G, THE PROTOTYPE OF THE DITONAL
DORIAN SPECIES OF THE GRAECO-ROMAN THEORISTS
HEPTATONIC SCALE WITH ITS SPECIES DERIVED FROM A CYCLE OF
12 ASCENDING PERFECT FIFTHS 3/2 ON C = 64 V.P.S.
A SIBELIUS THEME FROM THE SECOND MOVEMENT (SYMPHONY
NO. 2 IN D, 1902, OP. 43, BREITKOPF AND HARTEL, N.Y.
BRANCH). PRESENTED WITH SYMBOLS OF GREEK NOTATION

64.

65.
66.

BY
67.

K.

69.

cit.,

V.B.
Table

304

32I

6322/23
i

RESULTS OF THE COMPARISONS OF THE VIBRATION FREQUENCIES OF

PANPIPES V.B. 6322/23 WITH THE RATIOS AND THE VIBRATION
FREQUENCIES OF THE RELATED HARMON IA, SUPPLIED BY K. S.
THE ANTIQUE PERUVIAN CLAY FLUTE SAN RAMON (V.A. 15901)
FROM THE BOLIVAR COLLECTION

The

303

308

S.

BRAZILIAN PANPIPES, NOS.

Koch-Griinberg, op.

68.

302

322

326

Flute has five Fingerholes in front and one in back

cit., Table vii, p. 390

See Koch-Griinberg, op.

75.

ON AN AGARICHE ( PANPIPE) SHOWING CORRESPONDENCE OF PITCH WITH FORMULA

DIFFERENCE IN
VIBRATION FREQUENCY DUE TO (a) INTERNAL MEASUREMENT,
(B) EXTERNAL
A = DIAMETER
329-3O
VIBRATION FREQUENCY OF THE TONIC OF EACH SPECIES IN EACH
harmonia taken on c = 128 f = 176 g = 192 v.p.s.
335
identification (by k. s.) of the harmoniai in the ancient
pelog (heptatonic) scale of java and bali from the
records of dr. jaap kunst. the proto-pelog and pelog
in transition
336
examples of the scales slendro (pentatonic) and pelog
(heptatonic) in use in the gamelans of java and bali,
identified with the harmoniai from the records of
dr. jaap kunst (by k. s.)
338-9
modal schemes of eleven slendro javanese scales identified
from dr. kunst 's tables v and vi in which vibration
frequencies are given (by k. s.) with the ratios of the
intervals
34o-i
(tune) played with swazi, narrow bore instrument in g|)
346

76.

PEDI SCALE OF TRANSVERSE FLUTE

70.

TESTS CARRIED OUT

71.

72.

73.

74.

op.

op.

77.

79.

cit.,

81.
82.

WITH THREE FINGERHOLES

348

No. I

OMBGWE

350

p. 130

THE FIVE CLOSES ON THE K w\a. RATIOS BY K. S.

RHYTHMICAL TRANSCRIPTION OF THE FRAGMENT OF PINDAR'S
FIRST PYTHIAN ODE
From

80.

p. 115
p. 125,

SPECIMEN TUNE PLAYED BY A KARANGA ON THE

op.

78.

cit.,

cit.,

357
359

Greek Version, first published by Athanasius Kircher in Musurgia

(Rhythm adapted from Gevaert's version)
Universalis ', Vol. x,p. 541.
FROM THE HYMN TO THE MUSE ' Els Movaav. MESOMEDES FIVE
the

'

'

HYPOPHRYGIAN CLOSES (RATIOS BY K. S.).

THE SCALE OF THE EPITAPH TO SICILUS
SECOND STEP IN THE HEPTATONIC SCALE OF THE HARMONIA ON
c = 128 v.p.s.

361
363
371

DIAGRAMS
PIG.

83.

xxxvii

THE AUGMENTED SECOND OF RATIO 15/13 = 247 CENTS IN FOLK

ON TONIC G = 192 V.P.S.
MUSIC ON TONIC C = 128 V.P.S.
THE INTERVAL OF THE THIRD ON THE TONIC IN FOLK MUSIC TONICS
AND G = 192 V.P.S.
C = 128 V.P.S.
(b) THE RAISED FOURTH IN
(A) FLAT FOURTHS IN FOLK MUSIC.
FOLK MUSIC
THE FIFTHS IN FOLK MUSIC
CHARACTERISTIC INTERVALS AND FEATURES OF THE SEVEN HARMONIAI
HUCBALD'S SCHEME OF ANTIPHONS IN THE PROTUS AUTHENTUS
WITH GREEK NOTATION OF THE LYD IAN TONOS
;

84.

85.
86.

87.
88.

p. 120, Gerb., op.

89.

HYMN TO THE SUN

'

OF THE INCAS OF PERU

AA, Sumak Kancakchaska

A. Robles, from Huanuco)

91.

',

93.

No. 10

374
376
377
379

cit.,

385

{pp. cit., p. 247).

PASTORAL (NO. 195) HACIENDA DE TOTORA, PERU.

KENA (FLUTE) BY KAPAKUTI
RUMANIAN SONG FROM THE MARAMUROS NO. 53
Collected by Bela Bartok, op.

92.

373

cit.
'

'

90.

372

(Collected by

PLAYED ON THE
386
388

(c)

p. 40

MELODY FOR THE SUN FESTIVAL DANCE IN KING, NEW MECKLENBURG

CLOSES FROM THE HAKO SONG OF THE PAWNEES (HYPOPHRYGIAN)

393
395

(K. S.)

94.

PERUVIAN PASTORAL (NO. 197) IN THE HYPOPHRYGIAN HARMONIA

Hacienda de Totora, Peru, from La Mus. des Incas
by D'Harcourt
TUNE NO. 9 (a). MUSIC OF THE KUBUS OF SUMATRA
'

95.

p. 373, op.

96.

97.

LLIW GWYN RHOSYN YR HAF.' MODAL VERSION BY

SUNG BY MISS ISABEL DODDS)
FROM A SONG IN RAG MALKOS
'

A. H. Fox Strangways,
98.

THE GOPl'S COMPLAINT

'

395

',

396

cit.

op.
'

cit.,

K.

S.

(AS

399
40O

p. 28g, lines 3 and 4

(MIXOLYDIAN HARMONIA)

4OI

Recorded by Ratan Devi

99.
[00.

RECITATIVE SONG

FROM EAST GREENLAND

ESKIMO SONG (iN SAME SCALE TRANSPOSED)

Collected by R. Stein.

[01.

102.

103.

104.

105.

106.

107.
108.
109.

'

Eskimo Music

',

402
402

p. 340 (ap. Thalbitzer, p. 35)

THE KATAPYKNOTIC APPARATUS IN OPERATION IN THREE TONOI

(DORIAN, PHRYGIAN, AND LYDIAN)
facing 52I
NUCLEUS OF THE SCHEME OF NOTATION. THE ENHARMONIC PYKNA
OF THE SEVEN HARMONIAI IN THE SYNEMMENON
524
RATIO 26 IN THE TONOI, TRACED BY MEANS OF ITS INCIDENCE AS
CHROMATIC PARANETE DIEZEUGMENON
526
THE ORIGIN OF THE ECCLESIASTICAL MODES IN THE FOURTH
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERFECT IMMUTABLE SYSTEM (iN THE
HYPOLYDIAN TONOS) IN THE PHRYGIAN MODALITY
533
ORIGIN OF THE ECCLESIASTICAL MODES CONFIRMED FROM ARABIAN
SOURCES.
THE OCTOECHOS ON THE LUTE OF ISHAQ (cf. FigS. 55
and 61, Chap, vii, Ishdq's Lute), the majra of wosta =
phrygian species
538-9
sunrise (from agave)
543
funeral march (from agave)
543
sunrise (from agave)
544
from agave with allowances for pianoforte approximation,
species of dorian mode (c 22)
544
'

'

'

'

'

',

PLATES
AULETE PLAYING ON THE DOUBLE AULOI. THE POSITION OF THE
AULETE WITH HEAD BENT OVER THE AULOI, THUS RELAXING
THE MUSCLES OF THE GLOTTIS, IMPLIES A MELOS WITH A LOW
TESSITURA SUCH AS THAT OF THE HYPOPHRYGIAN HARMONIA
Frontispiece

From
Photo

The Throne of Venus

'

',

5th C. B.C.

Museo

Ludovici, Rome.

Alinari

FACING
PAGE

CONTEST BETWEEN APOLLO AND MARSYAS. MARSYAS PLAYING ON

LONG SLENDER AULOI, EACH FITTED WITH TWO BULBS. BASRELIEF FROM MANTINEIA
National Museum, Athens. By courtesy of the Director, M. Philadelpheus

EGYPTIAN WALL-PAINTING FROM A TOMB IN THEBES, SHOWING

MUSICIAN WITH DOUBLE PIPES

36

38

Note the pair of long slender reed-blown pipes the reed mouthpieces
are distinctly painted creamy yellow in contrast to the reddish-brown
proper to the natural Egyptian reed used for the resonators. The
wheat or barley stalks of the mouthpieces are shown to be of considerable length
as they intervene between the lips of the piper and the
resonator in addition to the vibrating portion in the player's mouth
:

British

Museum. By

courtesy of the Director.

Photo

Donald Macbeth.

BLACK FIGURES ON WHITE. THE PIPER BENDING LOW OVER HIS

LONG SLENDER BASS PIPES, WITH THE MUSCLES OF THE GLOTTIS
WELL RELAXED, IS PLAYING IN A HARMONIA WITH A LOW TESSITURA, SUCH AS THE HYPOPHRYGIAN
B. 625, Archaic, British Museum.
Director.
Photo : R. B. Fleming

Vase-painting.
Co.

&

By

54

courtesy of the

THE PIPER HAS THROWN BACK HIS HEAD IN ORDER TO BRING HIS
LIPS HIGHER UP ON THE GLOSSA OF THE AULOS
A MOVEMENT
THAT RESULTS IN A RISE IN PITCH
E. 351, British Museum.
Vase-painting.
By courtesy of the Director.
:

Photo: R. B. Fleming

&

58

Co.

REVEL WITH MAENADS.

THE PIPER HAS SPREAD HIS PIPES OUT AT

AN ANGLE IN ORDER TO RAISE THE PITCH BY PRESSURE OF HIS
LIPS ON THE VIBRATING TONGUES OF THE MOUTHPIECES
Vase-painting Athenian red on black.
courtesy of the Director.

Photo

F. 75,

British

Museum.

58

By

R. B. Fleming Sf Co.

FROM HERCULANEUM. REVELS BY BACCHUS WITH

FAUN AND BACCHANTE. THE FAUN IS DEPICTED AS A SKILLED
AULETE, PLAYING ON THE DOUBLE PIPES SPREAD OUT AT AN
ANGLE
THE STRAINING OF THE MUSCLES OF THE GLOTTIS
DENOTES THE HIGH TESSITURA OF THE MELOS

BAS-RELIEF

Museo Nazionale, Napoli.

Photo

xxxix

Brogi.

60

THE GREEK AULOS

xl

FACING
PAGE

PLATE

8.

THROWN BACK AND MUSCLES OF THE GLOTTIS

THOUGH PLAYING IN A HARMONIA HAVING A HIGH

AULETE WITH HEAD

TENSE, AS

TESSITURA, SUCH AS THE MIXOLYDIAN OR THE LYD IAN. THERE

ARE TWO BULBS VISIBLE
THE BEATING-REED MOUTHPIECE IS
IN HIS MOUTH, HIS LIPS ARE FIRMLY COMPRESSED
E. 474, British Museum.
Vase-painting.
By courtesy of the Director.
;

&

Photo: R. B. Fleming
9.

SILENOS CHANGING THE BULBS ON HIS AULOI. HE HAS TAKEN ONE

OFF THE LEFT-HAND PIPE AND IS FITTING ONE ON THE RIGHTHAND PIPE
E. 583.
Early 5th C. B.C. British Museum.
Vase-painting.
By
Photo

courtesy of the Director.

10.

R. B. Fleming

&

PRIMITIVE OBOES. (i) FROM N. EGYPT

(2) S. AFRICA
(3) N.W.
INDIA
IN THE
(4 AND 5) MEXICO, TARASCAN CHIRIMIAS
LATTER, NOTE THE GROOVED CYLINDER ATTACHMENTS (TALL
AND SHORT) SUPPORTING THE MOUTHPIECE
Photo : R. B. Fleming
(4 and 5 presented by Miss Marian Storm)
;

&

courtesy of

TWO BULBS

72

Miss Marian Storm.

THE POMPEIAN AULOI (WITH REVOLVING BANDS) AND, TO THE"

RIGHT, AULOI SURMOUNTED BY A MOUTHPIECE SUGGESTIVE OF
A MODERN CLARINET OR FLAGEOLET
Museo Nazionale, Napoli.

13.

68

Co.

AZTEC MUSICIAN WITH CHIRIMIA FITTED WITH

By
Ife.

62

Co.

11.

62

Co.

PIPER HOLDING

TWO AULOI

Photo

Brogi.

IN LEFT

HAND

ONE

READY
TWOBULBS AND THE REED MOUTHPIECE ARE VISIBLE
THE RIGHT
HAND IS FIXING A BULB ON THE OTHER PIPE (SUGGESTIVE OF
THE FEAT OF PRONOMUS THE THEBAN)
E. 271 ; 480-430 B.C. British Museum.
Vase-painting.
By courtesy
;

74

IS

of the Director.

14.

Photo

R. B. Fleming

&

IO4

Co.

PIPER PLAYING IN THE BACCHIC REVELS UPON DOUBLE AULOI FITTED

WITH BOMBYXES HIS HEAD IS THROWN BACK, THE PIPES HELD
;

ALOFT AT AN ANGLE, IMPLYING A HIGH TESSITURA

Bas-relief

from

the Farnese,

Museo Nazionale, Napoli.

15.

THE KITHARA

16.

FRAGMENT OF PINDAR'S FIRST PYTHIAN ODE

b.c.
Facsimile made by H.
(red on black), British Museum

Kent

in

356

'

&

',

Vol. I,

THE ELGIN AULOI WITH BULBS

5th

c.

B.C.

British

Museum.

420
By

courtesy of the Director.

THE SILVER PIPES OF UR

From

By

10

Brogi

igi$ from a vase-painting

First published by Athanasius Kircher in Musurgia Universalis

Co.
pp. 541 and 542. Photo : R. B. Fleming

18.

146

500

17.

Photo

the Royal Cemetery, 2700 B.C.

courtesy of Dr. Legrain

518
University

Museum,

Philadelphia.

TABLES
I

FORMULA I INTO VIBRATION

FREQUENCIES OR CONVERSELY BY FORMULA NO. 2, VIBRATION
LENGTHS AND
FREQUENCIES CONVERTED INTO LENGTHS.
FREQUENCIES ARE THEREFORE RECIPROCALS

EFFECTIVE LENGTHS CONVERTED BY

J

II

TABLE OF SELECTED BEATING-REED MOUTHPIECES

VIBRATING TONGUES FROM
VARIOUS LENGTHS

TO

'033

= 1564.
128

V.P.S.

IN LENGTH.
III

IV

EXAMPLE OF REGIONAL PITCH

-03

E 18

xlvi

OF

STEMS

112

TABLE OF SELECTED BEATING-REED MOUTHPIECES OF VARIOUS

TONGUE-LENGTHS, DIAMETERS AND TONGUE-WIDTHS, WITH
I22~3
THEIR PROPER NOTES, NORM, AND GLOTTIS

HAVING
SEVEN DOUBLE-REED MOUTHPIECES OF VARIOUS LENGTHS
AND A COMMON NORM OF C 1
THE SAME DIAMETER -004
AT V.L. FROM -079 TO -083
;

NORMAL NOTE

PIECES HAVE AS

C
IS

II

OR

128

/ AT

OR

128

THE NORM

V.L.

-079,

256

II

125

256

AULOS LORET XXVII PLAYED BY NINE DIFFERENT DOUBLE-REED

MOUTHPIECES
For measurements of Aulos xxvii see Records of performance (Chap.

VII

THE ELGIN AULOS, BRITISH MUSEUM

REED MOUTHPIECES

IX

26

128

PERFORMANCE OF DOUBLE-REED MOUTHPIECE D

x)

IN SEVERAL AULOI

129

ELGIN AULOS I (STRAIGHT). 6 HOLES, RECORD OF PERFORMANCE

(WITH 19 MOUTHPIECES ON 6 FUNDAMENTALS)

413

'

'

SCALES OBTAINED FROM THE ELGIN AULOS AT THE BRITISH MUSEUM

between 510-11
(the straight one)

By
XI

x).

PLAYED BY EIGHT DOUBLE-

For measurements of Aulos, see Records of Performance (Chap,

VIII

24

VI

DIASEVEN DOUBLE-REED MOUTHPIECES OF VARIOUS LENGTHS

METERS FROM -0035 TO -005 AT A V.L. OF -o6o THE MOUTHF 17
F 17

II

Kathleen Schlesinger

FLUTES FROM NORTH EGYPT

Selection

from a

5 1 2-1

Collection of 50 presented by Sir Robert

densed Record)
xli

Mond.

{Con-

THE GREEK AULOS

xlii
TABLE

XII

PAGE

RECORD OF PERFORMANCE OF THE NOTCHED FLUTES OF THE ACHOLI

TRIBE OF THE S. SUDAN
5I4-I 5
Presented by Dr. A.

XIII

SIX FLUTES

N. Tucker

FROM BALI

5*6-17

Presented by Mr. Soekawati of Batavia.

by Miss Elsie Hamilton (1937)

XIV

THE SILVER PIPES OF UR

Flutes

from Bali presented

MEASUREMENTS AND MODAL SCALE

518

From

material and full-size photograph, by courtesy of Dr. L. Legrain

(Univ. Mus. of Philadelphia). Measurements by K.S.

XV

TABLE OF REFERENCE.

C=

128

F=

RATIOS AND
176

and

V.F.S.

G=

19a

OF THE 7 HARMONIAI ON
v.p.s.

End

of book

TABLE OF THE FORMULAE

USED FOR AULOI {Nos. 6 to 9) AND FLUTES
(Nos. 1 to 5)
FORMULA NO.
open

(a)

To
.

(a)

...

340 m./s.
2(L + A all.)
340 m./s.

(6)

4L

pipes, (b) closed pipes

from the length.

find the v.f.

*'

,
-

*'

f Sd "
f Sd "

Vlf
-

FORMULA NO. 2
open

(a)

To
,

(a)

340 m./s.
yf
2

and L.
3
(P)

^'(

= _L

sd-w.

of J
t

^.

'

inclusive of ^,

pipes, (&) closed pipes

sound-wave from the

find the length of

.
,

of J

(A

v.f.

sd-w.

all.)

L. of flute.

L. of sd-w. or effective length of closed pipe,

i.e.

.-.

sd-w.

j =

L. of flute or pipe.

FORMULA NO.

To find the position of Hole i or vent in a flute (useful also for the determination of the v.f. of cross-fingered notes).
Length from emb.

(A

D)

(A

8)

+
=

(I.D.) or

C. of Hole

more]
1

from emb.

FORMULA NO. 4

To find the Standard Allowance at Hole i (which should agree with the allowance obtained by use of Formula No. 2, by subtracting the actual length from the
'

'

effective

'

or

'

sound-wave length

2[A

(A

d)

8)

[A

de]

FORMULA NO.

To

'

').

(A

Standard

All.

find the diameter allowance at exit.

(A

d)

de.]

=A

all.

at exit

xliii

and

Eff.

all.

2(A

all.

at exit.)

THE GREEK AULOS

xliv

FORMULAE FOR AULOS MP.

FORMULA NO. 6

To

D-R. mp.'s proper note.

340 m./s.
= 4* = v.f. of I w.l.
4(V.L. + A)

find the v.f. of

and |
(See Chap,

iii,

Tested and

v.f.

of

w.l. of

D-R. mp.

p. 125, Table V, etc.)

found correct.

formula no. 7

To

D-R. mp. from the

340 m./s.
= x sd-w.l.
v.f. x 4

find the effective length of

and -

(V.L.

A) of D-R.

FORMULA NO.

v.f.

mp.

B-R. mp. proper note

To

find the v.f. of

8[T.L.

and x

B-R. mp.

340 m./s.
= 8 * = V f f Sd " W
*
+ A + (A - T.W.)]
= v.f. of sd-w. of a B-R. mp.'s note.
'

j-

FORMULA NO. 9

To

find the length of

sound-wave from the

340 m./s.
v.f. x 8

and

v.f.

of the B-R.'s proper note.

x length of whole sd-w.

aggregate length of B-R. mp. [(T.L.

+A+

(A

T.W.)]

THE VIBRATION FREQUENCIES OF THE NOTES

OF THE DORIAN HARMONIA OF MODAL DETER-

MINANT

22
CALCULATED FROM C

(These are the notes of

28 AND 256.

my

tuned piano)

v.p.s.

11"

128

22.

C# 21

I34-I

20

10. f

140-8

>

* j

268-2

E\>

19

18"

17

148
156-4

281-6

165-6

; j

312-8

>>

331-2

>

352

187-7

S3

375-4

14

201*1

5)

402-2

J3

433-2

! S

234-6

12

D 20
9

F 17
128

GiS
128

G 14
128

ii7'3

128

E 18

F16

176

256

128

16

216-6

C22

128

15

26,

or

128

C21

128

296

13

C TT
Oil

128

or thus

E\>

9j

or 256

13

128

B 12
128

N.B. The numerators are the ratio numbers (see note p. xlvii on the subject),
the denominators express the octave, based on C, in which the ratios or v.f.s are
taken.

43

o
c

ll

+tO SvO h WOO +0O P ^ SO

ThvON^p
tf>
en <n n m b o c^oo oo
\i \i
b
o o ob oo r^vijso in
($N'>-ihhihWhmhhi-iihhmhM'1hOO-OOQ-0-OP

I>

^i-

II

II

II

II

II

II

Tt-

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

<J

U3
i-l

i-l

t-

t-

N n -t in^ r^oo o
a O
r^oo oooooooooooooooooo
>h

0 h n

invo

noo a o

c^aaajo'jjoio
^-

CO

55

C5

\of^oo

<2

*fi

f>

o
o c
s

> n in > N +>c N inop

"
in
tn m m b b o ob oo t^vb in m + n n
o
^cocorncocncocnrococncntnNNNNNMNNNNNN

vc oo oo
ob
b

MM

n
t^r-vb

co

"

o>

s-s

)-IMWl-HM>-llHHHI-.l-IPHMHIHl-IMl-lMlHIH

c
o
60 \3

00
I-l

co

<C

" G
co
00 "E,

M N cjTj-invOf^OO

O M M

<(-

m SO

1> CO

O H N

<r>

.8*

O w

^mN

ob J>

II

II

II

II

II

II

t-*

m^N
O oo
I> o io n
m m m in in

o oco

>\d >do\0\Cvo\d
II

m
II

f)

in

^*\D vo in in in in in in vo

w o

in in

O oo

t^-\0

m-^-roN m

II

II

8*

Tt-Tt-Tj"^-^--^-^-^--^-

a S

S o

&3

CO

vO

Nee

N N N

m N Ci
m VO 00 00 m
OOcncocncncococnmcncn'TTj-

ro'^-m'O

t}-

t--oo

OO

rj

14

<

> u
U3

o
4->

o
in

5fi

in en tn
N b CO si

co co

N b
0 0 o o o
N N N N N N N
II

II

II

II

II

II

li

o
co
o o o o

in
GO vb

a o
o

o oo

vb

-a

tt-

oob r^inAj-ol

en

>-*

h
> O
CO

I
s
o
<a

a
II

II

II

II

05

oivo

JOOOOOOOOOOOO
N ro-^-msD t^oo

n
N

-t in

M N

CONCERNING THE MODAL RATIO NUMBER

The

use by the Author of the term

Modal

number

ratio

modal

(or

needs some explanation here, since it assumes knowledge by the

reader of the theory and practical processes of the modal principle in
operation (see Chap. i).
The term is applied in a twofold sense of ratio ',
ratio)

'

number of a note in the modal sequence. The division of a

Modal Determinant results in a number of equal segments each bearing a number indicating its position and value in the
ensuing sequence, which is expressed in full by a proper fraction, having
the M.D. as constant denominator, and the order number of the segment
Once the M.D. or constant denominator has been indicated,
as numerator.
the numerators used alone form ratios with the fundamental, as differentiated unit, e.g. 28/28, or with each other
each with the number on
its left 27/28 as fractions of the length;
with those on the right 27/26
as abstract ratios.
The number used alone as a modal ratio ', therefore,
has a specific meaning
and refers to the segment which bears that number
in the aliquot division in question.
In the case of a length of string on
a monochord, the number enables a student to identify and produce instantly
the corresponding sound in the modal sequence.
Thus the term modal
ratio, or ratio number, as herein applied, implies the possibility of forming
inversely proportional ratios (to right or left), and provides each segment
besides with a numerical nomenclature in its own modal sequence, e.g.
28, 27, 26 mentioned as modal ratios in a Tonos or Harmonia, not only
signify two intervals 28/27 x 27/26 but also three notes in the modal
sequence indicated, viz. 28, 27, 26. When the Harmonia is known, the
exact theoretical vibration frequencies of these modal ratios used as notes
may be easily computed.

and

as the

given length by the

'

CONCERNING TABLE
The

I,

p. xlvi

reciprocity refers to the operation of the formulae

optional use of length or

v.f.

change of these two factors

and 2

as divisor results likewise in the

in

which the

consequent inter225 and

as quotients (see, for fuller explanation, pp.

317-18).

CONCERNING THE NOMENCLATURE

OR

256

128

USED ON

p. xlvi

The

author has adopted as nomenclature the synthetic formula used throughout

this work, of which F 16 is an example, as a terse statement of the following facts
the note, here F 16, has the name and ratio number it bears in the division by M.D.
22 on C 256 or 128 v.p.s., which produces the Genesis of the Dorian Harmonia on
On consultation with the composer, Elsie Hamilton, this arrangement was
C.
considered the best for all purposes in theory and practice, and therefore the modal
piano has been tuned in accordance with it.
:

The

vibration frequency placed under the note

F 16

250

in

which the note occurs.

xlvii

thus indicates the octave

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Act. I.D.

actual increment of distance

Act. L.

actual length, visible length of flute or pipe in contradistinc-

Adj. All.

tion to eff. L.
adjusted allowance, in regard to allowances for diameter in

on

flute

or pipe between the

fmgerholes

flutes

All.

B-R. mp.
C.H.
Cent.

Cum.
A
A all.
A all. ex.
A all. vt.

D. or d.

D-R. mp.

=
=
=

de.
Eff All.

Elf. I.D.

Eff. L.

=
=

allowance in respect of diameter in flutes

beating or single-reed mp.
centre of hole or fingerhole
cent of equal tempered semitone
cumulative
diameter of the bore in flutes
diameter allowance
diameter allowance at exit
diameter allowance at vent
diameter of embouchure in flute
diameter of fingerhole in flute or pipe
double-reed mouthpiece
depth of walls in flute
effective allowance = diameter allowance in respect of soundwave, i.e., taken twice
effective increment of distance computed from sound-wave
length, divided by the modal determinant
effective length = in relation to the sound-wave
length in relation to sound-wave inclusive of diameter allowance

=
=

embouchure

ex.

Exc.
Ext. or

extrusion of mouthpiece reed from the resonator

=
=

Apple of

Emb.

exit

Excess

mp.

Ext.

tant factor in Modality

F.

Fh.
Fl. All.

flute

(See Chap,
Folk Music
Folk Tune
Greater Complete System

floating allowance.

F.M.

F.T.
G.C.S.

an impor-

on Auios

embouchure

fingerhole of pipe or flute

vi,

Allowance No.

9)

glottis

gl.

N.

H.

Harm.
Ho.
H.S.

note (see Chap. iii). Note obtained

releasing or tightening muscles of glottis
hole or fingerhole

glottis

Harmonia
Hypo.
Harmonic

on Aulos by

Series
strongly forced or accented note on Aulos
= length from centre to centre of
fmgerholes, in relation to multiple length, of flute or pipe

let.

Ictus

I.D.

increment of distance

Inc.

increment

xlviii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Inc. All.

No.

xlix

incremental allowance No. 7 (see Chap, vi), calculated on

allowance actually embodied on flute between exit and vent,
divided by the modal determinant, e.g. on Sensa flute

^~ =

-00316.

The

allowance

is

cumulative per finger hole

15

and remains

latent until the length overtakes a nodal point

bamboo

Kn.

Knot

K. S.

the author

L.

length

M.D.
mean.

modal determinant

in reed or

I.D. or

m.m.
Mp.
Mp. Ext.

or

in the aliquot division

Node

N.P.

Pent.

PH.

number

millimetres

Norm.
or

the

v.f.

mouthpiece of Aulos or flute

mouthpiece extrusion or distance on stem or stalk of reed mp.
between vibrator and resonator
metre per second
proper note of reed mp. produced with normal use of breath
its v.f. is calculable by formulae 6 to 9

M./s.

N.

an average not exact, but the nearest useful, mainly used for

or nodal point with regard to Inc. All. No.

7.

Pentatonic

Parh.

Parhypate

P.I.S.

Perfect

Pos.
Pr.
Pr. All.

Position

Immutable System of the Tonos

proportional
proportional allowance computed by dividing the allowance
by the ratio at a fingerhole
proportional increment of distance calculated on the actual

Pr. I.D.

length of flute or pipe divided by the modal determinant

Prosl.

R.
S.

S-R. mp.
Sd-w.

Sd-w.l.

St. All.

Syn.
T.

Proslambanomenos
resonator

second
single or beating-reed
-j-

Synemmenon

treated, applied to
also contrary,

T.
T.L.

T.W.

U.

=
=

v. or vt

v.f.

v.p.s

V.L.

1)

4,

by Formula No. 4

as vent.

It is

(see

Chap,

vi),

divided at each finger-

wheat and oat straws

for

D-R. mps.

(See

U)

tongue of beating-reed
tongue length of beating-reed mp. measured from tip to base
or hinge
tongue width of beating-reed mp., analogous to diameter of
fingerhole
the wider the tongue the higher the note
untreated, applied to wheat or oat straws for D-R. mps.
velocity, as of sound in air = 340 metres per second
i.e. Hole 1 used as vent, left always uncovered as
vent
starting-point of modal sequence
vibration frequency, or index of pitch
vibrations per second
vibrating length of D-R. mp. determined by impact (not
(See Formulae Nos. 6 and 7)
pressure) of lips on straw.
;

vel.

mp.

sound-wave ( or
or
sound-wave length
Standard Allowance No.
refers always to Hole 1
hole by the ratio

'

ERRATA
p. 29, line 13 : for Hypophrygian read Hyperphrygian.'
p. 86, fn. 1 end : for Table ix ', read Table xi.
pp. 124 and 123, Tables iv and v, column 6 : for Formula
'

'

'

'

viii ' read Formula vi.

read Fingerholes.
read apostrophe before

'

p. 126, Table vi, column ii : for

p. 171, Greek quotation, 229, after

No. of Fingernotes

'

& R. >

W.

'

comma

for

iv ('iv).
<

p. 210, fn. 1, 2, line 2,

left

p.

the symbol of notation should be hemi-alpha,

read No. 5.
and passim : for Sarangdev ', read Sarangdev.
;
Each name of fret should be moved down one space,
Sabbaba = 18/20
Wosta = 17/20, &c.

242
p. 264
p.

rri
|l

limb.

(4)

for

'

Formula No. 4

sqq.,

',

'

278, Fig. 55

e.g.

p. 281, line 6, under Fig. 57

Binsir equation (ff

x f =),

for

ff-

read

',

ff =

49 cents.
'

No. 4

p. 330, Pipe

for

m/S

34

'-

read
-983

933
p. 343, line 8

for

'

gende'r

for

'

below

p. 349, line

p. 361, line

10 btm.

',

commas

insert

read gender,
read Fig. 76.

',

15/13 and (Rho and

after

366 (lower

p. 369, bar

6-24

half), bars

164

for

'

p. 370, line 5 above *

after

Idelsoln
P- 39 1 , line 18 : for
p. 438 (lower half), under
'

',

(phi) read

27

read

',

for

27

(theta).

Wosta, insert (Fig.

60).

read Idelsohn.

THE MOUTHPIECES

D-R. Mp.

read (U).
p. 465,

p. 520,
p. 521,
p. 521,
p. 522,

Hole 2

add decimal point before 1012.

line 14, after curtailed modes : add (Fig. 34).
line 20 btm., after Lydian Tonoi : add (Fig. 101).
fn. 1 end : add (p. xlvii).
line 22 : for
see Chap, ix, p. 25 ', read p. 367.
(addition)

'

p. 526, Fig. 103, left-hand division, top line of ratios

f%\
24

for

(Diezeug,)'

read

103

for

'

Paranete
28

p. 528, in diagram

for

||

p. 531, line 6 of contents

p. 537, middle

for

'

'

read Paramese.
28

PM.', read

',

PM.

28

28

for

Matna

',

%
22.

r
p. 526, Fig.

Mu)

<<!>'

p.

Majra ', read Majra.

read Matna.
'

'

R.R.'

for

'

(U)

'

CHAPTER

THE ORIGIN AND GENESIS OF THE HARMONIA ON

THE AULOS
DEMONSTRATION OF THE MODAL PRINCIPLE

IN OPERATION

INTRODUCTORY
Introductory.
Outline of the Theory of the Harmoniai. Equal Measure in Acoustic
Theory. Modal Determinants (= M.D.). The Mixolydian Harmonia. The
Genesis of the Modal Material of the Mixolydian Mode. The Mixolydian Harmonia
in the Diatonic Octave.
The Lydian Harmonia. The Phrygian Harmonia. The
Dorian Harmonia. The Hypolydian Harmonia. The Hypophrygian Harmonia.
The Hypodorian Harmonia. The Bastard Hypodorian. The Aulos as Origin of
the Harmoniai. The Modal System based upon the Operation of the Principle
The Ethos of the Mode based upon the characteristic Features
of Equal Measure.
peculiar to each Harmonia.
Professor H. S. Macran
the
overlooked factor
'

'

THIS

chapter

is

intended to provide an exposition of the modal

system which was the basis of ancient Greek music. Proof that
the system here described is not an arbitrary figment, but repre-

by the records of Auloi contained in Chapters

and by the documentary evidence examined in Chapters iv and v.
we must inquire what is a Mode. Modern musicians are generally
agreed to define a Mode as an arrangement, sanctioned by convention, of
tones and semitones within an octave of a standard scale which itself is
largely a convention.
Such Modes may be primarily distinguished by the
sents the facts, will be afforded
ii

and

iii

First,

'

'

position of the semitones relative to the other intervals

or they

designated, in reference to the white notes of the keyboard,

may be

by the octave
Mode,

containing the sequence of tones and semitones characteristic of each

e.g.

the d octave, the c octave.

for the

These descriptions

are tolerably satisfactory

Modes as represented by the Graeco-Roman theorists and for the

Modes bearing the names of the ancient Greek Harmoniai

Ecclesiastical

with which they are supposed to have some obscure connexion. But these
so-called Modes have no separate existence apart from the standard scale
to which they are referred and upon whose origin they throw no light
they have no individual genesis and they display no characteristic intervals.
It is not in this vague sense that the term
Mode is used in this work
'

'

and when we speak of the modal system of Greece we have in mind something far more subtle than an arrangement of tones and semitones whose
precise values are generally taken for granted.

Although no detailed description of the ancient Greek Modes or Harmoniai (douovLdi)

is

known

to exist,

nevertheless

some

of their features

are indicated in literary sources to which, in partial anticipation of later

i

THE GREEK AULOS

we must turn for a moment. From Aristotle 1 we learn that

Harmonia {rj aQfxovia) is in some way connected with the operation of
number and equal measure and this brief description, as we shall see,

chapters,

the
'

',

is

the key to the genesis of the Harmoniai.

from

Furthermore,

it

is

evident

some of the Problems of Ps- Aristotle, 2 that the note called Mese (fceat]), in the character
of an
arche
source ', exercised some kind of causative or
{&Q%rj) or
several passages of other authors, as for instance

'

'

'

formative function in the generation of the Harmonia

Mese conditioned
Ps-Euclid

scale.

the values or intonation of

3

states definitely that

of the rest of the notes

become known

'.

'

that, in fact, the

the other notes in the

all

by means of the Mese, the values

The

Ancients, 4 moreover, accord-

ing to Ar. Quin., used intervals other than tones and semitones in their

Harmoniai

amongst such

intervals

are

cited

the

Spondeiasmos and

Eklysis of three dieses each, and the Ekbole of five dieses.

makes mention of the

also

Aristoxenus

fact that the intervals separating the

by the players of the Aulos

are not always tones or semitones

discussing the divisions of the 5th, he allows that

it

may

Tonoi used
and when

consist of four

These few passages provide a

sufficient indication that the ancient musical system of the Greeks was not
a haphazard series of notes or intervals, that it was founded on some definite
rational principle, and that it was not limited to the intervals of modern
intervals of different

magnitude

(fisyedrj).

music.

OUTLINE OF THE THEORY OF THE HARMONIAI

The theory of the aq^oviai which is the keystone of the present work
may now be described. The Harmonia among the Greeks was a sequence
and
was based upon natural law. Seven original Harmoniai
same octave, each having an individual and independent genesis from a common fundamental, believed to
be F. Since these seven Harmoniai are found differentiated within the
consisting of proportional, interrelated intervals within the octave

the sequence

itself

may be found

differentiated within the

F to F, each having the characteristic order of intervals resulting

its own independent genesis, it follows that there must be for the
second step, seven G's according to modern nomenclature, all differing in
intonation and bearing to the common Tonic F a different ratio.
There
octave

from

will likewise

As

be seven A's, B's, C's, D's, E's

fulfilling similar conditions.

a natural consequence of this, there will be seven different sequences

from the same Tonic F, no two of which will begin with the same
interval.
The interval from the first to the second step is, therefore, indicative of the Harmonia.
There is here no standard scale from which all
starting

Aristot., a^.Plut., de

Musica, 1139c

at v7iEQo%ai xax' agidfiov xal laofiEToiav).

(qtaivetai ts

ra

/xegrj avzrjg

Weil and Reinach

xai rd /teyddr]

mi

in their edition of Plut.,

de Mus. (329), emend laoiieroiav to yEwfierQiav and add <rjQii6adai>. Cf. Bekker's
ed. of Aristot., Vol. v, p. 1482, frag. 43.
2
Probl., xix, 20, 25, 36, 44.
See later, Chap, iv, pp. 13-22.
3
Ps-Eucl., Intro., p. 18M. (= Cleonides, p. 202, von Jan).
4 de Mus.,
p. 21M., lines 3-6, and p. 28, middle.
6

Harm., pp. 37-8M.

ORIGIN OF THE HARMONIA ON THE AULOS

each has an independent existence

Harmoniai may be derived
It is evident that this sevenfold
its own modal genesis.
differentiation, theoretically within the limits of the same octave, of each
degree of that octave, is unobtainable with tones and semitones only. The
implication of this proposition is, moreover, that if the second degree of
one of the Modes be at the interval of a semitone from the Tonic, then
in all the other Modes the magnitude of the interval separating these same
Again, if the
degrees must be either greater or less than a semitone.
interval between the second and third degrees be a tone (9 8) in any one
of the Modes, it cannot also be the same kind of tone in any of the other
Modes the magnitude of the interval between these degrees will again,
therefore, be greater or less than a 9 8 tone in all the other six Modes.
If the use in pre-Aristoxenian days of such a Modal System can be
established, it is difficult to see how the system could have been demonstrated upon any but a mathematical basis.
How could seven different
G's, A's, B's, &c, be theoretically and exactly defined otherwise?
It is
the seven
as

the result of

easy to talk of dividing a

Tone

into four quarter-tones, or the semitone

but how would the limits

and fixed but by mathematical ratios ? And
by what canon would they be recognized by students ? In practice,
certainly the ear would suffice
but in a treatise the use of the ear as
canon is impracticable. The primitive piper did not have to judge, he
simply opened the holes of his instrument and the notes sounded
these
at first, he accepted without demur or reasoning.
If the Aulos imposes
its scale upon the piper through the boring of the holes then we may say
that the piper acquires the Mode through his ear as receptive agent and
criterion.
But when we theorists endeavour to discover what has taken
place, we find that there is an exact mathematical basis underlying what
the Aulos had to bestow
this basis is the natural law to which reference
has been made. The teachers in the schools of the Harmonists, in the
days of Aristoxenus, had obviously penetrated the mystery enveloping the

between

and

into the requisite seven dieses,

of each interval be defined

boring of pipes

(still

obscure to a large extent

at the present day),

according

1
on the use of
and rates of vibration in contradistinction to his own assertion of
reliance on the musician's ear.
Although the theoretical exposition of the
basis of the Greek Modal System cannot be given without touching the
fringe of the science of acoustics, it will be seen further on how the Modes
came to birth quite naturally on the Aulos at the hands of the unsophisticated musician, ignorant of scales, Modes and theories, merely through

to the testimony of Aristoxenus himself, in his polemic

ratios

the inevitable operation of natural law.

EQUAL MEASURE IN ACOUSTIC THEORY

The

passage of Aristotle mentioned above has instructed us to look to

the implications of equal measure (laofieTola) as our guide in understanding

the Harmonia.
What, then, is the significance of equal measure
and
;

how

does

it

bring the

Modes
1

to birth

Harm.,

p.

Equal measure

32M.

in the

domain

of

THE GREEK AULOS

acoustics takes action as a formative principle in

(i)

in the

shall call

Harmonic
the Modal

Series,

(2)

two opposite directions

which I
:

in a series the reversal of (1),

Series.

(1) Equal measure implies the members of the Harmonic Series, infinite
number, which are recognized in their aggregate formative aspect as the
If the fundamental note be F of 88 vibrations
per second (v.p.s.), the second member of the series, F one octave higher,
will have 88 x 2 (= 176) v.p.s.
the third member C a fifth higher
264 v.p.s., and so on. In practice, these constituents of sound, known
as Harmonics or overtones, may, by concentrated attention, and under
favourable conditions of resonance, be distinctly heard when the note of
a string or pipe is sounded.
Or again, these Harmonics may be induced
to materialize from a string by lightly touching the Nodes at points onehalf, one-third, &c, along the string and then plucking or bowing the
string with decision.
On a flute, harmonic overtones up to the 7th or 8th
may be obtained by the practical device known as overblowing, i.e. doubling,

in

physical basis of sound.

&c, the force of breath pressure required to produce

the fundamental note, either from the whole pipe with all holes closed or
through any uncovered hole. All this is generally known, or may be
ascertained from text-books.
It has an important bearing, however, on
trebling, quadrupling,

the genesis of the

(2)

The second

Modal

Series.

aspect of this natural principle of equal measure applied

downward
Harmonic Series

to the length of string or pipe, implies a

progression.

proportional steps familiar to us in the

are

now

The

generated

segment by segment, through the division of the string by equal measure.

Such an application of equal measure to the length of a string produces

Harmonic Series as to proportions, but reversed

this second aspect of the principle of equal measure
be more easily followed and checked on a string than
on a pipe, it will suit our purpose better to use the former to demonstrate
the operation of the law, and revert to the pipe later.
Let n be a string
of any given length, then
a series, identical with the

as to direction.

the

modal

As

may

n
8,

9,

11,

10,

12,

14.

13,

represents the string divided seven separate times by equal measure, into

these seven series

This may be effected by measuring off

of segments on the surface of the sound-box of the

monochord

manner shown

8, 9,

10,

11,

&c,

in the

aliquot parts.

in Fig.

1.

The

actual values in v.p.s.

of such segments of a given string will shortly be given.

MODAL DETERMINANTS (=
Such
as

we

M.D.)

divisions of the string demonstrate the function of

have seen, Aristotle associates with equal measure.

8-14, which were given by

way

of illustration, are,

Number which,
The numbers

I believe,

the individual

and by stopping the successive

Determinants of the seven original Modes
points of a string by means of a movable bridge at places determined by
;

THE GREEK AULOS

one or other of these numbers the germ of a Mode is produced in the

form of all the available notes constituting its modal material. Such a
Modal Determinant derives a special significance from the fact that, by
virtue of its association with the operation of equal measure, it also denotes

member of the Harmonic Series bearing the same modal number.

Most important of all is the rank borne by the Determinant number as
member of the Harmonic Series for that Harmonic is identical with the
the

fundamental note given by the first segment or aliquot part of the string
plucked. That note, moreover, is the fundamental or Arche, of the
modal series, and conditions the whole of the modal material. It is by
imparting the characteristic essence which Arche possesses as member of

when

the Harmonic Series, to the modal scale or Harmonia, that the Ethos or
aesthetic quality of the Mode is made manifest.
Thus it is Arche that
wields the inherent formative power that was

Modal System

the

of the Greeks, for

Causative or Creative Tone.

The

felt to be operating through

which reason we may call Arche the
show whether the claim is

sequel will

justified or not.

The

table opposite,

showing the Archai of the seven original Modes in

Harmonic Scries, which correspond,

their characteristic positions in the

as already explained, with their

own Modal Determinants, demonstrates

(according to the claim made above) their identity with the seven Harmoniai
mentioned by the theorists. It will be noticed in addition that these Archai
taken on the F string are of the same pitch as the Mesai of the Tonoi of
Alypius of the same name, 1 according to the generally accepted modern
pitch valuation.

The

step in the genesis of a

first

mode on

a string

is,

therefore, the

number the Determinant 2 which shall for the purposes of

demonstration be 14. This fixes the identity of the Mode about to be
generated as Mixolydian. There is sure to be a query about the apparently
choice of a

arbitrary selection of

The

number

14 as

position of

is

Mese

It will

for this

and other numbers

Harmonia.
as

Modal

the statement of several of the Theorists regarding the

Tonus Primus) on a specific degree of the

Immutable System (between Hypate Meson and

(or of the

Harmonia in the Perfect

Nete Diezeugmenon). Ptolemy,
1

Modal Determinant

justification for the selection of this

Determinants

for instance

(ii,

10), leaves

no possible doubt

doubtless be noticed that /iS docs not appear in the scheme.

No

Harmonia having Determinant 15 can be traced. The probable explanation of

the absence of 15 as Modal Determinant is that when the Auloi were first grouped
and codified, the beginning was made from 8, as in the scheme above in which the
7th Harmonia with Determinant 14 closes the significant cycle of seven Harmoniai
on the minor 7th, which in the Harmonic Scries appears an octave ahead of the

The fact that these seven Harmoniai are referred in

the theoretical sources to planetary influences suggests that there may have been

major 7th or leading note.

some

esoteric reason for the exclusion of 15 as

Determinant and

for the limiting of

the Harmoniai to seven.

2

Towards

the end of the chapter, where the part played by the reed-pipe in
the creation of the Modes is briefly considered, it will be seen that the selection
of the Determinant is a subconscious affair with the primitive pipemaker, whereas
in using a string the selection

must be made with

intent.

ORIGIN OF THE HARMONIA ON THE AULOS

on the subject

the Mixolydian Mese, he says,

dynamin

kata

(i.e.

when used

which,

on the 7th degree

as

is

K.

on Paranete Diezeugmenon

Now

S.).
14 is the only number
Modal Determinant according to the coming descripMese on the 7th degree above the Tonic (see

tion of procedure, will place

Fig. 2 below).

A similar claim may be made for the number assigned

minant for each of the other six original Harmoniai.

as

Modal Deter-

THE MIXOLYDIAN HARMONIA

The Mixolydian Harmonia

has been selected for demonstration for

and primarily because 14 is the lowest Determinant that
complete Diatonic scale. If then we take 14 as the number which

several reasons,
yields a

determines the aliquot division of the string (or pipe) a glance

at

the table
b

show

will

Fig.

2.

that the 14th

Harmonic on the

string

is

the notorious B\>

The Archai of the Seven Harmoniai in Position in the Harmonic Series

F

on

The Harmonic

and

Series

C
on

and

Harmonics generated from the fundamentals

C
F

and

N.B. If each number denoting a Harmonia be used to divide a string into equal
segments marked on the rule of a monochord, and the finger-tip be lightly placed on the
string at i/ii, while the string is plucked or bowed, the Dorian Arche will be heard in a
at the 1/12
clear, ringing note
with the same procedure the Phrygian Arche will speak
at 1/13, the Lydian Arche, and so on with the others.

very

flat

compared with the

B'q of the

known

keyboard

as the

Harmonic

7th. 2

Tonos

On

the

F string,

that 7th

is

of course E\), the

of Alypius, but flatter than the

of the

Mese of the Mixolydian

modern interpretation.

The Arche
7th.

of the Mixolydian Harmonia, an E[>, then,

Let us

realize

what

this implies.

It

is

the Harmonic

means, as a practical

fact, that

Ps-Eucl., Intro., p. 15M. (= Cleonides, p. 196, von Jan)

Bacchius, pp. 18-19.
2
This natural 7th has been condemned by the canons of modern music to
have its flatness corrected in order that it may adapt itself to the intonation of our
;

when it occurs, for instance, on the French Horn,

Trumpet or any other instrument whose compass of notes consists in some
segment of the Harmonic Series.
F was probably the fundamental of the ancient Greek System our modern
fundamental C, more familiar for computations among musicians, has been used
here in a few cases.
arbitrarily constructed scale,

the

THE GREEK AULOS

Arche, in generating on an

Mode by means

modal material of the Mixolydian

its flatness as Harmonic

string the

of Determinant 14, will impart

7th to every note of that modal material with the exception, of course, of
the string-note or

This

octaves.

its

the descending genesis, in which

Fig.

3.

all

be so perceptible in

flatness will not

the intervals are commensurate, and

Genesis of the Mixolydian Modal Material resulting from the Aliquot

F

Division by Determinant 14 on the

The

finding of

Arche

in the

Harmonic

String

Series on

>
-0-

1,1.

*>-

F
-*>

ab

12

13

0
Ratios

The
F

genesis of the Mixolydian

String-

;,

Harmonia on

the
,

10

11

String by Determinant 14
,

m
T

String-

14

Ratios

in direct proportion to Arche, but the flatness

is

felt

as a striking

and

characteristic Ethos in the ascending scale of the Harmonia which begins

with the note of the whole string as Tonic. In this rising scale of the
Mixolydian Harmonia all the notes give the impression of flatness in

relation to the F, the starting-note of the scale, thus upsetting

all

our

preconceived notions of Tonality. 1

1

An

example of this modality may be found in The Music of Hindostan, by

A. H. Fox Strangways (Clar. Press, Oxford, 1914), pp. 30-1. Ex. 29, a tune played
upon the bamboo flute; see also p. 151, Hindostani Rags, No. 26, Malkos, and
b
ii (where, however, E\> is given instead of E\f as on p. 151).
The string
note in these examples is C not F, but the Mode is clearly the same as the ancient
Greek Mixolydian, and has the same Determinant 14 with all its implications.
His Ex. 29 is fortunately a Phonogram, and is therefore one of the exceptions to
which the author refers when, on p. 17, he states that
Though many of these
were in queer scales, no attempt has been made beyond an occasional superscript
$ [7 or ( = an alteration of less than a semitone), where the effect was characteristic,
The scale of Ex. 29 on pp. 30-1 is undoubtedly
to represent niceties of intonation.'
that of Rag Malkos given in the table, p. 151, No. 26, where Malkos is thus stated.

Appendix

'

fcj

(The ratios, and cents equivalent of the

No. 26. Rag Malkos

intervals,

added by K.

418

14
14

12
14
_JL

L_
7:6
Cents

2S7

11
14

7_

8.

14

14

14
_ll_

12:11
I5JO

ll:9

347

9:8
204

8:7
2310

S.)

ORIGIN OF THE HARMONIA ON THE AULOS

THE GENESIS OF THE MODAL MATERIAL OF THE MIXOLYDIAN MODE

The

modal material of the Mixolydian Mode may now

genesis of the

be demonstrated in relation to a string tuned to F

176 v.p.s.
If n represents the vibration frequency of the string (176 v.p.s.), then,
n X 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, will give the frequencies of 1/14, 1/13, 1/12,
b

&c, of the string; and so 176 v.p.s. x 14 (=2,464 v.p.s. = E\>)

be the sound of 1/14 of the string, which is identical with the 14th

i/ii,
will

Harmonic

of the

string.
b

1/14) gives EJp (which is the Arche = 2,464 v.p.s.),

and a Harmonic 7th above the fundamental (F = 176 v.p.s.)

The first segment (=

three octaves

of the whole string.

two segments (=

2/14),

by virtue of the

ratio 2

to the first segment,

Arche (= 1,232 v.p.s.).

(= 3/14), by virtue of the ratio

give E\} an octave below

three segments

to the first

segment

(or the ratio 3

2 to two segments), give

(=

A'r>

821-3 v.p.s.), a 12th below

Arche.

four segments (= 4/14), by virtue of the

ratio

to the 1st segment,

give jj (= 616 v.p.s.), two octaves below Arche.

five segments (= 5/14), by virtue of the superparticular ratio 5

4 to

(=

four segments, give Cjj

492-8

v.p.s.),

the major 3rd below the

2nd octave

of Arche.
six

segments

With regard

(=

6/14),

by virtue of the superparticular

ratio 6

4 to

on pp. 30-1, the melody was played by a Gond on a bamboo

blown from the end (i.e. held almost vertically) without reed mouthpiece, and having 6 fingerholes covered by the left finger-tips and right knuckles.
The author goes on to say
Assuming the C to be in tune the higher notes were
all a little flat, the F most so, and the lower one a little sharp
the C itself sharpened
a good deal under the overblowing of the crescendo.'
From the scale given above it will be seen that this very flat F as 4th on the
Tonic which here is C must obviously be very flat, owing to the ratio 14/1 1 =418
cents (instead of 498) which it bears to the Tonic.
In addition, the E\>, A\>, and B\)
given in the Malkos scale, are likewise flattened, as explained above, in accordance
with the nature of the Mese or Arche as flattened Harmonic 7th in the Harmonic
Series.
The characteristic intonation of the scale has been accurately rendered
by the flute, and has also been equally correctly interpreted by Mr. A. H. Fox
to Ex. 29

flute, bansri,

'

'

'

Strangways

The

following facsimile reed-blown pipes from Ancient Egypt are also in the
Mode of Ancient Greece (a Heptatonic scale, whereas Rag Malkos is

Mixolydian

pentatonic in

modern

India), viz.

Loret

xxiii, xxiv,

xxvi, xxvii, xxviii,

[See Records, Chapter

The
formula

theoretical value of the notes

:

when n = 176
i)

2,

3,

4,

may

xiii,

xxv.

x.]

be computed by means of the following

v.p.s.

5,

6,

7,

8,

9,

10,

11,

is,

13,

14

the frequencies of the 14 segments of the string obtained by the aliquot division by

Determinant

14.

THE GREEK AULOS

10

four segments

give A\>

2),

410-6

v.p.s.),

the perfect 5th below

2nd octave of Arche.

the

segments

7/14, half the string), by virtue of the ratio 7 14

to four segments, give
(= 352 v.p.s.), the Harmonic 7th below the 2nd
seven*

octave of Arche (and also the octave of the note of the whole string).
b

eight segments (=8/14), by virtue of ratio

308 v.p.s.), the 3rd octave below Arche.

8:4 (2:1),

give E\>

nine segments (= 9/14), by virtue of ratio 9

major tone below the 3rd octave of Arche.

8,

give

Z)|?

(= 2737

v.p.s.),

ten segments (= 10/14), by virtue of ratio 10 8 (=5 4), give Cb

246-4 v.p.s.), a major 3rd below the 3rd octave of Arche.
:

(=

bb

eleven segments
the

v.p.s.),

(=

Harmonic

by virtue of ratio 11:8, give Bfr (= 224

doubly flattened therefore, below the 3rd octave

11 /14),

4th,

of Arche.

twelve segments (= 12/14), by

virtue of ratio 12

8 (== 3

give

2),

(=

A\>

205-3

v.p.s.),

the perfect 5th below the 3rd octave of Arche.

thirteen segments

13/14),

by

virtue of ratio 13

the Harmonic 6th.

fourteen segments (= 14/14

the whole string), by virtue of ratio

(=

8,

give G\)

(=

189-5

v.p.s.),

14

(=7:4)

give

F =
(

v.p.s.),

176

Harmonic 7th below the 3rd

the

octave of Arche.

This completes the genesis of the modal material of the Mixolydian

Harmonia. The last number, 14, is the reflection of the number of Arche
in the Harmonic Series.
All progress is here effectually stopped at 14/14,
since no lower note can be obtained than that given by the whole string,
the original generator of the Harmonic Series for the whole Modal System.

The

constitution of the

explanation.

The procedure

Harmonia or modal octave calls for further

just described, which effects the genesis of

Mode, has been explained upon

the
1

a string

because

may be

it

cannot be achieved

allowed here to show how near Ptolemy had come

though he makes no mention of the Arche
or of Modal Determinant, he describes the process much as has been done above
Having a canonion, applied
thus (ii, 13, p. 163, Wallis (1682)
p. 69, During)
to the strings, we divide the given length reckoned from the Apopsalma, which is
at the higher end, right down to that mark which will be under the lowest of the
notes, into segments that are equal and commensurate in size and we place numbers
on them, beginning from the higher end, according to the number of the little
segments there are, in order to have, from the common limit mentioned above,
a series of numbers constituted in accordance with the ratios which are proper to
each of the notes, and in order always to bring the Apopsalmata of the movable
bridges easily to those positions which have been indicated by the Canonion,' &c.
Thus Ptolemy describes half the process of the genesis, but he merely uses the
division which on his canon is into 120
as one would the inches or centimetres
of a yard or metre measure with the results given in his Tables of the Genera. This
description, which misses all the essentials of modality, is an obvious indication
that Ptolemy was not versed in the lore of the Harmonists or in the theory underlying
Modal Genesis.
slight digression

to the realization of the

Modal Genesis

'

ORIGIN OF THE HARMONIA ON THE AULOS

practice upon the Aulos
for the hole representing the position of
Arche would have to be placed upon the little straw mouthpiece itself,
and the 2nd and 3rd segments might likewise fall either upon it, or so
close to it that no sound could be elicited.
It is the ascending Harmonia
alone that comes to birth upon the Aulos and in what manner will be seen
in

we proceed much further.

Mese is one of the lower octaves of Arche and whatever number indiModal Determinant, Mese is indicated by 8 or a multiple. The

before

cates the

Arche exercises a function similar to that of the fundamental in the Harmonic Series, in so far as it governs the ratios proceeding from itself, and
consequently governs the exact pitch or intonation of each note of the
series.
Between Arche and the Tonic or note of the whole string or pipe
there
of

which

a vital relationship

is

Mese

to

Harmoniai

Tonic

and

tionships are the characteristic

intervals are expressed
tiple

2
)

is

inevitably reflected in the relationship

modal

The

by the following

ratios

number

Perfect 5th

Harmonic 4th
Major 3rd
Major tone

Unison or octave
Flat minor 7th (Harmonic
Flat major 6th

Hypophrygian

These

Harmonia.

consisting of 8 (or a mulof the

Modal Determinant.
Ratio

Character of Interval
.

Phrygian
Dorian
Hypolydian

practical result of these rela-

intervals of each

representing the Mese, and of the

Harmonia
Hypodorian
Mixolydian
Lydian

Ethos of the

to these relationships the individual

in a large measure due.

is

7th)

16/8
14/8
13/8
24/ 1
11/8
20/16
36/32

Value

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

F
F
F
F
F
F
F

to

F
E

to

to

to
to
to
to

C
B
A
G

In instrumental practice, Mese was the note from which all others
were tuned. In this connexion, a much-quoted passage from the Problems
of Ps-Aristotle will probably be recalled here
it receives full attention in
Chapter iv.
The fact that the descending progression from the Arche has not yet
;

The

Harmonia is found duly indicated by implicaGraeco-Roman sources. The ratio of the intervals, however, to which
modal essence or Ethos is due, are not expressly mentioned
they
are implied, however, in the degrees of the modal Perfect Immutable System.
See Ps-Eucl., Intro., pp. 15-16M. (= Clconides, pp. 196-8 von Jan)
Arist. Quint.,
Bacchius, pp. 18-19M.
Ptol., ii, 11, pp. 136-8W.
pp. 17-18M.
2
Why may Mese be 8, 16 or 32 ? The use, more especially in the Perfect
Immutable System, of one of these ratio numbers is not conditioned by pitch, but
primarily by the Modal Determinant which falls to the Tonic.
Modal Determinants
from 11 to 14 have 8 as Mese from 16 to 28, the Mese is 16 and from 32 to 64 = 32.
Moreover, we must remember that the doubling of a Modal Determinant, or of the
ratio number of Mese, is frequently only an indication that a modal segment has
interval characteristic of each

tion in the

the distinctive

been halved in order

in the

to obtain an intermediate note in the

Synemmenon Chromatic and Enharmonic,

Synem. Pyknon
3*1

3ol

I6J

I5J

Pyknon
361

28|
*

Pyknon,

e.g.

Diez.
I4J

See Note on Ratio numbers in Abbreviations, &c.

'

I3J

as for instance

THE GREEK AULOS

12

been generally recognized by the ear as inherent in the phenomenon of

sound, as is that of the ascending Harmonic Series, is of no importance
The ascending Harmonic Series cannot, on the other
to our subject.
hand, produce Modes, but only non-modal species. 1 The Modes are the
sole and original creation of the descending or reversed series, due to equal
measure by a specified Determinant, dividing string or pipe into aliquot
parts.
The fundamental string note, common to all the Modes, takes the
place of the modern Tonic, but with the added significance that it possesses
real dynamic force as generator, in determining the value and character of
Arche.
Fig.

4.--

The

in the Diatonic Genus resulting from the

Aliquot Division by Determinant 14

Mixolydian Harmonia
MESON

HYPATOI'l

Note.
The characteristic Ethos
all the notes flattened in relation to the Tonic
consequent on the characteristic interval of the Mode between Mese and Tonic, the flat
Harmonic 7th of ratio 7/14, as Arche.
:

THE MIXOLYDIAN HARMONIA IN THE DIATONIC OCTAVE

From the genesis of the modal material, of which we have now obtained
some idea, the Harmonia, or octave scale, of the Mode is derived it begins
on the note of the whole string or 14/14 for the Mixolydian Mode, and
;

extends to the octave above at 7/14, the half of the string

its Mese will
occur on the 7th degree of the scale, on the segment bearing the number
;

by Determinant 14.
system outlined here) in every Harmonia,

of one of the octaves of Arche, viz. 8 in the division

It is the invariable rule (in the

that

Mese

is

recognized by the ear as an octave of Arche, or on the

chord by ratios

8,

16 or 32 corresponding to those octaves.

mono-

The Harmonia,

The Harmonic Series forms an extended scale of infinite length within which
numbers of octave sections may be selected, as for instance, from D, 9th Harmonic
to the 1 8th
from F, nth Harmonic to the 22nd and so on
these octave scales
differ from one another in the same way as the octaves on the white notes of the
keyboard. There is no question here of a Modal Genesis as in the Harmoniai,
therefore, I call them non-modal species.
1

ORIGIN OF THE HARMONIA ON THE AULOS

primarily considered as the Aulos scale,

is

13

thus a series of consecutive

sounds beginning on the note of the whole pipe with holes closed, or
where that note is unused, on the note given by the 1st hole (farthest from
the mouthpiece) treated as a vent and always left uncovered.
On the
string the proportional sequence begins with the note of the whole string
The Harmonia can be built up on a monochord from the Tonic
as Tonic.
by stopping, by means of a movable bridge, segment by segment, and
plucking the remaining length of the string. The analogue in the Aulos
is

by uncovering each hole in turn, while blowing through the

when the part of the pipe below the centre of the open hole
and the remainder of the pipe from the centre of the open hole
the top of the mouthpiece alone speaks.
The 1st degree = the 14/14 of the string, the Tonic or Hypate = F.
The 2nd degree = 13/14 of the string, or the remainder when 1 segment has been stopped = G\) or on the Aulos

effected

mouthpiece,
is

to

cut

off,

the 1st fingerhole opened. 1

The

3rd degree

12/14 f ^as

ments have been stopped = A\> or on the Aulos,

the 2nd fingerhole opened.
11/14 of the string, or the remainder when 3 seg-

str i n g> or the

remainder when 2 seg.

The

4th degree

ments have been stopped

bb

B\> or

on the Aulos,

the 3rd fingerhole opened.

The

5th degree

10/14 f

string, or the

ments have been stopped

remainder when 4 seg-

CJ> or

on the Aulos,

the 4th fingerhole opened.

The

6th degree

=9/14

when

of the string, or the remainder

ments have been stopped

5 seg-

flj?

or on the Aulos,

the 5th fingerhole opened.

The

7th degree

=8/14

of the string, Mese, or the remainder

6 segments have been stopped

when

E\>

or on the

Aulos, the 6th fingerhole opened.

The

8th degree

7/14 half the string

=F

or on the Aulos, the 7th

fingerhole opened.

In the Mixolydian Harmonia, every note of the sequence, being based

b

E\> of the Arche, is also very flat in relation to the Tonic F (as
by the use of superscript accidentals), with the exception of the
13th ratio or segment, Parhypate Meson, on the 2nd degree of the scale

upon the
indicated

bb

the B\> as

nth Harmonic is doubly flat, i.e. Sf, since the

Modal Harmonic Series are also reversed in relation

characteristics

of the

to the string-

note.

The Ethos

plaintive,
1

of the Mixolydian Mode would merely be sweet and

but for the contrast afforded by the very high tessitura of the

Opening the hole provides the

remaining length from hole to

exit.

outlet for the breath

and cuts

(or stops) the

THE GREEK AULOS

Mode, due to the position of the Mese upon the 7th degree of the scale,
round which as real keynote, the melody circles. It was this feature,
doubtless, which rendered it suitable for use in the Tragic Chorus, as an
expression of poignant grief, which, as

The high

East.

we know,

is

high-pitched in the

tessitura involves increased tension of the

muscles of the

and increased compression in the breath-stream.

To return to the Harmonia in general, we find that it has a twofold
origin in
(1) the Harmonic Series through the position Arche occupies

glottis,

therein

(2) in

the reflection of

the reversed

(1), viz.

Modal

Series, pro-

duced by the aliquot division. The division of a string according to equal

measure by any given Determinant produces members of both series
either (a) the Harmonic of the same number as the Determinant from all
segments alike, by lightly touching the string at any one of the Nodes
or
(b) the Modal Series of that Determinant from Arche to Tonic, in which
all the segments give different notes, following the order and proportional
intervals of the same Harmonic Series as in (1), but in descending order.
The different result in (b) is due to the stopping of the string at each
segment in turn, which has the virtual effect of converting the one string
;

into

many

On

different lengths.

the pipe, the different lengths implied by the uncovering of the

by the continuous flow of breath and analogously on the

by bowing.

holes are unified

string

In order to grasp the basis of the Modal System, we must keep

the double interchangeable function

note

and of

keynote

the

Mese

and

and

as keynote.

directly responsible for the following 7

is

(1)

The Determinant number

(2)

The

(3)

The

(4)

The

(5)

The

Harmonia

of the

in

view

Tonic or starting

significance of the

as a reflection of Arche

This causative

modal features
fixing the

number

of

the aliquot parts of the division of the string.

distinctive order of the

sequence of proportional intervals in

the Harmonia from the first step upwards.
causative keynote's

own

position as

Mese on

its

characteristic

degree of the Harmonia.

limit of the genesis of

modal

the number of the causative keynote in

the Tonic of the

is

(6)
(7)

Modal

Scale (e.g. 14 in the Mixolydian).

characteristic interval of the

keynote or Creative

The modal
The Ethos

which always ends with

the Harmonic Series, and

material,

Tone and

Mode which

the Tonic or

lies

between the

initial note.

Tonality implicit in the Mode.

of the

Mode.

Mode the Tonic and Mese can both be repreby 14, because F as tonic or fundamental is No. 1
Harmonic Series for the finding of Arche, and it is also
the reversed Harmonic Series at the end of the Modal Genesis, as

Thus

in the

sented by

1,

Mixolydian

just as

in the ascending

14 in

a whole string of 14 segments.

The Arche (Mese) E\> is 14 as 14th Harmonic in the ascending series, and No. 1 as first segment in the descending
series, or genesis of modal material.

ORIGIN OF THE HARMONIA ON THE AULOS

15

MONOCHORD STRING
Ascending Harm. Series
= 1 as fundamental

Tonic

F =
v.p.s.

Determinant 14
Mixolydian

88
!4
83

fundamental

14 as Arche in the

Harmonic
Descending Harm.

Series

Series, Determinant 14.

Tonic
13

14

12

10

II

F=

88
1

v.p.s.

Arche

the

14/14 or the note of 14 increments of length.

E\>

in

Katapyknosis,

or

Genesis of modal
material, is now 1 as
Therefore, the Tonic and
1

and are

N.B.
of

is

(as

Arche), are both

note of the

ment

also 14.

In noting the

lengths

Mese

constant

first

incre-

of length.

Harmonia, the denominator of the fractions

and therefore frequently omitted in this work, e.g.

ratios of the

14/14. 13. 12.

passage of Philolaus

may be thought

into being

of interest in connexion with

Harmonia he says that ag/xovla positively comes

from opposites ; for aQ/uovia is the union of many ingredients

this twofold basis of the

'

The name Mixolydian 2 suggests

and the connexion of varying purposes
a mixed origin and this may easily be traced through the ratios
14, 13,
3
12, 11, is the second Dorian tetrachord from Paramese to Nete Diezeugmenon and 10, 9, 8, 7, is the Hypolydian Tritone.
:

14

13

12

L
Dorian
Hypaton and Diez. Tetrachords

Interval of
Disjunction

Hypolydian

Meson and Hyperbolaion

Tetrachords

The above was probably

monia
1

the original form of the ancient Mixolydian Harand the Diazeuxis did not necessarily consist of a 9/8 tone in the

Philolaus, ed. A.

Boeckh

(1819), p. 61

'
:

ag/iovta 8e naytcni; ef evavzkov ylvcrm.

ioti yag aofiovla nol.vyuyiw ivcoaig xai av/uq>Qaaig 8i%a yooveovrcov.' Cf. Chap. iv. of
present work.
2
For the mixed origin, more fully discussed, together with allusions to its structural features explained through the Modal System, see Chap, iv, Mixolydian.
3
Since the fractions expressing modal ratios or lengths of string have the Determinant number of the Mode as constant denominator, and as numerators the order
numbers of the segments constituting the division into aliquot parts, these numerators
will often in the present work be used alone to indicate in brief form the modal ratios,
the common denominator for the Mode being understood. The numerators also
form ratios with one another, as they occur in sequence, e.g. 14 : 13, 13 : 12, &c.

THE GREEK AULOS

Modal System
scale as

as

it

The

does in the Aristoxenian.

used in the Perfect Immutable System,

conjunct form of the

viz.

Mese
14

12

13

11

10

PM.

II

!!

7
I

is

discussed in the next chapter.

To return to the Harmonia once more, we find that the system involving
Mode is essentially an octave system, inasmuch as the characteristic

Modal unit extend to the whole octave (to <5td

through all, [the notes or strings]), wherein no two intervals are
But in the Aristoxenian system where the unit is the tetrachord and which was generally followed by the Graeco-Roman theorists,
intervals constituting the

Tiaawv

exactly alike.

the octave consists of two tetrachords exactly similar in structure in which

all

The

the intervals are semitones or their multiples.

basis of the Har-

monia, due to a division into aliquot parts of a string or pipe,

of the

Harmonic

is

a section

we have

seen above
the
sequence is not arbitrarily strung together, but directly conditioned by the
equal segments taken in arithmetical order beginning with the Arche. All
the degrees of the octave scale, or Harmonia, are in superparticular ratios
to one another, and as these ratios are founded upon aliquot lengths of
Series reversed in direction as

string or pipe, they are

all

commensurate with the Arche,

their point of

departure.

With the genesis of the Modes the theorist is mainly concerned, but
the Harmonia is the affair of the practical musician.
The Harmonia begins
on Hypate Meson (or string-note) as highest number in the series, and at
the point where the intervals are least in magnitude, and proceeds by proportioned steps which increase in magnitude until the octave of Hypate
is

reached at Nete, which forms the limit of the Harmonia.

of the seven Harmoniai of pre-Aristoxenian days

is

known and

of these, the Mixolydian, I have identified as the one based

member

of the Harmonic Series

from
Immutable System according
:

its

The

order

the highest

upon the 14th

position as a species in the

Bacchius 2 and
Mixolydian of Lamprocles
(Plut., op. cii., c. 16, 156, p. 64).
The rest of the Harmoniai may be
found by descending the scale formed by the Harmonic Series from 14 to
8 to find their Mesai, a simple expedient in theory or even in practice
given the sensitive ear of the Greek. As is right and proper, the order in
which the Harmoniai have come down to posterity is that of their Mesai,
which may be followed through the Tonoi of Alypius. Examples of
the Mixolydian Harmonia embodied on the Aulos are to be found in the
Records of Auloi Loret xxvii, xxvi, xxiii, xxviii, xxiv, xxv, xiii.
Perfect

Ptolemy

it

may be

to

Ps-Euclid, 1

identified also as the

THE LYD IAN HARMONIA

After 14 in the descending order of the Harmonic Series comes 13,
the number of the Lydian Harmonia.
Although the original intention
1

Intro., p.

15M.

Bacchius, pp. 18-19M.

Harm.,

ii,

10.

ORIGIN OF THE HARMONIA ON THE AULOS

17

it is now conHarmonia on the Greek fundamental

sidered advisable to use the modern standard C instead, in some of the
which
also occur in
intervals,
characteristic
containing
modal sequences
Based on C, the 13th Harmonic is
the modern major and minor scales. 1

was

to base the

the very

/'',

A, nominally a major 6th above C, but in reality forming an

between the major and the minor 6ths. The genesis
Harmonia is shown in Fig. 5, based on C.

flat

interval intermediate

of the Lydian

Fig.

5.

Genesis of the Lydian Harmonia by the Aliquot Division by Determinant 13

The Finding

The Genesis

of Arche in the

Lydian Harmonia of M.D.

on the C String 64

of the

larmonic Series
13

Key

Tonality of

Minor

v.p.s.

11

12

1,
|

Arche
Ratios
F. -

V.

The C

64

p. a.x

13 =

10

m
32

832

14

15 etc.

v.p.s

String

String

1
1

Lengths 13

sa
13

of String

Us

I11
III

2.

15

113

ft

ft

13

'

->-

"

64

The

-O-

**

12

11

10

[8]

69t

75tf

83t

92i-

Mese
104

Lengths
V.p.s.

0
|

xr

Ratios

ft

13

13

l
I

Arche, while retaining

7
118

its

E
Arche

138 f-

166r

208

277.T

416

832

v.

p.s.

characteristic essence as the flattened

major 6th of the 13th Harmonic, now becomes 1 in the genesis which
unfolds step by step, until 13/13 is reached on the C given by the string
vibrating as a whole.
Starting from the C as Tonic, the Lydian Harmonia
ascends through the ratios (see Fig. 6).

From

it will be seen how the different

from the Aulos, bored according to equal measure by
From the drawing it is obvious that the Aulos
quite a different category from the string
the Modal Genesis of

these diagrams of the Harmoniai

steps are produced

each Determinant in turn.

is

in

material cannot take place

upon the

would occur on the

reed mouthpiece

little

pipe, for the first three or four segments

itself,

on which no hole can be

1
Since modern musicians make their computations from C (- 64 v.p.s.)
comparison has been worked out here upon that basis, viz.
64 X S
884-4 cents
106-6
v.p.s.
maj. 6th on C

64 X 8
102-4

min. 6th on

813-24 cents

64 X 13

104

Modal Harmonic 6th

Based on a C fundamental are the Phrygian (Figs. 7 and

(Figs. 14 and 15) and the Hypophrygian Genesis (Fig. 16).
Diatonic scale, however, has been based on F.
2

=
8)

840-5

cents

the Hypolydian

The Hypophrygian

THE GREEK AULOS

i8

The nomenclature

bored.

Mese

of the Greek scale, xaxa bvvap.iv, shows the

on the 6th degree for the Lydian Harmonia the correstaff notation shows the Key A minor to be inherent in the

in position,

spondence in

Fig. 6.

Mode

genesis of the

Lydian

itself.

Harmonia (Diatonic Genus) resulting from the Aliquot Division

by Determinant 13

w
m
W

Vibrating

Bulb

Tongue

()

(E

Hi

13

fi-

lls

ss

lia

'/13

8/l3

-m

g
s.

11/13

12/13

ISA a -1

13

12

11

64

69?-

754

The problem

Tonality of

minor

'

10

88{r

B2|

104

USf-

13

of the 8th degree

138$

Ratios of Lengths
Frequencies of Pipe Hole Notes

interesting

for if the next whole

segment above the Paramese (i.e. the 6th) were taken, the octave would
have to be overstepped, and the scale terminated by a septimal 3rd on
the 2nd degree of the next octave. The primitive pipe-maker probably
suffered it to be so at first, being unsophisticated, until he discovered that
by halving the distance between the holes, he obtained the octave for
which his ear was seeking. There are two other ways at least in which
the pipe-maker may have achieved the desired result, and there is evidence
that both were known in Antiquity
in the first, by half covering the top
or 7th hole, the note was proportionately lowered in pitch, thus giving
the same sound as a hole placed on the half segment 1 in the second the
result was obtained by decreasing the breath-pressure and slightly relaxing
is

the muscles of the larynx, as implied

by Aristoxenus

c
:

oxi Ss %eiQ0VQyiav

and xwv ysiq&v rrjv S' and rcbv lom&v juegwv olg emreivsiv re
For an example of Folk Music in Lydian Harmonia,
see Henebry, Hdbk. of Irish Music (Cork Univ. Press), 1928),
Ring Promontary,' Nos. 99 and 95.
A third method of lowering the note of any hole is by cross-fingering,
also described by Bharata as extensively used in Ancient India
the method
is known to have been practised by the Greeks.
The use of sliding bands
is described in Chapter ii.
In theory, the easiest way to obtain a note

rrjv jxev

xai dvievai nepvxe.' 2

'

1
This device known in Ancient India, is described by Bharata, see Chap. iii.
2
Macran, Aristoxenus, p. 132, Gk., and p. 196. Transl.
Nor is it because
submits to certain operations of the hands and of the other parts naturally adapted
to raise and lower the pitch.'
'

it

ORIGIN OF THE HARMONIA ON THE AULOS

intermediate between two segments

= 26

and
13 X
a similar manner.
2

19

double the aliquot number,

to

is

i.e.

to raise the relevant equivalents of the Diatonic scale in

26

24

22

20

18

16

14

13

12

11

10

13

be well to note here that to double the Determinant number, or

to halve the distance on a pipe or string, is the legitimate natural process
for converting the Diatonic into the Chromatic genus in the modern sense
of the word. 1 A new note bearing an odd number may thus be introduced,
theoretically and practically, between every two of the Diatonic genus, an
operation which produces a perfectly graded harmonious sequence with
It will

magnitude as the pitch rises. How satisfying to

who had not heard
Examples of the Lydian Harmonia embodied on Pipes will be found
the Records of Auloi Elgin and Loret xviii, xxiii, xxiv, xxx, and of the

intervals increasing in

the ear the progression sounds no one would believe

it.

in

Japanese

flute.

THE PHRYGIAN HARMONIA

Fig.

7.

Genesis

Harmonia by the Aliquot Division

by Determinant 12

of the Phrygian

The Finding

Vibration Frequency

Ratios

The Genesis

-y&

Ratios

Mese

of the

64

m
4

Harmonic

in the

X 12

768

Series

Tonality of

v.p.s.

12 on the

String

-rV8

10

Lengths 12

12
12

11
12

12

e
12

12

7
12

64

minor

v.p.s.

-e-

EH

11

768

of String

Arcbe

p.s.

M.D.

of the Phrygian

12

12

b
52

12

v.

14

13

15

16

p.s.

[m

2
12

II12J+

<

1
j

-0-

Mese
Ratios
V.F. p.s.

12

64

'11
69ft

10

76|

85

96

109|

128

1531

192

The Phrygian Mode

Harmonia
1

at least

would

is

<

S
Arche

258

384

768

next in order with 12 as Determinant. This

even the Aristotelian 2 and Aristoxenian

satisfy

this process has been described by Aristides Quintilianus (pp. 114-115M.)

Harmonic Series in connexion with the values of the semitone.
sense is meant a whole sequence of approximate modal semitones or

for the ratios of the

By modern

halved increments.
2

Aristotle, ap. Plut., de

Mus., Cap. 23

(=

ed.

Weil and Rein., pp. 92 sqq.)

3

THE GREEK AULOS

20
canons, since

stands firmly balanced

it

upon

and sths

perfect 4ths

as the

fixed notes (sat&rsg) of tetrachords.

Fig.

8.

Phrygian Harmonia

(Diatonic Genus) 1 resulting from the Aliquot

Division by Determinant 12 on C

o
c

o.

.a

CO

z!

Bulb

Vibrating-

Tong-ue

a:::::::::::
Mouthpiece

12

HO

Il2

|l2

12

^
12

[iZl

57]

Ilia]

il2

[I
?2

Am
VI12/

Pl

Ia

|jl
112

112

112

u
Us

i
I

-%i

/l2

S.

-a/12

- 10/l2

- 12

A=

Key G minor

12

11

10

Numbers

Ratios of Lengths

of the Holes

13

69&

64

85j

76|-

98

109-7-

128

Vibration Frequencies of Pipe Hole Notes

(118 ft)

This scale

obviously defective, having only seven instead of eight

is

notes to the octave.

of ratio 7:6.

If a

Between the 6th and 8th degrees is the septimal 3rd

complete Diatonic scale be required, the number of

the Determinant must be doubled in order to supply the missing note

13/24 between 14 and 12 for Trite on the 7th degree,

viz.

Lich.

Hyp.

PH.

Lich.

Mese

PM

Tr.

PN.

24

22

20

18

16

14

13

12

12

11

10

4-

septimal 3rd

Mese

occurs on the 5th degree at the ratio 8 or 16, and the Diazeuxis

consists of a 9

The

reader

8 tone.

may

feel that the addition of the intermediate

note of

ratio

13 (belonging to the next octave of generation) between the notes in the

ratio 7 6 is arbitrary and demands some justification.
The difficulty that
:

1
By Diatonic, I understand the octave that develops between Harmonics 8 to 1
(or slightly overlapping above and below) in the Harmonic Series, whether ascending or descending (reversed), i.e. the first filling in of the octave by 7 different notes
in sequence
15, the major 7th, being considered an alternative of 14, the minor 7th.
In the next octave, from 16 to 32, the Chromatic compass is obtained, and it is
seen that this occurs through the interpolation of a new note between every two
belonging to the previous octave of genesis (i.e. from 8 to 16). In the next octave,
viz. from 32 to 64, the Enharmonic compass is obtained.
On the Aulos the intermediate notes are produced by half-closing the higher of the two fingerholes in
question, or by boring another hole midway between the two ; on the monochord
string by halving the segment.
;

ORIGIN OF THE HARMONIA ON THE AULOS

may

troubles the reader

from having

arise

to

admit the possibility that a

come upon the idea of making use of a division of

such as is suggested above.
If it be claimed that the Aulos taught the piper the Modes, why (one
may ask) should he not have been content with the octave scale which the
6 out of 12 increments that his Phrygian pipe with six holes gave him ?
The answer is that he was probably quite content until, having fortuitously

primitive piper should

ratios

made

upon Determinant

a Mixolydian pipe based

three holes, giving

exit

14,

with perhaps only

hole

1,

hole 2,

hole

became

When,

therefore, his Phrygian pipe skipped over

familiar with the sequence

3,
"

14

14

14
his ear

produced by

14

ratios 14, 13, 12, 11.

12

from

to

\, he was

by the disturbed rhythm, and secondly by the absence

of the familiar note, indicated by ratio 13, which he missed between
the notes of the last two holes on his Phrygian pipe (of ratio 7:6).
In
consequence he tried to get the intermediate missing note, either by half
covering the hole that gave 6 or by boring another hole between the two
worried,

of

first

all

illustrated in Fig. 9.

Fig.

9.

L.H.

To

illustrate the Filling

H.M.

PH.M.

L.M.

MESE

eb

In of the Septimal 3rd of ratio 7

on the Aulos

Phrygian Aulos
M.D.
a

12

J
12
12

11

10

9.

7_

12

12

12

12

Phrygian Aulos
M.D. 24

MESE

24
24

as
24
(23)

18

Z4

(21)

(17)

(19)

12

14

13

2"4

24 24 24

11

(15)

Mixolydian
First

If the piper has

I

There
of ratios

had a Mixolydian Aulos, the sound of the note of

come

g|

Tetrachord

naturally to

him on

a Phrygian

Aulos of

M.D.

ratio 13

between

12 or 24.

evidence in the theoretical sources that this kind of division

is

was

actually practised

by the Greeks.

Among

the formulae of

cit., pp. 170-2, W. 1682) (see also

pp. 70-3, During) there is, for instance, the
of Didymus, in which the 16/15 of his Chromatic genus has

tetrachords recorded by Ptolemy (op.

Tables appended to

ii,

14

Enharmonic
undergone an analogous
1

division

to

produce the Enharmonic Pyknon

Like the Egyptian Maket 3 pipe with 3 holes, or Loret x, 3 holes

Loret
Loret xxviii, 6 holes
all of which give tetrachords of the Mixolydian
Harmonia
see Chaps, ii and iii, Chap, x, Records.
'

'

xxvi, 3 holes
;

THE GREEK AULOS

22

32/31 X 31/30. Similarly in the Chromatic of Eratosthenes, the Chromatic Pyknon 20/19 x 19/18 becomes in his Enharmonic 40/39 X 39/38.
Further evidence (dependent upon my interpretation of the Notation) that
defective scales such as that of the Phrygian Harmonia of Determinant 12,
and the Dorian scale of Determinant 11 (identified by me as the scale of
Terpander), were actually treated as suggested above, is provided by the
six ancient Harmoniai of Plato recorded through their musical notation by
Aristides Quintilianus (p.

22M.

and

cf.

Chap.

In the Phrygisti of

v).

Aristides Quintilianus the interpretation in ratios of the symbols of Notation

follows

is as

Fig. 10.

The

C
C

24

21

Filling In of the Septimal 3rd illustrated in

<

20

19

16

z
c
28

Greek Notation

u
14

27

1=

26

24

13

12

Septimal 3rd
Ratios by K. S.

Further confirmation of the principle will be found in Chapter iv,

where a suggestion about the evolution of the Perfect Immutable System
through the natural development of the Modal Species of the seven Har-

moniai on the Kithara

is

described in detail.

One must realize that the intervals that occur in any one of the seven,
ancient Harmoniai occur again in the sequences of the other Harmoniai.
These intervals thus become as familiar in uninterrupted sequence as those
of our modern scale do to us.
defective or transilient scale

on

Determinant number which

to the octave

if

a primitive piper finds a

from a

too low to produce a scale of 7 notes

12, of the primitive Phrygian
he may accept

M.D.
gives him and
e.g.

Therefore,

his Aulos, that normally results

is

what his pipe

rest content until (as suggested above) he
chances upon a Mixolydian pipe. In the first tetrachord of this Aulos he
finds the note that divides the septimal 3rd of ratio 7 6 given out by
:

holes 5 and 6 at the top of his Phrygian Aulos.

This doubtless provides
the natural explanation of the expansion of defective or (so-called) gapped

complete Diatonic scales of seven intervals to the octave, such

Dorian Spondaic or scale of Terpander of M.D. 11, a scale of 6 notes
ending with the same interval of the septimal 3rd, 7:6. Similarly, the
ratio 15 is probably first brought to the piper's notice by a Hypodorian
Aulos of M.D. 16, as the second step in its scale, and in the Hypophrygian
of M.D. 18, as 3rd or 4th degree.
It is the theorist, of course, who first
scales into

as the

discovers that the

first tetrachord of the Hypodorian and Hypophrygian

Plarmoniai contains five notes instead of four, and who eventually deletes
either 15 or 14.

When

our attention is turned to the modal flute (not Aulos), however,

13 is sometimes unmistakably found on a specimen having

the interval 15

ORIGIN OF THE HARMONIA ON THE AULOS

M.D.

instead of the expected septimal 3rd,

11,

7:6; and

23

moreover,

this,

occurs when no spacing has been allowed for the intermediate ratio 14.
An instance is the Inca flute and Bali i the explanation of this phenomenon,
;

however, applies to the flute, but not to the Aulos.

There is an inference that this Phrygian Harmonia was in use
among the Ancient Greeks, for Gaudentius mentions that Pythagoras

monochord

divided his

I?X

11

10

who

into 12 equal parts. 1

scale having the formula

=
982

- appears among those given by Claudius Ptolemy, 2

X -

calls it diarovixdv o/naXov

he does not

relate the scale or divisions,

Harmonia.
Examples of the Phrygian Harmonia embodied on Pipes

as the present writer does, to the Phrygian

in the records of

Auloi Elgin

of flutes No.

Mond

4,

of Loret xxi, xvi, xxxi

Sensa (short)

will

be found

of Cairo

and

12; Olympia and Corinth (see

summary, end).
Fig. 11.

Genesis

Harmonia through the Aliquot Division by

Determinant 22 on the F String

of the Dorian

The Finding
The

of Arche in the

Harmonic

Genesis of the Dorian Harmonia on the

Svo

String

mental: 22

21

20

19

String)

0 $0

a
|

Note
of

by Determinant 22

JJ
0

C
Ratios

Series (on the

Arche

Mese
5

18

17

10

11

12

13

14

IS

16

17

18

19

20

21

EU

THE DORIAN HARMONIA

The

next Harmonia in order, the Dorian, has as Determinant

its
Arche falls upon the nth Harmonic, known as the sharp Harmonic 4th.
This is the simplest form of the Dorian Harmonia, such as would be
;

produced, for instance, on an Aulos having five holes, when the octave would
be lacking, or with the octave as Nete on a Kithara of seven strings. A
description of such a scale on seven strings, with the range of an octave
and the omission of Trite as 6th degree, leads to the identification of this
Harmonia with the seven-toned octave-scale, persistently connected with

name

the
1

Harm.

of Terpander.
Intro., p.

14M.,

lines 28 sqq.

Harm.,

ii,

16.

THE GREEK AULOS

24

Figs. 12, 9 and io demonstrate that the omission of Trite between

Paramese and Paranete, due to the natural occurrence of the septimal 3rd
between the 4th and 5th holes, cannot be attributed to a sense of aesthetic
eclecticism as Plutarch 1 would have us believe.
Therefore, the earliest
form of the Dorian Harmonia characterized by the omission of Trite was
not in origin a defective scale, but an Aulos scale resulting from the aliquot
division by Determinant 11 which includes the septimal 3rd undivided
(davvOsrog) between the superparticular ratios 7 and 6.
One of the Elgin
Pipes preserved in the British Museum was actually bored to give this
scale (see Chapter v, and Chapters ii and iii (Aulos), and Chap, x, Records).
In the Ps-Aristotelian Problem, Terpander is definitely connected with
this so-called defective scale, and credited with having eliminated Trite.
Fig.

12.The Dorian Harmonia (Diatonic Genus) resulting from the Aliquot

Division by Determinant 11. Primitive Form connected with the name of
Terpander

2-2 2-2
'
!
Z

w
S

nW
A.

E-i

B-,

r~-v^^X

Mouthpiece

I"
\n

m
\u

Is.
111

ft

Ii
hi

[Z
In

UL

13.

Ii

111

In

111
IS.

11

or

Vll

Ratios of Lengths

sys

Nomenclature according to Value or Function (Vara

The Terpandrian Harmonia with

8vvaiJ.iv )

Trite omitted

This considerably weakens the very argument it is brought forward to

strengthen, viz. that the Ancients called the octave diapason (did. Tiaawv
through all), and not diocto, because there were but seven notes. How
could it be through all if one note was known to have been eliminated ?
The chief value of this passage lies in the importance attributed therein

to this scale as the standard scale of antiquity, the structural features of

which might be considered

to be responsible for the naming of the octave.

would seem to be that it was the
on who, when the complete octave obtained from a division
by Determinant 22 was in use, discovered that Trite had been missing in

The

true explanation of the matter

theorists later

the earlier scale

gapped
1

xix,

scales

de Mils.,

they then included that scale with other transilient or

under the generic term vnE^axovP-

Cap

19 (ed. Weil and Rein., pp. ,74-7)

This Aulos scale

cf.

32.
8

Cf. Aristoxenus, ed.

Macran,

p. 109, line

is

not

also Ps-Aristotle, Probl.

20 (and p. 177,

tr.).

ORIGIN OF THE HARMONIA ON THE AULOS

known through

only

pander

it

still

Libation Mode.

liturgical

Modal System

the

association with the

its

was perhaps

known

better

name and

25

practice of Ter-

as the Spondiakos Tropos, 1 a

Plutarch raises points of great importance to

in connexion with the onovdslov

which have been reserved

for a later discussion.

The complete
Fig. 13.

octachordal Dorian

Harmonia

found by means of

is

Dorian Harmonia,

Complete Octave Scale on F

from the Aliquot Division by 22

v.p.s. resulting

Mese

Key

minof

B!>

o
Modal

Ratios

22

Vibration
Frequencies

20
22

18.

14

IS

12

JL.

22

22

22

22

22

TONIC

Ratios of Length
at Philosophical Pitch
88 v.p.s. = F

a8
|

128-1"

165"

Cents

138. S"

Cents of an Equaltempered Semitone

* The Mese of 121 v.p.s. is virtually B'q (of the 15th Harmonic of C)
the modal tonality, expressed in modern terms, demands as Mese B\>.

N.B.

Note the

120

v.p.s.,

but

characteristic Ethos
all the notes sharpened in relation to the Tonic,
of the characteristic interval between Mese and Tonic, the sharp Harmonic
:

in consequence
Fourth of ratio 11/8.

Determinant 22

it

now

comprises both Paramese and Trite

position of the scale with the septimai tone 8/7 as Diazeuxis

in the figure above.
this

This

is

the com-

may be

the standard disjunct octave scale, and

seen
it

is

according to the present writerand not the E to E species

Harmonia

Fig. 14.

Genesis of the Hypolydian Harmonia by the Aliquot Division by 20

on the

The Finding

Ratios 20

19

V. F.

67ft 7ljr 75ft

64

String

64

of the Arche in the

v.p.s.

Harmonic

Series

18

80

85^9$ 98& lOefliefj-

128 142| 160 182f213j- 256 320 426fe40 1280

on the white notes of the keyboard, which forms the

basis of the Greater Complete System and of the Perfect Immutable System.
This may be traced through Greek Notation in the tables of Alypius, and
of

modern

theorists

Plut., de

Mm., Cap.

jj-ia, 19

(=

ed.

Weil and Rein., pp. 46-52, and 74-7).

THE GREEK AULOS

26

from the grouping together of

certain of the formulae recorded

by Ptolemy.

(See Chap, v of present work, Fig. 40.)

Examples of the Dorian Harmonia embodied in Pipes will be found
in the Records of Auloi Elgin, of Loret xxiii, xxxi, xxxii, xxxvi, xvi

Cairo

No.

M,

R, and G, and of Flutes Inca,

No. 7

No. 9

Java

Java

ii

of

Mond, Graeco-Roman No. 1

Nauplia (see Chap ix, end).
i

Bali

THE HYPOLYDIAN HARMONIA

The Hypolydian Harmonia

It is

is

the next in order with 20 as Determinant.

evident that to take 10 as Determinant would lead no further than

the Tritone 10, 9, 8, 7, followed by two thirds, 7 6 and 6 5, and would

only yield 5 notes to the octave. Recourse must, therefore, be had to the
:

doubling of the Determinant number, a process which, as explained above,

Fig. 15.

Hypolydian

Harmonia (Diatonic Genus) resulting from the Aliquot

Division by Determinant 20 on the Aulos

64

14

[Til

18

204

182

34567

20

281

80

71-

13

128<2

9lf

12

183-8

98j|

10

11
151

185

108 1 118

The numbers of

the Holes

Ratios of Lengths
Cents

128

Frequencies of the Pipe Hole Notes

new note between each of those obtained by the division by

By doubling the aliquot number 10, the following modal sequence is

provides a
io.

which consists of part of the Diatonic octave 16 to io (see Fig.

and part of the Chromatic 20 to 16. If it is desired to form a Diatonic
it is obvious that the equivalents of ratios 10, 9, 8, must be found
in the Harmonia of Determinant 20, i.e. as 20, 18, 16, after which the
obtained,
15)

scale,

progression yields 15, giving with 20 a perfect 4th for the

first

tetrachord

the form of the scale with the Tritone, viz. 20, 18, 16, 14, was equally
well known
it was simply a matter of choice between Paramese (14) or
;

Trite

Synemmenon

(15) as explained

by Hucbald. 1

It

may be added

that

Martin Gerbert, Script. Eccles., Tome 1, pp. 113-14. Hucbald states that
after the 7th note from Hypate Hypaton, i.e. Mese, the melos in the music of the
Liturgy passed frequently through the Synemmenon, and he gives as example the
Hucbald indicates in this passage the correct position
Introit Statuit ei Dominus '.
1

'

ORIGIN OF THE HARMONIA ON THE AULOS

27

and 14 to 13 a small, Diazeuxis and that in

the second tetrachord 13, 12, 11, 10, the ratios of the first Lydian Tetrachord
may readily be recognized.
ratios 15 to 13 offer a large,

It has been mentioned that in the Harmoniai distinguished by the

Hypo, the first group of four ratios involves some new feature, while
the second group corresponds to the first tetrachord of the Harmonia of
related name.
Examples of the Hypolydian Harmonia embodied in Pipes

prefix

will

be found among the records of the Elgin Aulos, of Loret xviii, xxiii,
1, Graeco-Roman (from Hole 1),

xxiv; of 'Cairo F.' and of Flutes No.

No. 8A, No. 8B.
Fig. 16.

Genesis of the Hypophrygian Harmonia resulting from the Aliquot

Division by

The

Modal Determinant

Ratios 18
18

17

18

F String by Determinant 18

Genesis of the Hypophrygian Modal Material on the

Qe]
Mese

& reflection of Arche

THE HYPOPHRYGIAN HARMONIA

The Hypophrygian is the next Harmonia in the series ; it has 18 for

Determinant. The Arche is found as 9th or 18th Harmonic, at a major
tone above one of the octaves of the F of the string note. What has been
said concerning the necessity for using a double Determinant for the
its

Hypolydian holds good here

The numbers
18

also.

of the lengths of string forming the ratios of the

scale are as follows

EH

modal

15

13

12

10

11

of the Hypolydian Modal Species, beginning on F as Parhypate Meson, of the

Authenti triti, or its plagal. The syllable sta, on the 5th degree of the scale, is allotted,
he states, to the 3rd note in the Synemmenon, i.e. to Paranete, adding that there
is a semitone between the 2nd (Trite) and the 3rd intervals of the scale, viz.
(Tone)l
(1) Parhypate to Lichanus
or as ste P s the 3i to the 4 th is a
(Tone) l
(2) Lichanus to Mese
Semitone.
(Semitone)J
(3) Mese to Trite
On p. 115 Hucbald gives a table of the notes of the P.I.S. in the correct notation
of the Lydian Tonos accompanied by the letters of our alphabet from {A) Prosl. to
(E) Nete Diez. and on p. 120 a table of Antiphons
in some instances he has
noted the first phrase of the Antiphon in the Lydian Tonos a valuable record of
fragments of the music of the Liturgy in the ninth century.
,

>

...

THE GREEK AULOS

28

The

tetrachord

first

new and

is

monia, while the second

Fig. 17.

The

is

Hypophrygian Har-

characteristic of the

the

Mese appears

Phrygian tetrachord.

first

Hypophrygian Harmonia (Diatonic Genus) resulting from the

Aliquot Division by Determinant 18
a
CO

a
c

CO

W
CO
W

J3

IS

E
18

IS

14

MIS

lis

zfeA
VJ8/

vi bralin r

Bulb

(I
/t5>i

ftOT'N

\18/

\18/

li_
Il8

'18

U_
118

Tongue

5.

[3.

[2.

Il8

Il8

118

g8

u
1

18

/
10/18
H/18
12/18
13/18
15/18

16/18

18/18

&
2

18

lu

204

as

247

72

76

138

1-

88 |

Fig. 18.

1S5

96

104

The numbers of the Holes

Ratios of Lengths

Cents

182
11.5 tr

Frequencies of the Pipe Hole Notes

on fundamental C =. 64 v.p.s.

128

Genesis

of the Hypodorian Harmonia resulting from the Aliquot

Division by Modal Determinant 16

The Finding

of the Arche in the Harmonic Series

Genesis of the Hypodorian Harmonia of

Ratios
V.F.

n
1S1

upon the 2nd degree of the scale, and is responsible for the low
Mode this Harmonia was the lowest on the list of the

tessitura of the

The

10
n

11

ll

12

13
-.J

ii

112

64

15

16

64

234156789
v.p.s.

16

1024

v.p.s. for

11

Arche

M.D.

12

13

16 on the

14

15

|l6]

String

17

15

18

19

64

20

14

13

12

v.p.s.

21

1024v.p.s.

The C String

^PQH

String-

11

Lengths
V.F.

64

Oofs 73$

78^ 85

03 J 102? 1;3? 128

Mef

170}

204^256 341$ 512 1024

v.p.s.

Harmonists recorded by Aristoxenus (Cap. 37, p. 128, Macran). The

interval of ratio 15 13, from Trite to Paranete Synemmenon, is a very
characteristic modal one, which figures in many folk-songs, European and
:

ORIGIN OF THE HARMONIA ON THE AULOS

and

Oriental,

is

frequently described somewhat libellously as

second out of tune

matic,

and

in

'.

The Harmonia

Mohammedan

is

29

an augmented
also known as the Oriental Chro'

countries generally has the

tetrachord

first

repeated on the dominant, instead of the complementary Phrygian tetrachord

belonging to the true Hypophrygian Harmonia. The interval of disjunction, of ratio 13

12, is considerably less than a tone, but more than a
:

Examples of the Hypophrygian Harmonia embodied on Pipes

be found on Records of Aulos Loret xv, and on those of the three
Sensa flutes, A, B, C, and No. 7A. See also Chap, ix
the prototype
Greek Fragments in this Harmonia.
The modal series now comes to a close with the Hypodorian, the lowest
or highest of the Harmoniai
as highest it corresponds in the Tonoi to
the Hypophrygian, which is in the same key but an octave higher.
semitone.
are to

THE HYPODORIAN HARMONIA

As the number of the Determinant is 16, Mese is both initial and final.
This, of course, is one of the most harmonious of all the Modes, since
the modal material generated presents no contrast or difficulties in intonation
in relation to the string-note, which is an octave of Arche.

19.
The Hypodorian Harmonia of Modal Determinant 16 (Diatonic
Genus) resulting from the Aliquot Division by Determinant 16 on C

Fig.

to
TO

Bulb

Vibrating

Tongue

(i;

Mouthpiei

CD CD CD El

I* 6

b*

l*6

!*

,e

8/16

fa
M

.10/

/l6

1%8
.:..16

As
Ae

ls

Tonality of

C minor

The numbers of

the Holes

Ratios of Lengths

e4

The

68

85|"

93^

102-

113-g-

15

13

!2

II

IP

16

128

Frequencies of the Pipe Hole Notes

order numbers of the lengths of string

ratios are

16

78

11

[81

(i.e.

the numerators) forming

2
13
20

00
1
1

212
3

01

2
0
10
1

30
2
1

THE GREEK AULOS

30
It will

be noticed that the

tetrachord, characteristic of the Harmonia,

first

Synemmenon

in the Perfect Immutable System,

(see Chap, v, Fig.
and
Chap,
iv,
Fig.
The
first
tetrachord of the Hypodorian
40,
33).
Harmonia has the ratio 4 3 of the perfect 4th, and contains, like the
Hypophrygian, the arresting augmented second of ratio 15 13, while the

constitutes the tetrachord

while the second

found as the Hyperbolaion group

is

second tetrachord

pure Dorian.

is

THE BASTARD HYPODORIAN

This modal Hypodorian has no connexion with the bastard species of
name represented in the Perfect Immutable System by the octave
from Proslambanomenos to Mese, and in modern equivalence by the A
the same

Fig. 20. The Seven Harmoniai expressed in Superparticular Ratios of Lengths of

String or Pipe, taken within the Octave from C = 64 v.p.s. to C = 128 v.p.s.

Nomenclature
according to
Parhypate

Hypate

Position
.

Paramese

Lichanos

Paranete

MESE
Trite

Nete

xard Q&aiv
1

i
1

MIXOLYDIAN

64

DORIAN

64

64
1 1
1 1

1 1
1

64

7f

2 0
2 0

2 0
1 8

64

64

HYPODORIAN

64

1 0

92|

8si

1 6

72
1 e

1 5

c.

n8f

128

1 8

1 6
1 4

4
3

1 2

1 3
1 2

1
1

7H

88x3"

96

1041

E
8of

1 1

1 1

1 0

98y% io6|
1 5
1 3

1 5

13.

1 2

1 1

128
0
9

s
!

1
1

128

"Si

128

8si 9 3TT I02f

Har-

128

1 6
1 5

1 3

v.p.s.

C = 64
for each

monia

ic-9t

8
7

7i!

128

IOOy

7m

64

104

by modal
ratios
on
fundamental

v.f.

1 3

96

8.

7
6

88

128

12

8
7

80

9
8

78|

99f

76I

1 8

1 6
1
.

89t

1
1

9
8

"9

10

8ifx

1 1

(>9i>T

1 8
1 8

HYPOPHRYGIAN

75TT 83!
1
1

HYPOLYDIAN

13

68*f 74t

1 2
1 2

PHRYGIAN

LYDIAN

95To io7f

Approximate

I20f

128

degrees

of

Diatonic
Keyboard

scale with
frequencies
of

Equal

T e m p e rament

added

below

for

1
1

i
1

comparison

ORIGIN OF THE HARMONIA ON THE AULOS

to

in

modal

octave of the keyboard without accidentals.

ratios

31

In this sequence, stated

16

12

13

14

E$

10

11

__l

L__

Dorian Meson

Dorian Hypaton

Diazeuxis

the bastard Hypodorian, deprived of

individuality,

all

seen to consist

is

merely of the first octave of the Perfect Immutable System from Proslambanomenos. As a logical consequence, the Harmonia would have to be
regarded as thus constituted
16

14

98

12

13

10

11

Dorian

Phrygian
(second Tetrachord)

(first

Tetrachord)

scale is probably the Mixophrygian mentioned by Clement of

As this species would imply a mixture of Modes, which
was a device of the decadent period, it must clearly be rejected, and the
right of the Harmoniai, bearing the prefix Hypo, to their characteristic first
tetrachord be emphasized once again. Examples of the Hypodorian Harmonia embodied on the Pipes are to be found in the Records of Aulos
Loret xix, Loret xxvii, xxvi, xxi, and on the Records of Flutes Nos. 10
and 16. (See also Chap, ix.) This, then, completes the scheme of the
seven original Harmoniai which constitute the Modal System of Ancient
Greece (see also Plate of Harmoniai with their Notation, Chap, v, Fig. 37).

Such a

Alexandria. 3

THE AULOS AS ORIGIN OF THE HARMONIAI

They may be

studied in the table above. The Modal System of Ancient

Greece is thus revealed as a profoundly rational system having a basis at
once scientific yet natural. The inception of the system is extraordinarily
simple in practice. The subtlety of the ideas and values, developed within
the system in order to make of it an organic whole, may come as a surprise
to some modern scholars and musicians when they begin to realize how

immeasurably their estimate of Ancient Greek Music

fell

short of the

reality.

A few words

must now be devoted

by the reed-blown
pipe in the creation of the Modes
a fuller account will be found under
the heading Aulos
The Modes were derived quite naturally from the
boring of the Aulos, avlog, or reed-blown pipe, in the most convenient
manner for covering the holes with the fingers. This must have occurred
in the remote days before the beginning of historic records in Greece, and
elsewhere, for instance, during the epoch signified by the ascription of the
to the part played

'

'.

invention of the art of playing the Aulos,

the Phrygian,

The
1

by Plutarch, 3 and

fact that

For the

Modes and

identification of the

see Chap, iv, Fig. 33.

2
Stromata, i, 16
p. 789,
;

xt]v avXrjrixrjv xiyyr\v, to

earlier still in Chaldea, India,

scales

modal

Migne

have originated
ratios

Patrol.

among

Hyagnis,

Egypt, Persia.

primitives (with

with the nomenclature of the P.I.S.,

Strabo, 572.

de Miis., Cap. 7 (ed. Weil and Rein., p. 34).

THE GREEK AULOS

32

the possible exception of a certain vocal scale) through the boring of pipes

and

and the making of Panpipes, is one that will have to be reckoned

with and accepted in the face of overwhelming evidence (see The Survival of the Harmonia in Folk Music
Chaps, viii and ix). The influence
of wind instruments on the musical systems of the world has never yet
received adequate treatment or acknowledgement. 1
The technical aspect of the genesis of the Modes on the Aulos is not
difficult to understand.
The Aulos consisted of a length of the hollow,
jointed river reed (xaka/iog) converted into a pipe by boring through the
joints, thus providing an unbroken column of air.
Into the end of this
pipe was inserted a corn-stalk {xaXAfirj), or later a mouthpiece called Syrinx
(ovQiyt-).
The pipemaker did not rest content with his mouthpiece until
he could, by thrusting it more or less deeply into the reed pipe, blow a
full-throated long and resonant note, which he was able to raise or lower
by natural means, viz. by tightening or relaxing the muscles of the larynx
flutes,

'

',

in conjunction with a proportional increase or decrease of breath pressure.

The

pipe acted as resonator, while the

little

straw mouthpiece

was the

note-giver.

During the best period of Greek Art the part of the straw mouthpiece
not taken into the mouth was concealed within one or more of those
beautifully shaped bulbs depicted on Greek vases, which are familiar to
all Greek students.
The simple little straw is the genius of the pipe and
the most important part of it
more important even, from the musician's
point of view, than the holes (xod(ai) bored laterally and stopped by the
fingers, although to us, in search of traces of the Modes, the holes give
the clue to the mystery.
The length of the column of air, which the
;

breath of the player sets in vibration through the

is

reckoned from the end of the pipe serving as

vibrating tongue of the mouthpiece.

When

little

exit,

straw mouthpiece,
to the tip of the

holes are bored in the side of

is equal, and which at the

same time forms an aliquot part of the total length of the pipe, plus that
of the straw mouthpiece protruding from the pipe, then a Mode is born.
The birth of the Mode occurs even when the pipe-maker is an untutored
It has already been
musician, unconscious of scales, Modes and theories.
pointed out above that it is the Harmonia alone, and not the genesis of the
modal material, that is obtainable on the pipe. The Modes thus are the

the pipe at a distance from each other which

creation of the reed-blown pipe (and,

with certain reservations, of the

they are brought about through the unconscious participation of

man, who by means of his innate feeling for proportion in the boring of
holes is enabled to tap the natural law embodied in the pipe.

flute)

1
The Influence of Wind Instruments on the Musical Systems of the World.
by Kathleen Schlesinger, The Roy. Coll. of Music Mag., Vol. xii, Nos. 2 and 3,
The Significance of Mus.
also by the same author,
1916, pp. 52-8 and 80-7
Insts. in the Evolution of Music
Oxford Hist, of Music, Intro. Vol., Oxf. Univ.
'

',

'

',

Press, 1929, pp. 91 sqq.

2
'

'

The mouthpiece,

of two distinct categories, is described in Chap, ii on the

to which reference should be made for technical details (and also to Chap, v,

Aulos ',
Polemics

').

ORIGIN OF THE HARMONIA ON THE AULOS

In time our piper chances upon another

Mode by

33

varying the length

mouthpiece in relation to the distance between the holes,

of which the total length is a multiple.
Or he may vary the distance
between the holes in another specimen and thus enter upon a different
aliquot division by a new Determinant.
Or again, a change of mouthpiece, or even the pulling out of the mouthpiece, or pushing it in further
into the resonator, may produce a different Harmonia (e.g. as in Loret
Aulos xxiii), without change of fundamental. To the piper the Modes
would appear as a collection of seven pipes of the same length from exit
to the tip of the tongue of the reed or straw mouthpiece.
From a perusal of the section on the Polemics of Aristoxenus (Chap,
ii, Aulos) it will be evident that in his day it was a recognized
fact that
the Modal System was derived from the boring of the Aulos.
of the pipe

THE MODAL SYSTEM BASED UPON THE OPERATION OF THE PRINCIPLE OF EQUAL
MEASURE
In summing up,

it

may be urged

that the

Modal System

based upon

upon a common fundamental length, by a series of Determinants, and considered with all its
implications constitutes a new musical fact in relation to the practical

the operation of the principle of equal measure

and theoretical aspects of Music

it is likewise seen to be a factor in the
evolution of Music, the full significance of which has yet to be realized
and taken into account. The history of the theory of Music offers no
analogue for a concept so momentous, yet capable of being so simply and
concisely resumed by the phrase
which
number and equal measure
carries with it implications of great subtlety and of far-reaching significance.
;

'

',

found, moreover, that this concept stands for a principle implicit in

the elements of Music
in the laws inherent in lengths of string and
It is

columns of

air,

so that the primitive musician stumbles unawares

upon

the means of embodying this principle in his earliest attempts at instru-

ment-making.

It is

found that in practice equal measure

in length produces

musical intervals infinite in variety, generated in delicately proportioned

sequences
that these intervals are capable of being measured with meticulous exactitude and computed by frequencies to the nth fraction of a
;

vibration.

The

principle

of equal

measure,

considered apart from the modal

incidence of Determinants, and as origin of a minor series,

unknown

not

to theorists, e.g. to

Hugo Riemann, 1 who came

is

of course

across

it

in

computing intervals to Albert von Thimus 2

and Jean Marnold, 3 both of whom, on the verge of discovering the Modal
System, were deterred therefrom by their unshakable faith in the preeminence of the modern system. Thus, in the operation of equal measure,
these writers selected for use those notes and intervals which approximated

the Arabian Messel

2
3

method

Studien

of

s. Gesch. d. Notenschrift, Leipzig, 1878, pp. 77 sqq.

Die Harmonikale Symbolik d. Altertums, Koln, 1868.
The Natural Foundations of Ancient Greek Music ', Intern. Musikgesellschaft,
'

Jhrg. x, 3 April, 1909.

3

THE GREEK AULOS

34

modern Diatonic and Chromatic scales, discarding intervals

such as ii/io and 12/11, which they deemed incommensurate. Jean
Marnold's article displays great ingenuity and an original point of view
to those of the

directed to the solution of many problems connected with Greek Music,

which speculative students cannot well afford to miss. The two bulky
volumes (unfortunately lacking an index) by von Thimus contain a wealth
of material used by the author to support his thesis, and to bring his
conception of the two progressions of the Harmonic Series, in opposite
directions, into the domain of modern harmony.

THE ETHOS OF THE MODE BASED UPON THE CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES

PECULIAR TO EACH HARMONIA

Our

Modal System by

respect for the conception of the

Greeks becomes more and more profound

viz.

as the features of

a sevenfold differentiation, within a

acterized through

common

the Ancient
Modality emerge,

octave, of

Modes

char-

the identity of the individual Determinant numbers

Or

which, under another aspect, function as Archai.

if

the Arche be con-

sidered as the primary stimulus in the genesis of the Harmonia, then the

Determinant

Mese on

its

is

The

the instrument of the Arche in action.

own

degree in the

Modal

Scale carries with

it

of a highly significant interval between itself and the Tonic

tion of a Tonality implicit in the

Arche's

number

in the

acteristic ratio of the

Harmonic

position of

the implication
;

the implica-

Mode, through the double incidence

Series,

Tonic, which

is

and of

its

of

reflection as the char-

thus responsible for the sequence

constituting each Harmonia, and forming the

Based upon all these cardinal points is the
Harmonia, on which Plato, Aristotle and other classical
authors insist.
There is, furthermore, the light which the Modal Genesis
throws upon the origin of the three Genera, whereby all vague and indefinite
computations of the magnitude of the Enharmonic and Chromatic Dieses
are once for all eliminated and replaced by a scientifically exact basis.
Finally, there is the subtle distinction in essence between Modes and
species to which attention will be devoted in Chapter iv.
of proportional

intervals

impassable limit of genesis.

Ethos peculiar

to the

PROFESSOR H.
It is

S.

MACRAN

perhaps not out of place to

THE

OVERLOOKED FACTOR

'

here Professor

recall

II.

'

S.

Macran's

all hope of advance along the lines of archaeological

he says (Aristoxenus, Harm., 42, p. 81)

pessimistic negation of

research

Many

persons are under the delusion that to solve the problem of Ancient Greek
light some hitherto overlooked factor, the recognition of
of making the old Greek Hymns as clear and convincing
our ears as the songs of Handel and Mozart. Very curious is this delusion,
though not astonishing to any one who has reflected on the extraordinary ignorance
of mankind about the most spontaneous and universally beloved of the Arts.

Music means to bring to

which will have the effect
to

This pronouncement may perhaps signify that the Development of Greek

Music
which Macran sketched in his Introduction to the Elements
'

'

of Aristoxenus

',

satisfied

him

absolutely.

Nevertheless, the

'

overlooked

factor

'

ORIGIN OF THE HARMONIA OX THE AULOS

35

come

to light

of equal measure, recorded for us by Aristotle, has

and should any fragments of the true modal music of the Golden
Age of Greece be retrieved in the future, they may be read by means of
the modal interpretation of Notation, 1 and may perhaps enable us to realize
some of the beauty and power of modal music in Antiquity. Finally,
strange as it may appear to modern musical thought and feeling, the Ancient
Greeks did actually use in their Modal System all the unusual intervals
formed by the Determinants identified in this chapter with the genesis of
the seven Modes.
The most characteristic of these intervals, from the
modal point of view, occurs, as the first step in the Diatonic genus of the
Harmonia, starting from the Tonic bearing the ratio number of the Determinant, which is also the constant denominator for the Mode, of the segments implied by equal measure. The intervals in question bear the
after

all,

following ratios

They

14

13

12

11

10

16

13

12

11

10

15

be found duly documented in the evidence presented in the

following sections.
The manner in which the modal Harmoniai evolved
into the Greater Complete and Perfect Immutable Systems, and the
various stages entailed in the evolution, form the subject of Chapter iv.
It will certainly have to be conceded that the seven interrelated ancient
Modes, born of equal measure, out of which the Modal System was evolved,
do indeed constitute a new musical fact of fundamental importance, not
only to the past history of Music, but we believe that it also holds the
germ of the future development of the Art. 2
will all

1
A brief exposition of the Modal System of Notation is given in the Appendix.
2
For the use of the Modal System of the Harmoniai in modern music, see
Appendix No. 3, on The Music of Elsie Hamilton '.
'

CHAPTER

THE AULOS

II

ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN

THE HISTORY

OF GREEK MUSIC
The Aulos as Mode-bringcr. The a
piece.
The Tonic as Starting-note
Quint.).

priori Claim.
The Importance of the Mouthbears a different Ratio in each Mode (Arist.
Equidistant Fingerholes on Aulos or Flute cannot produce Equal Intervals.

The Management of the Breath-stream in playing the Aulos. The Two Types of
Mouthpiece. The Primitive Double-reed Mouthpiece preserves the Integrity of
the Modal Scale. The Beating-reed Mouthpiece. The Influence of Tonguelength and Width on Pitch exhibited in the Beating-reed Mouthpiece. Fundamental Structural Change in the Flarmonia brought about by the Unique Properties
of the Beating-reed Mouthpiece.
Significance of the Aulcte's Attitude while
playing the Aulos, illustrated on Vase Paintings at the British Museum. The
Musical and Technical Significance of the Aulcte's Two Movements, while playing,
which are denoted by Aristotle, Aristoxenus and Plutarch by the opposites AvaanSv
and xaraojiav. Polemic directed by Aristoxenus against the Aulos. The Effect
of increased Pressure of Breath on Pitch and Harmonics. Aristotle on the Aulos
and its Mouthpieces. Theophrastus on the Mouthpieces of the Aulos. Technical
and Musical Possibilities of the Double Aulos.
Change of Mode on the Aulos.
Ptolemy's Reference to the Beating-reed Mouthpiece of the Auloi. The Feats of
.

Pronomus, the Theban. Macrobius on the Position of the Fingerhole. Find of

Fragments of Auloi at Meroe by Professor John Garstang. The Feat of Midas of
Agrigentum

THE AULOS AS MODE-BRINGER

"MIE Aulos
bringer

JL

will, in this chapter,

be considered primarily as mode-

secondly, as a surviving record of the use of the

by the Ancients and by the

folk in the East

and West

Modes
thirdly,

fundamental relation to the practical acoustics of wind-instruments,

in so far as this branch of the science is necessary for the understanding of
the part played by the Aulos in the development of the practice and theory
Knowof music in Ancient Greece, and in the Ancient East generally.
ledge of the acoustics of the Aulos is, above all, indispensable for the
correct reading of the scales, of which surviving specimens of reed-blown
in its

pipes provide a record.

The most

emerges from a careful examination of

is the extreme importance of the mouththrows upon certain passages in the literary
sources hitherto considered obscure.
The unsuspected properties and
the singlecharacteristics of each of two different types of mouthpiece
reed and the double-reed will be found to involve important acoustic
striking fact that

facsimiles of the instrument itself

piece,

and the

significant light

it

implications.

The

evidence provided by the Auloi for the Greek

36

Modes would

have

PLATE

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

37

been acquired more easily had scientists not completely overlooked the
acoustic problems presented by the primitive prototypes of the modern
oboe and clarinet mouthpieces for the earlier types differ from the modern
in features and properties, which are of sufficient importance to have
Scientists appear
influenced the development of music in Ancient Greece.
to have confined their experimental work on reeds to the modern more
This has had the inevitable result of obscuring
sophisticated examples.
the avenues of research, and of foredooming to failure all attempts (made
;

on such a

basis) to reconstruct the scale, pitch

and tone quality of surviving

specimens of the ancient wood-wind instruments.

THE A PRIORI CLAIM

Now,

if

fortuitously

it can be shown how Modes and species may be produced

upon the reed-pipes through the disposition of the fingerholes

and how one Mode or another inevitably results from fingerholes disposed
with due regard to proportion, then the a priori possibility will have been
If,
established that Modes such as are described in Chapter i could exist.
moreover, it can be proved that aborigines in various parts of the world,
and the untutored folk in East and West, do at the present day so dispose
the fingerholes on their pipes and flutes as to produce these same

Modes

and species facts which may be proved incontestably by measurements no

then, leaving the
less than by audible tests recorded by phonograph
Man,
purely presumptive, we reach the safer ground of conclusive facts.
as we shall see, has discovered the application of the law embodied in the
pipe, and while still in ignorance of the nature of the law itself he has
elected to use the sounds resulting therefrom in the making of music.
But, for the major purpose of this book, there would still remain the
difficult and onerous task of proving that the Ancient Greeks had in fact
so disposed the fingerholes on their pipes as to produce the resulting
sequences of intervals of specified ratios which have been, in this work,
identified with the Harmoniai of Plato, Aristotle and other writers of the
classical and Graeco-Roman periods.
Evidence must, moreover, be produced to show that this fortuitous production of Modes had in due course
passed into the domain of knowledge and practice and that it can be
demonstrated to form the basis of the Greek Modal System. Such
evidence will be examined in subsequent chapters.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE MOUTHPIECE

In order to bring a

critical

judgement

to bear

upon these

questions,

the reader will be in need of definite information about the behaviour and

two kinds of mouthpiece used for the Aulos,

about their relation to the reed pipe, and about certain other agencies 1
required for the production of sound in the Aulos.
Records many of
them dated have been kept of the practical experiments and research
work carried out by the present writer over a period of many years on
structural significance of the

For

a reference to these agencies, see Aristoxenus, p.

rr)v i-iev cctd

x&v ysioav

ti)v 6'

and

tojv

Xomwv ixeq&v

ols

42M.

innelmv re

(.

ysinovnyiav

r.al (xvi&vtxi

neyvxe).

THE GREEK AULOS

38

reed-blown pipes and their mouthpieces and on flutes. Many of the pipes
preserved in Museums and Collections (which have been carefully measured
by M. Victor Loret 1 and others) have been reproduced in facsimile and
Since the frail mouthpieces of these pipes have perished with
tested.
regrettably few exceptions, 2 the difficulties involved in the testing of these
facsimiles, for the determination of their scale and modality, were at first
greatly aggravated until the principles at the root of modality

were found
be embodied in the interrelationship of mouthpiece and pipe. Thus
a strange fact that the secret of modality has lain dormant and unsuspected for centuries in the reed-blown pipes. The onlooker, watching the
fingers of the piper uncover hole after hole in the direction from exit to
mouthpiece, and hearing the resulting succession of intervals rising in pitch,
hardly realized the functions of the individual agents engaged in the production of sound
that, for instance, the distance from hole to hole has
no equivalent in sound, but merely represents the excess vnaQoyj), or difference in ratio between the notes of the two holes
the length of reed made
to

it is

ineffective

by

lifting

the finger from a lower hole, perforce remains

silent,

The

while the remainder speaks.

speaking length of a pipe is determined

as the piper knows full well
by the path of the breath propelled through
the mouthpiece, down the bore of the pipe as far as the nearest aperture
through which it can escape. The speaking lengths are therefore measured

from the vibrating

tip of the

mouthpiece to the centre of the nearest uncovered

hole.

Obviously

it is

impossible to determine the pitch, scale, or modality of

any pipe that lacks a mouthpiece which will play it. All computations
of pitch or scale of reed-blown pipes preserved in museums, or represented
in drawings or sculptures, are worthless, unless the pipes have been reproduced in facsimile from measurements accurate to the millimetre, and have
been provided with a mouthpiece that speaks clearly and easily in the pipe
with holes closed and open.

The main

factors that inevitably

produce the Modes on wind and

stringed instruments are the total length of string (from nut to bridge)
1

Encyclopedie de la Musique, ed. Albert Lavignac, Librairie Ch. Delagrave,

Paris,
2

Premiere Partie, Egypte ', Fasc. 1, pp. 17-22.

1913.
only two known to the present writer are those of the Akhmim (the ancient
M. Gaston Maspero and to M. Victor Loret. The

The

Panopolis) pipes belonging to

pipe and oboe mouthpiece belonging to the latter are described and illustrated in

pamphlet,
Sur une ancienne flute egyptienne decouverte dans les mines de
Panopolis ', par Victor Loret, Soc. d' anthropologic de Lyon, 1893. The mouthpieces of oboe type were made of the reed itself, and according to M. Loret's description, the pipe fitted into the cylindrical stem of the mouthpiece which was
covered with a layer of resinous gum. A third surviving mouthpiece of straw is
mentioned by the author but not described or illustrated. The illustrations of
the mouthpiece given in the pamphlet (and in the Encycl., fn. 1 above) are misleading and incorrect in one important feature, viz. the thread wound round the
mouthpiece, which gives it the appearance of a modern oboe mouthpiece, is an
addition by Victor Loret, for the sole purpose of keeping the fragments in place
(they are complete).
There was no such waxed thread on either of the original
mouthpieces.
his

'

PLATE

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

39

column of air from the tip of the mouthpiece to the exit, divided
aliquot parts by the number Determinant of the Mode.

or of the
into

The Modal Scale on the Dorian Aulos

Terpander's Harmonia or the Spondeion

Fig. 21.

B
K
Equivalents of
Intervals in Cents

10

S3

Pu

cu

S04"_ 2S1_ 267

-ir

IS2 o

-nr

11

J
S

-2

K
ies o

V
11

Modal Ratios

6_

11

II

II

11

11

11

11

11

-\

128

Vibr. Frequencies

tt

The beating-reed
mouthpiece

tt

Efc

140-8

156-2

176

201-1

234-66

N.B. It will be noticed that the increment between the exit

as the other increments.
As already stated, it is not necessary to

and Hole I is the same

make any allowance in

respect of diameter in placing the first hole in reed-blown pipes.

In the flute, however,
diameter plays an important part in the determination of pitch (see Ch. VI and VII, passim).

The modal
of air as

scale is obtained

Tonic

.or

by

starting with the

whole string or column

fundamental, and by stopping or silencing segment after

segment, and playing the remainders until the octave

half-length of the string.

hole

is

What

takes place

uncovered in the direction from

is

reached at the

on the Aulos, when hole after

mouthpiece, may be followed

exit to

in Fig. 2i.

THE TONIC AS STARTING-NOTE BEARS A DIFFERENT RATIO IN EACH MODE

(CF. ARIST. QUINT.)

The Tonic

modal sequence, the

expressed as a differentiated

represents the starting-point of the

note of the whole string or column of

air

n/n

Dorian, 12/12 Phrygian, &c). This conception of the

Tonic probably underlies the remark of Aristides Quintilianus (p. 18M.,

unit (e.g.

lines 7 sqq.) when he states that the dynamic values (dvvdfisig (pOoyyov)
attached in each Harmonia to the same sign as starting- note (arj/xslov tiq&xov)

determine the sequence of consecutive sounds that reveals the nature of

each Harmonia.

Although
light of the
it

this statement by Aristides seems to be quite clear in the

modal Harmonia, it appears to need a little explanation as
Aristides has been defining the species as they

arises in the context.

occur in the P.I.S.

as

Modes,

(arifjielov

all

those people

'

then he proceeds to consider the basis of the species

from the note which is expressed by the same sign
in Alypius this sign is Q (Omega)
and even for

starting

tiqwtov),

i.e.

he seems

use them as Modes,

'

to say

'

'

who put

the nature of the

succession of consecutive sounds

'.

the same sign

Harmonia

is

made

first

',

clear

i.e.

who

from the

THE GREEK AULOS

40

This seems

Modes and
sounds or

be an implication of the difference between species and

to

of

also
ratios.

is common to both, namely the succession of

Evidently Aristides recognizes the fact that to some

what

people the species, from their position as octaves in the P.I.S., are more
easily identified
whereas others, who use the Harmoniai as Modes, find
;

same sign (Q) used as starting-note (or Tonic) but each time
dynamis or value (dvvdfieig cpOoyyov) reveals the nature
of each Harmonia through the resulting sequence of ratios or intervals. 1
The keynote is the any/], the root or beginning of the Mode, represented in the Harmonia by one of the octaves of unity, usually bearing
the ratio number 8 or 1 6 in the Diatonic and Chromatic genera, and 32
in the Enharmonic.
The keynote is found on a different degree of the
scale in each Harmonia, and forms with the Tonic the characteristic
interval of the Mode.
The denominator is constant and indicates the
that the

differentiated as to

Determinant number of the Mode

the numerators, decreasing in the
direction low to high pitch, express the number of segments sounded for
any given note, e.g. Mixolydian Mode.
;

Mode

Mixolydian

14/14

Value in Cents of E.T. Semitones

13/14
128-2

d\)

12/14

138-48

e\>

7/6 Septimal 3rd

When

Mode

267

cents.

known, the numerators may be used alone to indicate

of the intervals, e.g. for the above-mentioned intervals.

the

the ratios

is

EQUIDISTANT FINGERHOLES ON AULOS OR FLUTE CANNOT PRODUCE EQUAL

INTERVALS

The

natural instinct of

man

for proportion,

which leads him

to place

embody unconsciously
than a predilection for equal
or complementary measurements in spacing and ornamentation
and it is
a confusion of terms to call the scales of pipes having holes bored at equal

the holes of a pipe at equidistant intervals and so to

Modes

the

in his pipes, involves

much more

distances
1

See

'

decorative scales

Mode

in Ancient

',

if this

description

accompanied by the

is

Greek Music, by R. P. Wilmington- Ingram, Camb. Univ.

Press, 1936, p. 56, where the passage comes under discussion, but with the omission
of the point at issue, viz. the Mode as distinguished from the species by the same
sign taken as starting-note,

and
a

is

whereas each species

starts

on

a different note in the P.I.S.,

expressed in notation by a different sign.

Thorvald Kornerup, Akustische Gesetze f.

Akkord- u. Skala-Bildung, Copenhagen, 1930, p. 14. E. M. v. Hornbostel, Tonsystcmc

Ildb. d. Physik, 1928,
Bd. viii, Cap. 9, pp. 441-2. Curt Sachs, Die griechische Instrumental-Noten',
schrift
Zts. f. Musikzvissenschaft, 1924, Marz, Heft 6, Jahrg. 6, p. 296.
Siegfried
F. Nadel, Marimba-Musik 62, Mitt. d. Phonogrammarchivs-Kommission, Jan., 1930.
Vienna and Leipzig, Holder-Pichler-Tempsky, A.-G., 1931, pp. 32 and 36 contains photographs of instruments and 7 pages of music.
For further reference see present work, Chap, i, Chap, viii, and Chap, ix, The
Survival of the Harmonia in Folk Music ', Abhandlungen z. Vergl., Musikwissenschaft,
von A. J. Ellis, J. P. N. Land, C. Stumpf, O. Abraham and E.
v. Hornbostel.
'

d.

',

'

'

',

'

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

implication that equal distances produce equal intervals. 1

pure

is

fallacy,

born of

The

practice of these scales.

be equal.
In such statements

'

of such a pipe cannot possibly

intervals

modal proportion

for the

'

true proportional

its

The

value corresponding to the sound actually produced.

holes are equidistant, for instance spaced at 27 millimetres

one or more pipes,

of which it is an aliquot part,

has obliterated

Determinant number

missing, which alone can give to each equal segment

centre, in

41

This, of course,

acquaintance with either theory or

the equal distance between holes

the senior partner in the

is

insufficient

fact that the

from centre

to

meaningless unless the multiple length,

is

known

and for

mouthpiece is
indispensable.
The distance of 27 mm. is merely the modal unit, an
integral factor in the proportion.
In a scale resulting from a pipe of a
total length (including mouthpiece) of ten such increments of 27 mm. the
scheme of intervals produced places the equal measurement fallacy in its
is

this the

true perspective.

be noticed

It will

at

once on glancing

at

the diagram (Fig. 22) that

upon

the symmetrical or decorative disposition of the holes

no

a pipe bears

relation whatever to the sounds

produced through them, nor indeed

moreover, half a dozen pipes, all having

magnitude of the intervals

holes at the same equal distance may give entirely different sequences of
intervals, according to the combined length of pipe and mouthpiece.
Again, one such pipe may produce as many as three different sequences
of intervals, if the mouthpiece be drawn out to the extent of one, two, or
three more increments of distance.
Finally, by changing the mouthpiece,
any of the sequences may be played in a different key. Examination of
the schemes A, B, C, in Fig. 22, reveals the fact that equal distance between
the holes of a pipe results in anything but equal intervals
that, in fact,

to the

1
In support of his epithet for the scales resulting from what he calls a secondary
formation (i.e. from the aliquot division of string or column of air that produces
our Modal Scale), Kornerup quotes Professor E. M. von Hornbostel thus
The
striving after equal steps (intervals) is satisfied optically {wird optisch Geniige getan)
= they make the distances between the fingerholes equal.' Removed from its
context, this quotation is misleading and hardly does justice to the results of Hornbostel's research in this domain, further particulars of which are given in
:

Chap,

'

viii.)

Hornbostel's table {op. cit., p. 442) shows the sequence of possible intervals
from equidistant holes, for instance, in the ancient Egyptian pipes measured
by M. Victor Loret. But the important part played by the mouthpiece has escaped
his notice, consequently his computations
apparently based upon theory rather
than actual practical tests with exact facsimiles do not correspond with theory
or practice
the intervals assigned by him to the fingerholes in sequence are too
small by one, two or three places in the table. This must obviously be so, since
his calculations are based upon the numbers of increments of distance contained
by the resonator alone, to which the mouthpiece must add one, two or three more
increments.
(See further in Chap, viii.)
Dr. Curt Sachs has also fallen foul of the equidistant borings of flutes and reedblown pipes in his article on Greek Instrumental Notation when he states that
all (wind) instruments with fingerholes gave approximately equal intervals, because
the fingerholes were bored at approximately equal distances.
resulting

'

THE GREEK AULOS

42

gives no indication whatever of the magnitude of the intervals to be

heard as the fingers uncover the holes, one by one. The spacing of the
intervals carries with it no direct correspondence in sound, it signifies
merely that the path of the breath in the form of a sound-wave is increased
or diminished by one or more increments of length, and the musical signi-

it

depends upon its number in the arithmetical

progression of equal increments that start theoretically from the vibrating
tip of the mouthpiece.
For example, if the holes successively uncovered
ficance of the increment

correspond to the 4th and 5th of these increments of distance, the interval
heard will be that of a major 3rd, while the uncovering of holes corresponding to the 7th and 8th increments will sound the septimal or f tone.
Fig. 22.

A
Ratios

Modes

000

11

II

II

tl

II

10/jo
1

Cents

II

498

II

..J

316

182

11-^

204

281

Hypolydiati
Harmonia

e=
3

II

II

267

II

II

316

386

in
lu

ar
2

ii

II

498

Harmonia

1200

702

II

'

II

II

498

386

Mu
D
m

1200

702

S
II

II

II

II

165

tl

6
267

8876643j

10

li

151

II

231

ask
f
4
Jl
386-

316

II

204

11

II

182

Cents

10

166

Ratios 12/12

267

231

OOO

Cents

204

182

Ratios li/n
LZ

(Harmoniai) resulting from the Disposition of Equidistant

Fingerholes

702

M.D.12

1200

A, B and C are 3 resonators equal in length. They have 6 fingerholes at equal distances.
The increment of distance is the same for A, B and C.
The extrusion of the mouthpiece is of one
I.D. in A
two I.D. in B

three I.D. in C.
,,
,,

,,
N.B. As Modal Determinants, the denominators are constant. The Numerators

form the

ratios of the intervals.

If the same mouthpiece be used for the Aulos in the three positions, A, B, and C, and
should give the same fundamental, then the Aulos in A, B, and C plays Modes (Harmoniai)
if the fundamental changes, A, B, C, give Species.

The

which

produce notes of exact pitch in wind

instruments are (i) length, which is determined by the diameter of the
bore (subject to certain modifications more important in the flute than in
the reed-blown pipe)
(2) the mouthpiece, which is responsible, as a
formant, for the velocity of the vibrator}' impulse (productive of pitch),
as well as for the form of the sound-wave (productive of quality), and of
and (3) the
its amplitude (productive of dynamic intensity and variation)
breath or wind, intimately and of necessity associated with (2) in making
Breath, when propelled by way of the mouthpiece through
the pipe speak.
factors

in combination

the pipe,

and

is

instinctively controlled in respect of force

resulting in volume

of compression resulting in density

these two factors combined
with length are responsible for relative pitch. In instruments in which
the amount of compression of the breath-stream varies with the other
factors, some contrivance is required to contract the aperture through which
;

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

the

wind

is

In the

fed to the pipe.

flute

and

more

which

width of the aperture between them

cally increased as the

produce

43

in the brass-wind the function

carried out through the muscular tension of the lips,

is

is

automati-

reduced to

is

incisive air reed or breath-stream.

THE MANAGEMENT OF THE BREATH-STREAM IN PLAYING THE AULOS

To

ensure that a

Mode

shall

come

to birth in sound,

correctly

and

come

into

in tune, other subconscious or instinctive proportional impulses

play in the piper himself

reference

is

here

made

to the little-recognized

function of the glottis, as the agent instrumental in compressing the

when

playing wind instruments vibrated by means of a reed.

of compression of breath,
glottis,

instinctively controlled

is

air,

The amount

together with the voluminal capacity of the

by

These

sets of muscles.

are relaxed

or contracted in exact proportion to the factor of length required to produce

a note of given pitch, a function readily understood

measure

verifiable

by

all.

by

singers,

misconception

still

exists

and in a

Closely allied to this activity of the glottis

that of breath pressure, concerning the true relation of

among

which

is

to pitch,

writers on musical instruments.

It

is

incorrect to state, for instance, that increase of breath pressure alone can

be responsible for raising the pitch of any note obtained through one of
the fingerholes of pipes and flutes.
To say, for example, that the compass
of a pipe can be extended by producing three different notes from each
hole, merely through increase of breath pressure, is only a half-truth.
Once the length of the column of air to be set in vibration has been defined
by the opening of a fingerhole, and the note has been produced, an increase
of breath pressure alone results in greater

of sound

dynamic

intensity

and volume

but the pitch does not change unless the factor of length is
by restricting the opening of the hole to half or a quarter
of its area
an expedient which adds to the length of the sound-wave and
lowers the pitch or by opening another hole. The normal pitch of the
;

altered, either

note obtained from any fingerhole may, however, be raised or lowered by

varying the degree of compression of the breath, obtained by tightening
or relaxing the muscles of the glottis without interference with the factor
of length.

Moreover, if in a modal pipe the length of the air column be shortened

by opening fingerholes in succession in the direction of the mouthpiece
while the breath is kept at an even pressure, 1 and the function of the glottis
1
The reason for this becomes clear upon drawing a parallel from organ pipes.
Here the length is fixed for each pipe to give one note of accurately determined
pitch, and one only, in conjunction with a specially designed and fitted mouthpiece.
In the reed-blown pipe, on the other hand, each lateral hole opened in turn converts

the one pipe into several of different lengths.

In the organ the wind compression is fixed, the same for all the pipes. The
mouthpiece of the organ pipe, whether flue or reed, is specially designed for it
set

and tuned on each pipe for the note required of

it

at the

degree of compression

selected.
-

Of

the three factors

(a)

wind compression,

(b)

length,

(c)

mouthpiece, which


THE GREEK AULOS

44

suspended, the result in sound is a meaningless succession of small intervals 1

approximating to semitones which replace the modal sequence proper to
Attention has elsewhere 2 been drawn by
the scheme of boring adopted.
combine

in the organ to determine pitch, the first alone is invariable for all pitches,
whereas length and mouthpiece are inaltcrably fixed for each pitch.
In the reed-blown pipe, relative or proportional length is the fixed factor determined once for all by the dimensions of reed-pipe plus mouthpiece, and by the
boring of the fingerholes the length being measured for the latter from the tip
within limits
of the mouthpiece to the centre of the hole. The mouthpiece is

same for all the holes.

There remains, therefore, as variable factor in the determination of pitch
for any given length, wind compression (distinct from force in blowing or
the

pressure.)

Compression can only be obtained by a narrowing of the aperture through

which the volume of air is driven, e.g. in the reed-pipe through the agency of the
larynx.
In the organ the amount of compression is the same for pipes of all pitches
length and mouthpiece being the determinant factors but in the reed-blown pipe
the agent of compression is free, and the amount of compression is intuitively determined by the player's manipulation of the muscles of his glottis. These are set
by him instinctively for each note, together with the necessary volume (i.e. pressure
of breath) of air required by the degree of compression, taken in conjunction with
Any excess over the
the length of the air column governed by the fingerholes.
requisite proportion of volume of breath produces, as already indicated, amplitude
in the sound-waves generated by the mouthpiece in the stationary column within
intensity.
This effect
dynamic
increase
in
the pipe, the effect in sound being an

is

What

unobtainable in the organ.

then constitutes the difference in this particular

between the organ and the reed-pipe blown by the agency of the human larynx ?
It is this
in the organ the compression of air and the volume introduced by blowing are set for the whole organ of many pipes at different pitch, and for many registers
:

wind is the common factor upon which all comof characteristic tone-quality
putations of length and mouthpiece have been based for each pipe.
In the reed-blown pipe the adjustment of volume to compression, and of both
to length, is the affair of the player, who, according to the degree of his musician:

more or less success.

In the organ, increase of volume in blowing is distributed, as required, over
in the reed-blown pipe, on the other hand, any
the pipes brought into play
excess in supply over density for a given note may produce an increase in dynamic
intensity, for the note of one hole only.
It is, therefore, not correct to state that increased force in blowing alone causes
ship carries this through with
all

variation in pitch.
1
See A. A. Howard, The Aulos or Tibia ', Harvard Studies in Class. Phil.,
The succession of
iv, 1893, pp. 47-60, Pompei Nos. 76891, 76893, 76894, &c.
semitones from the equidistant fingerholes of Modal Auloi, as given by A. A. Howard
and Victor Loret, can only occur when modern clarinet or oboe mouthpieces are
used with the conventional even breath-stream. Such a sequence from a Modal
Aulos is an unconscious falsification of the scale embodied in the instrument. See
'
Sur une ancienne Flute Egyptienne ', par Victor Loret, Socie'te d' Anthropologic
de Lyon, 1893, p. 15 (illustration of mouthpiece, p. 12).
2
See The Significance of Musical Instruments in the Evolution of Music ',
by Kathleen Schlcsingcr, in the Introductory Volume of The Oxford History oj
Gen. Editor, Sir
Music, edited by Percy C. Buck, M.A., Mus. Doc. Oxon, &c.
W. II. Hadow (Oxford Univ. Press, 1929, p. 90).
The Influence of Wind Instruments on the Musical Systems of the World ',
by Kathleen Schlesinger, The Royal College of Music Mag., Vol. 12, Nos. 2 and 3,
'

'

'

1916, pp. 52-7 and 79-87.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

the present writer to the importance of

wind instruments

capacity as (a) law-givers, (b) recorders, 1

(c)

45

in their threefold

servants of man.

Law-givers are wind-instruments, so termed because they embodv

manner that, when exploited bv man according

(a)

a natural law in such a

to his inborn instinct for proportion, the instrument imposes

and

upon him,

which
Every law-giver is also a recorder, but
every recorder is not a law-giver. The simplest form of law-giver is that
of the end-blown vertical flute (or nay) with lateral holes, and of its aggregate
form (without fingerholes), the Syrinx or Panpipe, with which we are not
concerned here. The most important law-giver is undoubtedly the reedblown pipe with fingerholes disposed at equal distances when measured
from centre to centre along the surface of the pipe, for it has revealed
to man the Modes, which he would scarcely have discovered for himself,
even when experimenting with strings. Moreover, through the Greek
genius the Modes were developed into the only musical system of antiquity
concerning which we possess definite information.
absolutely

inevitably, a definite scale or sequence of intervals of

he had no preconceived notion.

THE TWO TYPES OF MOUTHPIECE

as stated above, in any consideration of the
Aulos as bringer of the Modes, to make abstraction of the mouthpiece,
which must always be included in the measurements of length, our investigation must now be directed to the characteristics of the two types of
mouthpiece known to have been used upon the Aulos in Ancient Greece.
These two types of mouthpiece are the prototypes of those in use upon
the modern oboe and clarinet, i.e. the double reed and the single or beatingBoth mouthpieces possess in common the property of converting a
reed.

Since

is

it

impossible,

cylindrical pipe into

is

what

is

known

as a closed pipe, the pitch of

which

approximately an octave lower than that of an open pipe of the same

length.

The open and

Harmonics

closed pipes differ also

in

production of

their

the open pipe overblows the octave, and within limits, the
next few overtones of the Harmonic Series, whereas the closed pipe overblows only the uneven numbers of the series, such as the 3rd, 5th, 7th
:

Harmonics, but never the 2nd Harmonic which gives the octave. This,
at least, is the accepted theory
but the little beating-reed mouthpiece made
from a cylindrical length of straw (in which a narrow tongue is cut) certainly
produces the octave among its extraordinary Harmonics, and frequently
sounds two or even three different overtones simultaneously. The primitive forms of mouthpiece in use upon the Aulos obev without interference
the laws governing the vibrations of reeds and have, therefore, little in
common with their modern more sophisticated descendants. It is thus
;

necessary, in order to

and

play,
1

form

a correct estimate of the characteristic behaviour

possibilities of the Aulos, to

The more

was undoubtedly the

The word,

connexion

understand the nature of

its

primitive and simpler type of the two, both to

is

stalk of

wheat or oat used

mouthpiece.

make and

to

as a double-reed

of course, is here used in the sense of preserving a record

implied with the fipple-flute of that name.

no

THE GREEK AULOS

4.6

still soft, the shoot, cut between two knots, was

one end by careful pressure and stroking. When held
between the lips at from i to 2 inches from the tip and blown with an
even, gentle breath, the common wheat stalk known by the young folk
of the countryside as a squeaker
was now ready for use as a musical
instrument, and emitted a soft, sweet note.
The idea of boring lateral fingerholes in the pipe may have originated
through the amateurish borings of the weevil or other denizen of the fields.
The hole eaten through one wall of the stalk, perhaps covered at first
during the blowing, and thereafter just as fortuitously uncovered, may,
through the rise in pitch of the note, have suggested to the primitive mind
the practical possibilities latent in length as applied to columns of air in
wheat-stalks and reeds.
It is thus possible that the way was prepared for
the discovery of the Modal Scale by experiments suggested by the depredations of the humble weevil.
The wheat or oat stalk, which later became
the mouthpiece of the reed-pipe, was at first in all probability a musical
instrument with fingerholes complete in itself. For although no early
writer, foreshadowing Theophrastus, has recorded these facts, they are all

Picked while

vibrator.

slightly flattened at

'

'

in the
1

way

of evolution. 1

For what

else is the oaten

'

When

pipe of the shepherd immortalized by Shakespeare

shepherds pipe on oaten straws

'

'.

Love's Labour's Lost, v,

913.

2,

Playing on pipes of corn and versing love to amorous Phillida.'

Midsummer

Night's Dream,

ii,

2,

8.

Pypes of grene cornc '.

Chaucer (played by shepherds),
Hous of Fame, lib. iii, 1. 134 (1. 1224 of poem).

'

'

Silvestrem tcnui

(You

musam

practise your

meditaris avena

woodland muse on

'.

a thin oaten straw.)

Virgil, Eel.

i,

2.

Readers may inquire whether there is evidence that the oaten pipe was actually
used as an instrument. I have received from Finland two specimens of the little

modal oaten pipe, reproductions of originals in the Museum at Helsingfors, presented

by Miss Carita Stenbeck. The mouthpiece is of the beating or single-reed type,
cut in the oat straw itself, and from the tip to the base near a natural knot = -02,
while the whole pipe from exit to tip of tongue measures -124. The holes are very
roughly cut out (not burnt)
equidistance seems to be indicated though not carefully
carried out.
The scale from exit is in tune
;

from

exit

13

256

11

10

S12

S12

512

512

from Hole i, the tetrachord of the Dorian Harmonia, tested March, 1937.
N.B. The tongue of the second specimen was unfortunately damaged in transit.
A pipe made from a straw stalk (Strohelm) is mentioned, but with condescension, among the instruments in use in his day by Sebastian Virdung (in
Musica Getutscht, Basel, 15 11, fol. Diij vo.) together with other small pipes, such as

i.e.

'

'

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

47

THE PRIMITIVE DOUBLE-REED MOUTHPIECE PRESERVES THE INTEGRITY OF

THE MODAL SCALE

The double-reed mouthpiece, freshly picked from the cornfield, yielded

spontaneous response and did not need the coaxing and taming which
more ungovernable, if more durable, mouthpiece, made later on from
This
the same reed as the Aulos itself, required before it would speak.
a

the

primitive mouthpiece of wheat or oat straw,

available to

all

after soaking for

however, was and

dry stalks some months or years old

an hour or two

they

may then be

is

still

may be handled

gently flattened at

no constriction or binding
one end to a distance of one to two inches
necessary.
To obtain the lowest fundamental from the mouthpiece will,
as declared by the ancient writers, need perseverance and much coaxing.
The straw is held vertically and it will be found that when after duly
relaxing the muscles of the glottis the straw speaks freely with a full round
This note
tone, the true fundamental of the straw has been discovered.
will remain constant for years, as proved by dated tests, but, of course,
after lying by, the soaking and coaxing have to be repeated before use. 1
In order to stabilize the pitch, it is a good practice to press the mouthpiece
gently but firmly against the lower lip so that the powerful vibrations are
felt.
Science should be able to evolve a formula for preparing a straw
mouthpiece to give a note of definite pitch when sounded alone, and another
equally constant formula for the mouthpiece when wedded to the modal
pipe.
But the property of this simple double-reed 2 straw mouthpiece,
which entitles it to be considered as law-giver and Mode-bringer, is that
;

is

preserves the integrity of the notes of the scale, according to the ratio
proper to each fingerhole, without being affected by variations in the
breath-pressure
it is the distance at which the lips close upon the reed
it

mouthpiece which is the determinant of pitch in the note of the D-R

mouthpiece (see Chap. iii). Thus, it may be stated that to increase
the breath-pressure at any uncovered fingerhole does not alter the pitch
of the note in course of production
if the double-reed mouth-piece
speaks at all through a fingerhole, the intonation is always the same.
But when the mouthpiece is out of practice, or does not fit the pipe, the
;

decoy pipes used by fowlers, pipes made from the bark of trees and from the quills
of bird's feathers.
(For Reprint, see Chap, vii.)
Moreover, the children of the countryside, and notably in Beds., make Squeakers
of oat and corn stalks, with beating reed mouthpiece all in one, then pierce them
with lateral holes roughly made. Baron Alexander Kraus informed me that such
still in use in rural districts in Italy at the present day.
primitive double-reed mouthpiece when treated as mentioned above

oaten pipes are

1

The

is

more musical and more

tractable than the simple untreated mouthpiece, the latter

responds accurately as regards pitch in accordance with the formula, and is as
reliable for tests and experiments
it has the additional advantage of always being
;

ready.

Double because the lateral pressure of the lips induces a simultaneous vibration
in the two parallel walls of the cylindrical straw, although they may not actually
be divided into two separate blades, which was a later development of the double2

reed mouthpiece.

THE GREEK AULOS

48

fundamental

is

not always immediately available, and the pipe

or refuse to speak

difficulties,

on the higher

may make

thus justifying the

notes,

Theophrastus and Aristoxenus.

In testing the mouthpiece alone, increased breath-pressure does not
alter pitch
in order to change pitch, the distance at which the lips press
against the straw must be altered to produce a different vibrating length
(V.L.) and the muscles of the glottis must function in co-operation.
It
is a help in tests to keep the thumbnail against the measured length to
prevent any change in the V.L. By squeezing the vibrating reed near the
tip, moreover, Harmonics are produced as Aristotle truly observes in the
following passage concerning the perfect Auloi (releloi)
for it is clear ',
he says, that if anyone pinches the Zeuge (evyr]) the sound becomes
sharper and more delicate.' 1 The rest of the quotation is used further on

strictures of

'

'

Therefore, with a pipe blown through a double-reed

mouthpiece of the simple type here described, once the fundamental has
been found and the reed speaks readily and freely, the true notes of the
Mode embodied in the fingerholes will be heard and no others the sequence
of intervals is always the same.
A different mouthpiece, however, may
give the same sequence upon a different fundamental, i.e. in a different
Another highly significant property characteristic of the double-reed
key.
mouthpiece alone is that of speaking freely when happy in collaboration
with its resonator pipe and in good practice over a compass of a whole
octave.
This property is denied to the single-reed mouthpiece, which only
(By what
possesses a natural compass of a tetrachord or at most of a fifth.
device the beating-reed enlarged its range will be seen hereafter.) This
in another context.

characteristic of the double-reed carried with

it

the implication of being,

Harmonia, or octave
and secondly the further somewhat paradoxical implication
that surviving specimens of pipes having 3 or 4 fingerholes can no longer
be regarded as necessarily indicative of an earlier stage in musical development, nor indeed in the facture of the Aulos, nor yet in the art of auletics.

in conjunction with the Aulos pipe, the creator of the

modal

scale

Further, this property of the Aulos,

when

fitted

with a double-reed

mouthpiece, of conferring the gift of the sevenfold Harmoniai, may suggest

an explanation of the fact recorded by Nicomachus, for example (pp. 7
and 33M.), that each of the seven original Modes was considered by the
Ancients (and by the Chaldeans more particularly) to represent the maniThe
festation of some force or quality inherent in one of the planets.
sphere of influence belonging to each planet was defined by Nicomachus
in terms of the position which it occupied in the modal octave of the
Greater Complete System the standard nomenclature of his day.
The pipe fitted with a double-reed mouthpiece is thus an infinitely

precious document, providing incontestable evidence of the origin of the

1

Aristotle, de audibilibus, p.

804a

in Porph.,

Comm.

in CI. Ptol. (ed. During),

P- 75-

Although the present writer possesses no aptitude for playing wind instruments,
she has been able to verify Aristotle's assertion which applies equally well to double
and single-reed primitive mouthpieces.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

full

octave modal scales or Harmoniai, founded

upon

from

of proportional ratios, inevitable in their succession

mental, and having as

first

cause the

as divisor of the total length.

be recalled

will here

The

a given funda-

number determinant of the Mode

Harmonia by Aristotle

definition of the

(The Harmonia)

49

a mathematical basis

'

its

parts,

appear according to number and equal measure.'

magnitudes and excesses

1

Experimental pipes made as described above could, of course, only be

considered evidence of an a priori nature, but the Records, Chap, x, giving

measurements and the ratios of resulting scales of actual surviving specimens, show that the Aulos was in truth a law-giver and bringer of the
Modes in Antiquity and that it still continues, among primitives as well
as

among
It is

the folk at the present day, to act in the same capacity.

because none of the properties which

is

the apanage of a

Mode-

bringer can equally well be claimed for the Aulos played by a single-reed

mouthpiece that

this species of

Aulos has to be placed

in a different category

that of recorder only.

THE BEATING-REED MOUTHPIECE

The
is

pipe fitted with a beating-reed mouthpiece, on the other hand,

the instrument of the musician and creative artist who, being already

Modes, is able to make use with advantage of the more

sonorities and greater beauty of tone conferred by this type of
mouthpiece, while consciously preserving the purity of the pipe's modality.
The beating-reed vibrator is by no means as simple a device as the doublefamiliar with the
elastic

For

reed.

knot

is

mouthpiece, in

this type of

satin-like texture, firm

selected.

The

and

straight,

its

primitive form, a straw of fine

and terminating

at

one end in a natural

inner diameter of the bore should be fairly even,

especially near the knot.

In our

own day

the cutting of the stalk for the

mouthpiece should be done by means of a safety-razor blade in order to

make a successful incision through the silica of the covering of the straw.
It is best to use a straw not less than 14 or 15 cm. long when testing for
modality, but a shorter one will often suffice to play the pipe.
Holding
the straw firmly in a horizontal position, and the blade directed at a very
acute angle, an incision is made of the width desired for the tongue at
a distance of -003 or -004 from the knot.
After having with care and
delicacy raised the narrow strip
from 1 to 3 mm. in width, the blade is
let down till it lies fiat and almost parallel against the stalk
it is then
gently guided to form a tongue of even width for a length of 2 to 4 cm.,
according to the range of pitch required, or corresponding to the increment
of distance for any individual pipe.
The length of the straw stem in which
the tongue is cut has no ascertainable influence on pitch, considered apart
from the dimensions and elasticity of the tongue itself. The factor of length
in the stem of the mouthpiece is mainly useful for the facilities it affords
of modulating into a different Mode by pushing in or pulling out the
mouthpiece to the extent of one or more increments of distance. This
operation is discussed further on in connexion with modality and bulbs'.

Arist., ap. Plut.,

de Mus., Cap. 23 (Weil and Reinach, p. 226).

THE GREEK AULOS

So

When

the tongue has been detached and the length selected, the edges

of the aperture against which

it

this is a delicate operation as the

tongue prevents

it

refuses to speak

beats

may

require trimming

merest hair-breadth

from speaking and renders

when

cut

or even

it

to emit a sob

overcome by
(2)

left

useless.

if

jagged, but

uncovered by the
mouthpiece

If the

the reluctance may be

(i) gently stroking the base of the tongue with the finger-nail
scraping away pith from the under-surface of the tongue with care

the bore of the straw

(4) by alternate
blowing and suction from the exit of the straw, causing the tongue to
vibrate with the former and to emit a note when the breath is withdrawn.
(3) clearing a slight obstruction in

a tone of richer quality may be

obtained by cutting off the latter and replacing it by sealing-wax, an
expedient which may be used to convert a lemonade straw into a mouthIf the straw tapers towards the knot,

piece in the absence of a direct supply of straws from the cornfields.

The

mouthpiece must fit tightly into the resonator this impermeable condition
may be secured by winding strips of damped tissue paper tightly round
the stalk at the proper distance from the base of the tongue, and pressing
:

each layer in winding, so that a kind of papier mache

results.

The theoretical

length of a modal pipe which

is divisible by the determinant number charHarmonia, must under perfect conditions be an exact
multiple of the increment of distance measured from centre to centre of

acteristic of the

the fingerholes.
in so far as

it

As

the theoretical length includes that of the mouthpiece,

extrudes from the resonator, this latter must be taken into

account.

THE INFLUENCE OF TONGUE-LENGTH AND WIDTH ON PITCH INVESTED IN

THE BEATING-REED MOUTHPIECE
Slight discrepancies may, with this type of single-reed mouthpiece, be

overcome

when

modal sequence fails

and tested by the monochord,

in the blowing, but the accurate test of the

carried out note

by

unless the mouthpiece be

note, each detached

drawn out

to the correct distance.

It is in the

blowing that the degree of the piper's musicianship is at its height. With
the rise in pitch his breath becomes more compressed through the action
of the glottis,

and the pressure or volume of the air-stream, propelled

through the mouthpiece, is proportioned intuitively as the sound rises and

falls.
The musician is able by means of the resilience and responsiveness
of this type of mouthpiece to express his emotion and rapture through
the changing sonorities, the subtle inflections and gradations of tone. The
piper is the master of mouthpiece and resonator
he can make the pipe
speak and give utterance to the music that surges up within him. But,
alas
the delightful straw mouthpiece has its waywardness and failings,
which the creative artist and improvisator is often able to control. The
plight of Midas of Agrigentum, 1 whose victory at the Pythian games was
;

1
Midas of Agrigentum won the prize twice at the Pythian Games, and also at
the Panathenaea, so that Pindar's Pythian Ode xii may be referred either to 01, 71
At this time Aulos-players contended with
3 (494 B.C.) or to Ol, 72
3 (490 B.C.).
their instruments alone yi?.fi uvlr\as.i.
This feat of Midas is discussed in some
;

detail later

on where the Greek Scholium

is

quoted.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

celebrated by Pindar,

Ode

thus

The

'
:

is

little

described in the

first

51

scholium to his xiith Pythian

tongue being accidentally broken by cleaving to

mouth, he played on the reeds, xaMf.101;, alone in the manner

and so delighted the audience and won the victory.' The
Midas pulling out the broken mouthmeaning of the scholium is clear
piece blew across the top of the reed resonator, using the different technique
of the Panpipe and its harmonic possibilities, but at the same time with
The
the extended compass afforded by the flngerholes of the Aulos.
implications of this feat, for which Midas was celebrated as victor at
course
receive
full
consideration
in
due
are
of
interest
and
the Games,
the roof of his
of a Syrinx,

later

on.

Hundreds of these mouthpieces have been cut by the writer, measured

the particulars have
and tested for pitch, quality of tone, elasticity, &c.
been collected with a view to coming to some conclusion on the influence
of the length and width of the tongue on the pitch of the central and lowest
on the influence of the interrelationship
notes given by the mouthpiece
;

of the diameter of the bore of the straw with (1) the length of the tongue,
(2)

with

its

width.

The general inferences will be discussed now, leaving a few examples

more detailed analysis to follow later with reference to tables in Chap, iii,
which contain a selection from the most significant of the records.
Repeated tests have clearly shown that the length of the tongue in this
type of mouthpiece exercises a relative and regional influence on the range
of the notes which are obtainable, not only from the mouthpiece itself, but
from the whole instrument
but these notes are seldom identical in pitch
owing to the incidence of the laws of resonance operating between the
pipe and its mouthpiece.
The length of tongue is of course limited first
of all by the dimensions of the cavity of the piper's mouth, since the base
of the glossa must be well covered by the lips.
An analysis of the records
determines the regional pitch of mouthpieces having a tongue-length
(= T.L.) of -04 with a width of -002 (2 mm.) to lie between B and E,

of

a 4th above,

ex.

12

Kn

11.

The

variations within the range

may be

attributed to the diameter of the bore and also to the clearance

under the tongue which, when clean and complete, tends to lower the
pitch and improve the quality of tone.
The regional pitch of mouthpieces
having a tongue length of -02 and a width of ^002 5 was found to lie in
B 4.
the octave above 0=256 v.p.s.
ex. R 12
B6; B 5 B 2
Further, in mouthpieces having the same tongue-length, a narrow
tongue (from 1 to 2 mm.), in conjunction with a narrow diameter of
the straw under the tongue, accounts for a lower pitch.
It may thus
be concluded that the factor of length as a determinant of pitch in the
primitive beating-reed mouthpiece, has no significance whatever as regards
the total length of the straw from exit to tip of tongue.
The length of
:

the glossa combined with

its

width,

is

the significant factor responsible for

the frequency of the pulsations, which are communicated to the air within
the straw, by the vibrations of the glossa beating against the walls of the
aperture.

THE GREEK AULOS

52

FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURAL CHANGE IN THE HARMONIA BROUGHT ABOUT

BY THE UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF THE BEATIXG-REED MOUTHPIECE
It has been found in comparing mouthpieces that, other dimensions
being equal, the ratio between the length of glossa in any two mouthpieces
produces a rise or fall in pitch in the same ratio. Ex. B 14 and B 15 and
B 11 and R 10. This finding carries with it an unsuspected implication

of the greatest importance, i.e. that a rise in pitch may be obtained for
the whole pipe by the simple expedient of shortening the vibrating tongue
of the mouthpiece by a movement of the lips.
The harmonious and

unanimous collaboration of mouthpiece and resonator is such, moreover,

that the rise of pitch operates in the whole pipe, changing the fundamental
note of exit and of vent-hole, so that the series of notes issuing from the
fingerholes, as they are uncovered one by one, is transposed according to
the self-same ratio, into a higher key.
It may be added that the piper,
while familiarizing himself with his instrument, which frequently demands

much

coaxing and ingenuity in order to yield its best, can hardly

an early stage, to discover this property of the mouthpiece.
Fig. 24.

Momentous

fail

at

Significance of Shortening the Vibrating Tongue of the

its length, on the Hypolydian Aulos of M.D. 20

Mouthpiece by one-third of
with

Fingerholes

Birth of our Major Scale of duplicated tetrachords

Holes

length of glossa

0
_

Ratios

20
20

(1)

(2) (3)

O O

18

16

20

20 20

15

Notes given when whole

tongue vibrates

Sequence raised to dominant

by shortening of Tongue
igiossa)by one third.

(Norm

N.B. The pipe is sounded first with all holes closed, giving C
then the holes are
uncovered in turn, in the direction of exit to mouthpiece. As the lips move upwards on
the glossa, shortening it at the second position by one-third, the fingers close the holes and
the pipe sounds g as fundamental, the octave of the modal scale being reached at c\ as the
third hole is uncovered.
;

What, then, are the implications of the power latent in the beating-reed
mouthpiece to raise the pitch of the pipe by shortening the length of the
tongue ? If the tongue of the mouthpiece be shortened by
one-third of its length, the rise in pitch of the pipe's fundamental, through
the application of what may be termed the modal principle of length
applied to instruments, is a perfect 5th.
This apparently simple property
of the primitive beating-reed mouthpiece is of paramount importance for
understanding the origin and development of our modern musical system.
The momentous significance of such a manipulation of the mouthpiece by
the lips of the piper may be realized by examining the result produced
on a Hypolydian Aulos having three fingerholes, of a reduction by onethird of the length of the mouthpiece tongue.
vibrating

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

53

24 shows that the result on this simple pipe with three fingerholes
our major scale, consisting of two tetrachords, similar in structure 1
the one on the Tonic, the second on the Dominant with a tone of disjunction
Fig.

is

between them.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULETE's ATTITUDE WHILE PLAYING THE AULOS,

ILLUSTRATED ON VASE PAINTINGS AT THE BRITISH

It is

MUSEUM

obvious that the shorter the tongue of the mouthpiece, the less

responsive

it

proves to changes of pitch through breath pressure and

compression through the action of the glottis.

The expedient of shortening the tongue in order to raise the pitch of
the whole instrument by an interval of definite ratio cannot take effect
with the same facility upon the primitive double-reed mouthpiece, and
not at all, for obvious reasons, on the beating-reed, cut arghool fashion
for the same
with the base or hinge of the tongue towards the knot
;

reason no harmonic compass

most passages

that

is

obtainable on the arghool, or on the Aulos

with an arghool mouthpiece.

fitted

movements

at this

juncture

which mention

in the literary or theoretical sources,

the rise in pitch obtained by certain

to the

important to note

It is

or devices, can only apply

mouthpiece of beating-reed type, with one exception which

will

be

duly noted.

Aulos had fingerholes sufficient for an octave, it would mean the

but it has already been pointed out
power to modulate into higher keys
that the compass of this type of mouthpiece is a 4th, occasionally a 5th,
but not more without audible straining and loss of beauty of tone. This
fact explains why so many of the ancient Egyptian surviving specimens
have three or four fingerholes only, at a time when the evidence of the
If the

harp-stringing reveals the use of a diatonic octave

The

scale.'2

beating-reed mouthpiece, cut as directed above, will give (without

most cases) an additional harmonic compass by overblowing

the 12th, and rising with the opening of each fmgerhole, for the whole
sequence with reedy quality diminished
the high Harmonics obtainable
from the mouthpiece alone are as pure as the highest notes of the nightingale.
difficulty in

The

difference

intonation

is

Major

between the modal Hypolydian and the modern major in just

Identical structure would demand the
the following ratios.
first two ratios of the first tctrachord

shown by

transposition of the

....

scale in just intonation.

10

Fig. 24.
2

The

16

X -

15

10

X -

16

15

It

Modal Hypolydian on

the Aulos in

10

16

IS

have been the fortuitous agent of the

reduplication of the modal tetrachord in the Hypolydian mode (which was the
origin of our major scale), if the fundamental was unmanageable, as in many
of these flutes, the compass was played on the octave harmonic instead.
vertical flute might, like the Aulos,

THE GREEK AULOS

54

with this type of mouthpiece no speakerhole is necessary

produce the harmonic compass readily. It is obtained by
merely pressing the little tongue near the tip, but not pinching, and
It is evident that

in order to

breathing suitably.

Another device for extending the compass of the instrument without

number

increasing the
holes,

of fingerholes consists in half or third stopping the

which gives excellent

results with the double- as well as

with the

single-reed mouthpiece.

Before proceeding further, reference must be

made here

to the use of

word avgiyg 2 (Syrinx) in connexion with the Aulos. This word is

by Liddell and Scott (8th edition) to mean the mouthpiece of
If this translation be adopted, and it has been adopted by
the present writer, it eliminates all difficulties and ambiguities in the text
of the passages where the word is used of the Aulos.
The translation of
the

interpreted

the Aulos.

avgiyi as

'

mouthpiece

however, to the mouthpiece of

can only apply,

'

the beating- or single-reed type.

MUSICAL SIGNIFICANCE AND TECHNICAL EXPLANATION OF THE AULETE'S TWO

MOVEMENTS WHILE PLAYING, WHICH ARE DENOTED BY THE OPPOSITES
avaanav and y.axaandv by ARISTOTLE, ARISTOXENUS and plutarch

How,

it

may be

while playing,

i.e.

inquired, docs the piper shorten the vibrating tongue

with the mouthpiece in his mouth, his

lips at the start

covering the base or hinge of the tongue, and with his hands and fingers
busy with manipulation of the pipe ? How does this subtle control of the

an observer ? As the piper can accomplish his purpose in

two ways, the spectator describes the visible movement as a draicing up
of the mouthpiece (Syrinx)
or rather of the lips upon the mouthpiece
with an upward movement of the head, or else by a drawing dozen when
the piper actually does pull the whole Aulos down in front of him to bring
his lips higher up on the glossa without moving his head.
This is the
explanation of the use of two diametrically opposite terms yjnaaTtdv and
drua^uv used to account for the same result, i.e. a rise in pitch for the
whole instrument. These two apparently contradictory movements, bringing about the same result, are not merely idiosyncrasies peculiar to one or

glossa strike

another piper

each of these movements has a musical significance

are not alternatives.

The

explanation

is

they
based upon the function of the

which has already received attention. When the spectator noticed

the upward movement, the piper was not only advancing the position of
glottis

his lips

upon the

because he was
at

glossa

at that

he chose

this

way

of accomplishing his purpose

time using notes of a

high

tessitura

(see

Plate

which could only be raised to a still higher pitch by straining

the muscles controlling the glottis, and thus compressing the air according

No.

8),

1
An example of this overblowing on an Aulos without speaker-hole will be
found described in Chap, iii under Maket 3
Harmonic Compass zcith Moutlipieces
(See Chap, x, Record Maket 3).
2
See Plut., Non posse suavitcr, p. 1096B, and p. 1139A
also Macran, Aristoxenus,
Notes, p. 244, and Weil and Rein., Pint, de Alas., p. S2, 196.
'

',

PLATE

BLACK FIGURES ON WHITE

The piper bending low over his long slender bass pipes, with the muscles of the glottis
well relaxed, is playing in a Harmonia with a low tessitura such as the Hypophrygian
British

Museum.

By

courtesy of the Director


SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

to the requisite proportion

a purely subconscious function.

55

When

the

be only drawing down the whole

instrument, together with the mouthpiece, it was because the musician
was then using the lower register of the pipe and he therefore needed
the bent position of the head in order to relax the muscles of the glottis,
and so bring the density of the breath-stream into line with the altered
conditions brought about by the shortening of the glossa, as now applied
to the same length of stationary air-column determined by the opening of
piper,

on the other hand, appeared

to

the fingerholes.

The

rise in pitch,

consequent upon the shortening of the tongue of

the mouthpiece, furnishes a clear demonstration of the fact that length in

the resonator of the Aulos

same length

no sense a determinant of pitch. The

column of air in the resonator sounds, at

in

is

of the stationary

the bidding of the piper, imposing his will through the mouthpiece, at

one moment

as fundamental, at the next

ratio for the notes given

g and according

to the

same

This property of the

may be considered
on the development of the scale.

through the fingerholes.

single- or beating-reed mouthpiece, hitherto undetected,

new musical fact that throws a light

This property characteristic of the beating-reed alone, sharply differentiates
the two classes of Auloi in Ancient Greece
this same property and the
fact that the harmonic octave can be obtained on this type of mouthpiece
a

suggests the necessity for the reconsideration of the question of the pro-

duction of the octave on wood-wind instruments.

crux may lie with the mouthpiece itself.

The

It

would seem

that the

movements of the pipe, indicated

by the use of the Greek words avaandv and zaraanav, thus draws attention
to the subtle processes of adjustment, which the altered rate of pulsation,
caused by the shortening of the glossa, imposes upon the length of a stationary
column of air within the pipe, usually regarded as predetermined by the
distance of the centre of any given open fingerhole from the tip of the
glossa.
That subtle change of values in the dimensions of length may be
explanation of apparently simple

applied in a double sense

(1)

to the spatial conception of the

term in

a stationary condition of the air within a pipe, or (2) to the element of

duration in time which the living breath of the player superimposes upon

the spatial length.

The

results of these differences in values is at

appreciated by the ear as sounds of different pitch.

The

once

difference in

by the shortening of the vibrating tongue of the mouthpiece,

pitch caused

its resultant quickened pulse, awakens a new response in a latent

sound-wave, the length of which had until then been considered fixed.
is the new factor introduced ?
It is not, of course, increased
breath-pressure but intensified compression, an active process initiated in
the glottis a condensation of air into a smaller space i.e. diminished

with

What, then,

length or width.

Although the fundamental note of the pipe can be varied at will

within limits by the piper through his beating-reed mouthpiece, the proportional relationship to the fundamental of the notes obtained from the
holes remains unaltered.
Proportional length does not seem to be subject

THE GREEK AULOS

56
to the

laws of resonance, 1 so that the same relative ratios persist in the

sequence of intervals, whatever the change of pitch imposed upon the

fundamental by the shortening of the glossa. (See also further on.)
It will be seen further that when the pipes are played in pairs, and
one of these as a drone, yet another factor arises to complicate the difficult
subject of resonance.
When these facts are considered not scientifically,
but as they strike one in practice our deductions will be formed from
These, again, are based upon the
the perceptions of pitch by the ear.

between the successive periodical impacts upon

For this, science provides
an explanation, but of the part played by the spatial length of the pipe
as a whole, or as modified by the opening of fingerholes, and of the coercion
of that spatial length by the time-length induced by the pulsations of the
beating-reed, (i) at its normal length, and (2) when shortened, a clear
exposition would be welcome.
Although the flute owes its sound production to the same law of adjustment, but more limited in extent than in the reed-blown pipe, the flute does
not possess the power of transposing the tonality of the whole instrument.
The writer knows of no exact analogous property in a wind instrument
for although the slide trombone, for instance, reproduces the notes of
the Harmonic Series on different fundamentals by the use of the slide, the
change of tonality is in each key directly referable to the change in the
spatial length, i.e. of the lengthening of the tube of the trombone by means
of the slide.
In the reed pipe the length remains the same, whether the
fundamental be C or G
it is the change in the vibrating length of the
interval of time that elapses

the ear of the sound-waves emitted by the pipe.

glossa that

is

the responsible agent.

On

the string the analogue might be

the rise in pitch of the fundamental note of the string induced by retuning
or screwing up the peg, when every note produced upon the same string

by stopping would then be of higher pitch. This suggestion was, however,

open to serious objection among the Ancient Greeks from the artistic point
of view
we may in this connexion recall the prohibition recorded by
Plutarch 2 as having been laid upon any change of Harmonia, rhythm, or
tasis (i.e. tension or tuning) in the Nomos, from the days of Terpander
;

until the decadence set in.

Besides these simple methods of shortening the glossa and thus raising

changing the keythe movements

which are denoted
Greek sources by the two contradictory terms avaandv and xaxaanav
there are others more spectacular, the significance of which has proved a
the pitch,

for

i.e.

in the

puzzle.

In one of these the Aulete stood with head bent over his pipe
down in front of him, and when the melody rose
up his Auloi horizontally in front of

or pipes, held vertically

to the upper tetrachord, he swept

him, throwing back his head with a gesture of exaltation.

This picture

See Sed.ley Taylor, Sound and Music (Macmillan & Co., London, 1883), pp. 80,
40, and p. 127.
s
de Mus. (ed. Weil and Rein., pp. 26 and 28, 67
ot; ydg i(rjv
ovdi
1

'

/leratpegeiv

rag dgfioviag

olxdav rdaiv.'

ovfie

rnvg qvOfiovg.

ev

ydq rotg

vo/xoig

sxdffTW SisrrjQovv

xfjv

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

of the artist seized with inspiration

is

57

depicted in the vase paintings and

sculptured bas-reliefs, as for instance in the figures below.

The second

of the

methods of shortening the ghssa, in a manner

may

culated to impress the spectator with a sense of wonder,

cal-

best be

the words of Aristoxenus, which occur in the course of

his famous polemic against the Aulos and the Harmonists, beginning thus
described

first in

'

Now some

find the goal of the science of

Harmonic

in the notation of

melodies, declaring this to be the ultimate limit of the apprehension of

Others again find

any given melody.

in the theory of the Auloi, 1

and
pipe-scales are produced
and their provenance.'
I give Macran's translation of the Polemic of Aristoxenus in the lefthand column, and my comments in the right.
in the ability to tell the

it

method by which the

POLEMIC DIRECTED BY ARISTOXENUS AGAINST THE AULOS

No

less

preposterous

is

the above-

Quoted above with Greek

mentioned theory a concerning clarinets.

Nay, rather there is no error
so fatal and so preposterous as to

in fn. 1

base the natural laws of harmony on

the

any instrument.
order

ments.

The

harmony depend

nor

xal-iv,

<pvoiv.

the order in which

i.e.

numbers forming the

ratios of

more

simply, of the Harmonia, follow one

of the properties of instru-

another from the aoyrj or fundamental.

It is

not because the clarinet

e
and bores and the
because it submits to

has fingerholes
like,

rov tjo/joauevov

the harmonic progression, or

essence and

text

xrpi

not

of

upon any

is it

81

bom

ovSsv

depend

'

renders,

'

or as Mei-

',

propter quod

'

it is

certain operations of the

not a question of dependence but of

of the other parts f

embodiment

hands and
naturally adapted

dependence

follows

embodiment.
e

Aristoxenus

again.

quibbling

here

is

Of course

it

is

not because

the Aulos has fingerholes, but be-

cause of the position of these fingerholes in their proportional relation-

ship to length.
f

to

Harm., p. 39M.

exs.iv elneXv

(p.

130,

Macran)

8'

rwv

E7llTeiVF.IV

T Xdl

other parts
fJLEQWV

dvievac

neqrvxe,'

olg

'

xrp>

more

muscles of the

glottis.

oi

'and

breathing

the

i.e.

apparatus, and

'
:

The

XoUlWV

especially the

Se xrjv neqi rovg avXoiiQ dscoglav xal

xiva rgonov exaoza ra>v av?.ov/j,ivcav xai nodev yfyverai.'

Macran's commentary on the passage, p. 270 (6)

the equally absurd theory,
which basing the law of harmony on the construction of clarinets, reduces musical
science to the knowledge of instruments and their construction
adds nothing
to the context.
The harmonic basis does not lie in the construction but in the
embodiment (unconscious) of the laws of the Harmonia, devolving upon all appli-.
cations of aliquot divisions of length.
See Chaps, i, iv and y, arid App, Notation \
'

'

'

THE GREEK AULOS

58

and lower the

to raise

pitch, 6 that
'

the 4th and the 5th and the octave

are

or that each of the

concords,

other intervals possesses

magnitude. 7
For even with

all

present, players

on the

its

proper

'

for the

See ante.

No

cords

these conditions
clarinet fail

to attain the exact

melody, and whatever small

them

of

drawing

the

apart and bringing

two

them

and of raising and lowering the pitch by changing the presalongside, *

the

of

and

clarinets

'

laws embodied in the instrument,

whether played upon or not, and

the skill or absence of it on the part
of the piper, is unworthy of the

their failures as

musicianship that Aristoxenus arro-

as

is

fied in attributing

would

much justi-

sure of the breath. 7

Plainly then, one

senses

his

any particular Aulos, and most cerwhether each is possessed of

its proper magnitude '.
rov r]Q/no0f.ievov rd^ecog the onus
passes from the instrument to the
player.
This confusion between the

the instrument, as in the well-known

clarinets

in

to the fingerholes

properties

tainly

expedients

due

but these fingerholes and the like

determine which of the concords or
other intervals may be obtained on

is due to the
employment of agencies external to

success attends

one

is

other

most part

order-' of

assert that the existence of the con-

their success to the essential nature

gates to himself.

would not
have been so if there was anything
gained by basing harmony on the

The movements specified bring about

of the clarinet.

But

In that
an immediate consequence

nature of an instrument.
as

case,

of tracing

this

melody up

to its original

This

pure

is

sensationalism

change of key in the whole instrument the significance and effect of

the movements on the mouthpiece
a

explained

are

little

further

on,

nature of the clarinet, we

should have found it there fixed,

together

unerring and correct. 11

Merely affects single notes.

k
Both expedients are relative and
are contingent upon the cut and

in the

neither clarinets,

But as a fact
nor any other in-

strument, will supply a foundation

the

for

of

principles

harmony. 25

in

general

in

this

order

every instrument, to the best of

its

under the direc-

ability, participates

tion of that faculty of sense perception (aiadrjasmg)

well

as

on which they,

everything

else

in

as

music,

other

references

of

proportions of the mouthpiece.

There is a certain marvellous order

which belongs to the nature of har-

mony

with

similar import.

m Quibbling

again.

exactly

And

this

embodied

is

what

is

found

in the very nature of the

Aulos, wherein what

is

fixed through

the fingerholes remains as a record,'

and

persists as long as the instrument

itself.
is
'

What

the piper makes of

a different matter.

fixed,

it

This melos,

unerring and correct

',

is

the

prerogative of the Aulos with double-

reed mouthpiece which alone ensures

constant results.
v rip rov ?jo/j.oauevov (pvaiv.
1

P-

Sec also Plut.,

1.339-

'

Non

posse suaviter

',

Cap.

xiii,

The

ioo6B, and Didot, Vol.

ii,

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE

JLOS IN GREEK MUSIC

59

finally depend.''

To suppose because
one sees day by day the fingerholes

Aulos embodies the natural order of

Harmonic or of the Harmonia. Of

same s and the strings at the

same tension, that one will find in
these harmony with its permanence
and eternally immutable order s
5
this is sheer folly.
For as there is
no harmony in the strings save that
which the cunning of the hand confers upon them, so there is none in
the fingerholes save what has been
introduced by the same agency/
That no instrument is self-tuned,"
and that the harmonizing of it is the

this

the

'

prerogative of the sense perception,

is

obvious and requires no proof.

It is strange that

supporters

absurd theory can cling to

face

it

of this
in the

of the fact that clarinets

perpetually

in

state

and of course what

is

of

are

change

played on the

instrument varies with the variation

in the agencies employed in its production.

It is surely clear

then that

on no consideration can melody be

based on clarinets
for, firstly, an
;

instrument will not supply a founda-

to

marvellous order of harmony,

Aristoxenus supplies

TjOfioaf-ievov,

no explanation whatever
this in a
polemic of such a nature is a serious
omission.
If he had been able to
;

give the ratios in their order,

the

whole challenge would have been

settled at once.

The

faculty of sense perception

enables the musician to obtain the

from his Aulos, but if

order of harmony were not
embodied in the pipe, through the
position and proportions connected

best results

the

with the fingerholes, the faculty of

sense perception would be helpless.
s

This

is

what a modal

exactly

dis-

position of the fingerholes provides.

The Harmonia

found there
with its eternally immutable order.
s
The folly is not where Aristoxenus would place it.
This, of course, to borrow the
is

to be

'

phraseology of Aristoxenus,
posterous

error,

have read Chaps,

is

a pre-

which those who

and v will detect

for themselves.
u

There can be no question of

the Aulos
what lies em-

tuning

bodied in

it

through the position

of the fingerholes in relation to the

proportions of the whole instrument,

can only be realized to the full by

the piper through a mouthpiece
properly adapted and in place in the

instrument

his

sense perception

and musicianship direct his operabut can do nothing of themselves to bring forth a Harmonia
that has not been embodied in the
Aulos.
That alone is the true foundation of the Harmonia.

tions,

We

note that the supporters of

the theory cling to

it,

in spite of any

aberrations or imperfections of the

PLATE

THE GREEK AULOS

6o
tion for the order of

harmony w and
;

instrument, or of the piper

were supposed
that harmony w should be based on

upon

some instrument, the choice should

not have fallen on the clarinet, an

above.

secondly, even

if

it

instrument especially

liable to aber-

rations^ resulting from the

and manipulation- of

facture

from

its

own

manuit,

peculiar nature.

and

10

who

plays

it.

tow

rrjv

monia

riQfioafiivbv

The

xd^iv.

see

foundation of the Har-

and of the
science of Harmonic founded upon
it, is fixed in the modal Aulos, and
remains an unchangeable record for
the

as already stated,

life

of the instrument.

the piper makes of the law,

breaks or modifies

foundation

the

the

of

What
how he

does not

it,

alter

Harmonia

seated in the Aulos.

x

the

The Aulos

nevertheless deserves
of Aristoxenus

strictures

certain measure, for

and frequent

its

the absence at times of that

reasonableness

then executant

he

that

improvise on

sweet

'

dear to the heart of

'

But
the piper was

the piper.

him

in

waywardness
and for

intractability,

golden days
composer, and

in those
first

was expected of
be able to

it

should
all

occasions.

This long and impassioned polemic of Aristoxenus is directed first of all

against the
fatal and preposterous error
of basing the natural laws of
harmony (i.e. of the Harmonia) 1 on any instrument
the text makes it
clear that it is to the Aulos 2 that the indictment is more especially directed
but the real grievance is the strong support given to this theory by an
important section of the musical world, the rival school of the Harmonists.
It has been considered advisable to reproduce in full this long polemic,
'

'

despite
(i)

its many repetitions,

To draw attention to

for the following reasons

the status of the Aulos and

its

scales

among

musicians during the lifetime of Aristoxenus and his predecessors.

1
The fact may be
made in the polemic,

recalled here that the natural law to which reference has been
i.e. that which is known as the physical basis of sound and
hearing the Harmonic Series in ascending and descending progressions, with all
their implications in resonance, modality and tonality
form the basis of the Harmonia itself. For the Harmonia's very existence depends upon the peculiar quality
and function of its Arche in the ascending Harmonic Series from the fundamental,
while its modality is consequent on the leadership of the Arche as the One, the
generator, the Hegemon, in its descending course back to the fundamental from

which the

original

Harmonic

Series started.

We

2
should be able to judge of the extent of Aristoxenus knowledge of the
structure and theory of the Aulos and its mouthpieces if the treatise
nsm av/.wv
3

'

To)/<wto;',

extant.

attributed to

him by Didymus, according

to

Athenaeus

(xiv,

634),

were

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

(2)

To

(3)

61

suggest that the Harmonists and others claimed, or acknowledged

Harmonia

the claim, that the

originated on the Aulos.

That the Aulos-scales or Harmoniai were

related

through their

keynotes by intervals other than tones and semitones, which Aristoxenus

not

between them

distinguishing

evaluates

approximately

at

three-

quarter tones.
It is evident that

Aristoxenus had no practical acquaintance either with

although he had
structure or with the technique of the Aulos
undoubtedly observed the agencies employed by the Auletes in the production of sound and had noted the results of their movements.
the

The

foundation for the order of harmony

the sequence of superparticular ratios,

?/

rov r;ouoai.iEvov ra(-,

i.e.

of course proportion, embodied,

is

not supplied by, the boring of fingerholes

at

equal distances

and with

the total length, from exit to tip of mouthpiece, as multiple of the increment
of length

from centre

Once the

to centre of the fingerholes.

fingerholes

have been correctly bored,

Harmony with its permanence and eternally
immutable order is inevitably installed as a record in the Aulos.
Since the expedient of drawing the pair of Auloi apart and bringing
them alongside again, with the resulting rise in the pitch of the whole
instrument, is used as an illustration in the argument pressed by Aristoxenus,
it is clear that the polemic, as it stands, can only apply to the Aulos played
with a beating-reed mouthpiece. The question of skill, or the lack of it,
'

'

no bearing whatever on the embodiment of the prin-

in the performer has

ciples

of

harmony

With

in the Aulos.

double-reed mouthpiece, the

Aulete would bring out the order of the Harmonia, the foundation or
original of melody, fixed, unerring and correct time after time unfailingly,
'

'

whereas with the beating-reed mouthpiece, the purity of the Harmonia,

though inherent in the pipe itself, was at the mercy of the artist or virtuoso
in the course of

The

its

transmission.

from other theorists may now be investimentions certain problems concerning the Auloi, the
rhythms and the Harmoniai, which interested Aristotle, Theophrastus,
Dicearchus and Hieronymus, such as why the narrower of the equal Auloi,

gated.

significance of quotations

Plutarch

'

xcbv laiov av/.cdv, plays

avhov

lower [and the wider plays higher]

while narrow and wide refer to the bore.

that

it

'

tcov

ioojv

refers to the Auloi of approximately equal length played in pairs,

is

to the calibre of the

of the instrument

when

will

be noticed, moreover,

bore and not to the length that the pitch

referred.

It

is

well to bear in

computed from the length

pitch cannot be
especially

is

It

the resonator alone

is

in the

measured.

mind

the fact that

reed-blown pipe, more

Pitch

is

the affair of the

reed mouthpiece in the

first place, and unlike the flute, the Aulos resonator

has no absolute pitch to be determined by the formula based upon the

velocity of

sound

in air at a given standard temperature,

and subject

the law of diameters in the form of (so-called) end-correction.

1

Non

posse

suaviter, Cap.

xiii,

to read 6 areidneoo; <6;vrqov, 6

ed.

Weil and Rein.,

196, note,

'

p.

1096B.

d' e vnvTeoo;>

The

text

is

to

fact,

sometimes emended

[iugi'Tegor (fOeyyerai (cf. Plut.,

The narrower

In

de Mus.,

plays higher, the wider plays lower

'),

THE GREEK AULOS

62

upon pitch (which implies

the influence of diameter

gravity,

additional length and

the greater the diameter, the lower the pitch) works inversely

i.e.

reed-blown pipe, as stated in Plutarch

the narrower the bore in
relation to length, the lower the pitch, and the greater the number of harmonic overtones perceptible in the timbre of the instrument. From the
buzzing tone of long narrow pipes comes the frequent allusions to their
droning (see Plate No. 4)
the episode in the Acharnians of Aristophanes (line 866), for instance, in which he describes a band of Theban
Auletes as Bumble-bee pipers
ftofifiatiXun, a comic compound of fiofifieco
and avXog, with a play on fiopfivXioq; the buzzing insect 1
in the

'

'

',

'.

'

THE EFFECT OF INCREASED PRESSURE OF BREATH ON PITCH AND HARMONICS

Plutarch then asks

Why is it that through the drawing up of the Syrinx [the mouthpiece of the
Aulos K. S.], ava.C7i(tifiiv>iQ ri\- ovgtyyog, the Aulos is sharpened in all its notes,
and through the letting down [or reclining, y.hvofiev)];] of the Syrinx the pitch
is lowered again ?
And when one Aulos is brought near to the other it sounds
lower, and when it is drawn away it sounds higher
?

Plutarch

uses

expressions

the

movements of the piper who,

acterize the

pitch (or change of key) for

avoiyyo; avaancopevr^

rf]g

in order to

to

produce a

charrise in

the notes of his Aulos, appears to be drawing

all

up the Syrinx or beating-reed mouthpiece into his mouth and then when
he indicates the return to the lower compass, Plutarch uses the expression
avQiyyog y.Xivopsvijg. In this passage both rise and fall of pitch are
characterized as effects of the movement of the Syrinx up and down, as
it appears to the onlooker.
In a similar passage by Aristotle (de Audibilibus,
804a), the Syrinx is drawn down (xav y.araajzdarj rig) to make the pitch
;

rfjq

rise,

or else the

Zeuge

are pinched.

Aristoxenus also uses y.araanav in

referring to the highest limit, from its lowest note, of the compass of the
Aulos with the Syrinx pulled down (21M.).
An explanation has already been given above of a similar feat, viz. the
somewhat sensational expedient, mentioned by Aristoxenus, of the Aulete
who holds the pair of pipes side by side in front of him, with the mouthpieces lying normally in his mouth, and speaking at their normal pitch.
He then draws the pipes aside at an obtuse angle, 2 so that the mouthpieces
are gripped one at each corner of his mouth by the lips, a movement that
automatically shortens the reed-tongue, and raises the pitch of the whole
instrument by an interval, the ratio of which is in exact proportion to that
of the amount by which the reed-tongue has been shortened. The expedient
was already a familiar one in the days of Aristoxenus, who quotes it in his
polemic against the Aulos as
well known '.
But Aristoxenus wrongly
'

See Kathleen Schlesinger, Researches into the Origin of the Organs of the
Ancients', Intern. Mus. Ges., Jahrg. ii, Heft a, Jan. -March, 1901, pp. 198-200;
see also Plato, Crito 54D
Jowett's translation, This, dear Crito, is the voice which
'

'

seem

to hear

of the mystic
2

murmuring
that voice,

See Plate No.

6.

in
I

my

say,

ears like the

is

humming

sound of the

in

my

ears.'

flutes (Auloi) in the ears

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

attributes the rise
this

would not be

to raise

is

63
;

for

more than one note and could not be

said

The change

in the pressure

only contingent upon the modification in the length of the

reed-tongue which

is

the definite, deliberate causative of the higher pitch.

by Aristoxenus is provided bv a
from Herculaneum depicting Bacchic revels in which a faun

illustration of the device described

fine bas-relief
is

of pitch to a change in breath-pressure

fall

the pitch of the whole instrument.

of breath

An

and

effective for

seen playing upon double Auloi, drawn out at the corners of his

so that the

two pipes now form an

r

angle.

The unknown

mouth

sculptor was an

adept in at least two Arts, and shows an intimate knowledge of the Aulos

and of the devices used by Auletes to raise and lower the pitch of the
pipes.
The sculptor was likewise a student, not only of the anatomy of
human body, but also of the psychological reactions of the larynx and
more especially of the glottis in the production of music of a high tessitura
the muscles of the glottis have been depicted as strained to the utmost,
a musical necessity borne out by the fact that only one bulb is visible on
each Aulos, a fact which emphasizes the shortness of the reed mouthpiece
necessary for the high pitch and tessitura of the melos he was playing.
A copy of this bas-relief in the British Museum (' Maenad and Satyrs
Roma Vecchia) justifies this eulogy, by the very absence of the muscular
response of the body to the musical urge in the mere copy.
In order to test the correctness or otherwise of Aristoxenus' statement,
The Lady Maket Aulos with three holes was tested to find out whether
increased breath-pressure, once the note from a fingerhole has been formed,
can raise the pitch. The test gave a negative result the power of the note
is intensified, the tone becomes richer in Harmonics
but to raise the
pitch of the note, the muscles of the glottis had to be brought into play
and tightened (Test A, Lady Maket 3, June 5, 1931). 1
But with the straw mouthpiece alone, away from its resonator, it is a
the

',

'

'

different matter altogether

every slight increase of breath-pressure raises

the pitch proportionately, but the factor of length in the air-column of the
resonator is absent, and that is the crux of the matter.
Other tests under-

taken during the same year are of interest in this connexion. With the
beating-reed mouthpiece, R 2 played alone (without resonator), G of 96
v.p.s.

was sounded with a

clear,

strong note

then immediately without

by increasing the tension of the muscles of the glottis, the

octave sounded, pure and in tune at 192 v.p.s.
It is worth noting that
these straws are cylindrical in bore and, being played by the tongue of the
a break, merely

mouthpiece, might be expected to react as closed pipes, giving only the

Harmonics of uneven numbers, yet the octave was actually available (Test

B on R 2, June 4, 1 93 1). As in the case of

Lady Maket 3, the single-reed mouthpiece

of

the test on the mouthpiece

R4

likewise confirmed the

ruling that increased breath-pressure does produce a rise in pitch in the

note of the mouthpiece, but only for the reason that the factors of length
and resonance (i.e. through the fingerholes) are not brought into play
(Test C on R4, June 4, 1931). The octave was also sounded through
1

See Chap,

x,

Records.

THE GREEK AULOS

64

the exit of the pipe with a single-reed mouthpiece,

Lady Maket 4

(with four holes), with an extrusion of -075

10,

inserted into

with normal use

F = 88 v.p.s., then with tongue of mouthoctave F = ij6 v.p.s. sounded clear and true.

of mouthpiece the note given was

piece shortened to half, the

was found possible, moreover, with two good specimens of mouthpiece,

Harmonics easily, to place both in the mouth at once, and to
(The present writer, however, could not control the Harmonics at will
but it is probable that
expert players could do so easily.)
It

that give

obtain Harmonics simultaneously from both.

Re

Tests.

The dimensions

in metrical

measurements of the straw mouth-

pieces are as follows:

Fig. 25.

Tests

Record
IViarK

on B.-R. Mouthpieces for Regional Pitch

Tongue of Mouthpiece and Harmonics

Length of
Straw

Diameter

147

0025

Length of

Width

of

Tongue

1 Ull^ lie

04

002

Octave Shift on

Regional

C
to

64

0035

149

04

002

04

152

002

r3 s
B

E
t0

128

i2~8

10

and

103

12

0025

114

003

03

WITH
I2g

64

R7

octave shift

on tongue

Harmonics

12

002

64

02

Remarks

LCIl

002

128

and

512

256

864

ARISTOTLE

ON THE AULOS AND

ITS

MOUTHPIECES

The

following passage from Aristotle contains a reference to each of

If one pinches
the two kinds of reed mouthpieces used for the Aulos
the Zeuge, the sound becomes sharper and more delicate, as also if one
draws down (xav xaraandarj rig rag avQQiyyag xav d'ijiddPu) the Syrinxes,
'

and
very

if

one grasps or holds [the Syrinx] the volume of the sound becomes
through the pressure of the breath, as in the notes from thicker

full

strings.'

1
(See also Porphyry in J. Wallis, Opera Mathem., Vol. iii, p. 246, where the
whole of de Audib. is given.) de Aiidibilibus, 804a = Porph. Comm. in CI. PtoL,
ed. During, p. 75
Didot, Vol. vi, p. 661. An English translation is contained in
the volume De Coloribus ', &c, by T. Loveday and E. S. Forster, Oxford (Clar.
if you
Press, 1913).
The translation of this passage is open to serious objection
;

'

'

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

65

In the opinion of the present writer, Zeuge here refers to the doublereed mouthpiece of the Aulos in general, whether the instrument be used

and the text describes the manner in which the Harmonics

produced with a primitive double-reed mouthpiece. This could not

singly or in pairs,
are

apply to the single-reed mouthpiece, the Syrinx, which as already indicated

is undoubtedly the beating-reed for the obvious reason that it is the only
kind of mouthpiece which can do the things with which the Aulos

When

credited.

is

the Syrinx appears to be drawn downwards, the vibrating

and the sound rises in pitch.

Aristotle thus draws attention to the two expedients used by Auletes for
raising the pitch, or changing the key, of the whole instrument
(1) by
tongue

automatically shortened by the

is

lips,

overblowing as a result of pinching the double-reed

at the tip

or (2) in

the case of the Syrinx mouthpiece, of raising the pitch of the Aulos by

by a proportional shortening
vibrating tongue of the single- or beating-reed type of mouthBoth expedients, it will be noticed, are used to transpose the scale
given through the fingerholes of the resonator.
As a contrast Aristotle
then explains the effect of closing all the fingerholes, whereby the pitch
drops down to the fundamental tone of the instrument, and the volume
of sound becomes far greater, like the notes produced by thicker strings.
This applies to both kinds of instrument, with double- and with singlereed mouthpieces, but the shortening of the tongue cannot be carried out
on the double-reed mouthpiece, 1 nor on the single-reed cut in arghool
fashion, i.e. with the base of the vibrating tongue at the knot end of the
a definite interval, e.g. 4th or 5th, determined

of the

little

piece.

reed.

THEOPHRASTUS ON THE MOUTHPIECES OF THE AULOS

Theophrastus, 2 writing as a naturalist, rather than as musician, gives
a precise account of the growth and cutting of reeds for the mouthpiece
of the Aulos from the species called Kalamos Zeugites.

The

best Zeuge

were cut from the middle joint of the whole reed.

And few

turn out well in the making [he adds] until the time of Antigenidas 3
who flourished during the reign ot Alexander the Great],
;

[the celebrated Aulete

Zeuge) obliterates the distinction between the two

and to render EmXdfSrj by if one stops up the exits
makes nonsense, for there would be no sound if the exits were stopped up
it
should be fingerholes. The actual meaning is, however, clear, as will be seen
further on, in our text. The Preface to de Audibilibus by the translators states that,
This tract appears to be a fragment of a larger work. It is certainly not Aristotle's,
and has been ascribed with some likelihood to Strato. Prantl's text in the Teubner
edition (1881) has been used.
Mr. W. D. Ross's advice has again been invaluable
to us.'
T. L. and E. S. F. See Ing. During's edition, Ptolemaios und Porphyrios

compress the mouthpiece

kinds of reed mouthpieces
'

(for

'

'

'

(German

translation).

1
It is actually possible to shorten the vibrating portion of the double-reed
mouthpiece, and to obtain a rise in pitch thereby, but the change cannot be effected
with ease and musically, as with the beating reed it must, in fact, be regarded merely
as a theoretical possibility, unused in practical music.
;

PL

Hist.,

See also Plut., de Mus., ed. Weil and Rein.,

iv,

11, 4.
198, pp. 82-5.

THE GREEK AULOS

66

when they played

the Aulos naturally (dtn/.darcog) the time to cut the reeds was when
Arcturus rose in the month Boedromion [September]. For those thus cut did not
become useful until many years afterwards and needed much preliminary practice
with the Aulos to get the proper pitch (nQoxaravlrjats), but the outlet of the tongues
is well closed in practice (av/ifiveiv de t6 arofia rcbv yAonrmv).
,

This observation undoubtedly refers to the action of the double-reed,

alternately opening and closing the aperture between the two blades of the
mouthpiece in the act of vibration. As the manipulation of the reed
mouthpiece takes place out of sight within the mouth of the piper, the
naturalist may be excused for imagining that the sound was produced by
the closing only of the tongues. This is made clear from the elder Pliny, 1
paraphrasing Theophrastus, who states that the Tibiae had to be tamed
by much practice, and taught to sing with the ligulae pressing themselves
'

together

'.

mouthpiece makes it
and Pliny are here referring to the double-reed

Practical experience with both kinds of

that Theophrastus

Theophrastus then continues

But when they changed

certain
variety.

to elaborate

They

playing

(etc

ti)v

nMaiv

iiExefir)oav)

the

month Skirophorion and

they say that they become
useful in three years, and need but little preliminary playing upon, and they say
that the tongues (yAcorrac) 2 curb the beatings (xaTaandafiara) and this is necessary
for those who play in the elaborate style.
cutting also was changed.

Hekatombaion,

It is

cut nowadays in the

at the solstice or a little later.

And

not improbable that this beating-reed was

new

to Theophrastus

the change in the music to elaborate playing, for which the mouthpiece

here described was being used, implies the single-reed

the instrument
of the virtuoso, the improvisatore, not the older instrument used for the
:

Spondaic hymns and the auletic nomos which had the mouthpiece with
a double-reed, and was in use up to the time of Antigenidas.
All this
is in accordance with historical facts.
Theophrastus does not seem to
have used the word Syrinx for the beating-reed mouthpiece.

We

learn in addition that

the best sections of the reed for making mouthpieces are the middle ones, those cut
near the root are very hard [shrill K. S.] and are suitable for the left-hand pipe
the tongues cut near the tip are very soft and are suitable for the right-hand pipe.

And

the tongues cut from the same section harmonize.

Elaborate playing on the Aulos demands great elasticity in the tongue of

the mouthpiece ; this may be increased by scraping and thinning the back
of the tongue, a delicate operation

which has the

effect of

lowering the

pitch of the mouthpiece and greatly increasing the beauty and sonority of
1
2

Nat. Hist., 16, 36.

Gevaert, Probl. Mus. d'Aristote, pp. 348-9, note

4, translates this passage

aux intonations abaissees ce qui est indispensable
qui pratiquent le style figure '. If xaraandafiara refers to the
on the reed tongue, brought about by the pulling down of the
Syrinx, then the effect on the intonation of the Aulos would be the opposite of what
Gevaert imagines, i.e. the pitch would be raised, not lowered.

thus

pour

'

et les languettes se pretent

les auletes

action of the lips

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

the tone.

Theophrastus does not touch directly upon the

but the implication

glossa,

is

67

elasticity of the

there.

The question of the exact function and potentialities of the double

now arises, primarily from the important viewpoint of the instruown essential nature, which may be considered in relation to length

Auloi

ments'

and diameter, mouthpiece, the boring of fingerholes, and various external

A survey of the vase paintings at the British
agencies and contrivances.
and elsewhere immediately impresses one with the fact that nearly

Museum
all

the Auloi played in pairs are of equal length, as Plutarch

stated in

But length, as already indicated, is no criterion

they are but resonators. The
of absolute pitch in reed-blown pipes
For obvious
initiation of pitch is solely the affair of the mouthpiece.
reasons, not all the possibilities conferred upon the Monaulos by either
of its two types of mouthpiece can be brought into play on the double
Aulos.
The production of Harmonics, which requires a highly skilled
manipulation of the reed tongue by the lips, is certainly possible as a feat
on both beating-reeds simultaneously, but the Harmonics frequently come
at their own sweet will
to control them from both mouthpieces simultaneously, if possible at all, would require an expert piper and a high degree
the passage quoted above.

of musicianship.

After

all

that has been said about the balance of compression through

the glottis, and of the volume or pressure of breath during propulsion

through the mouthpiece, which are proportional for each hole uncovered,
surprising to find that these subconscious activities of the larynx

it is

be exercised under

still

more complicated

conditions.

It

is

may

not only

two beating-reed mouthpieces, having

tongues of different length, width, elasticity and, therefore, pitch, but as
many as four or five, carefully disposed in the mouth, can be operated
simultaneously by the same breath-pressure and compression, but with a
fourfold differentiation in pitch and expenditure of breath. 2
The experiment at first trial produces a spontaneous polyphony, which is always
interesting, and not inharmonious.
With practice and musicianship the
possible

to

play

possibilities are

simultaneously

amazing.

TECHNICAL AND MUSICAL POSSIBILITIES OF THE DOUBLE AULOS

This

slight digression

was necessary

to enable us to

make

a practical

estimate of the kind of music that could be produced on the double pipes.
It

is

evident that unless means are taken to prevent

sound simultaneously, so long

mouthpieces.

By

as the breath

implication, therefore, the

is

both pipes will

propelled through the two

two

it,

pipes, each having three

or four fingerholes, could not be used successively to produce a range of

an octave, unless the two pipes could be induced to speak separately. The
obvious expedient is to stop the exit of one or both pipes with wax or pitch
to ensure silence when the holes are covered.
In such a case the division
1

Non

posse suaviter, p.

1096B

rcov tocov av/.&v.

2
The implications from the behaviour of these choral mp.s form an obvious
confirmation of the acoustic theories advanced above, passim.

THE GREEK AULOS

68

by the Modal Determinant takes

vent-hole

when

from the

exit is

the pipe

effect

from the centre of Hole

speaking, and the distance of the

is

incommensurate and

i,

used as

first

hole

Numerous examples

irrelevant.

of

such boring seem to occur in the vase paintings in which the piper's fingers
appear to cover holes near the middle of the pipes. This, however, is
not the only solution. With the mouthpiece of the beating-reed type, cut
as described,

it is

possible,

by

a swift

movement,

pipes from the lips just sufficiently to prevent

dexterously (and

it

is

its

to

withdraw one of the

if this be done

speaking

only necessary to uncover the base of the tongue),

would pass unnoticed between the bulbs and the

lips and none but an expert would be the wiser.
The expedient has, in
fact, passed the test, and it may, of course, be used at will concurrently

the

piece of straw

little

with the blocking of the exits.

With regard to the Modal System, the implication of such a potentiality
is of far-reaching importance.
The single pipe played by means of a
beating-reed had, in emulation of the full octave range conferred by the

double-reed mouthpiece, deprived the Modal Scale of

its

second tetrachord,

and substituted

for it a reduplication of the first on the dominant, thus

foreshadowing, or perhaps even initiating, the structure of our modern
major scale. The double pipes played by means of the same beating-reed
mouthpiece, in the manner suggested above, were thus able to restore to

the Aulos

Fig. 26.

L^-

its

pure modality and

The

12

full

range of an octave.

Double Auloi bored to give the Hypodorian Modal Octave

Modal Determinant 16
3

SO

11

~zr^c~z~^

12

13

i#4e789
O

JV.fi.

Both

of

00%

15

16

10

11

exits are stopped.

The following suggestion has also been made, notably by A. H. Fox

Strangways, with regard to the practical use of the second of the pair
with exit free

viz.

that

when

the fingerholes were covered, the note of

the exit would sound as a drone.

Experiments

in this direction yielded

astonishing results due to laws governing resonance and forced vibrations,

which belong

to the

domain

of acoustics.

Supporters of the theory of the

drone as an influence predisposing to harmony would find ground

for

satisfaction in the pursuit of such experiments.

The drone note, sometimes descending an octave to an unexpectedly low note, is ever changing,

dragged into a rude but agreeable harmony with its fellow-pipe, partly
through the coercion known as forced vibration, which seems to be ever
struggling to keep intact the proportional ratios of the Harmonic Series.
The net result of this behaviour is a qualification of the concept of a drone
pedal bass. It is probable that an expert piper using a heavier and less

PLATE

10

PRIMITIVE OBOES
}

I?^

Egy

2)S AfHc
-

NW

India

&

Mexico Tarascan Chirimias

and short) supporting the

4
5)
,?
in the latter, note 'i
in
the grooved cylinder attachments (tall

'

mouthpiece

>

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

69

cut from a piece of reed instead of from a straw or

elastic beating-reed,

drone note, as in the bagpipe.

In our inquiry into the technical capabilities of the Aulos and of its
two kinds of mouthpiece, modality has been relegated into the background.
Spatial length as a determinant of pitch has been proved to be capricious

would be able

oat stalk,

to stabilize the

on the Aulos, owing

in its incidence

When, however,

resonance.

to the interference of the laws of

the reactions of the Aulos to the laws of

from the point of view of modality, fresh light

is shed on the function of length, a hint of which was revealed through
the L'gnificance of the dimensions of the tongue of the beating-reed mouthpiece.
The whole significance of length in the Aulos, revealed through
acoustics are considered

modality,

is

proportion which, of course, affects pitch always in relation

to a given fundamental.

embody modality

In order to

stated) that the extent to

in the Aulos,

which the

stalk of the

it

is

essential (as already

mouthpiece extrudes from

the pipe be added to the length of the latter before division by the

Determinant takes

place.

Modal

This division produces the modal increment of

modal pipe between the finger-

distance (I.D.), always found exhibited in a

As

holes measured from centre to centre.

consequence, since the I.D.

an aliquot part of the total length, it is obvious that to add or deduct

one or more of these increments must automatically change the determinant
number, and consequently the Mode of the Aulos.

is

A CHANGE OF MODE ON THE AULOS

point that the fundamental difference between strings and

It is at this

pipes

is

realized in their

resultant effect

on

embodiment

tonality.

On

the

Modes and

of the

monochord

species, with the

string,

for instance,

with the rule divided by Determinant 24 (Phrygian), to keep the same

I.D., and simultaneously to change the Modal Determinant to 22, is only

when

possible
that

the

is,

on a

the second

Mode

different Tonic,

Mode on

(Dorian)

taken as a species of the

is

D, but with the same Mese, G.

To

first,

change

the same string without retiming means a change of both

determinant and increment of distance.

On

the pipe, since the length does not affect the pitch, but only the

modality

while

it is

played with the same mouthpiece

it is

obvious that

to preserve intact the increment of distance, while changing the Deter-

minant (effected by changing the extrusion of the mouthpiece), produces

a different Mode on the same fundamental note given by the whole pipe,
or by the first hole used as vent.
Thus it happens that through the unique
proportional properties of length in reed-blown pipes, the same pipe, blown
by means of the same mouthpiece, the little tongue of which determines
the fundamental Tonic, more than one Mode can be produced, merely by
drawing the mouthpiece out, or pushing it in, to the extent of one or more
increments of distance.

There are very

(See Fig. 27.)

clear indications that this

method of changing the Mode

Although there is no verbal

change was effected, there are

of the Aulos was practised in Ancient Greece.

explanation of the

manner

in

which

this

'

THE GREEK AULOS

numerous graphic

extant.
In the analysis of our record of
it was shown that length in the stem of the
mouthpiece has no bearing on pitch. Long stems afforded the necessary
means of changing the Mode by varying the number of increments of
distance through the extrusion of the mouthpiece from the pipe.
The
illustrations

beating-reed mouthpieces,

Suggested Feat of Pronomus, the Theban.

upon the same Aulos by changing the Extrusion

Fig. 27.

G
(

i= j= j=
i

^:::::::::::::::::t::::::::j::::::::j

*_.?255.i

to

C...Lyian j

N.B.

Three Modes played

Mouthpiece

of the

A
o

"Q

16

18

20

22

18

20

22

20

22

24

24

>

Ratios

26

The same mouthpiece shown in normal position A, and pulled out

produce the three modal tetrachords through the same three holes and

Exit

to

B and C

exit.

though tolerated by the Egyptians, 1

offended the aesthetic sense of the Greeks, who concealed the stalk by
means of the graceful olive-shaped bulbs, one, two or three in number,
which occur in many of the vase-paintings. These bulbs 2 are made hollow
and tubular at each end to fit into the resonator, or into each other, so
as to form a continuous passage for the stem of the mouthpiece.
Adhesion
visible extrusion of a length of straw,

1
See Plate No. 3, the piper playing on double pipes, long and slender. The
straw of the mouthpieces is shown in the wall-painting from Thebes differentiated
by pale yellow colour from the reddish-brown pipes.
2
Plate No. 10 represents a group of primitive oboes.
No. 1, from N. Egypt,
presented by H. A. Burgess
No. 2, in centre, from S. Africa, presented by
;

Miss M. F. Grant

No. 3, from N.W. India, presented by Ferosa (Mrs. P. A.

Narielwala of Bombay) ; Nos. 4 and 5 are Chirimias of the Tarascan Indians from
the Sierras of Mexico in the neighbourhood of Uruapan (State of Michoacan).
Specimens of the Chirimias are rare and very difficult to obtain, and much coaxing
is needed to induce the Indians to part with them.
I am indebted for the possession
of these two instruments to the generosity of Miss Marian Storm (author of Littleknown Mexico, Hutchinson, and of The Life of St. Rose), an enthusiastic admirer of the
strange, wild, exultant music of the Chirimias played by Indians of San Lorenzo in the
Sierras.
Let us consider the instruments the fingerholes are equidistant and thus the
scale is one of the Greek Harmoniai the movable cylindrical attachment with the spiral
grooves varies in height according to the Mode
it fits into the resonator and receives
and conceals the actual reed vibrator of the mouthpiece (bocal), which in these Tarascan Chirimias consists of two blades of palm bound with thread to a goose quill.
These cylindrical end-pieces originally served the same purpose as the olive-shaped
bulbs of the Greek Aulos, to conceal the bare end of the corn-stalk of the beatingreed or double-reed mouthpiece, which extrudes from the resonator.
The shorter of the two end-pieces on No. 5 belongs to an ancient traditional
instrument, which was acquired from a very old Tarascan musician. The traditions
go back to the prehistoric Maya culture.
More remarkable still is the form of the Aztec musician's Chirimia (cf. Plate No.
10 and 11) at the embouchure end of which are two globular bulbs reminiscent of
a Greek or Etruscan Aulos through which is threaded the slender stalk of a beatingreed mouthpiece.
It will be noticed that the other three primitive oboes have no
end-piece or bulb, but only a flat circular rest.
;

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

71

To add or take off a bulb was, theresymbol of a change of Mode. In connexion with this decorative symbol, the significance of which had not been realized until the
discovery of modality, it may be added that the most successful and satisfying
mouthpieces are those in which the length of the tongue is equal to one
I.D. of the pipe which it is to play.
If the length of the resonator be not an exact multiple of the I.D.,
the complement is supplied by the stalk of the mouthpiece.
It would
seem that the Greek word vopoAjxiov applies to these bulbs. The etymology
of the word suggests that the Hypholmion was a support for the Holmos
(ok/uog), a shallow cup-shaped device fitted on to the topmost bulb which
is

secured by rows of waxed thread.

fore, a visible

mouth

concealed the entry of the actual reed-tongue into the

The Holmos,

which there

of the piper.

no reference so early as the use of the

on the single Aulos
(Monaulos), whereas the bulbs were fitted to both Auloi of a pair. Two
one in a damaged condition were found with the Elgin
of the bulbs
Auloi and are preserved in the Graeco-Roman Department at the British
Museum but there is no trace of a Holmos. The indented lines made
by the waxen thread are still visible on the rim of one of the bulbs. Both
Hypholmion and Holmos may be seen on the pipes found at Pompeii
which are preserved in the Naples Museum. 1
for

word Hypholmion

is

suggests, could only have been used

PTOLEMY'S REFERENCE TO THE

B.R.

MP. OF THE AULOS

Ptolemy has a passage 2 dealing with the beating-reed mouthpiece of the

is of considerable interest and reads as follows
Ptolemy
has been speaking of the influence of length on pitch in strings and adds

Aulos, which

And

in Auloi the

Hypholmion, that

is

sounds are acuter which come from the holes nearer the
the beating thing [(tov n/.r/rrovTos), i.e. the Hypholmion is

the bulb concealing the beating thing or single-reed mouthpiece]. For the tube of
the windpipe is like a natural Aulos, only differing in this
that in the Auloi the
place of the beating thing remains the same [puta, in ore flantis, Wallis]
the place
:

of the beaten thing [in foraminibus, Wallis] is transferred nearer or further from
the beating thing by the device of the fingerholes. But in the windpipe, the place
of the beaten thing remains the same.
But the place of the beating thing is transferred nearer or further from the beaten thing through our faculties leading it by

way

of our innate musical perceptions, and finding and taking those places in the
windpipe, as it were with the bridge underlying the string from which the distances
to the outer air make differences in sounds proportional to their excesses. 3

This is, as far as is known to the present writer, the only passage in the
Greek sources in which any attempt is made so to define the action of the
mouthpiece of the Aulos that no possible doubt is left as to its identity.
1

'

The Pompeian

PI. iz)

see also

Pipes from the Mus. Naz., Napoli photograph by Brogi (see

T. Lea Southgate, Ancient Flutes from Egypt ', Jrnl. of Hellenic
'

'

Studies, Vol. xxxv, 1915, PP- 12 sqq.

2
Harm., i, 3
Wallis, 1682, p. 14
During, p. 9.
3
Ptol., Lib. 1, Cap. iii
see also Ingemar During, Ptolemaios
;

uber die
p.

151.

Musik (German
Porph., 63,

translation),

ed. During.

und Porphyrios

Goteborg, 1934, pp. 26-7(9) and comment,


THE GREEK AULOS

72

In a

chapter (Lib.

later

ment

ii,

Chap,

xii)

Ptolemy makes the following

state-

1
:

We will first briefly discuss the imperfection of the monochord, which until
has been regarded as the only instrument devised that could enable us to determine the harmonic ratios computed theoretically, belonging to sequences which
run through the whole scale, and to compare them easily with our aural perceptions.

now

This instrument appears to have fallen into disuse at the present time in the practice
of music as well as for the demonstration of the harmonic ratios
and for the reason
that it did not seem adequate for either of these propositions
while the canonists
used (the monochord) only for their theoretical calculations, and the lyres and
kitharas for the practice of music.
And in these instruments, the emmelic intervals
are constituted in accordance with the appropriate ratio
but on these instruments
(which would be preferable for both kinds of exposition) it is not demonstrated
since not even on Auloi and Syrinxes is there precision on such a matter
that they
have differences of pitch resulting from differences of length. 2
;

What

Plato said of the Aulos after specifying the instruments for which

there will be no use in the state (Rep., p. 399C.) may now be recalled
Has not the Aulos a great number of notes, and are not the scales which
:

'

admit of

'

modes (ra aavao/uovia) simply imitations of the Aulos ?

the diagram (Fig. 27) reveals the significance of the bulbs.

all the

glance at

The end

of the pipe and each of the holes can sound three notes differing
in intonation and belonging to as many Harmoniai, but of course, after

manipulation of the mouthpiece.

As the bulbs cannot be removed during

manner of the expedients

the playing, this contrivance does not, in the

mentioned below, provide an increased compass, so much as a potential

change of modality on the same Aulos, in a different melody. The bulbs
could be used equally well with either of the two types of mouthpiece
(see Plate No. 13).
These means of increasing the compass are concerned with the technique
of a skilled musician
and with certain structural improvements in the
Aulos.
The desire for an extended compass on the Aulos suggested the
means for obtaining it.
;

THE FEATS OF PRONOMUS THE THEBAN ON THE AULOS

The fact that three different notes approximately called quarter-tones

can be obtained through each fingerhole generally considered to imply
is

sounding C had been

by three movements of

partial obturation of the holes, so that if the hole

covered, then the gradual uncovering of hole

the finger, produced in turn C,

C# and

the fully opened hole D.

In the development of the Aulos the name Pronomus is especially

The perpetuation of his musical feats and inventions by the

prominent.
1

Ptol.,

am

ii, xii.
During, p. 66.
indebted for the translation of this passage to Professor

Ptolemy recognizes the

fact that difference of pitch results

J. F. Mountford.
from difference of length,

but cannot give a precise explanation of the matter in relation to the wind instruments.
Ptolemy, however, in an earlier chapter (1, 8), recognizes among the determinants
of pitch, not only length but also width (tiMtoc,, diameter of bore
K. S.) besides
See Chap, iii, pp. 130-131.
the blowing in of the breath '.

'

PLATE

ii

AZTEC MUSICIAN WITH CHIRIMIA FITTED WITH

By

courtesy of

Miss Marian Storm

TWO BULBS

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

73

erection of a statue in his honour, testifies to the importance attached to

them by his compatriots. The facts are recorded in the following passages
from Pausanias and Athenaeus. No description is given of the means
whereby the results were achieved by him
but the fact recorded that
he was the first to devise an Aulos suitable for every Harmonia seems to
point to his having invented the device of sliding bands with their extra,
secondary fingerholes. These were later on fitted with short additional
tubes (Bombyxes) mentioned by other writers such as Theophrastus and
;

Arcadius.

The
Of

account given by Athenaeus

is

as follows

beauty was thought of in Music and everything in this Art had its fitting
honour, wherefore, there were separate Auloi for each Harmonia, and each Aulete
at the Games had Auloi adapted to each Harmonia.
But Pronomus, the Theban,
first played [all] the Harmoniai from the same Aulos
but now at random, without
ratio they meddle with music [see Fig. 27].
old,

Of

the results of the various attempts to increase the compass of the Aulos

modal

for

use, Pausanias

relates the following

And

there is a statue of Pronomus, the man who fluted most attractively to the
multitude.
For a long time the Auletes r .s.-essed three kinds of Auloi, and on some

they played the Dorian Aulema, and d r ent ones were made for the Phrygian
Harmonia and the one called Lydian was .ayed upon other Auloi [i.e. Modes, not
Species].
And Pronomus was the one who first devised Auloi suitable for every
kind of Harmonia and was the first to play so many different melodies on the same
Auloi 3 (double Auloi). And by the appearance of his face arid the movement of
his whole body, he charmed the audience exceedingly.
And by him was made the
song for the entrance into Delos of the Chalcidians, this statue, therefore, the Thebans
dedicated and also one of Epaminondas, the son of Polymnis.
,

Proclus, 4 the neo-Platonic author (a.d. 410-85), records the fact con-

cerning the Aulos of

it

many Modes

afforded to musicians thus

(i.e.

with sliding bands) and the

facilities

And the reason is the intricacy of this instrument (I mean the Aulos), which has
rendered the art used by it elusive. For the Panharmonia and the Polycordia are
For each fingerhole (ey.aarov yaq rovrnj/ua) in Auloi emits
they say, and if the secondary holes (rcugaTQv.iijfiaza) are
opened [i.e. those covered by the sliding bands K. S.] it emits more, and it is not
necessary to receive the whole of music in your education, but only what is sufficient.
imitations of the Auloi.
at least three sounds,

Various methods of transposing the Aulos into a higher Tonos have been
discussed, e.g.

by pushing

in the

mouthpiece to a shorter extrusion, and

the use of devices affecting the structure of the instrument remains to be

1

Athenaeus, Deipn.,

Paus.,

The

xiv, p. 63ie.

ix, 12.
Passages translated by E. J.
idea of using three positions of letters of the alphabet for the instrumental
musical notation, (1) the upright normal letter, (2) the same recumbent, (3) the same

reversed and facing

by

(i), is

this device of the early

4

lated

Comm.
by E.

in Alcib.,
J.)

considered by some authorities to have been suggested

Greek Auletes.

Cap. 68, ed. Kreutzer, pp. 196 and 197,

line

11.

(Trans-

THE GREEK AULOS

74

The

considered. 1

was to add

to the

simplest

number

means

of increasing the range of the Aulos

of fingerholes, and to devise

some contrivance

for temporarily covering over those not required.

Bands of silver, having

one or more holes of the same diameter and bored in the same relative
position as those on the pipe, served for alternative use during the course
of the melos.
The metal bands provided with little rings or horns {xeoaxa)
allowed the piper to turn them at will round the bone pipe, while a narrow
Arcadius, 2 the Gramfixed ring prevented their slipping down the Aulos.
marian (second century

a.d.),

alludes to these contrivances

But at each breath, he says, the accents (nvEvfiaza) are put on, not unskilfully
or unmusically, just as those searching for the holes on Auloi to close and open
them when they wish, have contrived or invented them with little horns or movable
bombyxes (xsqcigi xiaiv fj fio/uflvSiv vipokjxiovg) above and below, and turning within
and without. In this case, as in that, signs for the breath are made like horns,
meaning one and the same scheme in each. This one, as in an Aulos, in that
turning inwards and outwards, shows us how to close and open the breath, for it
shows how to close and hold it when we are using the spiritus lenis, and it lets it go
and opens it whenever breathing out, we are compelled to speak with an aspirate.

Bombyxes were

possibly so

named from

provided with additional tubes, to a

the resemblance of the Aulos,

caterpillar.

The

structure

of the

Bombyxes, or additional tubes, inserted into the fingerholes to lower the

notes by a ratio proportional to the length of the Bombyx, may be realized
from the photograph in spite of the exuberant fancy of the sculptor. (See
The additional tubes of appropriate lengths for the
also Chap. iii).
Harmonia were probably inserted before performance. The Aulete is
represented raising his Auloi and throwing back his head in exultation,
and in order to obtain the high notes required for his triumphal Ode.
1

Tradition credits Pronomus, the Theban, with the performance of certain feats

To obtain
in the evolution of the instrument.
three notes from each fingerhole (as described above) was a simple feat carried out
by partial obturation of the fingerholes, which could take place equally well on
the primitive Aulos played by a double-reed or a beating-reed mouthpiece. This

upon the Aulos which suggest phases

manipulation was mainly used for changing the genus from Diatonic to Chromatic
It was further claimed that Pronomus, excelling other Auletes,
or Enharmonic.
was able to play three Harmoniai on the same Aulos (or double Auloi). This may

be done by changing the extrusion of the mouthpiece as illustrated in Fig. 27,

whereby the change is one of species, since the I.D. remained the same for all three
easily

sequences. Neither of these feats required any structural alteration in the Aulos.
A third claim not directly attributed to Pronomus is implied in the use by Auletes
of a contrivance containing secondary holes, pierced in silver sliding bands. These
holes
of different diameters, and placed at different distances from embouchure
correspond with those on the Aulos resonator. The bands, turned by means of
This means
little horns or rings, opened or closed certain series of holes at will.
For the implication here
a change of Mode through the operation of the bands.

that more than one aliquot division had been made, i.e. by the Modal Determinants
so that instead of one I.D. on the Aulos, there were
of the Harmoniai in question
virtually two or three alternatives, according to which set of holes was opened in
succession.
(See in this connexion the photograph by Brogi [Plate No. 12] of the
Pompeian Auloi at Naples and the drawing of the Candia Aulos by Prof. J. L.

is

Myres, Fig.
2

Be

29.)

Acccntibus, ed.

by E. H. Barker, 1820,

p.

188, line 12.

PLATE

12

THE POMPEIAN AULOI, WITH REVOLVING BANDS, AND (ON THE RIGHT) AULOI SURMOUNTED BY A MOUTHPIECE SUGGESTIVE OF A MODERN CLARINET OR FLAGEOLET
Museo Nazionale, Napoli


SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC
An

examination of Mr. A. A, Howard's well-known pamphlet on

AvXoq or Tibia

much

yields

sources,

'

{Harvard Studies

The

valuable material, of a general nature, derived from the literary

and from an investigation

the actual

75
'

in Class. Phil., Vol. iv, 1893, pp. 1-60)

museum

specimens

as

thorough

was practicable

as

preserved in the

of

Museo Nazionale

at

Naples.

The

four Pompeian Auloi, Nos. 76891-2-3-4, belong, as

may be

detected

from the Brogi photograph No. 12489 (see Plate No. 12), to the period
deplored as decadent by Plato, and after him by Plutarch, which was marked
by the insistent popular demand for greater facilities for the production of
more and more notes, and for modal modulations. This predilection was
satisfied on the Aulos by means of such devices, among others, as sliding
metal bands the working principle of which is described further on.
Owing to the delicate state of these relics, it was not possible to lay

bare the ivory tube of the Aulos, in order to gain precise information as

number and position of any supplementary fingerholes concealed

under the metal bands. The lengths have been measured from the exit,
or lower end of the Aulos, to the nearest edge of hole or band, and the
diameters of the holes are carefully noted.
In pipes Nos. 76891 and 2,
the increments of distance, taken strictly in order from centre to centre
of the fingerholes, are irregular and suggest that each Aulos was bored to
produce two Harmoniai, each with its own I.D.
a conclusion borne out
by the number of fingerholes from 11 to 13. The piper set the bands in
order opening or closing the holes as required for the selected Harmonia
before playing. A glance at the measured drawing of the Aulos in the
Candia Museum which had 24 holes of different calibre in 14 bands
made by Professor John L. Myres, if read with the explanation given
further on, makes the matter clear.
The drawing exhibits conditions similar
to those existing on the Pompeian pipes.
It is unfortunately impossible to diagnose the Harmoniai embodied in
these Pompeian pipes from the particulars supplied
exact reproductions
of the Auloi would have to be made on the spot and tested with a suitable
mouthpiece, in which the vibrating reed is left unfettered and free to
control the resonator, instead of the clarinet mouthpiece used by Mr.
Howard. The miscellaneous small fragments of pipes (to the right of
the photograph) reveal (in No. 8 from bottom) two holes of different calibre
in one band
in the next fragment above there are four holes in alignment
at equal distances, with a fifth hole bored diagonally above the last hole
No. 13 shows two holes in the ivory pipe with a third of half the diameter
on a band, which would flatten the note of the ivory pipe by a half increment,
if superimposed over it.
With reference to Mr. Howard's ingenious suggestion that the term
Syrinx, applied in the sources, to some movable part of the Aulos was the
speakerhole, used in the clarinet to facilitate the playing of Harmonics,
the choice for the student lies between this and the application (by K. S.)

to the

See Photograph No. 12 (by Brogi, No. 12489), Pompeian Auloi, Mus. Naz.,

Napoli.

THE GREEK AULOS

76

mouthpiece (distinguished from Zeuge for

on the grounds that it is the only kind of
mouthpiece which can produce the puzzling results (of raising the pitch),
identical for two diametrically opposed movements and operations of the
Syrinx, ascribed to it by Aristotle, Aristoxenus and Plutarch.
The fact
that it is unnecessary to postulate a speakerhole for these pipes is emphasized
by Mr. Howard's production of the 3rd and 5th Harmonics from all the
holes without any speakerhole.
A fact that is confirmed by my own experience
with beating-reed mouthpieces.
Mr. Howard includes in his paper the measurements of the Elgin Auloi
at the British Museum, which were supplied to him by Mr. A. H. Smith
of the Graeco-Roman Department.
The measurements tally with mine
except for those of the diameters of bore and fingerholes, for which I was
not allowed callipers.
The scale given by Mr. Smith for Aulos B (the
straight one) corresponds exactly with the result I obtained, except for
the note from Hole 5, viz.
of Syrinx to the beating-reed

the double-reed mouthpiece)

ELGIN AULOS B (STRAIGHT)

A. H. Smith

exit

A
K.

A
This
of

scale

M.D.

34

d 10

e 9

5'

/8

gi,

14

612

be recognized as that of the Dorian Harmonia

The Elgin
(see Records of Elgin Aulos, Chap, x, Plate No. 17.

from Hole

11

c ii

13

with 6 different double-reed mouthpieces

S.

will

Aulos, Brit. Mus.).

The

expedient of cross-fingering about to be described was widely

practised in the Ancient East

and Sarangdev

and was described in the treatises of Bharata 1

and in the sixteenth century by Martin

of Hindostan,

Agricola. 3

Cross-fingering (doigte fourchu), another device for lowering the pitch

of single notes,

is

operated by closing one or more holes, normally left

this has the effect of lowering
is speaking

open, below the open one that

the pitch of the latter

by

a quarter-tone or more, according to the

of holes closed, but at the expense of the quality of the tone.

number

This expedient

1
Bharata (fifth century A.D.) author of the Ndtyashdstra Treatise on the Drama,
including chapters on Music and Musical Instruments used in the Drama mentions
several kinds or schemes of cross-fingering (op. cit., Chap, xxx, 6-9, and of partial
The chapter treating of Music translated by Joanny Grosset,
obturation of the holes)

Lyons, 1896.
2
In Sarangdeva's Samglta Ratndkara a list is given of 15 flutes of bamboo with
measurements (see vi, pp. 424-51, and for cross-fingering, pp. 447-8, and 457-61).
For 37 and 37A see Inde ', par Joanny Grosset, Encycl. de la Musique et Diet, du
Conservatoire, Fasc. 12, pp. 353-4, ed. by Albert Lavignac (Paris, Ch. Delagrave).
See K. S., The Modal Flute, Chap. vii.
3
Musica instrtimentalis deudsch., Wittemberg, 1528 and 1545. Reprint by
Leipz., Breitk. u. Hdrtel., 1896,
Gesellschaft. f. Musikforschwig, Jahrg. 24, Bd. 20
See K. S., Chap. vii.
pp. 159-75.
'

"

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

and

its

by Quintilian

effect are described

who,

in a discourse

77

on pro-

nunciation, shows a critical appreciation of the difference in tone quality

between the open or clear notes of the Aulos and those obtained by crossfingering.

Plan of Fragments of an Aulos

Fig. 29.
Professor

in the Candia Museum.

Drawn by
L. Myres from the actual Fragments of the Specimen (to scale)

J.

VO

^
^ -^j

?c

jr-v

io-

00

.
j

err

,Q

-^ o>v

"

=>

Bone.. thus

Bronzs

i-r-

"OA

$i

Scale of Inches

(Reproduced by kind permission of Professor J. L. Myres)

Fragments of an Aulos showing 24 holes in 14 bands are preserved

in the Museum at Candia, measured drawings of which were made from
the instrument in 1893 by Professor John L. Myres, to whom the writer
is greatly indebted for the communication of the diagram.

MACROBIUS ON THE POSITION OF THE FINGERHOLE

The

pipe

is

clearly a

modal one, showing part of an aliquot division

in the placing of fingerholes in the pipe, with their duplicates in the sliding

bands, sufficient for at least two Modes.

are of different diameters,

The

It will

be noticed that the holes

of narrower calibre than that of the bore.

all

ancients understood the acoustic principle which permitted of sub-

hole of smaller diameter, placed correspondingly nearer the

mouthpiece, for the larger one in the correct theoretical position. This

stituting a

principle

is

indicated in the following passage by the Grammarian,

Macro-

2
(fourth century a.d.)
Nec secus probamus in tibiis de quarum
foraminibus vicinis infiantis ori sonus acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem
termino
et
proximis gravior
item acutior per patentiora foramina, gravior
per angusta.'

bius

'

The

rise in pitch

brought about by making a fingerhole of a diameter

wider than the norm by

fingerhole farther

converse

by

11

is

11

i.e. if

the fingerhole be

it

made

possible to place the

:

the

of a diameter smaller

millimetres than the normal one, then the correct position of the hole

to give the next note of the

1

millimetres renders

from the mouthpiece by the same n millimetres

equally true,

Inst. Orator.,

I,

11, 6

modal

and 7

series, will

be found by the same number

Comm.

in

Somn.

Scip.,

ii,

4,

s.

THE GREEK AULOS

78

The

of millimetres nearer to the mouthpiece. 1

the normal diameter of a fingerhole

is

effect of a divergence

of greater

moment on

from

the modal

than on the reed-blown pipe.

This application of an acoustic law has been largely utilized in the Candia

flute

the
pipe for the greater convenience in the disposition of the extra holes
significance of this principle is made clear later on, and the formulae con;

cerned are given in Chap.

hi.

FIND OF FRAGMENTS OF AULOI AT MEROE BY PROFESSOR JOHN GARSTANG

(LIV. UNIV.)

There are other examples of Auloi provided with

a pair of pipes in the Cyprus
to Professor

At the

J.

British

Museum in fragmentary

sliding bands, 2 e.g.

condition

is,

according

L. Myres, of the same construction as the one in Candia.

Museum

there are the two

Maenad

pipes in the Castellani

and one from Halicarnassus. An important find of fragments

by Professor John Garstang, in the ruins of the Ancient Royal

Collection,

of Auloi,

City of Meroe' in 1914, is preserved in the University Institute of Archaeology in Liverpool.

The fragments belong to the type of Aulos made of
fine ivory fitted

Bombyx

with bronze revolving rings, as described above on the

Auloi, for the extension of the compass of notes, and to enable

the Aulete to play in different

which the
are to be seen
to

gate,

who

little

Modes on

the same instrument.

The

lugs,

horns for turning the revolving rings were attached,

on Nos. 3, 4 and 5. Dr. South-

as triangular protuberances

has described the fragments, mentions the fact that the bores

of the ivory tubes of these Auloi, found at Meroe, were tested with callipers
to be perfectly cylindrical, with diameters of from -on to -016 ;
Dr. Southgate suggests that as the pipe was made with separate joints,

and found

1
The apparent contradiction as regards the effect on pitch of an increase in
(1) lowering on the bore of a pipe, and (2) raising on that of a fingerhole,
due to the following acoustic property width of diameter in (1), the bore, adds
an equivalent length to the half sound-wave produced from the end of a flute. The
whole of the bore is involved here, and consequently likewise the pitch of the note

diameter

is

of each fingerhole, provided its diameter is the same as that of the bore. In (2),
where the fingerhole has a lesser diameter than that of the bore, the effect of any
it results from
departure from the norm is in inverse proportion for this reason
the deduction in millimetres of the diameter of the fingerhole from that of the bore,
ergo the larger the fingerhole, the less is the amount of length to be added to the
half sound-wave and, therefore, the higher the pitch of the note produced through
that fingerhole. Thus, the sound-wave, instead of effecting an exit through the
diameter of the bore, finds its length determined by the opening of a fingerhole.
The diameter of this fingerhole, being less than that of the bore, must be subtracted
from the latter in order to compute its effect upon the length of the sound-wave
= x), to which this difference must be added. Moreover, the normal
(5
(i.e. Adiameter of the holes has already been taken into account in the placing of Hole 1
the correct intonation of each note of the sequence given by the equidistant holes is
:

dependent upon the diameter of the fmgerholes remaining constant, therefore, a

lesser diameter than the normal takes effect as added length, flattening the note of
the hole in question, unless the effect be compensated by placing this hole of smaller
diameter nearer the mouthpiece by the amount of the reduction in this diameter.
2
Helbig's Wandgemalde, Nos. 56, 60,
Relief in Vatican Museum, No. 535
;

730, 765, &c.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

these

may have been

fitted together in a

79

different order at times, thus

varying the disposition of the fingerholes and consequently of the intervals.

This, of course,

is

not an impossible hypothesis, but one must look below

The

the surface for the implications.

from centre

distance

to centre

between

fingerholes only influences pitch as a length in direct proportion to the

from the centre of the lower of the two holes concerned, to

the tip of the mouthpiece.
In any case, the suggestion would not apply
The Auloi are Greek
to the modal pipes having equidistant fingerholes.
in origin, and may have been the work of a fine craftsman of Corinth or
Alexandria, the cities most famous for their flutes
they were probably
brought to Meroe by visiting musicians from Greece.
Three types of single pipes were known to the Greeks
those first
described belong to the Monaulos class, (1). To the same class belong
the Pompeian Auloi in the Muzeo Nazionale of Naples, which are shown
in our plate (Plate No. 12), No. 76894 (Brogi)
one of the specimens has the
maximum number of fingerholes, viz. 15 or 16. The Maenad pipes and
the pipe from Halicarnassus are plagiauloi (Class ii).
The nXayiavXoq, so
called by the Alexandrian Greeks, was said to have been invented by Osiris 1
while Pollux 2 attributes the invention to the Libyans, and Pliny 3 to Midas
The plagiaulos, photinx ((p&riyi), or tibia obliqua, was held
of Phrygia.
like the modern concert flute, but was played by means of a reed.
The
two in the British Museum are single pipes stopped at the end the mouthpiece that projects from the side is decorated with figures of the Maenads.
A round hole at the top of the mouthpiece leads by means of a slanting
tubular passage into the main bore of the instrument and serves to hold
the reed vibrator.
There is in the British Museum a statue of Midas,
the Phrygian Aulete, playing upon the plagiaulos, the invention of which
total length,

is

ascribed to him.

The

third type of single pipe

Egypt, a

having

bamboo

is

the Syrinx monocalamus,* the nay of

blown across the end

or reed pipe,

like

the Syrinx, but

lateral fingerholes.

THE FEAT OF MIDAS OF AGRIGENTUM

Ode celebrates Midas of Agrigentum for

on the Aulos. The Scholiast says
The little tongue
having been accidentally broken by cleaving to the roof of his mouth,
Midas played on the pipes alone in the manner of the Syrinx the audience was amazed and delighted at the sound and in this way he won
the victory.' 5
It may be inferred that this performance by Midas
Pindar's Twelfth Pythian

his Solo-playing

'

Eust.,

175E, 182D
2

iv,

157, 43
;

v. Sturz,

D.

Theocritus, 20, 29

74.

Mac,

vii,

Bion,

p. 82
3,

Plut., Vol. 2, p.

961E

Athen.,

7.

204.

4
Athen., 184A. Many references to Monaulos in Ed. Lugd., m.d.lvi, Lib. iv,
Cap. xxiv, pp. 222-6.
5
Schol. vet. in Pindari carm. (ed. A. B. Drachmann, 1910), Pyth. xii
:

dvatcXaadelarjg rfjg yXwaaldog axovaicag xai 7iQooxoV,r]6eLorig

ru>

ovgavlav.cp /xovoig ToXg

xaXdfioig tqotuo avgiyyog avXrjaai, rovg Sb deardg ieviadevrag rat r\%co TEQcpdrjvai,
ovtco vixfjoai avzov.'

xai

THE GREEK AULOS

8o

was considered a somewhat sensational feat, and that the Syrinx monocalamus was not popularly known in Greece. The implications of the
Scholium are of interest. Midas was threatened with catastrophe as competitor on the Aulos at the Games, by the breaking of the tongue of the
mouthpiece as he began to play time and opportunity were lacking for
the adjustment of another mouthpiece.
It was not presence of mind alone
that saved the situation, but his skill on the Syrinx monocalamus.
His
compass on the double Auloi was a modal octave with an eventual harmonic

extension

for experiment reveals the fact that

it

is

possible to obtain

Harmonics simultaneously on both single-reed mouthpieces, but only a

skilled musician, accustomed to play these delicate reed mouthpieces, could
gauge their melodic and harmonic possibilities. One very important fact
emerges from experiments in Harmonics on these mouthpieces
that in
spite of the cylindrical bore of mouthpiece and resonator, the octave harmonic, as well as the octave obtained by shortening the tongue by half,
both come out clearly. But alas
as Aristoxenus hints in his polemic,
the instrument is subject to aberrations, gives sudden surprises, and the
story of Midas emphasizes its fragility.
In what, then, did this feat of Midas consist ? Given the boring on
his Auloi of a full modal octave (as suggested above), this would require
:

the use of both Auloi, but only one of these could be played or held as

Syrinx at one time. The Scholion does, in fact, state that Midas played
on the reeds alone (fiovoig roTg xaAdfioig) but if this is not an erroneous
report, he must have taken up and played upon the two Auloi alternately.
Moreover, the removal of the mouthpieces altogether changed the nature
of the instrument and of the blowing, for the Aulos, played as a Syrinx,
became to all intents and purposes an open pipe. Since the proportions
of a modal pipe are calculated on the combined length of the resonator and
the mouthpiece, it follows that to remove the mouthpiece alters the Mode.
But a further change has been effected
for the acoustic conditions are
now entirely altered from those of a reed-blown pipe to those existing in
a flute
there is now a need for so-called end-correction owing to the
lengthening influence of diameter.
If Midas had entered the contest with
a Dorian Aulos, with 22 as Modal Determinant, the loss of the mouthpiece
might easily change it to Hypolydian (20) or more probably to Hypophrygian
As it is an easier matter for a skilled piper to overblow on a long Syrinx
(18).
of narrow bore than to play the fundamental notes, the first overblown
tetrachord sounds an octave higher, and the second, overblown a twelfth
through the same holes, completes the octave by the repetition of the first
tetrachord on the dominant.
It was evidently the good fortune of Midas
to be playing upon a well-proportioned Aulos, with a tongue-length corresponding to the modal increment of distance, and a mouthpiece extrusion
which left the resonator an exact multiple of that increment. If the Aulos
happened to have become Hypolydian by the loss of the mouthpiece, then
the scale, from three holes with its harmonic register, became the prototype
of our modern major scale (see Fig. 24).
Plutarch 1 records that Telea

de Mus., Cap. 21, ed. Weil and Rein., 196, pp. 82-3.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AULOS IN GREEK MUSIC

phanes

of

81

Megara had such

allow his flute-makers to

fit

a dislike for the Syrinx that he would never

one to any of his Auloi, and this aversion for

the Syrinx was the principal reason for his abstention from competing at

Games. From the detailed description of the Xomos Pythicos

by Strabo, 2 introduced by the famed Sacadas of Argos (c. 580 B.C.), the
is that the obnoxious Syrinx in question was a mouthpiece having
a coarse, stiff tongue cut from the Kalamos Zeugites (y,a/.duo; fewyrr;/;),
which was eminently suitable for producing sounds suggesting the cries
of the expiring Typhon.
the Pythian

inference

Telephanes was a contemporary of Demosthenes

Strabo,

ix,

3,

10.

(b.

c.

385

B.C.).

CHAPTER

THE AULOS, PART

MODERN THEORY
;

II

ITS

III

THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND

MOUTHPIECES AND MODALITY

The Incidence of Length in Wind Instruments

The Incidence of Diameter in the Mouthpiece,
Fundamental Resonance and the Determination of Pitch. Part
played by the Mouthpiece of the Aulos. The Double-reed Mouthpiece. The
Proper Note of the Mouthpiece, Significant and Unique Property of the Doublereed Mouthpiece. The Struggle for Mastery between Mouthpiece and Resonator.
The modus operandi of the Proportional Law productive of the Harmonia on the
Aulos. Puzzling Properties of the Aulos and its Mouthpiece. Unsuspected Factor
in the Interior of the Aulos,
The Arche dominates the Inner Reactions of the Aulos
Resonator. The Plan of the Harmonia in the Interior of the Aulos, How the
Modality of an Aulos may be judged. Bulbs on an Aulos are a sign of a change of
Harmonia. Main Points concerning the Double-reed Mouthpiece. The Beating-

The Reactions

of

Reed-blown Pipes.

in the Determination of Pitch.

The Closed

Pipe

reed Mouthpiece. The double Movement of the Tongue of the Beating-reed

Mouthpiece, Implications of the Feat of Midas of Agrigentum. Plato on Empiricism in Aulos Music, Momentous Significance of Shortening the Tongue of the
Beating-reed Mouthpiece recalled. Change to Elaborate Playing on the Aulos,
Performance of Aulos Loret xxiii with Beating-reed Tongue of Mouthpiece
shortened by One-third. Piper persuaded by Pythagoras to change the Modality
of his Aulos from Phrygian to Dorian Spondaic. Examples of the Performance of
Reed Mouthpieces under various Conditions. Concerning the Octave Relation in
Auloi (Porphyry's Comm. on Ptol,, i, 8). Notes on Debatable Points in the Quotation
from Porphyry. The Ethos of the Harmonia

THE REACTIONS OF REED-BLOWN PIPES

^HIS

chapter will be concerned mainly with an investigation into

1
to the laws embodied in their
and to the musical impulses conveyed by the breath
Although it may be easy enough to produce sounds on a
pipe, the subtle processes involved are not always understood or consciously
used by the player himself. Such an inquiry is not only of some importance
for the science of acoustics, but it will also be found that the tests and
experiments here described will throw much light on the nature of the
Greek Modes. The scale given by a pipe in its simplest form, through
the position selected for the fingerholes and quite independently of what
further extension of compass may be contributed by individual players, is
of paramount importance in the elucidation of all questions bearing upon
the foundations of our musical system, in its evolution under the auspices
of Ancient Greece from still more ancient systems of the East, of which

the reactions of reed-blown pipes

JL

structure,

of the player.

The

investigation into flutes

is

postponed to Chaps,

8a

vi

and

vii.


THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY
little

83

For this reason

from the instruments must
stringed instrument belonging to a bygone age may be

authentic written information

is

available at present.

the utmost enlightenment that can be obtained

be welcomed. A
discovered, 1 but valuable as this find is archaeologically, it has little to reveal
it bears
of the music to which it gave utterance thousands of years ago
;

no record of the scale to which it was tuned. The discovery of a flute

or pipe, on the other hand, is generally but erroneously considered of much
Yet as long as a flute or pipe
slighter archaeological and artistic interest.
survives destruction, its fingerholes bear an imperishable record of the
scale for which it was made and which may be correctly read after centuries
of silence.

The discovery of a reed-blown pipe appears at first sight to be less

promising as a record, and opens an avenue to controversy, seeing that
mouthpiece has invariably perished. Nevertheless, if it be a modal
*

its

pipe (recognized as such by having

its

fingerholes bored at equal distances),

on closer acquaintance. As soon as a mouthpiece

embouchure which will play the pipe easily and freely
in its whole range, the Aulos will give a true account of itself and it will
be found more reliable even than the flute.

up

it

will yield

is

inserted into the

its

secret

LENGTH AS A DETERMINANT OF PITCH

Length
nificance in

as a

determinant of pitch

wind than

Pitch

is

is

of greater and

in stringed instruments,

problems, the solution of which

is

the result of the interaction

more abstruse

sig-

and involves many subtle

some importance to our subject.

of four main factors, which considered
of

from the point of view of practical acoustics, are as follows

(1) Length (actual and effective), of string or air column.
(2) Weight of string, or volume of air in pipes.
2
of the string, or compression of air in pipes.
(3) Tension
:

1
As, for instance, the prototypes of the Greek Kithara found by Mr. Leonard
Woolley during the excavations at Ur of the Chaldees. See also The Music of the
Sumerians, Babylonians and Assyrians, by Canon Galpin, Camb. Univ. Press, 1937,
Chap, ix (end) by K. S.
and also Review in 'Music & Letters,' April, 1938,
pp. 209-13, and in July, 1938 and October, 1938, Correspondence.
2
Tension is force applied to an elastic substance in order to increase its elasticity
and resistance and to decrease its density or weight for a given unit of length. In
The analogue in wind instrua string this is achieved by the use of tuning-pins.
ments, and more especially in the Aulos, is the compression of air induced by narrowing the aperture through which the air-stream is being driven (as in the Apple
of a flageolet or of the flue-pipe of an organ) and by reducing the capacity of the
air-chamber behind the aperture, while increasing the volume or pressure of air
a proceeding that results in a rise of pitch.
Such an increase of volume or pressure
takes place first of all in the larynx and may be experienced in singing, and also in
playing the Aulos while passing from a note of low pitch to a higher one (as already
described in Chap. ii).
The whole process is accentuated in overblowing when compression, with all
;

its

attendant subsidiary operations, increased proportionally in duple or triple ratio

produces the harmonic compass. The process initiated in the larynx
continued in the mouth, when the act of stiffening the lips while reducing the

as required,
is

THE GREEK AULOS

84
(4)

Resonance

as a factor in the determination in

reed-blown pipes,

not only of timbre but also of pitch and tonality.

The combination of
(into which we cannot

these four elements, according to acoustic laws

enter here) determines pitch.

Any

given pitch

may, however, be varied by changing the proportions of one or other of

the components, a fact understood as a general principle by Ptolemy. 1

THE INCIDENCE OF LENGTH IN WIND INSTRUMENTS, IN THE DETERMINATION

OF PITCH
In computations of vibration frequency, length which
of pitch,

is

generally regarded as the simplest of the four.

is

the basic factor

In the evaluation

some explanation of a
more practical nature than is obtainable from a treatise on acoustics.
It is a well-known fact amongst acousticians that two open pipes of
of pitch in

wind instruments,

this factor requires

do not, if played without a reed,

due to the fact that a wider bore
if the open pipe had additional
length.
But it must be stated at the outset that in reed-blown pipes
diameter is disregarded in the determination (a) of the fundamental pitch
or key of the Aulos as a whole
and (b) of the modality embodied in any
particular specimen.
In both of these contingencies the instrument is free
from the influence of diameter for the following reasons. Although the
influence of diameter on the pipe resonator is, in a restricted sense, operative
as regards pitch, this is only true of the resonator tested without mouthpiece, and is therefore negligible.
The addition of the indispensable reed
mouthpiece converts the open pipe reactions of the resonator into those
of a stopped pipe, and at the same time effectively puts an end to any
correspondence between length and pitch. Many illustrations of this fact
are provided in this section.
Moreover, the mouthpiece acting with sovereign power, selectively, upon the fundamental pitch of the resonator,
evokes the particular harmonic resonance that is best suited to reinforce
its own proper note.
The net practical result of these relations between
mouthpiece and resonator in the Aulos is that the pipe-maker is able to
dispose the fingerholes at equal distances along the pipe from the exit. He
thus avoids the distortion of the Modal Scale that would result from similar
spacing on a flute, in which the incidence of diameter is of signal importance. 8

identical length but of different diameters

give the

same

note.

The

difference

is

has the effect of lowering pitch and acts as

is accompanied by a muscular contraction of the cheeks which proportionreduces the capacity of the mouth to the quantum necessary to produce the
note of requisite pitch. The main part of the process is, of course, subconscious,
but highly significant musically, as will be realized when the three distinct kinds of
note obtainable from an Aulos mouthpiece are described. Indications of what is
taking place may be observed in the throat of a flute-player, in which the contraction
of the muscles controlling the glottis (or air-chamber) is visible as he passes from a
low note to a higher one.
1
Harm., Lib. i, Cap. viii, p. 33 sq.
Lib. 1, Cap. xi, pp. 50-4; Wallis, ed.
During, Cap. viii, p. 17
Cap. xi, p. 25.
1687
2
A flagrant case of such distortion is illustrated by the Record of Flutes, e.g.
Java No. s, Inca No. 12, Chap. x.

aperture
ally

THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

85

INCIDENCE OF DIAMETER IN THE MOUTHPIECE

In the reed mouthpiece

itself,

diameter comes into

reed type,

The

intonation.

piper

may be

whether of the double-reed or beatingits

own

in stabilizing the subtleties

of

regarded as the overlord, pronouncing

through the mouthpiece within its technical limits the last word in the
determination of the modality and tonality of the Aulos.
The primitive piper accepts at first without question the Mode bestowed

by

but when he has had time to become acquainted with the

and limitations of his instruments, and also with the Modes

his Aulos,

possibilities

We cannot afford to
any item of practical knowledge concerning the structure or
if we would understand the significant vogue of the Aulos, and the part it played in the artistic and social
life of Greece and of the ancient world generally.
How, for instance, the
Aulos came to win for itself privileges equal to those accorded to the Kithara
at the Pythian Games, in spite of Apollo's valuation of the two instruments,
signified bv the mythical contest between the god and Marsyas fsee Plate
No. 2).
With flutes, diameter is an imperious tyrant, exacting its dues to the
uttermost millimetre. Through the reciprocal workings of pitch and
length on the factor of the velocity per second of sound-waves in air,
diameter makes its legitimate demands known in aggregate form
this
means that the length of the half-sound-wave corresponding to the pitch
of the fundamental note emitted from the exit of the flute, is greater than
the actual length of the flute.
This excess, which frequently amounts to
an inch or more, is due to the lengthening influence of diameter in the
bore.
To theorists and acousticians falls the task of apportioning, amongst

they have brought him, he then assumes control.

pass ovt

playing of this remarkable instrument,

the various participants in the reactions of a

is

known

flute,

as allowance in respect of diameter.

length, this allowance

the

sum

total of

what

In computations involving

must be added to actual length, and the aggregate

for open (or closed) pipes gives the effective length

multiplied by 2 (or 4)
of the whole sound-wave.

It is this excess of the effective

length of the

half-sound-wave over the actual length of the flute that causes distortion
of the modal sequence in flutes but not in reed-blown pipes in which
the fmgerholes have been equally spaced from the exit in order to produce

Mode

Chap. vi). Unless the amount of the excess can be

correctly computed, and allowance made for it in placing the first hole
above the exit, the Mode is distorted, and the only remedy is to use the
first hole as vent, with a lower determinant and so change the Mode.
It
will be realized from these few hints (which anticipate the treatment of
this subject given under
Flutes ') how thorny is the path of the primitive
flute-maker, and how necessary it is to go carefully over the whole ground.
It is because the Aulos is exempt from the necessity of making allowance in respect of diameter that it is privileged to be regarded as Modebringer.
Observant students will probably have noticed that in many of
the Auloi especially in those used in pairs the first hole is sometimes
a

(q.v. Flutes,

'

THE GREEK AULOS

86

placed at a great distance from the

that this peculiarity does not,

diameter

The answer

exit.

How

as in the flute,

is

it,

may

they

inquire,

indicate the influence of

to this legitimate question

is

that the longer reeds

had been deliberately selected on account of their sonority and greater

beauty of tone with which the wealth of harmonic overtones, possessed
by long pipes of relatively narrow bore, endows those reeds. It follows
that the position of the first hole on the long reed is a matter of agreement
between the convenient increment of distance from fingerhole to fingerhole,
balanced by the determinant of the Harmonia selected, and the extrusion
all of which sounds very complicated,
at which the mouthpiece will play
but is nevertheless instinctively negotiated by a piper familiar with the
;

Harmoniai.

THE OPEN PIPE

We can now consider a few fundamental data concerning the relations

between length and pitch in pipes generally.
On examining a pipe open at both ends with a view to ascertaining
the pitch of

the pipe
is

is

potential resonance note, the proceeding

its

is

as follows

held in a vertical position in front of the player, the breath

directed in a thin stream, through a narrow aperture between the lips,

it impinges on the sharp further edge, e.g. as in playing the primitive

end-blown flute (not as a nay), 1 the Panpipe, or in testing the resonator

so that

of the Aulos.
If to twice the actual length of an

diameter,

we have

vibration frequency

open pipe we add twice the internal

the effective length of the complete sound-wave

is

its

equal to half that of the actual length.

In order to find the equivalent vibration frequency

(=

v.f.)

of the

fundamental of an open pipe, the velocity of a sound-wave in air at moderate

temperature (340 metres per second, i.e. actual length) must be divided by
2(L
the effective length of the complete sound-wave
A) and this

involves an operation in inverse proportion.

The

vibration frequency of the simple or half-wave

quotient then gives the

length and must be divided

it can represent the vibration frequency of the note or

complete sound-wave.
The formula for the determination of the pitch of the fundamental

by two before

1
In this instrument, used at the present day in Northern Africa and in many
other Eastern Countries, the breath-stream is directed not across the end, but propelled obliquely into the bore of the flute, thus reducing the actual length of the

instrument (see Chap, x, Table ix).

2
The v.f. of the half-wave ( = s.v.f.) the onde simple of the French and Belgian
schools is the standard mainly adopted for scientific work in French-speaking
countries
it corresponds to the actual length of an open pipe as used in this work
or to the quarter-wave length (demi-onde simple) of a closed or stopped pipe.
In
England and in Germany unless otherwise stated the complete sound-wave
Its vibration frequency (termed by the French school
length is the standard.
vibration double
[v.d.] ) is thus half that of the actual length or s.v.f., i.e. the
It must be noted that the frequency
vibration frequency of the simple or half-wave.
of the half-sound-wave is a pure convention, existing only on paper, for it cannot
be heard.

'

'

THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

may be

resonance of an open pipe

open and

the formula to an

formula
If

and

i(a)

L =

length in metres per second,

A =

internal diameter of bore, then

+
34^
A)
a(L

=.

87

stated thus (in these formulae, (a) refers

to a closed pipe)

(b)

zx No.

of

of half-sound-wave.

v.f.

x v.f. of complete sound-wave or fundamental note of pipe.

Conversely the length of an open pipe of a given diameter required
produce a note of definite pitch may be computed thus

and
to

FORMULA

=
x

v.f.

So that *
and x A

=
=

2 x effective length of sound-wave.

effective length of half -sound-wave,

length of pipe.

THE CLOSED PIPE

FUNDAMENTAL RESONANCE AND DETERMINATION OF PITCH

The fundamental resonance

or Panpipe,

Il(fl)

ascertained

is

such as a stopped organ

for a closed pipe,

by taking the

internal length of the pipe

from

with the addition of half the diameter this is equivalent to the

quarter of the length of the sound-wave and must, therefore, be multiplied
by 4 for the effective length. The Aulos with its D-R. or B-R. mouth-

end

to end,

By fundamental

piece in position has the reactions of a closed pipe.

ance

is

given

reson-

always meant, in these pages, the note obtained by blowing across

the top of a pipe or mouthpiece straw

length

it

represents the pitch value of

The fundamental

diameter.

power of the pipe which does not come

resonance

is

the

latent

into play as an actual note, but

rather as a qualitative influence, as a factor in the final settlement of the

and

tonality of the Aulos,

an index of the tonality of

as

its

harmonic

constituents.

By fundamental

note of a pipe, on the other hand,

is

note obtained from the

hole,

exit, with all fingerholes closed,

used as vent, and always left uncovered.

FORMULA

i(b)

(closed pipe)

the converse, by analogy with Formula

The formula
its

meant the lowest

or from the first

i(a)

for the determination of the pitch of a stopped pipe

actual length may, therefore, be thus expressed

when L

from

indicates the

internal length in metres.

Formula

i(b)

340 m./s.

4^L

-j

So that x
1

Formulae

and

(or

L x4+A
v.p.s. of

4x.

2)

sound-wave.

apply to the Aulos and to

its

mouthpieces as closed pipes.

THE GREEK AULOS

88

These formulae

our investigation of the structural

suffice as preliminaries to

laws which determine the characteristic features of the Aulos,

its

reactions

and behaviour, when in practical use in the Art of Music.

THE PART PLAYED BY THE MOUTHPIECE OF THE AULOS

Since the reed-blown pipe does not depend upon the operation of the

from the

actual, or from the effective,

not possible to compute the
on the Aulos without possessing
a specification of the mouthpiece to be used, and of the Mode to be obtained
by its insertion into the resonator at a fixed amount of extrusion. The
influence of diameter in cylindrical pipes has no significance in the deter-

rule for the determination of pitch

length of the pipe, as described above,

it is

vibration frequency of any note produced

mination of exact pitch in a reed-blown pipe

its influence is only effective
in the mouthpiece, and indirectly on the resonator through the mouthpiece.
;

Modality, however, not being essentially an affair of absolute, but rather

may be established on the basis of a general law of prowhich remains unaffected by the dimensions of length or diameter
In fact, it may be laid down that the law producing
modality 1 on a reed-blown pipe is independent of the actual length and
of relative pitch,

portion,

in individual pipes.

diameter of individual pipes.

Since repeated tests have proved that the actual pitch of reed-blown
pipes cannot be computed by means of Formula

the influence of the mouthpiece

II,

the implication

is

that

paramount, and overmasters that of the

is needed, therefore, for the amount
of attention and space which it is proposed to devote to these small but
important adjuncts of the Aulos, or for our treatment of these mouthpieces
as independent instruments, possessing a determinant influence on the
whole instrument, as regards pitch, ethos, modality and tonality, and in
a certain definite sense also on the music and musical system of Ancient
Greece. It is not claimed that anything approaching an exhaustive study
of the behaviour and properties of primitive reed instruments has been
achieved
the ground has merely been broken.
Nothing short of an
length of the resonator.

No

is

excuse

intimate experience of the subtle

charm and unexpected

properties and

qualities of these instruments enables the student to realize the hold they

had on the Greeks, and how they were primarily responsible for the birth
of the Harmoniai, and for what modern musicianship regards as exotic
subtleties of intonation. 2

We

will

now proceed

to

what perhaps

constitutes a

new and original

The facts
many

contribution to the study of reed instruments and mouthpieces.

have been

elicited

during experiments carried out over a period of

1
The basic lav/ of Modality and the law in operation have been fully described
Chapter II. Once the mouthpiece has been made that will play the pipe freely
and with ease, the determination of the Mode on any Modal Aulos is a simple matter

in

explained later.
2
Aristoxenus and the Intervals of Greek Music ', by R. P. Winnington-Ingram,
Class. Quarterly, xxvi, 1932, pp. 195 ff., and
Further Notes on Aristoxenus and
'

'

Musical Intervals
pp. 88-96.

',

by Kathleen Schlesinger,

Class. Quarterly, xxvii, April,

1933,

THE AULOS

IN

ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

89

innumerable mouthpieces of several varieties belonging to the

double- and beating-reeds.
Information on the laws governing
the reactions of these simple mouthpieces is not available in the text-books
consulted
and without specific knowledge on the subject, no adequate
estimate of the nature of the practical music of Ancient Greece would be
years, with

two types

possible.

THE DOUBLE-REED MOUTHPIECE

The D-R. mouthpiece may now,

as the more primitive of the two

be studied first as an independent little instrument. The type of
double-reed mouthpiece in use on the primitive Greek Aulos was obviously
not the highly sophisticated oboe reed of the present day, but the simple
ripe wheat or oat stalk, plucked from the cornfield.
For the purpose of
these tests and experiments, I have with great success used matured dry
stalks in preference to those treated by soaking, pressing and flattening,
because they were always ready for use, and proved to be of equal efficacy.
Cylindrical stalks, having round (or nearly so) apertures at exit and embouchure, are the best they are in a category by themselves, and react with
great regularity and precision to the formula I have evolved.
The straw
in its dry state does not seem to be inferior musically
fine, resonant and
very powerful tones are obtainable from straws of relatively wide calibre
and of somewhat loose, thin texture, a result probably due to elasticity.
For practical use, the treated straw, described in Chapter ii, probably has
some advantages which compensate for the time and trouble spent upon
them
but I find that with reasonable care the untreated straws last for

types,

'

years without deterioration.

Unfortunately, most of the surviving specimens of the resonators of

ancient reed-blown pipes have a bore of small calibre, and
that a particularly desirable mouthpiece
note, tone quality

and readiness

it is

often found

from the point of view of

in speaking,

is

too large to

fit

its

proper

into the pipe.

THE PROPER NOTE OF THE MOUTHPIECE

By

this is meant any note produced by the mouthpiece used alone.

found that with this type of mouthpiece there is a choice of a number
of notes of definite pitch which may be obtained, for experimental purposes,
by means of a simple calculation of a selected vibrating length (V.L.),
which is measured from the upper end (or embouchure) down the length
of the stalk, and thus determines the pitch of the note of the mouthpiece.
This vibrating length is taken into the piper's mouth and a Node is induced
by the impact of the lips (aided on a new mouthpiece by a slight pressure
of the thumb-nail), at the exact point which is to ensure the correct intonaIt is

tion of the desired note.

If the response does not

come

at once, a strong

used many times in rapid succession, will make the mouthpiece

maybe, with many rumblings. After this a soft normal
breath, without forcing, produces the note known in this work as the Norm.
It is the note that corresponds invariably in pitch with the theoretical note
indicated by the formula (to be given later) for the Vibration Length selected.
ictus breath,

speak, at

first,

THE GREEK AULOS

9o

This normal note sounds again and again, staccato and unchanged, as long
as the breathing is normal and unforced and the vibration length kept
stable. 1

Before giving the formula,

must mention that I distinguish three

same V.L. from reed-mouthpieces

different kinds of note, obtainable at the

of both types,

The

(1)

breath

is

D-R. and B-R.

norm, invariably corresponding with the formula,

used,

i.e.

when

ment

of the V.L., but

musical point of view.

it

when

normal

not forcing the tone, or making use of the glottis

This note

action for the purpose.

is

is

of a pitch determinable by measure-

not necessarily the most useful note from the

Obviously then, the norm belongs to theory rather

than to practice.
(2)

The

ictus note,

with emphasis,

when

sometimes higher in

obtained on the same V.L. as the norm, by forcing

the note bursts forth with power, sforzando, and
pitch.

It

is

an individual note,

at

present beyond

the tyranny of formulae.

(3)

The

glottis notes, likewise

obtained on the same V.L. as the

norm

by relaxing the muscles controlling the glottis, when the norm may
drop a fourth, fifth or even an octave
(b) by tension of the muscles (as
when singing a high note), which sends the pitch up and imparts a brilliant
quality.
It must be borne in mind, however, that such a note, produced
by extra tension, is proper to a relatively short length of the air column,
and is therefore not suitable as fundamental note from exit or vent. Such
use would imply a power to rise at least five or possibly more steps higher
up the Modal Scale, a power beyond the limit of these little mouthpieces
except by use of the harmonic register. 2 Musically, the mouthpiece when
used in the Aulos gives the best results with the ictus and glottis types of
note, and 3(a) must always be preferred, if a sequence of seven degrees
The reason
in the Modal Scale is to be obtained for the purpose of tests.
for this has been explained in Chapter ii
for as the fingerholes are opened
one by one, and the column of air shortened degree by degree, greater
compression of breath is required to produce the requisite rise in pitch
from the mouthpiece at the same V.L. This cannot be carried out artistically and successfully, except from the easy, free and full note of lowest
pitch at which the mouthpiece is capable of speaking by the help of the
(a)

glottis action.

In order to select a suitable and satisfactory note for the mouthpiece,

is chosen which, with the addition of the diameter of the straw

a V.L.

(entering into the computation as added length), taken four times, corre-

sponds with the effective length given in the table, in which length and
are reciprocals in the computation by the velocity of sound in air

v.f.

xlvi).

(p.

1
Should the pitch of the note change while the testes being carried out, the
V.L. should be checked, as the lips may have shifted their position and altered

the length.
2

See further on, for the discussion of the speaker-hole in connexion with the
Syrinx as
register on the Aulos and A. A. Howard's interpretation of
(Harv. Stud, in Class. Phil., Vol. iv.).

harmonic
'

speaker-hole

'

'

'

THE AULOS

ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

IN

91

Should the straw have become flattened at the embouchure by use or

by treatment, the width of the narrowed aperture is measured instead of
the diameter (the edges of the straw not included).
The most useful vibra-

my

tion lengths are, according to

experience, '058 to -063 for

17

256 or 128

332

v.p.s.,

and -075

to 'o8o for

256 or 128

D-R. mouthpiece to
norm G 15 = 375-5 v.p.s. at a V.L. of -049 to '051. Out of a
dozen or more tried at a sitting, only one D-R. mouthpiece responded,
and then grudgingly to the V.L. -051 on G, whereas as soon as I touched
the Node at -060 to -064, the F 17 spoke instantly, and the C 11 likewise
at -075 to 'o8o.
It would be interesting to hear of the experience of others
on this point. Is it a case of the personal equation or of a real difficulty ?
The length of straw designed to form a D-R. mouthpiece reacts as an
open pipe only when blown across the top, for the purpose of ascertaining
its fundamental resonance, the pitch of which is dependent upon the length
of the straw + the diameter, both multiplied by two.
But as soon as
the mouthpiece is taken into the mouth, and the Node of vibration determined by a slight pressure of the lips, the mouthpiece behaves as a stopped
pipe and speaks at the pitch proper to the V.L. + diameter taken 4 times
for the quarter- wave length, or 16 times for the whole-wave length
the
v.f. of the norm is, therefore, 4 times lower.
This value applies only to
the mouthpiece used alone.
The formula which has been used in drawing
have experienced great

difficulty in getting a

give the

up the
its

v.f.

table containing the reciprocals of effective length of the

is,

therefore, as follows

norm and

THE DETERMINATION OF PITCH FROM LENGTH ON A D-R. MOUTHPIECE

FORMULA
4 (V.L.

+ A)

m./s.

and *

4*,

VI
v.f.

of complete sound-wave.

This survey of the D-R. mouthpiece and its possibilities, when speaking
alone, impresses one strongly with its highly individual nature.
But one
wonders what happens when the mouthpiece is inserted into a resonator
possessing a fundamental resonance of its own
will the mouthpiece be
the master or will there be co-operation on an equal footing ?
:

Consult note on

Or

my

nomenclature

beginning of book.

at

y^+ A) = * V P

alternatively

'

'

S>

l6(

As an example of the working out of the formula we may

No. O4 '. The length of straw = '134
A = -004 V.L. -060

cite

'

4(-o6 4- -004)

the effective length, then

-256,

4#,

340
-m./s.
x 4

256

340
-1024

1328

and x

332

v.f.

so

D-R. mp,

THE GREEK AULOS

92

SIGNIFICANT AND UNIQUE PROPERTY OF THE DOUBLE- REED MOUTHPIECE

Not every D-R. mouthpiece will play in a given pipe, nor at a given
and therefore Mode. There is, however, a tremendously signibe placed to the credit of the D-R. mouthpiecewhich

extrusion,

ficant property to

cannot be claimed for the B-R. mouthpiece

viz. that

once happily installed

modal Aulos, the effect of the mouthpiece remains constant in tonality

and modality
and moreover, the intervals of the sequence, hole by hole,
as played by the Aulos, also remain constant over a period of years.
This
statement applies, for instance, to the Elgin Aulos, the first D-R. mouthpiece of which, tested in 1925, still plays the pipe on
128 v.p.s. in
October, 1933, with every note issuing from the fingerholes in tune, accord-

in a

C=

ing to the intervals of the sequence.

The

author possesses six D-R.

mouthpieces that give the same results on C = 128 v.p.s., while a seventh
at a different extrusion, and therefore in a different Harmonia, plays from
the same Aulos on A 27/12% = 208-6 v.p.s., giving forth intervals of

from the fingerholes, all equally true. The significance of

D-R. Mp. which establishes it as Mode-bringer will be
when the performance of Aulos Loret
two different Harmoniai, played by the same mouthpiece at a differ-

different ratios

the Aulos with

still

better appreciated further on,

xxiii in

ent extrusion

is

examined.

THE STRUGGLE FOR MASTERY BETWEEN MOUTHPIECE AND RESONATOR

We

have

now

established

on

a secure basis,

by means of two formulae,

the reciprocal relations of length and pitch in a double-reed mouthpiece

used alone, but the additional factors governing the fundamental note of
mouthpiece + Aulos resonator still remain unsettled
to what is due the
change of the proper note of the mouthpiece when inserted into the
:

resonator

The proper

note of the mouthpiece for use in a modal Aulos should

always be, as already mentioned, the lowest glottis note obtainable from

mouthpiece and resonator combined

the glottis note, although produced
on the V.L. of the norm, is not subject to computation by length, but is
governed by the laws of resonance, which still remain somewhat obscure.
One of these laws concerns the power inherent in a sounding note of
calling forth, in order to reinforce itself, a note of the same V.F. in a
body capable of periodical vibration, such as a string, or a musical instrument this is known as sympathetic vibration or resonance. There is, in
addition, the less obvious power inherent in the sounding note of a mouthpiece of drawing forth from a resonator a strong component harmonic,
such as a 5th, or a 4th or Harmonic 7th, imposing upon the resonator
its own identity, which predominates, so that the mouthpiece still remains
the more powerful of the two
or else the proper glottis note prevails in
octave relation, but always at a lower pitch than that of the resonator
taken alone, on account of the transformation of the latter, through
the addition of the mouthpiece, into a closed pipe sounding an octave
;

lower.

THE AULOS

IN

ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

93

The nature of the struggle 1 for mastery that goes on in the Aulos is
due to the latent power of resonance operating in both mouthpiece and
The

resonator.

result of the struggle is manifest in the final stability of

the fundamental of the instrument,

The

established itself as dictator.

mouthpiece

stant so long as the

and therefore the

Mode

is

is

once a satisfactory mouthpiece has

pitch of this fundamental remains, con-

not shifted,

not altered.

i.e.

the

amount

The opening

of extrusion,

of the fmgerholes

then produces notes in accordance with proportional length from the centre
of the hole to the tip of the mouthpiece, but always in relation to the

fundamental note of the Aulos

and the resonator pipe reinforces each
one
for the opening of a fingerhole virtually creates a new resonator of
;

the same pitch as the note of the fingerhole, or harmonically related to

It is

it.

important in this connexion to remember that the distance from

by one,
of one segment

hole to hole from the exit upwards, as the fingers are lifted one

does not represent length convertible into pitch but the ratio

modal sequence from the Tonic. The interval produced,

from Hole 1 to Hole 2 may be -U- with one mouthpiece in
or i- with the same mouthpiece, or another, at a different
extrusion.
The whole significance of fingerholes in the Aulos is based on
proportion, calculated in the following manner
the length from the centre
of Hole 2 to the tip of the mouthpiece, which has produced the interval
{J- from Hole 1 used as a vent (or Tonic), is not reckoned qua length but
as the multiple of the increment of distance between Holes 1 and 2, which
here contains 10 of the increments.
The uncovering of Hole 3 will shorten
that length by one more increment, leaving 9 of these and producing a
note in the ratio of T9T to that of Hole 1.
Of course, the length would
be the same whether measured by rule or by increments, but the reciprocal
pitch equivalents of the length by Formula i would probably be wide of
the mark 2 whereas if calculated by the ratio of the increments on the
V.F. of the fundamental, they will be found correct theoretically for the
modal degree in question, and for the actual note of the practical test.

to another in the
for instance,

position

and

if-

We now have to face new difficulties, for the resonator holds a check
over the mouthpiece in the matter of calibre ; and many an excellent
mouthpiece has to be rejected because
to enter the bore of the resonator. 3

its

When

external diameter
this difficulty has

is

too great

been

safely

negotiated by the provision of a mouthpiece of smaller calibre, modality

may

still

hold the mouthpiece in check (as seen in

length of extrusion required by the

Harmonia

This struggle

when

3
),

owing

to the

in order to complete the

multiple of the increment of distance required by the

1

fn.

Modal Determinant.

two or three conbetween that and its higher

octave and then plunges back into the sequence controlled by the holes.
is

sometimes audible,

secutive notes, the Aulos drops

down

as

after playing

a 4th, hesitates

2
Instances of actual correspondence in absolute pitch are quite exceptional.
See Records of Performance of Auloi.
3
The Aulos numbered Loret xxvii (Chap, x) furnishes an example of this
when mouthpiece xxvii(a), which gave a fine tone in the resonator at Ext. = -088
had to be rejected because the Harmonia required an extrusion of only -065 and the
mouthpiece could not be pushed in so far.

THE GREEK AULOS

94
It is clear,

could not

for instance, that with an extrusion of -055, the

make use

alternative

is

either to

fit

11

best norms, viz.

its

(=

v.p.s.)

256

Mode, having a higher determinant number, by

by one or even two increments.

How

this

mouthpiece

F 17 (= 332 v.p.s.)
with a V.L. of -080. The
a different mouthpiece, or to play in another

of either of

with a V.L, of -060, or

was achieved and concealed

vase paintings reproduced in Chapter

ii,

increasing the extrusion

in practice

is

revealed by the

which the Aulete

in

is

seen adding

a bulb over the mouthpiece of his Aulos, to conceal the extra length of

the shank.

If the increased extrusion leaves the

Aulos unchanged, the result

is

fundamental note of the

but if with a mouthhappened to fall

Harmonia

a different

piece at longer extrusion, the pitch of the fundamental

to that of a lower degree of the original

Mode, the lengthened

would bring about

This

An

a change of species.

is

extrusion

the exception.

such a change of Mode, brought about by pulling

out the mouthpiece to the length required for the additional increment of
distance (= '028) demanded by the new Mode, based upon a higher Deterillustration of

may be quoted here from our record of Aulos Loret xxiii (q.v.),
D-R. mouthpiece N. 32 was used in the pipe and at an extrusion of 099
and a V.L. of -060 (= F 17 as norm), the Aulos played the first tetrachord

minant,

Harmonia of Determinant

of the Lydian

on

13,

its

proper Tonic,

11

128

(=

216-6 v.p.s.) from Hole

D-R.

MOUTHPIECE

N. 32

216-6

V.f.

Holes

AT AN EXTRUSION OF
234-6
2
12

13

Ratios of length

as vent with all notes in tune, viz.

13

it

10

13

13

II

138-5

Intervals in cents

150

165

(Dated Nov.

4,

1933)

Diminished 4th

13

IL_

SCHEME

099.
281-6

256

454 cents

10

The mouthpiece,
it

untreated, had not been used for several months, but

played at once with a firm, rich tone on

^
-, as

recorded, on April 24,

128

Then, without pausing,

1933, testifying to the stability of its intonation.
the mouthpiece was pulled out to extrusion -127, thus adding the length
of one

more increment,

in spite of the

1%

128

216-6

now totalled 14, the Modal Determinant

The result was eminently satisfactory for

so that they

of the Mixolydian Harmonia.

added length, the Aulos

v.p.s.,
r

still

a fact that deserves

played on the same fundamental

some

attention.

Here we have

an increment of distance added, i.e. increased length, that on a string would

have meant a different species taken in the same Mode, but on a lower
Tonic, bearing the ratio number of the

new Modal Determinant.

THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

On

95

the Aulos, however, by virtue of the unique conditions characterizing

the behaviour and reactions of the mouthpiece, the pitch of the lengthened

Aulos remains the same, but the fingerholes now give out notes of different
intonation, corresponding to the ratios of the new Medal Determinant
14, as seen in the second scheme below.

D-R.

MOUTHPIECE

32 AT AN EXTRUSION OF -127 ON

N.

2l6'6

V.P.S.

128

234

SCHEME
2i6'6

v.f.

Holes

233-3

2527

2747

12

11

13

14

Ratios of length

II

14

14

II

128

4i7'4

150-3

138-5

Diminished 4th

14

14

II

Intervals in cents

v.p.s.

cents

For a comparison of the actual practical results given above for Loret
xxiii with mouthpiece N. 32, with the theoretical v.f. worked out by
formula (see below).

LYDIAN HARMONIA

__ 34
L(=

-265)

m./s.

+ Ext.(=
=

364

=
-099)

4* and x
T

233-5 v f ->
'

B
i.e.

13
5-

v.p.s.

128

and

MIXOLYDIAN
HARMONIA

340

I^rrE,^,,^ "'^
4

217 y **" 1JB

i3\

Irf}

L_=- 39 a_J
shows that the vibration frequencies of Aulos

xxiii

played in the Mixolydian

Harmonia, at extrusion -127, agree, note for note, with those derived from
the working out of the formula, but with this difference
the theoretical
working out by lengths, through the addition of an increment of distance,
:

makes the change one of Species, whereas in practice it is one of Mode.

This correspondence of practice with the theoretical formula must be
regarded as purely accidental it is the exception. The strange phenomenon
is thus witnessed of an Aulos played in two Harmoniai in quick succession,
;

The

v.f.

given here

of the actual sounds.

modal piano, tuned

is

not the theoretical one calculated by formula, but that

The fundamental

to the

13

corresponds with that note on

128 v.p.s. x 22

2i6'6 v.p.s,

13

Each of the

ratios is

my

Dorian Harmonia of Determinant 22, calculated thus

computed from the fundamental

THE GREEK AULOS

by the same mouthpiece, drawn out

to a different extrusion,

when added

length does not result in lower pitch, but produces instead the same

fundamental note.
The change of modality is significant. The added increment reacts
proportionally on the intervals of the modal sequence obtained through
the fingerholes
the denominator of the fundamental note of the Aulos
is changed, without alteration of pitch, from
to \ and with it the ratios
of the whole sequence.
When it is realized that this change of modality and of ethos is effected
by the same mouthpiece merely through the addition of an increment,
adding a few millimetres (28) to the length, without change of Tonic, it
is clear that latent in this little D-R. mouthpiece is to be found the secret
of modality.
The length of the column of air from centre to centre of
the fingerholes remains as before, the same for each, but the one added
increment of length possesses, through proportion, the power to change
the ratios and vibration frequencies of all the notes obtained through the
fingerholes.
Herein lies one of the differences between the modal reaction's
of strings and of pipes.
On strings a change of Mode on a common Tonic
involves a different I.D., consequent on a higher or lower Determinant,
whereas in the Aulos, the I.D. remains of the same length, determined
;

by the

fingerholes, in a primitive instrument. 1

In Ancient Greece such an Aulos, when played, would have had two
bulbs with an extrusion of the mouthpiece to -099, and we might have
seen the Aulete adding a third bulb after pulling out the shank of the

mouthpiece to

-127. 2

The modern

oboe, needless to say, possesses none of the characteristic

modal Aulos, for the intervals provided by the boring of
and not proportionally related to each other or to
the fundamental
its mouthpiece, moreover, has undergone radical changes.

features of the

holes are irrational,

its

MODUS OPERANDI OF THE PROPORTIONAL LAW PRODUCTIVE OF THE HARMONIA

ON THE AULOS
Thus, the primitive mouthpiece of the Aulos was endowed with the
power of changing the Harmonia for which the holes had originally been
bored. This unique feat was accomplished, as we have seen, by merely
pulling the mouthpiece out, or pushing it further into the Aulos, not at
random, however, but to the extent of one or more increments. A variation
in the number of increments of distance means a change of Determinant
and, therefore, of Harmonia.
1

Towards the

close of

Chap,

ii,

there

is

a description of certain devices calculated

make it possible
more than one Mode on the same Aulos, and to modulate from one to
Allusion is here made to the sliding bands and to the bombyces or

to counteract the disadvantages of fixed fingerholes, in order to

to obtain

another.

additional tubes.
2

A bulb,

Department

found with the Elgin Aulos, which may be seen in the Graeco-Roman
Museum, measures about -045 (not quite 2 in.). These

at the British

bulbs were probably

(see

made

of various lengths according to the I.D. of the Aulos

photograph No. 17 of Elgin Aulos, Chap.

x).

THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

Now, how does

97

our thesis ? Does it invalidate

was a Mode-creator ? Let us see.
deliberate change of Harmonia is the privilege of cultured musicians,
this affect the basis of

the claim that the Aulos

not of the primitive piper

the latter proceeds empirically, feeling his

way in the dark as he goes, guided by intuition or instinct it may take

him months, years, or half a lifetime to learn his lesson but beyond all
doubt the lesson was learnt
that the Harmoniai duly came to birth on
the Aulos, and were cherished by the Greeks and by other nations in the
Ancient East. There is much to follow concerning this power to change
the Harmonia, by merely altering the extrusion of the mouthpiece, which
implies a period far removed from early beginnings.
The Harmoniai had,
;

in fact, at such a time, already

embodied

been practised and adopted

as the language

Since the Harmoniai are based upon a natural law of proportion

of Music.

and flutes alike, the same for all races and all ages,
it is legitimate to supplement the evidence from Ancient Greek sources
about early pipe-playing by what we can leam from the pipe-making
among the folk in our own Europe, or from primitives in distant lands.
What they are able to accomplish in our own time with the same crude
means at their disposal, and to preserve unchanged when handed down
from one generation to another, justifies us in deducing similar practices
among the ancient nations. This reasoning is more especially applicable
to the Greeks who have, in addition, provided evidence of the survival of
the Aulos scales, at successive stages in the development of Music by
their race, in their civilization, and in others derived from it.
in all pipes

it claimed or proven, first of all, that the genesis of a Harmonia can

when all the increments of distance are absolutely exact ? To
an unqualified negative must be returned. The increments may and
do vary by an excess, negative or positive, by as much as 5 or 8 mm.,

Is

only occur
this

when there are six fingerholes and only one shows an abnormal
is the case in the Elgin Aulos 1.
It would, moreover, be a
happening that the unsophisticated piper, in his early gropings in
modality on the Aulos, would frequently have an excess, negative or positive,
in the amount of extrusion he gave to the mouthpiece.
It must have caused
the primitive piper a pleasurable excitement when he found that by drawing
out his mouthpiece a little further from the Aulos, he could get instead
of his Dorian Harmonia, by whatever name he called it the Phrygian
sequence played by a friend on his own pipe. Such a discovery probably
stimulated curiosity as to the reason for this, and no doubt led to further

especially

excess, as
likely

revelations.

The

fact that the piper did frequently hit

amount of extrusion

for his

upon the

right

mouthpiece while experimenting, need not

cause surprise, for the lay of the fingers on the equidistant holes would

him to adopt the I.D.

however, a fact worth noting that this excess in question

subconsciously predispose
It

is,

may

occur without distortion of the Harmonia, provided that it is appreciably

less than the half increment.
The result of such slight excesses is loss
of freedom and ease in the production of tone
loss of stability and tone
;

quality

and

in addition to these penalties there

may

occur, with pipes

THE GREEK AULOS

98

having six or seven holes, a slight flattening in the two highest notes,
which does not, however, amount to a distortion of the Mode. A practical
proof of this assumption has been afforded by numerous experiments tested

by means of

a carefully

and accurately marked monochord

for all seven

of the original Harmoniai. A case in point is the first interval of the Elgin
Aulos with an I.D. of -040, whereas the mean is -032. This Aulos was
recently tested again on this point with D-R. mouthpiece CI. 18 ; at first
the C = 128 v.p.s. was difficult to obtain as fundamental for Hole 1.
On
investigation, it was found that the V.L. used had been much too long,
viz. -075 instead of -060 1 as soon as this had been rectified, the whole
sequence was played in perfect tune on C = 128 v.p.s. as in previous tests.
Particular notice paid to the intonation of Hole 2, at a ratio from Hole 1
of -LjL, testified that this was invariably played in perfect tune in spite of
the excessively large I.D. between Holes 1 and 2.
For further confirmation
of the practical bearings of the basic law of the Harmonia, examination
of the Records is invited.
-,

PUZZLING PROPERTIES OF THE AULOS AND ITS MOUTHPIECES

We

have seen that the length from exit or vent to the tip of the moutha multiple of the I.D. in order to produce the Harmonia,
and that a shift of the mouthpiece by adding or removing one or more
I.D. effects a change of Harmonia.
According to the number of increments,
the fundamental note from exit or vent may thus be represented on paper
piece

must be

by a

differentiated unit, such as j, -ff, &c, while the pitch of the fundamay be unaffected by the altered length (e.g. as recorded under
Aulos Loret xxiii played by D-R. mouthpiece N. 32). Does this differentiated fundamental then exist only on paper to be allotted retrospectively ?
Is it a practical reality or merely an abstract notion ?
The fact that when
Hole 1 is uncovered the vibrating column of air within the pipe may, by
one shift of the mouthpiece, lose tl of its length, at another shift -jL or J^,

mental

in spite of the fixed position of the fingerholes

consequently, three or

more notes of

from the same hole, while remaining

one modal sequence or another, seems
is

may

I.D.,

and

that,

at times issue

and constant as members of

demand some explanation which

to

not available in text-books.

The crux
is

and of the

different pitch

stable

of these puzzling properties of the Aulos

and

its

mouthpiece

evidently connected with the I.D., since absolute length as determinant

of pitch

is

excluded, a fact which points at once to proportion as the

alternative principle.

We

must here recall (cf. Chap, i) the results of an aliquot division of

string or pipe by a determinant number, which may be made in two
different ways
or end of any one
(1) A very slight exciting cause at a nodal point
of the equal segments produces the harmonic overtone (or partial) bearing
:

It

may be noted

proper note
of a 4th or 5th.
as

D.R-mp. with A of -004 or -005 gives

induces a proportioned resonance on a C fundamental

that a V.L. of -060 in a

17, i.e.

it

THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

same number

the

in the

Harmonic

99

Series as the Determinant of the aliquot

division.

definite stop (made on a string by finger or movable bridge, on

by the uncovering of a fingerhole) will produce the note of the
Harmonic Series, that bears the same numeral as the number of
increments of distance between that hole and the tip of the mouthpiece.
That same numeral also figures as the numerator of a fraction of the
whole length, the denominator of which consists of the Determinant of
the aliquot division.
In No. 1 each aliquot division produces but one
and the same Harmonic by slight impact at any of the nodal points.
In No. 2, each segment, as we know, produces a different member of
the reversed series.
The Harmonics may be considered as always latent,
(2)

a pipe

reversed

ready to spring into being in response to a stimulus

they may exist as
constituents of the fundamental of the Aulos, influencing its tone-quality
and resonance or they may be produced as active notes and integral parts
;

of the compass extended to

its

harmonic

register.

UNSUSPECTED FACTOR IN THE INTERIOR OF THE AULOS

These preliminary remarks may prove helpful in grasping the implicamade, of the presence in the Aulos itself
of an unseen and unsuspected factor, which preserves and co-ordinates the
increments of distance and fixes the proportional value of each of these.

tions of a suggestion about to be

When

the fingers cover the holes, the soft pads of the fingertips or the

below the surface, and a

nodal point, coinciding with the centres of the fingerholes, is formed by
the compression in the column of air under the fingers.
Thus, inside the
Aulos there exists a concrete plan of the position of the fingerholes, and

joints only penetrate to a very short distance

therefore of the increments of distance separating the centres

to hole.

This internal concrete plan becomes active as soon

from hole

as the piper

breathes into the Aulos and the vibration at the centres of the holes

be

felt as it tingles

column of

air

The

against the fingers.

line followed

the rough diagram below at (a)

The

(a)

The

effect

may

stationary

Plan of the Harmonia in the Interior of the Aulos

OOOOOO

by the

within the Aulos thus assumes a shape somewhat resembling

on the column of

A
air in

The Aulos

the interior of the Aulos

indentations represent the centres of the covered fingerholes in the

and denote the position and nature of the stimulus

is induced to vibrate in
segments in response to the breath of the piper propelled through the
mouthpiece and the resonator.

interior of the Aulos,

provided, with the effect that the column of air

THE GREEK AULOS

100

THE ARCHE DOMINATES THE INNER REACTIONS OF THE AULOS RESONATOR

By analogy with
at

strings, in

our argument, Nodes must surely be formed

the internal centres of the fingerholes, while the fingers cover them.

The

one of the Nodes

calls forth a faint response from

Harmonic related to the aliquot, as described in No. i above
this
Harmonic remains latent as a factor of resonance in the fundamental produced by blowing, with all holes closed
but it is more significant still
in its function of Arche or first cause of the Harmonia.
The Arche is a
note not otherwise obtainable on the Aulos, for reasons already given,

slight

impact

at

the

except as Mese, a lower octave of Arche.

The opening

of the fingerholes in turn reduces the total length each

time by one I.D. but leaves the remaining internal Nodes and their latent
effect unchanged.
It is

when Hole

is

uncovered

after playing the

fundamental that the

astonishing transformation takes place, from the partial vibration of the

pipe that produces the murmuring overtones as a consequence of a slight

impact, to the complete vibration of the whole column of air as a full-

What

is that the transformation from a latent

Harmonic
from the Arche in the well-known progression,
proceeds downwards on the return journey towards the fundamental, from
which it originally derived. Thus it is that in the pipe the nodal point,
always present on the inner surface, exercises a twofold function alternatively, according as the holes are open or closed.
The influence of the
fingerholes may be thus briefly stated
when closed, one constituent
Harmonic, the same for all the closed holes ; when open, the full-voiced
note from each open hole that is proper to its position in the modal sequence,
founded upon the reversed Harmonic Series of the M.D. Change in the
extrusion of the mouthpiece involves the following alterations in the inner
reactions of the Aulos
(i) the length of the column of air
(2) the determinant number of the aliquot division ; (3) the ratio of the fingerholes
(4) the constituent Harmonic induced at the nodal points, which functions
as Arche of the Harmonia while the fingerholes are closed.
When all holes are closed the pulses, initiated by a slight stimulus at
the nodal points, contribute together one single powerful harmonic constituent to the fundamental tone
its identity is determined by the number
of increments contained between the exit (or the centre of Hole 1 used
as vent) and the tip of the mouthpiece
viz. 1 1 in the Elgin Aulos at
Extrusion -108, i.e. the sharp Harmonic 4th or nth Harmonic. This
member of the Harmonic Seriesthe same for all nodal points -is the
Arche of the Dorian Harmonia, which remains as a latent force in the
pipe, manifested only through one of its lower octaves, as Mese when
Hole 4 is uncovered. The pitch of Arche is, as already seen, directly due
to the mouthpiece as determinant factor in the tonality of the Aulos.
The
opening of Hole 2, at 10 increments from the tip of the mouthpiece, produces as actual note the 10th in the reversed Harmonic Series of which

voiced note.

murmur

not realized

is

to an actual note likewise involves the reversal of the

Series which,

starting

THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

Arche
&c.,

number

is

all

one.

The

101

third hole at 9 increments, the fourth at 8,

follow the same process of genesis.

When

is pushed in to the extent of one I.D. (-032),

1
from -108 to -076, one of two things
fundamental note of the vent remains at the same
pitch, but with a change in the tone quality due to the 10th Harmonic
(major 3rd) which now takes the place of the nth as principal constituent

the mouthpiece

reducing the extrusion in Elgin

occurs

either the

of the timbre.
The alternative is that the fundamental and the
Harmonic both change with the shift of the mouthpiece. It
be realized how it may come about as a consequence of the
function of the fingerholes when closed, that the timbre of the Aulos may
change with the Harmonia.

Harmonic

constituent
will thus

THE PLAN OF THE HARMONIA IN THE INTERIOR OF THE AULOS

Is this suggestion of the existence in the interior of the

of the grouping of the fingerholes at equal distances, with

Aulos of a display

all its

implications,

merely a figment of the imagination a paper theory ?

Let it be banished from our minds for the time being, while we endeavour
to discover an alternative explanation for the results obtained from the

a reality, or

is

it

tests.
1, which played, with six different
an extrusion of -108, and an I.D. (mean) of -032,

Consider, for instance, Elgin Aulos

D-R. mouthpieces,

at

Harmonia of Modal Determinant n, beginning

C = 128 v.p.s. The length from the centre
= -244 + 'io8 = -352. With no
visible or implied guidance for the vibrating column of air, it seems reasonable to assume that the first increment of distance (at -040), 1 which becomes
effective' as Hole 2 is uncovered, should set the pace and form the obvious
proportional basis for the Modal Genesis and scale, by providing the Modal
the sequence of the Dorian

Hole

used as vent, on

of Hole

to the tip of the mouthpiece

at

Determinant now clearly 9.

But this sequence on paper bears no resemblance whatever to the actual
one obtained on the Elgin Aulos with any of its mouthpieces at extrusion
108.
Yet the total length as multiple I/040 x 9 = -360
or -039 x 9
= "351], with a slight defect of only 8 mm. to be spread over the 9 increments, is unexceptionable. Why is this ? There must be a flaw somewhere
to produce such a hitch between theory and practice.
The first I.D. is certainly in excess of the mean, but in playing Hole 2,
;

8-8 or 9

and better

still

-353

-f-

-039

039 x 9

-351)

This Modal Determinant should give the sequence of the Hypophrygian Harmonia
thus

Holes
Ratios

Cents

204

231

26J

316

386


THE GREEK AULOS

102
the

column of

stimulated into vibration by the breath of the piper,

air,

is

How, then, may one account

Aulos nevertheless behaves emphatically in favour
of an I.D. at -032, obtainable only as a mean of all the increments
and that it plays the sequence for which Determinant 11 can alone be
not cognizant of any of the other increments.
for the fact that the

responsible

In the face of such uncompromising

of the reed mouthpiece

which

results,

it is

evident that the action

induced by some physical stimulus

The Aulos unequivocally elects to
play the sequence based upon the mean I.D., instead of being influenced
by the first I.D. from Hole 1 to 2, with which it is brought into actual

must be allowed

vibratory contact

is

to point the way.

it

is

clear, therefore, that

some physical stimulus has

been received on the way down before it reached the first I.D., or else
the Elgin Aulos 1 under conditions mentioned above would certainly
have played the sequence of the Hypophrygian Harmonia produced by
Determinant 9.
Further,

if

the suggested influence of the covered holes at the inner

all its implications, be allowed, then it is found

from the mouthpiece down the bore of the Aulos,
column of air in vibration, it stimulates the fingerhole centres
on its way, creating Nodes and segments in the column of air, corresponding
in length with the increments of distance on the outer surface.
The result
is that the aliquot division initiated inside the pipe from the mouthpiece
end takes the mean as I.D., and that the Modal Determinant is fixed

surface of the pipe, with

that as the breath travels
setting the

already during the

first

quarter of the sound-wave's complete journey,

which covers four times the distance between the tip of the mouthpiece
and the outlet at Hole 1 in the Elgin Aulos.
Since the properties of the mouthpiece of the Aulos clearly rule out
length as a basis of computation by the usual Formula No. vi for the
intonation of the notes produced through the fingerholes, it was seen that
the reed-blown pipe must be subject to some other law.
This was found
to be based upon the proportion that exists between the equal distance
from centre to centre of the fingerholes and the total length of Aulos +
mouthpiece. This could be easily measured
and one by one the implications were revealed as forming part of a new musical fact, confirmed by
practical experiments which bore out the theory.
So far, so good. But
the modus operandi of the proportional law on the reed-blown pipe had
until now remained a mystery, to which the suggestion here offered may
;

provide a clue.

The arguments
and must hold the

in favour of the
field until

new

disproved.

suggestion seem to be conclusive,

They provide an

the intimate connexion that exists between the

nized in

its

explanation of

Series recogand the

Harmonic

ascending form as the physical basis of sound

series

reversed in direction, but identical in the order and magnitude of the intervals
of the sequence, introduced in this
in

work

as the origin of the

Modes, known

Ancient Greece as Harmoniai.

In the Aulos this intimate connexion between the two forms of the

THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

Harmonic

Series

is

103

thus seen to be preserved as an imperishable record

so long as the instrument survives.

HOW THE MODALITY

MAY BE JUDGED

OF AN AULOS

In order to judge at a glance whether a specimen pipe is a modal Aulos,

one must examine the distances between the lateral holes, measured from
centre to centre
should these be perceptibly unequal, the pipe is not a
modal one. Disregarding the distance from the exit to the centre of the
;

first hole,

if

these successive distances,

only by some 5 mm., or something

one of the 7 Harmoniai, or one of

w hen

accurately measured, differ

less,

the pipe has modality

it

gives

If the distance from

found to measure one or more increments,
the matter is easily readjusted, but the distance is only too frequently
incommensurate and intended to be disregarded.
Unfortunately specimens in museums and collections will lack a mouth-

the exit to the centre of Hole

its derivatives.

is

piece, since these delicate, essential parts of the pipe are the first to perish.

The

first step,

therefore,

is

to provide the pipe with a

mouthpiece that

play the fundamental very freely, for in the mouthpiece

will

the crux of

lies

and without it the modality cannot be ascertained. All

attempts to judge the scale of a pipe from a photograph, or from a description, even when accompanied by the requisite measurements, must be
regarded as hypothetical and approximate, and not as data on which a
For, however well the theory appeared to work
theory may be based.
and in any case, the
out, it might be entirely upset by the mouthpiece
omission of the extrusion length from the calculation would falsify the
result and be misleading.
it may be taken as fixed by
The method of procedure is as follows
experiment that the ideal conditions under which the Aulos functions
demand (a) that the V.L. of a D-R. mouthpiece, or the vibrating tongue
The
of a B-R. mouthpiece, should be equal to one I.D. or more not less.
V.L. is naturally limited by the capacity of the receptacle, i.e. the mouth

the problem,

cavity
(b)

that the mouthpiece should protrude

from the reed pipe beyond

the base of the vibrating tongue of the B-R. mouthpiece or the

vibration on the
(c)

D-R. mouthpiece by

minimum

Node

of

of il cm. (-015);

therefore the extrusion of the mouthpiece should not measure less

than '045 or ^05 for a B-R. mp. and c. -075 for the D-R. mp.
To determine the Mode, find the modal theoretical length (0.L) of the
pipe
the

-\-

mouthpiece

in

position,

i.e.

it

projects

by the increment

of distance, or the

are not exactly equal to a millimetre or two

ext.)

beyond the point

leaves the pipe, to the tip of the vibrating tongue

total length

(=

at the correct extrusion

amount by which the reed mouthpiece

which

mean

if

the result

i.e.

at

divide this

the distances
is

the

Modal

Determinant of the Harmonia.

Obviously the theoretical length of a Modal Aulos cannot be computed
in the absence of a mouthpiece, which actually plays the pipe with ease
Nor can it be
at a definite extrusion, and on a good, low glottis note.

THE GREEK AULOS

104

may only be played with one mouthpiece at a given

and therefore that the fmgerholes indicate one Harmonia only. 1
It is assumed, of course, that the mouthpiece has been satisfactorily
tried in the pipe and is playing on a low glottis note.
If after playing one
or two notes the mouthpiece should refuse to continue, a different V.L. may
be tried
or the extrusion and Harmonia may be changed.
asserted that an Aulos
extrusion,

BULBS ON AN AULOS ARE A SIGN OF A CHANGE OF HARMONIA

It will be realized that the correct amount of extrusion of the shank of
is of great importance in maintaining the modal
sequence in tune, and in the theoretical determination of modality. This
extrusion, however, is a variable factor in one sense, for upon it depends
the modality of the Aulos ; therefore, any change in extrusion, when the
length has once been adjusted, has results which must be duly considered.
Any modification of this extrusion should maintain the modal relations of

the straw mouthpiece

the pipe,

i.e.

as a multiple of the I.D., otherwise distortion of the

sequence of intervals from the lateral holes will

extrusion of the mouthpiece may be considered as
Mode of the Aulos and the bulbs as an outward
modality. Thus, when a piper is seen removing
Aulos, this means that he is about to shorten the
piece and that his

Modal Determinant

ensue.
a

means

modal

This being

so,

of changing the

sign of such changes of

the third bulb from his

extrusion of the mouth-

be a lower number, e.g.

instead
of 12, Dorian instead of Phrygian
13 instead of 14, Lydian instead of
Mixolydian, &c. Bulbs may be used with both types of mouthpiece.
will

TEN MAIN POINTS CONCERNING DOUBLE- REED MOUTHPIECES

The main points elicited during our survey of the reactions of the D-R.
mouthpiece, used alone or when inserted into the Aulos resonator, are the
following
(1)

The

determination of pitch in a D-R. mouthpiece

is

based upon

the V.L. plus the diameter of the straw, taken as for a stopped pipe, four

and used as a divisor of the 340 metres that represent the velocity
per second of sound (as actual length) in air at a moderate temperature.
(2) In the determination of the pitch of a D-R. mouthpiece, the length
of the stalk of the straw has no influence.
(3) A consideration of the resonance note of the whole mouthpiece
may, however, be useful in improving the tone of the mouthpiece.
(4) The determination of pitch in the combined Aulos and mouthpiece
is more particularly the affair of the mouthpiece, the proper note of which
governs that of the composite instrument by accommodation through

times,

resonance.
(5) The fundamental note of the Aulos, whether from exit or from
Hole 1 as vent, once the relations between mouthpiece and resonator have
been satisfactorily settled, remains constant for years (judged from experience),
1

xxiii and xxvii, &c.

also Pythagoras and
and the Phrygian Melos. Iamblicus, Vita Pythag.,

See records of Elgin Aulos, Loret

the Piper of the Spondaic

Chap. xxv.

Hymn

PLATE

13


THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

105

is used at the same extrusion and V.L.,

same Harmonia. The fundamental changes only when those
factors are in any way altered.
(6) The intervals of the modal sequence obtained by opening the
Fingerholes in succession, from the exit upwards, are fixed by exact ratios
dependent upon the Modal Determinant of the Aulos in any particular
combination
thus the pitch of the fingerholes is relative, based by virtue
of these ratios upon that of the fundamental. 1
The intervals remain constant

30

i.e.

long as the same mouthpiece

for the

so long as the conditions are

(7) It

may

with

its

unchanged.

thus be said that the D-R. mouthpiece preserves the integrity

of the notes of the

Modal

fundamental

(cf.

Scale, according to the ratio proper to each hole

Chap. ii). But this statement applies only to

Determinant in command at the time, not
it is being used.

fingerholes in relation to the

to the hole per

Pitch and ratio

se,

independently of the Harmonia in which

may be

Multiply the

v.f.

of the

upon the string

by means of a simple calculation.
by the ratio of each
numerator the Modal Determinant,

checked, note by note, in practice

of a modal monochord, and in theory

common Tonic

or fundamental

improper fraction having as

and as denominator the ratio number of the fingerhole). Thus, for Holes 1
and 2 in an Aulos playing in the Dorian Spondaic, Determinant 11, on
interval (an

C =

128 v.p.s. from exit

11

v.f.

Hole

10

= v.f. Hole 2.

In the Aulos played with a D-R. mouthpiece we have the bringer

and custodian of the Harmoniai, an instrument upon which absolute reliance
can be placed, so long as the essential conditions of structure and playing
'

(8)

'

are fulfilled.
(9) One more property peculiar to the Aulos of this type must be recalled
which is of supreme importance to the thesis of the work, viz. that
with the D-R. mouthpiece a complete octave scale, i.e. the aQpovia, can be

here,

difficulty, whereas this feat lies beyond the scope of the

B-R. mouthpiece, which can only quite exceptionally, and at the cost of
great straining of the glottis action, exceed a range of 4 or 5 notes in sequence.
This, moreover, entails a loss of the peculiar beauty of timbre, otherwise
characteristic of this type of mouthpiece.
As examples, the Elgin Aulos,
Loret xxvii and xxviii, may be cited for which the individual records should
be consulted.

obtained without

(10) Finally, the Aulos, within certain technical limits,

one, two, or even three related Harmoniai,

metical progression of their

i.e.

may accommodate

related through the arith-

Modal Determinants.

It is

not,

of course,

suggested that the theoretical data discussed in this section formed part of
1

The

statement of Aristides Quintilianus (p. 18M.) in his discussion on the

Harmoniai of the Ancients may be recalled here. He calls attention to the common
Tonic or fundamental and its implications thus
Accordingly it is clear that if
one takes the same sign' first (i.e. the same starting-note) and calls it at different
times by the different value of the note (dvvafiig ipdoyyov), the nature of the Harmoniai is made manifest from the sequence of consecutive sounds.' He also mentions
the fact that the scales have different names according to their. species.
See also
'

Chap.

ii.

THE GREEK AULOS

io6

or that a knowledge of the theory underHarmoniai upon his Aulos would have been helpful
All that was necessary for him as a practical musician,
to him in playing it.
he acquired by empirical methods, intuitively, and guided by an inherent
feeling for proportion, lost only when the primitive becomes sophisticated.
It may be suggested here that the great discovery made by Pronomus of
Thebes of obtaining 3 notes from each hole on his Aulos consisted in
pulling out his mouthpiece twice.
the primitive piper's equipment

lying the birth of the

THE BEATING-REED MOUTHPIECE

The

D-R. mouthpiece may confidently be defined in each

Modes on the reedremote antiquity. It was signalized during many centuries

era of the

ancient civilization as beginning with the birth of the

blown pipe in
by the use of the Aulos in a simple, dignified style of music of great beauty,
The passing of this golden age in music
at once impressive and elevating.
on both Kithara and Aulos was deplored by Plato, Theophrastus, Plutarch
and others.
With equal certainty the wane of the popularity of the Aulos, played
with a D-R. mouthpiece as the instrument of the virtuoso, may be accepted
as coinciding with the rise of an elaborate technique, and of music of many
notes, mentioned by Plutarch in connexion with Lasos of Hermione 1 (born
about 548 B.C.), who was obsessed by the multiplicity of notes on the Auloi
'.

'

An attribution that can

only apply to the B-R. mouthpiece.

This decadence,

regarded as a falling away from the ancient purity and beauty of music,
was heralded, according to Theophrastus, 2 by the celebrated Aulete, Antigenidas, who flourished during the reign of Alexander the Great (born

The naturalist, as might be expected, had occasion to take

B.C.).
new tendency in Auletics on account of the difference brought
about thereby in the growing and cutting of reeds for instruments and
mouthpieces (v. ante, Chap. ii).
The law-abiding and somewhat pedantic D-R. mouthpiece, invaluable
356

notice of the

as a record

and custodian of the purity of the dgjuovia

Modes was justly venerated, and

testifying to its claim

era

was acclaimed

as golden, not only in Auletics, but also in the history of music.

Invaluable as

as generator of the

its

a standard of purity in intonation and as an instrument of reference, the Aulos

with D-R. mouthpiece survived long after its limitations as the instrument
It was readily abandoned by
of the artist came to be reluctantly conceded.
the virtuoso, already familiar with the dofiovla, in favour of the Aulos with

may we say Syrinx, which eventually won the day.

The B-R. mouthpiece, by virtue of its resilience, responsiveness, its

the B-R. mouthpiece, or

sonorities,

and more

especially of the exhilarating effect of

its

powerful

constituent harmonic overtones, 3 endeared the instrument to the creative

musician, inspiring him to an ecstasy which frequently electrified his audience.
,

Mus. (ed. Weil and Reinach, Paris), pp. 112-15, 293.

Theophrastus, xvi, 170, ap. Pliny, Nat. Hist., xvi,
;
Plutarch, op. cit., p. 84, 198.
Dinse, De Antigenide Thebano Musico, p. 53
The 5th Harmonic (major 3rd) is generally the first to ring out, followed by
Musicians
the 7th, the octave, and a riot of others in a kind of natural polyphony.
1

Plut., de

Hist. Plant., iv, 11, 4-5

36, 66
3

THE AULOS
The

form which in
been given in Chapter
back

ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

IN

description of the

the only

many

107

making of a B-R. mouthpiece of primitive type

itself satisfies a

My

sense of beauty of tone

has already

experiments with the B-R., dating

years, aroused the keenest interest
amazement at the varyii.

early

depth and volume of tone elicited from these

was evoked, not only in the present writer, but
in many others, experts on questions of pitch and in the acoustics of music,
who heard them played for the first time. On one memorable occasion,
in my study, one of these experts (Mr. D. J. Blaikley) who had been the
first to test the capabilities of the famous Lady Maket pipes, discovered in
Egypt by Professor W. Flinders Petrie, was examining my facsimiles of these
pipes. 1
I told him I desired his opinion of a new instrument which I played
in concealment.
At the first booming note, 8 foot C, he was struck
ing, rich sonorities, at the

tiny, delicate instruments,

like a bassoon '.

On turning to the instrument,
he was amazed to see the tiny straw mouthpiece No. 65, some 5 inches in
length (-130), with a vibrating tongue -031 in length and no wider than
He had used the stiff arghool type of B-R. and the modern oboe
1 1 mm.
reed for his tests. This completely upset all preconceived notions concerning
vibrators, and was for me an indication of the direction in which investigations should be carried out.
My earliest B-R. mouthpieces had been cut with tongues of from -003
to -004 in width, equal to the diameter of the straw, and only about -02 in

with the beautiful tone,

length
a

'

the tone was unpleasant in the extreme, shrill and harsh, in fact

mere squawk.

Experiments soon revealed the

narrow

fact that the fine,

tongue, scraped on the under-side to increase resilience, produced results

beyond

all

expectations.

Nevertheless,

it

was not easy

to

determine,

unaided, the factors responsible for the pitch of the proper note of the
mouthpiece. Comparisons with specimens equal in length of straw and
tongue, but of varying width of tongue, provided certain indications of
regional pitch

(cf.

records of

B and R
'

'

in diameter of these slender straws

'

'

mouthpieces)

seemed

and the difference

at first too

slight to

be of

importance, although at times the diameter did appear to have the casting

At that stage of research, the three kinds of note which it is possible

to obtain from the mouthpiece (of both types) had indeed been experienced
and put down to instability, and assigned to caprice on the part of the
Aulos and its mouthpiece. So far these results seemed to endorse the
vote.

strictures of Aristoxenus. 2

Later, however, a discovery of real importance

provided the solution of the puzzle, and better-equipped investigators would
probably have reached the conclusions more quickly.

with ears sensitive to harmonic overtones would find it repay them to make a few
of these little instruments, and to verify for themselves these assertions
a very
little practice would enable them to follow the play of the harmonic development,
which is a far more intimate experience with pipes than with strings.
1
The two precious originals are no longer in England. No purchaser could
be found for them, and funds were needed for the continuance of the excavations,
so they passed into the possession of the German Museum of Musical Instruments
at Charlottenburg.
2
Harm., Macr., pp. 196-7 (end of polemic on Aulos)
see also Chap. ii.
;

THE GREEK AULOS

io8

THE DOUBLE MOVEMENT OF THE TONGUE OF THE

B-R.

MOUTHPIECE

It was found eventually (through tests of D-R. mouthpieces) that the

middle note always promptly discarded on account of its inability to rise
in ratio with the successive opening of the fingerholes, except by forcing and
loss of beauty of tone
was in reality the norm, based upon ascertainable
laws now to be discussed.
The length of the straw shank as in the D-R. mouthpiece exercises
only an indirect influence on pitch, through resonance, upon the proper
note of the mouthpiece.
The determinants of pitch are first and foremost the length of the
vibrating tongue
secondly, the diameter of the straw
and, thirdly, the
width of the tongue. The mouthpiece, with its natural knot or sealed end,
reacts as a stopped pipe, and therefore all factors bear only upon a quarterwave length. The tongue as vibrator, however, has a double movement of
its own, opening and closing the entrance of the column of air within the
pipe it therefore produces at each closure of the aperture (which corresponds
to the length X by the width of the vibrating tongue), a pulse complete in
itself consisting of rhythmical, periodical recurrences of condensation and
expansion, i.e. a complete pulsation.
The length of the tongue of the B-R. is an index of the half-pulsation
only, as the stroke or beat falls
it is a factor which, with the implications
of length due to diameter, must be multiplied by two.
The implications
are introduced by diameter
that of the straw first of all.
Then, by analogy
with the lateral holes of a flute, the width of the tongue exercises an augmentative, lengthening influence on the internal diameter of the straw, adding to
this the amount of the difference between them.
It will now be seen why
the narrower the width of tongue, the lower the pitch of the note, just as a
smaller fingerhole on a flute gives a lower note. There are thus three
separate factors in the B-R. mouthpiece to be multiplied by two in order to
find the length of the pulse produced by the double movement of the beating
tongue, e.g. on mouthpiece E 10 (B-R.) with a Tongue Length (= T.L.)
of -041, a Tongue Width (= T.W.) of -002 and a diameter of ^003 (^ A).

BY FORMULA NO.

T X
006 A X

082

002 (A

090

The

2
2

T.W.) x 2

>Actual length of pulse

from tongue.

actual length of pulse of tongue.

actual length of pulse

must now be taken 4 times, since the mouthpiece

which = a quarter of the wave-length
-360, which is converted into v.f. thus

reacts as a stopped pipe, the length of

of the note

34
360

-090

944

v.f.

X 4

8*,

and x

118

v.p.s.,

the

v.f.

of the note of the

mouthpiece.

THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

The proper

note of mouthpiece

= H7 3

The

v.p.s.

04

FORMULA

glottis

actually

is

note sinks to

by repeated
-7-^

109

tests fixed at

93-8 v.p.s.

DETERMINATION OF PITCH OF PROPER NOTE OF THE

MOUTHPIECE

(A)
8[T.L.

10

04

VIII.

when x
The

v.f.

glottis

of

norm

note

340 m./s.
(A

+A+

T.W.)]

of proper note of mouthpiece.

two octaves below the resonance

in the epitritic ratio,

is

B-R.

fundamental.

No

explanation can be offered at present of the fact that the normal note

of the mouthpiece lies three octaves lower than theory requires, but so

it is.

That is why, after the formula has been worked out, x requires to be divided
by 8 (=3 octaves) in order to coincide with the note actually produced by
the mouthpiece with normal blowing.

In the meanwhile, I suggest the following explanation which may prove

the wave-length, which is the cause of the astonishingly
low pitch of the proper note of this type of small and delicately proportioned
B-R. mouthpiece, may perhaps be attributed to two factors
First, the effective length of the pulse from the tongue of the beating-reed
with its two movements both of which are taken into account as added
length ( x 2)
and, secondly, to the acoustic fact that the B-R. mouthpiece

to be the true one

itself

has the properties of a closed pipe

pulse from the tongue

is

therefore, the actual length of the

only a quarter of the wave-length of the note

and must be multiplied by 4. These two factors are thus together

responsible for the multiplication by 8 of the divisor in the formula.
Since length and vibration frequency operate in inverse proportion, it
follows that the aggregate length of sound-wave taken 8 times will produce

emitted,

a frequency per second 8 times lower,

i.e.

3 octaves lower.

In many mouthpieces, tested before the discovery of Formula

viii,

the

was accepted and registered in the records. But

now in light of Formula viii, which has worked out correctly with scarcely
any exceptions, the dissentients were re-examined, and it was found in all
cases that scraping the fibre away (with the most tender care) from the

result of repeated tests

norm

under-surface of the tongue, nearly always resulted in a

coinciding

with that of the formula.

Occasionally it was found that the clearance

under the tongue, near the root, was at fault, and had been imperfectly
carried out, and that a little pith remained, impeding the free vibration of
the tongue, so that the calculated length did not represent the effective
length, a defect easily corrected.

to lay the mouthpiece

then, while holding

1

Or

as

down with

it

The

safest

way

of scraping the tongue

the tongue resting on a

an alternative

flat,

340 m./s.

64IT

+A +

(A

T.W.)]

_ XV

is

firm surface

steady with a fingernail, the under-side

is

gently

THE GREEK AULOS

no

scraped with a sharp blade.

This treatment gives the mouthpiece the

stration of the difference before

and

An

movement.

resilience requisite for effective vibratory

after scraping

ocular

obtained

is

if

demon-

the straw

be alternately vibrated from the exit by blowing and by suction the latter
producing the normal note while the eye critically examines the periodic

oscillations of the tongue.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE FEAT OF MIDAS OF AGRIGENTUM

Compared with

the D-R, mouthpiece, the B-R. is by far the more

the slightest, almost unconscious
produce a delicate shade of intonation, higher or lower at
will.
The tone quality on finely cut mouthpieces with a tongue of from
03 to -04 in length, and -ooi to -002 in width, produces a tone quality of
extraordinary beauty and richness ; the harmonic texture of the note,
responsive, and the easier to manipulate

glottis action will

definitely perceptible to a practised ear,

easily varied

is

by

extra pressure of

and length of tongue remain unchanged.

instrument must have been a joy to the creative musician, and a

breath, while the compression

The

little

source of inspiration

its

chief drawbacks are

its fragility

and the

difficulty

little tongue, weighted by the

moisture from the breath, from becoming suddenly inarticulate, through

the piper experiences in preventing the

This would, of course, be a serious handicap in modern

but the shortness and simplicity of the phrases, and the spontaneous

loss of its elasticity.

music

nature of the musical improvisation, which seem to have characterized the

music of the second of the Ancient

The

serious.

when

accident that befell

styles,

rendered this drawback

Midas of Agrigentum

at the

less

Games,

the tongue of the Syrinx of the Aulos broke, through cleaving to the

roof of his mouth,

an example of such

is

ill-luck,

and

also of the improvisa-

tional nature of the music.

From

the Scholium to Pindar, Pyth.

xii,

we

learn in addition that already

was played by professional Auletes with B-R.

mouthpieces, and the very fact of the cleavage of the glossa to the roof of
in Pindar's day, the Aulos

mouth

the

is

an indication of the

minimum

length of the vibrator and also

of the material used for the mouthpiece, viz. wheat or oat straws

the

stronger, stiffer mouthpieces of reed such as Theophrastus describes were

obviously not yet in use.

The facility with which shades of intonation could be obtained with

mouthpiece suggests that the purity of the ag/uovia may have been
endangered thereby
this surely might have been the case with an Aulete
unfamiliar with the Modes.
But already long before Pindar's day the
Harmoniai must have been firmly established in the musical consciousness
of Greek Auletes.
It is evident from the episode attached by Plutarch to
the use of the Spondeiasmos 1 in the Spondaic Hymn, that neither the

this

who

Aulete,

played in the ancient manner (or ancient Tropos in the sense

of Harmonia) with the interval called Syntonoteros Spondeiasmos on the

Tonic, nor the Aulete of Plutarch's

at

own

day, could be said to have played

random, regardless of the authentic degrees of the Perfect Immutable

1

Plut., de

Mus.

(ed.

Weil and Reinach), pp. 48-9,

114 and 115.

PLATE

14

THE AULOS

IN

ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY in

still modal in Auletics has been shown in

Chapter ii. What happened when an Aulete, not yet familiar enough with
the Harmoniai to produce them on a modal Aulos, or to a piper trying to
play the Ditonal Scale
upon which Aristoxenus theorized upon the modal
Aulos 1 may be surmised from a passage from the Philebus of Plato (p. 5 6a).

System, and that these were

PLATO ON EMPIRICISM IN AULOS PLAYING

had been discoursing upon the respective parts played by conjecture (i.e. empiricism) as opposed to methods based upon number and
measure in the creative arts
Plato

Music, for instance [says Plato] 2 is full of this empiricism, harmonizing consonances (to av/iqiwvov) not by measure but by the practice of conjecture (i.e. by
empirical methods) and all Aulos music tries to find the measurement of each
note by conjecture, so that it is mixed up with much that is doubtful and has little
that

is

certain.

evident from what Plato says that he regards this empirical method
away from musicianship
and the best practice of the day it is all of a piece with the tide of decadence,
which he deplores in other passages in the Dialogues. Incidentally, it
proves that the purity of the consonances was still demanded in the general
practice of the age now on the wane.
The reference to the music of the Aulos makes this clear. The Aulos
was the creator of the Harmoniai ; the boring of the fingerholes gave the
notes of the Modal Scales.
But a new scale was even now being introduced
among musicians, viz. the non-modal one which, although it had long
been in use on the Panpipes among the shepherds, had only recently been
adumbrated theoretically in the Timaeus of Plato. The intervals of this
scale, which was the basis of the treatise of Aristoxenus, were entirely foreign
to the dQfiovia and could not be played upon the Aulos by natural means
hence the feeling about for the notes, and the empirical method of obtaining
the intervals. When once the piper's criteria were gone, i.e. the familiar
intervals of the Harmonia produced through equidistant fingerholes, he was
At this period, when the B-R. had come into more general use,
at sea.
the piper had to possess his scale inwardly before he could be sure of playing
it absolutely in tune.
He could, it is true, by using a Hypolydian Aulos,
give a near approximation of the Ditonal Scale in question, aided by artificial
means his difficulty would be to remember the exact shade of intonation
required.
Moreover, he would not have the same luck with any other
modal Aulos. In connexion with the difficulties experienced during the
transitional period, which culminated with the triumph of virtuosity, we
may recall the conclusion of a description of the innovation attributed by
It is

for the determination of the consonances as a falling

;

'

'

1
It is doubtful from many references in the sources whether an Aulos other
than modal was in use in Greece in Plato's day.
2
Philebus, p. 56A.
See also my review of Theodore Reinach's La Musique
Grecque (ed. Payot) in Mus. Standard, William Reeves, 1927, March 26 and April 9
and 23, in which the question of the use of the Ditonal Scale and of tempering among
the Greeks is discussed at some length. The translation of this passage is by E. J.


TABLE

II

Table of Selected Beating-reed Mouthpieces

Stems of Various Lengths
Vibrating Tongues from -03 to -033 in Length.
Example of Regional
;

Pitch
No. of

Dia-

Tongue Tongue Proper Note of

Width
mp. Norm

Length meter Length

Mp.

156-4 v.p.s.

Results of Tests

Mp.
No. 7

172

0025

0305

001 s

note did not agree

with formula
after

29/3/33

128

scraping,

the correct
given

norm was

18

No. 47

134

003

After scraping

002

03

29/3/33

!28

the

18 the norm
of formula came clear
and strong.
aWt,-. note
Rich glottis
t -7 12
Kicn

tongue,

64
below norm.

a 4th

AAAV

0035

O2o

001

^27 The

18

gL

128

096

003

002

03

128 8

XVI

098

003

33

norm,

once

at

64

B12 Both notes

18
18

^,

Glottis

0025

strong,

resonant

64

12

plays

128

Loret xvi

140

16

003

002

03

18
,18
-7 and
At
h"

F 16
-^

played

first

120

64

then cleared
of tongue,

18/128
,

and

128

102

002

003

03

0025

032

18

128

0025

y norm.

18

18

with

ictus

64

a soft norm.

Harmonic

4th

Gives
18

very clear pure

1024
note

ii/n/33

played

it

After scraping tongue,

played strong, rich full
tone, norm E 18

256

Sealed
cut on

root

to

N.B.

The mp.

straw is
yet pro-

cylindrical

duces

double

the

octave harmonic

E
160

0025

0015

03

very fine

18

The

18
7

120

norm

octave below
.

given readily on

64

Tongue

same breath by

glottis

action

No.

117

11

0025

E
031

made on
ii/u/33
N.B.

001

very fine

18

play

5-

note

responded

Tongue

All these

Glottis

12

mp.

128

in accordance with

at

once

very good tone

Formula

viii

(= 156

v.p.s.).

THE AULOS
Athenaeus

ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

IN

113

Pronomus, the Theban, (fifth century B.C.), who trained

But Pronomus, the Theban, first played
(all) the Harmoniai from the (same) Auloi, but now at random without ratio
(dXoycag), they meddle with Music.'
To return to the more theoretical aspect of the B-R. mouthpiece, it may
be stated that for general practical purposes the influence of the length of
tongue in the mouthpiece is regional as to pitch (as may be seen from
Table II) (see Chap, ii, Fig. 25).
When all other dimensions are equal, a comparison of mouthpieces reveals
the fact that the ratio between the lengths of glossa in any two such mouthpieces produces a rise or fall in pitch in the same ratio, as, for example, in
B.i 1 and R.u
the tongue lengths of these B-R. mouthpieces are respectively
of -04 and -03 in epitritic ratio 4 3 with a common width of -002
B.n has
a diameter of -0035 an<^ R- 11 f 00 3 thus, in accordance with Formula viii.
to

Alcibiades in playing the Aulos.

'

B.U

-080
007
003

=T x 2
=A x 2
= (A T.W.)

090 x 4 =

x 2

-360 effective length of pulse of note of

340

z- m./s.

Sx

300

B12

is

944-4 and x

118

the normal proper note of mp.

B-R. mp. B.n.

v.f.

B.n.

64

R.ll

-060

=T

x 2
A x 2
A - (T.W. x

002

=
=

068

X 4

006

2)

== -272, effective

340

m./s.

length of pulse of note of mp.

8x

1250,

272

The normal proper

note of mp.

R.u

and x

18

is

156-25

v.f.

156-25

v.f.

R.u.

128

Thus

E9

(18)

the formula works out correctly here

is

in effect

the ratio between

12 and

4:3.

MOMENTOUS SIGNIFICANCE OF SHORTENING THE TONGUE OF THE

B-R.

MOUTHPIECE
This comparison led to the discovery of an implication of the greatest
importance, not only to the history of the Aulos, but also to the evolution
and history of Music, viz. that a rise in pitch of the fundamental of the
Aulos, when played by a B-R. mouthpiece, may be obtained by the simple
expedient of shortening the vibrating tongue of the mouthpiece by a definite
1

Deipn., xiv, p. 6316 (31).

Or alternatively for mp. B 11

34

and

similarly for

34

mp.

34

11.

THE GREEK AULOS

ii4
ratio

e.g.

by a

The

third, fourth, or half,

by means of a simple movement

of

and resonator is so harmonious

on the whole pipe,
raising the fundamental to the dominant, the fourth or the octave, and
likewise the whole sequence from the fmgerholes, as they are uncovered.
The effect is to transpose the tonality of the Aulos according to the ratio
selected.
The significance of this apparently simple but hitherto quite
unsuspected property of the primitive beating-reed mouthpiece is of
paramount importance in accounting for the origin and development of
our own musical system
a fact which has already been discussed in
Chap, ii (Fig. 24). It was seen that with a Hypolydian Aulos, of Determinant 20 having three fingerholes, which produces a sequence of intervals
the

lips.

collaboration of mouthpiece

and complete that the

rise in pitch operates instantly

e ^ on * c
*ke e ^ect f shortening the tongue of the
~^ X 8 X I5 n
mouthpiece by
and starting again from the exit, produced the same series
of ratios on G, i.e. our major scale

CDEFGABC

The

use to which the Auletes of Ancient Greece put this property of the

B-R. mouthpiece, and

its effect on the development of their musical system

and practice has already been related. The revolution thus
at one blow modality was deprived of its characteristic feature, viz. the octave unit.
The Harmonia was shorn of one of
its modal tetrachords
its Ethos destroyed.
What was gained thereby in
compensation for the loss to modality ? This change in the technique of
the Aulos was responsible for a rapid access of virtuosity, by increasing the
compass of the instrument in theory, and moderately in practice
for

in theory

achieved was far-reaching

although

possible to shorten the

tongue as described while playing,

would not permit of the use of
the device for frequent modulation
the tongue becomes intractable when
too many demands are made upon it. The tongue of the straw mouthpiece
did not respond readily to more than one change of length. It was the
fragility of the wheat-straw beating-reed, no doubt, that led to the facture
of the mouthpiece from the stems of river reeds, as recorded by Theophrastus.
it is

little

the delicacy of this part of the mouthpiece

;

From practical tests made with reeds from English rivers, I am inclined
be quite satisfactorily used on
such reed mouthpieces for practical music, as one would be led to expect
from the evidence provided by the vase paintings.

to think that the expedient in question could

CHANGE TO ELABORATE PLAYING ON THE AULOS

Theophrastus
Aulete
or

who

states that

up

to the time of Antigenidas, a

famous

flourished during the reign of Alexander the Great, the Zeuge

D-R. mouthpiece was played

in a natural manner, but that

changed to elaborate playing, the cutting was

1

also changed.

Hist. Plant., iv, 11 (3).

'

when

And

they

they say


'

THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

that they (the reeds)

become

Chap. ii).
Gevaert 1 translates the

(cf.

intonations abaissees
action of the lips

down

'.

If,

useful in three years,

last line

thus

and need but

of

et les languettes se pretent

'
:

upon the reed tongue, brought about by the

what Gevaert imagines,

down

aux

visible pulling

on the Aulos was

the pitch would be

i.e.

work (Chap,

because, as explained in detail earlier in the

the effect of pulling

115

practice

as I believe, y.aiaanda fxaxa refers to the invisible

of the Syrinx, or B-R. mouthpiece, then the effect

the reverse

little

ii,

Plate

the Syrinx together with the Aulos

raised

No.

6),

the piper's

head the while bent slightly over the instrument would be to shorten
the tongue of the B-R. and thus raise the pitch of the Aulos.
As to the
properties of the mouthpieces made from a length of river-reed, cut near
the tip of the plant, Theophrastus says that they are very soft, i.e. pliable,
compared with those cut from the shoot near the root.
If we subject such mouthpieces to a practical examination, it is found
that their fragility is certainly considerably lessened, but at the expense of
beauty of tone. They need much preparation and treatment, after the reed
has been duly matured, before they can be tuned to a reliable pitch by
scraping and thinning the tongue, in order to give elasticity, and to allow
it to vibrate from the root or hinge.
When this has been satisfactorily
accomplished, as with B-R. m.p.
E the mouthpiece gives a powerful,
'

'

if

somewhat

difficulty

loose

and

coarse, note

on

12

117-3 v.p.s.

experienced in cutting a reed mouthpiece with a

Owing

to the

narrow
beauty of

fine,

tongue that

will bear scraping, one has to be content with less

The reed mouthpiece, however, when provided with an elastic tongue,
sometimes play a modal octave sequence with a little straining on the
last two or three notes, providing the tongue measures not less than -04 in
length and plays the 8-foot octave. The reed mouthpiece possesses the
same drawback as the straw mouthpiece i.e. so long as the piper consciously
possesses the Harmonia, and does not depend upon the fingerholes to produce
the notes of the sequence in correct intonation, all may be well
but the
Aulos will not teach the Aulete the Harmonia, unless it be furnished with

tone.
will

D-R. mouthpiece.
The shortening by the

is easily

lips of the tongue of a B-R. mouthpiece of reed

accomplished, for the tongue responds more satisfactorily than with

the straw mouthpiece.

It will

be the task of some

scientist to explain

how

is that with the length of the resonator of the Aulos unchanged, the
extrusion of mouthpiece of the same length, the length from the centre of
it

each fingerhole to the tip of the mouthpiece unaltered, the mere shortening
of the little vibrating tongue by a third or a half an affair of a few millimetres only, which does not affect the total length of the instrument itself

all

the notes that could be obtained by any device from the pipe with the

tongue vibrating
raised in pitch

Formulae

and

at full length, are,

by exactly
ii

by that

a perfect fifth or

Probl., pp. 348-9,

slight

movement

of the

lips,

an octave. It is clear that the

and examples such as B.11

are not applicable altogether

Note

4.

THE GREEK AULOS

n6

and R.i i, cited above, in which agreement with Formula viii was reached,
may be fairly equally divided between rule and exception. Thus, through
the incidence of the same law of proportion that produces the Harmonic
series as physical basis of sound, and the reversed series responsible for the
genesis of the Harmoniai, the Aulos is endowed with the power of modulation
into a different tonality or compass, and at the same time provides the germ
of the idea, which out of half a Harmonia created our modern scale.

PERFORMANCE OF AULOS LORET

WITH

XXIII

B-R.

TONGUE OF MP. SHORTENED

BY ONE-THIRD
For those who are not averse from the use of the formula, the working
out of the result of shortening the tongue of B-R. mouthpiece xviiic, establishes the effect of the shift on the tongue of the mouthpiece in theory as
well as in practice, and is given below.

BY FORMULA

B-R

mouthpiece

Wheat

'

xviii c

Tongue

Tongue width,

x 2

A x
(

A- T.W.)

x 2

=
=
=

-070

mp.

-0025

Since

shift,

x 4

079

340

of

length, -035.

'0035.
is not reduced by the
remains the same after the shift.

the tongue width

this figure

-OQ2

.316

v.f.

N.B.

-007

The

VIII

'.

straw, length, -150

-316 effective length of tongue.

1075-9 v.p.s.

8* and *

134-5 v.p.s.

=
21

xviii c's

proper note

is

in effect

120

134-5 v.p.s.

BY A SHIFT OF ONE-THIRD ON THE TONGUE

Effective length of

mouthpiece

316 X 2

2106

xviii c

-316

-211

34

211

1611-3

Q
sx

14

201-4 v.p.s.,

i.e.

128
01 201 v.p.s.

120

andj x

C2I3GI4.

x- =

(=

nr

a perfect firth).

120

by

ratios of length 21 to 14

=
3

When
j

tested alone, the

it

mouthpiece played on

a l so played with a fine tone

on

C21

and by

g-,

an d by a

shift of J,

shift

on

on

a 5th

1
There is a note on record that the tongue on this mouthpiece had first been
cut to -030, the I.D. on pipe xviii, for which the mouthpiece was destined. This
length of tongue, however, did not give satisfactory results in resonance, and it
was, therefore, lengthened empirically to -035 when the note produced was in

correct intonation.

Test of B-R mouthpiece xviiic in Loret Aulos xxiii

performance in detail, consult the Record of that Aulos.

for

measurements and

THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

Tests October 23, 1930

higher.
20,

November

27,

1933

117

and December

1933.

The mouthpiece

and with

128,

xviiic tested

of J

shift

in xxiii Loret,

on

But,

actually plays both

on

of course, the shift on the

mouthpiece tongue, which raises the fundamental from Hole 1, as well

as the notes of the sequence to the dominant, cannot be checked by theory,
i.e. by Formula viii, since the altered length produced by the shift relates
only to the tongue of the mouthpiece, and does not affect the length of
extrusion, nor that of the Aulos + mouthpiece.
From the record of performance of Aulos Loret xxiii, it is seen that
with this same B-R. mouthpiece No. xviiic, at an extrusion of -071 the
Aulos played in the Phrygian Harmonia, of Determinant 12, on C = 128
v.p.s., a 6th lower than theory demands, and that with the same mouthpiece at extrusion -047, the Aulos played in the Dorian Spondaic, of
Determinant 11, on the same fundamental C = 128 v.p.s.
This performance is similar to that of Aulos xxiii with D-R. mouthpiece N.32 (Chap, ii) in the Lydian and Mixolydian Harmoniai.
In
both cases the performance is, therefore, that of true Harmoniai not
since the fundamental Tonic is common to both, while the ratios
species
of the intervals change in relation to the Tonic and to each other, although
the increment of distance must, perforce, remain unaltered. And herein,
owing entirely to the unique reactions of its mouthpieces, the Aulos differs
from the strings in the manner in which it gives effect to modality. With
both mouthpieces the cause of the change of modality, taking place within
the mouth of the piper, may have no outward visible sign
in the B-R.,
the vibrating segment of the tongue is shortened, and in the D-R. the
vibrating length, without alteration of the combined length of resonator
+ mouthpiece.
But, as we have seen, the converse of these conditions is also true,
for the composite length, of the Aulos may be varied by using a different
extrusion of the mouthpiece, which alters the Harmonia without change
of Tonic, although the length has been altered.
So far, Aulos xxiii has a record of four different Harmoniai, Dorian,
Phrygian, Lydian and Mixolydian, obtained by means of various methods
and devices. We begin to see that Plato's epithet Tiavag/xoviov 1 might
well refer to the Aulos, even at this unsophisticated stage in its development.

PIPER PERSUADED BY PYTHAGORAS TO CHANGE THE MODALITY OF HIS AULOS

FROM PHRYGIAN TO DORIAN SPONDAIC

An

interesting confirmation of the double modality of an Aulos,

in

which the change from the one Harmonia to the other was practically
uninterrupted, is given by Iamblicus 2 in his life of Pythagoras
:

Among

the deeds of Pythagoras,

Plato, Rep., p. 399

also
given with translation.
;

is

Vita Pythagorae,

tr.

it is

said, that

once through the Spondaic song

D. B. Monro, Modes,

by Thos. Taylor, Cap.

p. 41, in

25.

which the Greek

text

THE GREEK AULOS

n8

Tauromenian lad, who had been feasting

and intended to burn the vestibule of his mistress, in consequence of
seeing her coming from the house of his rival.
For the lad was inflamed and excited
by hearing a Phrygian song, which, however, Pythagoras most rapidly suppressed.
And this was how it was done. Pythagoras, as he was astronomizing, happened to
meet with the Phrygian piper at an unreasonable time of night, and persuaded him
to change his Phrygian for a Spondeian song, through which the fury of the lad
being immediately repressed, he returned home in an orderly manner, though a
little before this, he could not be in the least restrained, nor would in short, bear
any admonition, and even stupidly insulted Pythagoras when he met him.
of a piper, he extinguished the rage of a

by

night,

The Spondaic song, an auletic libation hymn, is founded upon the

Dorian octave Harmonia of seven notes, produced by Determinant

Mode is called by Plutarch the Spondeiakos Tropos ; 1 it is identical

with the scale of the Elgin Aulos (the straight one) in the Graeco-Roman
this

department
relic,

at the

British

pieces,

at extrusion

on

an extrusion of
A. 27

By means

-132, the Elgin

The

six different

of another

Aulos plays in

16

88

D-R. mouth-

v.p.s.,

and by

D-R. mouthpiece, N.7,

the Phrygian Harmonia

(See Chap, x, Records and Table of Elgin Aulos

2o8'6 v.p.s.

performance.)

facsimile of this precious

by

-no and by B-R. 12 on

other mouthpieces besides.

at

On my

Museum.

the Spondeion can be played on

piper cited by Iamblicus might thus have been using

the Elgin Aulos, with the same B-R. mouthpiece

(or D-R.) pulled out

song and merely pushed in to -108 or -no for

to -132 for the Phrygian

the Dorian Spondaic.

few more

illustrations

characteristic properties

may now be

given from our records of the

of these two remarkable types of mouthpiece

they enable us to realize the nature of the problems that arise in connexion
with the theory and practice of the Aulos of the Greeks. These data

may

also, it is hoped, help to make good some of the lacunae in the treatises
on acoustics concerning the behaviour and attributes of the vibrating-reed

used as mouthpiece.
Feeling the need for authoritative information concerning the practical
behaviour of the modern clarinet reed, I asked Mr. Charles Draper (May
2,

1931 and again in 1937). Here are his replies to my queries

K. S. What manipulation of the clarinet reed produces the rise to
:

Chalumeau register ?
The reed has no part in producing the twelfths

the twelfth through each hole of the

None

C. D.

on the
K.

clarinet

S.

C. D.

whatever.

they are entirely the

And what

about the breath

affair of

the left-hand

thumb

key.

Just as in singing.

K. S. Then the muscles of the larynx are brought into play ? relaxed
low notes, contracted for higher ?
C. D. Yes, and more than that
the muscles of the stomach and legs
are all brought into play and you feel the clarinet in your shoulders
for

Plut., de

Mus., (ed, Weil and Reinach), pp. 48 sqq. and 73-3.

THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

So you play with the whole man.
S.
then told Mr. Draper of the results of shortening the
of the Aulos mouthpiece in primitive pipes.

119

K.
I

Nothing of that kind is done with the clarinet mouthpiece.

Are the twelfths from the Chalumeau register Harmonics ?
they are not what is generally understood as Harmonics,

C. D.

K.

tongue

little

S.

No

C. D.

but merely notes a twelfth higher.

K.

Therefore the mouthpiece

S.

holes are fixed empirically

The blowing

C. D.

K.

Do

S.

for all notes

of standard dimensions

and the

the lips remain on the reed tongue at the same distance

The mouthpiece

C. D.

is

does the rest

is flexible

move up on the reed as pitch rises.

K. S. What would happen to the

in the

mouth and

the lips gradually

thumb key
remained closed ? Could the notes be produced as Harmonics ?
No they would simply not sound, the uncovering of the holes
C. D.
would merely produce the notes of the Chalumeau register.
twelfths

if

the left-hand

Mr. Charles Draper's statements concerning the playing

and

clarinet

left-hand

its

of the

modern

beating-reed mouthpiece suggest that the function of the

thumb key

(speaker key), and the instinctive

movement

of the

lips on the reed, present some analogies with the shortening of the vibrating
tongue of the primitive beating-reed mouthpiece, by the impact of the lips

at one-third of its length, despite the disparity in the

ancient and

dimensions of the

modern instruments.

EXAMPLES OF THE PERFORMANCE OF REED MOUTHPIECES

Let us take, for instance, a little B-R. mouthpiece, H.11, cut in
a wheat straw, closed at the embouchure by sealing-wax, and therefore, of
(1)

The straw has a total length of only -095 (= 3f inches)

and a diameter of 3 mm. From its function as a closed pipe, the straw
mouthpiece of less than 4 inches should speak in the i-foot octave, i.e.
above C = 512 v.p.s. Yet the normal proper note of H.n, when taken
cylindrical bore.

into the

mouth and played

as a separate instrument,

F 17
is

(=

165-6 v.p.s.)

in the 4-foot octave.

This B-R. mouthpiece, H.11, should have a theoretical length of -098

actual
mouthpiece + -003 diameter of straw = -098
:

095 length of straw

length

x 4

-392, the effective length.

34
ZL*

392

867-3
J V.p.S.

= A 13
512

therefore theoretically, according to

Formula

note of H.i 1, blown across the

with the beating-tongue securely closed

n 4-0

J\, I

"3

ii,

the fundamental resonance

= 867-3 v.p.s.,
This resonance
- in the i-foot octave.
or
v
392
512
could not be carried out in practice on this mouthpiece, for the exit

should be
test

exit,

-^-L~

THE GREEK AULOS

120

many

but judging from

is split,

other tested mouthpieces, the fundamental

resonance of theory by the formula, corresponds very closely with actual

practice in all specimens.
Disregarding octaves, the ratio between the

normal note of the mouthpiece H.u = F 17 (= 1 65-6 v.p.s.), and the

fundamental resonance note of the mouthpiece A.i^ (= 867-3 v.p.s.), is
approximately the
17

epitritic interval of

3
X -

[ 13

the 4th.

?1

by 34

a 4th
flattened
*

i.e.

52

cents.

To this resonance of the 4th, operating in mouthpiece H.i 1

is

undoubtedly
mouthpiece.

due the

fine,

resonant and rich quality of the note of this

The

ratio

between the resonance fundamental note of mouthpiece H.u,

and

its

lowest proper glottis or ictus note

One-foot octave

is

little

4-foot octave

8-foot octave

867

v.p.s.

Resonance fundamental
of mp. H 11

165-6

v.p.s.

Lowest

Normal note

One wonders what power

is at

work

108-3

3 octaves

v.p.s.

glottis note

to convert the effective length of

about 4 inches of straw into an instrument of 4-foot or even 8-foot tone,

for the mouthpiece's useful resonant note, of great power and fine quality,

blown with
v.p.s.

ictus or

by suction from the

exit,

B
12
=

has a pitch of -g

117-3

in the 8-foot octave.

It will

be noticed on examining the record of performance of the Lady

3 holes, that B-R. mouthpiece H.u plays the modal

Maket Aulos with

sequence, with a fine resonant tone, from

of the Mixolydian Harmonia.

IOO "5

v.p.s.,

the Tonic

But, inserted in the Aulos, the mouthpiece

has not the same wide range as

when used

alone.

We may here recall the practical limits of two octaves and a 5th assigned
by Aristoxenus 1 to the compass of voice and instruments, a range which
may, he allows, be extended to three octaves or more between the lowest
note of an Aulete playing with normal use of his mouthpiece and the
highest note of the Syrinx

the beating- reed).

The

mouthpiece (xaraanaaBelarji; ye
Aulete,

rrjg

avqiyyoq)

(i.e.

by the shortening of the vibrating tongue

of the mouthpiece with his lips, raises the pitch of the whole instrument

by a 5th or an octave. Attention may also be drawn to B-R. mouthpiece

No. T.3 which, when playing alone, gives a pure bell-like fourth Harmonic

E
of

18
,

the norm, in the

speakerhole.
lies

18

octave (the half-foot) without requiring a

It is seen, therefore, that the

proper note of this reed tongue

in the 2-foot octave, whereas the other six B-R. mouthpieces, particulars

of which appear in the table below, have their

1

Harm.,

p.

21M.

norm an

octave lower on

THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

B
with glottis notes
perfect
12,

on

The

4th below.

121

reason for

found in the tongue width of T.3, which is the

and therefore too wide to give good
although the proper note of this mouthpiece is actually in the
correct register for a stopped pipe, in relation to its resonance note, which,
as we have seen, is quite exceptional.

this difference in pitch is

same

as the diameter of the straw,

results,

The

(2)

give the

ii,
selected from my collection of
wheat straws, measuring from -099 to -198, all

seven examples in Table

B-R. mouthpieces

of

18

same normal note -^g-,

in the 4-foot octave

156-2 v.p.s. (with

the exception of mouthpiece T.3 which speaks an octave higher, owing

width of its tongue). These are common features of these mouthwhich innumerable specimens of every degree of pitch in the
modal scale have been made, tested and recorded. The normal proper
note works out with great regularity in the majority of these, according
to Formula viii, and the glottis notes are usually found a 4th, 5th or octave
below the norm. The records (as in Table ii) emphasize the fact that the
length of the shank of the mouthpiece has no influence in the determination

to the

pieces, of

of pitch.

Two

(3)

from -ii2

groups, each consisting of seven

to -178.

proper note

The

first set

has a

2 S^ v.p.s. or

D-R. mouthpieces, measuring

diameter -0035, and as

common

v.p.s.

the second group has

diameters of varying calibre.

The longest of these mouthpieces at first meas-

uring -230 was afterwards cut

down

to -161

the original normal note

C 21

remained unchanged, a common experience with these mouthpieces, testifying once again to the unimportance of length of straw as a determinant
of pitch.
When tested as simple resonators, and blown across the end,
they respond very accurately to Formula i. It is when these mouthpieces
are inserted into the mouth, and blown as double-reeds, that surprises in
diagnosis make their appearance.
In the second set, the lengths vary from
112 to -178, and the diameters from -0035 to -005, but the norm of all
seven mouthpieces
vibrating length
difference

is

F 17 =

is

F
165-6

the same for

of diameter

all

v.p.s.

17

or

of 332

seven, and there

is

v.p.s.

The

only a very slight

hence the identity of their notes.

All

seven

mouthpieces respond to Formula viii.

(4) Another instance of the apparent vagaries in regard to the incidence
of length on pitch in Auloi is furnished by a record of the performance
of facsimile reproductions of ancient Auloi.

For the reed-blown pipe from

Victor Loret

xxvii,

a sarcophagus in Egypt,

numbered by

possess nine double-reed mouthpieces, seven of

which play the pipe in the Mixolydian Harmonia of Determinant 14

and therefore, at the same extrusion (within 3 mm.) and total length. These
1

Encycl. de la Musique.

Egypte

Fasc.

1,

p. 19 (Paris

Delagrave).

THE

122

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REEK AULOS

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THE AULOS

IN

ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

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THE GREEK AULOS

THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

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THE GREEK AULOS

126

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THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY
seven mouthpieces play the Aulos in five different tonalities,

12

G14

one on

64

Ail
on

one

64

Mps.

xxvii 6

H.7

one on

Z>20

and one on

R.9

Z.i

127

three on

viz.

^.
128

128

64
0-6

H.6

ClI

D.i

Play the Aulos on

_
=

12

~64~

117-3
.

v.p.s.
V
-P- S

v.p.s.

100-5

14

64

v.p.s.

64

108-3

13

11

128

20

140-8

12T

v.p.s.

The range in tonality extends over a diminished 5th (ratios 14 10

but in each case, although the fundamental and notes of the
583 cents)
pipe vary in pitch, the ratio of the intervals obtained through the fingerholes
:

remains invariable.

(See Record of Loret xxvii for further details.)

a performance on a

wood-wind instrument

times

Of

(5)

same

due

is

it

is

Such

without parallel in modern

entirely to modality.

the seven D-R. mouthpieces that play the Elgin Aulos at the

-no,

extrusion, viz.

Aulos the same

six give the

tonality,

on the

11

g-, and in the Dorian Spondaic Harmonia of DeterI2o

the 7th D-R. mouthpiece, on a longer extrusion than the

fundamental note

minant

11

record of which appears under

A. 27

two fundamentals

(= 355

'

is

128

(=

104-6 v.p.s.), a detailed

The

'.

interval

between the

that of a major
3rd
flattened
J
0

This interval

instead of 386).

Wosta of Zalzal, used

Arab musicians.

27

04
Elgin Aulos

II

and

64
cents,

A.

Mode on

others, plays in the Phrygian

as a fret

on the

22

better

is

known

K 5

by
J

54
as the

by

lute in the eighth century a.d.

Pursuing our experiences with reed-blown pipes, the converse proposition adds to the perplexities of the uninitiated, concerning the behaviour
and reactions of reed mouthpieces and their compelling influence on pitch
(6)

fact

apparently

left

The D-R.

entirely unexplained in text-books.

mouthpiece D.I.' plays in eight Auloi, of which the length of resonator

+ mouthpiece ranges from -343 to -624 in three of these the pitch of
'

the pipe's fundamental note

B-7 12

is

04
in

two
148

D20

128

(=

(=

0
140-8 v.p.s.), in one on

117-3 v.p.s.)

F 16

in

(=

one
.

88

128

E
19
~~

one

v.p.s.) in

64

v.p.s.

Dorian

Mixolyd.

In

Mixol.

Phr.

Mixolydian.

the Auloi

Nos.

xxviii

1a

64

xx

xxiv

117-3 v.p.s

Elgin

C =

128 v.p.s

xxvii

D 20
128

140-8

v.p.s

xxi

20

128

xx vi

19
128
148

v.p.s

xx.

16

64

88

v.p.s

In relating these results of tests on Auloi to our experience with other

THE GREEK AULOS

128

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THE GREEK AULOS

130

wind instruments, we have

to bear in

mind

the fact that cylindrical pipes

played with reed mouthpieces, whether of D-R. or B-R. type, belong by

their reactions to the category of closed pipes.
For instance the Elgin

Aulos has a length from the vent of -244

=

-354

-354

x 4

1-416

octave, a 7th above

C=

mouthpiece

at

= 216-8

'

D.i.'

=A
-j^r-

^4

-416

240

extrusion of mouthpiece
v.p.s.,

i.e.

In Aulos xx, length -305

128 v.p.s.

an extrusion of -087

-392

X 4

-no

the 4-foot

in
;

played by

1-568

I'l

v.p.s.

Here again the estimated

closed pipe gives a fundamental

actual note

is,

as

theoretical length as a

11

shown above,

in the 4-foot octave,

whereas the

a 7th lower.

concerning the octave relation in auloi (Porphyry's Comm. on

Ptol,

i,

8)

An important point

concerning the octave relation in Auloi remains to be

and definite, for it arises frequently in the sources and has
led students and authors astray.
The matter at issue would seem to involve
a contradiction of an undisputed acoustic law, or at least to introduce a
serious reservation or exception due to the unrecognized properties of
primitive forms of reed mouthpieces.
The assumption that because the
ratio 2
1 in vibration frequencies and in lengths of string produces the
octave relation, this ratio must also bring about a like result in reed-blown

made

clear

pipes,

erroneous
this is not the case.
comparison of the performance of B-R. mouthpieces Nos. 17 and

is

15 (see Table iii), having stems measuring -170 and -085 respectively, i.e.
in the ratio 2:1, while other dimensions are the same for both, demonstrates

the fact that the length of straw, two to one, has not brought about the

octave relation in the resulting pitch of the proper notes of the mouthpieces

Bearing in mind the dictum of Porphyry in his commentary

in question.

on Ptolemy,
tests

i.

concerning ratios of length to pitch in the Aulos, further

were made with these mouthpieces.

Ptolemy writes

(i,

8)

Let us forbear to demonstrate our proposition by means of Auloi and Syrinxes,

or

by means

of weights

hung on

to strings, because demonstrations of this kind

cannot attain to the highest degree of accuracy, but rather they occasion misrepresentation upon those who try to do it.
For in Auloi and Syrinxes, besides the fact
that it is very difficult to discover the correction of their deviations therein, even
the points between which the lengths must be measured include a certain undetermined width (Note 1)
(tiMtoq, K. S. the diameter of the bore) 2 and generally
;

1
Ingemar During, Porphyrios Kommentar zur Harmonielehre des Ptolemaios,
(Goteborg, 1932), p. 119, line 14, and Die Harmonielehre des Klaudios Ptolemaios
(Goteborg, 1930), p. 16, lines 32 sqq. Engl. Tr. by Professor J. F. M.
2
nX&zoQ, width, can only apply to the diameter of the bore not to width of fingerholes, since there is none in the Syrinx, and Ptolemy's statement refers to both
Syrinx and Aulos. (See also Note i, by K. S.)

THE AULOS
the majority of

IN ANCIENT

AND MODERN THEORY

wind instruments have some unordered element added,

i3

apart

from

the blowing in of the breath.

In his commentary on this passage, Porphyry discourses as follows

{op.

p. 119, lines 14 sqq.)

cit.,

Some of the Pythagoreans have set out differently things pertaining to consonances on instruments. For some, making two Auloi (2) of bronze or reeds (y.a/.dpiovg}
[see Notes by K. S. following] equal in thickness and equal in bore (lgoxoi/mv;)
(I) like Syrinxes, of which the one was double of the other in length (3) and blowing
with the mouth into the Auloi at the same time (4) through the little tongues therein
(5) (yAcoffffi&W), used to get the consonance of the octave in the ratio (6) 2:1;
and they got the other consonances in the proper ratios, the Auloi having a ratio
towards one another in accordance with length (7), i.e. sometimes of the 4:3; or
of the 3:2; or of 3 1
or of the 4:1.
And by means of one Aulos they used to
get the same result just as well for dividing the whole Aulos (8), sometimes in half
for the octave, sometimes in 4:3, taking the three parts towards the glossis (9) for
the 4th, and in the case of the others, according to their proper ratios, and making
the holes (10) in accordance with these, and likewise breathing alike into the same,
they got the proper consonance. They obtained a similar result from the Hydra
:

Water Organ] from which the Auloi, superposed in a row, being

unequal, produce the Harmoniai. Wherefore also Ptolemy deprecating all that
had been said before, for what reason he himself has said, arrived at the division
of the Kanon.
For in the case of Auloi and Syrinxes, he says besides the dimculty
of discovering the correction of their deviations (12) because the reeds are sometimes
broader, sometimes narrower (13), and even their limits like (geometrical) figures
depend to some extent on a certain undetermined width, and generally the majority
of wind instruments have some unordered element added apart from the blowing
in of the breath (During, op. cit., p. 120, 11. 22-4 ; width = nldxei ; see also K. S.,
(II) [Hydraulis or

'

'

Chap,

vii,

p. 273).

NOTES ON DEBATABLE POINTS IN THE QUOTATION FROM PORPHYRY

(1) It

has already been explained above that the diameter of the bore

of the reed-blown pipe, so important for the determination of pitch in

Syrinx and

flute, has no pitch significance in the resonator of the reedblown Aulos. The difficulty to which reference is made here is due to
two facts unnoticed by Porphyry
(1) that Ptolemy's reference includes
two instruments, Syrinx and Aulos, which differ radically in their acoustic
properties ; (2) that the visible length in Syrinx and Aulos between mouthpiece and. exit does not correspond to the length of the column of air productive of the note heard
in the Syrinx length is increased by the width
:

of the diameter of the bore (tiX&zoq) according to rule, whereas in the Aulos
it

is

the mouthpiece which

is

the determinant factor of pitch, and only

partly as a result of the additional length

it

contributes to that of the resonator.

Neither Ptolemy nor Porphyry has taken the mouthpiece into account.
(2) Two Auloi are taken, equal in thickness and in bore, but the one
the double of the other in length, so that according to Porphyry, who,
of course,
viz.

is

in error, length

is

of an octave, between the

(3)

The

the sole cause of the difference in pitch,

two Auloi.

significance of the blowing into the Auloi with the

mouth

through the little tongues, at the same time, obviously implies the fact that
both volume and compression of breath were the same for both Auloi,

THE GREEK AULOS

132
for

it is,

of course, only possible to feed the breath through two mouth-

pieces, taken into the

mouth

by means of

at once,

This statement provides a third equal

homogeneous stream.

factor, again leaving length only as

Auloi are blown

at the same
and this throws an interesting light upon the meaning attached by
Porphyry to the Symphonia, as a blend of two notes sounded simultaneously,
i.e. not only one after the other as intervals, but in harmony, in the modern

differentia.

It is expressly stated that the

time,

sense.
(4), (5)

and the

and

The

(6).

silence of

little

tongues (yXcoaaidlcov) are the elusive factors,

Porphyry on

this score

suggesting

a lack of practical

acquaintance with this all-important part of the Aulos

enables

us to

explain the result chronicled, without necessarily putting either Pythagoreans

or Porphyry in the wrong as to the occurrence of the octave relation

for without some reservation or qualifying statement, we now know from

what has gone before in this section, that the assumption and explanation
of playing an octaves on Auloi in accordance with the ratio of length is
altogether erroneous.
But this is what may have happened, more or less

behind the scenes, so far as an observer is concerned. If the piper in

the secret, or even fortuitously, were to draw down, by an imperceptible
movement (probably by less than an inch), the shorter of the two Auloi
(having tongues of the same length), so that the impact of the lips on the
little tongue now occurred half-way up the tongue instead of at the base
or hinge, we are already aware that the effect would be to send the fundamental of the Aulos up an octave, without any apparent reason. The piper
with a twinkle in his eye, and a metaphorical tongue of his own in his
cheek (without prejudice to the tongue of the beating-reed), proud, no
doubt, of the secret devices of his craft, as were the medieval pipers and
sackbut players who rigidly protected those of their guilds our piper
would enjoy the errors of judgement of the uninitiated observers. Alternatively, to use one B-R. mouthpiece in the longer Aulos with a tongue
to say -046 in length and the shorter Aulos with a mouthpiece having a
tongue of -023 in length width of tongue and diameter of reed or straw
being the same in both mouthpieces the effect would be that described
by the Pythagoreans or Porphyry, but with the one proviso, viz. that both
mouthpieces were of the same strength and power of utterance, a property
mainly dependent upon the texture of the straw or reed.
1
is entirely erroneous
(7) To prove that this statement made by Ptolemy
is one of the main theses of this section.
After the erroneous claim that the pair of Auloi have a
(8) and (9).
ratio towards one another in accordance with length when played through
the little tongues, Porphyry considers the Aulos per se, i.e. the resonator
alone, and states that the divisions of the length producing the ratios of
the Symphoniai are carried out in the boring of holes, and he gives as
an example the 4 3 of the diatessaron, the three parts towards the glossa.
(9) If the Aulos actually sounded the interval of the 4th from the exit to
a hole opened at one 4th of the length of the resonator, it would certainly

Cf.

Harm.,

ii,

iz (Wallis, Oxford, 1682), p. 157, lines 5 sqq.

THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

133

be because the three-quarters of the length lay between that hole and the
glossa.

(10) Porphyry,

however, has got into very deep waters here, for to

divide the Aulos resonator alone into four parts, without taking into account

the mouthpiece, would falsify the ratios.

On

the other hand, to place the

which the length of Aulos resonator plus

produce a series of intervals
in superparticular ratios
what the ratios of these intervals are depends
entirely upon the Determinant number of increments of distance.
The
reader may here be reminded of the performance quoted above from our
records of Loret xxiii, played with D-R. mouthpiece N.32, in which, after
starting with the Dorian Harmonia requiring eleven increments of distance,
a lengthened extrusion of the mouthpiece, adding one more increment of
distance, was found to produce the Phrygian Harmonia, of Determinant
Two different series of intervals on
12, through the self-same fingerholes.
the same fundamental were thus given out through the fingerholes, e.g.
from exit to Hole 1, as a Dorian Aulos, the interval of ratio 11 10
and
as Phrygian Aulos the interval of ratio 12:11.
Such a feat would be
impossible were Porphyry's contention correct (see Records, Chap, x, of
Cairo Auloi G and
R ').
(11) An interesting reference is then made by Porphyry to the Hydraulos
or Water Organ, in which the fixed row of Auloi, being unequal in length,
get their Harmoniai.
This statement might appear to contain a contradiction of the points raised in my Note 10, but it is not so
for the conditions

fingerholes at equal distances, of

extrusion of mouthpiece

is

a multiple, will

'

'

now radically changed. In the Hydraulis of Porphyry's day, the air

compressed by means of water was fed to all the pipes at the same degree
of compression, whereas in the Aulos played by the action of the human
breath and larynx, the compression of air is adapted and regulated for
each proportional length put in operation by the opening of the fingerholes,
as already explained at length.
Moreover, each Aulos in the Hydraulis
had the mouthpiece suited to give one note only
whereas the piper with
his Aulos had one mouthpiece and reed tongue only which was enabled

are

accommodate itself to the different length proper to each fingerhole,

through his power of varying the compression of his breath stream.
(12) This reference by Ptolemy to the need for correction of the deviations in the intonation of the Aulos, due to difference in the diameter of
the bore of the reeds, seems to imply that Ptolemy had made a study
of the properties of pipes and flutes, and had discovered the influence of
diameter on pitch, but that his research and experiments had not been
to

extended to the properties of the mouthpiece

he had not discovered

its

dominance over length.

We may now examine the behaviour of B-R. mouthpieces Nos. 17

(see for dimensions, proper notes, &c, Table iii), when tested in
connexion with the question of the proportional influence of length in the
determination of pitch in Auloi as propounded by Ptolemy and Porphyry.
The Table shows that the length of the two mouthpieces in the ratio

and 15

THE GREEK AULOS

134

of 2 (No. 17) to 1 (No. 1 5) did not produce the octave relation in the
proper notes of the mouthpieces which, on the contrary, were identical

and

The

agreement with formula.

in

one

result of this test

many

of

similar ones carried out under the same conditions

is due to the fact that
the factors of tongue-length and width, and of the diameter of the straw

which are the determinants of pitch

of the whole Aulos) are the same

mouthpiece (and in a sense also

This result thus

in the

in both specimens.

negatives the conclusions of the Pythagoreans of Ptolemy and of Porphyry

in so far as the mouthpiece used alone

The two mouthpieces were

'

No. 15

',

is

concerned.

in turn inserted into

a tiny mouthpiece, at

an extrusion of

a fundamental glottis note

-050,

Loret xxxv

when

The

93-8 v.p.s.

it

(Brit. Mus.).
played from exit

pipe resonator (an open

64

measures -222

pipe)

pipe)

i-ioo

(-050

+ A -003) = -275 -275

39 v.p.s. = E 18
;

x 4

(for

(the

exact

closed

340
therefore

v.f.

of

313 v.p.s.). Thus No. 15 in this Aulos plays an octave and a

6th lower than the pitch computed by the formula for the resonator
mouthpiece.

which

is

Since the mouthpiece

is

the determining factor,

No. 17

'

',

the longer

mouthpiece, was inserted into the same Aulos xxxv at an extrusion of

100 (twice that of No. 15)
thus -222 + -ioo + A -003
-325 ; -325 X 4

1-300
J

from
what

exit,

therefore

1-300

261-15
3 v.p.s.
r

256^.

This note

again

The

actual fundamental

+ mouthpiece a glottis note

Harmonics and more powerful than that of No.

given by test from Aulos

richer in

is

some15,

was

thus an octave and a sharpened 4th lower than

the theoretical one computed by formula.

A second
By formula

was then made with Aulos Loret xvi, playing from Hole 1
mouthpiece, No. 15 at extrusion -062
length of resonator

test

+ A -005 + -062 = -375. -375 X 4 = 1-500

_Biz
=
128 (exact v.f. of B 12 = 234-6 v.p.s.). The
= 226-6 v.p.s.
thus _34?__a.a
r
1-500
i-qoo
fundamental glottis note produced from Hole
by test was C = 128 v.p.s.,
from centre of Hole

-308

-r-

'

a note nearly an octave below that

computed by formula, and a 4th above

the proper note of the mouthpiece used alone.

Mouthpiece No.
No.

(twice that of
still

of the

Aulos xvi, at extrusion -124

a fundamental glottis note,

(a

4th lower than with mouth-

17, inserted likewise into

15),

same pitch

played from Hole

as before, viz.

No. 15 '), thus proving once again the dominant power of the
mouthpiece in the determination of pitch, independently of the length of
the whole Aulos upon which the mouthpiece frequently but not invariably
owing to accommodation with resonance imposes its own proper glottis

piece

note.

'

THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY 135

formula
-308 + ^005 + -124 = '437
and
-437 x 4 = 1748,
194-5
i.e.
(exact v.f. = 188 v.p.s.)
therefore, exactly
^ J v.p.s.,
r

By
1748

128

'

an octave above the actual fundamental note of Aulos xvi

No.

17.

Although many similar

tests

might be quoted,

the erroneous nature of the assumption

as

that the ratio 2

mouthpiece
examples of
1

in length

produces an octave pitch relation, these tests will probably

in operation in reed-blown pipes when furnished
with a mouthpiece of one of the two primitive types. More especially
will these tests be found convincing, since the results of other tests of
different kinds already used in illustration, and the records of performance
of individual Auloi which follow, all point to the same conclusion, viz.
that the mouthpiece, be it B-R. or D-R., is the dominating partner, to
which is allotted the casting vote in the modality and tonality of the Aulos.

invariably
suffice to

show the law

THE ETHOS OF THE HABMONIA

Much

attention has been directed in connexion with the Aulos to the

function of the glottis muscles in regulating the degree of compression of

fall in pitch of the notes obtained through
both types of mouthpiece. The interrelation of this function of the muscles
of the glottis with modality and the light it throws upon the vexed question
of the Ethos attributed by Plato, 1 Aristotle and other writers to the Harmoniai
still remains to be briefly considered.
No one who is familiar with the
modal sequences of the Harmoniai of Ancient Greece remains in doubt
as to the potency of this Ethos.
To play a simple melodic phrase on the
same degrees of each Harmonia in succession furnishes a convincing demonstration of the reality of the characteristic Ethos of the Modes.
I am now
going to suggest that the general classification of Ethos as [tcdaxog (soft,
relaxed) and avvrovog (tense) is probably intimately connected with the
There
physical process of sound production on the Aulos and in singing.
is, however, a second modal feature which is likewise contributory to the
characterization of Ethos
this is the tessitura of the modal scale, due to
the position of Mese on its own characteristic degree of the Harmonia,
which bears with it certain implications, mathematical (through the ratios
The latter is brought
of the genesis), modal, musical and psychological.

the breath necessary for a rise or

member
By virtue

about through the essential Ethos of Mese as a

Series in

its

function as aq%r\ (see Chap.

the modal material, Arche bestows

member

of the

its

ii).

own

essential

of the

Harmonic

of the genesis of

quality

upon each

modal series. It has already been pointed out how this

Arche which has descended in due course upon its

stands out in a varying degree of contrast (according

essential quality of

lower octave,
to the

Mese

Harmonia)

Dorian Mese,

Harmonic 7th

modal Tonic common

to the

as sharp

^ratio

Harmonic 4th

to

^ratio

being the most striking.

1

Rep., 398-9.

all

the Harmoniai.

and the Mixolydian

The
flat

THE GREEK AULOS

136

Let us now turn to one or two quotations germane to the subject

come Aristotle's definition and characterization of Ethos 1

first

To begin with there is such a distinction in the nature of the Harmoniai that
each of them produces a different disposition in the listener. By some of them,
as for example the Mixolydian, we are disposed to grief and depression
by others,
as for example the low-pitched ones, we are disposed to tenderness of sentiment.
;

And

then

well

known

Thus

whose powers have failed through years, it

is not easy to sing the syntonic Harmoniai, and their time of life naturally
suggests the use of the low (dveifiivag).' Plato's 2 treatment of Ethos is
'

What then
tonic Lydian,

for those

are the Threnodic Harmoniai ?

Mixolydian,' said he,
and Synand some others of the same character
Which of the Harmoniai
?
The Ionian,' he replied, and Lydian, and such as
'

then are soft and convivial

are called slack

We

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

(xakagai).

notice at once that on the one

hand

and relaxation point

tension

directly

to the action of the glottis in producing a rise or fall of pitch, e.g. the

Mixolydian Harmonia in its first ascending tetrachord induces at once a

plaintive, mournful feeling in accord with the lack of effort required in
Mixolydian Harmonia
128

Cents

Ratios

138-5

182

165

151

14

13

12

11

13

12

11

10

204

231

98

10

|_J

Mese

upward
up to the high Mese perched
on the 7th degree, when the singer or Aulete only reaches the octave after
playing or singing the notes, while the second tetrachord, with

its

straining to produce ever wider intervals

the further tension of a septimal tone

whose powers have

3

(^j,

satisfies

In using the Mixolydian Harmonia, one

tions.

Nete D.

PN.

r-

...

Ratios

11

failed,

Tr.

and who have to keep the voice

PM.

Mese

_jJL
12

13

the claims of both quota-

may sympathize with

<

14

[Tf]

PH.

Lich.

18

Hyp. M.

20

22

high

PH.

L.

those

tessitura.

Hyp.

fe

at a

24

26

28

In the descending modal scale or in a melodic use of the Mixolydian

modal sequence, such as the above, the grief deepens into an atmosphere
of gloom and depression which becomes well-nigh intolerable as the melos
sinks

by slow steps from the Mese through the second tetrachord (of the
Such a melodic

Mixolydian) back to the Tonic on Hypate Hypaton.

1
3

v (viii), 5, p. 1340, a, 38.

Superscript accidentals are given, but they

Politics,

must be heard tuned true

the Dorian Harmonia on

to ratio.

C =

128.

Rep.,

iii,

may be misleading
The Mixolydian is taken here as

398E.
the notes

a species of

THE AULOS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN THEORY

137

phrase enables us to realize how appropriate was the abstention from the
use of the Hypaton tetrachord in the Dorian melodies (iv roi; AcoQtotg)
in order to preserve the Ethos unspoiled, as recorded by Plutarch. 1
The

Syntonic Lydian included by Plato will need a little consideration. To

what form of the Lydian Harmonia does he refer ? We may here recall
the change brought about in the Tonic of the Lydian Harmonia, used as
species in the P.I.S., through the extension of the Dorian Tonos from
Hypate Meson down to Hypate Hypaton in the Mixolydian Species. That
tetrachord bore the ratios 28, 27, 24, 22 or 21, thus obliterating the Lydian
Tonic of the Lydian Harmonia, of ratio 26, which in the P.I.S. henceforth
appeared only as Oxypyknon Chromatic. The formula of this Mixolydian
first tetrachord is ascribed, by Ptolemy, to Archytas, but with the two tones,
- reversed thus
I X

87

- X

-.

If the first tetrachord of the

compared with that of the

Lydian Species

Lydian Harmonia of
Determinant 13 or 26, it will at once be apparent that, with both forms
at the same high tessitura, due to the Mese on the 6th degree of the scale,
it is to the Lydian Species of the P.I.S. that the epithet Syntonos belongs.
From the two tetrachords given below, with the values of intervals in
ratios and cents, it must be evident that a greater tension of the glottis
action is required to produce the species in the P.I.S. than the first tetrachord in the Harmonia. With the latter sequence, the Aulete passes

in the P.I.S.

is

original

Comparison of the First Tetrachord of the Lydian Species in the

WITH THAT OF THE ORIGINAL LYDIAN HARMONIA

P.I.S

Degrees of

Lydian

the P.I.S.
Ratios

Species

Kata
Dynamin

PH. Hyp.

204

PH. Mes. {Tetrachord

Hyp. Mes.

20

21

Ratios

Thesin

Cents

26

27

first

only to the third interval..

greater than a perfect 4th

by

it is

intervals

20

165

cents

13

455

and with a very

cents

slight effort

4th diminished by 43

cents.

of the judgement of Plato and of Aristotle,

the Lydian Species of the P.I.S. that

is

de Mus., Cap. 19 (ed. Weil and Rein.,

it

meant by Syntono-

Lydisti.
1

520

/Tetrachord

In the species, the tetrachord is seen to be

a comma, whereas in the Harmonia the tetra-

cents, that is, a

light, therefore,

Mese

Lich.

150-5

two

84-4

22

24
138-5

imperceptibly through the

~ = 455

231

PH. Mes.

Hyp. Mes.

Harm.
Kata

In the
seems that

H.

24

20

Lydian

chord

Lich.

27

Cents

183).

CHAPTER

IV

THE HARMONIA AS MODAL BASIS OF THE PERFECT

IMMUTABLE SYSTEM OF THE TONOI
AND OF THEIR NOTATION

Introductory Evolution of the Greater Complete System from the Species of the
Seven Harmoniai. The Four Periods in the Development of the Greek Musical
The Onomasiai Kata
System. The Nomenclature of the Degrees of the Scales
Thesin and Kata Dynamin. Modal Implications of the Historical Development of
the Kithara. The Practical Basis of the Species. The Order in which the Species
Harmoniai
the
Tonoi. Omega, the
the
Reverse
of
the
and
of
occur is
of that
Common Tonic of the Harmoniai. Birth of the Tonos. Modal Significance of the
Tetrachord Synemmenon. The Modal Basis of the P.I.S. confirmed by Ptolemy's
Formulae. Modal Origin of Ptolemy's Syntonic Chromatic. The Seven Harmoniai
Four Stages in the
restored by Ptolemy through the Mechanism of the Tonoi.
Development of the Tonos marked by a change of Starting-note. Stage I Hypate
Meson as Starting-note and Modal Pivot. Stage II Hypate Hypaton as StartingThe Modal Pivot changes to
note now becomes the Modal Pivot. Stage III
Fundamental Modal Change in
Proslambanomenos as Starting-note. Stage IV
The Tonoi as Curtailed Modes.
the P.I.S. from Dorian to Phrygian.
:

INTRODUCTORY

EVOLUTION OF THE GREATER COMPLETE SYSTEM FROM THE

SPECIES OF THE SEVEN HARMONIAI

THE

main purpose to be achieved in this chapter is to present the

Harmonia, the Species and the Tonos as different forms and uses
of the Mode, as understood in this work, the identity of each
being unmistakably manifested through its series of ratio numbers. In
proof of this statement the author relies upon the agreement of the a priori
demonstration of the basis and principles of the Modal Genesis given in
Chapter i, with evidence from the Theorists presented passim and in greater
detail in Chapter v.
From the Harmonia as a modal octave, the next step in the development
of the Modal System was the formation of the Greater Complete System
(G.C.S.) by the gradual grouping of Modal Species round the nucleus
formed by the Dorian Harmonia. This grouping was brought about as
a natural consequence of the arithmetical progression of the ratios, which,
as seen in the first chapter, result from the division of the string or pipe
through equal measure by the Determinant number of the Mode.
Guided by the special appeal of one .or other of the Modes -bearing
tribal distinctions (such as Dorian, Phrygian, &c.) the origin of which
remains a matter of conjecture the Greater Complete System evolved out

of the seven Harmoniai used as species, not as a theorists' scale, but in

response to the modal urge felt by the practical musician.
138

MODAL

THE TONOI AND THEIR NOTATION

BASIS OF

The system

139

Tonoi will be shown to consist of an ingenious use

made of the Harmonia for the primary purpose of presenting the Dorian
Harmonia in its extended form (Dis-diapason), transposed as species into
of the

Modes in turn, used as keys. In order to carry out

unused ratios of each Mode not required
Dorian or standard scale in the three genera have been omitted
by the Greeks, so that the Tonos may aptly be described as a curtailed
Mode. Since the seven Modes are taken within a common octave, and
are generated from the common fundamental, interpreted as F, the scale
formed from their Mesai or Proslambanomenoi is that of the Harmonic
Series on F from 8 to 16, 15 being considered as an alternative to 14. 1
The scheme of the Tonoi 2 or Tropoi presents in addition each Harmonia
as an octave species partaking of the Ethos and tonality of each of the
other Modes through the -genesis of the modal material from the Arche
Each Mode is, therefore, represented in
(oQXV) or keynote of the Mode.
the scheme as a true Harmonia from F to F in its homonym Tonos, and
in addition as a modal species in seven different tonalities or keys in the
each of the other six

this operation systematically, the

for the

seven original Tonoi.

The

Greater Complete System

(=

G.C.S., avarrj/xa reXsiov

/uslCov)

and

the inception of the idea of the Perfect Immutable System (== P.I.S.,
avarrjfia xsXeiov

afxerafiolov) are manifestly related

the

to

development

of the Modes as octave species on the Kithara, the number of whose strings
was gradually increased from 8 to 15. 3 Moreover, the Perfect Immutable
System, given above, as revealed by the notation in the tables of Alypius,
differs in certain particulars from the original modal scheme.
The significance of the modifications brought about by time is of some importance,
and will be dealt with briefly in this chapter and more fully hereafter.
Any attempt to throw light upon the systems of Greek Music known
as the Greater Complete, the Lesser Complete and the Perfect Immutable
Systems, must deal with the subject from at least four points of view,
which, however, it would not be possible to consider separately in succession without the disadvantage of frequent repetition.
These four aspects

of the systems are the following

(a) Historical

The
(a)
(e)

(b)

structural

(c)

theoretical

(d) practical.

systems are thereby exhibited in the light of

the

Modes

in relation to

'

(b)

the Species

(c)

the twenty-eight sounds

the Tonoi
'

of the

(d)

Greek

An

The Tonoi are termed Tropoi in the Tables of Alypius.

The practice known as magadizing (from /xaydg = bridge of

explanation of the alternative use of 15 and 14

is

the

Genera

Scale. 1

given further on.

the Kithara and

by a light touch on the
preceded the increase of strings to 15. This
practice does not prejudice the quality of tone, as is the case with the nail technique
(see further on).
Magadizing may be applied to all the strings of the Kithara with

ixdyadtq),

i.e.

of obtaining the octave overtone of the string

half-length at the Node,

ease
4

and

may have

success.
(See Ps-Aristotle, Probl. xix, 396, ed. Gev., pp. 20-1.)
Excerpta ex Nicom., ii, pp. 36, 38-40M., EucL, Int. Harm., pp. 5-6M., Arist.

Quint., pp. 9,

10M.

THE GREEK AULOS

140

THE FOUR PERIODS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREEK MUSICAL SYSTEM

We

by the reign

of

the

standpoint of Modality as follows

(i)

development
above-mentioned systems from the

shall in addition classify the four periods of musical

characterized

The

Modal Period

earliest

which Hypate Meson,

of the G.C.S. (pre-Aristoxenian) during

Harmonia, was regarded as

Mese was on the fourth degree. This
was the period of the pure Dorian Harmonia.
(ii) The second period, during which Hypate Hypaton was regarded
as the beginning of the scale, and Mese was on the seventh degree.
This
was the period of the Mixolydian or Hyperdorian Species. 1
(iii) The third Period or Ptolemaic, during which Proslambanomenos
was regarded as the beginning of the scale, and on it, as on Mese, was
based a Tone of Disjunction. Mese was now on the eighth degree, a
change which marks the passing of the true Modal System of the Harmonia.
This period was characterized by a bastard species falsely denominated
Hypodorian by the Graeco-Roman theorists.
(iv) The fourth period developed in the Christian East through the
Greek Church during the early centuries of our era. Proslambanomenos
as the first note of the

the true beginning of the scale, and

is

the beginning of the scale

still

tetrachords, as stated

menos
the

first

is

now

is

but instead of standing outside the

by Aristides Quintilianus (M.,

of the conjunct tetrachords

Proslambano-

10),

over the P.I.S.

its

The

itself

for

formerly beginning on Hypate Hypaton

now based upon Proslambanomenos.

Phrygian. 2

p.

seen to form part of the series of tetrachords

momentous change has come

whole scheme has been changed from Dorian to

sources of our knowledge of the post-Aristoxenian P.I.S.

more especially is this true of the fragment of the

work of Alypius, which originally contained complete tables of this system
in the three Genera and in all the fifteen Tonoi (a) in Vocal and Instrumental Symbols of Notation, the basis of which is pitch value determined
(b) in the Thetic Nomenclature (ovo^iuala xara Oeaiv)
by modal ratios
founded upon the degrees of the Dorian Modal Scale of two octaves upon
the Kithara, which is precise as to functions, but entirely indeterminate
are unimpeachable

as to pitch, relative or absolute.

1

See Lamprocles,

It is precisely this

who foreshadowed

scales (Plut., de Mus., Cap.

ambiguity as to pitch

the change
and Ptolemy's transposition
16E. (Weil and Rein.), p. 64, 156)
Ptol., op. cit.
;

177 sqq.
Origin of the Ecclesiastical Modes ', Appendix ii, and also
The
Four Stages '. It is a highly significant fact that the system which forms the
subject matter of this chapter consists of a synthesis of all the chief elements of
the Music of Ancient Greece, viz. the Harmonia (dg/uovia) and its genesis or
xaxanvxvioaiq
the Synaphe (avvmpij) or conjunction
the Tonoi or Keys
the
three Genera
the species (eidtj, ay/jfiara, or Modes), in practical music
the
Dynamic Mese
the system of Notation
and finally the Aristoxenian System
which was superimposed upon the framework devised for the Ancient Modes.
Since the elements themselves, moreover, constitute stages in development it would
seem that a careful investigation of the evolution of the P.I.S. would almost resolve
itself into a study of the history of Greek Music.
(Wallis,
2

See

1682), pp.
'

The

'

MODAL

THE TONOI AND THEIR NOTATION

BASIS OF

141

by degrees which made it possible to read into the

system devised for the Modes and Tonoi (tovoi), the non-modal Aristoxenian
system
for a knowledge of the Modal System is required before the
scheme of Notation can be correctly interpreted. 1 As the Aristoxenian is
the only system of which the Greek theorists give any satisfactory explanvalues in the notation

Modal System had vanished,

on Greek Music have never suspected the substitution.
Immutable System of the ancient Greeks represents the
most advanced stage in the development of the Modal System its subtle,
compact, but somewhat complicated scheme betrays the hand of the theorist.
There is no part of the Greek musical system which has been described
with such minuteness
no loophole for errors seems to have been left
the names of the tetrachords, of the degrees of the scale, the magnitude
of the intervals from degree to degree have all been carefully recorded, 2
and in the Sectio Canonis of Euclid the method of dividing the string in
order to obtain each of the notes, is explained in Theorems xix and xx,
illustrated by diagrams.
In all these descriptions there is no hint given
ation,

and

as all definite traces of the ancient

modern

writers

The

Perfect

of the real nature of the

The
and

Modal System.
first known

double-octave system was

when

later

as the Greater Complete,

the Lesser Complete or Conjunct System

(avarr]/j.a

releiov

was amalgamated with it whereby the Synemmenon was added

to the G.C.S. as an alternative tetrachord to the Diezeugmenon the
double-octave system in this final form received from the theorists the
name of Perfect Immutable. This was a recognition of the fact that it
was to be no longer merely a standard Kithara scale, primarily modal, for
use in a single tonality and modality like the G.C.S. but to form part
of a system of seven or more Tonoi, into each of which the Dorian Harmonia was transposed. Whereas the G.C.S. represents the natural development of the Harmonia upon the Kithara, obtained as a consequence of
the grouping of the six other Modal Species of the octave above and
below the Dorian Harmonia, in obedience to a merely modal necessity,
the P.I.S. was something more than this
it was a system of all the Modes,
present as Harmoniai, as Species and as Tonoi or Keys, as we shall proceed
to demonstrate.
At the inception of the scheme each Tonos had the
structure of the Dorian Harmonia extended to two octaves.
B.arxov)

THE TWO NOMENCLATURES OF THE DEGREES OF THE SCALE

RATA THESIN AND RATA DYNAMIN

The nomenclature
Kata

Thesin, reveals

own

origin,

however,

THE ONOMASIAI

by

position, the Onomasiii

when

the true nature of the

of the degrees of the scale

its

Harmoniai is known, and bears witness to the evolution of the Greek

Musical System.
1

on the claim of the Harmonists re Notation.

1 and Chap, v.)
Harm., pp. 3-6M. and pp. 14-16M. through species of 4ths and sths
Harm., passim Nicom., Harm., pp. 21-3M.
Gaud., Harm. Int., pp. 15-18M.
by ratios pp. 18-20M. through species of 4ths and sths Bacchius, Intr., pp. 18,
19M. through species. Eucl., Sect. Can., pp. 37-40M.
Cf. Polemics of Aristoxenus

(See App. No.

2

Eucl., Int.

Ptol.,

THE GREEK AULOS

142

was shown in Chapter i that the position of Mese on a certain degree

which must always bear an octave ratio to the Arche (aQxrf),
viz. 8, 16, or 32, is an inherent and inevitable index of the Harmonia or
Mode, revealing its identity beyond all possible doubt. The Mese on the
4th degree of the scale, therefore, betrays the Dorian origin of the nomenclature, since the division by 11 or 22 is the only one which places an
octave of Arche on the 4th degree. Moreover, the fact that this nomenclature
identical in the Dorian Harmonia alone with that of the Onomasia
Kola Dynamin {ovofiaaia xara dvvafuv) was in general use, and was in
fact the only one handed down to posterity until Ptolemy's day, certainly
points to the domination of the Dorian Harmonia, 1 which at some time,
yet to be determined, had come to be regarded as the standard scale
and
therefore, no longer required any specific tribal appellation.
It

of the scale,

Fig. 30.

Birth of the Seven Modal Species of the G.C.S. from the Kithara

of 15

strings (without retuning).

The Dorian Harmonia

HYPATON

of

M.D.22 forms the Nucleus

MESON

DIEZEUGMENON

HYPERBOLAION

The

Strings

of the
Kithara

Nos.

Syn

g_

_g>

>>

&

Parhypate
Lichanos

Hypate

Lichanos

Paramese

Trite

Hypodorian Species

Hypophrygian

18

Paranete

Paranete

Trite

MESE

10

Nete

12

Trite

13

20

18

T
Dorian

22

18

22

20

18

24

22

20

18

28 26

24

22

20

18

T
C

Eb

F Gb Ab Bb

T
24

Phrygian

T
Lydian

26

T
Mixolydian

m
m
m
m
0

20

D\>

15

IS

13

12

11

10

15

13

12

10

14

13

12

11

10

14

13

12

11

14

13

12

(14)

13

T
Hypolydian

Nete

14

IS

15

14

Bb,

C Db Eb F Gb Ab

Bb

the Mesai are enclosed in squares.

The Tonics bear the DeterN.B. T = Tonic
minant number of the Harmonia. The Hypolydian has two forms
(A) passing from
Mese through Trite Synemmenon with ratio 15 on the perfect 4th, (B) passing from
Mese through Paramese with ratio 14 on the Tritone. The Nomenclature of the degrees
from Hypate Meson t o Nete Diezeugmenon of the Dorian Harmonia is the origin of the
Onomasia Kata Thesin.
;

This view of the modal origin of the two nomenclatures of Ptolemy

all the possibility of the Thetic nomenclature having

negatives once for

See D. B. Monro,

op.

ext.,

p. 42.

MODAL

BASIS OF

THE TONOI AND THEIR NOTATION

143

the Onomasia Kata Thesin could have

preceded the Dynamic in time
had no existence independent of the Dynamis of the Dorian 1 Mode.
:

Any attempt to reconstruct the G.C.S. from the evolutionary point of

the Modal
view reveals the two great music-making principles at work
and the Tonal. The Modal System evolving upon the Aulos (see Chapters
for although many early reedi and ii) was in essence an octave system
blown pipes were incontestably bored with three holes, the four notes
which they are capable of producing do not necessarily constitute a tetrachordal unit, 2 but only a range restricted to four notes owing to technical
considerations.
If it be accepted that the Dorian Harmonia or disjunct
octave, in essence octachordal, was the nucleus of the G.C.S. and that
the Kithara nomenclature was both Dynamic and Thetic, then there still
remains the addition at the acute end of this disjunct octave, of the conjunct
:

tetrachord Hyperbolaion, and at the grave end of the tetrachord Hypaton

Can such an addition at the grave end be made

without interference with the position of the Dynamic Mese (aQ%r)) which

to be accounted for.

seems to have been thereby shifted from the 4th to the 7th degree, involving
The answer is, of course,
a change of species from Dorian to Mixolydian ?
in the affirmative, conditionally on Hypate Meson retaining the status of
3
first note or beginning of the scale.

MODAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE KITHARA

Certain indications of the most probable steps in the transition from

Harmonia

to G.C.S. are to

Kithara.

The

be found

in the historical

development of the

statements which attribute every additional string to some

emphasize
Let us consider what this musical
4
tuned to the Dorian
standard Harmonia as starting-point. A ninth string was added, some say
by Phrynis of Mitylene, a victor in the Panathenaia in 456 B.C., a 10th
string by Histaeus of Colophon, an nth by Timotheus of Miletus, a 12th
by Melanippedes, a dithyrambist and musician, who lived at the court of

definite musician, while not constituting authentic evidence, yet

a musical necessity of
necessity

Perdiccas,
It is

some

may have been with

kind.

a Kithara of eight strings

King of Macedonia (454-413

known

that Ion of Chios,

B.C.).

who won

in 452 B.C., used a ten-stringed Kithara

a dramatic victory at Athens

on which he played in three Har-

For an example of the two nomenclatures in practical use, see The Harmonic
of Florence ', Chap. v.
For an example of the tetrachordal unit produced by the Aulos, together
with an explanation of the modus operandi whereby our modern major scale came
to birth, see Chaps, ii and iii.
3
See Ptol., Harm., ii, xi, where Hypate Meson is regarded as the common Tonic
or initial note of all the species Kata Thesin while the Mese, Kata Dynamin, of
each species is given by Ptolemy the position of the real keynote, a specified number
of degrees above the Tonic or Hypate Meson.
4
If the edition by Weil and Rein, is
Plut., de Mus., Cap. 30-1 and p. 1142.
used, the critical apparatus should be very carefully examined with the text, as
debatable alterations and deductions have been made, with which I am not in agreement. See also Nicom., Intr. Harm., p. 35M. and Boethius, de Mus., 1, 20.

Canon
2

'

THE GREEK AULOS

i44

moniai (and, therefore, through the species). These data indicate the fifth
century B.C. as the period of rapid modal development through the species

When

upon the Kithara.

the tribal

probable that from the

Modes made

appearance in

their

were in
were Dorian, Phrygian
and Lydian Kitharai, just as at first there was a separate Aulos for each
Mode. 1 The 9th string might have been added either above Nete (for
Trite Hyperbolaion) or below Hypate for Hyperhypate, 2 if the necessity
was a purely melodic one, affecting the tessitura only. If we suppose the
9th string (E\>) to have been added below Hypate Meson, a note afterwards
known as Lichanos Hypaton or Hyperhypate, the addition may have been
Greece,

it

is

use for the principal

Modes

first,

different instruments

that, in fact, there

made

in response (1) to a melodic, or (2) to a modal necessity.

In the
Hypate Meson would remain the initial note or Tonic of the
and Mese would retain her dynamic power, due to the division by
Determinant 22. In the second instance, it is plain from the ratios that
there will now be a possibility of obtaining on the Kithara, without retuning,
a Phrygian Harmonia beginning on the Hyperhypate, E\) of ratio 24, and
case,

first

scale

with the sequence of ratios that belongs to the diatonic scale of the division

by

But Hypate will no longer be a fundamental or Tonic common

two Harmoniai
the Phrygian has forfeited its status as a Mode

24.

to the

on

F to become a species of the Dorian with E\) for its Tonic.

here was to play in the Phrygian

Mode on

The necessity
By the

a Dorian Kithara.

simple expedient of adding a string to the Kithara tuned to one special

Mode,

therefore, the difference

between a

Mode and

a species

is

made

In order to obtain a Phrygian Harmonia on F on the Dorian

Kithara of eight strings, every one of the strings would need retuning
apparent.

common Tonic. It sounds plausible

change of Mode, but in practice it is
do not take kindly to changes in tuning.
The dynamic Mese of the Phrygian Harmonia on the 5th degree would
fall to the 5th string, the Paramese, of the eight-stringed Kithara, so that
the Dorian and Phrygian Mesai would differ in pitch.
A nine-stringed
Kithara is therefore postulated
in terms of the Dynamic nomenclature,
it is found that the Dynamic Mese of the Phrygian species on the 5th
degree, is identical in pitch with the Dynamic Mese on the 4th degree of
the Dorian Kithara.
On a nine-stringed Kithara the 4th string has thus
become the Thetic Mese of the Phrygian species. It seems clear that the
Onomasia Kata Thesin is a device engendered by an attempt to use the
modal nomenclature designed specially for one Mode for a different one.
The use of the species in practice had many advantages in particular,
except Hypate, which remains the

enough

to retune the Kithara for a

a lengthy process, for the strings

Mese

the

string remains the

same

for

all.

THE PRACTICAL BASIS OF THE SPECIES

The
of air
that
1

principle of the

is

no

so logical in

effort

is

into equal parts of string or column

once the underlying harmonic law is realized,

modal division

itself,

required to grasp the practical basis of the species.

Athen., xiv, p. 631E.

Paus.,

ix,

Cap.

15.

Boethius, he.

Given
cit.

MODAL

BASIS OF

THE TONOI AND THEIR NOTATION

145

F string divided into 22 parts, another string, longer than the first by
two of these equal parts, will produce a sequence of ratios identical with
that of a division by Determinant 24, but starting on an E instead of on
an F. There will, therefore, be a change of Modal Species accompanied
for although the 22 division on an F string
by a subtle change of tonality
and the 24 division on an E string both have as Arche B, producing according to modern ideas the key of B minor in both species, the relation between
the Mesai and the Tonics is now entirely changed, being respectively for
It will be recognized
22 a sharp Harmonic 4th, and for 24 a Perfect 5th.
that tonality, as understood by the ancient Greeks and by musicians of the
an

twentieth century a.d.

is

a very different

power

in antiquity the

power

Mese was of the very essence of the Modes, causative

Mese was responsible for Ethos iffiog) and tessitura,
both of which are conditioned directly by the position of Mese in the
Harmonic Series of the fundamental, or common string-note of the Modal
System, as a result of the division of the string by the Modal Determinant.
or function of the

and

qualitative

the

In Fig. 30 the hypothetical development of the species upon the Kithara

shown it will be noticed that the hypothesis agrees with accepted data.
distribution of the additional strings up to fifteen, some above and

is

The

some below the

original eight, 1 is

both

and the only course which

tuning of fifteen strings of equal

rational,

The

could have any practical success.

all the onus

upon diameter and tension, both of which factors need
be balanced to a nicety with the common factor of length if the quality
of tone is not to suffer thereby.
It may be seen from a reference to Ptolemy
(i, 11) that the Ancients were well aware of this problem without, however,
possessing a formula for its solution which was reached empirically.
This arrangement gives a result in accordance with the established and
authentic data of the accomplished fact. Attention must also be drawn
to the fact that in order to be able to use species of the group of Modes
bearing the prefix Hypo, it will be necessary to adopt one of the three

length to a diatonic scale of a range of two octaves throws

of differentiation
to

following expedients
(a) to

add a string for Trite Synemmenon (ratio 15)

Paramese as Trite Synemmenon for those Species which
;

(b)

to retune

(c)

require 15 instead of 14
to use some such device as the block
;

for

described and illustrated

modifying the intonation temporarily without retuning, in

string is normally tuned for 15 and shortened by

which case the

the insertion of the

little

block for 14.

Block
1

Adrastus, a Peripatetic Philosopher of the second century a.d., quoted by

of Smyrna (ed. J. Dupuis, p. 86) confirms this distribution of the additional
strings, above and below the original eight as still practised in his day.
2
This device, in the shape of a truncated wooden pyramid, is used in order to
raise temporarily the tension of a string on the Kithara.
The blocks vary in height

Theo

THE GREEK AULOS

146
It is

evident that in the

features are

Modal Species the

three musically important

The graded

between the common Mese and each individual Tonic of the species, which bears a numerical ratio identical with
that of the Modal Homonym
that is to say, that all the species have a
Dynamic Mese of the same absolute pitch, but placed upon a different
degree in each scale and consequently bearing a different relationship to
each individual Tonic or Thetic Hypate.
(2) That the Tonic, instead of being the same for the seven sequences,
as in the Modal Series, is the element that changes in each species
and
therefore, it is from the Tonic that the species takes its name
whereas
in the Mode it is the Mese which is the characteristic element of differentiation from which the Modes are named.
This is made evident by
(1)

relationship

the ratios.

That

(3)

in the

modal octave

all

the degrees except the

first

and

last

have a sevenfold differentiation due to the fact that although all begin on
the same note, the Tonic has each time a different value as characteristic
modal denominator in the aliquot division which determines the ratios of
the whole sequence.

At

this juncture the reader

may be reminded

refers to this very point as follows

takes the

same sign

'
:

as starting note,

that Aristides Quintilianus

Accordingly,

and

it

is

clear that if

calls it at different

differing value of the note, the nature of the

Harmoniai

is

one

times by the

made

manifest

from the succession of consecutive sounds.' 1

The latter part of the same quotation applies equally to the Tonic of
the species, with the difference already mentioned above that the Tonic
varies in pitch as well as in ratio

One might

say,

therefore,

number

same absolute pitch

for each species.

by

that in the system

seven Tonics and one Mese, but that

all

there are

species,

the other degrees are of the

same ratio number in any

other species of the same Modal Scale of which it is a species
whereas
in the system of the Modes, there is one common Tonic and seven varieties
of each degree, differentiated by their ratios and, therefore, by their exact
pitch
and the seven Mesai fall upon different degrees of the scale.
A glance at the table of the species (Fig. 30) makes it clear that by
keeping the Dorian Harmonia in the centre, the Phrygian and Lydian and
Mixolydian lie below it, and the Hypolydian, Hypophrygian and Hypodorian above it, in the exact order given by Ps. -Euclid 2 from Hypate Hypaton
to Nete Hyperbolaion.
as the notes bearing the

according to the ratio of the note to be sharpened, the number of which may be
printed on the front of the block, for these little stops cannot be used indiscriminately
under the strings. A small hole is bored with a red-hot knitting-needle through
the base of the pyramid diagonally, and out at one of the sides, to hold a string by
which it may be suspended from the tuning peg. Each block is filed down to the
height required to produce the note, when the stop is slipped under the string.
The blocks are mainly required to change ratio 15 to 14 ratios 27 to 26, and 22
;

to 21, in order to play the species of the later P.I.S. in the Tonoi.
1
2
de Mus., p. 18M., line 7..
Intr. Harm., pp. 15,

16M.

PLATE

Facsimile

15

THE KITHARA, CIR. 500

made by H. Kent in 19 15 from a
British

Museum

B.C.

vase painting (red on black)

MODAL

BASIS OF

THE TONOI AXD THEIR NOTATION

147

THE ORDER IN WHICH THE SPECIES OCCUR IS THE REVERSE OF THAT OF THE
HARMONIAI AND OF THE TONOI
obvious, therefore, that within the P.I.S., this order of the species

It is

based upon different Tonics must be the reverse of that of the Harmoniai
based upon the different Mesai or Archai. In fact, the Archai being
chosen from the Harmonic Series, follow the arithmetical progression from
grave to acute in their ratios, while the Tonics of the sequence of species,

bearing the ratios of lengths of string or columns of

air,

progress in arith-

metic succession from the opposite direction according to the natural law,
grave to acute (see Fig. 31). To resume briefly
the G.C.S. must
be regarded primarily as the vehicle of the Octave Species of the Dorian
viz.

Harmonia, with which, as nucleus, is formed in the aggregate a

two octaves, acknowledged at the outset as Dorian in modality.

The

scale of

upon the Kithara as the result

of increasing the number of strings beyond eight, might have proved a
blow to the dominance of the Dorian Harmonia but for the equally inevitable
discovery of the twin birth of the Tonos with the species, which may have
come about as follows
At the Pythian Games which attracted musicians from all parts of
Greece and of the known world, three Kitharistai from Athens, Lydia
and Phrygia are comparing notes about the tunings of their instruments,
inevitable adoption of the species

all of which have ten strings, thus allowing each Kitharist to modulate into
two Modal Species. The Athenian's Kithara (or xWuqh;) tuned to the
Dorian Harmonia admitted of modulations into Phrygian and Lydian
species
the Lydian Kithara into Dorian and Phrygian, the Phrygian
Kithara into Lydian and Dorian. The three Kitharai were tuned according to custom to begin the tribal Harmonia, let us say, on F.
The Phrygian
finds that his own Harmonia can be played upon the Dorian and Lydian
Kitharai, but at a pitch different from his own, lower upon the Dorian
and beginning on
flattened, higher upon the Lydian (in G).
The
Athenian can play his Harmonia at a higher pitch (on G) upon the Phrygian
instrument and still higher upon the Lydian (on A). The Lydian recognizes his Harmonia on both of the other Kitharai but at pitches lower
than his own, on the Dorian on D, on the Phrygian on E.
Moreover, although the F string has the same pitch on the three
Kitharai, the next note lower (E) and higher (G) will bear a different
intonation on each Kithara.
;

OMEGA THE COMMON TONIC OF THE HARMONIAI

slight digression

may be made

here in order to discuss the significance

of the point that the three Kitharas were tuned, according to custom, to

Why on F ? And how do we know

the Greeks ?
on the authority of Alypius, that the
seven original Harmoniai used as Modes had a common Tonic, indicated
for each in the Homonym Tonos, by the Symbol of Notation Q. (omega)
begin the Harmonia on Tonic F.

that this
It

was

may be

common

practice

definitely asserted,

among

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MODAL

BASIS OF

which appears
species.

The

in each

THE TONOI AND THEIR NOTATION

Tonos on the degree

The Lydian group

of the P.I.S. proper to

in the Tables of Alypius

is

149
it

as

the exception.

symbol of the Lydian and Hypolydian Harmoniai according

to Alypius is R, two dieses lower than the common Tonic, Q, a fact which
is in agreement with our discovery that the M.D. of the Lydian Harmonia
had at some time been lowered in the P.I.S. from 26 to 27 on Parhypate
Hypaton, as signalized by the ratios of the tetrachords ascribed to Archytas.
The Hypolydian shared the same fate in the Alypian tables, although no
change in the M.D. of the Hypolydian Harmonia has been observed in
theory or practice. The purpose may have been the preservation of the
relation of a 4th between the two Tonoi.
(See Appendix No. i, on
distinctive

Notation.)

Competent modern authorities, such as K. von Jan, have adopted F

O of Greek vocal notation the average
male vocal compass of the Ancient Greeks may well have ranged through
two octaves or more from F. Dr. Hugo Riemann is the only authority

as the pitch corresponding with the

who rejects this interpretation in favour of E.

may be recalled in this connexion that the standard pipe known as
Hoang Chung, on which the canons of Ancient Chinese 1 music
were based had as fundamental note an F of 352 v.p.s., if we may judge
of note
It

Lu

of

from the dimensions of the pipe transmitted by Ancient Chinese authors.

An F of that vibration frequency occurs as nth Harmonic on a fundamental C of 32 v.p.s. It may be added that it has been my frequent experience during research in the music of primitive folk to find their musical
instruments tuned to an F of 352 v.p.s. and to C of 256 v.p.s., also to
find notes of those frequencies prominent in their songs.
This hypothetical episode is offered as a plausible suggestion of the
expedient which led to the discovery of the Tonos as transposition scale,
whereby the point arises was the musical urge at the back of this development of the Kithara modal or tonal or both ? The urge was a desire of
the musicians for greater modal facilities, which incidentally brought in
their train the idea of transposition, afterwards utilized by the theorists
but it was probably not until the Kitharists came together,
in the P.I.S.
each Kithara tuned to begin its own tribal Harmonia on F, and began
to compare notes, that the twin development of the species, viz. the Tonos,
was discovered. The strings of the Kithara might be increased to fifteen
for modal purposes, and yet the existence of the Tonos, or of actual transposition, might never be realized except for the sense of absolute pitch,
and for the exact musical memory which is implied in the faculty. But
let there be a gathering together of seven Kitharai, each tuned to a double
octave of a different Mode from the same fundamental note, and it will
be a marvel if the Athenian Kitharist does not discover that the Dorian
Harmonia can now be played at seven different points of pitch and that,
moreover, all the other Harmoniai benefit by differentiation to the same
:

see The Shoo-King or the Historical Classic, being

Record of the Annals of the Chinese Empire, trans, by

For an account of the pipe

the most ancient authentic

W.

H. Medhurst, Senior,

p. 20.

THE GREEK AULOS

Many

extent.

other interesting facts are brought into relief by this experi-

any Harmonia when taken in a Tonos, has as

keynote the Mese of that Tonos and its individual Tonic may be distinguished by its Determinant number
24 for Phrygian, 32 for Hypodorian
and so on. Each Tonos or transposed scale is a species not of the one
ence

for instance, that

same

Harmonia, but of a different one each time. 1

scale or

BIRTH OF THE TONOS

As soon, therefore, as the Kitharists became aware that the Modal

Species obtained on the three Kitharai were identical as to sequence of
intervals, but different in pitch on each Kithara, the Tonos was born as
the twin sister of Species. There would not, nevertheless, in spite of this
tonal richness, be any scheme analogous to that of Alypius, unless the
same Modal Species were to be taken in turn upon each of the tribal
Kitharai
for instance, the Dorian species taken upon the Phrygian, the
Aeolian (Hypodorian), the Ionian (Hypophrygian), the Mixolydian and the
two Lydian Kitharai, and all tuned to F. The result of this musical feat
would be the Dorian Harmonia played in seven Keys or Tonoi, which
have every right to be known by their tribal names, since they were obtained
from the fundamental F as Modes. And this transposition of the Harmonia was a practical possibility likewise for each of the other Modal
;

Species.

The

issue here

is

far

from simple

absolute and relative pitch,

as well as

it

involves

all

that

is

implied by

an understanding of Harmonia,

Tonos and Species and a feeling for Modal Ethos. Thus a Tonos effective
on the octave Harmonia alone must have preceded the double octave Tonos
of the P.I.S.

We now
{avaxrifiara)
(a)
(b)

find that

we have

traced three orders of scales or systems

The Harmonia or modal scale of one octave.

The Species, which as considered here, have each a twofold existence

as Species

and

as

Harmonia

The Tonos which

of the

same name.

Tonos, as Species
and as Harmonia. As the result of the difference between (a) and (b), the
Theorist, turning his attention to these three orders exhibited on a fifteenstringed Kithara, sees yet a 4th and a 5th order emerge, viz. (d) the Greater
Complete System.
(e) The P.I.S. or grouping of the Tonoi into a Modal System carrying
with it important implications.
We are thus brought face to face with the G.C.S. as an accomplished
fact before ever the theorist had become aware of the metabasis, or had had
time to analyse the System into a succession of four tetrachords, conjunct
in two pairs, divided by the Tone of Disjunction (rdvog bia^EVKXinoc, between
Mese and Paramese and considered as the original disjunct octave from
(c)

has a threefold existence

as

1
The tables of Alypius as interpreted by Macran and K. von Jan give a false
view of the Tonoi, as systems identical in structure and differing only in pitch.
See Appendix, The Modal Interpretation of Notation '.
'

MODAL

BASIS OF

Hypate Meson
chord

at

in fact,

to

THE TONOI AND THEIR NOTATION

Nete Diezeugmenon, enlarged by the addition

151

of a tetra-

each end into a double octave with one note missing. As soon,
as the Kithara had been given fifteen strings for the purpose of

playing the seven Harmoniai as species, the G.C.S. was there, unsuspected

by the
It is

theorists.

not exactly

known what space

of time elapsed between the selective

use of the fifteen strings for the purpose of Metabole from one species to

from beginning to
end as one scale, to which the system undoubtedly owes its name. The
G.C.S. remained for a long time an octachordal system in spite of its
compass, just as it would at the present day in a song having a compass of
two octaves. A scale of this kind is obviously implied by Plato 1 in the
well-known passage from the Republic, in which Socrates affirms that the
music of the ideal state will not need a multitude of strings or every Harmonia
After specifying the
(jiavaQfioviov), i.e. on which the G.C.S. can be played.
instruments for which there will be no use in the State, he says with regard
Has not the Aulos (reed-pipe) a great number of notes and
to the Aulos
are not instruments embracing all Harmoniai (ret Ttavagjuovia) simply imitations of the Aulos ?
This passage seems to establish as fact the use before Plato's day of a
scale comprising all the Modes, and of the existence of instruments upon
which such a scale could be played. The hypothetical development of the
G.C.S. sketched above accords fully with the practice described by Plato,
and the fact that he does not make use of the theorists' more technical
G.C.S. does not detract from the value of the historical evidence afforded
by the passage in question.
It is obvious from the meaning of the word that Proslambanomenos,
the
added note ', was not incorporated into the system until very late and not
into the G.C.S. at all.
The need for Proslambanomenos which, as Aristides
Quintilianus 2 explains, was added from without (ewdsv) and bore no relation
to any of the tetrachords, being merely intended to form the octave consonance to Mese, did not arise until the second great period of the development
of the modal system had dawned, when Hypate Hypaton was regarded as
another and the use of

all

fifteen strings in succession

'

'

'

the beginning of the scale.

The name Hyperhypate 3 used by one or two of the theorists for Lichanos
Hypaton, on the other hand, was evidently a relic of the days when the
Kithara had received its ninth string added below Hypate Meson. It was
only much later, after the whole series was complete or perfectly developed
'

'

1
fjfiXv

Plato, Rep., p. 399 c and d.

dstjoei iv raig (bdaTg ts xal

'

Ovx

p,i~Aeaiv.

nrpixiomv xal ndvrmv dgydvcov, ooa no/.vypgda

Ov

ijv 6'

aga,

Ov

iyco, noXv%ogSlac,

ye ovdi xavag/iovlov

(paivexai.

Tgiymvmv aga xal

fioi,

eqirj,

y.ai Tio/.vagfiovia,

St]uiovgyov; ov dge^ofiev.

Ti 6e ; avAoTioiov- i] avlr/ja; Tiagads^r} tt)v nohv ; ij ov tovxo noXv/pgdorarov, xal avra to. navagfiovia av),ov rvyyavEi ovra iiifirj/ta ; AfjXa Srj f) d'og. Avga
3rj aoi, r\v 3' iyd>, xal xiddga Xeuisrai y.azd Tiohv xgrjai/.ia.
xal aS xaz' dygovg rol; vojisvoi
(paivofxeQa.

avgiy^ av rig
2

eirj.'

de Mus., p. io M., line 7 sqq.

cit., p. 10
Theo of Smyrna, ed. Dupuis (Paris, 1892), pp. 145,

Arist. Quint., op.

147, 151-

THE GREEK AULOS

152

to fifteen strings, that the theorist set to

work

to co-ordinate

and explain

the sequence as a system, and that a nomenclature for the additional tetra-

chords was found by the simple expedient of repeating the nomenclature

of the original tetrachords with the addition of a qualifying term applied
to each tetrachord, such as Hypaton, Meson, &c.
The name Hyperhypate

then ceasing to have any further significance,

fell

into disuse.

THE MODAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TETRACHORD SYNEMMENON

The Lesser Complete or Conjunct System, known as the aiaxy]fia rsluov

xara owaqrfv or tlaaaov, is described by Ps-Euclid 1 as extending from Proslambanomenos to Nete Synemmenon, and as consisting of the three conjunct
tetrachords Hypaton, Meson, and Synemmenon.
Elsewhere Euclid states
(p. 17, line 11) that the two conjunct tetrachords must be of the same species
(ofioia xard axfj/ua), and that there are three such conjunctions, Hypaton
+ Meson Meson + Synemmenon Diezeugmenon + Hyperbolaion a
statement which definitely rules out modal sequences, whose octaves never
consist of two tetrachords of the same species.
Other Graeco-Roman
theorists give similar definitions, and the elaborate distinctions made by
Bacchius between Synaphe, Episynaphe and Hyposynaphe do not take us
much further. The Lesser Complete System is usually regarded as affording
facilities for modulating, but Greek scholars have concerned themselves but
slightly with its significance, and still less with its origin.
One might,
indeed, almost doubt whether the Lesser Complete System ever existed
elsewhere than retrospectively in the imagination of theorists who have
misunderstood the real nature of the pre-Aristoxenian musical system.
Why should the conjunction of the Synemmenon tetrachord bring about
a change of key and of species, whereas the conjunctions between the
Hypaton and Meson and the Diezeugmenon and Hyperbolaion tetrachords
do not bring about a Metabole ? The somewhat obvious answer is because
Trite Synemmenon introduces a new note foreign to the Dorian Harmonia
beginning on Hypate Meson, whereas the Hypaton is but a repetition of
the Diezeugmenon an octave lower, and therefore contributes no new
element. This is seen clearly through the modal ratios. A comparison of
the two Modes, Dorian and Hypodorian, shows clearly the origin of the
;

Synemmenon:

tetrachord

common

the tetrachord 22, 20, 18, 16, or (11, 10,

9, 8)

Modes, the turning-point or pivot being (16). When

followed by 15, the tetrachord is Hypodorian
when
the sequence runs 16, 14, 13, 12, 11, the Mode is Dorian.
The Metabole
is thus seen to be due solely to the substitution of ratio 15 for 14
15 being
a ratio which does not enter into the composition of the Dorian Harmonia.
If this be granted, then one may assert that conjunction only involves a
change of Mode, Species or Key when a new note or ratio breaks through
is

this ratio

to both

number

is

the melodic succession or Emmeleia, as does the

5 of the Trite

Synemmenon.

Synemmenon is, therefore, a modal conjunction, whereas Hypaton and

Hyperbolaion considered as conjunctions are pure theoretical conventions,
1

Ps. Eucl., Intr.

Harm.,

p.

17 M.,

11.

28 sqq.


MODAL

BASIS OF

arising merely

THE TONOI AND THEIR NOTATION

from the necessity of passing from

153

a higher to a lower octave

of the Dorian Harmonia, or the converse.

very important question has been hereby introduced which throws

some

light

upon the function

of Trite

Synemmenon.

It is clear that

the

through ignorance or perversion of the Modal System have failed

Hypodorian and Hypophrygian species can only be obtained
by using the tetrachord Synemmenon instead of Diezeugmenon or Hypaton.
The mere inversion of the two tetrachords of the Dorian Harmonia, for
instance, with the addition of a tone of disjunction at the beginning of the
scale, does not in any sense constitute a new Mode
it is certainly not
the Hypodorian Modal species that lies between Proslambanomenos and
Mese, 1 for the ratios, as seen in the figure, are not the same (see Fig. 19,
Chap. i). The Hypodorian Harmonia does indeed begin on ratio 16 (as
shown above) since that is the number of its division, but the 16 must fall
upon Hypate Meson, the first note of the Harmonia. If Hypate Hypaton
were taken as the beginning of the scale a practice adopted as we know
then the Determinant ratio for the string-note as Hypate Hypaton would
be 22 and Proslambanomenos in the Hypodorian Mode would bear the
ratio 24 and not 32.
This structure completely carried out, with some of
the ratios correctly indicated, actually survives in a unique thirteenth-century
Greek manuscript preserved in Florence 2 which is quoted, and discussed with translation further on. It is impossible in the face of this
manuscript modal division of the Canon or Monochord in a thirteenth-

theorists

to see that the

century transcript
several centuries

which must have been one of many extending through

-not to

accept the principle of the

Modal Division

as a

development of Music in Ancient Greece.

evidently considered to be of the highest
importance at the time of the inception of the scheme of Notation, for the
alphabetical sequence constituting the vocal Notation began its descent
from Alpha through the Pykna in the Synemmenon tetrachord of the
Hyperphrygian Tonos located an octave above the Hypodorian Tonos,
and possessing all its structural characteristics but none of those belonging
to the Phrygian group.
The sequence of symbols concludes with omega (O)
as Mese of the Hypodorian Tonos.
The scheme of Notation thus began
and ended with the Hypodorian (see Appendix No. i). The scheme of
Notation, therefore, has for its nucleus Mese, thus emphasizing the dynamic
properties of the keynote, and indicating the inherence of Synemmenon or

proven

fact in the

The Hypodorian Harmonia was

As Macran (and others) would have it, following the Graeco-Roman theorists,
The Harm, of Aristox., Intro., pp. 22, 23 and 14, 15. See also on Macran's theory
of the Modes in J. D. Denniston,
Some Recent Theories of the Greek Modes ',
Class. Quart., Vol. vii, April, 1913, pp. 87 sqq.
Macran does not appear to have
noticed that his theory of the Dorian Harmony, as noted on Tables 5 and 10 and
pp. 13, 14 and 23, precludes its use for more than one octave without a change of
Key it could not be played, for instance, on the white notes of the keyboard.
2
The scheme of this Canon is given in Chap. v. The Codex Plut. 56, fol. 10,
'

preserved in the Laur. Medic. Library in Florence and has been published with
Latin and German translations, in which the text has been subjected to
many destructive emendations under an entirely erroneous interpretation.
is

THE GREEK AULOS

54

at all events of the ratio 15 falling to Trite

Synemmenon

in the P.I.S.,

the purpose being to provide the characteristic note of the three

Hypo Modes

Genus. This is one of the important facts which have been

It seems highly
elicited through the analysis of the scheme of Notation.
probable that Trite Synemmenon was already included in the G.C.S.,
Moreover, since the
there could otherwise have been no Hypo Species.
G.C.S. was a system of 15 notes, and Proslambanomenos was a late addition,
in the Diatonic

number was obviously made up originally by the inclusion of ratio 15

Any other conclusion must inevitably dissociate the G.C.S.
from the scheme of Notation, since it was precisely the Pyknum based upon
Mese, i.e. 16, 15, 14, or 32, 31, 30, taken in succession through the seven
original Tonoi which formed the nucleus of the scheme.
If the ratios of the Lesser Complete System be compared with those of
the Greater, it will be seen that the sole difference between the two was the
one note next to Mese, viz. Trite or Paramese, respectively, 15 in the Lesser,
14 in the Greater Complete System. We have it on the authority of
Nicomachus 1 and other of the Graeco-Roman Theorists, that among
the ancients, Trite and Paramese were interchangeable terms for the note
next above Mese, and this is suggested also in the Pseudo-Aristotelian
the

as well as 14.

Problems. 2

A query which will naturally arise out of the foregoing is that since the
two tetrachords Synemmenon and Diezeugmenon differ by one note only
viz. Trite, represented by ratio 15 for the former, and Paramese by 14 for
the latter, why was it considered necessary to add the whole tetrachord in
the P.I.S., which, according to the theorists, consisted in the amalgamation
The answer is that the
of the Greater and Lesser Complete Systems ?
inclusion of the whole of Synemmenon was necessary for the rendering of
the Ilypodorian, Hypophrygian and Ilypolydian Species, 3 which pass
through the Synemmenon Tetrachord, and omitting the D'ezeugmcnon,
finish in the Hyperbolaion.
It will be noted that Diezeugmenon, as alterna;

tive to

Synemmenon,

is

omitted in those species.

THE MODAL BASIS OF THE

The

P.I.S.

P.I.S.

CONFIRMED BY PTOLEMY'S FORMULAE

marks the era of the complete cycle of the Modal Tonoi,

or transposition scales, sometimes called the pure key period, which

is

suggested by the term Immutable or unchanging, signifying the one type

scale to be repeated without alteration at various points of pitch, determined

by the position of the Dorian extended species in each of the other Harmoniai
or, it might equally well be said, by the position of Proslambanomenos as
octave of Mese. The Harmoniai are used in Katapyknosis for this purpose
(i.e. according to modal genesis), but only in so far as the ratios of the
1
Harm.,
Cap. 20.
2

in

p.

17,

1.

24 sqq.

two forms, and that

scale

M.,

p. 9,

Probl., xix, 47 (ed. Gev.), pp. 30-1 ;

The reader will bear in mind that the

is

based,

i.e.

this

1.

31 sqq.

Boethius, de Mus., Lib.

i,

7 and 32, Gev., pp. 32-3.

Hypolydian Mode and species are known

statement applies to the form upon which our major

having ratios 20,

18,

16,

15.

MODAL
FlG. 32

BASIS OF

THE TONOI AND THEIR NOTATION

Examples of the Tonos with

MESON

HYPATON

DORIAN TONOS

I i

32

28

Bb

Homonym Harmonia

its

24

C Db Ei

its

DIEZEUG.

HYPERBOL.
*

&

a,

&

0,

20

18

[16]

15

14

13

12

11

10

F Gb Ab
L Dorian

~b\

Cb

C Db E?

_x

F Gb Ab Bb

Harmonia 22

Phrygian

Lydian

Species

x,_x

b24

Species

Mixolyd

C28

Species

Hypolydian Species

20

Gb

&c.

32

28

26

24

22

18

|16|

15

13

12

11

Eb

G Ab Bb

|C|
|CJ

Db D- Eb

G Ab Bb C

x_ -X

Lyldian

Mixol)ydian

14

10

x_x|

28

Species

Ab

Hypolydian Species

20

28

26

24

Species

Species

Dorian

32

Harmonia 24

Phrygian

LYDIAN TONOS

155

Species.

22

Lich.

26

and

18

|1

15

14

13

A Bb C

20

|_D|

Eb EW

12

&c.

11

10

G A

Bo

Lydian Harmonia 26

X_X

Mixolydian

X"

E 28

Species

G 24

Phrygian Species

A 22

Dorian Species

Hypolydian Species
&c.

32

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

MIXOLYDIAN TONOS
Eb

F Gb Ab Bb Cb Db Eb Fb F Gb Ab Bb Cb Db Eb
Mixolydian Harmonia 28

IX_X_X

x_x_x

Ly|dian Species
I

xl

G b 26

Phrygian Species

A b 24

Dorian Species

i?b22

Sec.

THE GREEK AULOS

156

the

same

for every Tonos

are required for the three
Tonos is the Arche of the Harmonia of the
same name, produced by its characteristic division of the F string
as a
Tonos, therefore, it had the tonality due to the incidence of the Arche upon

Dorian type

scale

The Mese

genera.

in each

the

string.

The

first

Notation

is

fact that

emerges from a careful analysis of the scheme of

the evidence of great alterations which have been carried out

was

since the original plan

qualification of immutable

drafted,

for

it is

and which are sufficient

no longer a single type

may

to belie the
scale that is

by means of
the working basis of the system of Notation. The subtlety, combined with
rational simplicity, displayed in the inception of this scheme is truly amazing
and leaves one incredulous that it should have emanated from a single
human intelligence of that age. Who was the author of the scheme ? Was
1
it Pythagoras, as is implied by Aristides Quintilianus ?
The second query which will certainly arise is How is it that no hint
of this extraordinary modal basis of the Perfect Immutable System has
been discovered in the classical sources, or in the works of the theorists ?
This may perhaps be because all traces which might have furnished a clue
have been obliterated through the substitution of the Aristoxenian scale
system, favoured by the nomenclature by degrees which was in general
use, and which took no account of the magnitude of intervals, or of any
pitch values whatsoever, and could, therefore, accommodate any heptatonic
scale.
It would not, however, be quite correct to state that no hint of the
modal basis of the P.I.S. has been discovered, for Claudius Ptolemy by his
double nomenclature (the Onomasia Kata Dynamin and the Onomasia
Kata Thesin), which brings the section of a Tonos corresponding to the
Harmonia of the same name within the limits of an octave common to all
the Modes, has in a measure restored the original basic idea of the ancient
here presented, but several which

readily be identified

Modal System.
evident from the position of Mese on one or other of the
Modes were
Ptolemy in practice and to a limited extent in theory. What he
has done is to establish the Harmoniai as a system of seven related scales,
beginning and ending on the same note interpreted as F, but with Mese
occurring in each Mode on a different degree of the octave. By realizing
that the Harmonia was actually located in some way within the Tonos,
another valuable hint was given, but unless the natural law underlying the
modal basis was understood, students of Greek Music could only realize
Ptolemy's meaning vaguely from the standpoint of the degrees and their
functions.
Other important points in theory and practice described by
Ptolemy are discussed further on in their proper sequence.
Among the formulae recorded by Ptolemy are to be found several
which constitute a complete vindication of the Modal System discovered
by the present author. Some of these formulae (given below) are attributed
It is quite

degrees of the scale in the Onomasia Kata Dynamin, that the

known

de

to

Mm., M.,

Hard rd Tgtd

ysvrj.'

p.

28

'
:

FTvOayoQov rwv aroiysLCov SXcov, ixQeoEtg xcov re

tqojicov

157

THE GREEK AULOS

158
to

musicians and mathematicians of the Alexandrian School. Additional

by research among data of the early Greek Church and

evidence, gleaned

Arabs of the eighth to the tenth century a.d., affords further

Modes among the Greeks of Hellenistic Asia,
From the figure it will be seen that
certain of these formulae for the Chroai or Shades of the Genera recorded
by Ptolemy are actually sections of the modal P.I.S. propounded in the
present work, every tetrachord of which is shown to be in agreement with
the testimony of Ptolemy. 1 The ratios of the tetrachords from the two
sources are collated in the table and it will be found that the modal ratios
of the Eastern

proof of the general use of the

the Eastern Arabs and the Persians.

for the tetrachord

Hypaton correspond with the formula

of Archytas and the Tonic Diatonic of Ptolemy

Meson with
in certain

those of the Diatonon Malakon

Tonoi

is

the whole subject

is

the

for the Diatonic

the ratios of the tetrachord

the

Synemmenon

identical with the formulae for the Diatonic of

is

some

treated in

Homalon Diatonon

detail in

Chapter V.

Of

tetrachord

Didymus

special interest

of Ptolemy

\n

982/

10

which is identical with the first five degrees of the modal Phrygian species,
between Lichanos Hypaton and Mese, in the Dorian and Hypodorian Tonoi
the Syntonic Chromatic formula of Ptolemy is derived from the same
Phrygian Harmonia. 2
1
Harm., ii, Cap. 14, pp. 170-72 (ed. Wallis, 1682), and ii, Cap. 15, p. 186.
2
The Syntonic Chromatic is defined in the Codices of Ptolemy's Harmonics
two tetrachordal formulae which, but for their significant implications, differ
merely in the relative position of the first two ratios in the formula. The formula
as propounded by Ptolemy, shall be designated A.

in

THE FORMULA A
A (1).

-- x
x |
21
11
o

- A3

(2).

Wallis, 1682, 4*0, pp. 72-3, i, xv, p. 171,

described by Ptolemy in the text
During, op. cit., text, 1930, i, xiv, p. 35.
&c.
It appears again in a table entitled
The Shades of the Genera ', according
to the five Musicians, Archytas, Aristoxenus, Eratosthenes, Didymus,
Ptolemy (who has not discovered its kinship with his Homalon Diatonic).

A (3).

During, translation,
During, text, pp. 70-3
Wallis, pp. 170-2
pp. 86-7.
In tables of the mixed tetrachords of the P.I.S. for the seven Harmoniai,
Wallis,
op.
cit.,
and
apo
Meses.
apo Netes
pp. 177-83 ; During, text,
pp. 76-9.

Is

'

FORMULA

12

11

22

21

x
6

4-

5
3

appears in the table of the Chroai (see A (2) above), found at the end of Book ii,
just above the Title of Book iii, in a very large number of the Codices.
This table differs from A (2) inasmuch as it contains only Ptolemy's own contribution to the Chroai, of

The formula A
when giving ratios

which

it

seems

to

be a correction.

has been stated according to the practice followed by Ptolemy

in sequence, as the superparticular ratios proper to the arithmetical progression of the Harmonic Series, while reckoning the values as vulgar
This is an obvious contradiction which suggests
fractions or as lengths of string.

MODAL

THE TONOI AND THEIR NOTATION

BASIS OF

159

MODAL ORIGIN OF PTOLEMY 'S SYNTONIC CHROMATIC

Thus

more link in
Harmonia of M.D. 12

the testimony of the medieval theorist provides one

the chain of evidence of the survival of the Phrygian

or 24 through the ages, starting from the prototype on the monochord of

Pythagoras (ap. Gaud., M., p. 14) through the writings of Thrasyllus (ap.

Theo of Smyrna)
him and discussed

the

Homalon

(in 1, xvi

diatonic of Ptolemy correctly stated

Wallis, op.

cit.,

pp. 80-8)

by

the treatises of

Al-Farabi (ninth-tenth century), and of Safi-ed-Din, fourteenth century

the

Canon

of Florence (see Chaps, v, ix)

the

monochord

of Praetorius with

the division into 48 equal segments, viz. Phrygian Harmonia, Enharmonic

Genus. (Other references will be found in Chap, vii, and in Chap. ix).

Had

Diiring's edition been the only one available, this valuable testimony

of the existence and survival of the

Harmonia would have been

lost.

THE SEVEN HARMONIAI RESTORED BY PTOLEMY THROUGH THE MECHANISM

OF THE TONOI.

The

significance of these correspondences furnished

by the recorded

teaching of eminent scholars of the Alexandrian school, second century A.D.,

is

the

more important when

it is

realized that the tetrachord in question is

that the ratios in the formula have been reversed, as for instance in the Syntonic

Diatonic.

Ptolemy's formula 16/15 x 9/8 x 10/9,

i.e.

15,

16,

18,

20 in the Harmonic

Series.

Modal formula 16/15 X 10 /9 x

9/8, i.e. 32, 30, 27, 24.

in fact that of the first tetrachord of the Phrygian

The formula in B is
Chromatic genus, which may be stated (according to my
18/24=4/3
24/24
22/24
21/24

in the

Harmonia

practice) thus

or simply with constant denominator

21
22
18 = 4/3
24/24
Wallis states that he has given the table because it appears in all the codices at the
end of Lib. ii. {op. cit., pp. 186-7), t> ut as ne considers it corrupt, he has introduced
another table, in which the values have been calculated by him in accordance with
Ptolemy's exposition in the text (op. cit., pp. 87-8).
During omits the table altogether, dismissing it as corrupt. Obviously, Formula
is the one Ptolemy had in mind.
It is, however, equally obvious that at some
time during the early Middle Ages there existed a scribe or theorist who was so
intimately acquainted with the Phrygian Harmonia that he was able to detect the
errors in Ptolemy's statement of the scale, and that he restored the order of the
modal ratios, in accordance with the Chromatic scale of the Phrygian Harmonia.
This knowledge may even not have been restricted to one theorist alone, since the
table in question is contained in a very considerable number of codices belonging
to different classes and centuries, amongst which are the ten consulted by Wallis
and the following of which rotographs were obtained by me.

VAT.,
VAT.,
VAT.,
VAT.,
VAT.,

G. 191
G. 192

187

xiii-xiv,

S., fol.

During, No. 64,

M. Klasse.
During, No. 65, V M. Klasse.
During, No. 61, F. Klasse.

247 v

xiii-xiv, S., fol. 209/-.

xiv,

G. 1045
G. 2365

S., fol.

xvi,

xvi, S., fol.

FLOR. PLUT., G.

58,

5or.

S., fol.

85r.

nir. In 1924 this codex was a new

No. 29
xv, S., fol. 258^.
During, No. 11,
;

acquisition.

M.

Klasse.

THE GREEK AULOS

160

form of the Authentus Protus of the early Greek Church and

in use in the Syrian Church at the present day. 1
Ptolemy has actually restored the seven ancient Modes, through the
mechanism of the Tonoi, as a modal system in the aggregate, and as regards
the dynamic position of Mese characteristic of each.
Each Tonos, moreover, is made to bear the burden of the Dorian Species, while concealing
its own identity as a Mode.
This is how Ptolemy explains the matter
the original
that

is still

it

Nor should we find that modulation of Tonos (Key) was introduced for the
sake of the higher or lower voices
for this difference can be met by the raising or
lowering of the whole instrument, as the melody (/is/.o;) remains unaffected whether
;

performed consistently throughout by artists with high, or by artists with low

The object of modulation is rather that the one unbroken melody (to
gcuto /.cD.og) sung by the one voice may produce a change of feeling by having its
tonic (lit. having its beginning) (not Tonic in the modern sense, but d.oy6jivov
=- Arche or Mese) now in the higher, now in the lower regions of that one voice. 2
it is

voices.

Macran,

in discussing Ptolemy's innovation, however, states that

new

not justified in tracing any

'

we

are

sense of the possibility of different modalities

For Ptolemy himself

in this innovation.

asserts that the object of passing

from one Mode to another is merely to bring the melody within a new
compass of notes 3
This is surely a strange conclusion to draw from the passage, for Ptolemy's
nomenclature reveals the exact position within the modal octave F to F of
the Mese or Arche, which varies in each Mode, thus changing the sequence
of intervals within the octave and the species, but not the compass of notes.
Macran's Table 23 shows this clearly. He has missed the significance
of his own exposition in this diagram.
The melody is only brought within
a new compass of notes by changing the Tonos and when the extension of
the Modes (by means of the P.I.S.) illustrated by Macran in Table 21 is
retained.
As soon as the Modal System has been restored by the introduction of the system of double nomenclature, the compass of notes used in
the melody is, according to Ptolemy's statement, on the contrary restricted
in each Tonos to the same octave F to F.
What, then, is the metabolism
to which Ptolemy alludes in
the one unbroken melody sung by the one
voice
and having its beginning now in the higher, now in the lower
'.

'

regions of that voice

'

It is a purely modal metabolism conditioned, not by an alteration of

compass of notes, nor by the tessitura resulting merely from the accident
of a movable Mese or Tonic, situated upon a higher or lower degree of the
scale, but upon the modal configuration of the magnitude and sequence of
the intervals themselves, resulting from the nature of the Dynamic Mese
or Arche, with its power of originating its own structural scheme.
Thus, owing to his failure to recognize the implication of the ingenious
1

Dr. Joh. Tzetzes, Uber die Altgriechische Mitsik

1874), P- 77, also pp. 30-1

2

Ptol.,

Harm.,

ii,

7 (trans,

S.

Macran),

'

Aristoxenus

note.
3

Op.

cit.,

p.

65

in der griech.

Kirche (Munich

43, 44, 82, 83.

by H.

see also pp. 63-5,

Table

23.

',

Intro., pp. 39-40,

MODAL

BASIS OF

THE TONOI AND THEIR NOTATION

161

theory of a movable Mese, with the introduction of which he has been

Macran's Mese was a pure convention, arbitrarily

dynamic Arche which conditioned all the other degrees.

credited, 1
a

selected, not

FOUR STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TONOS MARKED BY A CHANGE OF

STARTING-NOTE

The main points in the subject matter of this chapter which are affected
by Ptolemy's exposition relate to the significance of the four possible degrees
Tonos considered

of the

as the beginning of the scale, as already briefly

stated above.

Hypate Meson,

(i)

modal octave
in

each Tonos.

to

F
All

(ii)

Hypate Hypaton,

(iii)

Proslambanomenos, (iv) the

falls on a different degree

within each Tonos, which

of these

contingencies were evidently familiar to

Ptolemy (i), (ii), (iii), affect the species of the type scale (iv) the modality
of the system as a whole.
The scale beginning on Hypate Meson (i),
Ptolemy calls Apo Netes {and vijrrjg), and (iii) beginning on Proslambanomenos
Apo Meses {and /J,4arjg). It must not be forgotten that these four stages in
the development of the P.I.S., implied or chronicled by the Theorists, were
realities in practical music, and emphasize the essentially modal basis of
music in antiquity.
We may here recall, for instance, the subtle distinction in essence between
Modes and species inferred from the seemingly irreconcilable order of their
sequence in diametrically opposed directions, which we perceive to be due
primarily to the outcome of the two aspects of equal measure applied to
cause and effect in the realm of sound and music. The Mode has an
independent genesis and one implicit Tonality
the species has the genesis
of its homonym Mode and the same sequence of interrelated proportional
ratios
its Mese is on the same degree of the scale as in the Mode itself
but all the species derived from any modal octave scale have a common
keynote of the same pitch, which greatly facilitates modulation, both modal
and tonal.
The Modes could only be used as such singly (as laid down for the
Nome) or with modulation in vocal music only, owing to the technical
exigencies of musical instruments
it was owing to this technical necessity
that the species were discovered, inherent in the Modal Scale to which the
Kithara was tuned.
It may be said, therefore, that whereas the seven Harmoniai were united
through their common fundamental or Tonic (F) the monochord string
in practice, or the fundamental note of the Aulos within the limits of three
Modes on each Aulos the modal species were united through a common
keynote
they are differentiated and recognized through their individual
Tonics and the degree of the Modal Scale on which the Tonic falls. The
order of the species must necessarily vary with the scale of which they
form species
the order of the Modes never changes.
Each Mode has
:

J.

D. Denniston,

'

April, 1913, pp. 87-8.

Some Recent Theories

of the

Greek Modes

',

Class. Quart.,

THE GREEK AULOS

i6 2

one implicit key

each species has an implicit key in each Mode, therefore
seven keys in the seven different Modes.
;

In modern practice the number of keys available might be enormously

by tuning the monochord string to various notes in the Aulos
by the use of different mouthpieces (see Chap, x, Elgin Aulos Records).
The ratios form an immediate and infallible clue for the identification of
Mode and species.

increased

The

significance of these stages in the evolution of the P.I.S.

may now

be considered separately.
Stage

The

i.

Hypate

Meson

as Starting-Note

and Modal Pivot

Hypate Meson for many centuries as the real

beginning of the scale and the preservation of the purity of the Mode long
after the Kithara had strings enough for two octaves, is more especially
(i)

retention of

Modal

significant of a great sensibility to

Ethos.

It

explains a fact that

why there are so few allusions

was evidently taken for granted that the
addition of strings or degrees, above or below the modal octave, was for
the purpose of modulating into the species.
The scheme of modal ratios,
into which the Modes may be analysed, whether followed consciously with
the mind, or through their equivalents in sound by the ear, lends itself
with the greatest ease to the modulation through cycles of modal species, with
Mese, as central pivot to guide the ear or the mind, through its relation to
the Tonic: the Harmonic 4th 11 8, for instance, denoting the Dorian,
the perfect 5th 12 8 the Phrygian
the diminished Major 6th 13 8 the
Lydian, and so on. It is this unique structure of the Greek system of
scales known as the P.I.S. which preserved its elasticity.
In each Tonos
is combined the possibility of modulating by changing the Tonality and
the tessitura through the use of the species without retuning the instrument,
merely by inherent dynamic resources, including the power of bringing to
life the Mode latent within the limits of the octave F to F (O to T), which
only coincides with Hypate Meson in the Dorian Mode.
has puzzled students of Greek Music, viz.
to the species in the classics.

It

Stage

ii.

Hypate Hypaton as

Starting-Note now becomes the

Modal

Pivot

Hypate Hypaton as starting-note now becomes the modal pivot.

(ii) In Ptolemy's description of his transposition of the seven Tonoi a
4th lower may be recognized a conscious or unconscious allusion to the
change which takes place in Tonality and species when the Tonos is considered as beginning on Hypate Hypaton, or as the process would have been
described in terms of the Modal System, when the string-note (or rdaig) was
changed from the F of Hypate Meson to the C a 4th below of Hypate
Hypaton. A curious anomaly, very puzzling to students, results from this
radical and disturbing alteration involving a change of species, a change of
pitch and a change from the disjunct to the conjunct scale, or of the position
of the interval of disjunction. The effect of Ptolemy's transposition may
thus be resumed as a modulation to the sub-dominant Hypate Hypaton
involving (1) a change of species in the type scale of the P.I.S. from Dorian

MODAL

BASIS OF

THE TONOI AND THEIR NOTATION

163

Mixolydian
(2) a change of Tonic from the F of Hypate Meson to C of
Hypate Hypaton in the Dorian Tonos (3) a change of Tonality although
Mese still remains the same in pitch through the change in the dynamic
relation between Mese and Tonic
i.e. from 11
Hitherto 22
8 to 28 16.
has been the Modal Determinant of the string for the Dorian Harmonia,
beginning on F and whether the descent through Ey, D\), C, be regarded
as a mere tetrachordal expansion downwards, or through the Tonics of the
Phrygian Species 24, of the Lydian Species 26 or 27, or of the Mixolydian 28,
the time comes at last when either theorist or practical musician recognizing
by ear the sequence from Hypate Hypaton to Paramese as Mixolydian, or
knowing 28 as the number of the division of the string for the Mixolydian
Harmonia that it is, in fact, the initial number upon which, as Hypate
Hypaton, the Mixolydian Species begins conceives the idea of making that
note the starting-point, thus indicating a predilection for the Mixolydian
over the Dorian. The Mese B\) of the Dorian Species is the same for the
Mixolydian Species, but the alteration in the beginning of the scale shifts
the position of the Mese from the 4th degree in the Dorian to the 7th in
the Mixolydian.
Without retuning a single string, the Dorian Harmonia,
to

therefore, has suddenly acquired a double significance as type scale of dual

species, according to whether the string note F is retained as Hypate Meson
with Modal Determinant 22 as Modal Pivot, or whether a new string-note

Hypate Hypaton with a division by 28

shall be
Tonos or
Tonoi are transpositions of the extended
Dorian Harmonia) a 4th down, or as a change from the Dorian to the

or Tasis, a 4th lower, as

adopted.

The

event

may be

chronicled as a transposition of the

of the whole P.I.S. (since the

Mixolydian Species, or even in the Aristoxenian sense as a modulation to

Dominant (Paramese). In the Modal System, the matter is considerably

more subtle where all tetrachords are composed of semitone, tone, tone, of
the

the exact aggregate value of a perfect 4th,

it is a difficult matter to find any

between the Dorian Species of the G.C.S. or of the P.I.S. on F
continued downwards to C, and the tetrachords of the Mixolydian Species
on C rising to F, except in the rhythmical quality of the two scales in melody,
the one with F as Tonic, and the other with C. With the Modal System

distinction

it

is

different.

Modal Tonoi has been built upon the one

fundamental or string-note and, therefore, invariable in pitch, it

Since the whole system of the

note

as

stands to reason that the whole of the difference due to the modal ratios

must have been borne by the

the seven original Tonoi seven

as

Hypate Hypaton, so that there were

for

When, however, it is proposed

two notes, and to transfer to C as
Hypate Hypaton the fundamental stability of the whole system that formerly
resided in F, the sevenfold differentiation will now become the apanage of
F, and there must henceforth be seven F's.
Until this fact is realized the
radical nature of the change of pivot cannot be gauged.
Which of the
former seven C's will be the chosen one for the new modal basis ? Will it
be the very high Dorian C of 1 38-029 v.p.s., or the very low Mixolydian
C of 123-2 v.p.s., or the Hypodorian C of a frequency of 128 ?
different C's.

to interchange the functions of these

THE GREEK AULOS

64

Whether

it

be possible to

fix,

through the system of Notation which

holds the clue to the Modes, the original pivot or fundamental basis at
the time of the inception of the scheme as F or C
or whether the modi;

which the scheme was subjected in the course of time had

must be left for final settlement during the
discussion on Notation (Appendix No. i), which demonstrates clearly that
fine distinctions of pitch do not form the determining factor.
This much
is certain, however
that the common fundamental F has for its symbol
Q. or its octave V (omega or gamma)
suggestive in itself of the finality
of the modal octave which actually does appear in each Tonos, but each

fications to

affected this pivot likewise,

time with a different

13, 12, 11, 20, 18, 16,

of the

Tonos

Tonoi

in

ratio,

so that

has as successive denominators 14,

according to the Determinant of the

Modal Homonym

Lydian and Hypolydian

which the symbol Q. or F does not occur. It follows consequently
that the C a 4th below F forms with it a different ratio in each Tonos,
and is represented by one of the three symbols M, N or S.
It is evident that the shifting of the pivotal note was revolutionary
enough to be recorded. The failure of the Lydian group to conform to
the general rule, as regards the modal pivot, requires some explanation.
The alteration of the 2nd degree of the Diatonic Hypaton tetrachord from
28 26 to 28 27, lowering the Tonic of the Lydian species by a diesis
from 26 to 27, accounts for the lower symbol for F used in the Lydian
Tonos, viz. P instead of Q (actually two dieses lower, for the same change
was made in the Lydian Determinant also, from 26 to 27), except in the
Diatonic Synemmenon Tetrachord, where Gamma appears as ratio 51 and
Chromatic Paranete Diezeugmenon as 26 is represented by Delta, a diesis
lower.
The case of the Hypolydian is analogous owing to the ratio of
Hypate Meson having been modified from 22 to 21, so that Parhypate as
20 has been lowered from its original pitch, because the ratio from Hypate
to Parhypate Meson is now 21/20 instead of 22/20.
The basis of the Modal System in Ancient Greece is thus, by weight
of internal evidence, shown to have been Q. interpreted as F.
To resume the change of Tonic to Hypate Hypaton, while maintaining the F as pivot, does not in consequence bring about a change of species
so much as a change of structure the disjunct formation being abandoned
:

in question, with the exception of the

definitely in favour of the conjunct

so

that the interval of disjunction

between the tetrachords, characteristic of the Harmonia, is now regarded

as an interval of the same kind occurring between the 7th and 8th degrees,
thus forfeiting

The

its

significance as

Tone

of Disjunction.

significance of the structural change brought about in the

by conjunction

Tonos

be realized from Fig. 46, Chap, v the Mixolydian

tetrachord is now seen yoked to the Dorian by conjunction on the 22
of Hypate Meson as recorded by Plutarch, whereas in the Mixolydian
Harmonia the complementary tetrachord is Hypolydian.
In the Mixolydian Mode, as in all the Harmoniai, the interval of disjunction occurs between the 4th and 5th degrees, separating the Hypolydian
half of the Mode from the unnamed first tetrachord to which it has been
will thus

MODAL

THE TONOI AND THEIR NOTATION

BASIS OF

The

yoked.

ratio of the interval of disjunction is

Harmonia and 16

thus 11

165

10 in the Mixo-

If in Ancient Greece the

14 in the type-scale.
tetrachordal structure of the scale was realized in practice as a musical

lydian

the change of rhythm in the well-known Mixolydian Harmonia,

fact,

when

Tonos, was quite sufficient to account for its being chronicled

by Lamprokles 1 (fl. c. 500 B.C.), which, it will be recalled,
was concerned with this very point, and which, therefore, seems to indicate

used

as a

as a discovery

much

beginning on Hypate

earlier origin of the occasional practice of

Hypaton than the age

of Ptolemy.

If regarded

predilection, the importance of the record of

its

a matter of

as

theoretical usage

is

modal
greatly

was rather the concern of the musician than of the theorist.

The point at issue in the age of Lamprokles was the confusion that existed
in the minds of musicians between the Harmonia and the species in the
Tonos. Plutarch has placed on record the fact that the Greeks did not
use the tetrachord Hypaton in the Dorian Tonos on account of the change
2
it produced in the Ethos.
The full significance of this change of Ethos
can only be gauged when the Modal Tonos is heard. It was, in fact, not
only a change in Ethos which in itself is very striking but a change of
species that is effected by beginning or ending a scale on Hypate Hypaton,
which was, according to Plutarch's statement, the actual form of the Tonos
in his day, between Hypate Hypaton and Paramese.
This new form or
species of the Tonos, entailing a division of the string by Determinant 28
instead of 22, recalls several passages in Aristoxenus and other writers,
in which the number 28 figures in connexion with the Greek Scale of
pre-Aristoxenian days
these are examined in the next chapter.
diminished

it

Stage

Hi.

(iii)

The Modal Pivot changes

The

When
ever,

used as the

we may

to

Proslambanomenos as Starting-Note

Proslambanomenos ushering in the bastard Hypodorian

era of

species of the theorists has but

first

little

in

common

with the Modal System.

and lowest of the species by the Harmonists, howlowered

safely conjecture that they, in their musical practice,

Hypate Hypaton from ratio 28 to 30, as lower octave of Trite Synemmenon,

and proceeded to sing the Hypodorian in all its purity.

To

recapitulate the principal points of this chapter,

ably be claimed that

many

it

may

not unreason-

had gathered from the remote

of the mists which

past around the music of Ancient Greece, forming an almost impenetrable

between the earlier and the post-Aristoxenian periods, have been

by the discovery of the Modal System.
That a system of such indisputable importance, and capable of that
logical development in many directions which a mathematical basis alone

barrier

dispelled

ensures, should have remained concealed, unsuspected even, for centuries

appear incomprehensible and highly debatable.

hoped, however, that the satisfactory explanation provided by the Modal
System for many knotty points and apparent contradictions, which have

will at first sight, perhaps,

It is

hitherto confronted the student,

1

Plut., de

Plut., op.

Mus.
cit.,

(ed.

Cap.

will

induce

many

Weil and Reinach), 16E

and
19, p. 79 and note 185.
;

also

to

go carefully and

D, pp. 62-7.

THE GREEK AULOS

impartially into the matter.

This discovery should arouse no

spirit

of

the first time that an explanation of the Mode

a new musical fact unknown before, instead of being
This, in fact, is the hitherto overlooked
a recasting of the old arguments.
factor which is to solve the problem of Ancient Music about which Macran
controversy, since this

has carried with

is

it

'

'

expresses the keenest scepticism in his Introduction (pp. 81-2).

It has been demonstrated that the origin of the G.C.S. may be traced

use of the Modal Species within the Dorian Harmonia, upon a

Dorian Kithara
that the G.C.S. at its inception, in fact, was not realized
as one scale of a range of two octaves consisting of an extension of the
Dorian Harmonia, but as a cycle of seven octave scales linked together in
species. 1
The discovery that the cycle in itself formed a scale was probably
not made until the full cycle had been played upon a fifteen-stringed
to the

Kithara.

In practice the G.C.S. may, therefore, have continued for centuries to

Modal Species of the Harmonia in the Tonality of one

Mode, the Dorian. Historically and practically, the G.C.S. thus

present a series of
single

represents the period of the dominance of the Dorian

the urge behind the development of the system

Mode which

and

it

supplied

only became an

evident theoretical fact on completion.

But although the fact that the same practical possibilities were offered
by the P.I.S., and the completed scheme, as a system of transposition
scales, emphasizes the dominance of the Dorian Mode still more strongly,
yet the hidden basis of the system is seen to depend upon the co-operation
all the seven Modes.
scheme of transposition scales, the seven Tonoi are
been in origin the seven Modes in Enharmonic Genesis,
curtailed in order to present exclusively the Dorian Harmonia, extended
to two octaves, as species in each of the other Modes
all the superfluous
notes characteristic of the other Modes themselves being omitted from
the scheme.
In this guise the group of Tonoi appears to modern eyes
as an instrument of Tonality
a mere system of keys.
We have seen
that in reality it is far more than this.
When the modal origin of the

on equal terms of

As
shown

a theoretical
to have

P.I.S. expressed in ratios

is

revealed, the ingenuity of the scheme, favoured

by a compelling arithmetical progression,

operate in practice

among

is

striking.

the Ancient Greeks

How

did the scheme

The inadequacy

of the

scheme of the seven Tonoi is

obvious.
Ptolemy used an octachord Kanon. The single string of the
Monochord or Kanon suffices, however, to produce the whole series of

fifteen-stringed Kithara for rendering the

Tonoi, for tuning or experimental purposes, but the Monochord does not
lend itself to an artistic performance.
Stage

iv.

Fundamental Modal Change

Upon

in the P.I.S.

the string tuned to F, the sequence of

from Dorian

to

Phrygian

Modal Determinants

as

successive denominators, dividing the string at will to produce any of the

1

(36)

'

The

seven octave-scales which they called Harmoniai

see also Polemics of Aristox. Chap, v, infra.

',

Aristox., Macr., p. 127


MODAL

THE TONOI AND THEIR NOTATION

BASIS OF

Modes, takes care of Tonality and produces the seven keys.

The

167

recurrent

numerators expressing the degrees of the double octave scale

common to the seven Tonoi imposes an apparently uniform modality.
The modal monochord, with its soundboard divided in turn by the seven
Modal Determinants, shows how the seven Tonoi may be visualized at
a glance and tested one by one by means of the movable bridge.
It may be explained at this point that the hypothetical shortening of
the strings of the Kithara to produce semitones and other intervals by
means of a kind of nail technique suggested by some writers on Greek
series of

Music has no possible basis in practice.

with strings vibrated by means of the bow
fication in pitch is obtained at a

result

which

Greeks.

would have

in itself

Apart

from

The

sacrifice of

sufficed to

doom

considerations,

aesthetic

device

is

only successful

on a plucked string the modi-

complete

beauty of tone, a

the device

there

are

among

others

the

which

militate strongly against the practice, such as the extreme sensibility of

a string to tension.
lie

In the upper part of the Kithara, where the strings

open, an elastic string pressed back with increasing tension will easily

rise in pitch as

much

as a 5th

it

is,

indeed, difficult to keep the nail

sufficiently steady against the stretched string to ensure repetition of

any

note at exactly the same pitch.

The

species imply the Tonos.

To

the sensitive Greek ear accustomed

among the Chroai and the Modes, the difference in pitch

between the Mode and the species of the same name must have been at
once apparent and have led in time to a deliberate use of species as keys
of a Harmonia.
to discriminate

THE TONOI AS CURTAILED MODES

The

sometimes termed the Pure Key System, or scheme of

is founded upon the Modes themselves taken in
their Modal Genesis in order to provide for the three Genera.
The Tonoi
or Keys result from the use of the Dorian Species, extended as in the
G.C.S., and taken in each of the Modes in turn, hence the term a/j,srdfio?.ov,
immutable or invariable, applied to the Dorian Species or form of the
Standard Scale.
In other words, the G.C.S. was at first a cycle of all the species obtainable from one Harmonia the Dorian whereas the P.I.S. was a cycle of
all the keys into which the Dorian Harmonia could be transposed by taking
it as a species of each of the Harmoniai in turn.
This is supported by
an analysis of the scheme of Notation, specially designed for the Modal
System of the P.I.S.
The ratios of the extended Dorian Harmonia from 28 to 8, or from
32 to 8 inclusive of Proslambanomenos, were thus taken from the Genesis
of each Mode, the superfluous ratios unused in any of the three Genera
of the Dorian Harmonia being simply omitted from the Tonos.
These
unused ratios did not, however, drop out altogether from the scheme of
Notation, for they are preserved in latency, through the inevitable alphabetical sequence, by the mechanism of the complete scheme.
It has been
P.I.S.,

Transposition Scales,

THE GREEK AULOS

found that

in order to obtain the ratios of the

Genera within the other Modes,

number of the Determinant for each Mode
so
on.
and
See Fig. 34.
48,
in the three

extended Dorian Harmonia

necessary to double the
28 thus becomes 56
24,

it is
:

Finally the four stages in the evolution of the P.I.S. characterized

from
upon which the stress of the
and from the musical point of view by the species or
modality of the whole scale, have, on examination, revealed the following
the theoretical point of view by the degree

beginning was

laid,

implications.

The change
its

involved by the immanence of Stage ii is far-reaching in

on the structural form, on the modality and on the rhythmical

effect

of the scale or Melos.

If carried to a logical conclusion the change

was revolutionary, affecting the whole operation of the Modal System, by
shifting the modal pivot from Hypate Meson to Hypate Hypaton (from
F down to C), with all that this implies in a modal sense. Whether this
radical change in the modal pivot was actually effected, and whether it
can be traced through the System of Notation or through any further
development of the Modal System, is a question that must be left for
life

subsequent discussion.
But another important implication arises apart from the P.I.S. There
are two possible contingencies signified by this second stage in the develop-

ment of the
In the

P.I.S.

first,

the beginning on Hypate

modal pivot remains

stitutes a
initial

fixed

on

Hypaton is purely nominal the

(Hypate Meson, Kata Thesin) and conall the Tonoi, and an
to all the Harmoniai within the Tonoi

common

or starting-note

but in each Tonos this modal pivot, as

different

standard note of the same exact pitch in

due

significance

to

common

characteristic

its

point of pitch, bears a

modal

ratio

and affords

With the pivot on

F, the characteristic modal tetrachord responsible for the Modal Ethos is
the upper one.
The Harmonia with its essentially disjunct formation
special facilities for modulation into other Harmoniai.

The added conand of secondary importance.

extending to Nete Diezeugmenon remains unimpaired.

junct Hypaton tetrachord

is

fortuitous in origin

With the modal pivot removed to Hypate Hypaton (i.e. the fundamental
note of the whole series of Tonoi changed from F to C), on the other
hand, the change is radical. If the rhythm and structural features are
retained intact, as they probably would be in musical practice, then a new
order of

Modes

is

inaugurated, consisting of two conjunct tetrachords on

the Tonic with an interval of disjunction between the 7th and 8th degrees,

and that constitutes

for the

Mode

More fundamental, however,

remembered

Mode

is

an entirely new rhythm. 1

the modal change effected.

It will

be

two tetrachords yoked together,

on the Tonic characteristic of
the Mode itself, and the upper tetrachord of a related Mode which enters
on the 5th degree. In the Conjunct Modes the 2nd Mode entering on
that each

consists of

paradoxically through disjunction

tion

Sec Appendix No.

Elsie Hamilton.

by

iii.

the

first

Examples of use of the Modes

in

Modem

Composi-

Fig. 34.

Examples of the Tonos

as Curtailed

M ode exhibited in Three Stages of Development from

c

HYPATON

Harmonia

the Ancient Dorian

MESON

SYNEM.

HYPERBOL.

DIEZEUC

w
H
w

w
in
W
%

r
The Phrygian Harmonia used

-Tonos

-as-

G reate r

-The

-or

Key

Unused notes

Complete System
4-

The Phrygian Tonos

Modal Determinant

nwe

48

Enh. Chromatic

nt Dorian Harmonia
22 or 44

M .D

48

47

46

Unused
44

45

notes

43

42

41

40

39

38

37

36

35

34

33

32

Diatonic

48

27

h-

F
1

28

27

Vocal Notation
Instrumental Notation

Fundamental

28

26

zi\ 20
22 f

V *
H F

39

32

24

28

A K

30

29

u.

-<

ncie nt Dorian

47

46

45

44

Unused Notes
43 42 41 40

39

38

37

36

35

34

33

32

24

2l\ 20

27

26

16

l8

16

30

26

H
< V >
O

Si

* y n M

The Hypolydian Harmonia used

u.

A H r
> N
-<

28

40

39

32

27

24

21I

20

18

22/
1

y a x

fl6

I 32

M'

Tonos or Key

G reate r

-The'

Complete System4-

40
nt Dorian

Harmonia
Unused

Unused notes

Enh. Chromatic

40

39

38

37

36

35

34

33

28

27

26

2l| 20

28

27

26

2i\ 20

O
< K

>l

39

30

29

24

39

32

-8-

w v

Fundamental

JC

w n
h r

nt Dorian

C U

Harmonia
8

Diatonic

Fundamental

'

39

38

37

36

35

34

33

28

27

24

21

20 |3S

32

16

MI

-1

j:

i-

L.

30 J51

20

24

28

27

24

21

< c u

I25

n <

1 81

16

Unused
5
4

notes
3

for each letter

of

35 J
zs
-e-

Notation for an example of the principle on which the symbols of Greek Notation are allotted in conformity with the succession of ratios in each Harmonia
the Alphabet a ratio both in sequential order. Due regard has been paid to the requirements of the Enharmonic, Chromatic and Diatonic Genera.
'

notes

16

N.B, -See Appendix

a * M'
A
An'

<

-as-

The Hypolydian Tonos

Modal Determinant

es

Harmonia
24

32

Fundamental

22
44

MODAL

BASIS OF

the 4th degree

of the

is

THE TONOI AND THEIR NOTATION

necessarily a different one

same name, so

that the association of the

169

from that of the Harmonia

two Modes takes on another

Ethos altogether.

The
this

interesting question that emerges

Are there any

from

this

investigated (see

since

the

Appendix No.

we have now

Dorian Mode,

sphere of

all

the

new order

ii

To

this

Ecclesiastical

as

the

scale of the

Modes used

in East

Modes

are

and The Canon of Florence, Chap, v),

at which the theoretical form of
P.I.S., is forsaken for the

independently, though

theoretically, the issue is of very considerable

Music

of course,

an affirmative

arrived at a point

still

and West.

wider

expressed through

the nomenclature of the P.I.S., as no other was in use.

of

is,

traces extant in theory or practice of these conjunct

Modes used independently ? (i.e. xara dvvafMv).

answer must be returned when the origins of the

Musically and

importance to the evolution

CHAPTER V
EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE MODAL SYSTEM
The Harmonia's Modal

Measure confirmed by

Principle of Equal

The-

Aristotle.

The Common Modal Starting-note according

The Mese as Arche. The 12 Polemics of Aristoxenus

Evidence of the Canon of Florence.

to Aristides Quintilianus.

Polemics 1 and 2
Concerning the Harmonia. Polemic 3
Close-packed Scales of the Harmonists. Polemic 4
Concerning the Tonoi.
Polemic 5
Notation as the Goal of Harmonic. Polemic 6
The Theory of the
Aulos and of the Pipe-scales. Polemic 7
The Aulos as the Foundation of the
Order of Harmony. Polemic 8
Eratocles and the Harmonists in general treat
only of the Octave. Polemic 9
Concerning Systems. Polemic 10
Eratocles
determines the Species by the Recurrence of the Intervals. Polemic 11
The
Harmonists assert that Points of Pitch consist of Ratios and Rates of Vibration.
Polemic 12
On the Twenty-eight Consecutive Dieses. The Characteristic Ratio
11/10 of the Dorian Harmonia, ascending from the Tonic, Hypate to Parhypate
Meson. Eleven, the only Determinant Number that could place Mese upon the
Fourth Degree of the Scale. The Ratio 1 1/10 as first Diesis on the Tonic confirmed
by Aristides Quintilianus (p. 123 M.). Further support for the use of Ratio 11/10
in the Tonos from Ptolemy.
Definition of the Diesis by Aristides Quintilianus
The Ratio 11/10 as Spondeiasmos and Eklysis. The Ekbole, interval
(p. 123 M).
of Five Dieses. The 28 Dieses of the Harmonists according to Aristoxenos and
Aristides Quintilianus.
28 as the Ratio Number of the Mixolydian Tonic, and
as Hypate Hypaton in the Tonos. Brief Recapitulation.

against the Harmonists.

The

'

'

THE HARMONIA'S MODAL PRINCIPLE OF EQUAL MEASURE CONFIRMED BY

ARISTOTLE

IN

Modal System in any classical

Graeco-Roman theorists, certain

the absence of actual descriptions of the

sources extant, and in the works of the

have been brought together in this chapter to form

a body of evidence in agreement with the main features of the Modal System
significant passages

These passages, many of which

have been selected
on account of the support they give to
the recovered Modal System, but also as examples of the peculiar value
of the vantage-point afforded by a system having a mathematical basis,
which proceeds from a precise and inevitable order, such as that provided
by an arithmetical progression.
A matter of primary importance in a consideration of the Modal System
is obviously the principle itself, according to which the Harmonia is constituted and operated in practice.
This basic principle is that of the
arithmetical progression known in the domain of music as the Harmonic
Series, constituting the physical basis of sound.
This progression when
applied to length of string or air column through equal measure or aliquot
as explained in the foregoing chapters.

are discussed

more

fully elsewhere in different contexts,

for the present purpose not only

170

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMONIA

division,

is

responsible for the creation of the

to the principle of equal division without

171

Harmonia and indeed

The Harmonia may be

whole Modal System.

said to

which

its

of the

be due absolutely

existence could not

be demonstrated.

The Modal System,

record of this

for posterity in

must stand or fall by equal measure.

principle as the basis of the Harmonia has been preserved
germ form by Aristotle, in a terse fragment, in which
therefore,

Pythagorean and Platonic influences may be detected. 1

The passage in question, quoted by. Plutarch 2 (Arist., Fr. 43, Bekker)
and pronounced obscure by certain authorities on Greek music, demands
careful consideration, in view of its weighty implications, and of its extraordinary significance.
It runs as follows
:

226] Sri de

Xiysi'
[
[

"

228]

fj

ae/ivrj

i]

dgfiovia y.al OeTov ti y.al fxsya 'AgiaroTs/.rjg 6 Il/.dravog ravxl

de dg/novia eaxlv ovqavia r?)v tpvoiv eyovaa deiav

rerga/j.egr]g de rfji

y.al y.a/.rjv y.al daifioviav.

Swd/xei neqmxvla dvo fj.ea6rrjxa; eyei &QiBfiTjTacqp xe

y.al dg/uovty,i]v.

229] cpaivexai xe xd fiegr] avxfjs xal rd fieyedr) y.al al vnEQO%au, y.ax' dgidfidv xal iao/xexglav
add. W. and R. >, iv ydg dual xexgayogdoi; gvd/xi^szai rd fiE/.t] (rd fiegr)

<-qojj,6a8ai

WestphalJ.

The

fact that Plutarch has introduced this quotation

from Aristotle on

the Harmonia, immediately after the chapter devoted to Plato's exposition

of the theory of the Creation of the Soul in the Timaeus likewise as a

Harmonia, throws into high relief the difference in the conception of Harmonia, as used in this context, by the two philosophers. While Plato
considers Harmonia as part of primordial substance, Aristotle treats Har-

monia

as a definite, heaven-sent principle, ready for use in the production

Whereas the scale deduced by commentators from the
Timaeus was obtained through the operation of the geometrical mean and
progression, by powers of two and three, the Harmonia, actually described
by Aristotle, illustrates the other two means the arithmetic and the
harmonic Aristotle omits the geometric, for in practice the geometric
mean and the arithmetic mean are incompatibles.

of a musical scale.

The

scale derived

from

Plato's

Timaeus

is

the ditonal, due to a cycle

of seven Perfect 5ths, as a result of the rd re

datMaia

y.al

xomXaaia

Arithmetic progression has no part in this theory, and Aris-

diaor/j^ara.

Harmonia owes nothing to Plato's.

The scale of Aristotle, on the contrary, depends for its sequence on
arithmetic progression, brought into operation and differentiated in accordance with a number and equal measure. Plutarch was at sea here and

totle's description of

the

The Pythagorean theory of die

B 7, and in Timaeus,

in Pkaedo, 86

soul as a

Harmonia has been

treated

by Plato

passim.

de Mus. (ed. Weil and Reinach, p. 92, Cap. 23, 226-30, lao/xergiav Reinach,
229, substitutes yeoj/j,sjgiav, his own reading, for iao/xergiav, although this word
is attested in all the manuscripts of Plutarch consulted by Weil and Reinach.
Reinach
holds that the word lao/iExgiav has no sense and that yeaifiErgiav prepares the
way for 237 but the Modal System supplies the sense and provides an explanation
for loonETqiav.
The significant part of the quotation may be translated thus
[The Harmonia] its parts, magnitudes and excesses appear according to number
and equal measure
for melodies arc rhythmized in two tetrachords.^
;

'

THE GREEK AULOS

172

does not attempt any explanation or illustration of this principle of equal

measure. Outside the domain of the Harmonists, the practical significance

by a Determinant number on string

was obviously still unknown. It is strange, however, that a shrewd
and erudite scholar like Reinach found it necessary in this quotation to
substitute for looker Qiav, yecojuexglav, a term entirely inapplicable to a scale
due to the arithmetic mean or progression.
The ditonal scale resulting from a geometrical progression by 3 produces a sequence of equal intervals of one tone (of ratio 9 /8)
such a scale
cannot be produced by any aliquot division by a number. The Harmonia
of Aristotle, on the contrary, consists of unequal intervals the result of
of equal measure, or aliquot division
or pipe,

number taken

conjointly with equal measure.

Harmonia must now be subjected

Aristotle's definition of the

examination
(a)

The

dvvd/Lisi)

and

to further

members or parts (xexQa/uBQi]g) as

comprised in the Harmonia are probably a
four

to

power or value

(rfj

reference to the initials

two tetrachords, the ydoyyoi saxwxsg or fixed notes in

the P.I.S. (see further under c below).
(b) The two means are expressly stated by Aristotle to be the Arithmetic
and the Harmonic the geometric being significantly omitted because, as
finals of the

already mentioned, the geometric mean cannot operate with the arithmetic,
nor with equal measure an omission, therefore, that proves that Aristotle
;

knew what he was talking about. The Harmonic Mean implies the relation
of the four members to the whole and to each other
the familiar illustration
is for (A), when vibration frequencies are required,
:

(A)

=
09

where \

12,

and \

(B)

12

The

where

6,

=-

96

and

but for equal measure or lengths of string the formula

is

^8 = %6

mean implies the arithmetical progression of the Harmonic

from 1 to infinity which (as is known from preceding chapters) may
operate in two opposite directions from a grave or an acute fundamental,
thus forming scales which belong to two widely differing systems. We
are not left in doubt as to which of these is the system of the Harmonia
according to Aristotle. The crux is, of course, the mention of the number
coupled with equal measure in the text, implying a causative or structural
process productive of the parts, magnitudes and excesses of the Harmonia.
Equal measure likewise implies the descending arithmetical progression
from high to low, and refers to the string of the monochordfor the question
of length applied to pipes was still obscure even in Ptolemy's day.
But
if it be recalled that the division of the canon by M.D. 12 was said by
Gaudentius (M., p. 14) to have been used by Pythagoras, the whole passage
becomes clear.
arithmetic

Series

(c)

in

The

final

statement in the quotation

two tetrachords

',

is

puzzling

it

'

for melodies are

certainly does not

seem

to

rhythmized
fit

in with

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMONIA

may be

173

some way corrupt, e.g. possibly due to an early

gloss.
Nevertheless, the fact must be conceded that the two tetrachords
in which melodies are said to be rhythmized or ordered do actually constitute a special attribute of the modal Harmonia in which the operation
of the Modal Determinant of the aliquot division brings to birth two
individual tetrachords
the first on the Tonic is proper to the Mode
created by the Determinant the second, continuing the arithmetical progression, starts on the 5th degree of the sequence and is recognized as
the first tetrachord of a related Mode.
The Harmonia therefore, extending
the context

it

in

over eight notes,

arbitrarily

two tetrachords

contains

yoked together

different

of

but related through the

structure

not

operation of the prin-

by a Modal Determinant. Thus, the

the Modal System of Ancient Greek Music
of equal measure by a specific Determinant

ciple underlying the aliquot division

claim

made

in this work, that

was based upon the principle

number, is not only in accord with these lines of i\ristotle but also provides
an explanation of a difficult term which editors of the passage have sought
to emend.

Fig. 35.- -The Dorian Octochordal

M.D.

Harmonia Expanded from M.D.

Dorian

as

to 22

Mixolydian

constant

denom-

ii/ii

inator

22/22

20

9
18

16

7
14

13

12

Hyp.

Parh.

Lich.

Mese

PM.

Tr.

PN.

10

Meson

extraordinarily simple

16

Diezeugmenon

22

basic law out of

5*

Nele

members.

..The four

The

14

11

which grew the Modes seems on the surface

not so

its

implications

they are infinite

it

is

many difficulties that surround the subject

The basic principle of equal measure
Harmoniai each having Mese on the char-

in these that the solution of the

of Greek music are to be found.

does in effect produce seven

acteristic

what

is

degree of the scale

inevitably produced

it

is,

however,

the P.I.S. and the Tonoi

still

by the operation

ever actually developed by the Greeks into a

owed

to that law.

necessary to prove that

of the principle itself

Modal System

No

into

all

was
that

detailed evidence of that

is obtainable from Aristotle.

It exists, nevertheless, in the comPtolemy and in the opening lines of a remarkable document,
removed by centuries from the evidence of Aristotle, to which attention
must now be called.

nature

pilation of

THE GREEK AULOS

THE EVIDENCE OF THE CANON OF FLORENCE
In the late thirteenth-century Florence codex (Bibl. Laurent., Plut. Ivi),
amongst excerpts from the Rhetorica of Menander of Laodicea, 1 there are
interpolated three short musical canons.
The first, with which we are
concerned, occupies fol. ior, lines 6-27, and its first four lines run as
follows

roivw 6 xavcbv rrjv SXrjv rd^Lv %cov rov nqoaXafx^avofxivov &aavEi

and tov Tiavrog ycoviwv xcxt svdsiav rexayfiEvov dtaigeirai 8e elg zcooia mj : taa rolg
diacmjfiaor rj ovv vjtdrr] vnarmv iariv x^Q^01
tov cwie ymqiov r\ 6e naQvjidrrj
' Hai
xaray(}d(perac

rjxov

VTidrcav %a>' h8'

As custodian

r)

Se

xQa>/j,aritcr]

VTidrcov

id.

Modal System, the Harmonic Canon of Florence No. 1

such documentary evidence. Its value is unique, for it
stands as proof that the intimate connexion between the modal division
of the

eclipses all other

by equal measure by means of a Determinant number, and the P.I.S. of

the Classical Greek Period was recognized in the theory and practice of
Greek music. Further, I suggest re r[%oq restoring the spiritus lenis as
it were a Mode
of the Greek Church since the manuscript also implies
some knowledge of the later development of that system in Hellenistic
Asia, which culminated in the Octoechos of the early Greek Church (see
Appendix ii, Eccles. Modes ').
The salient points to which the Canon bears witness are the following 2
(1) It provides a practical example of the modal principle of equal
measure by a Modal Determinant, applied specifically to the degrees of
'

'

'

the P.I.S. in the Diatonic and Chromatic genera.

(2)

The modal sequence

extends from Proslambanomenos to

Nete

Hyperbolaion.
(3)

The

full description (in

modal propositions

(a)

22

launches two separate, inherently

lines),

by M.D. 28

(lines

to 3)

and

(b)

by M.D. 24

(implied in line 3 sqq. and 15), both starting from Proslambanomenos.

(4) The text of the manuscript appears to emanate from three different

(whom I designate as A, B and C). The original docufrom A's exemplar) is suggested by the first three
which A describes in clear terms an aliquot division by 28 from
Proslambanomenos if the addition by A. Stamm of <djid> in front of
tov TZQooAajLifiavofzevovbe accepted.
B implies a division by M.D. 24 from
Proslambanomenos (in line 3 and confirms this in line 15). B, however,
treats the 24 segments %coQia as mere units of measurement, as we should
inches.
Further, he assumes the Ditonal scale which necessitates the
occasional fractionizing of the segments
in this, he follows Ptolemy in
authors or scribes

ment

(possibly derived

lines, in

principle rather than the

1

Modal System.

See V. Rose, Anecdot, Graec,

i,

The

chief value of B's contribu-

27.

2
For the full text and discussion see A. Stamm, Tres Canones Harmonici (Berlin,
1881) (reviewed by F. Vogt in Philol. Rundschau, ii, No. 36, and by K. von Jan in
No. 46). There is a French translation by C. E. Ruelle

Philol. Wochenschrift, 1882,

published with L' Introduction harmonique de Cleonide in his Coll. des Auteurs Grecs
relatifs a la Musique (Paris, 1884).

a
>>

J3

&3

n
T3

T3

O
a
c

A
m

souBipiq

-o

O ^

1-i

O
a

Mb
s
-a

N
00

oo

175

.2

h
J3

THE GREEK AULOS

176
tion

is

that he establishes the fact that in his day

it

was customary

to find

the P.I.S. combined with the division of a canon into equal segments,
each of which corresponded to a degree in the Diatonic or Chromatic scale.
that
(5) B was also aware of the procedure in using such a canon
numbering of the segments must proceed from the grave end, i.e. from
Proslambanomenos (see Ptol., ii, 16, ed. Wallis, 1682, pp. 209-10). B
knew, moreover, that the note of the numbered segment was produced by
:

the

number of segments that, therefore, fractionsegment extended that length into the next lower segment by the
fraction, e.g. (lines 3 to 4) for 21 segments and one-tenth.
B writes, ' %(OQia xa I xai em rov evog xcoqlov.'
(6) Taken in conjunction, therefore, with the division by 28 into equal
segments, the designation of each of these, numbered from 24 onwards as
a degree in the P.I.S., constitutes a virtual use in practice of the two
ovo/xaaiai xara Qeaiv and wxia dvva/Mv of Ptolemy (op. cit., ii, 11).
The
numbered segments on the rule of the canon correspond to the Thesis,
while the Dynamis is furnished by the implied ratios segment by segment
of the arithmetical succession according to the M.D.
This appears to
be the only example extant of the practical use of the two nomenclatures,
according to position and to value, signalized by Ptolemy.
the aggregate length of that

izing a

amount of the

(7)

among

The Canon

is

introduced

(at

the top of

of

fol.

fol.

lor of the Codex),

excerpts from Menander, as a birthday offering, and purports to

present something new, for which a great future

1 or).

(see Fig. 36).

The modal implications of

The division by M.D. 24

is

predicted (lines

to 5

the text are of great interest

denotes the Phrygian genesis,

but by basing the Thetic nomenclature upon Proslambanomenos as 24,

with Mese on segment 12, we get the Dynamis from Hypate Meson on
the 1 6th segment, which belongs by its M.D. (16) to the Hypodorian

Dorian Plagal on Hypate Hypaton as 22nd segment.

it as 21 and one-tenth.)
is of little interest to our subject
it consists merely
arithmeticns constructed from the numbered segments of the

Harmonia, with
(B, intent

its

on the

ditonal scale, estimates

C's contribution
of a lusus

Canon.

THE COMMON MODAL STARTING-NOTE ACCORDING TO ARISTIDES QUINTILIANUS

Passing on from the underlying principle of the Harmonia to the
Harmoniai themselves considered as a system, it will be conceded that
its most striking feature, observed through the medium of Ptolemy and
therefore already grasped by all students of Greek music, is undoubtedly
the common Tonic assigned to the seven original tribal Modes, and interpreted as corresponding to our F.

A common

factor naturally suggests

grouping for the purpose of comparison in order to determine points of

differentiation.
In a scale of tones and semitones only, however, no
essential modal differentiation, such as the passage from Aristides Quintilianus quoted below would lead us to expect, is possible.
Discussing the Harmoniai of the Ancients, each of the compass of an


EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMON 1A
octave, Aristides

names them

as they

177

may be observed xaTBido; on

the

degrees of the P.I.S. from Hypate Hypaton, and then he continues thus

Accordingly

it is

clear that if

starting-note]

and

calls

'

note (dvva/Mg (pdoyyov),

one takes the same sign

first [i.e.

the same

by the different value of the

the nature of the Harmoniai is made manifest

it

at different times

from the succession of consecutive sounds. 1

To anyone acquainted with the modus operandi

for providing a differ-

entiation of the seven Modes within the limits of the same octave, there
can be no possible doubt as to the meaning of this significant passage

descriptive of the correlated series of Harmoniai among the Ancients.

however,' like most theorists, has not grasped the distinction
between Modes and species, since it is the latter he has selected to illustrate
the modal principle of differentiation.
Thus, while there is for all the Harmoniai one same initial note or
Aristides,

Tonic, say F, this

a different value.

common

pitch note

is

Moreover, the value

invested for each

numerical

Harmonia with

ratio,

consisting of

22
differentiated unity, having the

same numerator and denominator,

24
the Dorian,

for the Phrygian, &c.

24

sets

22

for

going a series (ay.oXovQLd) of

which determines the nature of the Harmonia. No formaMese or Tonic are to be found in the
by the theorists in 'tones and semitones only. Aristides has
thus recorded in embryo an exact definition of the basic differentiation of
the group of seven Harmoniai in the Modal System, of which a graphic
representation is given below.
The ratio number and v.f., and the symbol
of vocal Notation according to Alypius accompany each note (see Appendix i
on Notation ').
On examination of the sequence of ratios starting from the Tonic
common to all Harmoniai in respect of pitch, but invested each time with
a value proper to each Harmonia another passage from Aristides will
recur to our minds. The intervals signified by these ratios are obviously
those intervals other than tones and semitones which were used by the
most ancient for their Harmoniai (p. 21M.).
On the subject of the intervals constituting the Modal Harmoniai
and the P.I.S. so far removed from the ordinary tones and semitones
hitherto accepted, a few passages from classical sources may be recalled
sounds or

ratios

tive values of this nature in either

interpretation

'

'

here.

In the course of Plato's dialogue between Socrates and Protarchus in

2
occur the following lines

the Philebus

But when you have

number and nature of the

Soc.

the

learned what sounds are high and what low, and

and their boundaries and proportions, and

intervals

de Mus., M., p. 18, line 7 sqq. ' ex Srj rovrov cpaveoov, wq di ravrov vnode/xevoiQ
aXXazs a?drj Svvd/nsi (pdoyyov xazovoiia^ojXEvov ex rtjq rmv ECps^'ijg

ar)ueXov ngunov,

tpdoyyiDv dxoXovdlag ti)v rfjg dg/j,ovlag noionyza cpaveQav yevsaOai av/nfialvEi.'

2

Philebus, p. 17;

Jowett's Dialogues, 1892, Vol.

iv, p.

582.

Fig. 37.

The Seven Harmoniai on

Hyp.
Hypaton
SI
28/28

MIXOLYDIAN F=

176

v.f.

Parh.

Hyp.

Common

Fundamental

Parh.

Lich. Chr.

Hyp.

Hyp.

LYDIAN F =

169-5

v.f.

Lich. D.

PHRYGIAN F =

176

v.f.

26

24

189-5

205-3

21
234-6

246-4

Lich.
Chr. H.

Lich.
Diat.

Hyp. Mes. Parh. Mes.

H.

v.f.

HYPOLYDIAN F

tt
19
240-8

Hyp. Mes. Parh. Mes. Lich. Chr.

Lich.
Diat.

MESE

4>

21

20

18

16

202

2II-2

19
222-2

234-6

264

MESE

Trite Syn.

1906

20
193-6

19
-203-8

242

16

0
15

258

MESE

Trite Syn.

i>

19
178-4

35 (18)
193-7

16

IS

212

226

14 (28)
242-1

MESE

Trite Syn.

Paranete
S. Chr.

29
218-4

26
243-6

24
264

Nete Syn.

Nete Diez.

169-5

v.f.

Lich. Diat.

SI

HYPODORIAN F =

18
215-1

20/20

Lich.
Diat. M.

HYPOPHRYGIAN F =

M.

P
20
228-8

Parh. Mes. Lich. Chr.

Lich.

Chr.

G
24

22/22
176

20

21
217-9

26
176

Hyp. Mes. Parh. Mes. Lich. Chr. Lich. Diat.

T
F
si

DORIAN F =

System of
Parh. Mes.

27

Hyp.
SI
24/24

Hyp.
Meson.

182-4

P
27/27

F within the

Lich. Diat.

PN.

Diat.
S.

Paramese

Nete. S.

36/36
176

32
198

3
2II-2

MESE

Trite Syn.

PN. Chr.
S.

S.

SI

32/32
176 v.f.

30

29
194-2

26
216-6

24

187-7

324-6

22
256

178

PN.

Diat.

Modal

the Tonoi with their

Lich. Chr.

Lich. Diat.

19
259-4

18
273-6

Lich. Diat.

M
18
254-2

286

Ratios by K. S. and Symbols of Notation from Alypius

MESE

328-4

MESE

Trite Syn.

Paramese

305-1

14 (28)
326-8

27
339

is

Paranete
Chr.

301

3120

-6

M
277

24

22
352

Nete Diez.

Trite Hr.bol.j

....

...

Trite Diez.

PN.

Paranete Ch.-

24
352
Nete. Diez.

Diat.

26
297-8

Diat.

3226

A
27
287

14 (28)

PN.

J 24 0

PN.

Paranete Ch.

v.f.

Trite Diez.

20

27

14 (28)

Trite Diez.

352

Trite Diez.
I

20 1 0

MIXOLYDIAN

15

308

Trite Svn.

Paramese

16

Paramese

Trite Syn.

M
'16

Diat.

26

24

260-7

282-5

21
322-8

20
339

27
251
I

Nete Diez.

Trite Hr.bol.

'

PN. Chr. H. PN.

!

Diat.

H.
j

i
21

301-6

20 (40)
316-8

39
325

36

352

PN. Chr. H. PN.

Trite Hr.bol.

A
21
268-2

Diat. H.

39
288-8

18
312-4

Nete. Hyp.

r
16
1

352

179

THE GREEK AULOS

i8o
the scales (avarrmara)

which

and handed down

who

to us

them, which our ancestors discovered

under the name of Harmoniai, and the affections

arise out of

follow,

corresponding to them in the

human body

'
.

&c.

It is

evident that this allusion to the differentiation of the Harmoniai through

the

magnitude and order of their intervals could hardly have been

by systems reducible to a single tetrachordal unit of S.T.T.

called for

structure.
Aristotle, in the Politics, 1 discussing citizenship

the following analogy

(rcov

avxwv

'
:

and community, uses

we say a Harmonia of the same notes

when it is Dorian and when it is Phrygian.'

Just as

<pdoyya>v) is different

The Harmonia of the same notes means, of course,

Meson to Nete Diezeugmenon y.axa Qkaiv or the

the notes from Hypate

strings of those names
on the Kithara, but tuned y.axa dvva/xiv in one instance to the Dorian
Harmonia, in the other to the Phrygian, and differentiated by their intervals.
Evidence may be seen in this of the crying need of the theorist for the
double nomenclature while the Modal System was in general use, quite
independently of whether the actual names made known by Ptolemy were
in use or not ; they were the affair of the Theorist, while for the Musician,
there was the tuning.
Then we have a statement by Cicero 2 But we
can recognize the Harmonia from the intervals of sounds, the different
grouping of which makes more Harmoniai.'
Even Aristoxenus lends assistance at this juncture in his propositions,
near the end of his treatise, where he discusses divisions of the 5th accord-

'

ing to quanta

{(leyedrj)

3
:

Again he says, if two [quanta] become equal, and two remain unequal, which
from the lowering of the Parhypate, there will be three quanta constitu-

will result

ting the Diatonic scale (yhog) namely, an interval less than a semitone, a tone,

and an interval greater than a tone. Again, if all parts of the Fifth become unequal, there will be four quanta comprised in the genus in question.
It is clear
then that the Diatonic genus is composed of two, or of three or of four simple
quanta.

This last sentence shows that the Modal System with its octave unit
was not familiar to Aristoxenus as a matter of theory. It is here expressly
stated that Aristoxenus recognizes a division of the 4th consisting of three
unequal quanta, viz. a small semitone, a tone and a greater tone. That,
of course, is one of the essentials of modality, namely a sequence beginning
in the lower part of the scale with a diesis, and passing on towards the
acute with intervals gradually increasing/ in magnitude, as in the Dorian
and Phrygian Harmoniai for instance. 'But when Aristoxenus states that
in the 5th all the four quanta may become unequal he does not explain
how this may be. He has repeatedly valued the tone as the difference
between the 4th and the 5th the only tone his treatise takes into account

1
2

Pol.,

3,

Tusc. Disp.,

quorum
3

iii,

1276B.
i,

18

'
:

Harmoniam autem ex

intervallis

sonorum nosse possumus,

varia compositio etiam harmonias emcit plures.'

Macran,

op.

cit.,

73 and 74, pp. 221-2

Greek

text,

p.

163.

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMONIA

181

he has already allocated to the 5th a tone followed by an interval greater

than a tone, so that if there are to be four unequal quanta, the 3rd tone cannot
be identified with the tone as understood by Aristoxenus in his treatise,

he is clearly out of his depth here, or he

and yet he does not define it
would not have failed to explain the fact that he names two intervals both
called tones without qualification, and yet reckons them as unequal quanta.
:

The modal Dorian pentachord

r

of ratios,

X-9 X^X
10
8

fulfils

the con-

ditions, providing
as

Perfect.

The

we assume

position, since
r

fulfil

it

The important

was A\hat

is

interval greater than a tone in the proposition

Septimal, functioning here as

monia does not

that neither 4th nor 5th

in its

Tone

of Disjunction.

is

the

Tonic pentachord the conditions of the pro-

includes no interval larger than a Tone,

fact

known

The Phrygian Har-

XX

11
10
8
9
remains that the four quanta of Aristoxenus prove the

existence in his day of scales consisting of intervals other than tones

and

Had Aristoas, indeed, do many other passages in his treatise.

xenus continued his analysis of the Diatonic with four quanta with real
knowledge of the subject, he would have found himself obliged to admit
an increase in his proposition to seven unequal quanta in the octave
semitones,

scale.

It will later

be suggested that the Shades of the Genera of Aristoxenus,

own evaluation by I2ths of tones, were in reality modal

according to his
tetrachords.

1
likewise contributes evidence of this nature at the end of
and interesting passage on the respective values of ancient and
He begins by recalling the fact that the venerable Pythawherefore
goras rejected the judgement of Music through sensation
he did not judge by the hearing but by the proportional Harmonia (777
6' avaAoyixfj &Q/.iovia), which is clearly a reference to the modal Harmonia.
Then follows a discussion on Enharmonic and other so-called odd (ne.oioooq)
and even (aQtiog) intervals in a vein reminiscent of Aristoxenus. Those
terms Artios and Perissos among Harmonists would certainly have borne
a more rational meaning connected with the modal progression, and not
with the dividing up of intervals into an even or odd number of dieses.
The significance of the passage lies in the admission that musicians were
in the habit of slackening not only the Tritai and Paranetai, the Lichanoi
and Parhypatai, but even the fixed notes (earcoreg) also of the tetrachords,
and indeed esteeming as best of all the use of systems containing a majority
of such irrational intervals, by which is clearly meant, not intervals for
which no ratio can be found, but rather those which cannot easily be
determined by ear, since Plutarch is evidently using an unacknowledged
quotation from Aristoxenus. Moreover, the octave scale which forms the
subject of discussion here consists of tetrachords which are not Perfect
4ths
and this alone excludes any possible identification with the Chroai

Plutarch

a long

modern music.

Op.

sqq.).

cit.,

(Weil and Reinach, pp. 148-56, Cap. 27 and 28, p. 1144F., pars. 389

THE GREEK AULOS

182

of Aristoxenus or Ptolemy.

Modal Species

seems

It

conclude that they were

justifiable to

of these only the Hypodorian

16

15

12

13

11

10

the Phrygian,
12

10

11

-j

4:3
and the Hypolydian with Synemmenon,
20

18

16

15

13

12

11

10

4:3
have Perfect 4ths on the Tonic. After a perusal of the Polemics of Aristoxenus and of the analysis of the Chroai as modal tetrachords (given further
on), the evidence afforded by this passage will probably be felt to be still
more conclusive in favour of the Modal System as actual fundamental
basis of the Musical System of Ancient Greece, one phase alone of which
has been described by the Theorists, viz. the Aristoxenian.

THE MESE AS ARCHE

There

no

is

single element in the Musical

importance of which

is

System of the Greeks, the

is that of the mese

so insistently emphasized as

or keynote, further qualified by Aristotle and others as do//]

and

generator, cause, essential element,

ment.

beginning,

also as rjyefiwv, leader, ruling ele-

Certain important passages dealing with Music in the Classics, and

still provoke discussion on account of
concerned with the nature of Mese, which require elucidation.

in the writings of the Theorists,

difficulties

To

Mese with the Tonic of modern Music,

an unqualified negative may be returned. The Mese {fxsarj) or Arche
tne
Modal
System
primarily
f
was
causative, conditioning, by the
(AQXV)
inherent power of the note (&6va/us tpdoyyov), the values or ratios of all
notes
constituting
the
modal
sequence
other
the position of Mese on its
own characteristic degree of the modal octave was, as already seen, not
fortuitous but due to its essential nature and order in the Harmonic Series,
which is inevitably brought into operation by the principle of equal measure
the query about the identity of

or division.

The

essential nature of

moniai, and

its

Mese was

position in the

responsible for the Ethos of the Har-

Harmonia

for the tessitura of the scale,

which

has frequently been mistaken for an indication of pitch or key. 1

Evidence supporting these essential characteristics claimed for the

Modal Mese

which may

exists in a passage in the Elaayojyrj of Ps-Euclid, 2

be thus interpreted

'
:

The Mese

is

the power [or value] of the note

',

See H. S. Macran, Aristoxenus, p. 73.

2
'
Intro. Harm., M., p. 18, line 26 sq.
sari ds/asai] tpdoyyov
p. 19, line 1
'
and 6e xf\g /leorjg xai row Xomow (pdoyycov ai
(p. 18, 1. z6) and further,
yvwoiCovrat, to yog nobg syei exaarog avrwv nqbg ri\v /xeorjv cpavsnmg ytverai (p.
;

'

dvva/xig'
dvvd/ieig

19).

'

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMONIA

183

and further, By means of the Mese the values of the rest of the notes
become known. For in what manner each of these is related to Mese is
'

apparent.

The Dynamis,

Modal Determinant, ascribed by Euclid to Mese,

Modal System in
and the problems of Ps-Aristotle 1 afford further evidence of this Dynamis. These oft-quoted problems are numbered 20,
all give versions of the same fact, observed but not under25, 36, and 44
stood by the writer
is

i.e.

the inherent proportional value of the keynote in the

relation to its Tonic,

Why

[he asks] that

is it

if,

when

the strings of the Kithara have once been tuned,

the pitch of the Mese is subsequently altered, all the other notes sound out of tune
when the Kithara is played, not only is this the case when the Mese itself is played ;
but for the whole melos, whereas, when the pitch of the Lichanos or of any one of
the other notes

is

altered, either accidentally or purposely, that note alone

to be out of tune

On

observed

is

reading these problems over carefully,

it

once be seen that

will at

do here with an entirely new conception of a keynote, possessed

modern sense, but corresponding
modal keynote. In Problem 44 (pp. 34-5),
it is expressly stated that the discussion round the Mese relates to the
Harmonia of the Ancients, having seven strings only between Hypate and
Nete
on mxdxogdoL fjoav ai dg/noviai to Ttakaiov,' and therefore, it
'fj
may be concluded, to the scale of Terpander, having ratios

we have

to

of powers foreign to the Tonic in the

in every respect with those of the

'

Mese

Hyp. Mes.

PM.

PN.

Nete

11

11

(si)

(The Primitive Dorian Mode)

The two

Museum
the

first

Elgin pipes in the

(c.

B.C.)

500

Graeco-Roman Department

at

the British

have been bored to give the ratios of this scale from

The answer given in Problem 20

hole, as explained further on.

burks the real

issue,

and

the causative power of

is

very lame indeed.

Mese implied

The

attempt to explain

in the statement,

by the use made

In Problem 36 (pp. 36-7)

a satisfactory attempt has been made to explain how the mistuning of Mese
comes to create the impression that the strings are out of tune

of

it

in composition and in playing, seems futile.

Is it because, in the case of the whole of the strings, to be in tune consists in the
notes of the scale being in a definite relation to Mese which determines the [tension]
so that the
[rdaig, emendavit Th. JR., rd^ig codices] or order of each one of them
destruction (or loss) of the Mese means loss of the responsible basis (or cause) and
;

of the unbroken series.

For the Mese alone of those [notes] between the extremes
principle [Probl. 44, p. 34].

The Arche
note of the

is

the Arche or

first

Mese of these Problems is the dynamic or causative keyGreek Modal System, occupying in each Mode an individual
or

degree in the Harmonia.

It

was responsible

for the

magnitude and order

Les Problemes Musicaux d'Aristote, par F. A. Gevaert et J. C. Vollgraff, Texte

cf. Monro,
grec avec Traduction franfaise, commentaire, &c, Gand, 1903, pp. 34-9
op. cit., pp. 42-7
Macran, op. cit., pp. 70 sqq.
;

THE GREEK AULOS

84

of the intervals in every

Modal

and

inherent in the equal division by the

is

of

found in the Modal System alone

some octave of the Arche,

and

Scale,

different notes in relation to itself

for the exact intonation of the

to each other,

by virtue of the

ratio

Modal Determinant. Such a Mese

it bore in each Harmonia the ratio

therefore, 8,

16 or 32, and

was invariably

followed in descending motion by the same ratios in every Harmonia in

the Diatonic genus, the

modal characterization consisting

in the point at

which the Tonic interrupted the descending sequence, and the modal
interval it consequently formed with Mese.
This common sequence downwards from Mese was, therefore, independent of the degrees of the scale,
since the position of Mese was inevitably fixed by the Modal Determinant
of each Harmonia.
The sequence runs as follows (see page 185).
It will be realized that in a musical system in which attention was
primarily focused on Mese or Arche, the mistuning or altering of this note
after the other notes of the sequence had been tuned from it, would at once
be perceived by the musician, for every interval expected by the ear would
Such an absolute dependence on Mese for the melodic elements
be falsified.
of the scale may perhaps be best realized through the modal significance
of each interval in the descending sequence from Mese
the tone led the
way down through the Hypophrygian the major 3rd through the Hypolydian ; the Harmonic 4th through the Dorian
the 5th through the
Phrygian, &c. The Harmonia itself was in fact a realization of the unity
of the seven Harmoniai in one.
Mese was thus at the same time the Arche, and the Hegemon or leader
into the spheres of the Modal Species, and Mese was also the bond of union
:

(avvdsa/Liog),

the central pivot or connecting-link binding together the

Species through a central identity of pitch

though not

Modal

of compass

into

a rational system.

may be made

here to Gevaert's 1 commentary on

these Aristotelian Problems, which occurs after quoting an interesting
passing reference

statement by Dio Chrysostom

the Greek lyre

of Prusa

(a.d.

40-115) on the tuning of

We must, as in the lyre, after establishing the note Mese, then tune the rest
it, for if we do not, they never produce any Harmonia
so in life,
comprehending the best and displaying this as a limit, we must do everything else
it, for if not our life is likewise untuned and inharmonious (ix/teMjs).
[of the strings] to

with reference to

Gevaert accepts these lines as a confirmation of his own interpretation

Mese question in the Ps- Aristotelian Problems. According to his
Mese figures as the daily generator of the musical scale on the
lyre and Kithara of the Greeks
which he imagines to have been carried
out by tuning in 4ms and 5ths up and down, from the Mese A within the
pre-determined octave E to E.
Gevaert claims that given a musician gifted with a correct ear, this
of the

conception,

'

'

Ps-Arist., Probl., 20, 25, 36, 44, Gevaert's ed.

The Mese from which

all

other notes are tuned.

Ps-Euclid, M., pp. 18, bottom, and 19, top, the <p86yyov Svvci/uiq. Dio Chrys. of
Prusa, Or. 68, de Gloria, Teubn. Texts, 1919, Vol. ii, Orations, p. 219.

^
in

35

r-

oo

a =>
o

S
o

<d

oo

-b

(aonanBag i^pom) aqoay

jo asajn uiojj soijbh Snipnaosea

i8 S

THE GREEK AULOS

method of tuning will unfailingly produce a scale, the members of which
are related by consonances of 5ths and 4ths, and by diaphonies of 3rds in
accordance with the Pythagorean ratios. Whether this complacent method
of dealing with cycles of 5ths leads to a correct estimate will become apparent
it exhibits a Mese which bears no relation to the one described in the
Problems
it could not be said to determine the pitch of the other notes,
for any one of these, taken as Mese, could equally well be made to produce
the foregone result (viz. the white notes on the keyboard from E to E) by
allowing an arbitrary interruption of the progression of 5ths as illustrated
by Gevaert. Therefore, to change the intonation of the Mese in such a
scale obviously could not have the result described in the Problems.
To
take A as causative Mese within the octave EtoE and to practise a systematic
tuning, by 5ths and 4ths, as opposed to Gevaert's arbitrary method, produces
the scale of E major, but having the intonation of the ditonal scale instead
Elsewhere in his commentary, Gevaert, by
of the one given by Gevaert.
his reference to Mese conferring upon the other notes an exact degree of
intonation, marks the difference between his idea of the function of Mese
in fixing the key of the scale, whereas in the Harmonia the Mese created
the Mode first, and as inevitable implication, a certain key. The point
raised by these Problems and satisfactorily solved by the modal keynote is,
after all, not so much the effect of mistuning this or that note, as the bringing
out of the fact that the scale in question has a rational basis dependent on
the Mese, and that although the compiler is not equal to giving an explanation
of that rational basis, he recognizes the existence of such a law underlying
;

the structure of the scale in general use

Another puzzle
'

Why

is

is

upon the Kithara.

presented for discussion in Problem 33 (pp. 30-1).

from high to low better adjusted than

a progression [of sounds]

from grave

to acute

beginning, since the

Is

it

that in this order

Mese and

ruling element

we begin with

(Hegemon)

is

we

the tetrachord (xexgaxdodov) 1 but with the reverse order

(Arche) the

the highest of

begin with the

Monro, 2 who discusses these Problems in his chapter on

In what sense,
is frankly perplexed and asks in this context
'
was the Mese a beginning {a.Q%rj) and the Hypate an end (xsXevxif) ?
If this question be referred to the Modal System it presents no difficulty
whatever. It is clear that the reference here is to the generation of the modal
The promaterial from the Arche, and not to the laws of composition.
portional progression downwards from Arche is the natural outcome of the
equal division of the string by a Modal Determinant, and is indicated in
the text by the use of the opening words Aib. xL evaQfioaxoxeQov.
It is precisely the allusion to something besides the mere succession of
the
sounds, something basic having a recognized beginning and end
reverse in some undefined, subtle way of those of a melody, which gives
the Problem a special value as a confirmation of the existence and use of
the Modal System, which is characterized by these very features.
end

(xeXevxrj).

Tonality,

'

then,

is

TiaQaxogidov codices

probably correct.
2
Op. cit., pp. 44-6.

TetQaxogdov correxit Bekker.

The reading of the manuscripts

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMONIA

The

difficulty is created

mind

here by the confusion in the

187

of the writer

between two different propositions

(1) The generation of a Modal Scale
from its root or doyj], i.e. the question of the internal structure of the
sequence, according to the ratio number, and order of the notes produced
by Modal Genesis through the Determinant number used in the equal
the Mese in this sense is dynamic.
division
(2) The function of that
as an element of melody in the Modal Scale, when the answer to
a.Q%ri
the Problem very properly points out that the beginning is made from the
end (xe).EVxrj), Hypate Meson, the Tonic or string-note. But the stringnote was the first cause, which gave Mese the pitch value of its Determinant
number so the Mese under the guise of Arche becomes generator in turn
of a series, which finds its natural and inevitable limit, xeXsvxf), in the stringnote, as differentiated unity, consisting of equal numerator and denominator
the whole string is, in fact, the impassable barrier to further generation,
:

22

and therefore bearing the

highest

number

in the genesis

for the Dorian)

(22

hence the apparent contradiction in the nomenclature of Hypate = highest

supreme, as the lowest note of the Harmonia considered as modal material.
But Hypate was also the legitimate beginning of the ascending Harmonia
as Tonos.
It may be recalled in this connexion that Plutarch 1 has a word on the
same subject
For the highest and first was by the Ancients termed
1

Hypaton
Problem 33
'.

is

observed

good example of the method of exposition adopted

The opening

this compilation.

in

statement in each probably represents an

or a dictum taken from the teachings of Aristotle, or of such

fact,

portions of those of the Harmonists as were allowed to penetrate into the

outside world from the inner sanctum of the schools of those custodians

Modal System.

For these questions the compiler seeks to provide

as though conscious of
The fact that the same opening statement
occurs in more than one problem, while different solutions are suggested
(as, for instance, in Nos. 36 and 20) seems to indicate that the point was
considered of some importance, but that no authoritative explanation was

of the

elucidation,

given usually in tentative fashion,

treading on debatable ground.

available.

To resume
under

Dynamic Mese
(1)

Mese

the

of

five different aspects,

Mese

thus

The

Problems 36, 33, 20, 44 and 25 is presented

which sum up the principal functions of the

Dorian Harmonia, falling

Tonos, and the Modal or Dynamic

central note of the standard

on the 4th degree

as centre of the

keynote.
(2)

Arche

as the beginning, root or generator of the

from which

all

the other

members

modal

division through the

1

',

by the equal

Modal Determinant.

Didot, ii, 1233-4

T Y&Q & va}
1
quoted by Weil and Reinach, de Mus., p.

Plat. Quaest., ix,

7iooarjy6oRvov

material,

are generated according to exact

ratios inherent in the arithmetical progression implied

'

riQtixov
lviii.

vnaxov

oi jzaXaioi

THE GREEK AULOS

i88
(3)

not in the modern sense but as the

element in the Modal Genesis
the leader in the
descending progression.
Synechon : the keynote as cohesive element, keeping the line unbroken in a continuous sequence, by virtue of the arithmetical
progression which it engenders as Arche.

Hegemon

the ruling note

principal

(4)

(5)

Syndesmos

that

which binds together the Mese

or conjunctive element in the

in

Modal

both directions, acute and grave

also implies the connecting-link of a

Modal

pitch for the seven correlated

There

To

is

one more passage of interest in

give the nomenclature

as connecting-link

Scale, exercising its influence

(Pr. 20, pp. 38-9).

this

common Mese

Syndesmos
same

of the

Species.

connexion from Plutarch

1
:

by virtue of their positions, the first ones and the

would be absurd seeing that the Hypate itself in the

middle ones and the last ones,

lyre is the topmost and first, but in the Auloi, the lowest and last, and moreover,
it is the Mese, in whatever place one would put it in the lyre, if it be tuned in the
same way, that sounds higher than the Hypate and lower than the Nete. 2

This appears to contain an allusion to the nomenclature by position (the

Ptolemy) and also to the modal feature of a Mese placed
on a different degree in each Harmonia. The fact that Ptolemy was the
first to give a name to the two nomenclatures does not, of course, indicate
On the contrary, the fixed names
that a new necessity had only then arisen.
of the strings of the Kithara, whatever their number, constituted from the
beginning the Onomasia Rata Thesin, and the modal tuning given to the
strings
which was the affair of the musician was the Onomasia Kata
Dynamin, solely dependent on the Mese or Arche, from which all other
If the Kithara were tuned to the Phrygian Harmonia,
notes are tuned.
the Mese would fall on the 5th degree above Hypate Meson, i.e. on Paramese
if tuned to the Mixolydian on the 7th degree, Paranete Diezeugmenon.
Modality provided the necessity for the theorists' double nomenclature.
From the Mese, we pass on to evidence concerning Harmonia, Tonos,
Tropos and Species (el8>j), which sometimes seems to imply identity, at
ovo/j-aaia y.axa Osaiv of

others distinctions.
It

has been claimed in Chapter iv that Harmonia, Tropos, Tonos and

Species are

all

four in essence

Modes

differentiated as to function.

The

Harmonia was the modal octave, which may be obtained on the half string,
The
after equal division by a constant Determinant has been carried out.
Harmonia was the central unit or nucleus, which developed into the P.I.S.
through the grouping of the Species on the Kithara, as string by string
was added, 3 until a complete octave of each of the original seven Modes
1
2

Plat. Ouaest., ix, a (p. 1234, Didot, ii).

' "II to
[lev rots zonoi; anavEjxeiv to. tiq&tci y.al rd fiioa

avxijv rrjv vnaxr(v OQcbvxag iv /uiv

tov TsXevraiov ini'/pvaav,

dg/ioarrtai,
3

It is, of course,

Mqq

tov avondzo)

6i rf]v fieatjv iv

<h

y.al

y.al to.

TiQwrov, iv

rig civ ymqio) rfjg

fiaQvregov 8s

zelevraXa ye/.oiov eariv,

6' av/.oTg

tov yaruj xai

Xvqag deftevog waavxcac,

vrjt>]g.'

not necessary to postulate a Kithara of

five strings for the

melody of the seven octave species, forming the double octave

Tonos known as the P.I.S. The second octave from Mese to Nete Hyper-

practical use in

of the

eti.

<pQeyyofiev>iv o^vregov [liv in6xr]g,

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMONIA

189

had been obtained this modal sequence of two octaves was then recognized
by the Theorists as a standard scale of definite form.
The correlated Tonoi or Tropoi were shown to be curtailed Modes
taken on a common fundamental or string-note, and comprising merely the
Dorian Species taken in each of those Modes as a transposition scale, and
The four terms, Harmonia,
retaining the tonality proper to each Mode.
Tropos, Tonos and Species, are all expressive, therefore, of different phases
the order followed by the first three of these is that of their
of modality
Mese, according to its position as a member of the Harmonic Series, whereas
the order of the species is that of its Tonic, as it occurs in the Tonos, and
;

according to the ratio

bears therein.

it

Plutarch 1 several times refers to the Harmonia, Tropos and Tonos as

We must call the first five either
meaning the same thing, for instance
.'
Elsewhere, again, Plutarch 2 has
Tonoi or Tropoi or Harmoniai.
something to say on this subject (' An seni sit gerenda
Cap. 18)
'

',

were fitting for them to continue singing, it was necessary, since there
Tonoi and Tropoi of the voice, which the musicians call Harmoniai, not
to pursue the high (3(v) and the syntonon together, being old men, but to continue
in that which is easy and has the fitting ethos.

For

are

if it

many

Besides the comprehensive statement concerning Tonoi, Tropoi and

Harmoniai as meaning the same thing, Plutarch thus makes it clear that
Syntonon when qualifying a scale or species is not synonymous with highpitched.
It may, however, signify (1) a scale in which the characteristic
interval has been raised
i.e. is more tense, as will be seen in the case of
the Spondeiasmos
or (2) the syntonos may refer to the straining or tense
effect of a Modal Scale having a keynote situated on a degree at the acute
end of the scale, such as the Lydian on the 6th degree above the Tonic,
and the Mixolydian on the 7th degree. An a priori statement has been
supplied in Chapter i of the Modal System, as still in general use in the days
of Plato and Aristotle, a detailed exposition of which, however, is lacking
in classical and later sources.
The theoretical knowledge of this system
seems to have been mainly possessed by the Harmonists custodians of the
Harmonia and to have been taught and practised in their schools. For
evidence of the correctness of this statement, the present writer depends

bolaion

w as
7

probably obtained by octave harmonics of the strings from Proslambanoa practice known as magadizing.
Soph., Fr. 228

menos or Hypate Hypaton

Ps-Arist., Probl., xix, 396 (1)

Gev., p. 20
and 9, p. 76. This device
18, p. 22
is, of course, purely melodic.
If the finger producing the harmonic octave be
;

immediately withdrawn, by an elastic movement, after the pressure on plucking

the string, there is very little perceptible difference in the timbre of the note so
magadized, when played in sequence with notes given by the whole string.
1
De E Apud Delphos, Cap. 10 (Didot, p. 475) nhrte tovc, tiqcotovq eite rovovg
rj

tqotiov;

y.ai

eW

dg/uovia; yor\ y.a?.slv

&v ETinaOEi

y.ai v<pioEi

XQEnopthxav y.axd to

fj,aX}.ov

f(zxov ai AoiTiai ^agvxvfZE~ sloe y.ai o^vrrftEQ.'

2

'

An

Seni

"Qgtieq ydo,

qxovriQ,

sit

gerenda, Cap. 18 (Didot, p. 968), and Reinach, op. cit., p. lix and lx.
qSovra; SiciteXsIv, eSel, TtoXXwv tovwv y.ai. tqotzcov vnoy.EijXEvwv

eI y.adf/y.ov i)V

ov; do/uovia; oi jxovaiy.ol y.alovai,

ysvo/iEvov;,

d/X

iv q> to gddiov ETiEmi /usjd

/j,rj

t6v o^vv

a/iia

rov noEnovzog

xal avvrovov Siwy.eiv yioovrag

rjBov;,'

&c.

THE GREEK AULOS

9o

partly

upon the

light

thrown on the subject by the following twelve Polemics

of Aristoxenus against these Harmonists.

THE TWELVE POLEMICS OF ARISTOXENUS AGAINST THE HARMONISTS

In his Elements, Aristoxenus, burning with enthusiasm for an entirely
and non-Modal Scale, of which he seems to have been the
first exponent in writing, provides by his polemics against the Harmonists
different musical

unique and valuable information concerning the principal features of the

musical system studied in their schools, which are found to be identical
with those of the Modal System.
These Harmonists were a recognized body of professors of Harmonic
(aQfiovixrj), the name given by them to that branch of the theory of music
that treats of the Harmonia, or Modal Scale not as Aristoxenus erroneously
states of the Enharmonic Genus
of its natural basis and of all the implica-

tions

thereof

Among

intervals,

modality,

genera,

scales,

ratios,

&c.

tonality,

the Harmonists were to be found the leading exponents of the

science and philosophy of music initiated in Greece

by Pythagoras, such

of Hermione,

the music-master of Pindar, Agathocles, 1 2

an Aulete with whom studied Damon l(4) of
the last two are known as the music
masters of Plato Lamprokles 1(6) of Athens, Epigoneios, 1(7) the inventor
of an instrument of many strings, probably required for the study of the
Harmoniai and for the practical realization of the diagrams used in the
schools of Harmonic.
Eratocles, 1 8 the expounder of the different figures
of the modal octave, later known as the species (eiSrj), who was singled out
by Aristoxenus from among his predecessors for a special and undeserved
polemic.
Pythagoras 1(9 of Zacynthus and Agenor 1(10) of Mitylene, leaders
of the school in which the Modal Scales were expounded.
Hippasus
as

Lasos

Pythokleides

Athens

1(s)

'

'

of Ceos,
1(6)

Archytas

Tarentum

of

'

'

>

(i)

lasos, see Plut., de Mus. (ed. Weil and Reinach), p. 115, notes 292, 293,
Aristoxenus, p. 3, trans. Macr.,
294 ; Gev., Probl., p. 103 and Note
Herod., vii, 6.
p. 167, Suidas, s.v. ; Athen., x, 455c, xiv, 624c

(2)

agathocles,

Laches, p.

Plut., op.

180D

cit.,

p.

Monro,

64,

p.

Note 156

p. 66,

Note 157

Plato,

104.

(8)

pythokleides, Osk. Paul., Die absolute Harmonik d. Griechen, p. 13, note 38

from Schol. Plat. Ale, p. 118C. He seems to have had as music pupils
not only Damon, but Agathocles and Lamprokles
Plut., op. cit., p. 67.
damon., Plut., op. cit., p. 67 Plato, Rep., iii, 400B
iv, p. 424C
Aristides
Quint., de Mus., ii, p. 95M.
archytas, Ptol., Harm., 1, xiii and passim.
lamprokles., O. Paul, op. cit., p. 13, note 39
Son of Midon, Schol.
Aristoph., Nub. 967, composer of a Hymn to Pallas Athene mentioned
by Aristophanes Athen., xi, 491C Plut., de Mus., Cap. xvi, Weil and
Reinach, pp. 64-5.
epigoneios, Laloy, Aristox., pp. xv and xxviii
Athen., iv, 183D
xiv,
Aristox., Macr., 3, p. 97, 6.
637F
Laloy, p. xvi. Porph. ad.
eratocles, Aristox., Macr., 5, 6, pp. 168-9

(9)

Pythagoras of Zacynthus

(3)

(4)

(5)
(6)

(7)

Ptol., Wallis, p.

189.
;

Laloy, p. xxix

Aristox., Macr., 36-7

Athen.,

xiv, 637.

agenor, ibid.
(11) hippasus of Metapontum.
(10)

Theo of Smyrna, ed.

J.

Dupuis,

p. 97.

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMONIA

of Metapontus,

means

a follower of Pythagoras,

who

191

by
which on

tested musical ratios

of vases of different capacities partly filled with water,

being struck gave out notes of different pitch. He may perhaps be included
among the early Harmonists on account of his speculative research in the

Harmonia there were many others.

These Harmonists, who seem to have been the chief custodians and
Modal System, obviously had a large and
influential following among musicians and theorists, as may be inferred
from the untiring efforts of Aristoxenus to belittle their achievements.
Although the system of the Harmoniai had by inference been in general
use for centuries in Ancient Greece, as elsewhere, its theoretical and scientific
basis appears for the most part to have remained an impenetrable mystery
ratios of the

teachers of the mysteries of the

not only to the Greeks, but likewise to every other nation with the possible
exception

The

Tjf

the Persians. 1

evidence afforded by these polemics

inferential rather than positive,

the nature and scope of the

is

"of

Aristoxenus,

the most comprehensive

Modal System.

may be

Aristoxenus against the Harmonists

The

we

although

possess

recapitulated at this point thus

(where not otherwise stated the references are to Macran's edition)

Polemics 1 and 2.

the

Polemics i and 2.
Enharmonic genus

That
(p.

upon

chief indictments of

Concerning

the

Harmonia

their tables of scales exclusively represent

165).

The early students of Harmonic [Aristoxenus states], (a) investigated the Harmonia [Enharmonic, Macran] alone (rr]; dofioviag) without devoting any consideration to the other genera. 2
(b) This may be inferred from the fact that the tables
of scales presented by them are always of Enharmonic scales, never in one solitary
instance of Diatonic or Chromatic, and that too, although these very tables in which
they confined themselves to the enumeration of Enharmonic octave scales, (2) nevertheless exhibited the

complete system of musical intervals.

This passage has been quoted at length to show how little Aristoxenus is
to be relied upon for the formation of any serious judgement on the music
of his predecessors or rivals.
His first statement (a) is categorical and
unequivocal, and yet in (b) the assurance has in a measure disappeared,
and what was stated in (a) as a fact, becomes an inference, based upon
insufficient acquaintance with the tables of scales which he obviously failed
to understand.

The

fact revealed (see 2) that these scales exhibited the

complete system of musical intervals,

at

once makes the allusion

clear.

See Kiesewetter, Musik der Araber und Perser, 1842

Mahmud Schirazi
Durret, ed. Tadsch, fourteenth-century Encyclopaedist, reproduced in abstract
Studien zur Gesch. d. Notenschrift, Leipzig,
with comments by Dr. Hugo Riemann
See pp. 77-85. See also Al-Farabl, Rouanet, op. cit., pp. 2685 sq. and
1878.
271 1 sq. San ed-Din, Le Traite des Rapports Musicaux ou I'Epttre a Scharaf ed-Din,
par le Baron Carra de Vaux, Paris, 1891, pp. 16 sqq. The MSS. of Persia, anterior
to the twelfth century, have nearly all perished, either taken or destroyed by the
See also Chaps, vii and ix.
Arabs.
2
Cf. Plut., de Mus. ( = Aristoxenus) (ed. Weil and Reinach), pp. 133-5, 33 I_"6
Macr., op. cit., p. T69.
1

THE GREEK AULOS

192

The

tables of scales were apparently given in the form of Katapyknotic

diagrams of the modal material available for the three genera in all seven
Modes. It is by no means necessary to have separate diagrams for each
genus, for the Enharmonic Katapyknosis comprises within itself also the
modal material for the Chromatic and the Diatonic genera which are thus
implicit in the Enharmonic.
It is a simple matter to obtain the Chromatic

and Diatonic genera through the division by 2 for each genus, of those
numerators of the fractions indicating the lengths of string, which consist of
even numbers only. For example, in the Dorian Mode

Ill

Enharmonic

44

Chromatic

22

Diatonic

11

3.

42

40

41

38

39

20

21

37

3.

of the Harmonists

in their pursuit of

'

fail

&c.

10

close-packed schemes of scales

36
18

19

The Close-packed Scales

That the Harmonists

Polemic

Polemic
'

43

Katapyknosis or

to demonstrate the interrelationship

This statement is forthwith

of keys for the purposes of modulation (p. 170).
qualified by Aristoxenus, who adds that although some of the Harmonists
have touched upon the subject, no single writer belonging to this school
has taken up the general point of view. To this the Harmonists would
very properly reply that the keys would be demonstrated in other diagrams,
the Katapyknotic division being a Modal and not a Tonal concern.
offers unique possibilities of modulating from key
merely changing the pitch location of a composition by trans-

The Modal System

to key, or of

position,

which are equally unknown

system, such as the following

in the Aristoxenian

and

modern

in the

(a) by changing the species ;

(b) by changing the Mode, whereby the compass of pitch remains the
same, while through the modal shifting of the modal pivots and consequently

comes into use. To change

and the regional disposition of the

of the tessitura, a different region of the voice

the species affects both the compass

melody.
(c)
it

by changing the pitch of the species by the mere expedient of taking

Mode, which is what happens in the Tropoi

as the species of a different

Ptolemy has demonstrated this, but without realizing that a

change of Tonos for this purpose, expressed by means of the Onomasia
Kata Thesin, becomes a change of modality.
(d) by tuning the monochord string to a different pitch note or Tasis
{xdaig).
All or any of these methods may well have been exhibited in the
diagrams of the Harmonists without Aristoxenus being aware of the fact,
since he was unacquainted with their theories, and would not understand
or Tonoi.

the significance of the process indicated (Macran (37), p. 192).

Polemic

Polemic
fifth

4.

Aristoxenus

of our parts

is

4.

Concerning

the

says (Macran, pp.

Tonoi

The
128 and 192-3)
upon which the systems

the one about the Tonoi, placed

'


EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMONIA

193

Upon these matters no one has provided any explanation,

what Tropos must be taken, nor upon what consideration their
number must be assigned.' 1 There is, of course, a number (the Determinant) that belongs to each Tropos, or Tonos used in the P.I.S., which
makes the passage perfectly clear.
are melodized.

neither

Aristoxenus then continues his polemic

Keys

that in their account of the

'
:

Harmonists are not agreed among themselves

Others
Auhi assume intervals
of three quarter-tones between the three lowest Keys, the Hypophrygian,
.'
the Hypodorian and the Dorian, &c.
The order of the Tonoi and of
the intervals between their Tonics is certainly slightly confused, for which
Aristoxenus is probably to blame, not knowing that the Tonoi are curtailed
Modes (see Chap, iv), and that therefore they were rightly referred in
rovoi the

again having regard to the boring of fingerholes on the

classification to their keynotes, as they occur in order in the Harmonic

Series.
The order of the Species, on the other hand, being that of their
Tonics as they appear in the Tonos, is the reverse of that of the Modes.
Because the order of progression in the Harmonic Series is reversed in the
Modal Series, moreover, the fact that some of the Harmonists may have
reckoned from the Conjunct forms of the Tonos, and others from the
Disjunct, may have added to the bewilderment of Aristoxenus
the modal
significance of this will be apparent further on.
The passage concludes
with the plaint
But they have not informed us on what principle they
have persuaded themselves of this location of the Keys and that the closepacking of small intervals is unmelodious and of no practical value whatso;

'

be clear in the course of our discussion.' 2

In the closing part of the polemic, Aristoxenus harps again on the
Katapyknotic diagrams of the Harmonists, while failing to state to what use
the Harmonists claimed to put them.
ever, will

Polemic

Notation as the Goal of the Science of Harmonic

5.

Polemic 5.
That some of the Harmonists find the goal of the science
Harmonic to be in the notation (naQaorjfiavTixrj) of melodies, declaring
'

of

this to

be the ultimate limit of the apprehension of any given melody.'

rightly claimed that only through the science of Nota-

The Harmonists

tion could the true limits,

melos be ascertained

or,,

in other words, the exact intonation, of the

a claim, the value

and

significance of

which may be

when

the full modal scope of the alphabetical scheme of notation

has been revealed (see brief outline in Appendix).
realized

Polemic

Polemic

6.

The Theory of Aulas and of Pipe-scales

Aristoxenus continues thus Others again find
the

the

6.

'

theory of the Auloi, and in the ability to

pipe-scales are produced
1

K.
2
3

p.

Translation by E.

J.

and

tell

the

their provenance,'

considered more

literal

it

in the

method by which the

meaning generally that

and more correct than Macran's.

S.

Macr., pp. 129 and 193.

Translation kindly supplied by Prof.

130.

J.

F. Mountford, Nov., 1920.

Macr.,


THE GREEK AULOS

194

some lay more stress on the study of notation, others on the theory based
on the structure of the Aulos, and the position and measurements of the
lateral holes to be stopped by the fingers.
Here, then, is the crux of the
matter.
That these claims on behalf of the Harmonists should have been
made by Aristoxenus, even in an attitude of scepticism, is of utmost importance, for they are precisely the claims made on behalf of the Modal System.
If a

'

man

notes

down the Phrygian scale,' said Aristoxenus,

know the essence of the Phrygian Melos.'

'

follow that he must

of course, on the man, but

is

it is

it

does not

It

depends,

evident that the essence of the Phrygian Melos

there in the Notation, to be had for the asking

Mode

just as the

inherent in the boring of the pipe, as demonstrated in Chapter

The system

Greek Notation,

is

i.

used by the Harmonists, was by no

means entirely adequate, but given a knowledge of its modal basis, through
the use of the alphabetical symbols in sequence in the Harmonia, the exact
intonation of any note was ascertainable
such subtlety cannot be claimed
of

as

for our

modern Notation.

Later the system received additions in respect

of time values.

The Aulos as

Polemic 7.

Polemic
order of

7.

(pp. 196-7).
in Chapter

ii

the Foundation of the

Order of Harmony

That according to the Harmonists, the foundation for the

Harmony

tov rjopoa/xevov rd^ecog)

(tjJs

is

supplied by the Aulos

This important and revealing polemic has been given in full

(q.v. with comments and elucidation of obscure points).

6 show that a considerable body of the Harmonists used

4, 5
it rightly as the original source of man's
knowledge of the Modes. The vehemence of the polemic against
the Aulos indicates how widespread was
this fatal error '.
What is born
on the Aulos is the Harmonia (or its part) from grave to acute, corresponding on the monochord to the whole string, plus all the notes
obtainable through the equal division, by stopping one segment or more,
and plucking the remainder until the octave is reached at the half of the
string.
The workable number of holes on a pipe is limited by technical

and

Polemics

the Aulos as criterion, regarding

practical

'

exigencies.

Aristoxenus betrays a curious lack of comprehension of the significance

of the actual structure of an instrument as an embodiment of a natural law,
quite independently of any knowledge of that law
in the executant musician
virtue of

its

own

who

is

and of

skill,

using the instrument.

or lack of

The

essential nature, constitutes in fact, as long as

it,

Aulos, by
it

survives,

an imperishable record of a melodic scale which, in spite of the statement

of Aristoxenus to the contrary, is indeed found on the Aulos fixed unerring
and correct '.
For the Aulos, in spite of its aberrations from the point of view of the
'

mere executant, holds a unique position among

as

an

concern, however,

all

instruments, not only

a distinction not shared even by the

but as creator of the Harmonia. Our

infallible recorder

flute,

reasons given elsewhere

is

to

know from

for

chief

these polemics that the Harmonists, on

the other hand, were not only aware of

this,

but that they actually proclaimed


EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMON 1A

195

Aulos was the basis of the Harmonia through its embodiment

law of proportional ratios known as Hermosmenos, brought
into operation, as we now know, through the division by equal measure as
the fact that the

of the natural

recorded by Aristotle.

Aristoxenus is referring to an Aulete playing not the Modal Scales

proper to the instrument, but struggling to win from it the intervals of the
and semitones, which Aristoxenus calls the exact order of
melody, but which no followers of his, forgoing the use of ratios, could

scale of tones

ever bring to birth on a reed-blown pipe.

Polemic

8.

Eratocles

and

the

Harmonists in General Treat only of

Octave

the

Polemic 8. To return to our points, Aristoxenus complains that the

Harmonists and specifically Eratocles, select for exclusive treatment a single
magnitude, namely the octave (p. 169).
Polemic

Polemic

9.

On

Concerning Systems

9.

his part, Aristoxenus states

That the fourth section of his Elements will be devoted to a consideration of

(b) how they are put together
the systems, (a) how many they are and of what kind
from intervals and notes. For neither have the Tropoi 1 been treated with regard
nor has it been considered whether
to this part of the subject by the previous writers
the systems are put together from the intervals in any way, or whether any of the
;

nor have all the differences of the systems been

thoroughly enumerated by any one author [Translation by E. J.].
syntheses are contrary to nature

The

point marked

(b) is

purely Aristoxenian.

There was no likelihood

Harmonists, would describe the construction of

notes, for the Harmonia is not put together
arbitrarily interval by interval
that is the method of Aristoxenus and
Ptolemy
the Harmonia comes to birth according to natural laws through
that the predecessors,
scales

from

intervals

i.e.

and

its.

Arche, as described in detail in Chapter

Aristoxenus continues

i.

They made (i.e. the Harmonists) no attempt at enumeration of scale-distinctions,

confining their attention to the seven octave-scales which they called Harmoniai ;
or if they made the attempt, they fell very short of completeness, like the school of
Pythagoras of Zacynthus and Agenor of Mitylene

There

no need

is

[p. 192, 37].

at this point to establish the identity of the

seven

mind the fact that it was the

Harmonists who called the seven octave scales by that name. The two
schools mentioned add to our knowledge of the extent of the Harmonists
movement.

Modes with

the Harmoniai, but only to bear in

Macr., op.

the P.I.S. and

sense of

cit.,

is

p. 127, lines 14

and

so called by Alypius.
or Mode.

Harmonia

Tropos = the Tonos in

Tropos has been used by Pindar in the

15, pp. 36, 191.

THE GREEK AULOS

Polemic 10.

Polemic

Eratocles

io.

determines the Species by the Recurrence of the

Intervals

That Eratocles, one of the Harmonists, was the only one

of the predecessors to give a partial enumeration of the magnitudes and figures

of scales.

The other systems, [Aristoxenus complains] no one has dealt with by a general
method, but Eratocles has attempted in the case of one system, in one genus, to
enumerate the forms or species of the octave, and to determine them mathematically (?)
by the periodic recurrence of the intervals not perceiving that unless we have first
demonstrated the forms of the Fifth and Fourth and the 'manner of their melodious
combination, the forms of the Octave will come to be many more than seven. 1
:

This

Genus

Harmonia

clearly refers to the species of the

as

inference

it

occurs in the P.I.S., in which the unit

that Eratocles, leader of a school,

was

is

in the

Enharmonic

the octave, for the

a Harmonist.

In dealing
with the Species the following interesting contingency may present itself
the tonic of each Enharmonic modal species, being characterized by the
is

superparticular ratios of

its Determinant, it follows that with a Lichanos

major or a minor 3rd from Mese, a difficulty arises in
ratio included in the undivided
3rd, characteristic of the Enharmonic and Chromatic genera.
The difference
between a system determined by ratios from the Arche, and the Aristoxenian
system in which the function of the note is paramount, is exhibited here.

at a distance of a

Modal Species claiming the

respect of the

Fig. 39.

Required

Phrygian Enharmonic Species of the P.I.S.

MESON

HYPATON
Hyp.

Parh.

28

27
* N.B.

Lich. Chr.

Hyp.

Parh.

Lich. Chr.

Mese

22

21

20

16

26

24, the characteristic ratio of the

Phrygian species

is

absent.

According to the Harmonists, then, no Phrygian Species could

exist in

Chromatic or Enharmonic genus of the P.I.S., for as is patent, ratio 24

should occur in the leap of the 3rd between 26 and 22, and has, therefore,
been omitted. There can be no Phrygian Chromatic Species in the P.I.S.,
for the Phrygian Species cannot begin on any other number but 24.
The
this

Enharmonic- Chromatic Harmonia (not

species) has, however,

quite correctly in the Notation of the Lydian

Iianus. 2
in the

The same

difficulty

Enharmonic genus of the

Polemic 11.

Tonos by

been given

Aristides Quinti-

occurs with regard to Lichanos Meson, which

P.I.S., excludes the

The Harmonists

Hypophrygian Species.

assert that points of Pitch consist of

Ratios and Rates of Vibration

Polemic

ii.

Presents

his predecessors, the

the highly significant statement that

Harmonists,

'

some

of

introduced extraneous reasoning, and

rejecting the senses as inaccurate, fabricated rational principles, asserting

1

Monro,

Op.

cit.,

Macr.,
M., pp. 21 and 22.

op. cit., p. 50

op. cit., p. 169.

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMONIA

that height

and depth of pitch consist

in certain numerical ratios

a theory utterly extraneous to the subject

rates of vibration

manythe

197

and relative
and quite at

phenomena (Macr., pp. 188-9).

are not concerned here with the errors of Aristoxenus

variance with the

We

'

important fact

is

which are

the definite statement that the Harmonists

bent on accuracy, as true followers of Pythagoras, 2 used mathematical

i.e. those of the Harmonia,
and that they computed differences of pitch by rates of vibration, which
also formed the criteria for the differentiation and co-ordination of the
species of the Harmonia.

ratios in exposition of the basis of their theories,

Polemic 12.

Polemic

On

the Twenty-eight Consecutive Dieses

12.
This polemic on the twenty-eight consecutive dieses
be discussed further on together with other references to that
number.
The report of the use, for the purposes of demonstration, by Harmonists
whose teaching was based on the Harmonia, the Tonos and the Species,

will

of a series of 28 consecutive dieses

is

in itself illuminating.

confirmation of the structure of the modal Tonos at the period

It affords

when

the

began on Hypate Hypaton in the Mixolydian Species, which was in

effect produced by the division by Determinant 28 for the Chromatic Genus,
and by Determinant 56 for the Enharmonic, which yields precisely 28 notes,
neither more nor less, to the octave.
It is, as shown in previous chapters,
from these 28 dieses that the standard Tonos is formed in the three Genera
the tetrachord Hypaton corresponds with the formula of Archytas beginning
28
with
27
scale

The
data

polemics of Aristoxenus, in the aggregate, thus provide invaluable

of the Harmonists.
It is found that the

upon the aims and methods

was mainly concerned with

Harmonia that the teaching was imparted
by means of mathematical ratios and rates of vibration the
only exact method and not empirically as recommended by Aristoxenus.
Diagrams and tables were freely used for the purpose of combining theoretical with practical exposition.
Taken in connexion with the injunction of
Pythagoras to his disciples that they should study their monochords (see
fn. 2 ), we can come to no other conclusion than this
that the practical
application of the theory was demonstrated by means of the monochord,
for there was no other known agency for calculating the equivalents of ratios
in rates of vibration, which could be used in practice.
Finally, although the monochord is not mentioned by Aristoxenus in
any connexion, it is evident that for a system founded upon superparticular
ratios, entailing in theory minute divisions of the string (upon which

instruction given in their schools, for instance,

the theory and practice of the

scientifically

The

p. 188,

subject was
Harmonic and its Parts (Oeojoiav neql fielovg navrog),
and the natural laws according to which the voice in ascending and descending
'

places the intervals.

3

Cf. Arist. Quint., M., p. 116.

'

THE GREEK AULOS

198

Aristoxenus harps), the monochord was indispensable

to find their

way

into the practice of music.

The

if

these intervals were

ability to differentiate

and

recognize, for the purpose of teaching, a collection of 28 dieses, implying

accurate gradations of seven octave scales within the same octave, and,
therefore, requiring seven differentiations of each degree, e.g. 7 different

D's bearing to

10

Dorian

Mixolydian

the ratios

Hvpolydian

Lydian

5 Hypophrygian

15

on with the E's and other

notes,

the use of a monochord.

To

would be impossible

Phrygian

Hypodorian, and so

for a teacher without

a musician, they constituted his language of

music, and would dwell in his consciousness and memory, but for the
training of students and for the theorist, the monochord was, as we have
said, a sine

qua non.

It is of the

utmost importance that the mathematically exact basis of

upon which it is claimed that the Modal System rests,

should be demonstrated to have a foundation in fact, if it is to be accepted
by Greek scholars. This mathematical basis to which the whole system
must be referred is that of an arithmetical progression, best known in
proportional ratios,

musical theory and practice as displayed

(1) in

the

Harmonic

Series con-

stituting the physical basis of sound, (2) in the natural scale of

wind instruments.

The

relation inherent in the arithmetical progression

The

itself.

degrees of the Tonos of which the P.I.S. consists

(1) the

our brass

geometrical progression occurs only in the octave

Harmonia proceeding from Hypate Meson

ratios of the

whether considered
to

as

Nete Diezeugmenon,

or (2) as the full compass of two octaves from Hypate Hypaton to Nete
Hyperbolaion with the added Proslambanomenos and the alternative

tetrachord

must

Synemmenon

presented in Chapter

They have been

be established.

first

iv.

THE CHARACTERISTIC RATIO (il/io) OF THE DORIAN HARMONIA ASCENDING

FROM THE TONIC
HYPATE TO PARHYPATE MESON
:

The

Tonos is the ascending one from Hypate

Dorian Harmonia, viz. 22 20 or 11 10. It
1
is known on the authority of Plutarch
that the Dorian Ethos was dependent
on this tetrachord as beginning and end of the melos, and that in the Dorian
Tonos, the tetrachord Hypaton was left unused, that the Ethos of the Mode
might not suffer
the significance of this ostracism is grasped at once on
hearing the Modal Tonos.
It will be granted that in order to establish a basis for the system of
correlated Modes known as the P.I.S., the Dorian Harmonia as central
link must be shown to have its Mese on the 4th degree above the Tonic
(i.e. Hypate Meson)
a conception of Tonality, or rather of Modality so
far removed from our modern one, cannot be accepted as merely fortuitous,
or as an example of arbitrary selection
some definite and adequate reason
principal ratio in the

Meson,

characteristic of the

da Mus. (ed. Weil and Rcinach), p. 78, Chap. 19 (end), 183.

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMONIA

must be adduced that

shall

a fact, uncontrovertible

ELEVEN, THE

make

and

a keynote

on the 4th degree

199

of the scale

inevitable.

ONLY DETERMINANT NUMBER THAT COULD PLACE MESE UPON

THE FOURTH DEGREE OF THE SCALE

Determinant 1 1 the only number which,

Mese on the
working of the law underlying equal measure
likewise fixes the ratio of the Tonic interval for Determinant 11, as 11 10.
But it is a matter of absolute necessity to produce satisfactory evidence that
the Dorian Harmonia, as nucleus of the Tonos, actually did begin on Hypate
Meson with an interval of the ratio 11 10 in the Diatonic Genus, during
otherwise the whole foundation
the pure modal period in Ancient Greece
of the Modal System, as presented in this work, must remain insecure.
On the other hand, once this step has
It is claimed that this may be done.
been duly established, and the part played in the Modal System by the

Such

a fact exists in the use of

with the principle of equal measure or division, could place

4th degree.

The

result of the

arithmetical progression

and Hermosmenon

(to

understood by the terms Emmeleia

Modal System,

structure of the

and may be established by

(e/ji/ieXela)

in the

realized as a practical factor

riQ/iioo/ievov) is

the remaining ratios offer no difficulty,

a similar procedure with equal certainty.

THE RATIO Il/lO AS FIRST

ON THE TONIC CONFIRMED BY

DIESIS

QUINTILIANUS

(p.

ARIST.

23 M.)

There is a definite record of the use of the ratio n 10 in the Tonos

by Aristides Quintilianus, 2 a Greek theorist who flourished perhaps at
Ephesus towards the beginning of the second century a.d. From his work
it is evident that he had access to many of the ancient Greek works on
Music which have since perished.
During a discussion on the musical values and relations of numbers
based on the theory and practice of the Ancients, Aristides, 3 having worked
:

had just dealt with number ten

up from

unity,

Of
Tonos

number

the

eleven, he continues, there

(transposition scale),

if

we

is

also

something to be said

for the

rise as far as the first diesis, clearly exhibits,

The number

the

For
none of those which precede it, taken with as many as possible of the available
numbers, demonstrates the harmonic consonances though those available numbers
ratio of that

name

(i.e.

11 to 10).

12

is

the most musical of

all.

Such, for instance, as the compelling Tonic relation of the 3rd to the 4th
This tempting solution is merely specific,
in the Harmonic Series.
however, it must be rejected as failing to provide
equally satisfying explanations for the position of the keynote in the other six Modes.
2
Cf. Ch. Em. Ruelle, Le Musicographe Aristide Quintilien, Intern. Mus. Ges.
Sbd. xi, Heft. 3, 1910, pp. 313-24.
3
eari 5 tiq xai tieqi tov svdsxa }6yog.
de Mus., M., p. 123, lines 16 sqq.
6 ydo Tovoq tiqoq TtjV tiqwtijv dieaiv, dv enhaotv noi&pisv * tov ejicbvv/j,ov avrov Xoyov
1

Harmonic

and not due to any modal principle

'

ex<ov avacpavrjaexm.
* The text is Albert Jahn's (Berlin, 1882)
Notes pp. 319-20.

Mb. omits

rroiuijxcv,

ex^iv

and has avrov.

See his

THE GREEK AULOS

200

divided up as far as possible, do show certain other ratios with the other breadths
of the parts (i.e. considered as lengths of string divided by means of a constant
denominator). This number alone bears in relation to the number 9 the ratio
4:3; in relation to 8 the ratio 3 2, &c.
:

A full

number eleven does indeed

10 and not 11 12.
This clear and unequivocal statement is of the utmost importance, and
would of itself suffice as evidence in favour of the interpretation of the ratios
of the Tonos and of the Harmoniai presented in this work.
There is,
context has been quoted to prove that the

signify the ratio 11

however, yet more evidence available to confirm these ratios, and which
is equally important
by implication, the whole system for in dealing with
an arithmetical progression by one such as that of the Harmonic Series
(which forms the basis of the Modal System), to be able to locate one number
on a particular degree of the Tonos is to provide a clue to all the others.

Tonos consists, as was seen in Chapter iv, of a chain

formed from an octave of each of the original Harmoniai, taken in their
order as species, there should be no difficulty in admitting the claims of
the other modal ratios, since the order in which both Modes and species
occur is known from literary sources. 1 It will not, however, be necessary
to rely entirely on this mathematical implication, for the whole Tonos may
be reconstructed from the material furnished by Ptolemy.
As, moreover, the

FURTHER SUPPORT FOR THE USE OF RATIO Il/lO IN THE TONOS FROM

PTOLEMY

Among

the shades of the Genera, according to Ptolemy's

tables there

Modal Tonos, unrecognized as such,

which he has introduced as formulae for the divisions of the tetrachord, to
to be repeated as units, or mixed with others at will to form the octave.
Three of these shades, viz. (1) the Diatonic of Archytasidentical with
Ptolemy's own Tonic Diatonic, (2) the Diatonon Malakon, and (3) the
Diatonic of Didymus, when co-ordinated, form a complete diagram of the
Modal P.I.S. in the Diatonic Genus. But one slight transposition and one
plausible modification of the modal ratios need be made.
These are
necessitated by Ptolemy's failure to bring these divisions of the tetrachord
into line with his entirely sound conception of the Emmeleia and of the
Hermosmenon as a whole. He destroyed the ideal of the inevitable and
infinite arithmetical succession, by making it subservient to his self-imposed
are actually to be found sections of the

rules for the division of the tetrachord, instead of the division of the octave.

He failed to see that the tetrachord, taken as a structural unit, leads to no

Otherwise, as an aggregate, these three
formulae may be recognized as the Modal P.I.S. in the late form in which
it is implied in the tables of Alypius.
It will be seen from Fig. 40 that
recurring cycle as does the octave.

certain of the formulae for the

1

EiSr]

Aristides, op.
;

Ptol.,

Op.

cit.,

Harm., ii,
ii, Cap.

cit.,

pp. 17-18;
Cap. xi.
xiv, pp.

Genera recorded by Ptolemy and ascribed

Bacchius, M., pp. 12-13, Tropoi

170-2 (Wallis, 1682).

pp. 18-19;

-3

js

OS

^1O WW I*

tpn

'TO

w
3

t-

"I

X g
o .OS a

\D0llU3pl

x I

vvm
tjtflU

II

ml.

HQ x
asaw

oo|r.

*l

a l3 _\r

oi

ii-i
lest

ao

X
.ss

ea

a-a

"oh"

'W

i-H

a
h
a a

ith
liH

i II

til
CO S

II

<a

3
a.

via
9

(3

a~

S
ft.

Is
1

211

lvpof\[ tftm poi%Udpi

g osloo
X
|S|I COxfiO

-1g
aPX

ctJ

2?

vO J 00

asaw

X
s|
X

J3

-i|o

lea

II

13

cn oo

a Sl

03 00
1

V3

ajBd/Cjj
C3

>>

'd/C^jty

x
iH

l|-t

"3

3j

e|rH

fti

oo It-

"SI 's

ill

Oi ICO

X
oolr-

a
o
E-l

201

THE GREEK AULOS

202

by him to such musicians and theorists as Archytas, Didymus and EratosModal P.I.S., every tetrachord of which
The
is thus shown to be in agreement with the testimony of Ptolemy.
figure shows that the modal ratios for the tetrachord Hypaton correspond
with the Diatonic of Archytas and the Tonic Diatonic of Ptolemy (rovialov

thenes, are actually sections of the

and displaced by

except for the transposition of ratios ~

diarovixov),

Ptolemy to satisfy his idiosyncrasies concerning his subdivision of the

Symphoniai into superparticular ratios. Both Archytas and Ptolemy make
use of the ratio 27 instead of 26 for Parhypate Hypaton. There is evidence
that the characteristic Lydian ratio 13 (26) was at some early date replaced
in the Theorists' scale by the more commensurate 27, and this is unmistakThe modification of ratio 26
ably implied also by the Tables of Alypius.
to

27 produces with the 24 of Lichanos Hypaton, a major tone ^27 24

:

which was probably

at the root of the change, since

it

indicates an approxima-

tion to the teachings of Aristoxenus.

A curious confirmation of this practice may be traced in the interval of

the Lute Scale of the Arabs, indicated by the fret termed Wosta of Zalzal,
recorded as having the ratio 27 22 1 on the open string ; the first fret,
:

known

the next frets

27 24 gave the major second
minor 3rds as modal alternatives the Wosta of Zalzal
11 from
at 27
22 of the open string, was thus at an interval of 12
Sabbaba. It is interesting to note in this context that the Arabian chronicler
Ispahani relates that many Arabian Lutenists modified the Modes as used
by Ishdq-al-Mausili, nephew and pupil of Zalzal, according to the usage of
the Christian Monks of Syria, 2 and they were, therefore, of Greek origin.
The theoretical works of Arab musical writers were likewise based upon
Greek treatises, translated through the Syriac by the College of Translators
as Sabbaba, of ratio

provided different

by Haroun al-Raschid. The Wosta of Zalzal was,

would occur on the 3rd degree of the Lydian
Species, either in the Dorian or the Hypodorian Tonos, viz. having ratios
27 24 22 20. Binsir, the fret of the major 3rd on the open string,
according to the Scholiasts, would fall on 21 (to be accurate on 2i|), the
and Khinsir, the fret played by the little
Chromatic Parhypate Meson
finger, the Lichanos Meson, on 20, which with 27 forms a tetrachord, a

in Bagdad, inaugurated

in fact, the interval that

comma

22

less

it

in

interval

22

W
(

IS

520

cents.

27

3
X

81

This piece of evidence may be circumstantial, but neverthesupports the fact recorded by Ptolemy. The advantage that may be

The

excess of the perfect 4th (27/20

cents).

30.

355

cents exceeds the

minor 3rd

316

by the

diesis

\S/

J u les Rouanet, LaMusique Arabe

'

',

Encycl. de la Musique (Lavignac,

1922, pp. 2713, 2702, 2694a and passim.

2
Kosegarten, Alii Ispahanensis Liber Cantilenarum
pp. 199-200.

Paris,

(Gripeswoldiae,

1840),

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMONIA

203

gained from a comparative study of the Classical and Graeco-Roman

theories of Greek Music, taken respectively from Greek and Arab sources,
If it may be assumed that Ptolemy
was correct in the equivalents he gives of the principal tetrachord taught by
Archytas of Tarentum (fl. c. 400 B.C.), then the alteration of the Lydian
Species, as used in the P.I.S., must have become general already in the
day of Archytas.

has perhaps hardly yet been realized.

The tetrachord Meson was originally constituted by the Ancients from

ratios 22, 20, 18, 16, as implied by the statement of Aristides
the 22 falling
on Hypate Meson survived in the Dorian and Hypodorian Tonoi, in the
Ionian group, and in the Hyperphrygian Tonos. This ratio was in course
;

of time modified in the other Tonoi, the Syntonic interval

relaxed to 21

formula.

such as

As

20

hence

the qualifying term Diatonon

11:10 being
Malakon of the

growing requirements of Theorists,

Ptolemy, that every tetrachord should be in the ratio 4:3, and

since the

this did not satisfy the

Modal Meson
64.

by the small

diesis

Tone for the

|, in

it

tetrachord 21, 20, 18, 16,

would seem

order to place

Mese

fell

short of this interval

8
that Ptolemy substituted the - septimal

4th from Hypate, regardless

at a perfect

of the fact that this obliteration of the 16 of

Mese

as

Arche

entirely destroyed

the modality of that tetrachord.

We now

pass on from the

Meson

to the

Synemmenon

tetrachord, the

modal form of which must be sought in the first tetrachord of the

pure Hypodorian Harmonia of ratios 16, 15, 13, 12. It may be traced
with those ratios in the notation of the Synemmenon tetrachord of the

true

Homonym

Tonoi of the original Harmoniai in the Diatonic Genus. But

Synemmenon tetrachord of the Aeolian group, and in the Ionian
Tonos, the formula given by Ptolemy as that of the Diatonic of Didymus,
in the

viz.

*5

I
8

may be

identified, for

it

corresponds with the modal

formula 32, 30, 27, 24. It may be surmised that the acceptance by the
theorists of the ratio 27 instead of 26 for Parhypate Hypaton of the Lydian
Species was also likely to affect the use of that ratio, in the Hypodorian
tetrachord 16, 15, 13, 12, when figuring as Synemmenon, more especially
during the Graeco-Roman period. To what extent this actually occurred

may be

ascertained through the allocation of the symbols of notation in

the Tonoi.

The modal

chromatic Pyknon of Diezeugmenon would, as in

the Hypaton, be 28, 27, 26.

If, therefore, in any Tonos, the same symbol
occurs for Paranete Chromatic Diezeugmenon as for Paranete Diatonic

Synemmenon,

in fact, the case in the Dorian,

must be the same, viz. 26 this is,

Hypodorian, Phrygian, Hypophrygian and

Mixolydian Tonoi (see under

Notation

it

is

clear that the ratio

The Diatonon Homalon

'

',

Appendix

i).

of Ptolemy,
of the formula
J

x X
11
10
9

x-f=

corresponds exactly with the section of the modal P.I.S. from Lichanos

Hypaton

to

Mese

in the

Phrygian Species.

It is a scale still in

use in the

THE GREEK AULOS

204
East in

some

Greek Churches

of the

in Asia

Minor, according to Tzetzes, 1

writing in the 'seventies of last century.

The Syntonic Chromatic

12
22

X
11
21

Species) has the formula

22, 21,

according to

18,

of Ptolemy

all

7
7

form of the same Phrygian

(a
4.

- or, in

modal

ratios,

24/24

the codices of Ptolemy's Harmonics collated

by Wallis, and to many others consulted by the present writer in the Vatican
Library and in the Biblioteca Laurenziana Medicea of Florence. It is
obvious that the corrected Syntonic Chromatic tetrachord fits into the
modal P.I.S., as does the Homalon Diatonic between Lichanos Hypaton
and Mese.
It will be noticed that the second ratio 11
10 of the Homalon Diatonic
thus gives an implicit confirmation of the statement of Aristides Quintilianus,
concerning ratio 11 10, and that the Syntonic Chromatic also emphasizes
the 22 as Hypate Meson, which is the Modal Determinant of the Dorian
Harmonia.
There is still much to be said concerning the use of the modal ratio
:

Dorian Harmonia.

characteristic of the

two

intervals

known

Aristides Quintilianus

as

may be

It

traced again in the

Spondeiasmos and Eklysis, described thus by

3
:

We must now speak of the Eklysis, the Spondeiasmos and the Ekbole. Use
was made of these intervals by the Ancients for the specific differences of their
Harmoniai.
The uncomposed interval of three dieses descending was called
Eklysis.
The same interval ascending, Spondeiasmos. The interval of five dieses
ascending, Ekbole.

DEFINITION OF THE DIESIS BY ARISTIDES QUINTILIANUS

(p.

123M.)

Aristides' definition of these intervals expressing specific differences in

the Harmoniai of the Ancients appears vague in respect of magnitude,

since the
in

word

magnitude
diesis).

diesis has

been applied to a variety of intervals differing

(for instance, this very interval

The etymology

of the

word from

is

durj/u

spoken of by him as

to thrust through,

supports the meaning as the piercing through that occurs in Katapyknosis,

when

passing from an interval in the Diatonic Genus, to the constituent

same interval when split up in the Chromatic or the Enharmonic

Genus, as shown by the arrows in the accompanying diagram (Fig. 41).
This thrusting through typifies the division that takes place on the
rule of the Monochord.
The magnitude does not seem to count so much
as the fact that the diesis may be recognized as a legitimate intermediate
dieses of the

Dr. Joh. Tzetzes, Uber die Altgriech. Musik

1874), p. 77 and passim.

2
This reading, contested

in der griech.

Kirche (Munich,

by Wallis, was inserted out of its proper place at the

end of Lib. ii, Cap. xv, p. 186. See note on p. 185. And he added on p. 87 a version
which he calculated according to Ptolemy's text, as given in detail in Chap. iv.
3
Op. cit., p. 28.

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMONIA

by the process

note, obtained

of Katapyknosis

205

which produces the genera

the primary meaning being a note, not an interval.

Fig. 41.

The

Definition of the Diesis.

The

Diesis of Aristides (p. 123)

10 Diatonic

Genus

20 Chromatic Genus

22

42

44

V^)

E nnarmon

Genus

The

intermediate note, marked with an arrow as diesis, is obtained in changing from

the Diatonic to the Chromatic, and from the Chromatic to the Enharmonic Genera.

THE RATIO Il/lO AS SPONDEIASMOS AND EKLYSIS

In a passage from Aristoxenus quoted by Plutarch, 1 the Spondeiasmos
is

discussed with the same lack of grip that distinguishes that theorist's

treatment of everything connected with the Harmoniai. The following facts

may be extracted from Plutarch's circumstantial account they must be
judged by the Canons of the Modal System.
(1) The Spondeiasmos, so named because it was the characteristic interval
of the Spondeiakos Tropos or Spondeion, the Ancient Libation Mode or
Hymn sung to the Spondaic metre, which I have identified with the
Harmonia of Terpander, both are reported as being in the Dorian Mode
and lacking Trite Diezeugmenon, for which a perfectly simple explanation,
based upon the Genesis of the Mode itself, has already been supplied. 2
(2) The interval to which reference is made here is qualified as Syntonoteros,
the more highly-strung Spondeiasmos ', thus implying two such
intervals.
The more tense of these may be identified with the interval
of ratio 11 10, characteristic of the Dorian Harmonia, while the less
tense may well have been the 22 21, a later version used in the Tonos,
;

'

and introduced probably

diesis,

the

first

at the

same time

use of which in

all

as the ratio

three genera

is

^ of the Hypaton

ascribed by Ptolemy

to Archytas.
(3)

The

exact degree of the P.I.S. on which the Spondeiasmos occurs

further definitely implied in the passage in question ( 11 5-1 7) as that

Pyknon of the Meson tetrachord (to yag sv rale, {isaaic, ivaginoviov

is

of the

nvy.vov, Plut.,

(4)

The

p. 48).

evaluation of the Spondeiasmos as an interval of three dieses, 3

according to Aristides,

is

further defined by Aristoxenus (in Plut., 112,

de Mus., Chap. 11, p. 1135 (ed. Weil and Reinach), pp. 46-51, and Chap. 19,
PP- 74-72
See Chap, i ; also Aristotle, Probl., xix, 32 Gevaert, p. 33 Nicom., M. p. 7 ;
Plut., de Mus., Cap. 28, p. 105, 270
and Cap. 18, pp. 73-9, 168 sqq. p. 119,
;

299
3

p.
to

p. 3i 47.
;
Arist. Quint., op.

Mus. (Weil and Reinach), Chap. 38,

1145C, W. & R., p. 152, 399, quoting Aristoxenus and evidently alluding
the Spondeiasmos, the Eklysis and the Ekbole.
cit.,

p. 28

Plut., de


THE GREEK AULOS

206

Weil and Reinach) as of one diesis less than the Tone near the
', which as seen above is the designation of Mese, that suggests

ed.

'

Hegemon

downward

the

therefore, the

progression,

the

Katapyknosis.

The Tone

one between Mese and Lichanos, the

implied

real Aristoxenian

is,

Tone

of ratio 9 8, and was merely cited as a basis for the comparison of magnitudes since Aristoxenus does not use ratios ; it also carries with it a
:

kind of protest against assigning to the Diatonic Genus a scale which rises
thus from the Tonic through an interval valued at one diesis only less
than a whole Tone. 1
(5) Aristoxenus (in Plut., 113) urges that such a scale would be inharmonious (ixfielrjs), for to regard the more highly strung Spondeiasmos as
a Tone would be to admit of two successive diatones, one composite, the
other undivided. The word didxova with the same meaning as Hyperhypate

Theo

occurs in the treatise of

Hypaton.
thus

The

objection raised

of Smyrna 2 as a substitute for Lichanos

by Aristoxenus may be interpreted modally

The manuscripts all have didxova in this passage (in Plutarch) which
has been corrected by Meziriac to dtrova and accepted by Reinach. The
correction assumes the scale with the more highly strung Spondeiasmos
to have been in the Enharmonic Genus
this may also be explained within
;

Modal System thus

the

whether Aristoxenus was referring to a succession of

two ditones or of two diatones, as being by him considered inharmonious,
and therefore, not to be tolerated, either of these words makes sense in
the Modal System, Diatones implying the Diatonic Genus and Ditones
the Enharmonic.
It is clear that,

(6)

Then

follows (115) a confirmatory statement intended to bring

conviction

For the Enharmonic Pyknon of the Meson Tetrachord [Plutarch reports further]
actually in use at the present day does not seem to have been practised by the composer of old. It is easy to be convinced of this in listening to an Aulete playing in
the archaic style, for he keeps even the
the nature of the earliest Enharmonic.

Meson semitone

incomposite.

Such was

This passage clears up any possible doubt as to the degree of the octave
on which the Spondeiasmos occurred. The Aulete keeps undivided even
the semitone of the Meson (ratio 21 20), i.e. the Hypate to Parhypate of
present practice, which is heard undivided in the ancient Enharmonic
Pyknon, viz.
:

If the

Spondeiasmos valued

at 11

10 be deducted from a ^ tone, the excess

8

=
which is the next ratio in order
% x
n 44/
44 \8
of progression to the one with which the Enharmonic form of the Spondeion would

of the latter over the former

is

start, i.e. 44.

2

See

Theon de Smyrne,

la lecture de Platon, traduite

Exposition de Connaissances Mathematiques utiles pour

de Grec en Francais par

xxxv, and pp. 150 and 15a, xxxvi.

J.

Dupuis, Paris, 1892, pp. 145,

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMONIA

Fig. 42.

The

Enharmonic Pyknon of the Ancients

207

[Weil and Reinach],

(Plut.

de Mus., pp. 48-51)

Hyp. Meson

20

21

Enharmonic P yknon

The

Meson

day

identified

Mese

Lich. Enh.

Parhyp. Enh.

22

semitone
of
forming
as

16

5^4

Plutarch's

part

of

the Enharmonic Pyknon of the Ancients

playing in the Archaic style

The

ratio

21

20

was,

it

will

be remembered, the Modal Meson

diesis in

use in several of the Tonoi, which were most frequently used in Plutarch's
21
day, and this diesis
approximates to the semitone recognized by Aristo-

xenus.

It is also the diesis of the

formula given by Ptolemy as that of

Malakon Diatonic.

the

In connexion with the evidence afforded by the Aulete playing in the

ancient style, may be mentioned the fact ascertained through the research
of the present writer that this Spondeion or scale of Terpander has been
embodied through the boring of the lateral holes upon one of the Elgin

Graeco-Roman Department at the British Museum

Chap, x, Record of Elgin Aulos ').
This precious and unique relic of Greek music of the age of Pericles
thus hands down to posterity a record of one of the ritual Libation Hymns,
and of the scale historically established by numerous references as that of
Terpander.
To return to our evidence of the use of the characteristic Dorian modal
pipes preserved in the
(see

'

interval of ratio

io,

a consideration of the references to Eklysis

by

Plutarch and Bacchius serves to identify that interval also as of the ratio
ii

io,

quite independently of the fact that

it

was

stated to be of the

same value

as the Spondeiasmos, i.e. of three dieses, but used in the

descending {aveaig) instead of in the ascending scale (inhaatg). Plutarch 1
writes as follows
To Polymnestos 2 is attributed the Mode known to-day
as Hypolydian, and it is said also that he created the Eklysis and the Ekbole.'
'

The scheme
The

interval

of the Hypolydian

named

Eklysis, of

is

given on page 208.

modal ratio^-,

is

seen actually installed as

characteristic descending interval of the Hypolydian Harmonia (just

Spondeiasmos of the same ratio appears as the Tonic interval of the
ascending Dorian Harmonia), both Mode and interval being ascribed to PolyThe Modal Hypolydian Harmonia likewise contains the other inmnestos.
terval credited to Polymnestos, viz. the Ekbole of five dieses, occurring as the

the

first

as the

1
de Mus., Chap. 29, pp. 112-13, 286-7.
2
According to Weil and Reinach, 286, p. 112, Polymnestos was an Ionian
composer who flourished c. 600 B.C. (cf. 40, 56, 57, p. 11336), Son of Meles of
Colophon and mentioned by Pindar and Alcman.

>

J5

TJ

N M M

O
C

SO O
* M

Ph
_e

&
<d

'5

O O u
c c a, <o

a u

00

on

u
3
o

O
so

'

u
O

CO

>

Js-

Ek

dies

descen

o
a

ft

cn

EG

CO

H O

ft

00

ft

T3

ffi

I
CO

60

a
N m 00

s
o a

IS

00
CO

1
Q
a
ea

.s

a
a

o
208

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMON 1A

Tone ^ between

Septimal

corresponding lower octave between Parhypate and Lichanos

Kata Dynamin nomenclature),

the

209

Trite and Paranete Hyperbolaion, and on the

Tonic or ascending

as the

Meson

(in

interval

35

Harmonia, but having the values belonging

form of the P.I.S. There is, of course, an Ekbole interval

of the first tetrachord of the

to the later

in the Hypolydian, as in every

Tonos, between Mese and Paramese

when

adds the

it

last

note of the notorious Tritone

-and

again between

Proslambanomenos and Hypate Hypaton.

THE EKBOLE, INTERVAL OF FIVE DIESES
Both these

intervals,

Eklysis

and Ekbole, thus occur, as stated by

and are used, as Aristides avers,

Plutarch, in the Hypolydian Harmonia,

for the specific differentiation of the Harmoniai.

From

Bacchius, an entirely independent confirmation

has been using the Notation of the Lydian

Tonos

is

He

obtained.

to illustrate his exposition

of the various features of the P.I.S. (pp. 3 sqq.)

but when he arrives
at the Eklysis and Ekbole, without giving any reason for the change, he
;

selects the

Notation of the Hypolydian Tonos

'
:

What

is

an Eklysis

'

Harmonia through
These last words, which appear in one
of the two chief manuscripts, Meibomius (note, p. 30) takes to be a gloss
which has slipped into the text by mistake, and he omits them in his Latin
translation, since he observes they are not in Aristides (p. 28)
von Jan
also omits the words.
Bacchius is more precise than either Plutarch or
Aristoxenus
he indicates the Eklysis and Ekbole in symbols of Notation,
so that there may be no possibility of error.
Meibomius, however, finding
he asks.

'

It is

the descending from a certain note of the

three dieses [to the oxypyknon].'

that the Eklysis

from

to

in the

Lydian Tonos (he has not noticed

the change to the Hypolydian) contained between those letters, gives an

interval of a

Theta

(6*)

Tone, instead of one of three

given in

all

dieses, has

without ado altered

the manuscripts, to Eta (H) and

to

>.

It is

quite evident, however, that the manuscripts contain a correct transcription

of the passage, but that the original illustration referred to the Hypolydian

Tonos, and not to the Lydian

in spite also of the fact that the Tables
of Alypius do not give Theta among the symbols of that Tonos.
There
is, however, in the Royal Library at Munich, a Greek manuscript (No.
104, fol. 289) containing a complete scheme of all the notes in the Hypolydian Tonos, with their Notation (Vocal and Instrumental) for the Diatonic
Genus, and several extra notes interposed, which are not included by Alypius. 2
;

Mm., p. 11M.
of the Hypolydian Tonos in the Munich MS. has been reproduced
H. Vincent, Notices et Extraits des MSS. de la Bibl. du Roi, Tome xvi,

Introd. Artis.

The scheme

by A.

J.

see also J. Tzetzes, op.

Paris, 1847, pp. 254 and 258
versions differ in a few particulars.

Pt.

ii,

cit.,

pp. 100 sqq.

The

THE GREEK AULOS

210

Some

of these extra notes are marked with a Chi (X), i.e. obviously for
Chromatic, others with Phi, for Phthorai perhaps, as supplementary modal

One of these additional notes marked with Phi has been read by
Vincent as Theta, 1 which would fall upon ratio 22 as a lower Nete Diezeugmenon, whereas Alypius places Zeta upon that degree corresponding to
ratio 21, while Epsilon is 20, viz.
notes.

>

44

43

42]
21 j

22

40
20

Theta and Zeta in the Hypolydian Tonos, therefore, would indicate two
and 21 respectively, both for use as

alternative notes bearing ratios 22

Nete Diezeugmenon.

It is possible that

the original manuscript contain-

See Mon. Cod., gr. 104, fol. 289a. The reading given by Vincent as Theta,
for the note in the seventh space, as an alternative Nete Diezeugmenon is debatable
but not impossible, it is a reading with which I am in agreement. Tzetzes, op. cit.,
it contains
p. 101, has given a drawing of the scheme which he claims to be accurate
but few inaccuracies.
There is a sufficiently satisfying corroboration of Vincent's assumption that
1

the symbol for an alternative lower Nete Diez.

interposed between

and

|*J

Canon drawn

Mon.

intended for Theta, as indicated by the

which could only appear nine places
further to the right.
The alphabetical order of the letters used in Vocal Notation
is, in fact, the unfailing guide in unravelling the mysteries of Greek Notation as
it appears in the Codices.
It is obvious that the Scribes were sorely puzzled in copying tables of Greek
Notation, and found it difficult to distinguish the identity of the letters in majuscule
capitals and uncials, minuscules and cursive script, which were frequently used
indiscriminately in the same MS., during periods of transition.
Research among
the early medieval Codices of Boethius (de Mus., Lib. iv, Cap. xiv and xv) in the
Tables of the Tonoi and of the species, reveals the origin of the confusion in Mon. 104
of the inverted angular Psi for Theta. This same form of the symbol appears over
instrumental W Epsilon for Half-Theta, in the lower range of mutilated or inverted
symbols, in the Dorian Tonos on Parhypate Hypaton, and in the Hypodorian Tonos
in the

in Cod.

alphabetical order of symbols,

on Parhypate Meson, thus

in

many

others

104,

and not

is

for Psi,

fej in the following Codices of Boethius, and doubtless

Eleventh century, Brit. Mus. Arundel 77, fol. 53, 54 and 54a.
Eleventh century, Cologne Codex of Boethius and Hucbald (see Oskar Paul,
Die Absolute Harmonik d. Griechen, Leipz., 1866, Tables ii and iii).
Twelfth to thirteenth century, Brit. Mus. Royal MS. 15B, ix
fols. 43 and 44.
Twelfth to thirteenth centuries, Wolfenbiittel, ap. Osk. Paul, op. cit., Tab. iv
also in the Glareanus edition of Boethius (Basel, 1546), pp. 1 158-9.
Kircher's Musurgia (Rome, 1650), Vol. 1, Tables, p. 540.
It is easy to understand how Half-Theta came to be transformed into Psi
in
passing from Scribe to Scribe, the half-circle or oval gradually assumed an angular
shape pierced by a straight line, and indistinguishable from inverted angular Psi.
It was then frequently read as a capital Alpha, as in Arundel 77.
It may be added that the Munich MS. gives as secondary Chromatic note, in
this position, Delta, which falls to ratio 36 or 18, the correct one for the 2nd degree
of the older Modal Scale, thus again pointing to an older tradition. The Appendix
on Notation may also be consulted at this point.
;


EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMONIA
ing this

scheme of the Hypolydian Tonos emanated from

211

a period ante-

cedent to that of Alypius, and that Bacchius likewise had access to some
treatises belonging to the older Modal period, or to the Schools of the

Harmonists, from which he obtained his illustration of the Eklysis, used

in the Notation of the Hypolydian Tonos, where in effect it should be

Bacchius also gives an illustration of the Ekbole, as from

found.

which
as the

is

likewise to be identified in the Notation of the Hypolydian

Septimal

Tone 40/35

of 5 dieses

39

38

37

U
40

t0

Tonos

A
\

36

y
Z

35

ascending on the Hypolydian Tonic, Trite Hyperbolaion, where one would

it.
This seems a more rational course to pursue than the one
by Meibomius
since neither of the intervals illustrated by
Bacchius can be found in the Lydian Tonos with the correct value in

expect to find
followed

dieses.

Since Spondeiasmos and Eklysis are intervals of the same value but
occurring on different degrees of the Harmonia, these illustrations, chosen
by Bacchius for both Eklysis and Ekbole from the Hypolydian Mode
where they occupy the exact position demanded by the Modal System of
the Tonoi, and where, according to Plutarch, they belong by tradition
add one more link to the chain of evidence corroborating the statement
of Aristides concerning the ratio

Tonos (Hypate

the

to Parhypate

between the

Meson), which

is

1st

and 2nd degree

of

also the first descending

ratio of the Hypolydian Harmonia and Species (see Fig. 43).

If additional
testimony be required for the correspondence of the modal ratios of the
P.I.S. with existing evidence, it is only necessary to consider the Six Har-

moniai of Plato, as explained and illustrated by Aristides Quintilianus

(M., pp. 21 and 22).
It will be well, however, not to fall into the same
error as Meibomius, who did not notice that the Notation of the Lydian
Tonos had been used only for the Dorian (/?), the Phrygian (y), the Mixolydian (e) and probably also for the Syntono-Lydisti (g), whereas that of
the Hypolydian Tonos appears in the schemes of the Lydian (a) and of
the Iasti (<5). We may recall the fact that in both of these modal Tonoi
the ratio 21 has, according to the evidence of the Tables of Alypius, replaced
the ratio 22 characteristic of the Dorian Harmonia, and also that in the
latter the use of an extra note below Hypate Meson, variously known as
Diatona, 1 Hyperhypate 1 or Diapemptos 1 was allowed in the Melos, probably in order to compensate for the rejected lower conjunct tetrachord,

Theon. de Smyrnc
these two terms are given
1

'

Graeci, Lips., 1895

',

as

to

Dupuis (Paris, 1892), pp. 144 and 150, where

synonyms. Diapemptos, Carolus Janus, Musici Script.

ed. J.

Excerpta Neapolitana (Neap., iii, Cap. 2), 27, pp. 400, 421
Diapemptos from diant-pfto) = to send across, i.e. the
note across the border, i.e. Hypate Meson, in analogy with Proslambanomenos.
also Vincent, op.

>

cit.,

p. 254.

THE GREEK AULOS

212

which objection had been raised on account of the prejudicial effect of

on the Ethos 1 of the Dorian
Harmonia.
that Mixolydian tetrachord (28, 26, 24, 22)
If these points

connected with the theoretical equivalents of the degrees

Tonos be borne in mind, then the Modes as stated by Aristides

on the whole, in agreement with the schemes given in this work. The
P.I.S., indeed, in its triple function as the vehicle used for Keys, Tonoi
(roVot), Modes (agjuoviai), and Species (ei8tf) was still elastic enough in its
Graeco-Roman form to allow of the restitution of the correct ratio, even
if not indicated by the Notation
or alternatively, of the substitution of
another adjacent ratio for the one indicated by the Symbol of Notation.

of the
are,

This,, then, constitutes

the

sum

of the fivefold evidence brought forward

in support of the claim that according to the

modal principle of equal

Determinant which can place Mese or Arche on the 4th

degree above the Tonic is, in its simplest expression, the prime number
eleven
that Mese in this position is the characteristic of the Dorian Harmonia and Species alone. The implication is, therefore, that the ratio
11
10 on the Tonic is the only possible first step for the Diatonic Genus
in the type scale known as Tonos.
To recapitulate briefly this fivefold evidence concerning the interval of ratio 11 10
(x) Aristides Quintilianus
division, the only

clearly states this as a recognized fact in the

in the Harmonia.
(3)

The

(2)

There are ample grounds

Music of the Ancients,

among

interval occurs

i.e.

the formulae of Ptolemy.

for identifying the interval of ratio 11

10

with the Spondeiasmos, as rising interval on Hypate Meson in the Dorian

Harmonia, and with the Eklysis, as descending interval of the same ratio,
in the

Hypolydian Harmonia.

(4)

Through Bacchius,

further confirmation

obtained from his illustration of the Eklysis in symbols of Notation,

derived from the scheme of the Hypolydian Tonos
through the Katapyknotic apparatus (explained in Appendix i,
Notation ')
the Eklysis

is

'

may be

same ratio 11 10. (5) Among the six ancient

Harmoniai of Plato, noted by Aristides, four in the Lydian Tonos and
two in the Hypolydian, the species called by him Lydisti, given in Hypolydian Notation, falls on the degree proper to that Harmonia, and is,
therefore, characterized by the series of ratios obtained through Detenninant
identified with the

This

20.

also in

is

agreement with the

rest of the evidence.

THE 28 DIESES OF THE HARMONISTS ACCORDING TO ARISTOXENUS AND ARISTIDES

QUINTILIANUS

We may now proceed in like manner to introduce certain evidence in

support of the claim that Hypate Hypaton, Tonic of the Mixolydian Harmonia and species, must bear the value conferred by Determinant 28.
As an amplification of the evidence, derived as a whole from the Polemics
of Aristoxenus against the Harmonists, the following

support of our contention.

op.

Plut. de

Mus.

Op.

M.

cit.,

cit.,

p. 52.

(ed.

(28)

Aristoxenus states

may be

selected in

2
:

Weil and Reinach), pp. 78-9, and supra.

Macr., pp. 119 and 1S5 and notes, p. 252. See also Monro.

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMONIA

213

In inquiring into continuity we must avoid the example set by the Harmonists
condensed diagrams (ir rat; twv diayqafjifidrwv xarajivxvojasaiv) where
they mark, as consecutive notes, those that are separated from one another by the
smallest interval.
For so far is the voice from being able to produce a8 consecutive dieses, that it can by no effort produce three dieses in succession, &c.
in their

What was the

and how is it

nature of this diagram used in the schools of the Harmonists,

that Aristoxenus, who prides himself so constantly upon the

own methods of exposition, should be so singularly

and vague in his condemnatory references to the teaching of his
and predecessors ? After all, a diagram is a definite thing, even
when faulty, and had Aristoxenus recorded what the Harmonists claimed
to illustrate by their diagrams, we should not be reduced to hypotheses,
all of which, however, afford satisfactory explanations.
Examples of these
will now be submitted
(1) The sequence of 28 consecutive dieses to which Aristoxenus takes
exception may have been the result of a Katapyknosis by Determinant 28
in which case there would be 28 intervals, not all dieses, and yielding
Or alternatively, and more
14 notes to the octave, a chromatic division.
probably, of an Enharmonic Katapyknosis by 56 giving 28 notes to the
octave, such as was required (e.g. in the Lydian and Hypolydian Tonoi)

thoroughness of his
indefinite
rivals

in order to provide the requisite differentiations for the three genera in

This division is the one demanded by the structure of the

which begins on Hypate Hypaton in the Mixolydian

the P.I.S.

Tonos

in the P.I.S.,

Species with 28, of which tetrachord the formula ascribed to Archytas

a statement.
places

Mese on

is

division by Determinant 28 or 14 is the only one which

the 7th degree above the Tonic as in the P.I.S. during

the second stage of development,

when

the scale was considered by the

Theorists to begin on Hypate Hypaton.

When

Nicomachus, 1 relying for

his

information on Pythagoras and

Plato, asserts that the Egyptians ascribed 28

The Twenty-eight sounding Universe

sounds to the universe, calling

the allusion may be to the

Mixolydian Harmonia.
(2) A second diagram, which would have been indispensable to the
Harmonists and may well have been one of those to which Aristoxenus
refers, consists of a table representing the two dieses of each Pyknon for
each of the seven ancient Harmoniai, four for each Mode, in which case
the diagram would serve to demonstrate to students all the possible different
it

'

',

magnitudes of a modal
(3)

Or

diesis (see Fig. 44).

again, the 28 dieses in such a table

might be used to

illustrate

names of the Ancient

diagram, during the pure-key period, the magnitudes of the dieses should be the same for all the Tonoi, but the intervals
would be at a different pitch indicated by the groups of alphabetical symbols

the Pykna of the seven Tonoi bearing the tribal

Harmoniai, and in

this

used in Notation. A monochord would enable the Harmonists to translate

each example immediately into its practical sound-equivalent. This, of
1

Nicom., Excerpta, p. 278, Jan.

THE GREEK AULOS

214

course, also provides the best

value of the

Modal System

means

of realizing the scope and melodic

of the Ancients.

Such a diagram does actually appear among the musical documents

compiled by Aristides Quintilianus (p. 15M.). This diagram purports to
give the 24 dieses of an octave of the Harmonia of the Ancients
but
this is mere guesswork on the part of Aristides, or rather Meibomius, who
has misunderstood the symbols and their meaning.
;

Fig. 44.

The

Twenty-eight Dieses of the Harmonists

to Position *

Nomenclature according

MESON
The Harmoniai with
their modal Determinants Enharmonic
and Chromatic

&

DIEZEUG.

Mixolydian Harmonia
56 or 28

56 55 54
28 27 26

44

4 39 38

28

23

20 19 18

14

Lydian Harmonia
52 or 26

52 51 5
26 25 24

40
20

36 35 34

26

18 17 16

13

Phrygian Harmonia
48 or 24

48 47 46
24 23 22

36

32 31 30

24

18

l6 15

14

12

44 43 42

32

2i

22

22 21 20

2*

27 26
27 26

the dieses

Enharmonic
Chromatic

Enharmonic
Chromatic
the dieses

Dorian Harmonia
44 or 22

13

Hypolydian Harmonia
40 or 20

10

the dieses

14

28) 26 25 24

20

3i
14) 26 25 24

20

19 20

18

36 35 34

26

24 23 22

Enharmonic
Chromatic
the dieses

20 19 18

15

Hypophrygian Har-

22

l6

15

40 39 38

17

Enharmonic
Chromatic

Enharmonic
Chromatic
the dieses

if

Enharmonic-Chromatic

monia
36

21 22

Hypodorian Harmonia
32

32 31 30

24

22 21 20

25 26

Suggestion.

(Two

dieses in each

Harmoniai.)

the dieses

23 24

27 28

Pyknurn
Total

16

Enharmonic-Chromatic
the dieses

four in each Octavefor the sever

Twenty-eight

* This table is expressed in the Nomenclature according to position of the strings on tl

Kithara, for here Mese is purely one of position, the 4th note of the Meson tetrachord
ir
the Dorian Harmonia the two nomenclatures are unified.
The real Mese occurs as 32 or if
on the proper degree of the scale in each Harmonia if not omitted to form the skips characterizing the Enharmonic and Chromatic Genera
e.g., in the Mixolydian, Hypolydian
;

Hypophrygian.

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMONIA

As Meibomius

states

them, the pairs of

Hypaton Pyknon

letters actually represent

27

215
the

^f] for each of eleven of

26J
the Tonoi taken in order of pitch from the Hypodorian upwards, therefore,
a total zi, not 24, to the octave.
Had Meibomius faithfully reproduced
intervals of the

the diagram as

the

it

of ratios

stood in the codices he collated for his edition of Aristides,

document would form a very valuable piece of evidence indeed. UnforMeibomius explains in his Preface and in the notes

tunately, however,
(pp. 224-5) tnat

ne nas entirely reconstituted the diagram

the clear and lucid words of the author

'

according to

for in all the manuscripts the

Independent research by the present writer
establishes the fact that some such diagram must indeed have been given
in the original -manuscript of Aristides, but not in the form represented
by Meibomius, for the diagram (in thirteen manuscripts examined) consists

letter

',

symbols were corrupt.

entirely of the letters of the Instrumental Notation, so that each pair repre-

two separate notes forming the interval of a diesis, whereas in Meibomius each pair consists of two different signs for the same note, and it
takes two consecutive pairs to form one diesis.
Moreover, at least 25 of
the letters he prints cannot be traced at all in any of the manuscripts.
Therefore, the diagram as given by Meibomius has no value as evidence.

sents

The

identification of the pairs of notes in Instrumental Notation actually

given in the manuscripts examined, indicate that the diagram was intended

an example of the characteristic first diesis in each of the tetrachords,

when the pairs of symbols are referred to different Tonoi, in which they
as

bear their individual

To

ratios.

return to our discussion

this reference to the

one might

easily

be tempted to see in

28 dieses of the Harmonists merely an allusion to

the 28 notes required for the P.I.S. in the 3 genera, as minutely described
by several of the Theorists. 1
This, however, could not be regarded as a satisfactory solution of the

meaning of the diagram of the Harmonists, for these presented tables of

28 dieses, i.e. intervals, not notes, and 28 notes only produce 27 dieses
Aristoxenus clearly meant intervals, equal to quarter-tones, or thirds of
tones, for he speaks of the Pyknon in this passage (Macr., pp. 185 and 204)
;

Moreover, the 28 notes of the P.I.S.

enumerated above are required for a double octave system in the 3 genera
and do not all produce dieses nor are they used consecutively. Such a
scheme would only produce 14 notes to the octave. The Katapyknotic
diagrams, on the other hand, are such as might have been used by Lasos
of Hermione, by Damon the Athenian, or by Epigonus of Ambracia to
in question as consisting of 2 dieses.

illustrate their lectures in the schools of the

Harmonists.

As bearing upon the significance of Determinant 28 in the Modal

System, reference may be made to certain inferences to be drawn from the
1

Nicom., Lib.

ii,

Of

new

10, 85c.

the

Eingeleitet, ubersetzt

pp. 38-40

translation

und

Beriin-Schoneberg, 1937)

Harm., pp. 5, 6 Arist. Quint., pp. 9,

Aristeides Quintilianus ', Von der Musik,

Eucl., Intr.
:

erlautert

of

'

von Rudolf Schafke, pp.

xii,

cannot speak, not having yet received

366 (M. Hesse

my

copy.


THE GREEK AULOS

2l6

statements of Plutarch concerning the Mixolydian

Harmonia and

Species,

which, as claimed in this work, result from a division by the constant

Determinant 28.

An

instance of this division has survived in the

Canon

of Florence, as seen earlier in this chapter.

From

Plutarch's various references

the following facts are elicited

In Plutarch's day the Mixolydian Species extended from Hypate Hypaton

Paramese
the invention of the Mode was attributed by Aristoxenus
to Sappho, through whom it was introduced into Tragedy
in adopting
this Mode, the Tragic Poets associated the Mixolydian with the Dorian
to

Modal

Species

that

is

how

Aristoxenus (apud Plutarch) records his dis-

covery that the extended Dorian Harmonia was linked up through conjuncand that the combined Ethos of these
two Modes was of the essence of Tragedy. Then the theorist Lamprokles,
the Athenian, stepped in and discovered that the Mixolydian disjunction
had been displaced by its association with the Dorian Harmonia, and was
found at the acute end of the scale, i.e. between Mese and Paramese. This
passage becomes at once intelligible if we remember that the modal octave
consisted of two tetrachords kept distinct through disjunction
it was not
a case of the mixing of tetrachords, as some have thought, but that the
Hermosmejion itself, through its inevitable succession, brought this about as
a first cause, the recognition of the two identities following later (see
tion with the Mixolydian Harmonia,

Fig- 45)-

But the difficulty troubling Lamprokles was this very fact, that in
Harmonia and species the position of the disjunction was a different one,
and this, of course, in the species, carried with it the definition of the position
of Mese on the 7th degree of the scale from Hypate Hypaton.
The interesting point raised by Plutarch's record is what caused Lamprokles to become
aware of the distinction, for a somewhat new factor is hereby introduced as
may be seen from Fig. 45 below. A practical musician must judge this
matter, either from a variation in pitch, or in rhythm, or in both
had it
been a matter of pitch, it would have merely been a question of a different
Tonos. As theorists we are able to express by the help of both nomenclatures, used simultaneously, what would prove a simple matter to the Kitharistes, for we may see from the diagrams that all that is required in playing
is a change of rhythm.
It is only in the Dorian Harmonia that the Tone of
Disjunction follows Mese
in all the other Harmoniai the Disjunction
not by any means always consisting of a Tone was invariably found
between the two modal tetrachords. The failure of Aristoxenus to recognize
the nature of the Harmonia prevented his grasping the significance of the
fact, that whereas the Onomasia Kata Thesin represented the Modal Species
enthralled by the Dorian Harmonia, which thereby imposed its own peculiar
structural features and rhythm upon the other Modes, the Onomasia Kata
Dynamin represented the emancipation from bondage and the restoration
of the pure modal freedom.
This could not be effected while every tetrachord remained Dorian in form, i.e. S.T.T., and while one species of
It will now be realized that what Ptolemy
tetrachord alone was in use.
:

de Mus., C.16

and E, pp. 62-7 (Weil and Reinach).

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMONIA

217

was striving to expound was the double nature of the species within the
P.I.S. 1

Fig. 45.

The

Mixolydian Harmonia

HYPATON

as

Tonal and Modal

Species.

MESON

Onomasia
Kata Dynamin

Tonal Species

Paramese

with the rhythm of

Tonos, differ-

Mese
Parh.

Lich.

Hyp.

26

28

24

22

MESON

Onomasia
Kata Thesin

Lich.

Parh.

the

Hyp.

20

18

14

entiated by pitch in

each Tonos

DIEZEUGMENON
'

Modal Species

<u

is

_l

^
2

cl,

p*

E-<

Pi

28

26

24

22

20

18

b~6|

>>

&

with the rhythm of

the

Harmonia

14
I

the tonal species, differentiated in pitch through the Tonos and

following the monotonous rhythm of the Tonos or Dorian Harmonia (Kata
Thesin), but with the sequence of intervals belonging to the Mode.
(b) the modal species, free of all shackles, following its own rhythm
as a Mode, and merely making use of the P.I.S. Notation (Kata Dynamin).
(a)

The Modal

Species might be further emphasized as to pitch, by being

taken within the

(O

Homonym Tonos

between the

limits of the octave of

to T).

These two kinds of species might be identical in pitch, being expressed

by the same ratios, but the essential differences were of rhythm and of
Ethos and were melodic.
The Kata Thesin nomenclature always represents the Kithara strings
occurring in the same order for every Harmonia and lying between Hypate
Meson and Nete Diezeugmenon.
The Kata Dynamin nomenclature was the tuning of the strings which
revealed the true Harmonia in use by the position of its tuned Mese in
relation to the conventional position of that keynote as a string of the

Kithara, or as a degree of the scale.

The Mixolydian Harmonia, as its name implies, included a Lydian

element, and that, of course, is patent from the ratios 10, 9, 8, 7, of the
upper tetrachord, which is Hypolydian. That fact recalls the next lines of
Plutarch's quotation stating that the Epaneimene Lydisti is the opposite of
the Mixolydisti but similar to the Iasti.
1

Cf. Macran's exposition of the Mixolydian

clature (op.

the table.

cit.,

p. 63).

Macran shows only

the

Mode with the double nomenrhythm of the Tonos throughout


THE GREEK AULOS

2l8

BRIEF RECAPITULATION

The main points in the chain of evidence proving the existence of the
Modal System, which have been provided by this long chapter, may, in
The

conclusion, be very briefly recapitulated.

Harmonia must be referred is affirmed by

measure by a [determinant] number.
Fig. 46.

basic principle to

which the

Aristotle to be that of equal

The Mixolydian

as the opposite of the Hypolydian (Plut., de Mm., Cap. 16,

157 ed. Weil and Reinach, to be compared with Figs. 43 and 45)

Modal

Interpretation.

Mixolydian Harmonia.

Determinant

BCDEFGAB
Ratios 14 or 28

36

24

22

20

18

16

on

string

14

28,

L
Hypolydian Harmonia, Determinant 20
on F string

F G

20

16

18

B
14
J

i_
:

12

11

10

C
13

The tetrachord 20, 18, 16, 14 is common to both Harmoniai in the Mixolydian Harmonia
the upper tetrachord ; in the Hypolydian Harmonia, the ratios are those of the lower
tetrachord.
The first tetrachord of the Mixolydian Harmonia, moreover, 28, 26, 24, 22 (or
14, 13, 12, 11) is present as conjunct tetrachord in the Hypolydian Harmonia.
The Mixolydian Harmonia may, therefore, very properly be said to be the opposite of
the Hypolydian.
;

it is

The Mixolydian

tetrachord 14, 13, 12, 11

is

yoked to the Dorian by conjunction.

All the important features

which have developed out of the operation

modal principle have been found supported by

and implications of this

quotations from the Theorists

for instance, the

Modal Tonic, common

all seven Harmoniai

its power as differentiated unit,
becoming a starting-point of characteristic proportional value for each
of the modal sequences in turn a new idea in our Western musical system
is clearly described by Aristides Quintilianus (p. 18 M., lines
7 sqq.).
The inherent causative or formative power of Mese as Arche, which is
so obvious in the genesis of the Harmonia, clears up all the difficulties
raised in the Ps-Aristotelian Problems on that score.
The modal ratios of the P.I.S., clearly emphasized as Modal Species,
are shown to form the aggregate from which Ptolemy has derived the tetrachordal formulae of the principal shades of the Genera, ascribed by him to

in respect of pitch to

of

various ancient musicians (see Fig. 40).

P.I.S.,

The

octaval structure of the

unrecognized by him as modal, he regards as composed of

tetrachords.

'

mixed

'

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE HARMONIA

Of

these modal ratios of the P.I.S., the supremely significant

Tonos

219

first

step

modal period (from Hypate to Parhypate Meson)

is accurately described by Aristides Quintilianus (p. 123) as bearing ratio
11
10.
Thus the identification of this ratio, as the first in the Dorian
Harmonia and in the Tonos, is fully justified eleven, moreover, is the only
Modal Determinant that places Mese, as an octave of Arche, upon the 4th
degree above Hypate Meson. The establishment of this important interval
carries with it the identification of the Spondeiasmos and Eklysis, as ascending and descending intervals of 3 dieses,
used by the Ancients for the
characterization of their Harmoniai
as of ratio 11
10.
Bacchius, who
defines the Eklysis and Ekbole in symbols of Notation, is found to add his
confirmation of the modal valuation respectively 11:10 and 8 7 when
the modal basis of Notation provides the clue.
The various allusions to the number 28 as significant in the P.I.S., by
Nicomachus, Aristoxenus and others, are found to have an obvious explanation in the Modal System, and are supported in their various implications
as actualities in ancient Greek music by the division of the Canon of Florence
into 28 equal parts starting from Proslambanomenos
Finally, the six ancient Harmoniai of Plato, given by Aristides in Vocal
and Instrumental Notation (p. 22 M.), are found to be on the whole in
agreement with the Modal System described in this work, which also
furnishes a modal explanation of the diagram given by Aristides (p. 15) of
the 24 dieses of the Harmonia of the Ancients, when the version of the
manuscripts is adopted instead of the discredited restitution provided by
Meibomius.

in the

of the pure

'

'.

'

'

'

CHAPTER

VI

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE WITH EQUIDISTANT

FINGERHOLES EMBODYING THE HARMONIA
The Harmonia

installed on Aulos and Flute.

The Significance of Diameter in the
Acoustics of the Modal Flute. The Aulos alone gave birth to the Harmonia. The
Harmonia on the Flute. Formula No. i (v.f. from Length). Formula No. 2
(Length from v.f.). Formula No. 3 (to find the Position of Hole 1). The Significance of the Increment of Distance (I.D.).
The Four Aspects of the Increment
Nine Aspects of Allowance in respect of Diameter in Modal Flutes.
of Distance.

The

Modal Flutes. The Three Experimental Sensa Flutes.

Modal Sequence of the Hypophrygian Harmonia on Flute Sensa C

The

Classification of

'

'

THE HARMONIA INSTALLED ON AULOS AND FLUTE

investigation of the genesis of the Harmonia [aQuoviu) upon the
Aulos, or of the rise and development of Modality in Ancient
Greece, can be deemed satisfactory or adequate that fails to

N'O

same time, a collateral study of the modal flute. It will,

be conceded as an indispensable premise that a comparison of

provide, at the
therefore,

the properties, characteristics and implications of these two types of wind

instruments should be immediately available, so that a considered judgeof the value of each of these, as embodiment of the

ment may be formed

Harmonia. Aulos has hitherto been used somewhat indiscriminately as a

generic term 1 for a wind instrument and has usually been rendered flute ',
sometimes clarinet or oboe '. It is preferable to translate Aulos by
reed-blown pipe ', bearing in mind that the same pipe may be played
by means of (a) the double-reed mouthpiece, as primitive oboe
or (b)
by means of the beating- or single-reed mouthpiece, as primitive clarinet.
In each case the musical result has definite characteristics.
Although the Harmonia may be installed on both Aulos and flute, it
can be claimed to have come to birth only on the Aulos when played by
a double-reed mouthpiece, for reasons already explicitly given in Chapters
ii and iii.
These are very cogent reasons, and it will be clearly shown besides,
in this section, why it is that the Harmonia could not have originated on
the flute, whether vertically or transversely blown, or through a Apple or
'

'

'

'

'

1
Liddell and Scott, Greek-Engl. Lexicon, 8th ed., 1901, s.v. Aulos
any wind
instrument, usually rendered flute, though it was more like a clarinet or oboe, for
it was played by a mouthpiece {yXcaaaiq) ', Aeschin., 86, 29 ; the first mention of
them in Iliad, 10, 13 18, 495 Pind., O., 5, 45 AvSioq. Liddell and Scott, ed. by
Sir Henry Stuart-Jones (9th ed.), Av?.6g,6, pipe, flute, clarinet
II., 10, 13
18,
'

495, h. Merc. 452

AvStog, Pind., O., 5,

220

19....

THE HARMONIA ON THE MODAL FLUTE

There

recorder mouthpiece.

no

is

221

historical or archaeological evidence to

be adduced for this disqualification of the

flute

it is

simply due to certain

and acoustic principles, and to the manner in which

produced on the instrument.

structural features

the

sound

is

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DIAMETER IN THE ACOUSTICS OF THE CYLINDRICAL

MODAL FLUTE
diameter which accounts

It is the factor of

the flute as a natural generator of the

of diameter,

as

applied to the

for this disqualification of

Harmonia
will

flute,

and

as the implications

probably not be immediately

apparent to those unversed in the technicalities of the instrument, this

important feature must be considered in some detail. Diameter in this
context refers either to (a) the width of the bore measured across the inner
or to (b) the width of the circular or oval
embouchure (mouthhole)
or to (c) the width of the fingerholes accurately
measured by means of fine calipers. In relation to the flute, it will only
be necessary to consider the significance of diameter as a lengthening factor,

walls of the flute at the exit end

The

without entering into the acoustic principles involved. 1

cations of diameter at exit (A), at

embouchure

and

{d)

three impli-

at fingerholes

(<5)

are of great importance in the determination of the pitch of the notes

produced on the flute they are taken into account in most of the formulae
The diameter of the bore at exit is a simple
to be used in this section.
factor
at the embouchure, if the width is less than that of the bore, the
difference must be considered as an additional item of length and be added
to that of the bore
and the diameter of the fingerholes is treated in the
same way. Thus the narrowing of the aperture through which air in
vibration makes its exit has a lengthening effect on the sound-wave, equal
to the difference between the diameter of the bore and that of the fingerhole.
;

Hence the somewhat paradoxical

reducing the diameter of a hole

This principle is often used on modal

fact that

lowers the note and vice versa.

flutes in order to allow of a smaller hole

being placed nearer the embouchure

than is imposed by the increment of distance

the device was frequently
used by the ancient Aulos- and flute-makers (see Chap. ii). The smaller
;

the fingerhole the greater the addition to the length of the sound-wave

and

to the allowance

when making

which has to be made

modal flute.

in

of diameter

respect

or investigating a

This allowance for diameter

is

inherent in the flute

itself

it

is

only

by the flute-maker's selection of the calibre of the

judgement in making the embouchure and fingerholes

indirectly regulated

tube, and

by

his

of any fancied diameter.

The

allowance

length of sound-wave, from which

it

is

may

always included in the effective

in calculations

be eliminated as

the remainder, after subtracting from the effective wave length the actual

measurable length of the

1

flute at

For the acoustics of the

Rockstro,

flute,

any given point.

the following

The

effective or

work may be consulted

Treatise on the Construction, the History

and

sound:

R. S.

the Practice of the Flute,

including a Sketch of the elements of Acoustics (London, Rudall Carte

edition, 1928.

&

Co.), revised

THE GREEK AULOS

222

(a) the actual

wave length thus embraces two other significant lengths
measure of the flute, from the embouchure to the exit, or to the centre
of a fingerhole, and (b) the allowance for diameter, 1 or extent of the latter 's
:

sphere of influence.

The allowance for diameter

when the position of the first
in this very weighty

and

forces itself

upon the

notice of the craftsman

hole has to be correctly determined.

It is

significant aspect that the allowance for diameter

makes its first appearance it passes from an ethereal and abstract existence
to emerge as a concrete and visible factor in the structure of the modal
flute.
It is evident, therefore, that however technical and complicated the
whole subject may appear to the casual reader, a practical acquaintance
with diameter, and a firm grasp of all its implications in the modal flute,
are indispensable to the serious student and investigator more especially
as it is impossible to obtain assistance of this nature from existing text-books
on the acoustics of the modern flute.
We are still on the outer fringe of the subject, the intricacy of which
will gradually unfold, until we shall be left wondering how primitive
;

musicians have contrived to deal successfully with the invisible factors

upon which pure modal sequences depend.

THE AULOS ALONE GAVE BIRTH TO THE HARMONIA

The crux

of our thesis
that the Aulos alone gave birth to the Harmoniai
now be revealed in one simple statement, viz. for the
reed-blown pipe, diameter has no significance whatever as a lengthening
factor or as a determinant of pitch.
The Aulos was entirely free from
that incubus and from the many problems it brings in its train.
:

in their integrity, can

As

for the flute, the innate feeling for proportion

tive races, to

which they react

common

to

all

primi-

in their decorative arts, as well as in those

that appeal to the ear, guides the primitive musician in boring the fingerholes.

This feeling

is testified

spacing found in flutes of

who have

all

by the almost invariable rule of equidistant

all lands.
But investigators,

kinds and in

noticed this feature in flutes and pipes ancient and modern,

have missed the significance of the one element which lies at the root of
modality i.e. the Modal Determinant and they have failed to see that
equal-spacing does not by itself solve the problem of the scale produced.
For this equal-spacing is not merely prompted by a desire to please the
the flute is made for use, and the practical musician sees to it that
eye
the holes are placed where he can conveniently cover or uncover them.
He therefore marks the centres of the holes by the lay of the fingers on
the flute.
But it is evident, from an investigation of the specimens, that
the primitive musician also feels the necessity of satisfying his feelings of
and this he brings about
relationship between the parts and the whole

The term

allowance for diameter (All.) has deliberately been used throughEnd-correction ', which sounds slightly
out this work. Other authors prefer
impertinent, since the diameter is a natural feature of the flute and its lengthening
influence a reality.
No note can be produced on the flute without diameter. See
1

'

'

'

Chap,

viii,

Ilornbostel.

THE HARMONIA ON THE MODAL FLUTE

by

223

above the emplacement for the top hole, as far as

embouchure (which he makes first of all), so that the length of the
flute ends by being a multiple of the increment of distance
he thus helps
to bring about modality by setting up a Modal Determinant.
Some investigators having accounted for equal-spacing on flutes as a
shifting his fingers

the

manifestation of a desire for equality, imagine further that the equidistant

or

holes produce equal intervals

approximately equal

with

the implica-

due merely to faulty intonation and may,

To regard intervals produced by
equidistant holes as equal in intention- and the slight discrepancies as
accidental is an error in principle
the cycles of 5ths or 4ths, to which

tion that any slight difference

be

therefore,

considered

is

negligible.

theoretical sequences of equal intervals are usually referred, belong to a

which

genesis

is

essentially

non-modal and impracticable

on a flute.

for

any but highly

sophisticated craftsmen to instal

It is

and

absolutely impossible for equal-spacing of fingerholes

flutes to

produce equal

of equal magnitude.

intervals, 1 or

point at issue

on pipes

even two consecutive intervals

is

not so

much

the extent of the

between any two intervals occurring in sequence, which may

the whole significance, as already stated

difference

amount

The

to a few cents only

above, resides in the principle at stake in the genesis of the Harmonia.

In

its

operation this principle of genesis may, according to the

Modal

produce widely differing intervals which could by

In this
matter the ear is more discerning than the eye, for the auditory musical
phenomena are one and all based upon proportion upon the law of the

Determinant

no

selected,

stretch of imagination be described as approximately equal.

physical basis of sound, and of

receptivity

its

by the

delicate

mechanism
by

of the inner ear, whether apprehended as pitch alone, or accompanied

the sensations of tone quality.

The primitive pipe-maker, plotting the fingerholes upon his flute, is

guided at first, no doubt, by convenience in covering the holes with ease
with his fingers a natural motive which invariably brings about equidistance.

Numerous specimens from

all

the world over reveal the fact that an

instinctive feeling for proportion guides

principle of the unity

and harmony that

him
exist

further to realize the great

between each part and the

whole.

Evidence likewise establishes the

eye

the

in

listener, the

its

appreciation

more

of

fact that the ear

proportion, for

the

does not lag behind

more primitive the

violently he reacts against false proportions in musical

sounds.

The

effect of perfect

beauty and satisfaction produced by a scale of

must be experienced before it

intervals in successive proportional ratios

can be realized.

Such

is,

for instance, the following octave, consisting of

seven intervals, rising in delicately increasing proportions, from the major

semitone to the major tone, as octave of the fundamental. The sequence
is

the result of the aliquot division of a string or pipe by

1

The

Chap.

subject of scales of so-called equal intervals

viii.

comes up

Modal Deterfor discussion in

THE GREEK AULOS

224

minant

belonging to the Hypodorian Harmonia

16,

viz.

from grave

to

acute.

112

Cents

16

Ratios

lig

128
14
_Z

15
_2
14

15

13

138
13
^>
12

182

163

151
13

11
_

11

10

204

98
98

10
_

an Aulos having as Modal Determinant 11 a universal

favourite seemingly may confidently be provided with fingerholes distant
from one another by exactly yT of the total length of pipe + mouthpiece.
It will be seen further on that this statement only applies with reservations

Thus,

for instance,

to the flute.

On the flute, however, the modal sequence will indeed under certain
by interval, true to the operation of the Harmonic law of proportion which is stimulated into activity by the slight
hollows on the inner surface of the flute. These hollows are formed by
conditions follow, interval

the fingers covering the holes, but not to the point of internal obturation

nodes are thus created

at those points for the aliquot division of the

column

of air. 1
It is easy to see that a Modal System was bound to develop in due
as, for instance, when the one Harmonia on the Aulos could so easily be made to give place to a second,
by merely pulling out the mouthpiece a little further. These facilities for
rich modal variations on the Aulos are due to the mouthpiece
they are
not obtainable in the same way on the modal flute.

course from these early experiments

THE HARMONIA ON THE FLUTE

On

the modal

and unfavourable

flute,

the conditions are found to be entirely different,

to the birth of the

Harmonia

at the

hands of unsophisticated

musicians.

We
but

we

than

must now

deal with the technicalities connected with the flute

shall restrict ourselves, as

scientific application to the

much
modal

as possible, to their practical rather

flute, as distinct

from

its

modern

non-modal progeny.
The application of diameter, as added length, to any problem connected
with the pitch or with the modal proportions of flutes, is related either to
{A) the actual, visible flute length which, with the addition of diameter
:

allowance,

Or

is

equal to the half-wave length

wave length of any musical

which may be produced on the flute. The

to (B) the effective, invisible complete

note, recognized

by the

ear,

epithet effective, applied to flute length, invariably implies the inclusion

of the allowance

When

made

in respect of diameter.

(A) refers to the half-wave length or

French school, which

is

not audible,

it

'

vibration simple

'

of the

includes the implications of diameter

taken once only.

1
This suggested explanation was already introduced in Chap, iii, in order to
account for the proportional impulse given by a specific Modal Determinant which
the Aulos (see Chap. iii).

may be observed on

THE HARMONIA ON THE MODAL FLUTE

225

an impulse which theoretically travels from

it has no
embouchure to exit, once only, along the bore of the flute
the half-soundseparate existence apart from the complete sound-wave
wave is inaudible and exists only on paper it has, therefore, only a nominal
(B) refers to the effective length,
vibration frequency, double that of (B).
appreciable by the ear, of the complete sound-wave, which has travelled
forth through the tube and has been reflected back to the embouchure.
The extent of the whole sound-wave is, therefore, double that of (^4), and
its vibration frequency consists of half the number of v.p.s., compared with
(A) as a half- wave length

is

that of (A).

With

specimen

flute in front of

him, the investigator can ascertain

the exact vibration frequency of the fundamental note given out at the
or at any of the fingerholes, by using

exit,

Formula No.

1.

FORMULA NO. I
TO FIND THE V.F. FROM THE EFFECTIVE LENGTH
340 metres per second
(A)

x 2

effective length of flute

v.p.s.,

frequency of the complete sound-wave,

(expressed in metres)

34 m./sec.
'543 x 3

34

-1086

1
313 v.p.s. (Sensa Flute A.)
frequency of the fundamental note of the

flute.

This simple formula is based upon the velocity, or rate, at which the
complete sound-wave travels through air (at moderate temperature) until
The operation indicated in the
it impinges in due course upon the ear.
formula implies the fact that the sound-wave, proceeding through air,
advances a distance equal to its own length once in every second. Thus
the velocity rate in air of 340 metres per second, divided by the length
of any given sound-wave (stated in decimal fractions of a metre), will

produce, on reaching the inner receptive mechanism of the

which

of periodical impacts per second

of a musical note

e.g.

measuring -332 (i.e. flute length

produce a vibration frequency of

A,

340

332

The problems
of specimen flutes

is

known

(=

-298

ear,

the

number

as the vibration frequency

to state a hypothetical case

a half-sound-wave

diameter allowance) will

m./sec.
'

effective length (B))

12 V P

with which a student investigating the musical values

is

confronted depend upon

many

contingencies, viz.

The judging

of a specimen available and playable.

Judging a specimen from measurements these, to be of any use,
must be absolutely accurate and expressed preferably in millimetres (e.g.
see the efficient measurements of the Java flute supplied by Mrs. Elizabeth
Ayres Kidd (see Chap, x, Java Flutes ').
(1)
(2)

'

The

formula, thus worked out as an example, actually forms part of the Record
',
Sensa
of Modal Flute
and therefore constitutes evidence of the correctness
The effective wave length -543 is that of Sensa A ', and produces
of the Formula.
a fundamental Efy of 313 v.p.s.
1

'

'

IS

THE GREEK AULOS

226

The

only satisfactory proceeding in this contingency

from the measurements, checking each item.

(3) The construction of a flute, of which only

is

to

make

a facsimile

photograph or drawing
proposition, the results of which
a

made to scale is available, a more difficult

may only be offered with reserve.
(4) The making of experimental flutes in a specified Mode and tonality.
The importance of a thorough understanding of these allowances for
diameter is realized as soon as it becomes necessary to make facsimiles,
or to plot out experimental flutes in order to play in one or other of the

Harmoniai, for which a predetermined fundamental

new formulae will then be required.

Wherever
is

it is

necessary.

is

to ascertain first of all the pitch (vibration frequency) of the

for exit

two

and

for

method of

Hole

1.

The

fundamental

use of a monochord with one, or preferably

with the rule marked as shown in Fig.

strings,

Several

possible, the best course to adopt in all these contingencies

ascertaining the vibration frequency,

1,

provides an easy

and those who do not

and

relish endless calculations will find the tables of reciprocal lengths

vibration frequencies useful. 1

(See Table

FORMULA NO.

To

x 2

v.f.

e.g. for

p. xlvi.)

LENGTH FROM

V.F.

find the effective length of the half-sound-wave

340 m./sec.
;

i,

the same proposition as in No.

313 v.p.s. x 2
then

from the

v.f.

x effective length of the half-sound-wave.

626

above (Flute Sensa A)

v.p.s.

340 m./sec.
626

543 effective length of half-sound-wave

v.p.s.

465 actual length of flute

078 Eff. allowance

N.B.

due to diameter.

note of a given vibration frequency inevitably requires a

half-wave of a fixed, unalterable length.

The variable factors are the actual length of the flute, the calibre of the
bore and diameter of embouchure, all of which must be so accommodated
the one with another that the theoretical allowance for diameter derived
from the pitch agrees with the allowance from
taken twice.
sets to

exit

measured on the

flute,

a foregone conclusion that the primitive flute-maker

It is

work without any knowledge of these formulae.

he achieve his objective ?

A study of the modal

flutes of

many

How,

then, does

lands and ages reveals the fact

In these tables the reciprocals in juxtaposition may be taken to represent

either v.f. or length.
In every case the v.f. is stated in the 8 ft. or 4 ft. octave.
The exact octave, in which the note occurs as reciprocal of a length, depends upon
various contingencies
if this point is of importance and cannot be readily estimated,
then the requisite formula must be worked out.
1

THE HARMONIA ON THE MODAL FLUTE

that, in the majority of cases, the exit

note of the

first

of the flute

the inference

and that the

227

fundamental does not bear to the

hole any recognizable ratio belonging to the modal sequence

that this note

is

was unused

for that reason,

always uncovered, served as vent, and as Tonic

first hole, left

or initial note of the sequence.

In order to preserve the integrity and purity of the modal sequence

from the

exit, it is

from

at a distance

this

is,

For

necessary to discover the correct position for Hole

exit that takes into

1,

account the implications of diameter

of course, the stumbling-block for the unsophisticated craftsman.

formula

this purpose, a special

Formula

factor.

3,

is

required which introduces a

new

compiled by the author, has been found to give correct

results in practice.

In a few remarkable specimens such as the following

the analysis of
the component factors of the aggregate allowance in Formula 3, corresponds
:

to a millimetre

with the actual position of Hole

on the

placed

flute, as

by the primitive flute-maker

e.g. in the Graeco-Roman flute from the
Bucheum at Armant, in Egypt, discovered by Sir Robert Mond during
the excavations conducted under the direction of Mr. Oliver Myers. 1 (See
Report on the Flute, by K. S., reproduced with a few additions in Chap, x,
Record.)
It will be seen from this report that this specimen
unfortunately unique up to the present
embodying the Dorian Spondaic Harmonia from the exit, has the first hole placed at -058 from the exit, in the
exact position demanded by Formula 3, for a flute of the given dimensions
and modality. Whether this truly remarkable correspondence between
theory and practice was due to a technical knowledge far in advance of
ours in the twentieth century, or whether the methods employed were
merely empirical, or again, as some may suggest, due to mere fortunate
coincidence, must remain undetermined for lack of evidence.
The fact,
;

however,

incontrovertible.

is

FORMULA NO.

TO FIND THE POSITION OF HOLE

For the determination of the position of the centre of Hole

f h0Te)
a

The

+
=

(A
x,

d)

(A

<5)

I.D. (one or more)

distance of centre of Hole

from

exit.

modal sequence from exit cannot be preserved

allowance due to diameter is carried out in actual length
between the exit and the centre of Hole i, in addition to

integrity of the

unless the full

upon the

flute

the I.D.

This

fact constitutes concrete evidence of the necessity for taking into

account the lengthening influence of diameter in

all

its

implications,

and

the importance of this evidence should be duly noted for future reference.
1

The Bucheum, by

p. 99,
2

PL

Sir

Robert

Mond

and O. H. Myers, Vol.

1,

1934, pp. 103-4

88, Fig. 3.

The A

halved in Formula 3, and the allowances are taken once because carried
out actually on the flute, the length of which is comprised in the half-wave length.
is

THE GREEK AULOS

228

The

sequel will

show

modal

that in the

flute there is a

double

set of

propositions to be considered, for which different formulae are required

in order to solve

problems connected with

(i)

the vibration frequency of

notes and (2) the proportional laws operative in modality.

It might be imagined that once the fundamental note of the flute had
been correctly diagnosed, and found to be in correspondence with the
sound-wave length and the aggregate allowance
and that in addition, the
;

first hole had been placed at the right distance from exit in
order to produce the second note in the modal sequence, the rest would
be plain sailing. Alas
our belief in the facile operation of aliquot division

centre of the

by

Modal Determinant resulting inevitably

Harmonia suffers a rude shock

the selected

in the

The

modal sequence of
may come

surprise

during the examination of an original specimen

when the various items
of measurement have been duly noted, the modal sequence identified by
:

means

monochord, and rising step by step in accordance with the ratios

Then, when as a final test, the total length of the flute
embouchure is divided by the I.D., it may be that the quotient
falls short by several increments and indicates an entirely different Mode
from the one actually played by the flute
What is the cause of this
surprising fact ?
Such an impasse would be an impossibility with the Aulos,
but it occurs frequently with the flute.
The result of numerous tests and experiments conducted with flutes
reveals the perverse fact on the other hand that those modal flutes in
which the I.D. is an exact divisor of the length of the flute, exhibit an
unaccountable break in the modal sequence, which is not distorted, but
only interrupted by the interpolation of a note intermediate between two
degrees of the modal sequence. Moreover, the point at which the break
of a

of the Harmonia.

from

exit to

occurs varies in the different specimens.

Following on this disturbing occurrence comes the

still

more

agitating

discovery that a flute the length of which may, for instance, contain 13 I.D.,
modal sequence belonging to 16 I.D.,

gives with absolute integrity the

and yet that the fundamentals at exit, and at the first hole are in agreement
in theory and practice with their reciprocal lengths (e.g. in Flute Sensa A).
When assailed by these experiences, felt to be nothing short of disastrous
to the whole foundation of modality
and felt, moreover, to invalidate the
principles so confidently claimed as the basis of the Harmonia (because this
claim has been absolutely vindicated in respect of the Aulos), the investigator
is temporarily plunged into gloom.
But this depression is short-lived
faith in the sound basis of modality, in the logical and infallible operation of
underlying
law,
the
gains the upper hand and a firm determination to get
;

to the root of the trouble brings to light

The important

some

interesting

new

indications.

fact that emerges is that instead of making the aliquot

on the tube of the flute as may be successfully done on the Aulos
the aliquot division must be referred to a multiple length, part of which
is not immediately apparent, for to the actual length must be added the
allowance for diameter at exit, consisting of two items, viz. (1) the diameter
of the bore, measured from the outer circumference of the flute to the

division

THE HARMONIA ON THE MODAL FLUTE

opposite inner edge of the bore, thus including the depth

229

of the walls

on one side. (2) The difference between the diameter of the embouchure
and that of the bore (without depth) added to No. 1. This aggregate
allowance, added to the actual length, is the multiple length of which the
I.D. is an aliquot with the Modal Determinant as multiplier.
The Sensa Flute A will now be used in illustration of the incidence of
the allowance in respect of diameter All.

Chap

the Flute,

x.)

(Extract

from the Record of

......
........
......
......
........
.....
........+

Length of flute emb.

Diameter of bore
Diameter of emb. (d)

to exit

TO FIND THE MULTIPLE LENGTH FOR DIVISION BY THE

(A)

Diameter of bore (A)

A diameter of emb.

Depth of wall

ide)

(d)

I.D.

I.D.

-028

x M.D. 18

note of the flute at exit

E 18
=

=-028)
-033
-013

-003

'039)

-465}

....

Multiple length for aliquot division

i.e.

-oio

04) Allowance on actual length

Length of flute

The fundamental

-465

-023

-504

-504
is

312-8 v.p.s.

256

BY formula
of that

To

2.

find the effective length of the half-sound-wave

v.f.

340 m./sec.
312-8 v.p.s.

X 2

-1543

effective length of half-sound-wave.

543 effective length of half-sound-wave.

-465 actual length of flute

078 allowance on effective length

078/2

on

-039 allowance

actual length of flute.

Thus, in proceeding by calculation from the effective length derived

from the vibration frequency, instead of from the actual length plus
allowance, the allowance is double that of the actual, as seen above.
(B) by

formula no.

Diameter/21

3 in operation, the position of

(5

(-023
(-023

1 is

thus determined.

.......
.......
.

A d
A

Hole

023\

-oio)
-009)

2 (I.D.)

Space allowed between

-0115
-013

-014

056
exit

and centre of Hole

-0945

1
It is not yet definitely proven that depth of walls needs to be taken into account
in all computations of pitch, except at the embouchure and at the fingerholes.
In
item No. 1, it has been taken at exit instead of at embouchure, being more easily

measured

there.

THE GREEK AULOS

230

The
its

half diameter only

is

taken on the flute from exit to Hole

effect

on the sound-wave

0945

and Hole

-056

is

i,

because

doubled.

-0385 allowance transferred to actual flute between exit

1.

be noticed that in the Sensa A the allowances under (A) and

correspond
the half diameter taken in (B) compensated by the
additional allowance for the diameter of the fingerhole, and by the
It will

(B)

omission of allowance for depth, balances the

whole diameter

depth

taken in (A).

The

not likely to discover by himself this remote process for the determination of modality, and consequently, after a
few unsatisfactory trials, he probably discards the exit note or starts his
scale

primitive flute-maker

is

1, used as vent, and always left uncovered.

probably be granted that the process, by which these results

from Hole

It will

are obtained, effectively rules out the possibility that a primitive flute-maker

could bring the Harmonia to birth unaided. This could only be accomplished as a deliberate reproduction of the Aulos Harmonia by empirical
means. It may be suggested that the primitive craftsman may have set
about his objective in the following way
:

He selects a suitable length of reed or bamboo, and pierces a passage

through the natural knots, the even width of which he tests by the insertion
of a rod.
A mouth-hole of convenient size is then bored at one end, at a
short distance from a natural knot, left for the purpose.
a stopper

is

made by pouring

in heated

wax

Or

alternatively

or resin, in order to

fill

up

the space within the head, to a predetermined distance from the centre
of the embouchure, sufficient to preserve the purity of the harmonic register.

Next, as a skilled craftsman, the flute-maker would tentatively place what

destined to be the first hole at a fair distance from the end of the tube,

is

so that the distance

when

may be

shortened between exit and

first

hole as desir-

Then comes the crux

which are to sing for him the song of his
desire.
Carefully and lovingly he fingers the flute, and when six of the
holes are plotted in position, conveniently placed which will almost
invariably be found at equal or approximately equal distances
he measures
with his eye the remaining distance to the mouth-hole, and with his almost
unerring instinct for proportion, sees to it that it is commensurate
may
able,

the rest of the holes have been plotted.

of the whole creation, the holes

be trying the space first with the laying-on of fingers.

Satisfied at length,
he marks the centre of each hole to be pierced and rounds each smoothly
by boring or burning. Testing his instrument, he whittles down the
bamboo until the fundamental is to his liking, or gives the familiar note
to follow the song below the first hole.
If our flute-maker is but a budding craftsman, as yet inexperienced
in making a flute that. will speak in a language familiar to him, he will
probably begin by spacing his fingers from the exit upwards until he finds
that something has gone wrong, as in flutes Nos. 8 and 8B, from Northwest India. Then he tries again and again until he gets the right distance.
Thus the flute comes into being without calculation, and it is left to the

THE HARMONIA ON THE MODAL FLUTE

sequence on a flute

By

upon which the embodiment

discover the laws

theorist to

is

231

of a

modal

based.

and logical progression of ratios proper to

imposed by the characteristic Modal Determinant,
LD. between the centres of fingerholes, it
is possible to trace the workings of the effective length of the sound-wave,
which includes the allowance due to diameter.
Step by step the Harmonia progresses not merely on paper through
the scale embodied in the fingerholes of flutes.
From these results (given
in full in the Flute Records), a new light is shed upon the behaviour of
the air-column within the flute, as soon as the initial vibratory impulse
has been given through the mouthpiece
these point to certain helpful
deductions concerning the harmonic register of flutes. By means of the
mathematical apparatus supplied by the unique basis of the Harmonia,
virtue of the invariable

each Mode, which

is

operating in concert with the

experts

may now

by

check, step

step, the operation of certain empirical

and calculations upon which they have to rely faute de mieux, in plotscheme for the boring of fingerholes, when it is desired to introduce
some improvement or new device for the modern flute.

rules

ting the

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE INCREMENT OF DISTANCE

There

one factor in the production of a modal

is

yet received due consideration,

to centre of the fingerholes,

and that

known

which, by the primitive flute-maker,

is

a chance that the increment

as the
is

flute

the equidistance

is

Increment of Distance (I.D.)

chosen haphazard.

may be an

(i.D.)

which has not

from centre

left

And

aliquot of the length

Harmonia

yet, there

from

exit,

be true to the Modal

Determinant, but the sequence will be interrupted, because no provision
has been made for the lengthening due to diameter
in fact, an erroneous
impression may have been given that the factor was a matter of fortuitous
allocation, of mere convenience for the spread of the fingers in covering
the holes
yet this I.D. is the most noticeable indication of the modality
of a flute, and its importance must now be stressed.
or

from vent

in

which

case, the

will

THE FOUR ASPECTS OF THE INCREMENT OF DISTANCE

It has been found that there are four important aspects of the I.D. to
be recognized, for they form part of the inner workings of modality.
i.d. no. 1.
The actual increment of distance, as seen on the flute
itself, measurable and chosen without premeditation, therefore, may, or
may not, be an exact aliquot of the whole length, although it represents

equidistance.

The

proportional I.D.

which

aliquot of the length

from embouchure

to exit.

i.d.

maker,

no.

it

2.

may have come

is

regular,

To

and an exact

the primitive flute-

naturally, after realizing the implications of the

attempts with the lay of the fingers on the flute, to allow a definite
of these increments, even where no fingerholes were required.
This obvious actual I.D., reckoned from embouchure to exit, however,
brings about almost invariably an interruption in the modal sequence (as

first

number

THE GREEK AULOS

232

the Sensa B and C flutes, in Nos. 8 and 8B,

No. i, where the length from exit is a multiple of
and the Modal Determinant. When the I.D. has been taken from
(used as vent) which implies the rejection of the exit note, then

foreshadowed above),

and

e.g. in

in the Bali flute

the I.D.

Hole

the sequence frequently proceeds without interruption,

Soeling No. 6 and the Japanese Flute No. 13.

In a second contingency, somewhat rare in primitive

happens that the

as

in

flutes,

the Java

when

it

hole has been placed at a distance from exit which

first

includes a sufficient allowance for diameter sometimes equal to one or

more

I.D.

then

Harmonia is produced from exit and vent in

No. 5, in which the increments are exact
and two of these have been allowed between

also the

integrity, e.g. in the Java Soeling

to a millimetre throughout,
exit

The

and vent, but without extra allowance.

result is that the

proceeds from exit uninterrupted from ratio 11 to ratio 10

sequence

at vent,

i.e.

one I.D. only

the second increment serves as allowance, and the note
of the vent, although too near embouchure by -007 according to Formula
;

No.

3,

is

forced into tune by the proportional impulse, favoured by the

exact boring of holes at equidistance.

noteworthy fact that this flute, so exact in measurements, displays

agreement in the position of Hole 1 at -0447 with the allowance for vent
calculated independently of exit at -045, and with the allowance on the
sound-wave length, by elimination of actual length of flute, at -0438, a
It is a

triple confirmation of the operation of formulae.

Flute Java 6
Soeling
is also a model of exactitude, giving the
same scale as Java 5, but from vent. The allowances from the soundwave length on the note of Hole 1 and the allowance calculated by Formula
No. 2, correspond at -0515 and -051 respectively, while by Formula No. 3
the position of the vent with one I.D. only differs by 3 mm. at -0485.
These two flutes are a notable achievement of the musicianly Javanese.
i.d. no. 3.
The third aspect of the I.D. proceeds directly from the
effective wave length, and belongs to the realm of the theorist.
Unsus'

'

pected,

unrecognized,

it *is

nevertheless always

unobtrusively operative wherever a note

effective

This I.D. No.

is elicited,

wave length

_
I

MTb-

present

in

every

flute,

as

_ _

D.No.

comprises the actual I.D. No.

1,

with the addition

found by apportioning the

between exit and Hole 1,
among the number of increments denoted by the Modal Determinant.
In fact, I.D. No. 3 inevitably dominates the situation, exacting its due,
and acting as a compensating factor in irregularities or shortcomings in
the boring of holes.
It will probably be realized later that it acts like
the gnomon in the scales, balancing the negative and positive excesses,
where perfect intonation is achieved.
This I.D. No. 3 represents the effective sound-wave length, which has
to be accounted for somehow in the subtle internal affairs of the modal
of the incremental allowance

allowance from

exit,

due

carried out

to diameter,

on the

flute

THE HARMONIA ON THE MODAL FLUTE

The remainder

flute.

after the

actual I.D.

No.

(on paper) must be halved in order to realize

the actual flute measurements.
i.d.

No.

3,

fore,

no.

4.

its

233

has been eliminated

compensating

effect

on

When the incremental allowance has been subtracted from

then I.D. No. 4 emerges as the ideal increment (which may, therefrom the actual). This ideal I.D. No. 4 is, however, alone

differ

capable of producing the modal sequence under perfect conditions in

unbroken sequence and in

For this no credit can be
I.D. No. 4 (= -028) was
convenience, and not to
increment for this
in

Sensa A, made in 1917.

claimed, since at that date the adoption of its

correct intonation, as

a matter probably equally

due

to chance

and

foreknowledge.

flute, as

may be

It is incontestably the ideal

seen from the analysis, which follows

due course.
Just as there are several aspects of the I.D., so there are several contingent

allowances due to diameter,

viz.

NINE ASPECTS OF ALLOWANCE DUE IN RESPECT OF DIAMETER IN MODAL FLUTES

Sound-wave Allowance. The sound-wave length minus

All. No. I.
When measurements are taken from exit, if the pitch has
been correctly estimated, All. No. 1 should be double the All. No. 2.
All. No. 2.
Exit Allowance.
On the diameter at exit, i.e. by use of
Formula No. 5 [A + (diameter d. of embouchure) + de] = half No. 1
Actually 011 the Flute. This is found actually represented
All. No. 3.
in the length allowed between exit and Hole 1 I.D.
All. No. 3 (which
is frequently approximately equal to All. No. 2) is obtained by use of

actual length.

Formula No.

(A
(A
d)
S)\.
3 [2
Vent or Standard Allowance.
All. No. 4.
for diameter when Hole 1 is used as vent, and

The independent allowance

is obtained by working out

2(A
(A
d)
(A
All. No. 4 is
d) + de)].
used as Standard Allowance in apportioning from it the allowance per
ratio at each fingerhole (termed Proportional Allowance), and in comparing
this with the allowance obtained as x remainder (by use of Formula No. 2)
from the length of the half-sound-wave minus actual length = x. There
is another case in which All. No. 4 is of use, viz. in computing the exact

Formula No. 4

[(L

values of cross-fingered notes on modal flutes (see Chap.

vii).

Proportional Allowance (Ex.).

All. No. 5.
Obtained from Exit All.
No. 2 by the ratio of the fingerhole to that of exit, by use of Formula
No. 5 [A + (A d) + de], divided by the ratio at the fingerhole.
Proportional Allowance (Vt.).
All. No. 6.
Obtained from Vent All.
No. 4 by ratio of fingerhole to that of vent.
Incremental Allowance (= Inc. All. No. 7). Additional
All. No. 7.
cumulative allowance, not included in No. 5, derived from Exit All. No. 3
divided by the Modal Determinant, and multiplied by the number of
increments accruing at any given hole (always one less than the number

of the hole).

This cumulative allowance, progressing by increments, helps to deter-

THE GREEK AULOS

234

mine the cause of the interrupted sequence by the interpolation of an

intermediate ratio.

All. No. 8.
The Allowance of the Ideal I.D. No. 4. Obtained as
complementary difference between I.D. No. 3 and I.D. No. 4
it then
corresponds with Incremental All. No. 7.
All. No. 9.
The Floating Allowance. The floating allowance represents
the ultimate pronouncement on the subject of allowance in respect of
diameter in the modal flute. It is the irreducible concomitant of the
proportional I.D. which is a theoretical I.D. exclusive of any allowance,
and of which the floating allowance represents the maximum. As the
;

actual I.D.

may

equal the proportional, or

anywhere between

lie

it

and

the I.D. of the effective half-wave length, the floating allowance and the
proportional I.D. may be regarded as reciprocals.
If the actual I.D. on
a

modal

exceeds the proportional I.D.,

flute

it

is

clear that

it

carries

an

allowance corresponding to the amount of that excess, and the floating

allowance then consists of the remainder.

The ideal I.D. in a modal flute is the one that most nearly approximates
an aliquot of the total length of the flute plus the allowance from exit
Hole 1, taken twice for perfection when it is equal to
the floating allowance or once for mere excellence.
N.B. Whereas All. No. 7 includes the I.D. latent between exit and
Hole 1, All. No. 6 proportional includes only those increments accruing
from Hole 1. As an example, the record of the flute Sensa B may be
cited (see Chap, x, Record).
The amount of the allowance due to diameter at any point on the flute
is irrevocably settled through the difference between the sound-wave length
and the actual flute length. The participation of one or more of the nine
to

to the centre of

'

'

aspects of allowance, defined above, in the aggregate allowance

of the theorist bent

on

measurable point.

The

the pitch of the note

is

the affair

analysis of the additional lengths accruing at a given

always settled offhand by

therefore, this aggregate cannot be balanced at

aggregate allowance
if,

is

all points, when the flute is tested, the vibration frequencies should be
overhauled and carefully checked. Several methods have been tried in
testing, and the one used in the Records is the most satisfactory yet found.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF MODAL FLUTES

Having cleared the way with these definitions of increments of distance,
and of allowances due to diameter, suggestions for the classification of
specimen flutes may now be offered, viz.
:

CLASS

from

I.

The

exit or

most numerous consists of

vent to embouchure

of the I.D. and the

M.D.

The

is

flutes in

which the length

a multiple within a few millimetres

flutes in this class are usually characterized

by the interruption of the modal sequence at some point.

class 11.
Flutes on which this multiple length comprises the actual
flute length from embouchure to exit (= Class ii Ex.) or from embouchure
to vent (= Class ii Vt.) with the addition of All. No. 3
i.e. the one actually

THE HARMONIA ON THE MODAL FLUTE

present in the length allowed between exit and the centre of Hole
flutes of Class

In this class
class in.

No.

ii

are characterized

it is

by a modal sequence

the half-wave-length that

Flutes in which the

3 is equal to the

The

irregularities.

actual length of the flute less allowance

increment of distance

X by

the

or conversely, in which the product of the I.D.

equal to the actual length of the

from

free

multiple of the I.D.

is th<.

Modal Determinant,

x M.D.

-f-

Examples of Class

flute.

allowance
iii

is

are rare

Chap. x).
This is a curious proposition which is found in flutes Nos. 8 and 8B,
and in Sensa B. It has been found necessary to distinguish further in
each class
(A) flutes having a normal or uninterrupted modal sequence,
and (B) flutes having a modal sequence, interrupted at some unexpected
point by the interpolation of a note bearing a ratio intermediate between
two of the normal ratios of the modal sequence. After the interpolation,
the modal sequence resumes its normal allure.
(see

THE THREE EXPERIMENTAL SENSA

FLUTES

was in order to obtain a solution of the unaccountable behaviour

of the modal sequence, in some of the exotic specimens, that two companion flutes to Sensa A, viz. Sensa B and C, were made for purely
It

experimental purposes.

When

it

was perceived that the only

structural feature not directly

determined by the pitch of fundamental or vent was the I.D.

it

became

imperative to discover the effect of altering this I.D. while retaining the

same length and diameters of bore, embouchure and fingerholes. Sensa

B and C were besides plotted to play in the same Harmonia and at the
same fundamental pitch as Sensa A. The only difference between these
three flutes therefore, was the spacing between the fingerholes.
The
implication of this difference

following points
(1)

The

may be noted

is

one usually held to

affect

The

pitch.

larger the I.D. the nearer

is

the fingerhole to the embouchure,

and therefore, the shorter is the actual length on the flute between these
two points, and the higher the pitch and vice versa.
(2) It is expressly stated that the three flutes were plotted to give the
same fundamental notes from exit and from vent
thus the vent must
be centred at three different points from exit and from embouchure on
;

the three specimens.

(3) If a

note of the same vibration frequency issue from three different

distances from embouchure, the

in

The

each.

inference

is

wave length must be

that the differentiation

of the

is

same length

the affair of the

allowance due to diameter.

(4)

The

diameters of bore, embouchure and fingerholes are identical

in the three specimens.

1
The Sensa
ton for the play
'

was made for the incidental music composed by Elsie Hamilwhich deals with Ancient Egypt. The music composed
Harmonia demands a modal flute with equidistant holes two
flute were played by professional flautists.
(See Records, Chap, x.)

'

flute

'

Sensa

in the species of the

specimens of this

'

THE GREEK AULOS

236

seems obvious that some unusual

(5) It

function

The dimensions

(6)

some unexplained

factor,

accountable.

is

of the three Sensa flutes being identical, except

and the flutes having been plotted to play in the same Mode
same pitch, it follows that they cannot all belong to the same

for the I.D.

and

at the

Since the class depends upon the I.D., Sensa

class.

is

ha;

in Class

Sensa B and C are in Class iii b.

Sensa A has an I.D. (No. 4) which carries an allowance sufficient to
ensure purity in intonation.
But in the Records of the flutes, the Proportional All. No. 5, calculated
always on the standard allowance on Hole 1, does not include that part
of the allowance which is represented by the difference between the actual
I.D. and the proportional I.D., and this difference must be added cumulatively hole by hole to the proportional allowance in order to bring about

two methods of presenting

a correspondence between the results of the

the analysis of the aggregate allowance exhibited in the Records (q.v.).

B was given an I.D. equal to the diameter of

18 = -414 and therefore -465 -414
-051.

Sensa
023

instance of a flute belonging to Class

flute

iii,

the bore,

This

is

i.e.

-023

clearly

an

since the actual length of the

exceeds the multiple length -414 by an allowance of -051. The result

B revealed the fact that the intonation of the

of a practical test of Sensa

fundamental and of the notes of the first three holes was good, and the
tone mellow. When compared with Sensa A, however, it was found that
Hole 3 on Sensa A at -3195 from embouchure and on Sensa B (owing to
the smaller I.D.) at -330 thus implying a lengthening of -0105 in the
distance of Hole 3 from embouchure nevertheless produced a note of the
same pitch from both holes. Thus this additional length of -0105 on flute
B, did not lower the pitch
a fact which seems to call for some explanation.
On Sensa B, the 4th fingerhole provided a further surprise, for instead

of

13

the

A 27,

next ratio

in

the

modal sequencethe

flute

obstinately

between 14 and 13, and therefore,

above G 14. Holes 5, 6 and 7 continued
the modal sequence faultlessly, with notes of ratios A 13, B 12 and C 11,
respectively, although each was produced at one whole increment nearer
the embouchure than was normally to be expected from the effective length
of the sound-wave, and from the order of the modal sequence.
This extraordinary experience on Sensa B does not, however strange,
played

due

a lower note, intermediate

at a half-increment only,

necessarily

weaken one's

reliance

on the formulae,

for

if

the actual positions

of Holes 5, 6 and 7 on Sensa B be compared with those of Holes 4, 5

and 6 on Sensa A, the positive excess lengths on Flute
over B are

respectively of -007, -0025

The onus

and -002

only.

for disturbing the sequence obviously falls

the only factor that has been changed in flute B.

to witness the struggle of

We

are

upon the I.D.,

called upon here

two forces thus brought into opposition

the proportional impulse against the element of length in

tions.

Why

all its

point in the sequence

viz.

implica-

does the proportional impulse break down, then, just

at this

THE HARMONIA ON THE MODAL FLUTE

The

from

when

flute itself,
is

phenomenon

explanation of this

for diameter

the same for

No.

exit (see

to

is

which

2),

is

Hole

plotting the position of the centre of

all

237

be found in the allowance

actually carried out

-the

.......=

on the

allowance

three flutes, viz.

Diameter of bore (A)

A diameter of emb.

depth

(i.e. -023 -oio + -003)

Exit allowance (No. 2)
.

-023

-016

-039

N.B. This allowance is an actual length on the flute and, therefore,

when used in connexion with the pitch of the sound-wave, it must be
doubled. As this All. No. 2 is contributory in the determination of the
Hole 1, and further, since the vibration frequency of Hole 1
determines the length of the sound-wave, and by elimination, of the aggreand thereafter by proportional ratio, at any
gate allowance due at Hole 1
position of

of the fingerholes

an analysis of the aggregate, this proportional

its share of All. No. 7, which we have

in

-so

allowance must in addition bear

termed incremental
00216

over 2

wave

mm.
it

it

it

when

therefore, negligible

This

is

what has

To

Hole

(I.D.)

only to a fraction

it
becomes
node or half-increment value is
Hole 4 on the Sensa B flute,

hole or increment,

when

in fact occurred at

at 5 increments, viz. -00216 X 5

this cumulative allowance

difference

-00216, or as effective,

flute

considered as a single unit, but

each additional

sooner or later a disturbing element

reached.

amounts on the

per hole, with a doubled effect of -0043 per hole on the sound-

is,

cumulative with

being

consists here of -039/18

-00432 per hole.

is cumulative

No. 7

All.

-0108.

must, in this instance, be added the

between the actual I.D. -023 and the proportional I.D. from

as vent

^5 ^M p

between Holes

'

02 35^' vlz

and 4 thus

Incremental All. No. 7 for

000s x 3 (I.D.)

'

000 5 x

"

00I 5 f r the three

(I.D.)

-00216 X 5

Aggregate Incremental Allowance

=
= +

-0108

-0123

-0015

This aggregate allowance is equal to a fraction of 1 mm. more than the

half I.D. at the node (viz. -0115).
The opening of Hole 4, therefore,
produces the note due at the half-increment lower instead of its normal
note.

N.B.

The proportional allowance

vent at Hole
1

1,

and

therefore,

is reckoned from All. No. 4, standard

taken for three increments from Holes
No. 7 is cumulative from exit for five
between exit and Hole 1, since no allowance

it is

to 4, whereas Incremental All.

(I.D.) inclusive of the

for diameter

is

This, then,

two

latent

included in the I.D. of this

is

flute.

the secret cause of the interrupted sequence wherever

may occur.
The reason why the modal sequence
disturbance may be demonstrated thus

of flute Sensa
:

is

it

immune from

THE GREEK AULOS

238

The

ideal I.D., No. 4, measuring -028, which

= '0235 as in Sensa C)
an amount which represents the allowance for diameter per increment. It will be seen that this excess of -0045 is sufficient to cover the
Actual All. No. 3 = -00216, plus the incremental, No. 7, amounting in
Since, therefore, these
these Sensa flutes also to -00216 per increment.
two disturbing factors are in Sensa flute A, included in the I.D., there
can be no question of interruption in the modal sequence as far as Hole 7.
-00216 X 6 = -01296, or less than
This flute has 7 holes
6 increments
half the I.D.
Thus the cumulative effect of All. No. 7 could only become
operative at an 8th hole.
This was, in fact, discovered in 1917, when a
duplicate Sensa A was given an 8th hole, which was found to play E 19
instead of Eg, octave of the fundamental a note intermediate between
10, and E 9, and therefore, due at a half-increment between Holes 7
and 8. The octave of the fundamental, viz. Eg, was obtained from a
9th hole at a distance of -152 from the embouchure. 1 The flute Sensa C
suffers from the same kind of interruption of the modal sequence as Sensa
The notes of the first five holes
B, but not until Hole 6 has been reached.
give out a perfectly tuned sequence, and the results of the operation of
the formulae correspond as they should according to ratio, exact to the
tenth of a millimetre, without a hint of the necessity for the addition of
when
an incremental allowance, which manifests itself suddenly at Hole 6
the aggregate for the five increments is needed to balance the proportional
half-sound-wave
length.
In
No. 6 with All. No. 1 from the effective
Sensa C, the I.D. (-0235) is the exact aliquot of the length from embouchure
This I.D. is No. 2
to vent, at which the M.D. is 16, viz. -376/16 = -0235.
in which no provision has been made for the allowance due to diameter.
Proceeding as for Sensa B, Alls. Nos. 2, 3 and 7 being the same for
Sensa C it is found that at Hole 6, at which C11 should follow B 12,
and C 11
a note intermediate between the two, i.e. B 23 is given instead
Hole 8 produces
is played in tune from Hole 7 and D 10 from Hole 9.
flute has

been given the

exceeds the exact aliquot for these flutes (I.D. No. 2

by

-0045,

the intermediate note

C21.

THE MODAL SEQUENCE OF THE HYPOPHRYGIAN HARMONIA ON THE FLUTE

123456789
'

Holes
Ratios

Exit

18,

16,

G 14, A

15,

'

SENSA C

13,

12,

C11,

23,

C21,

D 10

Actual

Length -465;
Cents

N.B.

-376;

bored in the

-329^ ^055^^82^^585^23^ J511

112; 119-4;

204;

The

-3525

128

I 38-$

73-66

76-9

80-5;

Jf88

84-4,

which the holes are

measured from the centre of the embouchure to the

actual lengths given above are those at

flute,

centre of the fingerholes.

1

The

cause of the
it
stood at the time
of the same diameter
discussed further on
;

interruption of the

was attributed

modal sequence

in this flute

was not under-

to a different cause, viz. the lengthening effect

for the second octave in a cylindrical flute

in connexion with a Chinese

Formula

a matter which

is

for the determination


THE HARMONIA ON THE MODAL FLUTE
The

Incremental

= o =
Io

'

All.

002I0 and for

>

the

No. 7

same

increments

five

for the three

at

Hole

239

Sensa

flutes

-0108 (-on).

The

accumulated incremental allowance -on reaches parity with the length of

the half-increment -0235/2
-0117, forming a node, and the strong pro-

portional impulse, reinforcing the factor of length, causes

Hole 6

to -speak

the note that should issue from a hole half-way between 5 and 6, viz. having
a ratio
Hole 6 centres at -2585
23, intermediate between 12 and .11.

from embouchure, the

v.f.

of ratio

35 2 v -p- s

B 23

X 32

340 m./sec.

X 2
The actual

979-4 v.p.s.

489-7

__

340 m./sec.

^g^.^ v _p_ s

'

effective length
of half-sound-wave.
-3471,
JT/
6

length of Hole 6

-2585, increased

by the addition of the

allowance for five increments.

2585, actual length
-f

-0117

half I.D.

2702, virtual length,

therefore

(A)

347i) effective length of half-sound- wave.

-2702

virtual position of

Hole 6 from embouchure

0769, effective allowance in aggregate.

(B) Proportional All. No.

6.

107

'-

23

^ =

-0769

32
thus the results from (A) and (B) agree to a fraction of a millimetre.
N.B. The incremental allowance at -0108 is 1 mm. short of the half-

increment

at

-0117, but nevertheless the interpolation takes place.

The

dominance of the proportional impulse again makes itself felt at Hole 7,

due at Hole 6.
which plays the
The rest of the progress of the modal sequence through Holes 7, 8
and 9 may be traced in the Record of Sensa C. The role of the Proportional All. No. 6 is to apportion the Vent All. No. 4 in accordance with
the pitch ratio at any given fingerhole, for the purpose of checking the
correctness of the allowance.
The incremental allowance needs to be
added to the proportional, in order to balance, in flutes such as Sensa A,
having the ideal increment of distance, in which the incremental allowance

Cn

is

included.

This explanation may sound complicated

it is, however, quite logical
and it is, moreover, necessary to the understanding of the vexed question
of allowance for diameter in modal flutes, and more especially in order
to throw light upon the cause of the baffling interruptions in the modal
;

sequence, occurring so frequently in primitive

of length and pitch in such a case.

Formula

results for a

flutes.

It is a curious fact that the working out of the

No. 7 given above, and of the Chinese Formula, give identical
gth hole on this flute.

for All.

THE GREEK AULOS

240

The

increments of distance progress from exit upwards,

in a direction opposite to that pursued by the sound-wave, always measured
from the embouchure, may be confusing. Thus to increase the I.D. is
fact that the

by the sound-wave, with a consequent rise in pitch. When, therefore, the cumulative incremental allowance reaches parity with the half I.D., the effect appears to be a retrograde

to decrease the actual length traversed

one, dragging

down

the pitch ratio of the hole to that of a half-increment

lower.

may, therefore, be noted that as the modal sequence rises by everwidening intervals, so the proportional effect of the lengthening influence
of diameter on the actual length diminishes (owing to the fact that ratios
of pitch are superparticular, whereas those of length are fractional). Again,
the cumulative Incremental All. No. 7, increasing with the number of
increments, gradually gathers strength, until it reaches parity with the
It

length value at a nodal point

spondence of the two

from pitch (No.

1),

to the formula.

It is

the two factors being reciprocals in operation,

is proved beyond doubt by the correone upon the effective allowance

upon the analysis, item by item, according
thus hoped that this somewhat lengthy investigation

or in inverse proportion.

This

results, based, the

the other

into the intricacies of allowances

may be

considered fully justified by the

results.

word or two may be added

draw attention once

more to the strong proportional and rhythmical impulse generated in
modal flutes by the Modal Determinant. This remarkable phenomenon
at this point to

appears to afford a confirmation of the fact that this proportional impulse

produces the notes of the modal sequence true to ratio, rather than to
at times,
is strong enough to dominate the situation
even seems to control the periodical pulsations of the column of air

absolute length, and

it

within the flute at the instance of some stimulus.

suggestion has already

been offered as to the nature of this stimulus observed in operation on the

Aulos (Chap. iii). Under analogous conditions, proportional impulses
initiated on a string produce various harmonic overtones, which are either
collectively inherent in the pitch note of a string, or singly dominating
according to the stimulus and substituting their aliquot vibrational

impulses for those of the string as a whole.

The
and

reactions to stimulus in

pipes, are of a

much more

wind instruments, and notably

in flutes

subtle nature than those of a string.

The

on

pitch,

fact that the incremental allowance

produces no definite

effect

until the accumulation approaches the value in length of node or antinode,

presents an analogy with the behaviour of strings.

CHAPTER

VII

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE IN THEORY AND

PRACTICE
EXTENSION OF COMPASS BY CROSS-FINGERING AND
HALF-STOPPING
Introductory.
Five Important Factors in the Acoustics of the Modal Flute RecapituExtension of Compass by Half-stopping in the Modal Flute. Extension of
Compass by Cross-fingering in the Modal Flute. Experiments on the Mond Flute
Theory and Practice of Cross-fingering. Demonstration of the Significance
of Formula No. 3 in the Pitch-determination of the Cross-fingered Note.
Further
Examples demonstrated on Flute
Cross-fingering as a Means of
Sensa C
Transition from one Musical System to another. The Evidence of Virdung and
Agricola on Cross-fingering. Agricola's Cross-fingering tested in Practice. Hypolated.

in the

'

'.

lydian Flutes cross-fingered give the Authentus Protus.

The Diameter

in Cylindrical

in Octave Relation
the Chinese Formula. Purity of Intonation in Modal
Flutes, in spite of Excess Diameter in Upper Half of Pipe.
Types of Flutes other
than Transverse. The Transverse Flute in Ancient India
Treatises by Bharata
and Sarangdev. Implications inferred from Sarangdcv's Table of 15 Modal Flutes
with Equidistant Fingcrholes. The Transverse Flute in Evolution in Europe.
The Ditonal Scale adopted by the Arabs. The Duplication of the First Tetrachord
in the Octave Scale. The Modal Flute in Syro-Arabic Sources
Al-Farabi's
Evidence. The Influence of Diameter recognized by Ptolemy. Al-FarabI describes
Flutes and Pipes with Equidistant Fingerholes. The Lute Accordance No. 3,
introduced by Ishaq al-Mausili (Fourth, Fifth, Fourth). Ishaq's Classification by
Courses (Mdjdrl) corresponding to the Modal Species. The Wosta of Zdlzdl
(= Ratio 27/22) implies the use of the Lydian Species of M.D. 27. Further Modal
Implications of the Wosta of Zdlzdl.
Our Minor and Major Modes are akin to the
Mdjdri through Wosta (Min. Third), or through Binsir (Maj. Third) of Arabian
Lute Accordance. The Modal Scales of the Octoechos traced in Ishaq's Classification
of Melodies, and in his Lute Accordance. Al-FarabI and Al-Kindi stress the Ditonal
Scale : Ishaq-al-Mausili the Modal Species of the Harmonia. The Modal Flute
based on Proportional Modality breaks new Ground

Tubes

INTRODUCTORY

THE

somewhat forbidding array of factors, visible and invisible,

which participate in the reactions of the air column in flutes,
must be accepted as scientific facts. It is, however, necessary
that these same technical and theoretical conditions, under which music
is coaxed from the modal flutes, should be explicitly stated here, since
the modal flute has remained until now an unknown quantity. The apparent
simplicity of the instrument, devoid of keys or similar devices for increasing

the compass in practice,

Nearly
rise

all

16

is

deceptive.

the primitive flutes are modal

of primitive music

is

a fact

which suggests that the

almost universally modal

241

but

as the

Modes

THE GREEK AULOS

242

unknown

themselves are

to

Western musicians, the

flutes,

when

tested,

and importance, capable only of producing inconsequent sequences, false in intonation according to Western criteria.
How erroneous such a judgement is will be obvious when the records
are usually regarded as of slight interest

of modal flutes from many distant lands are examined and found to contain
examples of scales unmistakably akin in modality, intonation and genesis.
Elsewhere it will be shown how these modal scales born anew among

all

and

races

FIVE

have developed and formed the basis of various

both East and West.

in all ages,

musical systems

in

IMPORTANT FACTORS IN THE ACOUSTICS OF THE MODAL FLUTE

RECAPITULATED

In

the complicated relationship of actual and effective length

flutes,

with the diameters of the bore, embouchure and fingerholes, as well as

with the I.D., need not act as a deterrent to any student. The vital points
to be grasped are concerned with the following five factors,

that the
(1)

more

The

closed, accurately determined,

(2)

now

practical aspect

The

may

to be given

pitch of the fundamental,

i.e.

and

from which

is

effective half-wave length of the

it is

hoped

prove helpful.

blown with
obtained No. 2.

of the flute

all

holes

fundamental, corresponding

to the actual length of the flute (No. 3) with the addition of the allowance
for diameter at exit (No. 4).

This half-wave length is not audible

it exists in theory only.
In
order to represent the audible note of the fundamental, or complete sound;

wave, the vibration frequency of the half-wave must be halved. The

object of introducing the inaudible half-wave length in theory is that it
applies to the actual length of the flute, visible and measurable, whereas
the whole sound-wave involves a double transit along the flute, plus a

double allowance for diameter.

(3)

to the
(4)

lated

The

actual length of the .flute

edge of the

The

from the centre of the embouchure

exit.

definite allowance in respect of diameter at exit, easily calcu-

by means of Formula

No

(see

Chap,

vi)

and confirmed by the

elimination of No. 3 from No. 2.

(5) The Increment of Distance, the full significance of which

is

not

immediately apparent.

The

first

four factors are interrelated and interdependent.

By means

Formula No. 2, Factor No. 1 unerringly produces Factor No. 2, while

Factor No. 3 deducted from No. 2 gives us No. 4. Obviously any one
of these may be deduced from the other three.
These first four factors
of

common to all flutes, modal and non-modal, and involve no difficulties

Nos. 3 and 4 of these factors, being instantly measurable
and ascertainable, are decisive. If either of these fails to agree with the
findings of No. 2, as derived from No. i, then the error lies in the pitch
of the fundamental which has been incorrectly estimated, and must be
carefully revised.
There is no alternative or loop-hole. No. 4 is an
are

or uncertainties.

See Chap,

iv

and

also

Chaps,

viii

and

ix

on Folk Music.

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

integral

element of the flute as

it

stands

therefore,

if

243

number

the exact

which the exit allowance in respect of diameter consists,

does not emerge from the half-wave length (as obtained by deduction of
factor No. 3 from No. 2), the estimate of pitch which is the concern of
of millimetres, of

the ear

is

No.

5,

clearly at fault.

the increment of distance derived from the equal-spacing of

the

outward

of modality,

sign

implying aliquot

fingerholes,

is

division

introduces an element of subtlety, the implications of which

it

visible

have necessitated a threefold classification of modal

The

flutes.

I.D. between the fingerholes in primitive flutes

adopted hap-

is

hazard, or presumably to suit the spread of the fingers, but without an inkling

and of its responsibility

towards the maintenance of an uninterrupted modal sequence, proceeding
fingerhole by fingerhole in correct intonation.
The actual I.D., present between the fingerholes on any specimen, may
be an exact (or a mean) aliquot of the actual flute-length, from centre of
embouchure to exit, or to centre of Hole 1.
The actual I.D., however, while preserving equidistance between fingerholes, may prove incommensurable with this total length, and therefore,
baffle the inquirer into its modality, of which his trained ear nevertheless
assured him (see 'Sensa A' Record).
If the position $f Hole 1 has been even approximately correctly estimated,
at a distance from exit considerably in excess of one I.D., it will probably
be found that by adding the amount of the allowance for diameter at exit
of

its

significance in the determination of modality

to the actual length, a workable multiple of the I.D.

is

obtained

e.g. as

Sensa A and in flute No. 4 from North-west India which reproduces

modal sequence free from complications or interruptions. In such a case
the I.D. has been happily plotted, because each increment carries its own
in

'

'

portion of the allowance for diameter, in addition to the purely proportional

This

increment.
ratio

number

of Hole

reckoned from Hole

is

= ~- = -0234
= -028.

The actual I.D

presents the

In

at that hole.

amount

Sensa

'

by dividing the length by the

the length from the centre

e.g.

the proportional I.D.

The

difference

between these two, viz. -0046 reby the actual I.D. the

of allowance for diameter carried

Floating Allowance per I.D. (see Chap, vi) denotes the

How

maximum

allowance

works out hole by hole may be seen from the records.

The student possessed of sufficient driving power to wish to penetrate
the obscure reasons for the behaviour of the air column in modal flutes
under pressure from the I.D., may study the foregoing technical details
of the exposition (see Chap, vi) and the records of the three experimental
Sensa flutes A, B and C. With dimensions identical, except for the length
of the I.D., and preserving the same fundamental intonation and modality,
these three flutes differ only in the resultant fact that
Sensa A gave an
uninterrupted pure modal sequence, while in Sensa B and C the scale
was interrupted by the interpolation of an unwanted chromatic note
the
break in the sequence occurring in B at Hole 4, and in
at
Sensa C
available.

this

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

THE GREEK AULOS

244

Hole

In view of such perplexing results of experiment

6.

it

became impera-

which was eventually

found to be due to the cumulative Incremental All. No. 7 (see Chap, vi)
this remains latent until the accumulated length reaches parity with a
tive to discover the cause of this baffling occurrence,

'

'

The

nodal point at a half I.D.

become

effective, forces the

addition to the

wave

length, then, having

note due at the fingerhole to vibrate at the

slower frequency due at the half-increment lower, in spite of there being

no fingerhole

at that point.

In the Sensa flute A, with seven fingerholes (six increments) the Incremental All. No. 7 = -00216. At Hole 7 the accumulated allowance of

00216

-01296 has not yet reached the nodal point of the half-

028
increment

The

-014,

and therefore no break

in the sequence occurs.

nearness of the approach to the nodal point, however, makes

itself

Hole 7 which may

easily

felt by a slight tendency

be overcome.

to flatness in the note of

is based upon the diameters of bore

independent of the I.D., it is clearly an advantage,

Since the Incremental All. No. 7

and embouchure, and

is

in plotting a flute, not to space the fingerholes nearer together than con-

venience in fingering the holes requires.

After the detailed technical exposi-

tion of the complicated reactions of the air

more

this recapitulation of the

involved,

we may now

column

modal

in

practical application of the

flutes,

many

and

factors

turn to other considerations.

EXTENSION OF COMPASS BY HALF- STOPPING IN THE MODAL FLUTE

The compass of the modal flute may, as in the modern concert

be extended by means of the harmonic register. When the notes of the
fundamental scale are overblown an octave, both modality and tonality are
preserved but overblowing a 12th or 14th brings about not an extension
of compass but a modulation into the tonality of dominant or 7th.
The pentatonic or diatonic compass of a modal flute may easily be
supplemented by means of so-called chromatic notes, 1 obtained by halfcompass.

flute,

1
Half-stopping does not always produce notes belonging to the chromatic
compass in the modern sense of the word. The half-stopped hole produces the
note intermediate in ratio between those of its own hole and of the one below it
e.g. if the 5th and 6th holes of a flute produce notes in the ratio 7/6
a septimal 3rd
apart to half-stop Hole 6 lowers the note from ratio 12 to 13, thus

00
00
00

Hole 5

Hole 6

o
o
o
o
o
Ratio

or 12}

12.

If the ratio

lower Hole 6 to ratio 9

at a

13

Hole 6 by an interval
between Holes 5 and 6 were 5 4, half-stopping would
minor tone, instead of a major 3rd above Hole 5.

result of half-stopping

of ratio 13

61

7)

or 14}

The

is,

therefore, to lower the note of

:

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

245

stopping a fingerhole and thus producing through that hole a note of lower

This lowered note is identical in intonation with the note which

would be produced by a fingerhole bored at a half-increment only. In
pitch.

modern device of keys, this expedient

eminently satisfactory and easy to carry out.
To reduce the diameter of a fingerhole lowers the pitch proportionally,

the majority of instruments lacking the

is

in accordance with the fact that the diameter of

an

exit for the

sound-

wave, which is less than that of the bore of the flute, has the effect of
lengthening the issuing sound-wave by the amount of the difference between
the two diameters taken twice, e.g. in a flute having a bore of -020 and
of fingerhole -008 in diameter, the open fingerhole has an additional lengthen-

ing effect of 2(-020

-008)

-024.

Half-stopping the same hole increases the wave length thus

-004)

-032.

The

result of half-stopping

is

2(^020

an addition to the original

allowance computed for that hole, and by adding to the length of the

sound-wave, the pitch

is

lowered.

In Oriental music, in which microtones are used melodically, quarterstopping

is

also practised.

EXTENSION OF COMPASS IN THE MODAL FLUTE BY CROSS-FINGERING

On a bamboo flute

having seven equidistant holes, Mr. P. Sambamoorthy,

from Madras, was able, in my presence, by halfand quarter-stopping and by cross-fingering, to obtain all the srutis requisite
a highly skilled flautist

for playing in a great variety of rags.

There is evidence in a Hindu treatise by Bharata 1 on the Drama,

Natya Shastra dating from the fifth century a.d., that the practice

entitled

'

'

of half- and quarter-stopping was in

date,

as well as the expedient

Ger. Gabelgriff),
fourchu
present day.
;

still

common

use in India at that early

known

as cross-fingering

in use

on wood-wind instruments

upon the

(French doigteat

the

open fingerhole nearest

to the mouthpiece is the one that speaks, and in order to produce its own
note in perfect intonation, all holes below it must likewise be uncovered.
Every hole closed below that open one lowers the pitch of the note to
some extent, and this device of cross-fingering gives scope for great skill.
Not only is this expedient used in correcting and adjusting intonation, but
also in providing alternative fingering for notes of the same pitch, but
differing slightly in timbre, which are found to be awkwardly placed for
Attempts have been made from time to time by scientists to
fingering.
explain the reactions of the air column upon which the practice of' crossfingering on the flute is based, but without providing definite authoritative
data.
The whole question is, however, usually treated from an abstract
point of view, wrapped up in an algebraic formula, 2 and there left.
Cross-fingering depends

Bharata, translation of Chap, xxx on Music

and see
2

fact that the

also

Chap.

E.g. in a

by Joanny Grosset (Lyons, 1897)

ii.

Acoustics of Orchestral Instruments, by E. G.

147-55. The statements there given, professing

modern work, The

Richardson, pp. 48-53, and pp.

THE GREEK AULOS

246

MOND FLUTE

EXPERIMENTS ON THE

IN THE THEORY

AND PRACTICE OF

CROSS-FINGERING

We are concerned here,

ance of flutes

with

its

however, with the structure and actual performwith the factor of length in its various applications, and

reciprocals in vibration frequencies.

As already

modal flute lends itself admirably to research on

proposed, therefore, to leave the scientific explanation

stated, the

these questions.

It is

and to give an example of the effect of cross-fingering on a

modal flute 1 which will show whether the theoretical estimate is in agreement with the practical result, apprehended by the ear and confirmed by
the monochord and the modally tuned piano.
The experiment was carried out on the Mond 2 flute from Sicily (see
Record for details) with six .fingerholes in front and the 7th at the back,
covered by the thumb. The total length from the centre of the embouchure

to the experts,

(diameter -009) to exit

fingerholes -008 to -0088

between Holes 6 and

-271
;

7, at

the diameter of the bore

the I.D.

is

fingering consisted in opening Hole 4

Perfect 5th above the exit note

the Phrygian Harmonia, 12/13

-020

of the

constant at -025 with one exception

rather less than a half-increment.

which plays an

The

cross-

of 704 v.p.s. at a

12/256, the modal ratios being those of

Both notes, on being tested with

8/12.
normal fingering and blowing, by monochord and modally-tuned piano,
were found to be true in intonation. Then Holes 1, 2, 3, below Hole 4
were closed, and the F hole now played Eg, of 625-6 v.p.s., which is the
note normally sounded through Hole 3, when Holes 1 and 2 are open
below it. Passing on the same breath from the cross-fingered E 9 of
Hole 4, to the normal 9 of Hole 3, the notes were found to be identical
no difference in intonation could be detected.
Thus, in this experiment the result of closing three holes below the
speaking-hole, lowered the note of Hole 4 to the note of the next lower
increment by a whole major tone (9/8), viz. as in the diagram on opposite
page.

method of determining the position of note-holes, are vague and

entirely inconclusive.
To work out through area and circumference of the air
column, which are not directly measurable on any specimen flute, without explaining
their bearings on the factors of length on the flute, which must be accurately computed in order to arrive at the pitch frequencies, is to treat the subject in the abstract.
In the plotting of a flute on p. 151, the particulars available are likewise totally
inadequate and prove nothing. No dimensions of the flute are given. The holes
are numbered from the embouchure, instead of from exit, and there is no clear
statement of an underlying theory.
1
See the critical review by K. S. of Dr. Richardson's Handbook, op. cit., in The
Musical Standard, 1930, issues of May 17th and 31st, and June 14th and 38th
see
June 14th, p. 198.
2
This distinctive name was given to the Sicilian peasant's flute in memory of
the donor the late Mrs. Ludwig Mond and of the keen, unflagging interest she

to explain the

took in this work of research.

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

47. Scheme showing

Fig.

247

Crossfingering Performance and Results on the

Flute No. 2.

Normal

Mond

fingering

(1)

O =P
Q
O
O

704

v.p.s. ratio to

= Hole

in the

fundamental 12:8 perfect 5th

back of

flute.

Cross-fingering
(2)

This note

625-6 v.p.s. ratio to fundamental 12

identical with the one

is

9 perfect 4th.

produced by normal fingering.

(3)

O =
O
O

E_9

625.6 v.p.s.

512

DEMONSTRATION OF THE SIGNIFICANCE OF FORMULA NO. 3 IN THE PITCHDETERMINATION OF THE CROSS-FINGERED NOTE
It is obvious that the closing of Holes 1, 2 and 3 (see Fig. 47, No. 2)
and the opening of Hole 4 on a flute confers temporarily upon the open hole
The operation of Formula No.
the functions and implications of a first hole.
3 for the determination of the position of Hole 1 may, therefore, be used

to

confirm the evidence of the ear.

The working out of the formula gives the allowance for diameter at
out on the flute between exit and Hole 1, to which
added the sum of the increments of distance passed over between the

exit, actually carried

is

two

points.

On

the

Mond

flute (see

Record, Chap,

illustration of cross-fingering is taken, the

x), therefore,

from which our

dimensions are

271

Length C. of emb. to exit

Length C. of Hole 4 to emb.

140

to exit

Diameter of bore (A)

020

131

Diameter of emb. (d)

Diameter of fingerhole (<5)
I.D
Length C. of Hole 1 to exit

009
008

Theory demands

058

025

056

THE GREEK AULOS

248
therefore,

Hole

should be centred 2

mm.

nearer embouchure and other

fmgerholes likewise.

Hole 4, considered as Hole 1, in consequence of cross-fingering, by

closing Holes 1, 2 and 3, should be placed according to Formula No. 3
at -133 from exit, but is actually at -131.
According to Formula No.

-oio

(A-d)
(A 5)

-on
-oi2

033

I.D. x 4 (inclusive of the one

between exit and Hole 1) = -025 X 4

Allowance

at

Hole

1.

-ioo

Aggregate -133 theoretical position of Hole 4 considered as Hole

1.

however, the actual position at -131 from exit, or -140 from embouchure, with which our experiment is concerned.
This length from exit
to Hole 1 (normally Hole 4) may now be considered as the effective allowIt

is,

ance which, added to the actual length, gives the effective half-wave length,
viz.

131

BY FORMULA NO.

340
271

-140

-271.

./s.

340

627

-542

modal computation of

v.p.s.

Eg
625-8 v.p.s.

512

OR BY FORMULA NO. 2
625-6

V.p.S.

X 2

I,25I-2

9/512, note

resulting

from the

cross-

fingering of Hole 4

340 m./s.

625-6

The
the

flute,

eff.

1,251-2

discrepancy

Mond

9/512

340 m./s. =
2717

is

a negligible one.

\ wave length.

It is

Hole 4 which normally plays

of 625-6 v.p.s.

when

thus demonstrated that in

F 8/512

of 704 v.p.s., and

cross-fingered, the expedient has the effect

of lowering the note of Hole 4 by a major tone (9/8).

The analysis of
the effective allowance of -131 discloses a curious feature of the Mond
flute, 1 viz.

a diameter abnormally wide for such a short flute

the length
from embouchure to first hole is only io|- times the width of the diameter,
and to exit 13 1 times, whereas in a modern flute the length is approxi:

mately 30 or more times the diameter of the bore.

1

Consult Record

Mond

The

Flute, Chap. x.

practical conse-

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

quence of

flute the effective

3 instead of

diameter

249

allowance in respect

2. 1

Mond flute that the

only required for the effective or sound-wave
and does not affect the calcula-

be noticed on perusing the Record of the

It will

diameter allowance

triple

Mond

this is that in the

of pitch has diameter

is

length, used in the determination of pitch,

tions concerned with the actual dimensions of the flute, e.g. for the position

of Hole

This example of the operation of cross-fingering on a modal

1.
demonstrate the value of the formulae in checking results
drawing up a schedule of the fingering for an extended compass,
such as the one given below in Fig. 48.
Cross-fingering on a modal flute may always be expected to produce
one of the notes of the modal genesis. For instance, if Hole 4 be crossfingered by closing Holes 1 and 2 and leaving 3 and 4 open, the result is
computed in theory by considering Hole 3 as the virtual Hole 1 the position
of which is ascertained and confirmed by the use of Formula No. 3 (with
three increments)
Hole 4 then sounds F 17/512 of 662-4 v.p.s., instead
F 17 is the next note of the sequence,
of its normal note of 704 v.p.s.
one increment higher than our virtual Hole 1 (Hole 3) that normally gives

flute will suffice to

and

in

E18.
Hole

Similarly, if
it,

so that

note of

its

be cross-fingered by closing Holes 1 and 2 below

Hole 1 its normal

position and pitch are again those of a virtual

18/512

may be

of 592 v.p.s., which

three formulae.

19/512

viz.

Fig. 48.

625-6 v.p.s. changes to that of the half-increment lower,

The Compass of the

Mond

by the use of the same

justified

Flute with Cross-fingered Notes for the First

Four Holes
Holes

6
5

2
1

Exit

12

11

21

10

22

20

N.F.

N.F.
N.B.

0
0
0

0
0

19 18 F

0
0
0
0

17

16

18

Alternative to

normal

N.F.

N.F.

fin-

gering

indicates cross-fingering

N.F.

normal-fingering

must be conceded that, compared with the forbidding graphs and

equations propounded by Dr. Richardson (see fn. 2, pp. 245-6) in explanation
It

A probable

may be the faulty position of Hole I

which adds 2 mm. to the length between emb.
account for the slightly lower v.f. of the actual flute
note compared with the pitch computed by formula.
explanation of the discrepancy

at -056 instead of -058

and

c.

of Hole

this

from

may

exit,

THE GREEK AULOS

250

on the flute, the very simple arithmetical

by means of which definite and exact results in agreement
with practical tests are worked out for the modal flute, have certain
of the results of cross-fingering

calculations,

advantages.

FURTHER EXAMPLES DEMONSTRATED ON FLUTE

'

'

SENSA C

There is one more lesson to be learnt from cross-fingering on the

modal flute, Sensa C
which may justify the addition of the following
'

',

example.

Reference to the Record of that flute shows that with normal blowing
fingering, the note D 10/512 played through Hole 7 on
Sensa A

and

'

'

required a 9th fingerhole bored at two I.D. nearer the embouchure to

same note in pure intonation on Sensa C '. The reason for

has been given in the record of that flute.
Hole 9 be cross-fingered by closing all holes below it, with the
exception of Hole 4, then by the process of reasoning justified by the
operation of our formulae, Hole 4 must be regarded, since it is the 1st
open hole, as a virtual Hole 1. A new flute has in fact been called into
being, with Hole 4 as exit or vent, and Hole 9 as Hole 1, at five increments
nearer the embouchure.
The allowance in the determination of the position of Hole 1 was
found to be -0385, to which the five increments, viz. -0235 X 5 = -1175
are added = -156.
The formula (No. 4) thus gives the virtual position
of Hole 9 as 1st hole from its exit (at Hole 4) as -156, or -1495 from
embouchure, while the distance from the centre of Hole 9 to the centre
of embouchure, measured on the flute, is actually -188.
When Hole 9 is
give that

'

this astonishing fact

If

cross-fingered thus

the note

lowered to

by an

10, of 563-2 v.p.s. is

21, of

which 536-4

now assumes

the following ratios

Modal Sequence

of

'

Exit

18

16

IS

18

18

18

18

Flute

13

12

23

22

21

20

18

18

36

36

36

36

36

The

'

marked X)

27X

ratios of notes given at the half-increment

Determinant 36.

Sensa

(Results of cross-fingering

Holes

v.p.s.

cents

20

the sequence

Ratios

85

interval of ratios 21

2IX
36

belong to a genesis by Modal

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

On

comparing these

cross-fingering,

251

with those obtained on the Mond flute by

once be noticed that on this flute with Hole 4

results

will at

it

open and three holes closed below it, the drop in pitch is of a major tone
9/8 (204 cents), whereas on Sensa C Hole 4 with three holes stopped,
the drop in pitch is only of ratio 27/26 (65 cents, about J tone).
Again on Sensa C ', the cross-fingering of Hole 9 as shown above
drops the pitch down from D 10 to C 21 by an interval of 21 /20 (S5 cents)
whereas on the Mond flute, tested under approximately similar conditions,
the result is a much greater drop in pitch when the 7th or top hole is
'

'

'

cross-fingered thus

=B

Hole 7

O
o
o
o
o
o

12

512

14X

cross-fingered interval dropping from

(=267

Why
The

cents)
'

on the

Sensa

Mond

flute,

=F

> O

0
O
o

512

7/6

on

E 18X

The

(5 cents)

512

12 to

G 14

16 N.F.

512

is

a Septimal 3rd

compared with the drop of 21/20

'.

is this ?

cause of this wide divergence in the operation of cross-fingering

flutes may be assigned first of all to two structural features

(1) The diameter of the bore in proportion to the length of the flute.
mond flute A = -020 length -271 from embouchure to exit, -271/20

on these two

=
sensa c

'

A =

'

-023

13^ times.
;

length

-466

from embouchure

to exit,

-466/23

20 times.

(2) The increment of distance

mond flute -025 actual Proportional
:

an allowance for diameter of -0025

I.D.

per hole.

-0225.

The

The

floating

I.D. carries

allowance

-0052.

increment of distance -0235 both actual and proportional

carries no allowance per hole.
This has to be made up from the floating
'

sensa c

allowance

'

-0067.

With normal fingering the lowering effect of the allowance is for one
With cross-fingering, the lowering effect is cumulative for
each hole closed between the speaking-hole and the vent. With the Sensa
hole only.

'

'

flute,

each of the

five I.D.,

of the half-sound-wave, takes

exit

up

which are concerned in the lengthening

position on the face of the flute between

its

and embouchure, without contributing an iota for allowance

the
is that all the accumulated incremental allowance, viz. -00215 X
5
:

result

-01075 (-on) becomes active, having practically reached a nodal point

-Jj of a millimetre), and thus causes a drop in the pitch to that
i.e. from D 20 to C21.
This operation of the formula is an entirely normal one which applies

(within

of a half-increment lower,

THE GREEK AULOS

252
to all flutes of Class iB,

having an I.D. which

length of the flute from

embouchure

to

exit,

is

an exact aliquot of the

Hole i if used as

or to

vent.

Not

Mond

so on the

flute.

relation to the length of the flute,

of pitch,

Owing

to the diameter being excessive in

has been found that in

it

all

computations

of the effective half-sound-wave, the diameter

is taken three
times instead of twice in the allowance, and this involves also the Increi.e.

mental All. No. 7 which is of -0028 X 3

-0084 per I.D.
there are
three increments between the open 4th hole and the open 7th hole
:

0084

the 7th hole

-0252 or one whole increment of distance

is

6/12, the drop of one increment

of a Septimal 3rd 7/6

and

which

is

as the ratio of

an interval
an instance of the agreement of theory
is

to ratio 7/12,

practice.

On the modal flute, the device of cross-fingering passes from the empirical
The results may be predicted and confirmed, since
both I.D. and the ratios of pitch they bear are known.
There is one fact that emerges from these computations of length,
diameter and vibration frequencies to which we may pin our faith, and
that is that each half-sound-wave length has a corresponding vibration
frequency which is fixed and unalterable. These two factors, when they
appear respectively as divisor of the rate of the velocity of sound in air
= 340 metres per second or as quotient in the division are reciprocals
(see Table i, p. xlvi).
That is a point from which all computations can safely proceed. Further,
if it be understood that the effective half-wave length exceeds the actual
measurable length of the flute, from the centre of the embouchure to the
exit or vent, by the amount of the aggregate allowances in respect of diameter,
all that remains to be done is to allocate the aggregate, according to the
formulae set forth in these pages.
Our investigation of the operation of cross-fingering once more draws
attention to the cardinal fact that the ultimate determinant of vibration
frequency in cylindrical modal flutes is proportional, rather than absolute
length, conditioned by the sequence of modal ratios borne by the increments. The note issuing from a given hole obeys the proportional impulse,
stimulated by equidistant spacing of holes which are present in the interior
and are controlled from within by
of the tube as well as on the surface
to the theoretical.

subtle conditional rulings.

CROSS-FINGERING AS A MEANS OF TRANSITION FROM ONE MUSICAL SYSTEM TO

ANOTHER

The

significance of the device of cross-fingering

extension of compass on the

expedient

is

modal

flute.

is

not confined to the

The importance

of this technical

best realized in relation to the evolution of music,

a means of

from one musical system

when

it

to another,
found used as
and thus indicates the contemporary existence in practice of both. Crossregarded
as
the
gnomon
in
the
balance
of
tendencies
fingering may then be
prevalent at any special period in the evolution of music and of races.
is

transition

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

253

In order to bear out the simile of the gnomon, it is necessary to bring

forward something more convincing than mere vague allusions to crossfingering given in theoretical or literary sources 1 the fact must be
;

demonstrated

the scheme must be seen in operation.

Fortunately the

necessary data are available in one of the earliest handbooks on musical

German

verse by Martin Agricola

and illustrated
by numerous drawings of instruments and tablatures, or schemes of fingering
and cross-fingering for various pipes, shawms and flutes.
The holes, opened one by one in numerical order, denote the modal
the omission of one or more
sequence actually embodied in the flute
numbers from a sequence signifies a closed hole and therefore a lowering
instruments written in

of the pitch through cross-fingering.

THE EVIDENCE OF VIRDUNG AND AGRICOLA ON CROSS-FINGERING

The

precise evidence disclosed by such schemes for fingering flutes

in Martin Agricola's handbook has an extremely important
upon the whole question of modality, both true and artificial,
which forms the basis of our modern major and minor Modes, of the
Ecclesiastical Modes, Gregorian Tones, and of other features which still
exercise a vital influence on present-day music, both practical and theoretical,
as a counterweight against atonality and its offshoots.
Up to the seventeenth century and even in the eighteenth, most of the
surviving flutes, shawms, clarinets, oaten pipes, &c, without keys, which

and pipes
bearing

are preserved in national and private collections in England and abroad,

have equidistant holes, 3 a slight variation from the norm being usually
found compensated by a difference in the diameter of the hole. They
are thus all designedly modal in origin, whatever use may have been made
of them by cross-fingering, in approximation to the scale of tones and
semitones.

Such

Chap,
2

from Quintilian,

as the quotation

Inst.

Orator.,

n,

i,

6 and 7

see

for translation of the passage.

ii,

The

of the

title

first

edition published in 1528

is

Musica

instrumetalis deudsch

ynn welcher begriffen ist wie man nach dent gesange auff mancherley Pfeiffen lernen
sol
und allerley Instrument u Seytenspiel nach der rechtgegriindten Tabelihur sey
abzusetzen. (Mart. Agricola Wittemberg, 1528).
The Gesellschaft fur Musikforschung published a reprint facsimile of the ist and 4th editions of 1528 and 1545
in one volume.
Jahrg. 24, Bd. 20, of the Publikation alterer praktischer u. theoret.

ischer

Musikiverke (Leipzig

Breitkopf u. Hartel, 1896).

Tablatures for

flutes,

pp. 25-30 and pp. 155-753

See descriptive Catalogue of the Mus. Insts., Roy. Military Exhibition, London,
1890, compiled by Capt. C. R. Day (Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1891), PI. i, p. 1
Fig. D, p. 28
Figs. E and F, pp. 27-8
PI. iii, p. 53
PI. iv, Figs. A, F, H.
As the plates are heliogravures from photographs of the originals the holes are
;

accurately depicted

a slightly conical flute

by

Willis with one key, in

my possession,

may

also be cited.
See also Old English Insts. of Music, by F.
PI. 31, p. 154, Figs.
p. 142, Figs. 1-4 and 5-8
;

PI. 34, p.

Many

168, Figs.

1,

3, 4,

io,

other examples exist.

11.

W.

Galpin (Methuen, 1910),

1, 2, 4,

PI. 29.

PI. 32, p. 164, Figs. 1-5

a
60

i4

60

<

so

<

-IX

5S m

u 0
60C/2

C 73
60

k3

01
.

O _q

C5

fa

"3

254

o c

&

A2
~

A
Ph
*H

O o

to

v 3

o %

-5

J
5

OS

O u
o

o
o

oj

'?

g W

x%

in

.3

V> -c

<u

,p.

0).

m
-ix
I

xr

-<Tr

g>

'51

c
o

^
.a

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I
A
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CD

s
o
H

fc3

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a

J!
,Vi

-5

X
N

M
o

253

THE GREEK AULOS

256

The

last

two pages

in Virdung's

little

contain schemes of cross-fingering for flutes

the last page verso the resulting scale

volume

(oiij

recto

and verso)
on

Bass, Tenor, Discant

given for the Discant

is

flute,

viz.

obtained by cross-fingering from the Dorian

Harmonia, in which the 4th, C, normally sharpened, is lowered by keeping
the keyboard scale on

'

Hole 2 covered and opening 1 and 3 (clearly indicated by

3, 2, 1
and the cross-fingered note by 3, 1 '). Similarly, the F is given the
normal fingering 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, which had been lowered in the tablature
(to ratio 11/12) by closing Hole 5 and opening the others.
Virdung only prints these two schemes at the end of his little book,
'

'

but they are valuable as evidence over a century earlier than Agricola's
more complete tablatures which have been selected for reproduction here.
Agricola was no theorist, more especially so far as wind-instruments
are concerned
a

is founded upon
and of the technique of musical instru-

the valuable information he has to impart

knowledge of

practical music,

ments, gained by empirical methods.

we

are

bound

to recognize that his ear

From
was

the nature of his schemes,

sensitive to niceties of intona-

be apparent from the ratios of intervals allowed or disallowed

in his schemes, some of which are reproduced below with the addition
of ratios and explanatory matter (by K. S.).
Agricola presents three groups of the primitive transverse, or side-blown
Schweitzer Pfeiffen '.
flute, known in the early sixteenth century as
They are represented in the drawings as cylindrical in bore, made in
they have six
one piece, except for the head joint containing the cork
equidistant fmgerholes.
Each group consists of bass, tenor or alto, and
their fundamentals rise in 5ths
in the 1st edition of 1528 (see
discant
and in the 4th edition, 1545 (pp. 169 sqq.), C G D,
pp. 25 sqq.)
and (pp. 180-2) G
A a harmonic register is indicated, which gives
them a compass of two octaves and part of a 3rd.
tion, as will

'

DAE,

agricola's cross-fingering tested in practice

Although Agricola has furnished clear information as to the intonation

no
and scales of these flutes, he has given no structural details whatever
measurements, which would enable us to make facsimiles, and the drawings
are not to scale, like those of Michael Praetorius, published a century
The
later, 2 who, however, did not include schemes for cross-fingering.
fingerholes are inserted in the drawings at equal distances, which indeed,
;

no proof of modality. Nevertheless, it may confidently

be asserted that the flutes which Agricola tested with infinite care and
precision, as to intonation, were modal flutes, embodying one or other of
in itself constitutes

the Harmoniai.
1

Vol. xi

Tests carried out (by K.

S.)

on modal

flutes

with the

und auszgezogen, durch Sebastianum Virdung, Priesters von

Reprint, ed. by Rob. Eitner, Ges. f. Musikforschung as
of Publikation dlterer Praktischer u. Theor. Musikwerke, xv and xvi Jahrh.

Musica

Amberg

getutscht

(Basle,

1511).

(Berlin, 1882).
2
Syntagmatis Musici, Teil ii, Organographia (Von den Instrumenten) (Wolffenbiittel, 1618), and Reprint by the Publikation dlterer praktischer u. theoretischer
Musikwerke, Bd. 13 (Breitkopf und Hartel, Leipzig, G, 1884 and 1894).

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

257

indicated by Agricola, give results identical with those

recorded by him, but with a very few slight reservations due to the diameter
of the bore
these have been duly noted on our Fig. 50.
Flutes having
a wide diameter in relation to length need less stopping to produce a given
cross-fingering

lowering of pitch than flutes having a narrow bore.

Thus on

a Dorian

with the Modal Determinant 11, which we have assigned to Agricola's

Discant (Fig. 50), the sharpened 4th 11/8 is lowered to the Perfect 4th
by opening Holes 3 and 2, and closing Nos. 1, 4, 5, 6. That result is
flute

on the Mond flute with a diameter of -020

but with
having a bore of only -0115, and with No. 4 from North-West India,

likewise obtained

Java

i,

obtained with Hole 3 alone

the narrower diameter requiring an extra hole

of -oi2, the Perfect 4th, instead of the 11/8,

is

open and all others closed

to be stopped in order to produce the requisite drop in pitch.
To urge
that these transverse flutes were merely false in intonation, owing to bad
workmanship, and that they therefore needed correction, would be a fallacy
:

for comparisons of certain exigencies

not fortuitous but constant point

an underlying system, consistent in its implications but differing from
the more usual one. Among the most significant of the implications of
modality which call for correction by cross-fingering in the scale of tones
and semitones, are the modal intervals of sharpened 4ths and 5ths, which
have to be transformed into the perfect consonances of the 4/3 and the
There is only one Harmonia in which both perfect consonances are
3/2.
present in the scale, and that is the Phrygian. The occurrence of a sharpened
4th suggests either the Dorian 4th of ratio 11/8 (55 J cents) or the Hypophrygian of 18/13 (561 cents). The Dorian Harmonia is distinguished
from the Hypophrygian by having likewise a sharpened 5th of ratio 11/7
(782-3 cents), whereas the Hypophrygian 5th 18/12 is perfect (702 cents).
The Hypolydian Tritone which does duty on occasions for a 4th has a
to

ratio of

10/7 (617-4

cents).

These and other unusual

intervals

which characterize the Harmoniai,

according to their modal function in relation to the Tonic,

to diagnose the

Mode from

make

it

possible

the schemes.

In the absence of measurements of the

flutes,

the readings given here

of Agricola's fingerings are admittedly conjectures,

but they are based

and they have been tested
For the first of the three
groups (in the edition of 1528), Agricola used for his test flutes embodying
the Dorian Harmonia, and the result of cross-fingering was to convert
this Ancient Greek scale into the Authentus Deuterus or e-e keyboard
scale, corresponding to the ditonal Dorian of the Graeco-Roman theorists.
The fundamental of this Discant Flute was actually E.

upon
upon

certain unerring indications

flutes

and

bored for the Harmonia

facts,

in question.

HYPOLYDIAN FLUTES CROSS-FINGERED GIVE THE AUTHENTUS PROTUS OR D SCALE

For the 2nd group

(pp. 169-75)

three Hypolydian flutes of

changed

this scale

which

or

scale,

termed

is

tne edition of 1545, Agricola used

Modal Determinant
by him irregular

20,

into

and by cross-fingering
the Authentus Protus

the fundamental note of the Discant flute of this group.

o o
Cross-

O
O

S.

of
fingering

K.
co

Holes

mi

by
Effect

o o
o

o
o

e-

"S

'i

>.

'i

N m

E
for

is
%o

CO

CO

"1-

CO

Scheme

Fundamental

Cross-fingering

*
(3

Agricola's

63

63

WH

" \j

63

Exit

of
Modal

Scale

Notes

fiq

of
+-

vO

Hole

CO

*><
4)

No.

vO
Flute's

Scale

the

S.

K.

of

CO

Modal

o
o

o o

O
o

o o

o
O

o
o

by

ering

CO

95
Fing

i-s

\NM
M

d
N

\w

f\

H
CO

258

1>

IT)

w
w
00

ii/oi

ii/ii

-a-

vO

&

S

e
o

0 0

co

'1

cu

1-5

N "

CO

co

a,

CO
^~

a
to

vo

to

O
O

CO

S N

O
O
o

CO

o o

*-

3
S

-2

N
" N

CO

N
)-(

259

N
M M
1-1

lO

oo

0 M
H

Exit

THE GREEK AULOS

260

The D scale corresponds

The 3rd group (see pp.
'

regular

scale which,

'

that of the

The

to the Phrygian Species of the

irregular scale

'

Greek

theorists.

180-2) is distinguished by Agricola as having a

however, required a cross-fingering as drastic as
of

'

Group

ii.

used seem to have been Hypophrygian of M.D. 18, and when

Tonus Secundus.
The transition from one scale into the other may be followed in the
interpretation of the Discant scale of each group, which is given in Fig.
flutes

cross-fingered produced the

The

notes of the flute scale, when normally fingered, are seen on

and the approximations on the right.
few examples may now be given of cross-fingering in operation, e.g.
on the Discant flute (Fig. 50 and Agricola, op. cit., p. 172).
The Harmonia of the flute is Hypolydian, of Modal Determinant 20,
from which our major scale gradually evolved. The exit fundamental of
the flute is D, to which we add the ratio number 20
by cross-fingering
the Hypolydian Modal Scale changes to that of the Protus Authentus
the conventional Phrygian of the theorists.
At Hole 2 the modal keynote of ratio 16 should normally sound F sharp,
a Major 3rd above the tonic
but according to Agricola's instructions,
Hole 1 is kept closed below it, so that the note is now F natural, of ratio
50.

the

left

17 instead of 16

this gives the

G now follows at Hole 3,

Minor 3rd required

for the Protus Authentus.

normally fingered with Holes

1, 2,

uncovered,

thus giving the Perfect 4th of ratio 20/15 on the Tonic, required in both

Hypolydian and Phrygian Harmoniai.

Hole 4 produces, when fully fingered, the A sharpened of ratio 13,
which Agricola lowers by cross-fingering (i.e. keeping Hole 1 closed) to

natural of ratio 27.

The note of Hole 5 on the flute is B 12, a Major 6th above the Tonic,
but cross-fingering has lowered the B by a comma (ratio 81 80) to a minor
tone above A instead of a major tone
this interval being required by the
ear, between 5th and 6th in a scale in just intonation on D
which appears
:

to

be Agricola's intention.
The minute difference of a

opening

Hole

2,

3,

4,

5 is also

comma

is

obtained by closing Hole

1,

and

5.

used to produce a

flat,

according to Agricola (in modal

13

much

Hole

6,

normally fingered, gives a sharpened

1 and 4.
C of ratio 20/11 which
and 5, to C a Minor 3rd above A. The
6th hole, with all holes closed below it, produces D, an octave above
The slight reservations mentioned above regarding
the fundamental.
the identity of results between Agricola's tests and those recorded here,
refer to the reactions in the air column, due to the operation of certain
allowances in respect of diameter, and more specifically to the Incremental
All. No. 7 in its cumulative effect, which, taken in conjunction with the
implications of the increments of distance actual, proportional and effective,
account respectively for (1) the interpolation into the modal sequence of
a ratio belonging to an intermediate lower half-increment, or (2) for the

terms

is

sharpened), by closing Holes

lowered, by closing Holes

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

apparent overstepping of an I.D. by the

some

ratio.

261

Attention has been drawn

both of these contingencies in the first part of Chapter vi

on the flute, with illustrations from the Records.
To any student, expecting always to find in a modal flute the same
in

detail to

modal sequence, hole by hole, as in the Aulos,

such deviations might prove a stumbling-block
they might lead him to
throw doubt upon the modal interpretations offered. It should, however,
be recognized as a general principle in the identification of individual Modes
that the casting vote is held by the characteristic modal interval between
Tonic and keynote. In the results of cross-fingering, the decisive test
may nearly always be based upon the Perfect 4th and 5th required by
keyboard scales, whereas cross-fingering invariably reveals the modality of
the flute, and the extent of the requisite cross-fingering acts as a guide in
identifying the Mode actually embodied in the flute in question.
The importance attached to the characteristic modal interval is a distinctive feature of the ancient Harmoniai, which cannot exist in the keyboard
scale, or in that within which the Ecclesiastical Modes have their being. 1
Cross-fingering on the Fipple flute, 2 Recorder, notched flutes 3 of various
types has the same significance as in the transverse flute, and is put in
operation in the same way.
Agricola has provided schemes for the Fipple flutes (on pp. 17-19, 1528)
in the Hypolydian Harmonia and in the Hypophrygian Harmonia (pp. 1 59-61,
rigid progression of the

1545) similar to those illustrating cross-fingering in the transverse flute.

of the operation of the device is therefore necessary.

No further explanation

RE DIAMETER IN CYLINDRICAL TUBES IN OCTAVE RELATION

FORMULA

THE CHINESE

One more problem which has engaged the attention of many theorists
and acousticians relates to the following fact two cylindrical tubes intended
be in octave relation, that is, to produce notes whose v.p.s. are in the
ratio 2:1, if the length of the one be doubled or halved, and the diameters
remain equal. If the cylinders are of the same length, then the diameter
of the one that is to give the higher octave must be of smaller calibre.
Opinions differ as to the relative proportions of the two diameters. The
present writer has found the estimate of the Ancient Chinese philosopher
musician, Prince Tsai-Yu (1596) (as recorded by Hermann Smith), 4 works
out correctly in modal flutes.
:

to

1
Since the modality of the scale of the Harmonia, based upon the modal genesis,
either non-existent in the keyboard scale, or has been deliberately renounced in
favour of a system of duplicated tetrachords, a comparison of the melodic development in the composition of chants in the Ecclesiastical Modes or Gregorian Tones
with that of the extant Fragments of Greek Music based on the Harmonia emphasizes
the strong contrast between the two systems. (See Chap, ix.)
2 See the
Records for Flute xi, Carpathian, and Bali, No. 20.
3
The notched flute is a primitive form of the Fipple flute, but is not so easy
See Records of Flutes from the Soudan, presented by Dr. A. N. Tucker
to play.
see also The Inca Flute, No. xii, in Chap. x.
4
The World's Earliest Music, p. 179 (William Reeves, London).

is

THE GREEK AULOS

262

The
ratio

diameters of the two cylinders, equal in length, should bear the

In the case of the flute in which the octaves occur within the

5
_

same

cylinder, the diameter

diameter in the upper half

therefore

fixed for the

octave,
it

in this respect

and therefore the

should be

A X

x represents the excess diameter,

^~~~J
lowering the pitch,

interrupting the modal sequence

All.

2nd

inevitably in excess

AX

excess length,

as

significant

is

is

it

and even occasionally

resembles the Incremental

No. 7.
For this reason, the excess length must be taken into account

in cal-

culating or regulating the position of fingerholes placed in the second half

of the flute.

The

student

may wish to know what happens in the case of a flute having

when brought up for a test there is bound to be

equidistant fingerholes

a lengthening of the half-wave

due

to the excess diameter, with its implication

of a drop in pitch.
Is every

modal flute then subject to an interruption of the modal sequence

The answer
The two

is

a negative.

flutes

'

Sensa

'

and

operation of this law of diameters.

Sensa

'

Whereas

will serve to illustrate the

',

(1)

an excess in the diameter

has a direct lengthening influence on the half-sound- wave

(2)

an

I.

D.

in

excess of the proportional increment exercises a shortening influence on the

sound-wave. Thus No. 2 frequently counteracts No. 1. Flutes belonging

to Class i, having a proportional I.D. identical with the actual, and flutes
in Class ii, having an I.D. in excess of the proportional, may be expected
to react differently to this Chinese formula.
Once the flute has been
made, nothing can be done to modify the excess diameter which becomes
active in the

upper half of the

flute.

PURITY OF INTONATION IN MODAL FLUTES, IN SPITE OF EXCESS DIAMETER IN

UPPER HALF OF PIPE
Hitherto

when

a flute of Class

ii,

such as

'

Sensa

',

has holes bored

beyond the half of the flute, and yet preserves a purity in intonation and
an undisturbed modal sequence, the fact has been explained through the
operation of the Incremental All. No. 7 which, at such points, has not
attained the length corresponding to a nodal point and has thus remained
Records show, in the case of Sensa C of Class i, an interrupted
sequence caused by the opposite occurrence, viz. an Incremental All. No. 7
brought into active function at a nodal point (see Hole 6).
Are these two contrasted influences the one lengthening, the other
shortening then merely two attempts to explain an observed fact ?
We shall endeavour to show that the respective activity or latency of
the operation of the Chinese formula, and of the Incremental All. No. 7,
are both controlled by the strong proportional impulse in the modal flute.
inactive.

'

'

In

Sensa

'

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

263
the half length at -466/2 = -233 is reached at Hole 7,
The diameter = -023 should be reduced
02 *
3
3 5o _ OI 2
half, viz.
but s una ltered
therefore,
C

centred at -235 from embouchure.

upper

in the

1 ^2
.

0068

excess diameter in second half of the flute,

The Incremental

is

mm.

023

=
^

-0117.

doubled

All.

identical within

the half-increment

which

on the half-wave therefore -0068 X 2

No. 7 = -00215 X 6 = -0129.

as a lengthening influence

These are

-0136.

both overstep the nodal point

Therefore in

'

Sensa

',

either

at

of

modal sequence at Hole 7,

merely a coincidence.
however,
cumulative,
increment by
is
7,

these two factors explains the interruption of the

but this apparent identity

The

Incremental

is

No.

All.

increment, whereas the excess diameter

The Record

of

'

Sensa

'

for

is

constant at -0136 at each hole.

Hole 8 shows

that the cumulative incre-

mental allowance alone can account for the drop in pitch of the note, to
the frequency of a ratio due at one and a half increment lower than that
of Hole 8.
In the flute Sensa A the conditions are different the modal sequence
from Hole 6 at the half-length is uninterrupted. What has become of the
1

',

excess diameter with

is
'

lengthening influence in this flute

its

The diameter

the same in both flutes, -023 and the excess likewise at -068.

Sensa

(Class

'

ii)

the actual I.D., carrying

its

own

But

in

allowance exceeds

by -0045 (cumulatively per increment).

But this lengthening of the I.D. from -0235 to -028 exercises a shortening
influence, since it centres each fingerhole -0045 nearer the embouchure,
and thus serves to counteract the lengthening by excess diameter of the
half-wave.
There is a further reduction of length, which is due to the
Incremental All. No. 7 latent at this point, therefore, the balance is completely restored and there is neither flattened pitch nor is the sequence
the proportional I.D.

interrupted at Holes 6 or

0068

7, viz.

excess diameter at upper half of flute.

k

allowance borne by actual I.D., being

its

excess over the

proportional I.D.

Incremental
00666

Thus

=
in

No.

7x1.

aggregate shortening factors.

'

Sensa

both halves of the flute

This

All.

'

is

the excess length due to the equal diameter in

cancelled, or reduced to vanishing point at tl mm.
Chinese formula for dealing

illustration of the operation of the

flute, which has

been applied to specimens of the two most important classes of modal flutes,
considerations
which
technical
as
an
indication
of
the
nature
of
the
suffices
enter into the successful plotting and making of a modal flute. N.B.
the
selection
of
careful
therefore,
should
be
given
to
most
thought,
The
the I.D. which should exceed the exact proportional increment by several

with the excess diameter present in the second half of the

THE GREEK AULOS

264
millimetres,

more

especially

when Hole

has been correctly centred according

to formula.

TYPES OF FLUTES OTHER THAN THE TRANSVERSE

The

formulae, introduced in these pages for dealing with the technical

features brought into play in the making, testing

modal

flutes,

apply equally to other types of

and functioning of cylindrical

flute,

with certain reservations.

In the case of the transverse flute all formulae used in the computation
of the allowance in respect of diameter contain (A
d) in addition to one

whole diameter, the implication of which is that the mouth-hole deprives

the diameter of the embouchure end, open as far as the stopper, of its
full complement
therefore, in the vertical or obliquely held open flute,
devoid of mouth-hole and merely having the edge thinned, two whole
;

diameters are required instead of one.

Moreover, in measuring the length of the

flute,

the point at which the

breath-stream strikes the inner wall in producing the note

at that

end

the point varies at from 10 to 20

is

mm., according

the terminus

to the position

of the flute and the calibre of the bore.

In the notched

such as the Inca, the horizontal line of notch

flute,

is

the terminal point, and the length of this horizontal part of the notch replaces

the diameter of embouchure in the formula.

The same

applies to the Apple flute

and recorder.

THE TRANSVERSE FLUTE IN ANCIENT INDIA

SARANGDEV

brief reference

was made above

as early as the fifth century a.d., not

also

on the side-blown

The

flute,

TREATISES BY

BHARATA AND

to the use of cross-fingering in India

on the reed-blown pipe

the ancestor of our concert

earliest representation of the transverse flute

only, but

flute.

known

to the writer,

moreover, occurs on an Indian bas-relief, dating from the

first or second
This unique document on the ancestry of the flute is to be
Museum (on the grand staircase) on the sculptures of
the rail of the Tope of Amaravati 1 (Madras Presidency).
In a scene
depicting dancing to the music of flute, strings and drum, the flute is seen
blown from left to right it seems to have six or seven fingerholes. The
side-blown flute does not appear to have been traced in Ancient Egypt,
although the Nay, a cylindrical flute without mouthpiece, open at both
ends, and merely thinned at the edge to facilitate blowing, is seen on many
of the most ancient monuments
it is still popular at the present day.
The Amaravati specimen, therefore, represents for the present the prototype from the East of our flute
but at that stage at the beginning of
our era all precise information as to its scale is lacking. A few centuries

century A.D.

seen at the British

1
An outline reproduction of the bas-relief is given in the Enc. Brit., xi ed., Vol. 10,
Flute ', by Victor Mahillon and K. Schlesinger.
full documentation
of other representations of the instrument in historical sequence is included in
the article.

p. 580, s.v.

'

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

more

later,

definite indications

265

of the structure,

compass, modality and

made

available for investigators

theory of the flute are found in two treatises,

by Joanny Grosset, who published in 1897 a translation of Bharata's work

on the Drama which includes a section on music and musical instruments.
In his contribution to the Encyclopedie de la Musique, 1 Grosset has given
considerable extracts from the Natya-shastra of Bharata, and from the

Sangita-ratnakara of Sarangdev (thirteenth century a.d.) containing valuable

information concerning the structure of Krishna's venerated instrument

Hymns, and

the vamga, mentioned already in the Vedic

later

known

as

the murali flute, and at the present day as pillagovi and hamuli or bansri.

The measurements, 2

translated

Sarangdev used the angula or

by Grosset
digit

into millimetres, are precise

-019 as unit

he gives a table of

from 14 angulas = -266

to 48 = -914
this being the length of the whole bamboo.
Included in
this total length were (1) the head joint (not necessarily movable) containing the stopper, and (2) the space between the exit and the first hole,
invariably used as vent, and left uncovered, thus avoiding the difficulties
involved in allowances in respect of diameter. The head joint often of
15

vamca

flutes

and 2 murali, graduated

in length

considerable length in Eastern flutes, probably for the purpose of balance

is given by Grosset

4 angulas for the smallest flute, measuring

the ratios of increase for the longer instruments

as of 2, 3 or

-266
but 14 angulas
are not given and the same remark applies also to other measurements.

The

from the embouchure

but the distance from exit

distance

to the top or eighth hole

is

given

to Hole 1 given at 2 angulas

-038
can only apply to the smallest flute of the set, as also the diameters of the
bore (given as that of the little finger) of the embouchure (as having a
circumference of one angula = c. -006), an impossibility in long flutes,
for each flute,

and of the fmgerholes

tance given at J angula
holes,

(of a small filbert or olive).

which adds about

The

increment of dis-

-0095 does not include. the diameter of the finger-0095, bringing the increment to a length of one

angula.
It

may

at

once be said that the

table, as

it

stands, with

its

technical

as supplemented by Grosset's explanations derived from

Bharata and Sarangdev, are contradictory and impracticable, as will be
seen further on. As an instance, the number of angulas between embou-

implications,

chure and the eighth or top hole would thus correspond to the same number
of I.D., to which must always be added the seven increments between the
together these constitute the Modal Determinant.
It
at once evident that the Modal Determinant thus indicated could only
produce the diatonic scale given in the table, in flutes numbered 3 to 7
eight fingerholes

is

Edited

by Alb.

Lavignac,

Librairie

Delagrave,

Paris,

1913-14.

'

Inde

'

Fasc. 11, pp. 353 sqq.

2

The measurements

appear to be based upon those introduced by al-Mamun,

son of Haroun al-Raschid, which are referred to the meridian mile, containing
each cubit = 24 digits
4,000 cubits
each digit = 6 barley-corns
each barleycorn = 6 hairs of a camel {A Discourse of the Roman Foot and Denarius, by John
Greaves, Prof, of Astron., Oxf., 1647).
;

266

No.

e.g. for

sequence

the

M.D.

12345678

Holes

Modal

Thus

ratios

Indian scale given

sa

ri

ga

ma

pa

dha

ni

(so)

is of a Septimal tone 8/7, after which come

Minor and Major
a 4th, a 5th and an octave
this
There is manifestly an error somewhere, probably in

the smallest interval

three 3rds, Septimal,

is

THE GREEK AULOS

= 8 and the holes would inevitably give the following

no diatonic

scale.

In flutes 8 to 17, the scale normally obtained

from the fingerholes would be chromatic or enharmonic
the compass of
the last half-dozen flutes could not exceed an Augmented 5th.
It will
now be shown, by working out the implications of the measurements given
by Grosset, for flute No. 12, that the I.D. and the diameters given could
only apply at most to the six shortest flutes.
the evaluation of the I.D.

IMPLICATIONS INFERRED FROM SARANGDEV'S TABLE OF

EQUIDISTANT FINGERHOLES
Fig. 51.

To

The

MODAL FLUTES WITH

15

Technical Implications of Sarangdev's Flute No. 12

No. 12 (aditya) as an example the dimensions are the following

by Grosset in italics
their implications worked out by the present writer

take flute

as given

in ordinary type.

= 704
= -228
= -038)

Total length of bamboo, 37 angulas

Length from emb. to Hole 8, 12 angulas

From

vent to exit, 2 angulas

The head joint, 5 angulas. Grosset

I.D. from Grosset, \ angula

gives 4 for smallest flute

diameter of finger-hole estimated as of small

095\

0095)
oo9S J

filbert

-133

019
(1

Hole 1 as vent therefore -704 -133

(head + exit to Hole 1) = -571 modal length
There are 12 angulas from emb. to Hole 8
^ =

7 increments of dist. or angulas from Holes 1 to 8

Distance between emb. and Hole 1 according to Grosset's
Length from emb.

angula)

to

-228
-(

-133

data

-361

(See Grosset, op.

cit.,

-361

pp. 353-4.)

Thus, this distance between embouchure and Hole i should be -361

and not -571, if Grosset's estimate of the I.D. at -019 be correct
and
there would be 19 I.D., i.e. 12 + 7.
The allowance for diameter might
add one increment, 19 I.D. + 1 = 20 as Modal Determinant for a flute
;

of Class

ii.

But according to Grosset

the length from embouchure to Hole

I.D. for approximate allowance

^=
20

The

=
+

-571

-019

59
-0295
yj I.D.

implied

M.D.

20.

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

equivalent of the I.D.

267

more convincing than his estimate of the

moreover, the Modal Determinant 20 implied by

Grosset's table of lengths

is

Grosset's data gives the following scale which bears no resemblance to the
diatonic scale of his Table.
Fig. 52.

Modal

Sequence implied by Grosset's Increment of Distance.

Determinant 20

Modal

Ratios of notes produce a compass of a flattened minor 6th.

Holes.
2

20

19

18

17

16

is

20

20

20

20

if
20

3
20

Modal

ratios

Cents 89
maj. 3rd 5/4

perfect 4th 4/3

flattened

the just

386

20

20

J05

98-8

93-5

128
119-4
= Total of 746 cents

1X2

cents

498

cents

minor 6th 20/13

= 814

minor 6th

746

cents

cents.

may, however, be suggested that Grosset's I.D. be read as 1 to 3

angulas (in any case the estimate based on \ angula is impossible for any
It

but the smallest of the

flutes)

then 2 angulas
diameter of hole

=
+

-038

-0105

0485)

=
Allowance for diameter

-049

A =

new

I.D. suggested by K.S.

-014

diameter of fingerhole

A =
A
A

diameter of emb.

-009

-009.

-oi4\

d of emb. -005
6 of holes -005

Allowance -024!

-024

595
Fig. 53.

The Modal Determinant

Length from emb.

to

12

12

(+

"007)

Modal

may

Modal Determinant.

Determinant 12

alternatively

Hole 8 (Grosset)

7 increments of distance holes

....

be ascertained thus

to 8 (K. S.)

-22S
-343

49 x 7

diameter allowance as above

.57!
.

-024

595

THE GREEK AULOS

2 68

On

long flutes played by

would not be
Fig. 54.

men

with long, slender fingers, an I.D.

-049

excessive.

Modal Sequence produced by I.D. of 2 Angulas

(

049).

Diameter of Fingerhole

Modal Determinant 12

Holes
2

Modal

_5

ratios

12
12

11

10

12

12

_9
12

12

12

Cents

12

12

I
I

131

182

165

= 316 cents
= 4g8 cents
perfect 5th = 702 cents
sharpened major 6th =

231

204

316

267

minor 3rd

perfect 4th

By
thus

933

cents

half-stopping, the second half of the scale

Holes

Modal

ratios

567
16

14

from Hole

would run

11-10

13-12

Holes 7 and 8 each giving two notes. The scale would then be that of
the Phrygian Harmonia.
The alternatives here offered are
(1) The Modal Scale of Determinant 20 (Fig. 52) implied by a literal
reading of Grosset's table, which yields a chromatic scale of semitones of
graduated magnitudes instead of a diatonic scale.
(2) The Modal Scale of Determinant 12 (Fig. 54), based upon a conjectural reading by the present writer of Sarangdev's vaguely expressed
measurements, supported by the inference that Grosset's dimensions and
indications, supplied in the text, apply only to the smallest flutes of the
set, and should be gradually increased with the length of the flutes, as
practice demands.
The table of the set of 15 graduated flutes derived from Sarangdev's
treatise on the Drama
even considered without its implications is sufficient to establish the fact that the musical system of Hindustan, as used
:

Drama

opening of the thirteenth century, was still the ancient

Modal System, uninfluenced by the influx of Mohammedan musicians and
theorists with their non-modal system, to be discussed further on.
in the

at the

THE TRANSVERSE FLUTE IN EVOLUTION IN EUROPE

There is reason to believe that the transverse flute, although not a

popular instrument, was not unknown in Central and Western Europe
during the early centuries of our era. Representations of the instrument,
dating from the ninth century, exist in illuminated manuscripts and other
works of Art. 1
1

Information of a practical and theoretical nature concerning

References to these will be found in the article Flute

10, pp. 580 and 581, by V. M. and K. S.

ed., Vol.

'

'

in the Enc. Brit., xi

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

the structure

and

scale of the flute are entirely lacking previous to

269

Virdung

and Agricola's contributions to the subject.

The schemes of Agricola for cross-fingering on the flute provide an
important confirmation of the survival of the two musical systems which
we have already traced in contemporaneous operation in Ancient Greece,
Evidence exists of the survival or
in Asia Minor and in North Africa.
rebirth of the genuine Modal System, on the one hand, based upon the
ancient Aulos Harmoniai, and of the non-modal standard scale of tones
and semitones on the other, to which, we have reason to believe, the early
keyboard scale of hydraulic and pneumatic organs and later of clavichord,
spinet, harpsichord, &c, was tuned.
There is convincing evidence, set forth in former chapters, that the
inception and development of the P.I.S. in Ancient Greece, as well as the
system of Greek musical notation, based upon modal ratios, originated
with the Aulos Harmoniai. The exigencies of modality and of the Modal
Species, however, determined the eventual formation of the P.I.S., as a
system of degrees modelled upon those of the Dorian Harmonia. Since
the nomenclature of the degrees, inspired by the use of the Dorian Kithara
as chief exponent of the Harmonia, took no cognizance of ratios, or indeed
of intervals, the P.I.S. became equally suited to the development of the
ditonal scale of the theorists, or to the keyboard scale in just intonation.
The fatal ease with which the ditonal scale could be explained and demonstrated in theory
even if there were frequent revolts against it in practice
fascinated the Graeco-Roman theorists and their medieval followers. 2
The theory of the Aulos Harmoniai was never formulated, as far as
can be ascertained, outside the schools of the Harmonists, so that only
meagre shreds of evidence, disjointed or inferential, were available for
contemporary theorists. 3
Nevertheless, the Harmoniai have survived, preserved by reed-blown
pipes and flutes, and fostered by the partiality of the Folk for those instruments and for melodic music. 4 Chief among the partisans of the ditonal
scale were the Mohammedan Arabs.
But the traditional music of the Arabs
at the time of the Mohammedan conquests was undoubtedly based upon
the Harmoniai which are still in use among the Eastern Arabs and Persians

at the present day.

1
2

See Virdung's contribution and title of book, supra.

careful and comprehensive record of the long succession of expositions of

on the monochord is available in Das Monochord als Instrument u. ah

System, von Sigfrid Wantzloeben (Halle-a.-S., Max Niemeyer, 191 1). The work
very fully documented with valuable references.
3
Ptolemy has not furnished any theory of the genesis of the Harmoniai, although
he has recorded the ratios of some of the modal tetrachords, e.g. the Diatonon
12
11
10 9
Homalon
-, and the tetrachords of Didymus, Archytas (diatonic),
10
11
8
9
Eratosthenes. Ptolemy has preserved a rigid silence on the Greek system of notation,

this scale

is

which may indicate that he was not in touch with the teachings of the Harmonists.
4
See Chaps, viii and ix, Survival or Rebirth of the Harmoniai in Folk Music
'

'.

THE GREEK AULOS

270

THE DITONAL SCALE ADOPTED BY THE ARABS

The zeal displayed by Arabian scholars such as those gathered round

him by Haroun al-Raschid at Bagdad in the study of the Greek theorists,
tempted them also to adopt the ditonal scale in theory, and possibly

exceptionally in practice.

The

was borne along with them

scale

in their victorious

march through

Persia to India, across Northern Africa, to Spain.

In the Iberian peninsula

stream met the original ditonal stream flowing
through Southern Europe, which may be traced in the pages of early medieval

this propagandist musical

from the monasteries, on the theory of music that generally

included a section on the divisions of the monochord. 1 But although the

tracts, issuing

ditonal scale flourished greatly in their theoretical treatises,

whether

it

elapsed,

if

became firmly rooted

it

is

doubtful

until some centuries had

by Al-Farabl* of the Auloi (Tibiae)
having fingerholes at equal distances
and of the equidistant frets of the
Tanbur of Bagdad, leave no room for doubt that the traditional music of
the folk, and of the celebrated Arabian minstrels, still remained true to
the Aulos Harmoniai.
Before Al-Farabi's data on flutes and pipes can be
examined in some detail, a brief digression must be made on the origin

The

ever.

in practice

descriptions

of our major scale, for which, in

of music,

we

common

with

many

features of our theory

are indebted to Ancient Greece.

THE DUPLICATION OF THE FIRST TETRACHORD IN THE OCTAVE SCALE

The

Harmonia is identical with the

G to C) of our major scale in just intonation
from the first (from C to F) only in the relative positions
of the major (9/8) and the minor (10/9) tones.
The Harmonia in its natural genesis is composed of two entirely different
tetrachords, each characteristic of one of the seven Harmoniai.
Our major
first

tetrachord of the Hypolydian

second tetrachord (from

and

it

differs

scale consists of duplicated tetrachords, similar if not identical, according

to whether the reference

is to just or to tempered intonation.

Thus, in contradistinction to the Harmonia with its octave unit, our
major scale is based upon a tetrachordal unit. The duplication of the
first tetrachord of the Harmonia has a twofold origin.
In both instances
the duplication arises from the operation of a technical device.
The first
occurred, on the Aulos when the vibrating tongue of the beating-reed

See Mart. Gerbert, Script. Eccles. de Mus.

3 vols,

with Indices (San Blasius,

1784).
2
See Kosegarten, who has provided extensive extracts in Latin translation from
Al-Farabi's treatise Kitabu L-Musiqi al-Kabir, in the Introduction to Alii Ispahanensis Liber Cantilenarum ... ex codicibus manu Scriptis Arabice editus
ab Joanne G. L. Kosegarten, Gripesvoldiae, 1840. (Latin and Arabic Tibiae, see
'

'

pp. 95-105)-

See also the French translation by Baron Carra de Vaux in Baron Rodolphe
D'Erlanger's series La Musique Arabe, Tome ler, Al-Farabi Paris, 1930, pp. 268 sqq.
Also Rouanet, La Musique Arabe ', Encycl. de la Musique, Hist, de la Musique,
Paris, 1922, pp. 2696 and passim.
;

'

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

271

mouthpiece, shortened by pressure of the lips to the extent of a third of

its length, raised to the dominant the pitch of the fundamental, and of

The result was an octave

it was uncovered.
two tetrachords, identical in structure but differing in
by a 5th and this was achieved upon an Aulos with but three holes
When this proceeding
if the modal sequence began with the fundamental.
was carried out upon a Hypolydian Aulos, the result was our major scale.
each hole in succession as
scale consisting of

pitch

The

in

mouthpiece
Greece has already been described and illustrated

significance of this ingenious treatment of the beating-reed

on the Aulos
Chapter

in Ancient

ii.

A somewhat similar result may have been obtained at an early date

on the flute under certain conditions, e.g. on a flute with three or four
holes and a low fundamental, sounded with difficulty, weak and veiled in
quality, so that the piper used the harmonic register in preference.
He
obtained his scale by overblowing the fundamental and three holes an
octave, e.g. c, d, e, /, then closing all holes and overblowing a 12th, he
would, on a Hypolydian flute, such as the Graeco-Roman from the Bucheum
(see Chap, x, Record), repeat the same tetrachord on the dominant, e.g.
Arabian theorists regard Modal
g, a, b, c, and thus play our major scale.
Scales with duplicated tetrachords as the true Modes, and the octave
Harmoniai, with their two different characteristic tetrachords, as mixed
Modes which, of course, is the natural viewpoint for theorists accustomed
to computing in terms of tetrachordal units.
Attention is first drawn to the importance of the octave in the Greek
musical system by the record that Pythagoras added an 8th string to the
Kithara for the octave, and by the persistent recognition by the theorists
of the Harmonia as an octave scale.
;

not

In a study of musical instruments of the Ancients our interest does

lie solely, or even mainly, in the instrument itself, but rather in its

significance in relation to the evolution of musical systems

and

scales,

and

again not to these alone, but also to the stimulating psychological and

each individual type of instrument.

Although the study of stringed instruments is usually considered more
attractive than that of wind instruments, its value to the advancement of

scientific influence of

our knowledge of the foundations of the art and science of music is considerably less
with the possible qualified exception of instruments with
There is nothing in the length of the strings, in their
fretted necks.
arrangement, that is revealing
moreover, since the tension of the strings,
as ultimate determinant of pitch is by nature unstable, and liable to vary
:

with temperature, the value of a stringed instrument as a record is nil.

On the other hand, it is impossible to stress too heavily the importance,
as records, of flutes and reed-blown pipes with lateral fingerholes, as long

remain intact from embouchure to

exit.
Such is the subtlety of
wood-wind instruments, upon which their scales
sound production depend, that one may
search in vain in the sources for any definite information on the subject
of these instruments, as used from antiquity up to the fourteenth or fifteenth

as they

the laws embodied in

and

their capabilities in regard to

THE GREEK AULOS

272

Even where some measurements or

century.

been given,

As

it

details of construction

have

generally found that the essentials have been omitted.

is

soon, however, as the significance and implications of the equal

spacing of fingerholes or frets have been recognized, a working basis is

available
modality has been established
and it may happen that the
:

ratio of

one single interval identified

a case in point

In order to
of the flute
chapters),

is

will give the clue to the

Harmonia

introduced further on.

and

in the gaps in our practical

fill

theoretical

from Graeco-Roman sources (already discussed

we must

knowledge
in previous

turn to Syrio-Arabic sources.

THE MODAL FLUTE IN SYRIO-ARABIC SOURCES

AL-FARABI 's EVIDENCE

any other known method

and the intervals of the scale on
the wind instruments, Al-Farabi, the most eminent Arabian authority on
music, makes use for the purpose, of the accordance and fretting of the
lute, which he has previously explained in detail.
But in this experiment,
Al-Farabi has attempted to fuse two antitheses
(i) the ditonal scale of
the Hellenic theorists applied to the lute, and (2) the unequivocally Modal
System of the pipes in traditional use among the minstrels, singers and
lutenists, but which was only dimly realized by Arabian theorists
and
of which no attempt to explain the modality implicit in equal-spacing of
frets on the Tanbur of Bagdad, or of the fingerholes in flutes, was made

Here a curious

situation arises

in default of

of describing the production of sound,

anterior to the Treatise of Safi-ed-Din

(c.

1292).

Equal-spacing, explained as to procedure, but not as to modality and

Modal Determinant, and

was attempted in terms of

what has been called the Messel Theory, to which attention was drawn by
2
Purgstall,
and
later by Hugo Riemann 3
Kiesewetter and von Hammer
neither of these, however, draws a deduction from the theory which bears
upon modality.
their implications,

In Al-Farabi 's

treatise there are sources of information

concerning the

which appear sound and reliable, as far as

when compared with the attempts
of other writers, including Ptolemy.
On the acoustics of flutes and cylindrical pipes, Al-Farabi
amongst some few erroneous notions has much
to say that is confirmed by acousticians of the present day.
1
Le Traits des Rapports Musicaux ou l'Epitre a Scharaf ed-Din. par Safi
ed-Din 'Abd El-Mumin Albaghdadi
par M. le Baron Carra de Vaux (extrait du
Journal Asiatique) (Paris, 1891). See also Paris, Bibl. Nat. Arab. MSS., No. 2479,
reed-blown pipe and the

they go.

They

flute

are surprisingly lucid

'

',

Bodl. Lib. Oxf. MS., No. 992, fol. 30.

Perser, by Kiesewetter and von Hammer-Purgstall, 1842.
Contains translations of excerpts from Mahmud Schirazi's Dtirret ed Tadsh (a Persian
Encyclopaedist, died 1315), Al-Shirazi, Brit. Mus. Add. MSS. 7694, fol. 217a.
3
Hugo Riemann gives a revised version of the excerpts dealing with the Messel

dated 1492
2

Musik der Araber u

His
in Studien z. Geschichte d. Notenschrift (Leipz, 1878), pp. 77-85.
is conjectural, as he had not access to the original Arabic source.
Riemann's Gesch. d. Musiktheorie (Berlin, 2nd ed.), 1898, p. 394, contains a reference to the Messel Theory and a suggestion that the perfected system of the Persians
was that of the Messel.

Theory
version

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

273

THE INFLUENCE OF DIAMETER RECOGNIZED BY PTOLEMY

In the matter of the influence of diameter in cylindrical pipes, he goes
one step further than Ptolemy 1 who recognized the significance of diameter,
without, however, being ready with a formula for the practical definition

on

of its influence

upon

Al-FarabI, relying

pitch.

(which

ratio of length in strings

is

his

knowledge of the

in inverse proportion to the ratio of vibra-

an excusable error when he advances

the theory that in cylindrical pipes of equal length, but differing proportionally in diameter
breath and other factors being equal the notes of
tion in pitch frequencies), has fallen into

these several pipes will vary in inverse proportion to the ratios of their

diameters {op.

D'Erl., p. 266).
the influence of diameter in such
a cardinal error
cit.,

This is
and flutes consists in an

addition,

to the length of the flute

open pipes
by the amount of the diameter taken twice,

and, therefore, diameter does not affect the pitch

by addition, e.g.
and B, blown from one end, the dimensions are

of the note proportionally, but only

In two pipes,

length -270

length -270

diameter 014) ratio

diameter 021)2 13

the influence of diameter by formula

length -270

length -270

+
+

582

v.p.s.

= -298
= -312
=D

544

v.p.s.

x
x

(A
(A

2
2

=
=

34
298

B
1

Op.

Greek
Tigog

cit.,

Lib.

text, p.

& del ra

17

i,

ftrjxr]

Cap.

8, ed.

Ptol., Lib.

Cap.

8,

-042)

C#

but see ed. Ingemar During, vol. 1,

During, p. 17, line 4. hi teal rd niqoxa

Wallis, p. 33
i,

-028)

'

naQafidXXeLv, h> nldxsi tiwq xadiaraxat field xov nai xaBoXov xoiq

nXeiGTOiq rebv ifmvevarwv ogydvcov, &c.

ii, p. 35
Sind noch dann die Endpiinkte an denen
Lange messen muss, nicht sicher festzustellen [no mention of width or
Commentary, p. 182 (text), p. 17, 5
'ev nMrei mas', vgl. 4, 20.
meint dass die Lange der Luftsaule zwischen Mundstiick u. Bohrlochern
nicht so genau bestimmt werden kann.'
[To this one might add
da sie auch
vom Durchmesser der Luftsaule abhangt.' K. S.]

Diiring's translation, vol.

man

'

die

'

diameter].
'

Ptol.

'

The

failure of the Translator to recognize in

nk&xsi the diameter of the pipe

or flute leads to a confusion of facts and does less than justice to Ptolemy's acumen.
The implication of this statement by Ptolemy (i, 8) which appears also in
Porphyry's Commentary (see our Chap, iii, p. 130-1) is that a given measurable length
of pipe between embouchure and exit does not produce the expected note of exact
pitch that the same length of string would yield
therefore another factor, viz.
width {nkaxog), as yet undetermined, must also be taken into account. This factor
of width can only refer to the diameter of the bore
it cannot apply to fingerholes
(as has been suggested) for two cogent reasons
(1) Ptolemy's passage is addressed
throughout to Syrinx and Aulos
the Syrinx has no fingerholes.
(2) Diameter in fingerholes takes effect solely on the individual note of any
given fingerhole, and not at all on the fundamental of the flute which is the point
at issue here.
The passage reveals the fact that Ptolemy's main preoccupation
was to discover in underlying principle of acoustics, of which practical use could
be made in the determination of the sounds produced by musical instruments.
-8

THE GREEK AULOS

274

The

difference in pitch

due

to diameter is that of a chromatic interval

or approximate semitone, whereas the proportional ratio of the two diameters

Further on, however, Al-Farabi recognizes the

necessity for further discussion on the question of ratios of length and
frequencies of pitch in flutes and pipes, 1 reaching the following conclusions
which pave the way for discrepancies between theory and practice. They
is

that of a Perfect 5th.

are thus voiced

by Al-Farabi

'
:

Unde

sit

ut quantitates (sive potentiae)

sonorum, qui ex foraminibus singulis prodeunt non semper respondeant

spatiis quae inter foramina et locum inflandi interposita sunt
(p. 98,
'

Koseg.).

In

Arabian scholar reveals a definite advance on his

Greek Sources, for although he has only apprehended a negative principle
and cannot supply the positive correlative it is nevertheless true as far as
this passage the

it

goes.

In describing the reed-blown pipes in use in his own country, Al-Farabi

gives more precise practical data concerning their structure and capabilities.
AL FARA.BI DESCRIBES FLUTES AND PIPES WITH EQUIDISTANT FINGERHOLES
First and foremost comes the important fact that the seven fingerholes
between exit and embouchure at equal distances
In ima parte orificiorum paratur aeri recta via abeunti
from one another :
in dorso foramina septem terebrantur spatiis interiectis aequalibus.' 2
In addition it is stated that two more fingerholes were bored in the back
of the pipe, the first near exit, and the second between the last two holes
near embouchure. The significance of the disposition of the fingerholes at
equal distances, although duly observed, was not more clearly realized by
the Arabian theorist than it was by his Greek predecessors.

are disposed in a straight line

'

1
Kosegarten, op. cit., p. 96, lines 8 to 5, from bottom. Al-Farabi, fol. 76a.
77r,
Gravitas et acumen sonorum ab Tibiis editorum qua ratione longitudine
amplitudine (diameter), cavi atque orificiorum varia porro levitate et asperitate
cavi orificiorumque, et denique spatiis inter foramina dorsi interpositis, rebusque
aliis temperentur [fol. 76a. et 77r.] diligenter exponit
(Koseg., loc. cit.).
The translation of these pages from the Arabic MS. is not given nor can it be
traced in D'Erlanger's edition but only a translation of the above, p. 268.
2
This passage has been mistranslated in the French edition {op. cit., p. 269,
lines 3-4) thus
L'instrument comporte sept ouvertures transversales d'e'gal
diametre percees sur sa face superieure.'
It is evident that if Kosegarten's Latin version is a correct translation of this
passage, to apply the equality to the diameter of the fingerholes, instead of to the
spacing between them, is both erroneous and unmeaning
it is, moreover, incompatible with the results of our research among flutes and reed-blown pipes of primitive folk in the East, e.g. the Zamr, or primitive oboe, still in use at the present day
by the Arabs along the coast of Northern Africa (of which I possess a specimen),
has the fingerholes bored at equal distances, whereas the diameter of the fingerholes
may vary by a millimetre or two.
Equidistant fingerholes bear a highly significant implication, involving the
whole of the Modal System of music, whereas equal diameter of fingerholes is an
individual concern involving niceties of intonation, modification of timbre, or merely
greater facility in fingering for the finger-hole in question alone, and in reed-blown
instruments this makes only an infinitesimal difference, if any, in the pitch of the note

and

'

et

'

'

THL CYLINDRICAL MODAL

FLU'ili

275

Al-Farabi's guarded statements concerning agreement between the notes

of the pipes and lutes are strictly qualified

he acknowledges,

it is difficult,

one hears from these wind instruments.

to identify accurately the notes

He

describes the scale of several varieties of pipes, relating the degrees of

sequence approximately to the notes given by the frets of the lute, but
he adds that these flutes frequently play notes for which the frets of the

their

'

no equivalent

lute provide
frets

(D'Erl, op.

'

The

musicians

cit.,

who

these

must be found on the

the notes corresponding to both

Wosta

(the fret for the

Binsir (for the ring finger) on the lute (see

Lute)

there

is

in fact, in

'

One

none

strings

between the

p. 276).

use these pipes only very exceptionally

most of the

for Binsir

figs,

pipes,' he adds,

'

make use

of

middle finger) and

of the accordance of the

if

there

is

a hole for Wosta,

'.

emerges clearly from Al-Farabi's statements on flutes and

They were bored with equidistant holes, and, therefore, with normal
fact

pipes.

fingering could only give one or other of the Harmoniai.

No

disjunct

octave scale with duplicated tetrachords could, therefore, under any conditions whatever, have originated

upon them.

Skilled pipers no doubt succeeded in eliciting from their pipes a

when used to accompany that instrument, by
one of the several devices, such as cross-fingering, of which a
confused and vague attempt at explanation is made (D'Erl., p.

of the lute scale

half-stopping, or

by means of

semblance
employing

somewhat
by
271)
;

certain manipulations of the straw or reed-

mouthpiece.

At

this point

some reference

seems to be called
the lute
(1)

to the accordance and fretting of the lute

Al FarabI describes three principal accordances for

for.

The

ancient traditional Persian and Arabian accordance for the lute

of four strings tuned in 4ths, e.g. A, D, G,

(2)

The accordance

(Koseg., pp. 87-9).

tuned in 5ths (D'Erl.,

for the lute of four strings

p. 207).

(3)

An

accordance for the lute of four strings tuned to 4th,

5th,

4th. 1

the

BAMM

1st bass string

The 2nd

string

The 3rd

string

MATLAT

MATNA

4th

2ikL
and > a

-2
o

=;th

3rd)

The 4th

The

string

lute

had

frets

a 4th

^ZIR

extending over a tetrachord, which

at different

times

1
D'Erl., p. 213 ; Yahya ibn Ali ibn Yahya al-Munajjam an Nadim ; Brit. Mus.
Or. MS., No. 823, fol. 23611. to 238 v., ap. D'Erl., p. xxvii, or Or. MS. 2361, fol. 237,

Al-Kindi
Jaqub Ibn Ishdq Al-Kindi, Risald fi hubr ta lif al-alhan ', Ober die
Komposition der melodien Nach. d. Hds., Brit. Mus. Or. MS., No. 2361
Herauseg., von Robert Lachmann und Mahmud el-Hefni (Leipzig, 1931), Kap. 1, 3,
'

'

'

p.

22,

and Einleitung,

p. 7

see also fn.

8.

THE GREEK AULOS

276
varied in number,

were named

Open

and included

string,

fret,

The

four basic frets

Motlaq.

1st fret, forefinger,

2nd

alternative fingerings.

after the fingers thus

middle

Sdbbdbd = tone, 9/8.

Wosta = minor 3rd 6/5, or in the ditonal

finger,

scale

32/27.

3rd
4th

This

is

ditone 81/64, or major 3rd 5/4.

finger, Khinsir perfect 4th 4/3.

fret,

ring finger, Binsir

fret,

little

the earliest and simplest arrangement of the frets on the Arabian lute

most important of all for

our subject being known as the Wosta of Zdlzal, the ratio of which is given
by Al-Farabi as 27/22
its position is higher than that of the ordinary
Wosta. The note of this fret at a ratio of 27/22 with the open string, bears

to which, in time, several others were added, the

an implication of modality and

The

is

examined in detail further on.

neck of the lute in parallel

frets are stretched right across the

giving the same intervals on

in Accordance

No.

1,

all

the strings.

was the same

The

lines,

note of the Khinsir fret

as that of the next higher

open

string,

consequently the scale consisted of a series of conjunct tetrachords, identical

in structure.

An octave of identical duplicated tetrachords disjunct, such as our

major scale, was unobtainable with normal fingering on the frets.
For such a scale, a lute with Accordance No. 2 in 5ths, or No. 3 in 4th,
5th, 4th, would have to be used (see Figs. 55, 57, 58).
THE LUTE ACCORDANCE NO.

3,

INTRODUCED BY ISHAQ AL-MAUSILI (4TH,

STH, 4TH)

and flutes were used to accompany

be a matter of some interest to find an avenue
Harmonia of the wind instruments and the
predilection of the theorists for a ditonal scale on the lute.
With regard to our No. 3, Al-Farabi states (D'Erl., op. cit., pp. 213-14)
that this unusual accordance is obtained by increasing by a tone the ratio
between the 2nd and 3rd open strings (i.e. matlat and matna) so that the
third string matna gives the higher octave of the first open string (bamm).
This is clear and unequivocal
and the accordance is confirmed by
Al-Kindi. 1 Neither Al-Farabi nor Al-Kindi mentions Ishaq in connexion
with the accordance.
If,

as Al-Farabi states, the pipes

both voice and

lute, it will

of reconciliation between the

Ibn Ishaq Al-Kindi, c. 790 to c. 874, Risala. On the composition of meloaccording to Brit. Mus. Or. MS. 2361 with translation and commentary and Engby Robert Lachmann and Mahmud el-Hefhi (Leipzig, 1931). There
is no possible doubt that the accordance described by Al-Kindi in Cap. 1, 3, is the
one in which the two middle strings are tuned a 5th apart, i.e. if the open string of
(la).
This is described in
(re) then the open string of matna =
matlat =
the usual roundabout phraseology, but Al-Kindi clearly states that the open string
of matna would not sound the same note as that of the little finger (Khinsir) on MATLAT
(which invariably occurs when the strings are tuned in 4ths) for the matna would
be two 2rds the length of MATLAT (i.e. the ratio 3 2 of the 5th).
But, as the translators point out on p. 7 of the introduction, Al-Kindi, while
1

Ja'qiib

dies,

lish Intro., edited

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

ishaq's classification

277

by courses (majari) corresponding to the modal

SPECIES

Thus two
two middle

two conjunct tetrachords, while the

tuned a 5th apart, provide the disjunct octave, as in

pairs of strings each yield

strings,

Greek system, when the tetrachord synemmenon is

omitted
an extra note on Zir, a tone above the last fret for Khinsir, gives
Nete Hyperbolaion. Since the Arabian scholars are known to have been
working on translations of the Greek theorists, Euclid, Ptolemy, &c, the
source of Ishaq's inspiration is obvious, if not directly from those works,
of the

the P.I.S.
;

then through contact with the Christian

Monks

of Syria. 1

2
ben Ibrahim
Yahya (op. cit.), in which some
given of the innovations introduced by Ishaq
e.g. he maintained

This accordance of the lute

is

the one ascribed to Ishaq

al-Mausili in the fragmentary treatise of

details are

that there were ten notes to the octave, whereas the theorists pretended that

there were eighteen (this

number corresponds

to the eighteen diatonic notes

Greek P.I.S. inclusive of the tetrachord Synemmenon). Yahya plainly states that the first note called 'imAd (base or fundamental
the Greek ao%r)) is the open string of matna, and that the octave
of 'imad is Ishaq's 10th note, an extra note on the 4th string zir, found
without fret by slipping the little finger along, beyond the last fret, till a
note at an interval equal to that of Sabbabd (9/8 tone) on the open string
has been sounded. Yahya names the ten notes as they occur on the strings
of the double octave of the

acknowledging the accordance as practised, is opposed to such tuning. This conis confirmed by Al-Kindi himself further on (in 3, p. 22) when he directs
that the tension of matna must therefore be relaxed so that the
of matna (open

jecture

of matlat (i.e. = Khinsir, 4th fret).

accordance to his namesake Ishaq al-Mausili (a.d.
767-850), who nevertheless has been named as the innovator of this system by
Yahya, who studied with him.
1
In Al-Ispahani's Al-Aghani, amongst many incidents in Ishaq's career, it is
mentioned that he had not read any of the works of the Greek theorists, but had
come of himself upon his theories. See Rouanet, op. cit., p. 26946
Al-Aghani,
J
Koseg., op. cit., pp. 199-200.
vo. 339
338
2
Ishaq ibn Ibrahim al-Mausili (of Mosul) shared the wanderings of his father
in Persia and then settled down with him in Bagdad.
From the renowned Chronicler
of Arabian singers, pipers, and lutenists, Al-Ispahani (see Rouanet, op. cit., p. 2702
and passim), much is learnt concerning Ishaq and his innovations. Special praise
is accorded to Ishaq's treatise on the Majari or courses, which lead either through
the Wosta, or through the Binsir fret, and which he used in his classification of songs.
The Majari of Ishaq correspond with the modal species of the Greek theorists as
they occur in the P.I.S., with the difference that the Arabian musician had already
adopted the classification of scales through Binsir, the major 3rd, or through Wosta,
the minor 3rd, known in the West as the major and minor Modes. Taken in conjunction with Ishaq's accordance of the lute and his use of the Wosta of Zalzal,
these Majari afford valuable clues to the Octoechos of the early Greek Church in
Syria, a subject discussed in the Appendix to the present volume dealing with the

string) shall

become equal

Al-Kindi does not refer

to the
this

>

my

origin of the Ecclesiastical Modes.

brief reference to
conclusions on the
significance and importance of Ishaq's innovations appeared in the Introductory
Vol. of the Oxf. Hist, of Music, pp. 103-4, J9 2 9 (London, Milford, Oxf. Univ.
Press).

THE GREEK AULOS

278

matna and
matlat

adding that the notes of the other two strings bamm and
as those of matna and zir (i.e. an octave lower). 1

zir,

same

are the

Ishaq thus made a special point in his teaching of observing the funcand he insisted on the number of notes
more than that number were not to be found on lutes or
wood-wind instruments '. The fact was further emphasized by his notation
tional value of the octave as unit,

being ten

'

which consisted of the first ten letters of the Arabian

Alphabet, reduced numerically by the omission of Dal, the 4th letter, the
inference being that since the 4th fret on the first string matnA was the
for the ten notes,

same note as the open string of zir, Dal was not required
and the lower
octave would be noted with the same symbols as the first.
It is obviously
impossible for anyone familiar with the tuning and fretting of the early
;

Arabian lute

who

any doubt of
Fig. 55.

this

will take the trouble to

to entertain

go into the matter

being the accordance of Ishaq shown in the figure below.

Lute Accordance of Ishaq al-Mausili by 4th,

5th, 4th in the

Hypolydian

Species in the majra through Binsir

P en

30/20=3/2

4/3

string

.
,

BAMM

Motlaqof

4/3
a

'

15/20=30/40

20/20^

Sdbbdbd

MATNA

MATLAT

ZIR

20/20

15/20 =
30/40

18/20

27/40

17/20

26/40

>i/9

|=io/9
18/20

27/40J

5/4

Wosta

.5/4

4/3

26/40 f

17/20 f
Binsir

16/20

24/40.

16/20

24/40

15/20

22/40
20/40

Khinsir

22/40*

15/20

The double
8ve

extra

position

=on
* This sharpened 4th

20
t Ratios

17

13

498

(26/30)

15

cents

52
5i

39

cetits

337

zif.

cents

very slight difference

= +

34

cents.

may be compared with Fig. 59, showing the

sequence of the Hypolydian Species on the Aulos. (Ratios by K. S.) It will be noticed
how easily the scale of the pipe or flute may be accommodated to that of the lute (thus tuned)
for two octaves of duplicated tetrachords by means of slight cross-fingering of Khinsir (normally
The

accordance of Ishaq for the Lute

gives a sharpened 4th).

The Dorian Spondaic Harmonia, or Terpander, Scale of ratios 11, io, 9, 8, 7, 6, n, will
be found on this lute, as species, by using the frets, thus
Binsir.
matna motlaq.
Sdbb.
sabb. zir.
KH. matl.
Binsir
Khinsir
18/40 [76|/4o
u/40
22/40
20/40
14/40
12/40
This is the Harmonia on the Elgin Aulos at the Brit. Mus., on the Graeco-Roman
Bucheum flute, the Inca, Java i and ii, and many others.
:

Rouanet, op.

cit.,

pp. 2701-2.

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

279

Ishaq's contribution to the early theory of Arabian music

is

of great

development of modality, with its insistence on the value

f the octave unit, emphasized by his accordance, and by his classification
of melodies by majra (course, similar to the Greek Modal Species) (see
fn. 2, p. 277, on Ishaq).
significance in the

THE WOSTA OF ZALZAL (= RATIO 27/22) IMPLIES THE USE OF THE LYDIAN
SPECIES OF M.D. 27

Although the present writer has not found it definitely stated, the probability is that Ishaq used the Wosta of Zdlzdl, named after his uncle, a musician
This Wosta, as mentioned above, is stated
of renown resident in Bagdad.
by Al-Farabi to have stood in the ratio 27/22 to the open string on the lute.
The implication of this ratio is of great importance in any attempt to
it
reconcile the Harmonia of pipe and flute with the scale of the lute
furnishes a clue to the modality of the scale in use on those instruments.
The ratio 27/22 of the Wosta of Zdlzdl, compared with the Minor 3rd
1
This signifies that
(6/5), is sharper by an interval of 45/44 or 39 cents.
27 is the number representing the open string, or the fundamental or exit
On the monochord it would be marked 27/27, instead
note of pipe or flute.
of 26/26, as the modal tonic of the modified Lydian Harmonia, actually
occurring in the modal P.I.S. as Parhypate Hypaton. The full octave
;

sequence, therefore,

as follows

is

Synem.

Meson

Hypaton

Diezeug.

PM.

Tr.

14

27

27

27

Parh.

Lich.

Hyp.

Parh.

Lich.

Mesc

27

24

22 or 21

20

18

16

27

27

27

27

27

27

How

Harmonia

this

embodied on the pipe and incorporated

54

in the frets

seen from Fig. 57. The Wosta of Zdlzdl suggests

use by the Arabian musicians, pipers, lutenists and singers, of the

of the lute
(1)

is

Tr. or

may be

modified Lydian Harmonia of

Modal Determinant

27,

known

to us

through

the Greek sources from the tetrachords ascribed by Ptolemy 2 to Archytas.

(2) The use of the ancient Lydian Harmonia of Modal Determinant 26

on the pipe from Hole 1 (see Fig. 58).

and
(3) The Wosta of Zdlzdl further implies the use of the Phrygian
Dorian Species beginning in the P.I.S., respectively, on Lichanos Hypaton
with ratio 24, and on the lute with Sdbbdbd of ratio (27/24 (= 9/8 tone

(or 13)

i.e.

27

22

therefore,

x 7

6/5

45

44
316

39

cents

cents,

39 cents

355

cents,

Wosta of Zdlzdl.

Op. cit., ed. Wallis, 1682, pp. 170-2. Ptolemy records the tetrachords ascribed
to Archytas for the three genera, in each of which the first step is given the ratio
28 /27, so that Parhypate in each of the genera bears the ratio 27, being at an interval

from Hypate. The consequence of this is that the Tonic of the Lydian
which falls on Parhypate Hypaton now has ratio 27 instead of 26, the Modal
Determinant of the Lydian Harmonia. The first tetrachord of the Lydian species,
therefore, is as the ratios 27, 24, 21, 20, in the Diatonic Genus (cf. with Fig. 57).
of 28/27

species

THE GREEK AULOS

280

from the open string), and on Hypate Meson for the Dorian Species with
27/22 for the Wosta of Zalzal on the lute (see Fig. 57), from the 3rd hole
on the pipe (Fig. 58)
both species take the majra through Wosta. The
schemes in Figs. 58 (1), (2), and 57 and 55, show how the Phrygian and
Dorian Species lie on the frets of the lute, and it is obvious that the accordance of Ishaq is preferable
for it accommodates with ease a double octave
of the Lydian Species (M.D. 27), an octave of the disjunct Phrygian Harmonia, and an octave of duplicated conjunct Phrygian tetrachords of ratios
12, 11, 10, 9 (the Diatonon Homalon of Ptolemy) on the following frets, a
feat which is only possible on the lute of Ishaq.
;

Fig. 56.

The Phrygian Species with Duplicated Conjunct Tetrachords on the Lute,

with the Accordance No.

BAMM

Ishaq

3 of

Khin.

MATNA
motlaq

Sabb.

33

30

27

24

11

10

MATLAT

W.

Sabb.

Khin.
20

of Z.

22

24

The Phrygian

W.

Sabb.
18 (36)
= 12

disjunct tetrachords of the

Accordance (No.

1)

of Z.

Harmonia on the

lute

with Al-Farabi's

in 4ths

BAMM

MATNA

MATLAT

W.

Sabb.

24

22

Khin.
20

12

11

10

The

string

of Z.

is

Sabb.

Bins.

Kh.

Sabb.

18

16
8

(7) 15"!

12

(7) 14J

slightly shortened

on the

fret of Khinsir to

provide a rise in pitch

to 14.

As

stated before in this work, the scale has

in Syria, and, according to Tzetzes, 1

many

of the

Greek Churches

in Asia

it

was

Minor

been traced independently

in use in that form in

still

in 1870.

FURTHER MODAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE WOSTA OF ZALZAL

This digression on the tuning and frets of the lute was rendered necessary
because Al-Farabi has omitted to give any adequate, precise indications of
the scales proper to pipes having fmgerholes bored at equal distances.
To
state merely that these modal pipes and flutes played approximately the
same scale as the lute is tantamount to saying that all pipes produced the

same

scale,

an erroneous conclusion, due perhaps to their having equidistant

holes.

There

is,

nevertheless, nothing seriously amiss in Al-Farabi's theory

the subject, as far as

it

goes, except that

it

on

does not go far enough.

Since no measurements of the pipes are given, and therefore no facsimiles

can be made, we are reduced to conjectures

but these are not a pure effort
of the imagination
they are well grounded within the range of the modality
;

of the Harmonia,

embodied

legitimate scale of the pipe.

cross-fingering

are based

on

in the boring of the fmgerholes,

What

and half-stopping

practical,

is

i.e.

of the

possible to produce in addition by

known, and therefore the suggestions

it is

also

reasoned knowledge.

1
Dr. Johannes Tzetzes, Uber die Altgriechische Musik in der griechischen Kirche
(Miinchen, 1874), pp. 77 and passim.

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

To

between the scales of modal flutes and of

proved such a difficult matter after all.

effect a reconciliation

certain lute scales has not

The Wosta

it cannot obviously have originated

of Zalzal gives the clue
in the ditonal system of fretting on the lute
its appearance among the
:

>

other Wostas

altogether incongruous

is

it

clearly implies a

modal

origin,

which has already been indicated above, and in Fig. 57.

The Harmoniai which yield a possible Sabbaba as first fret, at one tone
above the note of the open string, are (1) the modified Lydian Species of
Modal Determinant 27, Sabbaba 27/24 (9/8 tone), (2) the Hypophrygian
18 16, (3) the Hypolydian with the minor tone 10 9.
The Hypodorian
and the Phrygian can only provide the septimal tone 8/7, too sharp by
:

27

cents.

Fig. 57.

Al-Farabi's Accordance of the Lute of 4

(See Kosegarten, op.

cit.,

Strings tuned in 4ths

p. 45.)

Strings

motlaq

bamm.

open string

Sabbaba

matna

matlat

zir

27/27

=A

27/27

=D

27/27

=G

27/27

=c

24/27

=B

24/27

=E

24/27

=A

24/27

=D

23/27

= C

23/27

=F

23/27

23/27

22/27

22/27

22/27

31/27

C# 21/27

20/27

forefinger

Wosta

B\>

E\>

middle finger
#

Wosta of Zalzal*

22/27

F% 21/27

Bb,

21/27

E\\

20/27

middle finger

Binsirf

Khinsir
little

20/27

20/27

finger

The 6 frets with the ratios, implied by the use of the Wosta of Zalzal (added by K. S.)
first tetrachord of the modified Lydian species in the P.I.S., they form a
sequence of conjunct tetrachords identical in structure.
* The two Wostas are alternatives.
f Binsir and Wosta are alternatives, major or minor 3rds.
are those of the

Binsir of ratio 27/21

4Q

cents^j.

The

Binsir, viz.

of

is

quarter-tone too sharp for the major 3rd

27 cents too sharp for a ditone.

nearest to the major 3rd

43/54

To produce
M.D. 27.

(
\43

is

^^=

215

~
^5

cents^j.

8 cents].
/

these ratios the frets from Sabbaba to Khinsir

The scheme

27

a note intermediate between the Wosta of Zalzal and the

must be

equidistant, aliquots

represents the effect of frets carried rigidly across the neck

of the lute with the ratios of the intervals they produce on each of the open
strings,


THE GREEK AULOS

282

In brackets are the ratios required on a pipe bored to the same Lydian
Harmonia, in order to play with the lute. The piper would naturally not
concern himself with ratios, being sufficiently guided by his musical ear to
enable

him

to force the holes of his pipe into acquiescence with the notes

which would be effected

of the lute, a result

tant bien que mal, according

In Fig. 57 the extent of the approximation required

to his musicianship.

and made possible by cross-fingering and other manipulations

of the normal scale given by the fmgerholes.

is

indicated,

OUR MINOR AND MAJOR MODES ARE AKIN TO THE MAJARI THROUGH WOSTA
(MINOR 3RD) OR THROUGH BINSIR (MAJOR 3RD) OF ARABIAN LUTE
ACCORDANCE
Fig. 57

shows the

first

tetrachord of the Lydian Species of the P.I.S.

day in place on the frets of the lute tuned in 4ths, which,

according to Al-Farabi, was the traditional accordance of the old Persian
and Arabian lutes. This tuning favours equally the mdjdri through the

in use in Plato's

Wosta of Zdlzdl and through

The

chords.

49

Binsir

cents too sharp,

Khinsir

is

fret,

Binsir,

and

yields conjunct duplicated tetra-

of ratio 21/27, compared with the major 3rd is

cents sharper than the ditone
the 4th of

but only 27

comma

(22 cents) sharper than the perfect 4th.

bored to give the same Lydian Species as

on the lute of Fig. 57, displays the normal scale of the pipe, together with
the disturbance produced therein by the cross-fingering rendered necessary
in order to allow of pipe and lute being played in concert.
The approximation is excellent
the two conjunct tetrachords favour a majra, either
through Wosta or through Binsir, which on the matlat string is the Mese
or keynote of the Harmonia.
It is obvious from Fig. 58 that if Al-Farabi's pipe played the Lydian
Species depicted above, as the normal scale of the instrument, there is not
much fault to find with his statement that the pipe played the scale of the
If such be the case an interesting light would be thrown upon the
lute.
rise of the major scale in Western Europe during the early Middle Ages,
The only notes that need to be modified on
for the source was twofold.

In Fig.

58, the pipe or flute,

the pipe are

on bamm of ratio 54/43, which looks forbidding but is simple

produce at Hole 4 by cross-fingering (closing two or three holes).
The Binsir of ratio 54/43 approximates with a negligible difference to the
major 3rd, being but 8 cents sharper, whereas the ditone is a comma sharper
(1) Binsir

enough

to

22

cents.

The Wosta

(2)
of Zdlzdl on matlat, of ratio 33, is obtained at Hole 6
on the pipe by lowering the Mese of ratio 32 by a quarter-tone to 33.
Khinsir
on
matlat of ratio 20/15, a perfect 4th, is obtained by
(3)
cross-fingering Hole 7 of ratio 14, easily lowered to 15.

Are we, then, entitled to conclude that the Arabian Modal Scale, used by
and pipers in contradistinction to the ditonal of the theorists was
It would be rash to come to such a conclusion without
?

singers

the Lydian
first

examining the claims of other Harmoniai.

Fig. 58.

Al-Farabfs

Pipe [Aulos] with his Arabian Notation.

Scale of Pipe with Approximation to Lute Scale (Fig. 57)

This pipe plays normally the Lydian Harmonia of M.D. 13 or 26 from Hole i, and from exit, the modified Lydian Species of M.D. 27 of the P.I.S.
pipe is suitable for playing through the majRa of Wosta and through the majra of Binsir, when approximated to the two conjunct tetrachords of the
lute with accordance in 4ths.

The

Fig. 58

(1)

(28)

13* = 27
13

S
12

27

27

11

13

Cents

XR

=>

13'

204

13

151

10

13

13

165 182

13

204

13

Pipe's

normal

scale.

13

267

231

MOTLAQ OF BAMM
Fig. 58

(2)

The
The

MOTLAQ OF MATNA

(see Fig. 59).

scale of the pipe,

accordance of the lute

r

approximated by cross-fingering to the notes given by the

may be in 4ths or Ishaq's 4th, 5th, 4th.

BAMM MOTLAQ.

27/27I

SABBABA

24/27 J

JVOSTA OF ZALZAL

22/27

9:8
22/27<

12

21/27-

20/27-

BINSIR

Re

27

21

4
X

36

35

151

>22

21

>2i

20

=55

49 cents

64 ,.
x 5 ditone
81

18/27J (36/54)

>io

V12

cents

WOSTA OF ZALZAL

33/54J

BINSIR

32/54.

80-3 cents

cents

KHINSIR

64
j63

27 cents

216
4
54
= o cents.
X - =
215
43
5
N.B. 43/54 is intermediate
between 22 21, i.e. at the

X-

27

81
jr

80

22

cents.

(Ratios

SABBABA

27

21

stated thus

20/27]

half-increment.

Re Khinsir

may be

cents

20/27 J

discrepancies in ratios and cents

Binsir

11

204

21/27

KHINSIR
The

frets of the lute,

MATLAT MOTLAQ.

3o/54j

11

by K.

182

131

33

32

53

>i6

15

112

S.).

cents

cents

cents

cents

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

The

283

Phrygian, for instance, as seen above, in two alternative scales,

and duplicated

disjunct

(1) The true octave Harmonia of M.D. 12, playable on the lute with the
accordance of Al-Farabi in 4ths, and on the Aulos (Fig. 58).
(2) The octave formed by the duplication of tetrachord 12, 11, 10, 9,

which can be played only on the lute with the accordance of Ishaq, and
not at all on the pipe or flute with equidistant holes.
the origin of our major
(3) Next comes the Hypolydian Harmonia

scale.

In order to trace

on

this scale

lute

and

pipe,

we

turn to Figs. 55 and 59.

THE MODAL SCALES OF THE OCTOECHOS TRACED IN ISHAQ 's CLASSIFICATION OF

MELODIES AND IN HIS LUTE ACCORDANCE (NO. 3)
This
Ishaq,

is

not the old Arabian lute of Al-FarabI

described

as

unusual.

Fig.

55

displays

it is

the one ascribed to

the

Hypolydian modal

sequence starting from the open string (motlaq) of

known

bamm and matna

Diatonon Syntonon of Didymus which

is thoroughly at ease on this lute, in a compass of two octaves, ending at
an extra shift of the little finger on the treble string (zir). The Sabbaba
in this Harmonia is a minor tone above the open string
the only note
that needs to be modified is the Khinsir of matlat, of ratio 22 in the Harmonia, giving a 4th too sharp by 39 cents, which is easily adjusted. This
lute thus yields either the two disjunct tetrachords of the Hypolydian
Harmonia -omitting the open string of matlat and ending on the open
string of matna
or the two conjunct duplicated tetrachords, also obtainable.
Fig. 59 gives the scheme on the pipe or flute for the Hypolydian Harmonia of M.D. 20. The normal scale of the instrument needs but little
modification, and this is carried out without difficulty.
A glance at the double octave scheme provided by Ishaq's accordance 1
(Fig. 55), of the lute reveals its intimate connexion with the mdjdri or species
also introduced by Ishaq in his classification of melodies.
Only on a lute,
so tuned that a complete double octave with Wosta and Bimir was available,
could the species be carried out. This accordance explains the ease with
which Ishaq obtained all the requisite notes for the accompaniment of his
songs, set in different Modes.
In Fig. 55 the Modal Determinants of the Harmoniai of the Ancient
to

Greek

theorists as the

1
Concerning the use of this accordance by the Arabian musicians, there can
be no reasonable doubt as already shown above
for its ascription to Ishaq
al-Mausili there is Yahya's testimony that after installing the scale of ten notes on
matna and zir, placing 'imad the base or fundamental on the open string of
matna, the two lower strings bamm and matlat had no notes that were not already
on matna and zm, i.e. merely a roundabout way of saying that the notes of BAMM and
MATLAT were the same as those of MATNA and ZIR at a pitch an octave lower. The
importance of this statement will be realized in connexion with the implications of
the majari of Ishaq (see Appendix, Eccles. Modes) described by Al-Ispahani, Kosegarten, op. cit., pp. 179-82, and by Yahya, Rouanet, op. cit., pp. 2701-2, and Brit.

Mus. Or. MS., No. 2361,

fol.

2361;. to 238^.

THE GREEK AULOS

284

Greek System stand revealed as Tonics of the species of the Hypolydian

Harmonia, e.g. Hypophrygian 18
Hypodorian 16
Lydian 13
Phrygian
Dorian 11
12
an octave of each of these is obtainable. The Mixolydian
may be added to the list on the flute, by cross-fingering ratio 13 to 14, and
;

using the note of that fingerhole twice, once for each

Mixolydian octave
an octave.

ratio, the rest of the

obtained in the Harmonic register by overblowing

is

Fig. 59. Al-Farabl's Aulos (as in Fig. 58), with ratios of the Hypolydian Harmonia
(by K. S.), compared with those of the Lute with Ishaq's Accordance
(cf.

Fig. 55)

=8

|"S

xt

.S

_12_SJ'

20

li

'

^_18
"

20

17

16

15

14

20

20

20

20

99

106

112

10

]3*_27
20 "40
66

1Z8

119

366

Ji*. 10

20

Normal scale

of pipe

M.D. 20

20

165

f- =

3S6

63

cents

Key note

519-5
Sharpeiird
fourth

'

JV.B.
Normally, a pipe having equidistant holes must yield a modal sequence according to the arithmetical progression of ratios from the Modal Determinant, here 20.. By
cross-fingering the note of Hole 7
ratio 13 drops to 27
Hole 8 yields normally a note of
ratio 12, for Binsir at a major 3rd above the open string of MATLAT.
The 9th hole of ratio
11, half-stopped or cross-fingered, yields 10 for the open string of matna tuned to a 5th
above the open string of matlat.

N.B.

cross at the side of a ratio denotes a cross-fingered note

In concert with the lute, a piper could play on a Dorian Aulos of Modal
Determinant 11, which gives the simplest expression of the Harmonia
mentioned in connexion with Terpander. This scale is characterized by
producing an octave with seven notes on a Dorian Kithara of seven strings,
a feat which is rendered possible by the omission of Trite Diezeugmenon
according to the theorists, which is merely their explanation of the simple
arithmetical progression from M.D. 11 which, after Mese as ratio 8/1 1,
produces the undivided septimal 3rd 7/1 1 to 6/1 1, reaching the octave at
the 7th note.

This digression through the Arabian sources not only brings to an end
flute, but also actually forms at the same time
ii and iii), as well as an

the discussion of the modal

a supplement to the chapters on the Aulos (Chaps,

introduction to the subject of the ever-recurrent rebirth of the

Harmonia

through the ages, in the music of the Folk of many nations.

Al-Kindi, born at Kufa (c. a.d. 790-874), where his father was governor
under Haroun al-Raschid, studied at Basra and Bagdad. He, therefore,
enjoyed musical advantages and influences of a similar nature to those in

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

285

which Ishaq al-Mausili had flourished some twenty-five years

and theorist, while Al-Kindi is chiefly famous as a
Philosopher.
They both describe the same accordance, although, as we
have seen, Al-Kindi seemed to prefer the older one in 4ths
and both
describe the majdri.
But although the influence of the Hellenic theorists is
sensed in the writings and teachings of both Arabian musicians, and in the
application of the majra to the species of the Harmonia, and to the Octoechos
of the Greek Church, yet the Arabian musicians led the way in the distinction
of the major and minor Modes of Western Music.
This was attained
through the emphasis laid upon the Wosta as minor 3rd, and Binsir as major
the midst of

earlier as singer, lutenist

3rd in the diatonic

scale.

AL-FARABl AND AL-KINDI STRESS THE DITONAL SCALE

MODAL

SPECIES OF

ISHAQ AL-MAUSILI THE

THE HARMONIA

Thus while a theorist such as Al-Farabi laid special stress upon the
on the lute admitting the Wosta of Zalzal and the Persian
Wosta as more unusual than the 32/27 of the ditonal scale yet we are
inclined to suggest that the practice of music favoured the Hypolydian and
Phrygian Harmoniai with the addition of the Plypophrygian, in. all of which
the wood-wind instruments could play in concert with the lute (see Figs. 55,
The Hypodorian tetrachord of M.D. 16, i.e. 16, 15, 14, 13, 12,
59 and 60).
which may be traced in Fig. 60 as species of the Hypophrygian Harmonia,
bears the Persian name of Ispahan in Arabian treatises.
These two chapters devoted to the lengthy discussion of the modal
flute may, it is hoped, be recognized as germane to the subject of the establishment of true modality, i.e. of the modality of the Harmoniai through
the Aulos, although the flute cannot be accorded a share in the origin of
the Harmoniai, but only in the propagation of the Modal Scales a function
of signal importance nevertheless.
The writer knows of no positive evidence, either for or against, of the
use of the flute as distinct from the reed-blown pipe in Ancient Greece.
Yet there is a strong presumption that the vertical flutethe nay of Egypt
and Arabia and the Syrinx Monocalamos of Hellas was in use in certain
parts of Greece, although it did not share the claims of the Aulos as national
instrument, or enjoy its popularity. The feat of Midas of Agrigentum,
celebrated by Pindar in his 12th Pythian Ode, whereby he gained the victory
in a contest for the Aulos, is a case in point, which has been discussed at
length in Chapter ii.
The scholion records the occurrence thus
The little tongue of the
Aulos [therefore the beating-reed K. S.] being accidentally broken by
cleaving to the roof of his mouth, Midas played upon the reeds alone
in the manner of the Syrinx and so delighted the audience and won the

ditonal scale

'

victory.'

The reasoned practical inference of what happened when Midas played

on the reeds alone (xaM/ioig, i.e. resonators) in the manner of the Syrinx,
blowing across the end of the resonator, has already been discussed in
detail.
The conjecture introduced by the present writer is based upon

i.e.

o
35

o
T3

c
a

33
<L>

^5

-O

be

<#s

S3

13

p.

g
g;

10

-6a

.a

ti

PS

HI

S3

[\J

v
60
C

<0

e "g
s ^ ^
H s

4;

4)

jo
bp

vO

ETC.

PROSL.

CHROM.

PARH.

HYP.

LICH.

LICH.

J3

DIAT.

J3

-a

MM

Ph

<
n

.a

1)

S
S
bo

y.

(a'mad)

XT

<u

X
|

3 C

]i

<S

O)

a)

+j

5 ,v

XT

ft)

'"OS

M
j

<
"3

tZ)

N
j

H
O

4)

.G

o
O w
cu

u
G
ffil

O
a

"53

05

S*5

< O
8
^ m H
j n S

PL,

0.

as

ffi

OS

S'g

s
z
EC
H

SI

z
8?
00
60

V c
ac o

Z
a

o
G
2

4)

\\>

G
o a
m O
2 no
o

R
g

3.

287

M
M
P

THE GREEK AULOS

288

and practical knowledge of both instruments in question, of their

qualities and capabilities, and of the implications of the
sudden transformation of Aulos into Syrinx Monocalamos. The Syrinx
Monocalamos, however, differed from the Panpipe in having fmgerholes.
technical

characteristic

Fig. 62.

Transformations of the Dorian Aulos

intervals of the three

modal

Dorian Aulos

Ratios

n /11

Hypolydian Syrinx

Ratios 20/20

Hypophrygian Syrinx

18

Ratios 18/18

204

16

231
15

112

231
14

16

204

204

Cents

by K.

182

182

Cents

10

165

Cents

with the Ratios and Cents of the

scales (conjecture

H.

Exit

T5-T

10

11

J65

151
12

13

128

sl(n)

12

14

267

267

ng

S.).

13S

11

151

The triumph of Midas was by no means due to a mere fluke, for the
removal of the mouthpiece, which had conferred upon the Aulos its characteristic Harmonia, deprived the piper suddenly, without warning, not
only of the carefully prepared instrument, but also debarred him from
playing the modal melody selected by him for the contest.
He had on the

spur of the

moment

to find another in a different

Mode.

The Harmonia

was bound to be changed, for the Aulos had, with its mouthpiece, lost one
or more increments of distance
e.g. if it had originally been a Dorian
Aulos of M.D. 11 or 22, it would now be reduced in length, but under
certain favourable conditions explained above, it might still be played as a
Hypolydian Syrinx of M.D. 10 or 20
or as a Hypophrygian of M.D. 18.
Midas was evidently not at a loss, and improvised without hesitation in the
Harmonia thus imposed upon him through his unfortunate accident. Thus
the feat of Midas recorded in the scholion deserves full credit from posterity.
Moreover, it illustrates and emphasizes in a truly remarkable manner a
principle as yet unrecognized in the acoustics of wind instruments
e.g.
that fmgerholes once bored in a pipe carry no absolute equivalent in pitch
values.
For instance, the ratios of the intervals of the Dorian Aulos, and
of the Hypolydian or Hypophrygian Syrinx into which it was hypothetically
transformed, by the mere act of depriving it of its mouthpiece, are illustrated
in the figure above.
The nature of the mishap to the mouthpiece informs
us that the latter was of the beating-reed type the tongue of which is very
fragile.
(See also Chap, ii.)
The one pipe, in its three transformations, would thus produce from
the same fmgerholes three different sets of intervals
the difference for
;

these intervals

The

is

shown

implication

is

in cents.

that in

all

pipes having equidistant fmgerholes the

law of proportional ratios in arithmetical progression dominates and overrides the generally accepted reciprocals of length and vibration frequency
:

the ratios of the intervals are changed from hole to hole.

THE CYLINDRICAL MODAL FLUTE

289

THE MODAL FLUTE BASED ON PROPORTIONAL MODALITY BREAKS NEW

GROUND

covered by these two chapters on the flute reveals

the inherent influence of proportional modality (in the sense understood
in this work) in breaking new ground and in providing new formulae to be
review of the

given a practical

field

It

test.

may, therefore, perhaps be conceded that an

inquiry into the inner, subtle reactions of the air column in flutes was a
necessary one
a curious light has thus been cast upon the problem of the
;

lengthening allowance due to diameter of bore, mouth-hole and fingerhole,

which has to be made in order to reconcile the otherwise discrepant factors

of actual measurable length of the flute, and of the length of the sound-wave
producing the fundamental note of the instrument.
The Aulos, once the mastery of the mouthpiece is realized and understood, is a comparatively simple, straightforward proposition.
Together
with our study of the

some

flute, it

influence of diameter

so long as nothing

enables us to realize
is

how

it is

that the trouble-

non-existent in the reed-blown pipe

that

allowed to impede or break up the proportional impulse,

is

the Harmoniai give themselves unreservedly to the piper for his pure delight,
as experience in the

With

music of the Folk

testifies.

the flute, the whole question assumes a different aspect, on account

by the two diametrically opposed methods

of insufflation and sound production (into which we cannot enter in this
study)
that of the Aulos propulsive directly from mouthpiece to exit
of the different conditions induced

that of the flute merely propelled in a thin, highly compressed stream,

obliquely across the mouth-hole, thus providing a necessary stimulus for

the initiation of a sound-wave.

In the Aulos, the timbre partakes in a measure, through the dominance

of the mouthpiece and the action of the glottis, of the quality and individuality

This psychological element

of the piper.

is

communicated partly through

the conformation of his vocal and respiratory organs, but mainly through
his subconscious spiritual inspiration.

In the

flute these influences

upon the tone

are to a large extent lacking

or minimized, since the flute player's breath merely acts as an air-reed

striking the air

column within the

vanishing into ambient

is

more detached and

beauty of

What
realized.

its

air.

flute at the

What he

objective

but

open embouchure, and then

contributes in emotional expression

it

nevertheless possesses a significant

own.

the modality of the Harmonia owes to the flute will be clearly

The Harmonia

has in most instances been protected from faulty

intonation and the difficulty of finding the correct position for the

has been avoided by using that hole as vent always

abandoning the

exit

fundamental.

The

left

ture of the flute, moreover, ensured the survival of the

difficult

conditions

might have been very

contrast to the

more

first

hole

uncovered, and thus

eminently solid and durable struc-

Harmonia under

without the flute the story of Music's development

different.
In this respect the flute forms a complete
delicate Aulos, the

mouthpiece of which has almost

THE GREEK AULOS

290
invariably perished

adventure of Midas

or disappeared.
;

less gifted

An

illustration

is

afforded

by the

musicians came to grief frequently, owing

to the fragility of this indispensable adjunct.

The paramount importance

of these two wind instruments in the initiation and development of the

musical systems, which have culminated in the Octoechos of the early

Greek Church, the

Modes and Plain-song, and finally in our

once more undergoing subtle transitions has

Ecclesiastical

own modern system

now

hitherto hardly received adequate acknowledgement.

CHAPTER

VIII

SURVEY OF THE SCALES AND SYSTEMS FORMING THE

BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC
The Origins of Scales.
The Evidence from Greenland. Brief Survey

Introductory.

Brief Inquiry into the Origins of Folk Music.

The Evidence

of

Vedda Music.

of Scales or Musical Systems forming the Basis of Primitive and Folk Music.

Scales

derived from a Cycle of Ascending Fourths or Descending Fifths, on a given Fundamental C = 128 v.p.s. Dorian Harmonia or Pentatonic in Transition with a Sixth
Step ? Ditonal Scale from Cycle of Fifths or Hypolydian Harmonia ?
Separate
Origin for the Pentatonic and Heptatonic. The Myth of so-called Equal-stepped
Scales.
Dr. Erich M. von Hornbostel. Hornbostel's Cycle of Blown Fifths
(Blasquintenzirkel).
The Basis of Hornbostel's Theory of the Blasquintenzirkel
in his own words (Engl, and Germ.).
Entails the Falsification of an Acoustic
Principle.
The Lay View of the Influence of Diameter on Pitch. The Alleged
The
Flatness of Overtones from Closed Pipes repudiated by Acoustic Law.
Records of Brazilian Panpipes blown by Hornbostel actually exhibit Overtones,
pure, sharp and flat where all are alleged to be Flat. Correct and Faulty Methods
of Blowing Panpipes. Analysis of Results given in Fig. 1.
Even the Results
obtained by Wrong Methods of Blowing suggest the Harmonia as Origin. The
Antique Peruvian Flute San Ramon is in a different Category from the Panpipes.
Dr. Manfred Bukofzer's Strictures on the Blasquintenzirkel. Evidence from an
Agariche from Bolivia
all Overblown Fifths, pure.
Is there in Closed Pipes a
Natural Balance between the Interior Length + Diameter and the Exterior
Length omitting Diameter. The Blowing of the Panpipes has proved to be the
Undoing of the Theory of Blown Fifths. Unequivocal Rejection of the Theory
of Blasquintenzirkel. The Contribution of Dr. Jaap Kunst from the Music of
Java and Bali. The Harmoniai, identified from Dr. Kunst's Records as Origin of
the Slendro and P61og Scales of Java and Bali.
The Flutes from Java and Bali
embody the Harmoniai in their Equidistant Fingerholes. Duplication of the First
Tetrachord on the Fourth or Fifth Degree in Evidence in some Javanese and Balinese
Scales.
The Music of the Folk in South Africa. The Music of the Bantu Folk of
South Africa based upon the Harmonic Series. The South African Natives have
discovered the Different Reactions of Open and Closed Pipes, closing them at will
to increase the Compass.
A kind of Transverse Flute in use by the Venda, Swazi,

'

'

'

'

Pedi,

and Other Tribes

INTRODUCTORY

THE

avowed purpose of

Harmonia

this chapter is the quest for the

of Ancient Greece, as a Survival or a Rebirth, in the music of the

Folk of

many

nations.

In order to find this search rewarded

with an ultimate measure of success, it will be necessary to explore many

avenues of approach, and to test all results with the greatest care by every

known

standard.

In order to form a helpful conception of Folk Music,

fust of

all

it

to realize that in spite of the essential verity that

291

is
'

necessary

Music

is

THE GREEK AULOS

292
universal language

there has been at

'

some obscure period a musical Babel

from one single fount, e.g. the one
:

the music of the Folk does not spring

in

common

use by modern musicians.

the contrary,

most cases found based upon

in

is

The music

of primitive folk, on

a system, unfamiliar or

unknown to the unsuspecting investigator, but none the less firmly established among the Folk, and assimilated by usage and tradition.
The crux
is,

of course, to discover the particular system in use.

It is

proposed to give an account, suggestive rather than exhaustive, of

a few of these underlying systems, with examples of their use,

and also to
draw attention to the characteristics and landmarks by which they may be
distinguished from other systems and scales and which reveal their identity.
Although the discrediting of some theories may be involved thereby, there
is no intention to disparage or belittle the immense permanent value of the
records procured by indefatigable workers
the one reaps what another
:

has sown.
BRIEF INQUIRY INTO THE ORIGINS OF FOLK MUSIC

The song
people

that springs spontaneously

from the heart and soul of the

expressed in the language of music in which, as a child, the

was born and grew up. This axiom, with which most musicians

is

individual

are in agreement,

is

just as true of primitive folk in remote ages as at the

present day, and of the rural folk at any and every stage of evolution, even
at the height of

There seems

own

our

sophisticated civilization.

be no doubt that in the evolution of Music, Song was

it appeared simultaneously with the music of Speech
the latter induced by action with all its retrospective and prospective implications
the former as the unburdening of feeling with its varied rhythms,
first in

the

field,

to

unless

short and sharp in the

the

first

surprise of anguish, fear or joy

gliding onward, or descending step

aloft,

mind

by

step, or

by

halting, soaring

leap to finality, as

intervenes with counsels or imaginings, leading to despair, resigna-

supreme content. So far all is instinctive

the language of this
innate in man, and in tune with Nature's music the humming of
wind in the
trees
man is living in Music, not making it, it is part of his very being.
But let him once blow through a wheat or oat straw and make it sound,
husky at first until he finds out how to make it speak, then mellow, reedy,
high notes and low notes. He tries more stalks, he is lost in wonder
he
has found a new world and revels in his newly acquired power
he is a
music-maker. His interest aroused, he becomes inventive, and when he
discovers the effect of a hole in the side of the stalk, his joy knows no bounds.
He may perhaps, like Siegfried, try to imitate the bird's song on a pipe,
but sooner or later he is disillusioned and learns that it is one thing to

tion or

music

is

bees, the songs of the birds, the sighing or wild notes of the
;

reproduce Nature's sounds with his

make

a straw or reed obey his

sweet

will.

learn a

This

is

how he

new language

own

voice, but quite another matter to

commands.

It will

begins to build his

for his pains.

such experiences and of many others

only speak at

Tower

of Babel

its

own

he has

to

sum

of

The evolution of Music is the

many ages elapse before Man

realizes


SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC
the

wonders of

own

his

voice,

and

takes

it

all

and

his ingenuity

293

skill to

reproduce a sound at will on any other instrument.

more

Strings are

native
it

tractable than

wind instruments, but they

are not

The South African

with a gourd attached as resonator, coaxes from
the harmonic overtones by a light touch with his finger at a node, plucking

creative

they do not originate scales and systems.

upon

his

bow

string,

the string, or rubbing

it

with a

stick.

This

line of

thought leads to the

suggestion that the harps of Ancient Egypt, the Kitharas of the Ancient

Sumerians and Chaldeans, were

the

Harmonic

Series.

The

first

tuned to a vocal scale derived from

four notes from the 8th Harmonic (ratios

at first

9/8, 10/9, 11/10) resemble the first tetrachord of the cycle of perfect 5ths

born on the Panpipe. 2

But this is anticipating the course of the early development of Music
as an Art.
Before man had reached the point when he could tune his harp
to any desired sequence, he had to discover how to make strings that would
sound when stretched, and explore the practical facts of resonance in order
to reinforce those faint vibrations, besides many other structural and technical
make-shifts.

Progress with the pipes was a simple matter.

nowadays along wheat or oat

joints to

make

squeaker

'

'

If they

of the primitives.

fields,

may be

Our

children, passing

seen cutting a stalk between the

and
on the green or

similar to the mouthpieces of the Ancients

happened

to close their lips

yellow ripened stalk at about z\ inches from the tip (as explained in Chap,

iii),

blowing steadily the while, they would be rewarded by hearing an F. It

is from these simple beginnings that the favourite instrument of the Folk
the oaten pipe of Shakespeare, 3 the shawm, popular all the world over and
Man thus learns a new language of music
at all times, grew and developed.
from his pipes, flutes, horns and trumpets, and since he finds it beyond his
powers to reproduce on these instruments the notes of the voice, the voice
readily learns the language of the pipes and that is how it comes about that
the Folk in many regions use the traditional scales of flutes and shawms.

THE ORIGIN OF SCALES

Concerning the early stages in the development of Music, two opposed
and debatable views as to the origin of scales hold the field.
(1) That the vocal elements of scale, from whatever source they sprang,
(a) preceded the discovery of such scale elements on wind instruments

For

a full description, see Percival R. Kirby,

of Music, Univ. of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg

M.A., D.Litt., F.R.C.M., Prof,

The Musical Instruments of the

Native Races of South Africa, Oxf. Univ. Press, 1934.

2
See further on for exact values of both, for comparison with the
of the Ilypolydian Harmonia.
3
See Chap, ii
When Shepherds pipe on oaten straws

tetrachord

first

'

'

Love's Labour's Lost,

'

See also A Midsummer Night's Dream, ii, 2, 8, and Hamlet,

Pypes made of grene corne (played by shepherds). Virgil,

op.

'

cit.,

fol.

Diij vo. (Basel,

1511).

v,

2,

iii,

2,

Eel.,

i,

line 913.

75
2

Chaucer,
Virdung,

THE GREEK AULOS

294

and

by empirical means, the vocal

that in course of time,

(b)

scale

was

transferred to the instrument.

(2)
all

The view which

scales originate

types,

is

the subject of the present work,

on wind instruments, reed-blown

The

horns and trumpets.

first

appreciation of aesthetic values, and

viz.

that almost

pipes, flutes of various

of these views (a) implies a certain

an attractive proposition
the sensibility of primitive folk to the harmonic constituents of sound is,
moreover, an argument in its favour (b) would be a difficult claim to substantiate
it can only originate with those who have not tried the feat of
is,

therefore,

transference.
It

scales

may here be suggested that a clue

may be found revealed in the early

of language. 1

to the origin of song

and vocal

intonational stages of the growth

not pitch alone that becomes highly significant here

It is

the subconscious play of the emotions, the

thought, are expressed, not by a note, which

first
is

the interrelationships of sound in an infinite variety of intervals.

selection

and control of these

of the larynx, remain and are

secrets of

man's subliminal

intervals
still

glimmers of conscious
rest, but through

sound at

The

through the agency and operations

retained at the present day as one of the

self.

Harmonic Series, as the physical basis of sound, be recognized

from which primitive folk derive the notes of their songs, then
it might be assumed that there is in the subconsciousness a definite fundamental, to which the members of the series are related
for instance, C of
64 or 128 v.p.s. or the nature F of 176 v.p.s., the nth Harmonic of C, and
If the

as the fount

the standard note of the Ancient Chinese Musical System.

criterion in our investigation,

would seem

The

only safe

be the interval
us some
curious facts.
Recorded music of primitive tribes known to have possessed
no musical instruments of any kind are rare. An examination of some of
these phonographic records discloses the nature of the elements used in the
early stages of vocal music by the voice in song
they may all be referred to
intervals occurring in the Harmonic Series.
Where the song has a compass
of more than two notes, it is found in the majority of cases, in which no
suspicion of civilized influence can be traced, that when the notes are
arranged in line of pitch, the intervals do not form any recognizable sequence
from a given fundamental they seem to have been chosen haphazard, or in
obedience to some instinctive urge. This suggests the inevitable hypothesis
that the instinctive intervals habitually used by the individual in speech, in
response to certain shades of emotion, rise up again spontaneously in song,
and that each interval possesses an instinctive significance for the singer.
This conclusion is further strengthened by an investigation of the songs
of the natives of East Greenland, who know of no other instrument than a
shallow drum resembling a tambourine, and consisting of a substantial ringtherefore,

expressed by vibration frequencies, ratios or cents

it

to

will reveal to

1 I

find that I

was

Univ., Johannesburg

and Polyphony
xxiii,

',

pp. 951-70.

&c,

forestalled

by

Prof. Percival

see his contribution,

'

Kirby of the Witwatersrand

Some Problems

of Primitive

Harmony

in South African Jrnl. of Science (Johannesburg, 1926), Vol.

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

295

shaped wooden frame, on which is stretched a prepared skin of some animal.

When held by a speaker, this instrument reproduces by sympathetic vibration

some of the intervals and prolonging

them, thus illustrating the process of transition between speech and song.
Moreover, this highly sensitive instrument, when tapped at various
the harmonics of the voice, emphasizing

and round the circumference,

Harmonic Series.

points across the diameter,

able intervals of the

In

my

gives out recogniz-

opinion these data point to the implication that the material on

which primitive song

based

is

is

the interval considered as

a separate

unit,

way with fleeting emotional experience each unit

having been impressed in the subconsciousness of the singer through
constant use in speech.
connected in some strange

The effect of the permutations of these detached independent units is

one of fluctuation and impermanence, conditions which are entirely adverse
to the development of a musical system.
The primitive elements of a scale only exist in a permanent state in the
scales of pipes blown by means of a primitive double-reed mouthpiece,
consisting of a wheat or oat stalk untreated and innocent of any fettering
ligature
of flutes, horns, &c, which, when blown in a normal way, give
out the same notes and intervals time after time and year after year (see
Elgin Aulos (straight) Record
and Chaps, ii and iii). From these alone
;

can sufficiently definite data be obtained to account for the gradual building

up of

a musical system.

chapter, the

As

be seen in

will

wind instruments form

detail in the course of this

a reliable record of scales,

under the

following conditions.

These instruments embody

certain natural laws operating

by virtue

ot

the dimensions of the instrument, and for these, formulae tested in theory

and practice are

practice exists

available.

when the

Perfect correspondence between theory and

piper produces from the instrument sounds identical

with those demanded by theory, or

when

investigator to give the exact results indicated

both

lines of approach.

unaffected by relative

ment embodies

skill,

for those

This
or

is

its

is found by an
by the formula, thus vindicating

a pipe or flute

the line of demarcation which remains

absence in the performer.

who can

read

it,

Such an

instru-

a true scale record as long as

the pipe survives.

Neither continuity in the line of pitch, nor proportional interrelationship

of notes and intervals exists as an idea in the singer's mind.

Where

apart

the recorded song appears to proceed

along the

from

niceties of

our notation, this does not indicate

that the singer is consciously following a sound-pattern
it probably occurs
in a natural manner, owing to subtle changes in emotional feeling, which
intonation

line of pitch in

and fall of the voice in speech.

There is, moreover, no evidence of a conscious urgent desire for graduated
steps or scales in primitive vocal music uninfluenced by musical instruments.
The beginnings of scale or ordered elements in pitch sequence, though
undoubtedly present at times in the vocal music of primitive folk, are

bring about the

generally

rise

more apparent than

real

when merely read

in our notation, in

THE GREEK AULOS

296

the absence of the exact vibration frequencies obtained from phonographic

The

records.

sound-pattern frequently presents

little

resemblance to the

one suggested by notation.

THE EVIDENCE OF VEDDA MUSIC

Examples may now be given from two valuable contributions of this

kind, made to the origins of music and more particularly to the scale, viz.
(a) from Vedda Music by Dr. C. S. Myers, 1 (b) Eskimo Music in Greenland
by Hjalmar Thuren. 2
(a) In this collection of songs by Dr. Myers the mean vibration frequency
yielded by the record for each note is given.
For the determination of pitch
an Appun Tonometer was used which had a separate reed for every two
v.p.s. between 256 and 512.
A pitch-pipe of 256 v.p.s. was sounded into
the recording phonograph before each record was taken by Dr. Seligmann
in order to regulate the speed of the instrument.
The margin of error is,
:

therefore, 2 v.p.s. in the octave specified.

The

songs in group

notes only.

The

(a) are

the simplest, since their compass

is

of two

ratios of the intervals in three of the oldest of these is

11/10; of five other songs from tribes that have become semi-civilized
through contact with the Sinhalese, the interval was a major tone (9/8)
of
one song of a minor tone (10/9)
of two tunes of large semitones 14/13
and 15/14.
N.B. The ratios that most nearly approximate to the vibration
frequencies recorded have been given
they are the nearest that can
be considered useful.
In group (b) containing songs of 3 notes some interesting examples of
detached units are found among the oldest songs.
;

No. 37

No. 34

v.f.

(2) v.f.

12/11

151

13/12

138

214

I5/I4

119

11/10

165

232
0

Compass total
7/6 = 270 (267)

296

276

252

254-

-303

44/37

SONGS FROM VEDDA TRIBES INFLUENCED BY SINHALESE CULTURE

Compass total
No. 39 v.f.
220
198
232. .... 275-6
.

IO/9

No. 14

(2) v.f.

182

226

19/18

93-6

34/29
....47i

264

7/6

267

9/8

204

Reprint from The Veddas, by C. G. Seligmann and Brenda Z. Seligmann,

Camb. Univ. Press, 1909. See also A Short Account of Vedda Music by Max
Wertheimer from four phonographs obtained by Frau M. Selenka ', Qu. Mag. Int.
Mus. Soc, Year xi, Part 2, 1910.
2
Eskimo Music in Greenland, by Hjalmar Thuren, and Melodies from East Greenland, by W. Thalbitzer and Hj. Thuren, 1 Kommission Hos., C. A. Reitzel, Bd. XL.
(K^benhavn, 1914). Ills, in text. Intro, in Engl. Words of songs in Eskimo.
1

'

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

297

This invocation, used by the Bandaraduwa Veddas, was sung by a Sinhalese,

and thought to be of foreign origin. Consists mainly of leaps to a 4th or a 3rd
upwards and downwards.
Nos. 27 and 36

my

(2) intervals of ratios 9/8,

16/15

II2

consisting of 9 tunes with a range of 4 notes and one of 5,

suggestion that the intervals formed by the notes used in the songs

In group

(c),

should be considered as independent units, not forming a sequence of

is

illustrated

by the

the oldest examples

W. No.

32

v.f.

33

v.f.

222

49/48

Cents

35-7

H. No.

224

s v.f.

99

260

93-6

246
11/10
165

Cents

H. No. 44

v.f.

204

Ratios

There
v.f.

is

5/4(=3o-6)

=
=

44/31

=
=

18/13
563

376-3

21/19

7/6
267

173-4

15/13
247

Cents

=
=
320

272

236

total

(26/21)
369

276
19/18

15/13
247

Ratios

=
=

18/17

17/16
105
226

Ratios

Compass
284

268

252
11/10
165

Cents

ratios,

beginning with

marked W.

230

Ratios

W. No.

ratios occurring in the following songs,

16/15
112

9/8
204

605-4

280

264

in this last song a leap to a sharpened 4th of ratio 11/8

from

204 to 280-5.

No. 26

(1) v.f.

198

Ratios
Cents

No. S3

(1) v.f.

224

2I/20
85

232
10/9
182

Cents

254

13/12
138-5

210

Ratios

242

17/15
216-4

439-9

276

254
11/10

I2/II

4/3

165

151

498

This is a Sinhalese song on a sequence from the Harmonic Series 9th,

nth, 12th Harmonics.
No. 41, a song from the Dambani Veddas semi- civilized by penetration
from Sinhalese culture, has a range of the following five notes
10th,

v.f.

170

206

192

256

236

Ratios

9/8

19/18

22/19

12/11

Cents

204

93-6

254

151

3/2

702-6

THE GREEK AULOS

298
No. 41 has

as close the following:

compass 18/13
236

v.f.

5&r

170

192

206
22 19 18

Ratios

16

22

In this song the vibration frequencies for identical notes vary considerably,
viz.

F =170,

172, 174.

G = ig2.

= 206,
B\) = 234,
C = 256,
A\)

By
to a

208, 210, 212, 205.

232, 230, 236.
254.

selecting the frequencies italicised the following intervals belonging

modal Hypophrygian

pipe scale as origin with

scale are obtained.

F=

170-6 as Tonic and

They

G=

indicate a flute or

192 v.p.s. as keynote.

The close now has the modal tetrachord of the Hypophrygian Harmonia.
The C = 256 occurs many times elsewhere in the song and adds the perfect
5th above the Tonic.

No. 41.

mm
256
205
921
236

v.f.

Ratios

170-6

12 13 15 16

18 18 18 18

Hypophrygian
Harmonia

This sequence from the C to F with notes of different values occurs twice
besides in lines 1 and 3.
As I have not heard the record, I cannot tell which of these two scales
forms the basis of the song. The modal interpretation would imply Sinhalese
influence, probably derived from flute or pipe.

From a general survey of the Vedda songs the impression created is

mainly of speech sing-song. There are comparatively few leaps not including mere repetitions from the same intervals.
As exceptions may be cited
No. 14 (2) a flattened 4th No. 32 (ditto), an invocation
No. 44, Honey
song
leap 11/8
No. 28a, leap 11/8
No. 34 (1) of a 4th No. 51 leap
of 18/13
561 cents. The melodic line proceeds frequently by means of

rapid articulations on the same or on a nearly related note, which suggests

and thus gives colour to my suggested origin of song,

about to receive further confirmation.

intonational speech

which

is

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

299

THE EVIDENCE FROM GREENLAND

From
available

East Greenland, as briefly mentioned above, valuable evidence is

definitely turns the scale in favour of the hypothesis under

which

discussion.

Hjalmar Thuren has collected 129 phonographic records of songs

and still more for their
Each song is prefixed by the intervals of the scale
actually occurring, and valued in cents, the songs are grouped according
to subject matter.
A few examples of the scale matter, when analysed from
the record (not from the notation, which is frequently in disagreement with
the intervals of the record), may now be given from Group 1.
Recitative
songs of epic-lyric nature and children's songs Nos. 1 to 40.
N.B. In the following examples all ratios by K. S. and cents in brackets
interesting in the highest degree for their tonality,
irregular rhythms.

EGA

are exact equivalents of the ratios.

No.

14, p. 65

Scale

40/29 =554

Cents

181

No.

17, p. 66

Scale

II

Ratios
18, p. 66

Scale

II

234

159

(231)

(157)

8/7

23/21

GAG

310

167

11/10

Scale

(165)

67

6/5

23/21

8/7

6/5

Ratios
19, p.

10/9

312
(3i6)

Cents

No.

10/9

D
Cents

No.

11/8

(182")

(551 )
1 1/8

Ratio

11/10

6/5

6/5

460

Cents

5 j6)

144

13/10

25/23

19/16

17/14

(455)

Ratios

No. 21

(A), Variant of

Scale
(a)

13/10

No.

19, p.

67

II

Cents

337

295
0
)

(336)

19/16

17/14

(297

Ratios

25/23

THE GREEK AULOS

300
No.

22, p. 68

Scale

(a,

b)

II

II

Cents

251

82

438

200

Ratios

22/19

22/21

9/7

9/8

22/19

9/7

12/11

22/21

9/8

THEATRICAL DRUM SONGS, NOS. 49-66

No.

Scale

52, p. 7s

II

Cents

543

Ratios

26/19
Scale

/>

p>

/u

II

545

155

(55i)

(151)

11/8

12/11

230

11/8

8/7
26/19

8/7

E
II

Cents

5^5

^5

Ratios

18/13

11/10

18/13

11/10

DRUM SONG OF AMUSEMENT

No.

70, p. 8i

Scale

'A

J-

(a)

II

Ratios
Scale

No. 70

(b, a)

(^9)

(182)

16/13

13/n

10/9

J-

16/13

+ 13/n +

io/9

19/15

10/9

10/9

D
M

II

402

Ratios
Scale
(c,

180

(359)

Cents

No. 70

II

362

Cercis

A
d)

(409)

(H7)

(jS2)

19/15

15/13

10/9

[bj]

ll

Cents
Ratios

II

15/13

452

20S

180

(454)

(204)

(182")

13/10

9/8

10/9

13/10

9/8

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

These three sequences of ratios were used
Song No. 70, of which the following few bars
M.M.

301

same staff notes

some idea

for the

will give

in

J = 80

(=) a-

J
a

ja

The

signs

ja

ja

ja

and

ja

ja

a'

J-

ja-a

ra

etc.

ja

je.

lower by

4- indicate that that note is higher or

less

than a semitone.

In these songs from East Greenland, leaps to the 4th and to the 5th
occur very frequently
in fact, in the majority of the songs the effect
;

produced

is

of fullness of

life,

boundless energy and will power, in

which an extract from the

tration of

'

Juridical

Drum Song

',

No.

illusis

79,

given below.

Tune No.

and

79, p. 89, lines a

etc.

a~ no

nua

ta- ta

ni

BRIEF SURVEY OF SCALES OR MUSICAL SYSTEMS

ja jaj

ja

FORMING THE

BASIS OF

PRIMITIVE AND FOLK MUSIC

It is

proposed to examine the claims of the following seven scales or

musical systems, which have at one time or another been suggested as an

underlying basis of Primitive or of Folk Music, and to identify some of

them

in actual use.

(1)

cycle of ascending perfect 4ths or descending 5ths

from a given

fundamental.
(2)

cycle of ascending perfect 5ths or descending

4ms from

a given

fundamental.

The

and 2

the Panpipe

a series of 5 pipes yields

a Pentatonic ; a series of 7 pipes yields a Heptatonic ; and a series of 12 pipes
yields the whole tone scale, a chromatic, or the ancient Chinese scale of

probable origin of

Yang and
(3)

is

Yin.

Scale systems said to consist of so-called equal intervals or steps, e.g.

5 equal intervals to the octave as in the Slendro of the Javanese.

7 equal intervals to the octave as in the Pelog of the Javanese.

The

chief protagonists of this system are

A.

J. Ellis,

C. Stumpf, E.

M. von

Hornbostel, O. Abrahams, Curt Sachs.

(4) Allied to No.

blown

5ths.

is

Hombostel's

'

Blasquintenzirkel

',

or cycle of

THE GREEK AULOS

302

(5) The results of independent investigations by Dr. Jaap Kunst, corresponding approximately with the theoretical data of No. 4 and still better
with the Harmoniai (see No. 7).
(6) The scales derived from parts of the Harmonic Series, whether as
fundamentals or overtones.
These have been discovered in use by certain South African Tribes,
Bantu and others, by Professor Percival Kirby of the Witwatersrand

University, Johannesburg.

Sections of the

Harmonic Series are also used by the peasants of the

Rumanian Highlands in their Alphorns and long

Bavarian, Austrian, Swiss,

cylindrical pipes.

The

(7)

seven Harmoniai of Ancient Greek Music, which have survived

Music of the World.

or beei. reborn in the Folk

SCALES DERIVED
5THS,

The

from a cycle of seven ascending perfect 4ths probably

on Panpipes was undoubtedly the origin of the ancient Dorian

scale derived

originating
Fig. 63.

FROM A CYCLE OF ASCENDING PERFECT 4THS, OR DESCENDING

ON A GIVEN FUNDAMENTAL. C 1 28 V.P.S.

164275

Derivation of the Heptatonic

v.f.

db

128

134-8

256

Ratios

243
go

Cents

gb

a\>

b\>

170-6

179-8

204-8

227-5

408

8
1

204
81/64

204

8 cents

cents

4g8

256
9

'

204
ditone

tritone

4/3

243
go

204
81/64

ditone

',

256

9
8

204

31

e\>

iSi'7

9
!

from a Cycle of 7 ascending perfect

138 v.p.s.

Scale

C =

4ths from

729/512

612 cents

cents

3/2

Perfect 4th

702 cents

Perfect 5th

THE CONJUNCT HEPTACHORD FROM HYPATE HYPAT0N TO MESE OF THE GRAECO-ROMAN

THEORISTS

Compared with
c

Ratios
v.f.

cents

the first Hypolydian tetrachord on

128 v.p.s. as a ditonal scale

d\>

20/20

19/20

128

e\>

17/20

g
14/20

15/20

12/20

(13/20

11/20

10/20)

182-8
170-6
134-7
150-6
88-78 192-3
216-4 119-3

281-1

Cycle of 7 ascending 4ths on G = 96

grouped in a Heptatonic Scale on

ab
v.f.

cents

101-09

96
go

b\>

nS'ys
204

204

v.p.s.

d\>

go 0

e\>

i5i'64

13478

28

204

g
192

170-6

204

204

<3

60

a
>>

-M

O
o

4-

13

Jb

<s

z
o

c
a

%H
"8

1
<u

60

o
U

jc

^3

^3

in.

a,

co
CO

s
a
C

ft

Q
g

+1
"3

H
O
Z
5

.a

'G

5-

(7

co

d
M J

g
c a

303

a
g

ill

I
M S

E2

aZ
co

o **
Z is
5
s -a s

o o
a.

CO

c&ft

CO i
CO

a6

s
1

>

ft

II

25^

so

60

8
3
01

<u

8
c
a
a

8.

00 **

vO
CO

1
8

B
;*

o
a.

13

&0"

S o

_
T3

s 1

VI

2.

CI

..

I
8

4-

oo

ju

00

B O

<u

<3

If

So

u g

&

sa

H
O

ft

Eh

CO

1
CO

I
o

I
5

Oh

ft.

i
S
O

34

S?

o
o
z
<
t

<
a
s

o
I
0,

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

305

by the Graeco-Roman theorists. The Parent scale

ST. T. T. structure, conjunct on
characteristics on the Tonic, a perfect 4th, a dimin-

ditonal scale, described

of the cycle has two tetrachordal units of

the 4th degree

and

as

ished 5th, and a minor 3rd

The disjunct scale

menon tetrachords, is

slightly flattened in theory.

of the P.I.S., displayed in the

Meson and Diezeug-

obtained as 3rd species of the Parent scale.

It will

be convenient at this point to work out a cycle of 12 perfect 4ths on

From
a fundamental C of 128 v.p.s. with their vibration frequencies.
this material

may be

derived pentatonic and heptatonic scales with their

species.

The

heptatonic scale derived from cycles of 4ths and 5ths with their

on pages 303 and 304, serves

theoretical values given

the pentatonic.

also

by elimination

for

DORIAN HARMONIA OR PENTATONIC IN TRANSITION WITH A

6'fH STEP

comparison of the species of pentatonic and heptatonic derived

respectively from cycles of 4ths and 5ths reveals the fact that each species
of the parent scale based upon one cycle corresponds with some other
they are thus
species based upon the parent scale of the other cycle
In tracing the basis of a
indistinguishable in practice when transposed.
folk tune which appears to be pentatonic, when it is found that the 6th

step

absent, there

is

Dorian Harmonia,

a contingency that the origin of the scale

is

is

the

form of Modal Determinant 1 1

This missing 6th step may be noticed

in its primitive hexatonic

the scheme of which

is

given below.

either in a pure pentatonic, e.g. in a scale corresponding to the 2nd or

4th species in the cycle of 4ths, and in the 1st or 4th species in the cycle

of 5ths, or again,

when

the pentatonic

is

in transition

between a

five-

and

a seven-step scale.

DORIAN HARMONIA OF M.D.

c

Modal ratios 11/11

by K. S.
Denominator

II

10

11/11

con-

128

stant, v.f.

140-8

163

Cents

201-14

176

156-4

182

204"

231

256

234-6
2 67

151

The Septimal 3rd occurring in normal succession between the 5th and
7th steps, so that the 6th step appears to be missing, suggests a pentatonic
This is the scale found on many flutes
in transition as a hexatonic scale.
and pipes,

Mond
9/1

on the Elgin, the Java flutes Nos. 5 and 6, Bali flute No. 20,
No. 2, &c. Other characteristics of the Dorian Harmonia
on the Tonic, midway between major and minor, of ratio

e.g.

Sicilian

are the 3rd

if

347-2 found noted with

transposition as Bfy/z, B\>, or Bt\ and


THE GREEK AULOS

306

the 7th, so frequently found below the Tonic with which

it

stands in the

= 151 0

and forming a Perfect 5th 12/8 = 702 0 with the keynote

there is finally the characteristic Dorian modal interval between
Tonic and keynote, of ratio 11/8= 551, which so often finds expression
as an exultant leap, e.g. in the
Hymn to the Sun of the Incas (see
Chap, ix) with which, repeated, the song opens and closes. This raised
4th is, however, not the unchallenged possession of the Dorian Harmonia,
unless specifically indicated by v.f. or value in cents
it is not sufficient
1 2/1 1

ratio,

'

'

to find,

with a

ways), or even

as final, a

C%/z (Bela Bartok) or a

C#for

(A.

H. Fox Strang-

a glance at Fig. 85, Chap, ix, shows that there are

rival claimants to this distinction.
Vibration frequencies or cents soon

however hence the recurrent, insistent demand of musiaddressed to collectors of Folk Music for more and more precise

settle the claim,

cologists,

values.

comparison of the vibration frequencies of the notes obtained from

a cycle of seven ascending 4ths,"with the frequencies of ratios 20/20, 19/20,

J7/20, 15/20, 14/20, of the modal Hypolydian scale 1 reveals agreement
within a divergence of one vibration for one note only which might easily

lead to a confusion of origins, were

it

not for the characteristic feature of

modality, viz. the keynote 16/20.

DITONAL SCALE FROM CYCLE OF 5THS OR HYPOLYDIAN HARMONIA

Henebry

provides an excellent illustration of the misleading resemblance of the parent heptatonic scale derived from the cycle of 5ths, with
the modal Hypolydian.
the signature

runs up the

first

all

The tune

is

the C's are raised

noted in the key of

by an

tetrachord three times to

with

F$

in

The tune
sharpened 4th and only

accidental sharp.
its

makes use of the second (duplicated) tetrachord, G F% E D, plagally below

first.
This appears to be an entirely satisfying example of a cyclic 5th
basis, until one discovers how well the scale fits the Hypolydian Harmonia,
with tritone in the first tetrachord, which is then duplicated, on the dominant
but with Perfect 4th on the octave of the Tonic, thus

the

See the Diatonic Syntonon of Aristoxenus as evaluated by Ptolemy {Harm.,

ii,
14, Table iii) which corresponds with the following sequence of ratios
20/19 X 19/17 X 17/15
the tetrachord is duplicated on the tone of disjunction.
Nicom., Lib. 1, p. 24, line 11, speaking of the ditonal scale of the Pythagoreans,
not as Eratosthenes wrongly interpreted it, or Thrasyllus, but as Timaeus the
Locrian whom Plato followed.' The difference in values whether in ratios
:

'

or cents between the ditonal

and the tetrachord

19

20

19

243

256

1215

1216

15
19

64

81

17

is

very minute

IS

1216
.

Ptolemy,

following

the

readings

of the

1215

manuscripts, has thus given the modal values.

From the strictures of Nicomachus,
it appears that Eratosthenes was known to use both forms of the tetrachord.
2
Handbook of Irish Music, No. 50, p. 207, Longmans Green & Co., Ltd. (Cork
Univ. Press), 1928, Educational Co. of Ireland.

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

307

HYPOLYDIAN HARMONIA WITH TRITONE

Mese

Harmonia
(Scale

20/20

by K.

16

it

'5

13

S.)

20/20

Ratios

(duplicated ist
tetrachord) Cents

(K. S.)

16

182

Denominator con-\
stant Hypolydian
>-

3/2

20/10

14

18

182

231
=yo2

204

4/3

16

IS

112
204
= 498
I

Tritone 10/7

617-4

Modal System comes into play to

the characteristic modal interval of this Harmonia is the
Major 3rd between keynote and Tonic, i.e. 16/20, and in tune No. 50
as would be expected in the
it is found strongly accented throughout
Hypolydian Harmonia whereas there is no definite reason for accentuatA simple
ing that note in the heptatonic derived from the cycle of 5ths.
tune given in Bartok's Hungarian Folk Music (No. 305, p. 84) is another
the tune opens with a run
clear example of the Hypolydian Harmonia
up through the ist tetrachord to the Tritonic C#, which occurs only that
The duplicated form of
once, the Perfect 4th Cfcj being used elsewhere.

It is

here that the touchstone of the

turn the scale

F%

the scale has

perhaps, of the

Minor 7th in imitation,

Major 3rd B falls

alternating with the Flq of the

first

The

tetrachord.

characteristic

twice with emphasis on the main and secondary caesurae, and

much in evidence.
The Hypophrygian Harmonia, which
18/13

= 561

0
,

species derived

presents

from

no other

cyclic 5ths

affinity
;

also has a

is

otherwise

sharpened 4th of ratio

with the parent scale or with the

from which

it

is

besides excluded, on

orthodox Minor 3rd of 316.

Attention must be drawn once more to the duplication of the ist tetrachord, which is of equal importance in all the systems under consideration,
account of

for

it

When

its

involves the obliteration of the

2nd tetrachord of the Harmonia.

the duplication occurs on the dominant,

it

also frequently introduces

a 5th foreign to the Harmonia, a fact which

spacing of the fingerholes.

is revealed on the flute by the

In the flute with three or four fingerholes,

and of such proportions as make the fundamental note difficult to produce,

so that the overblown octave serves as exit note, the notes of the four
fingerholes are easily transposed on the dominant in the harmonic register.

The

ingenious method of duplicating on the 5th in reed-blown pipes,

played with a single- or beating-reed mouthpiece, has been described in

Chapter

ii.

Stringed instruments, such as the early lutes with fretted necks and

tuned in 4ths, duplicate the tetrachord conjunct on the 4th.

The absence of duplication may carry an implication of the traditional
use of the Harmonia, while a decided preference for the duplication of
strings

THE GREEK AULOS

308

tetrachords suggests Folk

Music developed under the

influence of the

instruments specified above.

Greek

Scales diagnosed as conjunct in the

an identical structure of the tetrachords

will,

sense,

on the strength

when regarded

of

as disjunct,

two tetrachords differing in structure. Whether this indicates a

true Harmonia or a bastard is determined by the sequence of the ratios.
Bela Bartok 1 repudiates the duplication of tetrachords in Hungarian
Folk Music, but only in respect of the Augmented 2nd (the modal interval
display

15/13

=247

same octave

cents)

which, he

states,

only occurs a second time in the

Rumanian Folk Music.

in

The interval 15/13 is an arresting interval, and it is possible that Bartok

may not have noticed the duplication in the case of less striking intervals.
Examples may now be given of folk tunes which appear to be based
upon the cycles of 4ths and 5ths..
At the head of these is the most modern of them all the lovely first
theme of the second movement, of Sibelius' Second Symphony No. 2
in D, op. 43.
:

Fig. 66.

Sibelius

Theme from

Movement (Symphony No.

the 2nd

2 in fl,

1902, op. 43)

In the

DORIAN SPECIES

(S.T.T.) of the Theorists, as it would appear in the Lydian

to Trite Diezeugmenon, with the ratios and symbols according

Tonos, from Hypate Meson

to the interpretation of Greek Notation by K.
Breitkopf and Hartel

(N.Y. Branch)

S.

Hyp.

Mes

Ms e

r-

PM.

PM. MESE

Lich.

CPM
con

<

EZIMI
Z
uc<n< c<<

20 18

16

27

21

28 132 18

16

28 132)32

116

116 116

A SEPARATE ORIGIN FOR THE PENTATONIC AND HEPTATONIC

From

the records of Folk Music, the view has been generally held that

the heptatonic scale has evolved by accretion, through gradual stages, from
the pentatonic

and the occasional occurrence of

a hexatonic scale has

strengthened that view.

A
A

close examination of origins, however, leads to a different conclusion.

primitive, having found expression in grouping together five pipes

by their lengths, would not long remain content with so small a number
he would try the effect of seven or more. Or having succeeded in making
a pipe or flute speak with three or four fingerholes, he would eventually
add as many more as his fingers could conveniently cover.
It is by no means a convincing proposition that the prevalence of the
pentatonic among primitives indicates an early stage in evolution, instead

of being merely evidence of a partiality for the psychological effect of

plaintive

Minor

3rds.

There

is

which the pentatonic had previously

been predominant, by the hypothetical expedient of bridging the gaps

1

Hungarian Folk Music, trans, by M. D. Calvocoressi,

London, Humphrey Milford, 1931).

Press,

its

a tendency to account for the appearance

of a heptatonic scale in a district in

p. 55

of

(Oxford University

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

the 3rds

by the interpolation

of

some intermediate

In such a case the hexatonic scale

into play.

309

note, consciously brought

is

usually hailed as the

first step.

The

question of a separate origin for pentatonic and heptatonic, and

may be settled by the nature of the inter-

incidentally for hexatonic scales,

If it should be found that the 3rds have not been divided

by a variety of notes of uncertain values, but that the scale,
on the contrary, exhibits a consistent invariable sequence of seven notes,
then the argument tells in favour of a separate origin. There is no desire
to be dogmatic on this issue, but only to bring to notice the contribution
For instance, a flute
of wind instruments to the elucidation of the point.
embodying a Dorian or Phrygian Harmonia, may easily, through the posi-

polations.

arbitrarily

tion of the 1st of four fingerholes, appear as pentatonic or hexatonic

heptatonic,
It

if

the piper half-stops the last hole of

as

five.

however, important to realize that a singer or a piper with a set

Panpipes, wishing to bridge the Minor 3rds of the pentatonic, would

is,

of five

be in a different category from the primitive Aulete feeling a similar urge

to divide the Septimal 3rd sounding between the last two holes on his
Dorian Aulos of M.D. 11. The Aulete, having bored the holes in his
own pipe, would naturally come upon the expedient of boring an extra
hole between the two, unless he had already found out that the same result
could more easily be obtained by half-covering the top hole.

But whereas

might
and therefore produce a different modification
would assuredly produce identical results
every time, and on every Dorian pipe. The Aulete, through the permanent
effect of his experiment, produces a record, and establishes a scale, from
which basis a system may presently evolve. The interpolations of singer
and Panpiper would be pronounced accidental or temperamental, and
merely add to the confusion.
In fact, in all problems concerned with primitive and Folk Music, the
French proverbial advice should be modified into cherchez la flute, wherein
the prospect of a correct solution would in all certainty be more assured.
in the first case each individual singer or piper

interpolate a different note,

of the scale each time, the Aulete

further illustration of the principle that guides the seeker unerringly

may be taken from the Panpipe it will prove decisive further

on in our investigation of Hornbostel's theories.
There is but one method of blowing the pipes of a set which inevitably
produces the same intonation each time, no matter by whom the pipes
are blown.
It is the method, moreover, which gives identical results in
practice and in theory, providing the requisite formula is used in computation,

to the goal,

as

shown

The

in detail further on.

correct

from the

earliest

method of blowing
times

is

1
:

La Musique des Incas, R. and M. d'Harcourt (Paris, 1925). Portfolio of

No. xxxvii (2), reproduction of a photograph of an Orchestra of 17 Panmouth and blowing across the

See

Plates

which has been in use

Hold the set of pipes ver-

Panpipe

the following

pipers, holding their pipes vertically in front of the

open ends.

THE GREEK AULOS

3io
tically in front of

edge

the

mouth and

rest the

lower

lip against

not overthe

(as described fully later).

The wrong method

blow into the pipe, instead of across the end,

The note produced on the Panpipe by this incorrect
as in the Oriental nay.
kind of blowing may vary by a semitone or more, according (a) to the
obtuseness of the angle formed by the breath-stream when striking the
inner wall of the pipe, and (b) to the extent of the obturation of the opening
by the lips of the player.
Blow the Panpipes correctly, and you have the musical facts which
conduce to the birth of a system. Blow incorrectly, and the intonation
of notes and the ratios of intervals are at the mercy of any and every
player
there are no facts wherewith to build up a system.
These illustrations taken from the practical use of wind instruments
throw a light on the part played in the evolution of musical systems by the
principles and natural laws embodied in them.
Calculable results, under specified conditions, are obtainable from the
interplay of such factors as length, proportion, diameter of bore and fingerholes.
It is up to the player, therefore, to secure from the pipes the scale
they embody. The question of origin thus ceases to be purely speculative
and is based upon facts which may be tested and proven.
is

to

THE MYTH OF SO-CALLED EQUAL-STEPPED SCALES

The

strangeness of the intervals identified by the analysis of records

of Oriental

and other exotic

scales gave the impression that they consisted

of equal intervals, five to the octave in the case of the Slendro of Java,

Indonesia and Melanesia, or of seven to the octave for the Pelog scales. 1

The

protagonist in the inception of this theory

be an erroneous diagnosis
1814-90),

who

published

Convinced by

Ellis's

was

it

Alexander John

in a paper

on the

'

which

Ellis

has proved to

(formerly Sharpe,

Scales of

all

Nations \ 2

firm adherence to this theory, and in the absence

of any alternative explanation of the results of records, the protagonist

was followed amongst others by Stumpf, Hornbostel and Abrahams.

During his examination of Siamese Music by the native orchestra of
1

Known by

various

names in other parts of the world.

2
Original title Tonometrical Observations on Existing Non-Harmonic Scales ',
republished with extensive additions in Jour, of
Proceedings of Roy. Soc, 1884
the Soc. of Arts, 1885, No. 1688, Vol. xxxiii, March 27th.
Translated into German
'

by Erich M. von Hornbostel, with comments, and published

in the place of honour

Smb.f. Vergleichende Musikwissenschaft, edited by Carl Stumpf
i (Munich, 1922), from which my refs. are taken.
In his introduction, Ellis gives a full and appreciative acknowledgement of his

in the first vol. of the

and E. M. von Hornbostel, Vol.

indebtedness to Mr. Alf. Jas. Hipkins, of the firm of Broadwood & Sons, who was
gifted with an exceptionally sensitive musical ear, and was recognized as an authority
on the History and Structure of Musical Instruments.
I gladly seize the opportunity of acknowledging once again with gratitude my
own indebtedness to this genial, scholarly personality. He was the first to stimulate
and direct into proper channels my budding love and zeal for musical research
he was never too busy to discuss, criticize and advise on matters connected with
my work. K. S,
;

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

the Siamese

Embassy,

311

head of which was Prince Prisdang, Envoy

at the

Extraordinary to the Courts of Great Britain, France and Germany, Ellis

was assured by the Prince that

to be equal.

The

all

intervals

from note

to note

were intended

a division of the octave into either 5 or 7 equal steps

expressed in cents as follows

implication

is

12345671

1200

cents

171-43

for the seven intervals.

II

171

Cents

II

343

Ellis gives a list (op.

as

II

II

686"

514

cit.,

p. 41)

approximation of equal steps

II

II

857

1029

171

==

1200

showing the margin of error he accepts

an extremely generous one which opens

the door wide to a modal interpretation.

The 24 intervals cited by him between 160 and 185 represent (he
adds) the normal interval (171-43), while the divergencies show how easily
'

the ear

is satisfied

Among

with approximations

when

the intervals are non-harmonic.

the intervals included by Ellis within the specified limits (on

41) are found the first 6 of the modal Mixolydian of M.D. 14, viz.
14/13, 13/12, 12/11, 11/10, 10/9 and also 15/14, 27/25, 25/23.
These examples of equal intervals suffice to justify my rejection of

p.

equal-stepped scales, as a case of mistaken identity.

This, however,

is

conclusion formed without prejudice to the claim of the protagonist and

his followers,

who were

faced with one of the hardest problems presented

by the evolution of musical systems, and of the origin of

folk

and primitive

music.

does not, of course, claim that the results of tested instruments

actually show equal intervals, but that he considers that the intention was
Ellis

produce cycles of equal intervals.

Anyone hearing such a sequence as the following, without knowledge
from blame
for stating that the intervals were equal.

to

of the identity of the individual steps, might be exonerated

Cents

These

12/11
151

11/10
165

10/9
0
182

12/11
151

11/10
0
165

9/8
204"

10/9
182 0

intervals occurring in a scale of duplicated tetrachords in flowing

and unused in modern European music are diffiIf they were taken in turn on the same fundamental
and were heard in succession, no musician would fail to distinguish the

proportional sequence
cult to estimate.

differences in intonation.

Perspective presents the converse of this proposition.

If

we view

the

east end of the aisle in a cathedral, they produce the

being placed at gradually diminishing distances, although we
This might be regarded
are well aware that these distances are all equal.
as the architectural embodiment of the Harmonic Series ascending or

columns from the

illusion of

descending according to the direction followed by the eye in

its

survey.


THE GREEK AULOS

312

The

succession of intervals given above will be recognized as a

Modal

Scale consisting of the ist tetrachord of the Phrygian Harmonia, duplicated

on the 4th and therefore conjunct. I have identified it from the vibration
frequencies of records communicated to me by Dr. Jaap Kunst, of the
scales of Gamelans (orchestras) of Java, Bali, Sia'm, and of Marimbas from
Kunst ').
Sierra Leone and Limpopo (see section
1

FROM

PL. IV,

FROM

PL. Z., KUNST

No. 6 Kraton Jogja
No. 9 Gam. Madjakarta

KUNST

(B) Siamese Scale (Stumpf)

(C) Gamelan, Z. Bali.

(E) Gam. Moengang Jogja
Sierra Leone, Marimba
(N) Limpopo, Marimba

(M)

With Hornbostel we
investigation.

enter upon a phase of the comparative method in

His hypothetical Cycle of Blown 5ths is a culmination of

the fixed idea of equal-stepped scales, which has dominated

all his work

on the music of primitive folk for several decades. When expressed in
the yield of intervals from the collected phonograms seemed to warrant
the hope that a common basis might ultimately be discovered in a predilection
for equal steps in the scale of sounds used by primitive musicians.
It must be conceded that a superficial consideration of the arithmetical
progression which accounts for the Harmonic Series lent colour to the
hypothesis of equal-stepped scales. But the recognition of the fact that
in the Harmonic Series, the same numerical increment of vibrations, which
separates any two adjoining members of the series, produces intervals
diminishing proportionally in magnitude as the progression rises in pitch,
might have given pause for thought, as far as the Art of Music is concerned.
Herein equality of increment in any one medium produces a propor-

cents,

tionally

position

graded inequality in another

among

members
member to

the

relationship of each

medium

of a series

is

interrelative equality in

qualified

by the individual

the fundamental, a principle which furnishes

the key to the present inquiry.

The

inequality in the musical effect of the equal increments

is

appre-

ciated by the ear through the change in the periodicity of the sound-wave.
This as is known advances through the air by its own length once in
each of the complete vibrations of its periodicity. 1 Each advance of the
sound-wave is announced by its impact on the ear, and the beat of a wave
per second against the tympanum conditions our recognition of the vibration
frequency of the note. The length of the sound-wave is thus determined
not by that of the increment, but by the number of increments which
A realization of the significance of the
separate it from the fundamental.
operation of the harmonic principle of the series might have prevented
the false assumption that equidistant fingerholes could by any means
produce intervals of equal magnitude.
A consideration of the respective significance of equal and approximately equal intervals definitely recognized by those who use them
with differences of from 5 to 20 or more cents reveals the insidious effect

Sound and Music, by Sedley Taylor (Macmillan

&

Co., 1883), pp. 20-32.

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

by the sanction of

of a musical notation, consecrated

which

is

DR. ERICH M.

Appreciations of Erich

M. von

313

centuries of musical

merely able to differentiate the notes of

by a matter of 100 cents.
progress,

sequences

its

VON HORNBOSTEL
Hornbostel's life-work will be

many

what we are mainly concerned with here is his voluminous output of

musicological ideas and theories.
He seems to have attacked the problems
connected with the music of primitive folk from one shrewdly selected
angle after another, with the persistent hope of finding a satisfactory solution.
The extraordinary variety of the phonographic records, collected in
the Archives of Berlin University, of the tunes of tribes and races from
all parts of the world, some of which he investigated, deciphered and
computed in vibration frequencies and cents, forms an invaluable contribution to our subject
many groups of such records with the addition of
musicological and ethnological text have been published in the journals
;

The

of learned societies.

material of our present chapter

concerned with two of these.

Measures

as a

Means

Musical Tonesystems 1 and

Standard
', in both of which reliance
'

placed on the Cycle of Blown 5ths (Blasquintenzirkel) as a solution.

is

It is little short of a

how

tragedy to find, on studying these two pamphlets,

nearly Hornbostel had reached the goal towards which he had so

long and so persistently been striving.

refer to his general treatment

of pipes and flutes with equidistant fingerholes.

a

intimately

is

'

'

of Cultural Investigation

little

It is

perhaps more than

strange that this deep-seated idea of equal-spacing as motivation

in the Arts, should not have led, in the case of music, to an investigation

of the results of equal-spacing in practice on flutes and pipes.

efforts in this direction, e.g. in his

examination of Loret's

Hornbostel's
list

of the sur-

viving Ancient Egyptian pipes, with their measurements (Victor Loret,

owing to the fact that

his was merely paper work instead of practical.
The intervals he attributes
to individual specimens are all incorrect, for they do not take into account
the all-important mouthpiece (see T. S., p. 442).
Length of extrusion of
the mouthpiece from the resonator -as already explained from many angles
sets the seal of modality for the Aulos, and determines the ratios of the
intervals obtained through the fingerholes anew, each time the length of
extrusion is changed for the same pipe.
Hornbostel evidently was not aware that the reed-blown pipe without
its mouthpiece is merely a resonator, mute until the mouthpiece speaks
and provokes a response.
op.

cit.),

are a signal failure

and

entirely misleading,

None

of his pipes has spoken.

Musikalische Tonsysteme, Handbuch d. Physik (H. Geiger and Karl Scheel),

Berlin, Bd. viii, 1927
Akustik, pp. 425 sqq.
Die Massnorm als Kulturgeschichtliches Forschungsmittel ', Festschrift, Publication d'Hommage offerte au
P. W. Schmidt (offprints of both of which I owe to the courtesy of the author),
published in Anthropos, Administration St. Gabriel (Modling bei Wien, 1928),
'

pp. 303 sqq.

THE GREEK AULOS

H
Not one

possibility

of Loret's pipes in Hornbostel's Table (p. 422) could by any

exit or from its fingerholes the intervals assigned

produce from

As illustrated in detail in Aulos ii, the mouthpiece adds at the very

it.
this
two or more increments of distance to the length of the pipe
combined length divided by the I.D. determines the Mode on the pipe
by fixing the Modal Determinant. Hornbostel was on the verge of a
discovery of the Modal System of the Ancients, but failed to find the clue.
His conclusion on this subject is {op. cit,, 19) that the large group of
pipes with fingerholes flutes and oboes yields scales which, in the aggreto

least

'

gate,

can hardly be said to constitute a system

the result

is

'

elsewhere, he adds that

mere chaos.

have found, on the contrary, that the scales they yield form the basis
of a system in use in by far the greatest part of the world's Folk Music.
I

hornbostel's cycle of

blown 5THS (blasquintenzirkel)

is focused upon Hornfounded upon a Cycle of Blown 5ths. The

essential points of this theory which claim our attention are the following
(1) It is Hornbostel's unproven hypothesis.
(2) It applies solely to Panpipes consisting of cylindrical pipes closed
at one end.
(3) It is claimed as an invariable rule that all cylindrical closed pipes
overblow a flat 5th instead of a Perfect one.
Since this claim impugns an acoustic law, it is clear that the overErgo
blowing of a single Perfect 5th from such a pipe (satisfactorily attested,
or given by a phonographic record), would suffice to overthrow this hypothetical system.
The sequel will show that this is what has actually occurred.
(4) The degree of flatness in the overblown 5th varies with pipes and
players, but has been assumed as a working hypothesis to be
constant, and Hornbostel has empirically fixed the flatness of the
Blown 5th at 24 cents. It will be seen further on that this estimate

After these introductory remarks our interest

bostel's hypothetical system,

is

(5)
(6)

entirely inadequate.

The cycle is closed at

The system of Blown

the 23rd 5th with

cents.

fths which, he claims, has been found in

thus derived from a cycle of 23 5ths,

each flattened from 702 cents to 678 cents. Hornbostel gives the

almost universal use,

is

vibration frequencies of the cycle, calculated

upon

a fundamental

of 366 v.p.s., which he erroneously 1 attributes to the Ancient

Chinese standard pipe measuring one Chinese foot of 230 mm.
(7) It

The
1

must be clearly understood that this theory has not been based
upon the playing of the
as is usual in evidence of this kind
Panpipes by the Indians of N.W. Brazil, in the presence of Hornbostel, nor on phonographic records of the music of the Indians.
vibration frequency of the notes of the Brazilian Panpipes are

Hornbostel admits that

Brazilian Panpipes.

this

standard frequency

is

not found in use on the

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

315

tnose registered from Hornbostel's blowing of the pipes which, as he admits,

did not always give the same result.

The method used

in registering the vibration frequencies

made by means

of an

Appun Tonometer

vibrations between 256

(8)

is

not stated

it was at that date probably

having a free reed for every two

in the first account of the theory (K.-G., 1910)

and 512.

In the absence of phonographic records from Brazil,

accurate

measurements of the length and diameter of each separate pipe

should have been provided.
There is, therefore, an entire absence of reliable evidence of the exact
intonation of the pipes.
It is

highly significant that although Hornbostel published his con-

tribution on the Brazilian Panpipes as an appendix in

Griinberg's book

should find

and a provisional statement of

Theodor Koch1920/ he

his theory in

necessary to point out in 1927, with reference to the alleged

flattening of the overtone, that
this physical problem has not yet, to my
it

'

knowledge, been worked out experimentally and theoretically (Mus. Ton.

Sys., p. 431, fn. 3).
Since the Blown 5th of 678 cents is the sole basis and
'

raison d'etre of Hornbostel's system,

of

first

all

it is

clear that a definite decision

be reached by investigators as to the

validity or-

must

unsoundness

of the assumption.

THE BASIS OF HORNBOSTEL'S THEORY OF THE

HIS

The

fairest

way

'

BLASQUINTENZIRKEL

'

IN

OWN WORDS

of presenting this theory

is

to allow the author of

it

it in his own words.

This is a translation of the passage from
Appendix to Koch-Griinberg's book in which the theory of the Blown
5ths was first launched in 1910 (p. 381, line 5, bottom).

to describe

the

1.

If

one considers the coincidences of the fundamentals of our pipes with

the 5 th partial tones not yet taken into account one finds that every three of
the intervals built up in accordance with the 3rd partials, e.g. i, iii, v, vii, 8 taken in
sequence, lead exactly to the 5th partial of the fundamental of the first pipe of the

or really to its lower octave. But if one proceeds upwards from any note, through
three conjunct 4ths (e.g. c, f, b\>, eb) 4 one arrives exactly at the minor 3rd (above
set,

Zweijahre unter den Indianern, Vol. ii, pp. 378 sqq., 1910. I quote from p. 381
bottom, to end of 1, p. 382.
Vorlaufige Notiz iiber den Blasquintenzirkel ', in Anthropos, 1919-20,

line 5,
2

'

pp. 569 sqq.

3

Hornbostel

illustrates

here from Table

1,

vibration frequencies of the Brazilian Panpipe

4

op.

cit.,

p.

380,

which gives the

No. 6322.

Readers may be puzzled by these three conjunct 4ths c, /, b\>, e\>, said to be
overblown flat sths transposed an octave lower (see (e) ). Hornbostel has overlooked the fact that rising sths transposed to the lower octave (as 4ths) produce
descending conjunct 4ms from a fundamental which must be common to both, else
there can be no basis for comparison. A glance at Table 1, from which the example
is taken, shows that Pipe 1 of 420 v.p.s. is the fundamental from which the three
conjunct 4ths ascend
it is also the fundamental from which are overblown both
3rd and 5th Harmonics. The 5th Harmonic of Pipe 1 flat of 519 v.p.s. does indeed
;

THE GREEK AULOS

316

the octave) of the starting-note, whereas the 5th partial is the major 3rd (above the
double octave) of the fundamental (sic).
may this apparent contradiction of

How

observed facts be explained in the light of the simplest acoustic laws

Hornbostel continues thus

The pitch of a pipe does not depend solely upon the length, but also
2, (a)
upon the width (diameter K. S.) of the tube. (6) The note is actually somewhat
lower than it should be, according to the simplest calculation, which takes into
account the length only of the tube, (c) This lowering of the pitch, in consequence
of the influence of the width of the tube, also takes effect in the overtones,
(d) The
3rd partials will, therefore, all be somewhat too low, the 5ths between them and
the fundamentals too small, and if the overtones are transposed below the fundamentals, the 4ths will be too wide,
(e) If three such 4ths are added together, the
increases over the pure intervals
slight as they are in themselves
lead in the
aggregate to a minor 3rd of the starting note, which is very considerably too large.
On
the
other
hand,
the
partial
5th
will naturally also be too low, in consequence
(/)
of the influence of the width of the tube
and the major 3rd it forms with its fundamental will be too narrow. That this diminished major 3rd should (almost) exactly
coincide with that augmented minor 3rd, e.g. the 5th partial of (pipe) No. i with
the fundamental of pipe No. vii obtained through (impure) 4ths, is in any case a
remarkable and striking fact. 2
1

own words the basis of his theory

Blown 5ths (marked [2]) upon which

This, then, constitutes in Hornbostel's

of the

'

Blasquintenzirkel

'

or Cycle of

he pinned his faith until the end.

Fact and fiction are strangely blended in this statement, which

upon
It

to bear the

must be

burden of proof of

this ingenious

is

called

but erroneous theory.

recalled at the outset that the vibration frequencies of the

Brazilian Panpipes, given in the various tables published in the

in question, are those that

Appendix

were registered from Hornbostel's own

blozving

There are, to my knowledge, no available records whatever

of the pipes.
of the playing of any of these pipes by the Indians of North-west Brazil.
Moreover, no measurements of the length and diameters of the pipes have
been published they would enable us to check the correspondence of the
:

almost coincide, as stated, with the note of Pipe vii of 516

minor 3rd of Pipe 1 has a vibration frequency of 504 but
related.
It is clear, therefore, that three conjunct 4ths c
;

v.p.s.,

why
f

whereas the true

not

6f

they are not

eb could

not be transposed overblown 5ths. No basis for comparison exists.

1
The lettering of the different points inserted by K. S. The original
version of (a), (b) and (c) above (op. cit., p. 382, lines 4 sqq.) is as follows

German

Die Tonhohe einer Pfeife hangt nicht bloss von der Lange sondern auch
von der Weite des Rohrs ab. (b) Der Ton ist tatsachlich etwas tiefer als er der
einfachsten, bloss die Rohrlange beriicksichtigender Berechnung nach sein miisste
(c) aiese Depression der Tonhohe infolge des Einflusses der Rohrweite findet aber
auch bei den Obertonen statt. Die dritten Teiltone werden also alle etwas zu tief,
die Quinten zwischen ihnen und den Grundtonen zu klein, und, wenn man die
Obertone unter die Grundtone verlegt, die Quarten zu gross.'
(a)

'

2
Hornbostel. op. cit., p. 382, ' It is not the place here for a searching elucidation
of the physical problem, which is not devoid of difficulties.'
(K. S. Apparently there has, in all these years, been no suitable time or place

found for such an elucidation.)

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

results given

317

with the vibration frequencies that pipes of such dimensions

would give if blown correctly.

We must turn our attention first to No. 2. This is a thoroughly bad
proposition and, as basis for any musical system, indefensible.
{a) is a correct

statement as far as

contradicts (a)

(b)

it

goes but

is

entirely inadequate.

and diameter are

after stating that length

both

necessary to the production of pitch, Hornbostel deliberately cuts out one

To

of the two indispensable constituents of the note.

a pipe due to the factor of length alone

No
'

is

talk of a note

from

a purely fictitious conception.

such note can be produced on a Panpipe. What is here termed the

is merely error and an impossible proposition.

simplest calculation

'

ENTAILS THE FALSIFICATION OF AN ACOUSTIC PRINCIPLE

cannot be said that the note

It

(c)

is

flattened

of diameter or width, seeing that diameter

There

in the creation of the note.

Diameter

is

is

owing

to the influence

the co-partner with length,

no note possible without diameter.

here falsely staged as the evil genius of the pipe.

treated as a reality

may

is

and the

fictitious flatness is

Fiction

is

passed on to the overtones.

no acoustic law or principle that supports the production of flat overtones from a stopped cylindrical
pipe providing, of course, that the pipe be correctly blown.
(d) The 3rd Harmonics are said to produce false 5ths in relation to
their fundamentals
they are still endowed with the fictitious flatness
It

here be categorically stated that there

is

incurred through the curious process of confronting the real note of the

no reality, since
and of pronouncing the reality guilty of flatness
it cannot be produced
by comparison with the fiction.
(e and /) Any results due to the alleged evil influence of diameter must
be common to both fundamentals and Harmonics, therefore, the 5ths
cannot be said to be flat 5ths, nor when transposed below the fundamentals
pipe, actually heard, with a fictitious note that can have
;

to

the

be sharpened 4ths
Such is the hazy

in relation to their fundamentals.

from hypothetical and erroneous notions, of

libellous Blown 5ths
and upon this false basis
up the ingenious system which was to be given a world-wide
application in solving the baffling problems of the scales used by the Folk.

the Blasquintenzirkel

was

origin,

built

THE LAY VIEW OF THE INFLUENCE OF DIAMETER ON PITCH

Dr. von Hornbostel is by no means singular in his misunderstanding
of the incidence of diameter in the determination of pitch in pipes and
flutes.
It may, therefore, not be amiss at this point to give the lay view
of the vexed subject of the so-called influence of diameter on pitch.

The

science of Physics represents the inner reactions of cylindrical

closed pipes

by equations,

in

which the symbols

(radius)

and n (=

cir-

cumference) suggest solidity and cubic contents. But the sound-wave

productive of pitch (and, therefore, considered from the standpoint of
periodical vibrations)

which emerges when the

by some exciting agent,

is

air

column

is

set in vibration

conceived as having a purely linear progression

THE GREEK AULOS

318

from the pipe, through ambient air, to the ear. Diameter (or probably
width right across the open end of the reed-pipe) also has a purely linear
function in the sound-wave, i.e. the sound-wave in its pulse extends beyond
the opening of the pipe, to a length equal to the width or diameter of
the pipe, which is thus included in it as an inseparable and co-responsible
factor of the length productive of pitch.

The sound-wave,
pipe,

initiated by blowing across the open end of the closed

makes two journeys, along the pipe, for each complete vibration,
from the closed end, back to the opening -and beyond
the extent of the diameter
the length of the sound-wave is, therefore,

reflected each time

it

to

four times that of the Panpipe

sound in

If the velocity of

+ twice

air at

ture of about 6o F.) be divided

that of the diameter.

340 metres per second (at a temperalength, thus computed of the sound-

by the

wave, the quotient will give the vibration frequency of the note of the pipe.

FORMULA NO.

(b)

FORMULA NO. 2

(b)

340 metres/sec.
L x 4 + (A x 2)

L =

length

A =

diameter

v.f.

or the converse

340 metres/sec.

= ,L

of sd.-wave

v.f.

and

of sd.-wave

=L

(diameter)

of pipe H

The most

be able to make, by using it,

a pipe which actually produces a note of requisite frequency given by a
satisfying test of the formula is to

specified tuning fork.

The
pipe

is

pipe must be cylindrical the diameter at both ends equal the

then stopped at one end by a closely fitting cork. The length is

that of the interior of the pipe.

THE ALLEGED FLATNESS OF OVERTONES FROM CLOSED PIPES REPUDIATED BY

ACOUSTIC

The immediate

question at issue

LAW

now

is,

therefore, (g)

whether

this

impure Harmonics by cylindrical closed pipes is

owing to an inherent property of Panpipes and, therefore, to
be accepted as an indisputable fact supported by Acoustic Laws ? The
answer is no
or (h) Whether the alleged flatness is categorically repudiated by acoustic
law as the affair of the piper, due to a faulty method of blowing the pipes ?
alleged production of
inevitable,

The answer is yes

The answer to (g)
!

is

a recognized authority

an emphatic negative endorsed by Mr. D. J. Blaikley,

on questions of Pitch and of Wind Instruments,


SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC
who when questioned on

this

319

very point by Mr. A. H. Fox Strangways

denied that this was the case. 1

The answer

to (h)

is

an equally unqualified affirmative about to be further

substantiated.

THE RECORDS OF BRAZILIAN PANPIPES BLOWN BY HORNBOSTEL ACTUALLY

EXHIBIT OVERTONES PURE, SHARP AND FLAT, WHERE ALL ARE ALLEGED
TO BE FLAT

The

question

absolutely settled once for

is

attested cases of pure

all

in the event of duly

Harmonics blown from any Panpipe, or

alternatively

of finding pure overtones indicated amongst the vibration frequencies of

the notes of the Brazilian or other Panpipes.

The

best of

Among

all

attestations

is

that of Hornbostel against himself.

the published records of the Brazilian Panpipes, registered from

the tests of the instruments while actually blown by Hornbostel, are to be

found several Perfect 5ths, 4ths, and Major 3rds (5th Harmonic), the purity
of which he evidently overlooked, both as practical overblown notes, and
on paper from the vibration frequencies given in the tables.
The following instances may be given
In his exposition of the
basis of his theory quoted above, he selects as illustration (from Table 1,
K.-G., p. 380), pipes i, iii, v, vii, built up in accordance with the third
partials which when transposed below the fundamentals give sharpened
:

'

4ths

'.

But the vibration frequencies supplied by Hornbostel for these pipes

show that the 4ths between Nos. i and iii and v are Perfect, which implies
the overblowing of pure 5ths

(See Table

1.)

The

conclusion forced

upon us by these few examples

is that Hornbostel on his own evidence

has destroyed the precarious assumption on which he founded his Cycle

of Blown
Even one

5ths,

while providing evidence of his integrity and sincerity.

Harmonic overblown by himself as Perfect 5th would

sometimes overblow pure Harmonics, a theory
Harmonics, attributed solely to the evil effect of diameter
which nevertheless is an integral factor in every pipe and in every pipe
note can no longer hold its ground, it is once and for all discredited.
Acoustic theory does not allow the overblowing of impure Harmonics
in cylindrical closed pipes
if such occur, they are due to infraction of
the law, for which the faulty blowing of the piper is responsible. What,

have

based on

single 3rd

If Panpipes

sufficed.

flat

See Proceedings of the Musical Association, 62nd Session, 1935-6, p. 69.

It is not proposed, therefore, to refer the question of the purity of the harmonics
of cylindrical stopped pipes to the written technicalities of acoustic law ; the subject
the text-books.
personal testimony may be added
in
order to satisfy myself, I overblew perfect sths from my Agariche (Panpipes similar

My

may be pursued from

by Hornbostel, but from N.W.

to those used

on three occasions before

competent witnesses, viz. an expert professional tuner, Mr. E. Anderson (twice),
and Mr. A. H. Fox Strangways the overblown sths were pronounced perfect
a little reluctantly by the latter, I fancied, owing to his long friendship with Hornbostel, but his sensitive musical ear would have winced at a flatness of less than

24

cents

even

Bolivia)

THE GREEK AULOS

320

1
Clearly the one
?
Harmonics, and which, moreover,
produces a vibration frequency in the fundamental which is identical with
the theoretical one computed by formula from the actual length and diameter

then,

is

method of blowing the Panpipe

the correct

that ensures the overblowing of pure

The

of the pipe.

only method that

fulfils

these conditions

is

the following

CORRECT AND FAULTY METHODS OF BLOWING PANPIPES

The Panpipes must be

held vertically in front of the

mouth

not

so that the lower lip rests against (not over) the edge, the upper
compressed above the lower neither encroaching over the edge. A
narrow slit is thus left between the lips
the breath-stream is directed
across the diameter of the open end, and impinges on the sharp opposite
edge, forming a node at that point for the sound-wave
as happens by

obliquely

lip

when

analogy

By

this

a string

is

plucked.

means alone the

full

true diameter, emphasized

its

of blowing

is

is

by the exciting breath-stream.

the same as that used on the concert

The wrong method

mouth and to blow into
stream

length of the tube comes into play with

is

to hold the

This method

flute.

Panpipe obliquely in front of the

the pipe, as in the Oriental nay, so that the breath-

directed inwards at an angle, striking the inner wall at a variable

distance below the edge of the aperture,

and thus substituting a diagonal

sound-wave by twice
between the two lengths, and a consequent
lowering of the pitch. The note produced by this faulty method of blowing
may vary by a semitone or more, according to the angle formed by the
breath-stream when striking the inner wall of the pipe, and to the extent
of the obturation of the opening of the pipe by the lips of the player.
As
both of these are variable and undefinable factors, it is obvious that the
instrument, under such conditions, would be entirely useless for the building
for a diameter, the result being a lengthening of the

amount of the

the

difference

up of a musical system. 2
There is, besides, a great difference experienced in the overblowing of
Harmonics by these two methods. When blowing correctly across the
open end, the pipe is held vertically in front of the mouth and the piper's
larynx

is

in the

normal position, equally favourable for the compression

and for

of the muscles of the glottis required to produce the overtones,

the relaxation necessary to induce the fundamental tone of the pipe to

speak.

In the faulty method of blowing into the pipe, the piper is at a great
his chin sinks, the muscles controlling the glottis are thereby
whether he demands from his pipe a low fundamental or a high

disadvantage

relaxed,

Something has already been said on the subject above.

2
As an evidence of the variability of the pitch of notes obtained by this
faulty method of blowing, attention may be drawn to Hombostel's fn. I on
He points out that the frequency of the fundap. 383 (Koch-Grunberg, op. cit.).
and
mental of Pipe No. 1 in Table ii was determined at the 1st test as 420 v.p.s.
at a 2nd test as 409
he considers that according to calculation the mean 414-5
1

is

the correct frequency

The

difference in the results of Tests

and

ii

amounts to a quarter- tone.

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SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

323

which it is an effort to produce in such a position, and which

consequence is frequently flattened for lack of sufficient compression.
Harmonics, which result from the spontaneous aliquot divisions of the
air column into segments equal in length, and vibrating at the same frequency, are constituents of the fundamental tone, and are always in perfect
tune.
The constituent Perfect 5th heard simultaneously with the fundamental acts as a guide to the ear in isolating the 3rd Harmonic by overblowing.
Distortion of the Harmonics in Panpipes is mainly due to the
overtone,
in

encroaching of the

lips

over the bore of the pipe, held obliquely

inadequate compression of the breath.

of overtones from Panpipes

fixed

idea

of the

and

to

inevitable

no doubt, a contributory cause,

since the vocal organs endeavour to produce what the mind or imagination
desires and suggests.
The theory of the orientation by sharp 4ths, as
reversed flat Blown 5ths has now completely broken down, for it relied
flatness

for acceptance

upon

is,

a travesty of the acoustic law.

It is, as a theory, devoid of any sound formative principle in scalemaking, for the reason that the sharp 4ms are not calculable ; they are
due to a wrong method of blowing, which inevitably produces an unaccount-

able

and uncontrollable variety

5thsor by

in the extent of the flatness of the

Blown

implication of the sharpness of the 4ths with which they stand

in octave relation.

Such

is

the theory.

What

are the facts

In Table 1 (op. cit., p. 380) we are presented with the vibration frequencies of a duplicate set of Panpipes Nos. 6322/23, tuned in unison.
The order of the pipes exhibits a double chain of rising 4ths as fundamentals
the one extending through pipes bearing odd numbers, the
;

second through the evens. Under each fundamental is given the vibration
frequency of its overblown 5th, which corresponds with a variable margin
of error

with the frequency

of

odd or even pipe number, Pipe

its
iii

lower conjunct 4th on the next lower

with Pipe

i,

and so on.

ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS GIVEN IN FIGS. 67 AND 68

But those so-called sharp 4ths 1 displayed by the vibration frequency

of the Brazilian Panpipes to which the theory of the Cycle of Blown 5ths
owes its conception prove on inspection to be mixed.

It is astonishing to find this

cited

the case even in the three conjunct 4ths

by Hornbostel in illustration of his theory (see footnote 4, p. 315, and

and 382, and Table i,p. 380) and drawn from the Panpipe

op. cit., pp. 381

Set V.B. 6322/23.

The examination

of

all

the pipes of this set gives the following curious

result
1

The sharp 4th observed by Hornbostel in Panpipe scales, which appear to

be a confirmation of his theory of Blown flat Sths, may instead be referred to characteristic modal intervals : either to the raised 4th of the Dorian (ratio 11/8)
to
the sharpened 4th of the Hypophrygian (ratio 18/13) ; or to the Tritonic form of
the primitive Hypolydian of ratio 10/7 (see Table of values of these in Chap, ix,
Fig. 8 S ).
;

THE GREEK AULOS

324

denotes pure or perfect.

denotes Hornbostel's vibration frequency for the sharp 4th.

Figures in brackets denote the differences in vibration frequency

flat

or sharp of the 4ths.

Roman numbers

denote the order of the pipes.

Deductions from Hornbostel's Tables

and

II

Panpipe V.B. No. 6322/23

The 4ths which should

SHARP

Pure

sharp

all be

FLAT

v.p.s.

v.p.s.

difference
ii-iv

iii-v

iv-vi

(viii-x ?)

v-vii

17
12

vi-viii

vii-ix

Pipes

*viii-x

i-6*

ix-xi

112

4'4

106

xi-xiii

11

87

x-xii

N.B.

difference

9'2

i-iii

and

xii

xiii

are given

on Table

ii

(Hornb.)

*-* This 4th should doubtless be reckoned as pure

an amount less than 2 v.p.s.
might well be due to blowing or to its registration. The difference in these flat 4ths must
be doubled in relation to a constant increment of sharpness in the 4ths.
:

similar examination of Panpipes

on Tables

iii,

iv,

vii, 1

v and

No. 6324/25, given by Hornbostel

likewise reveals the insecure foundation of the

theory, for 9 of the 4ths are flat

5 of them by more than 20 v.p.s.
74) ; the other 9 are sharp 5 of them by more than 10 v.p.s.
:

=
=

63).

Both pure and

flat

(maximum
(maximum

4ths testify that the overblown 5ths, from which

they are said to derive, could not have been flat. In fact, the mixture of 4ths
in the Panpipe scales revealed by analysis as pure, sharp, and flat, is entirely
subversive of Hornbostel's theory.

On the other hand, it is suggestive of the Modal System of the Harmoniai,

which pure 4ths on the Tonic are found in the Hypodorian, Phrygian
and Hypolydian (form ii) flat 4ths on the Tonic occur in the Mixolydian
and Lydian and sharp 4ths on the Tonic in the Dorian, Hypophrygian and
Hypolydian (form i) with Tritone. All of these Harmoniai would probably
have been found represented in the scales of the Brazilian Panpipes, if
in

correctly blown, for the reasons given in detail in the following pages.
series of interlaced 4ths in

Panpipes No. 6322/23

-a

The

pair consisting of

17 pipes each, tuned in unison approximately, produces, when the pipes

are taken in order, a sequence of split 4ths resembling the Slendro of the

This grouping of the pipes, however, merely

Javanese in formation.

represents an arbitrary selection from the musical elements of the underlying

system, which

is

revealed

taken in order of pitch

is

when

the fundamentals of the pipes of a set are

played in this order, the nature of the background

disclosed as a scale diatonic in character.

Since Hornbostel did not hear the Brazilians playing on these pipes, he
1

See Tables vi and vii, op. cit., 1910, and Akustisches Kriterium, 1919-20
Table ii, Salomonen-Brasilien (Panpfeifen). Communicated in correspondence by
Hornbostel to Dr. Kunst, Oct., 1923.
;


SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC
could

but

not

explain

only

conjecture

the

reason

for

the

325

grouping

presented in Fig. 67.

There exist three different readings of the frequencies of this pair of
Panpipes in which some of the values differ by as much as 6 v.p.s., and in
v.p.s.
A test of the vibration frequencies of the overblown
5ths shows that they are all flat by amounts varying from 3 to 10.
The
overblown 3rds (5ths partials), given for 4 pipes only, reveal two pure
major 3rds from Pipes ii and iii, the other two being duly flat.
There is obviously no advantage to be derived from a further inquiry
into this sophisticated and discredited theory.
The scales of the pipes,
however even if the vibration frequencies cannot be relied upon as precise

one case by 11

are of great
When these frequencies are placed in order of
instead of in the order of the pipesthey reveal
approximating

data

interest.

pitch

results

modal sequences of one or other of the Harmoniai.

to those of the

EVEN THE RESULTS OBTAINED BY

WRONG METHODS OF BLOWING

HARMONIA
It

must here be

SUGGEST THE

AS ORIGIN

definitely stated that in the frequencies of the notes of

the Harmonia, differences exhibited between the vibration frequencies of

two consecutive diatonic ratios may be as much as 51 v.p.s. in the octave

beginning on C = 512 v.p.s. (= 25 on C = 256) for C 11 to D 10. Therefore, a difference of a few v.p.s. does not invalidate the evidence of the ratio
in question, provided the

My

increment.

practice

or thus

(B being the

^r-

number does not amount

is

the octave of

to write

under the

to a quarter of the

ratio the

within which the note occurs,

e.g.

index frequency of

12/256 to C11/512

limit of the index 256).

The margin

of error in identifying the modal frequencies taken from

seen to be a wide one, which varies with the ratio and the vibration
frequency of the fundamental, and does not provide equal increments of

records

is

vibration.

The

fact that most of the sequences are those of the Harmonia as octave
and none of them duplicated, may probably be taken to imply the
It was a foregone conclusion that the scales
forming the basis of Folk Music in North-west Brazil, in Bolivia and in

unit,

flute as origin of the scale.

Peru, should prove to be those of the traditional Incasic musical system

the system of the Harmoniai.

That

is

to say that quite independently of the

arrangement of individual

by the moderns, the underlying musical

elements revealed by the pipes taken in order of pitch is suggestive of the
Harmoniai, or of their species. It is not the mere correspondence or
approximation in vibration frequencies between certain notes that is an

pipes in the sets of Panpipes

implication of the modality of the Harmonia.

It is the preservation of

continuity in the progression of ratios, from step to step, in the modal

sequence which
It is

is

the decisive factor.

obvious that owing to Hornbostel's faulty blowing of the Brazilian

THE GREEK AULOS

326

Panpipes, which was productive of variable and unpredictable margins of

error, the results presented

by him

in his tables cannot

be accepted as

we depend

evidence of the survival or rebirth of the Harmonia, since

present solely

when

upon

these results for our estimate of the scales.

at

But, never-

found that vibration frequencies follow the order of a

modal sequence, this at once suggests the Harmonia as origin of the scale
to which the Panpipes were tuned at some undetermined time, probably
from a flute having equidistant fingerholes.
Although the results of all the sets of Panpipes recorded by Hornbostel
have been carefully analysed, and identification traced as far as possible with

theless,

Fig. 69.

it

is

The Antique Peruvian Clay Flute, San Ramon (No. V.A.

Bolivar Collection.

The note

The

i5aoi),from the
Flute has 5 Fingerholes in front and one at the back.

of Exit and Fingerholes in order of pitch (taken from Table

Griinberg, op.

Horn-

from

v.fs.

390, Koch-

vii, p.

cit.)

402

614

402

609-9(631-7)

707

(785)

blowing

bostel's

of flute
v.f.

of the Dorian

Harmonia

calcu-

804

707-5
,

(728-

on the same
fundamental,
M.D. 22 and 44

lated

Modal

Ratios of Aii/ii
Dorian Harmo- A22/23
by K. S.
(Denominator

7
(14)

25/44

(12)

J*=267

nia

constant)
of corresponding notes of Panpipes recorded by

v.fs.

402

59^-4

704-3

Hornbostel's (No.

6324/25)

N.B. The 1st tetrachord of the Dorian Harmonia is in close agreement with that of
the 2nd Tetrachord is distorted ; this may be due to (a) insuffithe Ancient Peruvian flute
cient compression of breath to produce the rise in pitch of the septimal 3rd ; (b) to the
influence of diameter on the reactions of the air column (see Records of the Kenas of K. S.),
or (c) to an irregular increment of distance between the fingerholes.
;

(See Koch-Griinberg, op.

cit.,

Table

vii, p.

390)

the vibration frequencies and ratios of the Harmoniai,

it is

not considered

by reproducing here more than one

example (see Figs. 67 and 68 above). For the remaining sets, we must
wait until tests have been made by other investigators and duly recorded
by phonograph.
Since the flute is not open to the same objection as the Panpipes, the
ancient clay flute recorded by Hornbostel (K.-G., op. cit., Table vii, p. 389)
it has five fingerholes in
as V.A. No. 1 590 1, San Ramon, may be cited
The vibration frefront and one at the back, a little above the 5th hole.
that any useful purpose can be served

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

327

quencies of the notes produced from exit and fingerholes form intervals
which will be recognized as those of the Dorian

of the following ratios,

Harmonia

of

M.D.

11

Hornbostel compares the

of this flute with

v.fs.

those of Panpipes V.B. Nos. 6324/25.

SAN RAMON IS IN A DIFFERENT CATEGORY

FROM THE PANPIPES

THE ANTIQUE PERUVIAN FLUTE

'

'

Ratios of the Scales of the Ancient Clay Flute of Peru, San Ramon,
V.A. No. 15901 (see Fig. 69)
ii/ii

10/11

182

*32/29

8/11

9/11

165

Cents

204

171

*29/2S

6/11

7/11

29/25

*- 32/29 evidently intended for 33/28

8/7 and 29/25

flattening of the last two notes may have been due to the
compression as the scale rises. For v.f.s see Fig. 69.

7/6

X ~

\25

The same
modern

scale

embodied

is

in

Museum

two Kenas

^)
75/

the

blowing which requires increased

This early form of the Dorian Harmonia from M.D. 11

given by the Elgin pipe at the British

= 7/6
= 257

(Ancient Greek,

is

the scale

c.

500

B.C.).

(the Incasic notched flute),

copies of ancient traditional Peruvian flutes (see Chap, x, Records).

be required of the survival or rebirth of the Harit is to be found in abundance in reproductions

La Musique
des Incas. 1
The majority of these flutes have fingerholes bored at equal
distances which must incontrovertibly produce the sequences of the Harmoniai. The authors have unfortunately not given phonographic records
of scales or of Folk Music, nor have they attempted to indicate shades of
intonation
they have merely assumed the pentatonic scale. There are also
unmistakable signs of flute origin in the ratios of scales of Panpipes and
marimbas given in Hornbostel's tables. These implications, as described
and explained in detail (in Chaps, vi. and vii), are due to the inner reactions
of the air column in respect of the Increment of Distance and of the allowances due to diameter. (See Chap, x, Records of Sensa Flutes A, B and C.)
As the inner reactions of modal flutes having equidistant fingerholes form
If further evidence

monia among the

from photographs

Incas,

of their flutes in the Portfolio of Plates of

an

entirely

new propositionnot

reactions should prove of

on the

some

yet

interest

investigated

scientifically

and lead

to

much

these

practical

work

subject.

From the evidence provided by the records of Xylophones from Burma,

Siam and Africa, added by Hornbostel (see Table vii, and from Akust.
Kriterium, Tables i and ii), it is found that all the seven Harmoniai are
In some of these the genesis to which the vibration frequencies

represented.
are referred

is

from

nth Harmonic
1

By R.

et

C=

128

v.p.s.,

and

in others

from

F=

176 v.p.s. (the

of C).

M. D'Harcourt

(Paris, 1925).

See plates Nos.

xxiii, xxiv, xxvi, xxvii.

THE GREEK AULOS

3 28

MANFRED BUKOFZER'S STRICTURES ON THE BLASQUINTENZIRKEL

DR.

An

explicit

of Hornbostel's

rejection

Blasquintenzirkel,

on

different

grounds, has been published recently by Dr. Manfred Bukofzer 1 of Basel,

working from the standpoint of Physics, as an excursion from the domain

His paper provides an eminently lucid and reasoned

of Musicology.

exposition of his view, viz. that mouth-blowing on Panpipes, as he under-

cannot produce from pipes of different dimensions played by the

same or by other performers, a constant flattening, or even data susceptible
of providing a working average.
He admits in theory the inviolable purity
stands

it,

Harmonics

of

in the reactions of the

fundamental

(so far

Yet, as far as his experience goes, mouth-blowing

ment).

gated culprit.

we
is

are in agree-

ever an unmiti-

Results of the working of mechanically blown pipes are also

given.

A glance at his illustration, of what he assumes to be the correct blowing,

shows the mouth of the player well over the edge of the pipe, and directing
the breath-stream diagonally right into the pipe thus failing to find any

sharp edge to define the nodal point.

which
is

is

quite correct

when used

The

result of this

method

of blowing,

in playing the nay, but not for the Panpipes,

to increase the lengthening influence of the allowance in respect of diameter,

by the amount of the

difference between diagonal and diameter taken twice,

with the result of flattening the pitch.
Another diagram on the same page (655) shows a mechanically blown
pipe in which the air-stream is directed across the end of the tube, and this

me correct) is termed the false method of blowing '. In

Bukofzer considers as wrong that blowing by mouth which has
been indicated in this chapter as the only correct one, because it produces
a frequency of the fundamental note which corresponds exactly with the
one warranted by the dimensions of the pipe, inclusive of diameter. More(considered by

'

short, Dr.

over,

it

ensures the production at

the same pitch, and

Harmonics

still

more

all

times of a fundamental note of precisely

conclusively,

allows the overblowing of

Pure overtones the method allows, but does not

guarantee, unless there is besides an adequate compression of breath, as
already explained above. After all, this is likewise the method of blowing
in use on the concert flute, and the one used by primitives, ancient and
modern, in playing the Panpipes.
Although Dr. Bukofzer's conclusions on the correct method of blowing
Panpipes are highly debatable and are disproved when submitted to practical
tests by the comparison of fundamentals and overtones produced by this
method, with the vibration frequencies computed by formula based upon
in perfect tune.

the dimensions of individual pipes, yet with this reservation, the article

should be studied, for

all

it

contains valuable suggestions, results of tests,

and without unnecessary technicalities.

For the determination of pitch, an ingenious machine, the

&c,

stated lucidly

electrical

1
Praezisionsmessungen an primitiven Musikinstrumenten ', in Zts. f. Physik
Karl Scheel (Springer, Berlin, 1936), Band 99, Heft 9 and 10, pp. 643-65, with
'

ilJ.is.).

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

Tone generator

is

described

magnitude of intervals in

329

by which means the actual

by curves with a maximum
a tone of 800 v.p.s. might have a reading

(p. 645, op. cit.),

cents is indicated

error of 0-25/100 v.p.s., so that

of 802 v.p.s.
It is

now proposed

the pitch of a correctly

to give an example of the correspondence between

blown Panpipe, and the vibration frequency estimated

by formula.
EVIDENCE FROM AN AGARICHE FROM BOLIVIA

ALL OVERBLOWN 5THS

PURE

The test was carried out (by the present writer) on a Panpipe Agariche ',
brought from North-west Bolivia for me by Miss Anita Berry.
My Agariche consists of seven cylindrical reed pipes, closed at one end
by a natural knot (severed at the base of the knot)
at the other open end
the walls are thinned to about i mm., thus forming a sharp edge to facilitate
blowing and purity of intonation. The dimensions of each of these pipes
and their vibration frequencies are given below.
'

Tests carried out on an Agariche (Panpipe), showing Correspondence of

Fig. 70.
Pitch with Formula
Difference in Vibration Frequency due to (A) Internal
:

Measurement

A =

(B) External.

diameter

PIPE NO.

(A)
Int.

L.

A =

(B)

=
=

x 4

-421

-014 x 2

1-684
-028

Ext. L.

-428

X 4

m. 1-712

1-712

340 m./sec.

m. 1-712

m./sec.
<
> 340
= 198-6 v.p.s.
m. 1-712
Correspondence
exact
Nearest note on tuned piano =
14 of 201 v.p.s.

198

5 v.p.s.

PIPE NO.
Int.

L.

A =

-333

x 4

-0135 X 2

=
=

Ext. L.

1-332
-027

-340

X 4

250

v.p.s.

1-360

1-359

m.

340 m./sec.

250-1 v.p.s.

-<

1-359

m./sec.
> 340
m. 1-360

Correspondence

Nearest notes of Dorian Sequence

= B 23 =

PIPE NO.
Int.

=
A =

L.

=
=

x 4
-OI2 X 2
-281

m.
340 m./sec.

m.

1-145

=296

v.p.s.

exact

245 and

11

256

v.p.s.

-288

X 4

= m.

Ext. L.

124

1-152

-024

1-148

<

340 m./sec.
>

m.
Difference

Nearest note of Dorian Sequence

=295-1

v.p.s.

1-152

v.p.s.

= E iqjol

296

1
Described by Dr. Bukofzer, op. cit., p. 645, referred to
Helv. Phys. Acta, 6, pp. i8sqq. (1933).

v.p.s.

Werner Lehmann,

THE GREEK AULOS

33Q

PIPE NO. 4
Int.

=
A =

L.

340 m./sec.

=
=

-023

m.

'983

-240

x 4

-0115

x 2

Ext. L.

-960

345-8 v.p.s.

340 m./sec.

<

Difference

x 4

347

v.p.s.

PIPE NO.

-190

x 4

A =

-Oil

X 2

L.

=
=

-980

v.p.s.

=F

Nearest note of Dorian Sequence

Int.

-245

-980

933

16 of 352 v.p.s.

Ext. L.

-196

340 m./sec.

433 6 V P

760

= 784

x 4

'022

782
340 m./sec.

782

= 4347

P,S

<

>

784

Nearest note

t>f

'

S-

1 v.p.s.

Difference

Dorian Sequence

=A

13 of 433-2 v.p.s.

PIPE NO, 6
Int.

L.

A =

x 4
x 2

-159

-0095

=
=

Ext. L.

-164

340 m./sec.

Sl8 2

-636

6SS

340 m./sec.

m.

-655

519 V P
'

~^S6

4/3 of 1
Nearest note of Dorian Sequence = C
Difference

PIPE NO.
Int.

L.

A =

x 4

-126

-008 x 3

=
=

x 4

m.

-656

-019

'

v.p.s.

of 512 v.p.s.

7
Ext. L.

-130 x 4

340 m./sec.
30

653-8 v.p.s.

-504

-520

-oio
520

340 m./sec.

-S

30

653-8 v.p.s.

<

>

-S
326-9(327)
Correspondence
exact
Nearest note of Dorian Sequence =
17 of 331-2 v.p.s.

by monochord and by piano tuned to

Dorian Harmonia of M.D. 22 by an expert tuner from tuning-forks = C 256
The close approximav.p.s. and F = 352 v.p.s. and the modal monochord.

The

frequencies were tested

tion of the pitch of the pipes to the vibration frequency of the extended

Dorian Harmonia will be noticed. The pipes rise in series by 3rds of

my Agariche is one of a pair intended to divide the
various magnitudes
extended scale between two pipers. To produce a sequence in order of
;

pitch the pipes of the series are played alternately.

The vibration frequencies

denote the corresponding steps in the Dorian scale on the tuned piano, and
the names of the notes with accompanying numerals, denote by the numerator
the ratio of that note in the Dorian Harmonia, and by the denominator
the octave of

within which

it

occurs.

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

331

IS

THERE IN CLOSED PIPES A NATURAL BALANCE BETWEEN THE INTERIOR LENGTH

+ DIAMETER AND THE EXTERIOR LENGTH, OMITTING DIAMETER ?

is

equal to half the diameter.

It will

be seen that in this

set of reed Panpipes, the thickness of the

knot

This result must not be regarded as establish-

ing a theory of natural balance, but merely as a suggestion for further

experiments.

The seven pipes actually speak at the frequencies worked

The knots in my Agariche have been closely severed, showing a
in

the centre of the closed end

in

out above.
depression

measurements of the external length

must be taken as the limit.

The vibration frequencies furnished by theory and

of a pipe, this depression

practice in this set

the fundamentals are either identical with the alternate notes

Dorian Harmonia on C = 256 v.p.s., or else they approximate very
closely to them.
The Harmonics overblown from the pipes are all pure the 5th of
pipe No. 1 gives the note of Pipe 3 slightly sharpened
the Harmonic of
No. 2 corresponds exactly with G 15/512, which may have been a fundamental in the twin set.
The Harmonic of Pipe No. 3 (i? 19/256) is sharper than A 13 as
indeed it should be since an interval of 19/13 = 656, whereas a true
5th = yo2.
(This overtone has been tested before experts and pronounced
are identical

of the

dead true.)

The comparison of the results of computing the pitch of pipes from

two different formulae, as given above for A and B, based respectively on
internal and external length of the pipe
:

340 m./sec.

(A)

4( Int. L.

(B) on the external length

pitch of pipe.

and no diameter, thus

340 m./sec.
Ext. L.

x 4

Pltch f Pipe

"

If the suggestion, re internal and external length, should be found

confirmed by the results of many tests, carried out with reference also to
botanical and ethnographical considerations, the result would tend to

on a sound practical basis the origin of scales derived from Cycles

and 5ths through the cutting of the reeds or Panpipes, each half as
last.
The question arose out of Hornbostel's theory of blown

establish

of 4ths

long as the
5ths
steps

how
in

proven
Hornbostel allows the proportional

to account for the inception of the idea in accord with

the

evolution of

Music

by ear to the flat overtones.

3 or 3 4 was carried out
no tuning is necessarily implied as origin of the scales. The
scales produced by graded pipes are accepted and assimilated by primitives.
But, on the contrary, the making of sets of pipes by grading the lengths,
and then tuning the pipes by ear to a fine degree of flatness, implies precutting of the reeds, but postulates a final tuning
If the cutting of the reeds proportionally as 2

instinctively,

THE GREEK AULOS

332

conceived notions of scales and sound-patterns, a sophistication that leaves

origins far behind.

One would need to postulate many Hornbostels among the primitive

produce prototypes of Panpipes, and to
assume models handed down with the tradition through the ages, and
passing from Ancient China, India, Sumer and Akkad 1 to other lands and
folk of the nations, in order to

races.

At what

may

one

point,

then inquire, did the consciousness of the

significance of length, as a determinant of the

sound issuing from the pipe,

suggest to the pipe-maker the necessity for taking the internal instead of
external

measurement of length

Unless Nature's compensation, suggested above, should prove to be a

the alternative of exterior versus interior length would always have to
be clearly defined in estimating pitch, for the difference between the two
measurements, which must be multiplied by four, is responsible for a

fact,

considerable alteration in pitch.

THE BLOWING OF THE PANPIPES HAS PROVED TO BE THE UNDOING OF THE

THEORY OF BLOWN 5THS

The

method

Panpipes which could produce any

proved the undoing of the theory. Hornbostel's
of the Brazilian pipes exhibits some pure overtones, some sharp and some duly flat, where all should, according to his
theory, be flat.
On the other hand, if perfect Blown 5ths be admitted, the
theory is nothing but the old, old one of the Cycle of 5ths, also known as
Pythagorean and ditonal, in its resultant heptatonic scale.
Even so, there still remains this inevitable query, which must be satisfactorily answered
how is it, then, that the vibration frequencies of Hornbostel's Blown 5ths approximate in general fairly closely to those, for
instance, of the Javanese and Siamese records of the Music of the Folk ?
To this weighty question there is fortunately an answer forthcoming.
It is this.
The cycle of 23 flat 5ms, considered as an ideal theory, comonly

of blowing

semblance of

reality has

record of his

own blowing

porting a constant flatness, 2 empirically fixed at

24. cents,

re-arranged in order of pitch certain revealing features.

flatness are

presents

The

found to operate incrementally, growing greater

when

results of the

as pitch rises

through the octave

the flatness of the increments is cumulative, starting
roughly with 6 v.p.s. then rising to 7, 8, 10, 11, in the same octave.
:

On

going to press with this work

it

was just possible to glance

at

The Music

of the Sumerians, Babylonians and Assyrians, by Canon Francis W. Galpin, published by the Camb. Univ. Press.
comments upon some of the conjectural

My

my

province will be found at the close of Chap. ix.

2
These theoretical values are built up on a basis of constant flatness, empirically
fixed at 24 cents, whereas the records of actual blowing of Panpipes by Hornbostel
show differences of from 1 to 21 v.p.s. (not cents). If this flatness (due to false
overblown 5ths) were really constant instead of being a mere assumption, some
sort of parallel might be established with the frequencies of the Harmonic
Series, but since the basis of the theory has been discredited this would serve no
useful purpose.
points within

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

333

This progression presents a certain analogy with the modal principle of

If now we borrow the Phrygian Enharmonic genesis of M.D. 48,
we shall get 24 intervals to the octave, none equal but rising proportionally
in arithmetical progression, the intervals become wider as pitch rises
the
opposite, therefore, of what happens in the ascending Harmonic Series.
We now compare the vibration frequencies of the Phrygian or of any
other of the Harmoniai in Enharmonic genesis computed from the common
fundamental selected by Hornbostel with the theoretical values of the
there are, indeed, a few coincidences here and there which
Blown 5ths
are striking, but they do not occur on parallel degrees of a diatonic sequence.
There is really no mystery in these accordances, they are the mere logical
results of an excursion into minute Enharmonic subdivisions of intervals
in which difference of frequency is minimized.
genesis.

unequivocal rejection of the theory of the blasquintenzirkel

(blown sths)
Finally,

on gathering up the threads of

make an unequivocal

necessity compels us to

brilliant scholar's hypothetical

following grounds
(1)

An

this

lengthy discussion, sad

rejection

on

all

points of this

theory of the Cycle of Blown 5ths, on the

infraction of acoustic law

is

involved in the basis and prime

motivation of the theory.

(2)

The

is due to a wrong method of

It is a well-known fact that a fixed
on the interpretation and reproduction

inception of the ingenious idea

blowing Panpipes, while testing them.

idea

is

very potent in

its

influence

of sound.
So that in all good faith Hornbostel believed that the flat 5ths
he produced on the pipes were due to some obscure acoustic principle

inherent in the pipes themselves.

(3) Since it has been proved from several of Hornbostel's pitch values
Harmonics can be and were produced
by him on some occasions, these data, had they been observed by him,
would have effectually ruled out his erroneous interpretation of the acoustic

in vibration frequencies, that pure

principles involved.

In spite of our rejection of the theory

itself,

there remains a genuine

appreciation of the wealth of data which Musicology owes to the skilful

M. von

labours which Erich

in the

same

Where

Hornbostel

left as

a legacy to other workers

field.

the scales of Brazilian, Bolivian and Peruvian Panpipes of the

present day do not bear unimpeachable evidence of origin from the cycles

i.e. built up of tones and semitones as units

there
seems to be no reasonable doubt that they have been tuned, like my specimen
Agariche, to the scales of the Kena (flute), which are those of the pure octave
Harmonia, as understood in this work. It is not too much to affirm that
the system of the Harmonia was the common musical property of the whole
of the Ancient East.
A list of identified Harmoniai is available and will be found at the close

of pure 4ths or 5ths

of the next chapter.

THE GREEK AULOS

334

THE CONTRIBUTION OF DR. JAAP KUNST FROM THE MUSIC OF JAVA AND BALI
Dr. Jaap Kunst, for some years resident in an official musical capacity
is justly recognized as the foremost authority on the Music of

in Batavia,

and Bali. He had the finest oppormusic in all its activities and developments.
equipment as musicologist is exceptional, and he
possesses in his wife a most efficient colleague.
His harvest, therefore,
published in several fine volumes, is a mine of wealth to which he is still
making contributions. Some of these later unpublished data have, with
great generosity, been placed at my disposal for unrestricted use in this work.
Dr. Kunst's records of the vibration frequencies and values of intervals
in cents, of the Pelog (heptatonic) and Slendro (pentatonic) scales of Indonesia,
constitute evidence of an entirely original nature, derived from the actual
practice of music by the natives in their gamelans (orchestras), of which
there are in Java alone more than one thousand.
A long friendship with E. M. von Hornbostel and the discovery of the

Indonesia, and

more

especially of Java

tunities for studying native

His mental and

artistic

close approximation of these results, independently obtained, with those of

the Blasquintenzirkel (theoretical assumptions), communicated in friendly

correspondence during their protracted search for a

common

basis for

by Dr. Kunst of
Whether this clue will

primitive scales in general, led to the provisional adoption

the Cycle of

Blown

5ths as a

welcome

solution.

continue to hold sway with him remains to be seen. The choice lies
between the Blown 5ths and the Harmonia of Hellas and of the Ancient
Eastin Survival or Rebirth which are also the apanage of primitive
musicians all the world over.
Had the Chinese standard proved all that was hoped from it, at 366 v.p.s. as
fundamental, many arduous calculations would have been avoided, for nearly
every set of records had its own basis, which in most cases differed again from
the 366 v.p.s. of the Chinese Standard adopted by Hornbostel.
For the purposes of comparison, therefore, the Harmoniai had to be transposed to that
basis as well as to C = 256 viz. to F = 176 v.p.s., G = 192 v.p.s. and to many
others used by A. J. Ellis, Karl Stumpf, O. Abrahams and J. P. N. Land.
After an examination of the data collected and classified by Dr. Kunst,
it must be allowed that, in the absence of any knowledge of the modal
system of the Harmonia, the approximation frequently very close of the
vibration frequencies of Javanese music to those of the Cycle of Blown 5ths

perhaps justified Dr. Kunst's Eureka.

But the data provided by him reveal overwhelming evidence of the

Harmonia as origin of the musical system of Java, and also of Indonesia
generally.
scales of

The

influence of the flute in the development of the Javanese

both Pelog and Slendro

equidistant fingerholes

on the

is

unmistakable and irrefutable

flutes constitute positive

the

evidence of modality,

confirmed by the ratios of the vibration frequencies recorded. There are

but few records of solo performances of flute music 1 although the pure
;

1
Dr. Kunst supplies the following reference to a solo played on a Balinese
Beka (N.B. 15629). This record is unfortunately no longer obtainable.

flute,

Phrygian

19 OO
!> N

01

HvO'O

cooo
on

368-6

rs-

00

XO

IS.

ep no
rH -ij-NO

ts

*cj*

CM

co

1*0

PI

CO w\q
2 in -^ttH ~
P5 N

*
CO

00

<M

to

ON

3 CO

CNl

CO
m
3

n m
On
co H

ir>

=
1!

Ho.

Lydian

orian

I!

II

II

11

II

CO 00 00
rH m H

00 0O Oo

00

p-i

r-l

NO

2 ^-Op

C)

H N
^
GO O
O
3 N Co
II

Ho.

11

II

II

O 0o
INN

00
rH
II

N
3

i/l

N
II

no oo

II

tl

N M

CO NO

II

O
K
CO
3
ffl

II

II

0 o

<J<

09 co

II

S
3

rH

II

00 00

no >o
6\

>
m
<*

II

<*

o
II

N K

0 o
N N

Co

to
3

00
NO NO

<(-

N
II

>
-sj-

II

S M

>

CO co

CO

WrH,

en

i> co >o
rH

m H

II

io

O
CO
II

3
3

cq
II

II

N M

00

CO

II

II

cm

NO <N
r. no no

1ft

Lydian

J9
II

II

CJ
II

CO NO NO

olydian

es

<*

CO
*
pH

w On
O H

II

Mix

idorian

II

cq

II

00 00 Co
1 N <N1

00 no <nj
J r~ On
rH M H
II

II

II

CO CO Co

II

II

11

II

a
CO iono
I> ON ts.
09 00 O
II

II

II

CO
1/3

3
II

eo no no
03 n

oo oo m
03 t- On
rH
H

o
cq

11

II

II

II

II

09 co

II

(2-

3
II

CO

3
3

0)

00 CM
NO ob
N ts
co
II

H
II

<M

N H
II

II

II

II

1!

00 00 oo
rH " H

Op NO

rH

II

<NJ

II

II

N
N

On

O
Cq
II

II

O O
N <N

0)
<N

CO NO
115

3
II

CJ
3

r- On

m H
II

N
N

CO NO M
in r> on
3 W k<

II

tl
cq

II

II

II

Cm

CO CO

*>

CO NO ts
3 m H
11

II

II

HlO
*
09 NO

Is.

3
II

m H
11

II

tl

ep on meb ob <n
rH Tj-NQ
3 m H
II

II

II

11

11

00 00 00
r-l

i-i

K,

eq

CO N
CH
w

\t-

> ON
3 m
II

II

N M

II

NO no
00 V-)

II

II

o o

CO

cm

00

m N

II

"

^
CO

II

*
1

-+CO

09

in On
CO >1

00 Oo

1/1*0

3 N Mis w 6

cq

00
3

II

00 00 00
3 N !N1

r-l

II

00 00 oo

N M

NO NO

Js
>
eo
3

11

CO co

00

Phrygian

II

II

N
M

^t-

II

II

CO N
m
m on
03 CO H
Cq

II

03

II

11

0 o

<M

Is
no
3 O -^1OS
3 CO H

CO N
CO CO o
rH Onno
3 d H

II

II

M M

e no ts
CO O ts

rH
II

ts

>

N H
11

II

* 00
IONO
6 >

rH coop
rH 00 6

op
3 h ts
00 lO CO
rH N H

m H
II

II

3
II

co

irj

h H
II

II

II

II

II

oo oo co
3 CM Oq

00 00 00
3 N ci

oo oo oo
3 N <N

CO m cm
E N Co

ffl

r-1
II

co M-

m H
II

II

3 cm
CO CO Co

rH

II

II

II

3 N cm
CO CO Co

II

O O
o
N H
PI

II

II

3 N cm
CO CO Co

II

II

II

0 0

N M

00
00

3 N

3
3

II

II

00 Op

in

<M
<N

CO NO NO
04 CM CM

II

II

N
N

CO NO NO
3 N M

II

3
3

II

NO CM
CO w ts
3 CO K,

II

II

CO vO NO
3 N cm

I-l

II

00 00 00
rH w H

II

H
ts
K-)

H
II

N N
N N

NO ^
II

1!

<* ^3 N

II

CM

3 NO On

l> CO cm
i> -*co
rH N H
II

II

II

CO NO NO
3 N cm

JnO
CO
rH
II

t*5

N <N
N H
II

II

SO 00 00
3 N O

3< 00 00
ON 0
*
rH " H
II

II

II

IMP)

eo co co

o
OI

g cono
N *
O CONO

oo no

NO

>-00 NO

NO

CM

Tl-00
Phrygiai

rj

Lydian

18/18

20/20 40/40

^o5~

N
O

36/36

>

*fi

1
33S

Ho.

Ho.

CO

0 00 Tf
CO CO N

00 00
CO CO

O
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00
CO

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ON

HON

^M

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so

0 o

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co co

to

so

CO^

SO

CO

co CO

co

conn
lo

C\
On

CO

H M

5-

<"0

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h
n g
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Co 00 -o
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c

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* oC
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MN

CD

'3

T3

u
M
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eg N O
^ N H

MM

c o
3 m
2 8

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00

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is

S 2
9
H O

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c%>

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o

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55

1)

OS

>-i

CO

| cow S

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CO

0 0

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>tf
13

S3
3 a

a
C

"

III

o S

li
u

so

o
a
..

a
o

aw
CD <-<
t> *-

CO

^
CL

>

1^

=? Sco.S
o |g
hfn ^

03

fi^'g"

o
in to

+j

^
336

co

cSl
S

oEt

u ffi.2
9 <Q . GO

x
WM

+J

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

liquid notes of the flute

gamelans.

The

data

we

may be heard

in the polyphonic

337

music of the

possess refer mainly to the various kinds

of

Xylo- and Metallophone instruments and gongs upon which no scale can
be said to originate.

THE HARMONIAI, IDENTIFIED FROM DR. KUNST's RECORDS, AS ORIGIN OF THE

SLENDRO AND PELOG SCALES OF JAVA AND BALI
Dr. Kunst has collected evidence of affinity between the scales of the
gamelans and those of the African Marimbas (many hundreds of which
have been measured), which suggests a common origin. Hornbostel and
others find this in the migrations of the earliest Chinese Panpipe scale.
is that this was the scale of the flat Blown 5ths, which
antedated the scale of the perfect 5ths, still in use (known as Pythagorean or

Hornbostel's idea

Ditonal), the origin of

which he conceives as a correction of the flat 5ths

This is an ingenious idea, dependent

achieved by the stringed instruments.

upon his mistaken practical experience in blowing the Panpipes, which led
him to believe that perfect 5ths are not attainable on Panpipes.
There is, however, not much to choose between the theories involving
flat 5ths and sharp 4ths of the Cycle of Blown 5ths, and the sharp 3rds and
flat

6ths of the Ditonal Scale, in both cases to the extent of a

The

comma

24.

Ditonal Scale has the advantage of being firmly established historically

and technical sources, however dubious its reality

musical practice may appear, whereas the scale of the Blown 5ths is purely

as a theory in the literary

in

speculative.

The

earliest

known

traditional scales in use in the

gamelans of Java and

which Dr. Kunst refers as Proto-Pelog and Proto-Slendro, have a

bearing on this question, since Hornbostel regarded these as evidence of
the far-reaching dispersion of the System of Blown 5ths. The results are
Bali, to

below from the data (not previously published) supplied to me by

I have added my identification of their origin as

set out

Dr. Kunst, to which

Harmoniai.

The

first

table (Kunst, v) exhibits recorded vibration frequencies of the

Slendro pentatonic

The

scales, actually

used in

five of the

Gamelans of Eastern

basis of the system of Slendro consists of

two conjunct 4ths,

each divided approximately into halves.
Hornbostel's figures refer to the sharp 4ths obtained theoretically by
transposing the fiat 5ths below the fundamental F of 183 v.p.s.
Dr. Kunst's

Java.

from actual performances by the Gamelans

and untransposed. The modal ratios and frequencies by K. S. are taken
from a genesis of the Harmoniai, calculated on certain specified fundamentals for the purpose of identification (see Fig. 63). There are occasional
slight differences of a vibration or two, such as might be expected from the
conditions under which the records were taken, for the Xylo- and Metallophone instruments give out powerful high Harmonics which render exact
identification of pitch somewhat difficult at times. 1

are the frequencies recorded

1
For the identification of these v.fs., Dr. Kunst uses a specially marked
chord, and his highly sensitive musical ear.

mono-

o o

SO
CO
On

fl
Pi

VN

co co

co

co

CO

a
u

H
On

H
no 00

) co

Co CO

co co

1
>

A*
o

"1
no

00

On

N
CO

oo

oo
On

ij-

OO
CO

aw

VN

00
Co

H
On
CO

-a

a,

.g
to

a
J?

fi co
<ni
in
c*s

V
CO

to

t;
CO

o
M

S3

CO CO

oo
CO

no

J3
60
-j

in

.2

? 0

60

00

ho

*,

00

00 00

00

t>oo

o
o

CO CO

3
-73

>0 xn
On on

H M w

CI

<u

o
a

S
O s
Q,
a

&

i2

13

u
5

it^

-13
En

TJ

13

Si*

SI
ca

to
<u

13

o
CO

ft
a

43

oo

c ca
S
C
bj

60
60

3.
tT

1-1

C3

*a
Oh

to

K
ijoet

lan

I -a

a*-

ca

u 3

ca

0
X

338

W
0

m
KH

1
1

a"

to

00

CO

1^

CO

H
0>

?1

H'

V- CO

CO

ro

fc.

0.

CO CO

CO

co co

CO

CO

0)

>H
.

no

NO
0]

CO

H M w

CS1

CO

co co

<N1

^
to

T3

0
co
Oi

irr

r>

ft

cT.

m-

ft
;>>

ft

CO

G
o

f> CO
CM

6\co

? o

M M

C3

sot:

a
u

T3

T3

i*J

as

CO

-w

>

T3

o
-d
o

pttc
[oda

&

g M G
o -S a;

"0

.S

ffl

cs

S.t!
.

bo

=0

3 -a
Co ^O
S 'S

CO

be

>

.'2

p
u p

bi)

0^

339

!>.

J2

si

CO

"3

p<
>>

rS,

.a

CS

a
o

"

'

VO
OO

u
o

N
CO

OO

l>
vO

00

CO

VI-

vS

00
00

vO

CO.

vO

IT).

1>-

oo

CO

IT)

vO

VO
co_

vo

"

00

"

"

vO

to

CO

00

vO

CO

t>

00

t>

VP
CO_
Cv"

oo

oo

N
h-l

N
C3

0 u C
^ s

0.

S
o c

T3

>

j}

in

ou

mJ

>
a

60

OS

03

Hi
.

CO

03

00

C
o

ao
M

60

cd
"

60

2o &
U o
.9- a
X

>

Mi

0
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AD

,2

3
60

3 2

en

T3
bo

C
i

is

s s

03

34

Oh

341

THE GREEK AULOS

342
It

has already been pointed out that the sharp 4ths regarded by Horn-

bostel as a confirmation of his theory of

blown

5ths (which, trans-

fiat

posed below the fundamental, become sharp 4ths) may be referred to

definite modal scales, having sharpened 4ths on the Tonic, e.g. to the
to the Hypophrygian Harmonia (of
Dorian Harmonia (of ratio n/8)
ratio 18/13), or to the Hypolydian Harmonia (of ratio 10/7).
Or, alternatively, to the Panpipe Ditonal Scale with Tritone consisting of three major
Tones (of ratio 9/8 = 729/512). See also Chap, viii, Fig. 72.
;

THE FLUTES FROM JAVA AND BALI EMBODY THE HARMONIAI IN THEIR
EQUIDISTANT FINGERHOLES
Records from Kunst, Table v, of Slendro Scales and our Fig. 74 (A)
and (E) correspond with intervals of the Phrygian Species identified by
(B), more sophisticated, undoubtedly owes its
their vibration frequencies.
origin to a Hypophrygian flute of M.D. 18, having seven fingerholes
the
notes of the scale in B are obtained from exit, and Holes 1, 4, 5 and 7
intermediate intonations are obtained by half-covering the hole, by crossfingering and by other ingenious devices which are practised by most
primitive flute players.
(C) gives a pentatonic derivation from the Dorian
Species, which may also be obtained from a flute of M.D. 11
the four
fingerholes, when opened in turn, produce notes of the following ratios
;

Hole

Exit
ii/ii

Hole 2

9/11
(19)

when normally
N.B. The

'

Hole

Hole 4

8/11

7/11

6/11

(17)

(iS)

(13)

and by half-stopping the notes in brackets.

22/19 between exit and Hole 1 is practically identical

fingered,

ratio

'22

3rd 7/6
with the septimal
V
6

"

X -

I'32\
.

Vi9
133/
7
This Slendro Scale may be produced with ease on the two Java flutes
Nos. 5 and 6 and on the short flute from Bali 1 No. 20. The scale of (D) is
of the Hypolydian Species, and may be played on a simple flute of M.D. 10,
such as No. 8 of the Sudan flutes, used by the Acholi tribe, which I owe to
The fingerholes of the Sudan flute give
the kindness of Dr. A. N. Tucker.
the following sequence
:

Hole 1
9/10

Exit

10/10

O
O
O

12
20

20 j

Hole 2
8/10

Hole 3
7/10

e
0
0

O
O

18

15

20

20

Hole 4
6/10

0
O
O
O

$
O
O
O

l
20

O
O
O
O

13

12

20

20

In his investigations Dr. Kunst has penetrated still further back towards
he has discovered as original source

the origin of the Slendro type of scale

a

still

earlier scale

an

the

Prae-

sent to

me by

extended sequence of smaller intervals

1
Bali No. 20 is one of a set. of six fine flutes with equidistant holes
Mr. Soekowati of Batavia to help me in my investigations.

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

343

In his Table vi
Slendro, the use of which antedates the Proto- Slendro.
he has sketched in outline the evolution of the modern Slendro from this
Prae- Slendro material with its selective transitions, first into Proto, and
comparing all his actual
finally into the Modern Slendro pentatonic
records in vibration frequencies with those of Hornbostel, theoretically
;

Kunst conceives

computed.

in overlapping sequences.

this material as the result of the halved 4ths

An

instance of this scale structure occurs on

the gender from which he compiled the material of the Slendro genesis of

nineteen different notes.

The

Slendro records exhibit some of the features of what is known

as sidrj (species) occurring in natural course upon

from our Greek sources

instruments having a range of two or more octaves.

The basis of the system, as it is found at the present time in Javanese

The real Tonic of the species is not

is obviously modal in origin.
always immediately apparent in practice, and the keynote is frequently
the Slendro in my opinion
Regarded
as
pentatonic,
Slendro.
in
the
absent
implies a transition from the Panpipe system to one based upon the modal
music,

flute (with equidistant holes)

a deep-rooted predilection for the psycho-

logical effect of the 3rd, inherited

for the selective use of the

when
M.D.

Modal

from the Panpipe pentatonic, accounts

may on occasion be observed,

Scale which

the vibration frequencies indicate Harmoniai other than the Dorian

11

e.g.

the Hypolydian

M.D.

10

and Hypophrygian M.D.

9,

which, in this simple form, provide natural pentatonics on a modal flute,

combined with facilities for extension into hexatonic and heptatonic, which
are non-existent on the Panpipe.

As already

stated above, a true pentatonic form,

i.e.

a deliberate grouping

of five notes within the octave, can only originate, according to

my

experi-

ence, from Panpipes so grouped in response to an instinctive urge for

proportional measurements in cutting the reeds for the pipes, and not in
as though the piper were actuated
obedience to the guidance of the ear
by preconceived notions. This hypothesis leaves the way open for the
and
5ths but not from Blown sths.
derivation from cycles of Perfect 4ths
If the analysis given below of the Proto-Pelog records be added to
that
the
origin of the Javanese musical
once
evident
those of Slendro, it is at
;

system

is

based upon the Modal System of the Harmoniai.

from the vibration frequencies supplied by Dr. Kunst's records

Identified

of the Proto-Pelog, (a) as played

by the gamelans

of

Kraton Jogja, may

be recognized as derived from the Phrygian Harmonia of a flute scale.

Whereas (b) the Proto-Pelog of the Kraton Sala, derives from the Hypolydian Harmonia with tritone, wherein a truly remarkable correspondence
with the original is revealed, the fundamental alone excepted. This, as
exit note on the flute, is frequently more or less out of tune with the modal
sequence beginning on Hole

owing to the

the accurate position for that hole, which

is

difficulty

Evidences of species are unmistakable in

cannot be too strongly emphasized that

experienced in finding

of signal importance, as holding

the key to the whole sequence of the modal

flute.
all

these Javanese scales.

when comparing and

It

identifying

THE GREEK AULOS

344

is not mere identity in vibration frequency, or

and there, from the scales,
be found more definitely in the evidence of a consistent development of the sequence of modal ratios occurring in the logical order of the
Harmonia, whether conceived as pentatonic or heptatonic, and with an
occasional admixture of intermediate ratios derived from the use of chromatic
or enharmonic forms, or merely as alternative notes due largely to the
structure and inner reactions of the air column in the flute.

the decisive factor

results,

close approximation of intervals, selected here

but

is

to

DUPLICATION OF THE 1ST TETRACHORD ON THE 4TH OR 5TH DEGREE IN EVIDENCE

ON SOME JAVANESE AND BALINESE SCALES
In the identification of these
1 st

tetrachord of a

Modal

scales, there is a factor

This

occurs, confusing the issues.

is

the

now

which frequently

familiar duplication of the

Scale on the 4th degree

conjunct or plagal),

(if

or on the 5th

(if disjunct or authentic).

This device was widely used in
and by Arabs as well as in Hindustan. These duplicated
forms are found in use in several of the Javanese scales.
From the selection of examples of Javanese scales given herewhich
is strictly limited by exigencies of space
the predilection of these musicianly
Indonesian races in their remarkable and delightful polyphonic music seems
to be for the Phrygian, Hypophrygian and Lydian Modes.
Such preferences, however, will be determined on a wider range of evidence by later

Hellenistic Asia

investigators.

Among some 50 Javanese scales analysed from Dr. Kunst's records,

overwhelming evidence is found of all seven Harmoniai as origins of the
scale, to which may be added those of the flute specimens actually tested
and measured by me. The distribution of the different Harmoniai from
Javanese sources may be seen in the following table
:

Results of Analysis and Comparison of some 50 Javanese and other Scales from
Dr. Kunst's Records, identified by their v.fs. with the Harmoniai (details of
which are available in separate Tables)

Phrygian Harmonia

Lydian Harmonia
Hypophrygian Harmonia
Hypodorian Harmonia
Dorian Harmonia
Mixolydian Harmonia
Hypolydian Harmonia
.

Grand Total
N.B.

Less

Total 18
10

8
5
5

in

Gamelans

2,

Flutes 3

3
3

52

than a half-dozen of the records investigated gave unsatisfactory

results.

THE MUSIC OF THE FOLK IN SOUTH AFRICA

Even the briefest of surveys of the Folk Music of the Bantu tribes of
South Africa provides an amazing revelation of an entirely original development of music, when studied from the writings of Professor Percival R.

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

345

Kirby, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.C.M., of the University of the Witwatersrand,

Johannesburg.

may be

Professor Kirby

said to have reconstituted the musical history

of the South African natives after long periods spent in their midst, observ-

by immediate experience the methods adopted by the natives

in choosing suitable materials, making their musical instruments and
playing upon them
and attending their festivals and rites.
The musical systems in use among the various tribes, Venda, Korana,
Swazi, Sotho, Xhosa, Zulu, Namaqua Hottentots, Bushmen, &c, although
differing in detail, in practice and in aesthetic values, have a common origin
in the overtones of the Harmonic Series, recognized by ear, and used as
far as the 13th or even 15th partials.
In their wind instruments, and more
especially in the many varieties of reed flutes and pipes, the scale used
consists entirely of the fundamental note and its overtones, in contradistinction to the scales of modal flutes obtained through fingerholes which
yield a register of fundamental notes and from these by overblowing a
harmonic register.

ing, learning

THE MUSIC OF THE BANTU FOLK OF SOUTH AFRICA, BASED UPON THE HARMONIC
SERIES

The

natives of South Africa have discovered for themselves the respec-

open and closed pipes with their characteristic progressions

odd and even in numerical order from open pipes, and the
odd numbers only from closed pipes.
By using an open pipe, and closing it at will by a finger, they combine
both series. The significance of this device will be best realized from the
scheme below, in which minims represent the notes of the open pipe, and
crotchets the notes of the same pipe closed (pp. cit., p. 114).

tive properties of

of overtones,

J =

open pipe

Number

of each
overtone

closed pipe

10

11

12

(14)

(The numbers of the overtones added by K.

The

S.)

advantages of using a combination of open and closed pipes are not

only the possibility they afford of a continuous progression of intervals in

the same octave, which, as in the

on an open pipe

first

four notes above, could only occur

as overtones 4, 5, 6, 7,

and

in the rest of the range as

The Musical Instruments of the Native Races of S. Africa (Oxf. Univ. Press
London, Humphrey Milford, 1934)
The Reed Flute Ensembles of S. Africa ',
Some Problems
Jour, of Roy. Anthrop. Inst. (London, 1933), Vol. lxiii, pp. 334-7
of Primitive Harmony and Polyphony ', S. African Jour, of Science (Johannesburg,
Vol.
xxiii, pp. 951 sqq.
'A Study of Bushman Music', reprinted from
1926),
Bantu Studies, Vol. x, No. 2, June, 1936 ; and many other contributions from
the same source.
;

'

'

THE GREEK AULOS

346
8,

9,

io, ii,

The

12.

implication

proficient in flute playing

is

it

may

this

not occur to readers who are not

each Harmonic overblown requires

a proportional increase in the compression of the breath

number

the higher the series

and

therefore,

of the overtone, the greater the effort in

compressing the breath required to produce it.

use of the same flute as open or closed tube

The
is

result of the

shown

combined

graphically in staff

notation.

Upon

the Swazi flute of this kind called umtshingosi of reed, with a

narrow bore, fundamental note G[>, an elaborate piece of music (one of

many) was played, of which a few bars reproduced below will give some
idea (op. cit., pp. 1 15-16, No. 5).
Fig. 75.

Played

with Swazi, narrow bore instrument in

000000

BOO

o
10

10

10

Harmonics added by K.

etc

o
6

12

11

o
6

o
10

S.

(Op.

These

G\).

cit.,

p.

115)

used by several other tribes under different names, sometimes have a conical bore
the embouchure consists of the end of the
0
reed below a knot, cut off obliquely at an angle of 45 at the wider end
of reed or cabbage-tree. The method of blowing is thus described by
Professor Kirby
player
stream
The
then directs a
of air across the
embouchure towards its lower edge in a peculiar way, the tongue being
shaped into a kind of channel, and the upper portion of the embouchure
being largely blocked up by the gums. The tongue also serves to give
an ictus to certain notes (op. cit., pp. 113 and 145). The author expressly
flutes,

'

'

states that this

the Panpipe

method

when

of blowing the flute differs

the open end

is

from the one used on

laid against the lips.

THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVES HAVE DISCOVERED THE DIFFERENT REACTIONS OF

OPEN AND CLOSED PIPES, CLOSING THEM AT WILL TO INCREASE THE
COMPASS

These reed

flutes

without fingerholes are used in sets of from seven

by as many pipers forming a band or ensemble,

to nine or more, played

and producing a kind

&c).

of natural

polyphony

(see,

for example,

op.

cit.,

matter of great interest to find that the practice of

who have discovered the different reactions
of open and closed pipes, has a parallel in Central Europe among the Roumanians of the Maramures region in which similar flutes known as Tilincd
cu dup with Apple, but no fingerholes used open at exit, and the Tilincd fara
p. 160,

It is a

these ingenious South Africans,

dup without fipple or fingerholes which is used both open and closed by
a finger.
Bela Bartok (op. cit., p. xxvi and ex. No. 23 i) confesses that he
could not discover either locally or from phonograms what was the result
of such interference with the exit, nor for which notes the stopping war,

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

347

Another device is used on the Tilincd for obtaining at will, for temnew fundamental note from exit by partially closing this,
only sufficiently to lower the note, but not to convert the open pipe into
Bartok prints several tunes played on the Tilincd, and in
a closed one.
used.

porary use, a

15th Harmonic on

No. 23
note on

an example occurs of the result of this partial closure, and the

used as appoggiatura is obtained instead as an overblown octave
of the new fundamental.
In this way the additional length of the air column is procured by the
narrowing of the exit, whereby the amount of the difference between the
normal diameter of the bore and the one artificially created at exit becomes
effective as lowered pitch of the flute. 1
i,

A KIND OF TRANSVERSE FLUTE IN USE BY THE VENDA, SWAZI, PEDI AND OTHER
TRIBES

kind of transverse flute

is

also

used by the Venda, Swazi, Pedi and

who display remarkable ingenuity and a high

sensibility.
They have performed the feat of making

other tribes in South Africa

degree of musical

use in the same flute of

members

of the

Harmonic

Series in both ascending

and descending geneses.

The
chure

is

reed or

bored

bamboo
at

three fingerholes.

by a natural knot an embouone end with red-hot wire and near the other end are
Professor Kirby adds that the spacing being suited to
is

closed at both ends

the fingers of the maker, almost as

flutes

made.

As many

many

scales are

produced as there are

found on these

as four fingerholes are occasionally

flutes.

The cylindrical transverse flute has the properties of the closed pipe
when all the fingerholes are closed, and yields the Harmonics bearing odd
order numbers.
But when one or all the holes are open the flute is a transverse flute, having Hole

1 as vent, and the others, if approximately equidistant, develop a few notes of the Modal Scale of their Modal Determinant,
found by dividing the length from the centre of Hole 1 to the centre of
the embouchure by the increment of distance between the fingerholes.
When closed, the pipe plays an octave lower than the open flute.
Professor Kirby gives a scheme showing the fingering of such flutes
with the extended scale obtained by the use of both systems (p. 124). In
No. 1 the first four notes are produced by the fundamental 2?|? with overtones, as closed pipe, followed by notes of the open flute which indicate
a Dorian tetrachord of M.D. 11 from Holes 1, 2 and 3 = A, B\>, C
the
tetrachord is completed by D as 5th Harmonic of the fundamental of the
closed pipe B\>.
This Dorian tetrachord is followed in scale No. 2 by a
;

1
This practice tested upon a J. D. Coates flute of a length of -369 and diameter
014 gave as fundamental A 13/256 = 433 v.p.s. with end closed, and with exit
3/4 closed .4 27/256 =417 v.p.s.

eg

CO

I
o
o

S
3

M
.S

5
is

sS

wN

55.

fa

.2

-a

OOO"
8 s
u _
| S

MO
"S

o o

cj|

B
O O

-a

Sso
5 o
o o
to
s

IB

fa XI

o
fi
"5

u
a
o

u,

B
o
'B

*J

.3

"9

L-L

o o
o o o SI

"3
fll

fa

"

o
-Si

S u
as

>

to

.9

-i

o o o

oj

|i

S'&

T3

Si

to

o
o o
o o

B
O C

-oh
O 3 C
1H

o w

Ej^ii
cfa

feu o--.fi

u
fa

&

ad

>,

C3

60.fi,

J3

o o

o o o
o o o ^2
0 o
o o

90

CO

*
co

3
|

o o

o o o

4)

CO

o o o
S

-3

'Si
e)|

fa

60

o c

IN
bp

.S
C

X!

>.

S -0

-a

Si

"3

O-i

B
fa

d
fa

348

.S

o J

SYSTEMS FORMING THE BASIS OF FOLK MUSIC

349

Hypophrygian tetrachord
in Nos. 3, 5 and 8 by a Hypolydian
in Nos.
4 and 6 by a Hypodorian and in No. 10 is again a Dorian {op. cit., p. 124).
The fingering of the scale as given below for No. 1 is the same for all,
but the difference in the length of the flutes and in the spacing of the
;

fingerholes produces the variety of modalities.

The

intonation of a

modal tetrachord

of two distinct musical systems

thus obtained by a combination

is

the one dependent on proportional lengths

the other on proportional compression of the breath.

cannot be claimed on the strength of these data that the South

African tribes used the Modal System of the Harmoniai, except incidentally
It

in

fashion

this

may have been subconsciously

found the means of completing the tetrachord
by an overtone, correctly selected, on the

the modal tetrachords

familiar, since the flute players

begun on the three

fingerholes,

fundamental of the closed pipe.

It is probable that there has been at some time contact with tribes
using modal flutes with equidistant holes, for it is known that such are
to be found at the present day in Africa
for instance among the Acholi
Nilotic tribes of the South Sudan
eight specimens of which have been
;

presented to
(see

Chap,

me by

x,

Dr. A. N. Tucker, as mentioned and specified elsewhere

Table

at end).

curious flute called

Khumbgwe, used by the Venda, and Ombgwe by

the Karanga of Southern Rhodesia, consists of a small kaffir orange pierced

by two
is

circular openings opposite each other, into the lower

one of which

introduced the tip of a length of reed, the other end of which

by a natural knot.

closed

is

Near this knot are burned three fingerholes in the

Venda instrument and two in the Karanga. The flute is blown through
.

the top hole in the orange.

Professor Kirby has noted the scale and fingering of a well-made ombgwe,
which gave the following sequence, that will be recognized as belonging
to the parent scale of the Cycle of 4ths of Dorian Species {op. cit., p. 129
and Plate 45A, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 45B).
Scale of the

Ombgwe

of the

Karanga

In the absence of vibration frequencies it is impossible to tell whether

which would
imply a Panpipe scale of the cycle of 4ms or if the interval from G to A
were of ratio 11/10 the first tetrachord of the Dorian Harmonia would
be indicated. The Karanga performer, who sang into his flute while
blowing it played a tune on this same ombgwe of which the following bars
are a specimen (see page 350).
On the minim chords the instrument wavers between G and C, and
seems at times to be able to yield both sounds simultaneously, when the
the notation represents the exact intonation of the notes

THE GREEK AULOS

350
Fig. 77.

Played

by

Karanga on the

Ombgwe

Specimen Tune

Ombg-we

Voice

(op. cit., p.

voice sings low C, but

when

130)

the voice sings F, the instrument with the

same fingering sounds C only.

It is impossible, owing to the exigencies of space, to do justice to the
of observed facts, and records of the music of the South
African tribes contained in this fine volume, profusely illustrated by diagrams,
music and by 73 fine plates, reproductions of photographs.
The only desideratum felt on closing the volume is for accurate measurements of flutes and pitch values, which are required in the interests of the

immense wealth

comparative science of music.

The

extraordinary development of music by the Bantu tribes of South

upon the Harmonic Series, seems to lend colour to the sug-

Africa, based

gestion

made

earlier in this chapter of the rise of vocal

music from the

speech-song which develops naturally from intonational language. Interesting specimens of this speech-song may be heard on gramophone records
of the Chipika Singers of Mashonaland, as indicated below.

Chakaya Wei (Burial Song)

Regal G.R. 35, Columbia.

Sara Mu Gomo (War Song)

Mwana Wa Mangwende
(Historical Song)

Chimwe Chirombo Mandangwej

(Dance or Clapping Song)

Regal G.R. 39, Columbia.

CHAPTER IX

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA AS SURVIVAL OR REBIRTH

IN FOLK MUSIC
Indications of the Survival or Rebirth of the Harmonia.

Evidence of the Practical

Use of the Harmonia in Ancient Greece. Fragment of Pindar's First Pythian Ode
The Fragment displays all the Hypophrygian
in the Hypophrygian Harmonia.
Modal Characteristics, and five closes on the xcbXa. The Three Hymns attributed
The First Hymn
To the Muse ', in the Hypophrygian Mode.
to Mesomedes
The Second Hymn
To the Sun in the Hypophrygian Harmonia. The Third
Hymn
To Nemesis ', in the Hypophrygian Species. The Epitaph of Sicilus
may be read in the Hypophrygian or Phrygian Species. Fragment from the Orestes
of Euripides in the Hypophrygian Species. The Paean Fragment in the Berlin
Hypophrygian or Phrygian
Papyrus (discovered by Dr. W. Schubart in 191 8)
PseudoSpecies.
Discovery of a Christian Hymn (in the Oxyrhynchus Papyri)
Hypophrygian Species. The Two Delphic Hymns The Delphic Hymn No. 1 in
the Hypolydian Harmonia. The Delphic Hymn No. 2 in the Dorian Harmonia.
The Prototypes of Greek Music all exhibit the Modal Characteristics of the
Harmonia. The Characteristic Intervals of Folk Music defined by Ratios, Vibration
Frequencies and Cents. The Modal Characteristics of the Harmonia in Early
Medieval Chants. Hucbald's Evidence. Survival of Modal Pivots in early MediThe Era of Polyphonic Music heralds the Wane of the
eval Liturgical Chants.
Harmonia in Liturgical Chants. Brief Reference to the Canon of Florence and to
the Divisions of the Monochord. Cross-fingering on the Flute as Evidence of the
Survival of the Harmonia in the Sixteenth Century. The Dorian Harmonia in
Folk Music Evidence from the Incas of Peru. The Scale of the Dorian Harmonia
of M.D. 11 erroneously diagnosed as Pentatonic. Evidence from Hindostan,
Hungary and Rumania. Evidence from New Mecklenburg, Turkey and the Jews
of the Yemen. The Lydian Harmonia in Folk Music. The Phrygian Harmonia
Evidence from Synagogue Chants, from New Mecklenburg,
in Folk Music.
Rumania, The Pawnees, Peru and Sumatra of the Hypophrygian Harmonia. The
Hypodorian Harmonia in Folk Music. The Mixolydian Harmonia as Rag Malkos
The Hypolydian Harmonia in Folk-song e.g. in East Greenland.
in Hindostan.
The Closing of the Cycle from Ancient to Modern Greece
'

'

',

'

INDICATIONS OF THE SURVIVAL OR REBIRTH OF THE HARMONIA

THE

question of the survival or rebirth of the Harmoniai in the

music of the Folk, although

of the subject of the

significant

and

and throw

a retrospective light

What

Survival

is

Harmonia

identified in Folk

Music

is

the effect

in general attributed to a long line of tradition,

remain as proof.
links must be produced.

which

The

speaking on the outer fringe

are the indications of survival or rebirth, regarded as the immediate

cause of which the

of

strictly

Music of Ancient Greece, is yet highly

some of which are entirely new
on the processes of the evolution of music.

pregnant with aspects,

at least

3Si

some

links

THE GREEK AULOS

352

Rebirth points to the extraordinary nature of the origin of the Harmonia

on the Aulos and flute, already discussed, whereby the embodiment of a

natural law in the pipe creates through the boring of equidistant fingerholes,
opened and closed at will, the requisite elements of the Harmonia. Nature
exhibits no favouritism
she is prodigal in her gifts, and they are open
;

alike to

all.

evident that the

It is

systems,
free to

is

Harmonia

as origin of modality, of scales

and

a matter of rebirth, with the joys attendant on initial discovery

all.

The Harmonia when once possessed and assimilated as the language

of Music, survives among the Folk, forming the musical atmosphere into
which music lovers are born. Thus the Harmonia progresses and thrives
through environment so that rebirth and survival are the ever recurrent cause
and effect.
Stringed instruments were undoubtedly one of the important means of
perpetuating the Harmonia, but they could not originate it, nor can they
leave permanent records that is the sole apanage of wood-wind instruments

with fingerholes.
Stringed instruments, however, performed the valuable functions of
controlling
tion

and

testing

by means of the monochordthe purity of intona-

of stabilizing the ratios of the intervals, of grouping

of pitch,

and of welding the various elements

the P.I.S. 1 in Ancient Greece.

The

them

in order

known

into the system

Kithara, 2 at

as

with its scale fixed

at will, so far as individual performances were concerned, was the favourite
and widely recognized instrument for impressing and carrying on the
tradition.
The Harmonia was enthroned by the Kithara in the heart and
first

It alone in Greece possessed the means of fusing the

two elements, vocal and instrumental, of the rising and descending Harmonic Series. The strings plucked by the Kitharoedos while reciting an
Ode, gave out the sound-pattern of the Harmonia in the melos
the indi-

soul of the nation.

vidual strings,

when

plucked, liberated the intervals already familiar in

modulated speech, as a still more ethereal sound-pattern or tissue of constituent Harmonics.

Archilochus was the first, as recorded by Plutarch, 3
to introduce an accompaniment above the melos, whereas among the
Ancients it was always in unison.
EVIDENCE OF THE PRACTICAL USE OF THE HARMONIA IN ANCIENT GREECE

The

existence of the

Harmonia through the

centuries

must now be

Before any claim of survival can be substantiated,

evidence must be produced of the practical use of the Harmonia in the
melopoiia of Ancient Greece.

briefly passed in review.

The Systema

Teleion Ametabolon The Perfect Immutable System.

For the Kithara as origin of the Violin, see fn. i, p. 357.
Mus. (Weil and Reinach, pp. 107-n, 277 sqq.) The accompaniment in unison favours the enjoyment of the ethereal development of constituent
Harmonics
the accompaniment of Archilochus was an attempt to reproduce
2

Plut., de

some

of

its

beauty.

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

353

We are met at the outset by a serious difficulty the few extant fragments
Greek music constituting the evidence, are written in the system of
Greek Notation laid down for the 1 5 Tonoi (in the Diatonic and Chromatic
:

of

Genera) in the Tables of Alypius. 1

There is evidence that the system of Notation emanated from Pythagoras
Similar interpretations of the symbols,
made independently by F. Bellermann and Dr. C. Fortlage, both published
in 1 847, have been almost universally adopted, faute de mieux.
This interor his followers the Harmonists. 2

pretation, based

upon the
on

proves, however,

ditonal system of the

close examination to

ing with inconsistencies and errors

it

Graeco-Roman

theorists,

be entirely unsatisfactory, teem-

has, moreover, nothing in

common

with the system of the Harmonia, for which the system of Notation was
originally conceived

by the Ancient Greeks, but

as the very nature of the

Harmonia was an unknown quantity in Bellermann's day, no other explanation was to be expected.
In the light of the Harmonia the scheme of
Notation comes as an astonishing revelation of subtle ingenuity (see Appendix
No i, on Notation, and Chap, v, Fig. 37, the Ratios of the Seven Harmoniai
with their Notation).
to

With this scheme of Notation for use as reference, we may proceed

examine the prototypes in order to discover whether the Harmonia was
element in the music of Ancient Greece, and to what extent
may be traced as an influence in composition.

a living basic
it

FRAGMENT OF PINDAR'S

The symbols

1ST PYTHIAN

ODE

most of the fragments are to be found in commore than one Tonos, differentiated by their ratios, so

in use in

plete sequence in

1
Many reproductions of this weighty document exist in the codices, the principal
of which are listed, with comments, by Karl v. Jan in Musici Scriptores Graeci,
Teubner (Leipzig, 1895), p. xcii ; to which must be added No. 49 (q.v., op. cit.,

p. xlii)

and

Mus.

17, op.

Brit.

cit.,

They were

Add. MS. No. 19353.

fl-

237

No.

20, Esc. x,

i,

12

and Nos. 16

p. xxxiv.

made known

Harmoniai to Western scholars by

the Tables of Boethius, which are preserved in numerous codices.
See ed. Glareanus (Basel, 1546), pp. 1 158-9. The Lydian Tonos with description of symbols,
This edition of Boethius, de Musica, is notorious for the misnaming by
p. 1 132.
Glareanus of the Species in the Ecclesiastical Modes, i.e. calling the D Mode Dorian,
and the E Mode Phrygian and so on
an error which still appears in such works
of reference as Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians.
See for the origin of the
error in Appendix, No. 2, The Ecclesiastical Modes '.
The earliest printed versions
of Alypius are (1) by Vincentio Galilei, Dialogo della Musica Antica e Moderna,
Tables with description of symbols in Italian, contains Mesomedes' Hymns.
1581.
(2) By Joannes Meursius, Aristoxenus Nicomachus, Alypius, Nunc primus vulgavit
Lugduni Batavorum, 1616. Symbols described but not printed in tables.
Tables of Symbols
(3) Athanasius Kircher, Musurgia Universalis (Rome, 1650).
in Diatonic and Chromatic genera, Icon., xiii, p. 541, Vol. i.
Meibomius, Antiquae Musicae Auctores Septem, Marcus Meibomius (Amsterdam, Elzevir, 1652), Vol. i, No. iv.
2
Aristides Quintilianus, p. 28 M. Aristoxenus, Elements of Harmony, Macran
See also the twelve Polemics of Aristoxenus
(39)> PP- 1 3> Greek, and p. 194, tr.
against the Harmonists (by K. S.), Chap. v.
first

for the seven

'

THE GREEK AULOS

354
that each

symbol may form with

The Tonos

different ratios.

its

neighbour intervals of

at least

is

two

represents the elements of the musical material,

The Mode

thus in a sense approximating to the keys of modern music.

revealed by the functions (dynamis) of the various notes in relation to

the melodic pivot or Tonic, on the one hand, and to the keynote, as

Mese

or Arche, which occupies a different degree of the scale in each Harmonia,

and therefore, forms with the Tonic

a distinctive interval.

The earliest fragment extant supposing the musical setting to have

been contemporaneous with the poem is from Pindar's ist Pythian Ode.
The authenticity of this musical fragment has long been regarded as
loubtful by some scholars, and the genuineness of this piece of music has
ecently been again powerfully assailed.
I propose to disregard the conroversial aspects of the question, and to judge the fragment solely upon
ts

musical merits.

am

firmly convinced that this setting of the few opening verses from

Ode could not have emanated from any but a Greek

perhaps from Pindar himself, but possibly from one of the

Pindar's ist Pythian

source

not

whom

Harmonists, to

the Harmoniai were a living reality, and

who was

familiar with their genesis.

Further, the grounds

philological,

upon which the

and are largely due

to the

authenticity

is

attacked are mainly

odium incurred by the

writer of

who was the first to introduce and

who claims to have seen the original
now disappeared, thus sharing the fate of many

the Musurgia, Athanasius Kircher, 1

publish the fragment, and the only one

manuscript, which has

other valuable manuscripts. With few exceptions 2 the inherent significance
and value of the fragment as a piece of Greek music has not been criticized
or defended by competent authorities.
It has yet to be satisfactorily proved
that it could by any possibility have originated from Gregorian, Plainsong
Kircher introduced
or any other sixteenth- or seventeenth-century source.
the fragment first (p. 541, Vol. i), as he claims to have found it in the
original manuscript (as reproduced on PI. 16) which is all that concerns us
for the present.
His interpretation in staff notation (Vol. i, p. 542, see
he had no pretensions
above) is rhythmically grotesque and misleading
to Greek scholarship
it contains glaring errors besides, which are not in
the Greek version.
If the music were a forgery, this would be the original.
Kircher's statement that the Ode is noted in the Lydian Tonos is obviously correct
he does not mention the species. Could he be sure of it ?
The issue is by no means clear for in line 4, the Greek symbols, and
as the music stands
Kircher's interpretation in staff Notation, do not agree
;

(on p. 542), there

is

a distinctly Hypolydian close on

noted by

Kircher as A-F, whereas according to the Greek symbols, a Hypophrygian

close

on

Was

G-A

is

indicated.

Kircher aware of this implication

Musurgia Universalis (Rome, 1650),

'

The Music

of Pindar's " Golden Lyre "

University, Classical Philology, Vol. xxxi,

Was he

Tome

1,
',

No. 2

familiar

enough with

pp. 541-2.
by J. F. Mountford, Liverpool

(April, 1936).

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

355

discern the correct position in the P.I.S. which,

in the

the species to

Lydian Tonos, would correspond in pitch and modality with the closes

document

the alleged forged

in

Kircher attached such importance to the species as would enable

him to transcribe his chant correctly into Greek symbols would he, avid
of kudos, have allowed the opportunity to pass of mentioning the species
as well as the Tonos ? or would he have passed the proofs which jumbled

Had

up

closes,

modality and rhythms in line 4

No

each note being a movable

it is, in my opinion, obvious that the printer dropped out the minim A,
1
the 6th note in line 4, and inserted it further on by mistake, as 2nd note
It is significant that the only recent
after the bar line, on the syllable rov.

type,

defender of

the

authenticity

controversy has

of the fragment in this

supported Kircher 's blunder, in his interpretation. 2

The range of the melos, consisting of six symbols, extends to a 5th
above the Tonic, and below to a drop to the sub-Tonic on Parhypate

Meson

the

Tonic of the Hypolydian Species, thus

Hypophrygian Species in the Notation of the Lydian Tonos

-Syn.
Meson
Nete
Mese
Tr.
PN.
Lich.
PH.
1

Vocal

Instr.

<
1

18

20

16

e
V
1

IS

N
1

12

13

Ratios by K. S.

At
Tonic
Trite

a glance the

or again,

if

Mode

might be mistaken for Hypolydian with

as

the scale were read in the Hypophrygian Tonos, from

Diezeugmenon

to

Nete Hyperbolaion, the

Mode would be

Phrygian.

It is neither of these.
?
The Tonic and the Mese or keynote
Harmonia, but the- lowest of the range of
The melos has merely been
carried down to the sub-Tonic, Parhypate Meson, Kata Thesin
a practice

What, then,

the decisive factor

is

are the cardinal points in the

notes used in the

Ode

is

not the Tonic.

The

an obvious one, since the corresponding notes in staff notation

for the same Greek symbols
(end of line 3 and also in line 4, two notes before
I*
mistake

is

=_G A
ratios 18 16

the bar line) and

A_

cannot be rendered by both G, A, and A, F.

ratios 16 20
Kircher have repeated the Greek symbol A, for notes

Neither should

5 and 6 in line 4, to represent

A and B fiat.
Kircher's alleged invention in staff notation (p. 543) exhibits errors and a
modal close, i.e. Hypolydian among five Hypophrygian orthodox closes. The
Greek version (p. 541) is modally perfect and lacks the errors patent on p. 542.
2
Paul Friedlander, Ber. it. d. Verh. d. Sachs. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Leipzig, Phil.

two

different pitch notes

Thus

false

Inst.

Kl. 86, Bd. 1934, Heft 4, p. 32, line 46 (Hirzel, Leipzig, 1934).

THE GREEK AULOS

356

sanctioned in the classical period. 1

that

was

it

It

a recognized practice in

is,

Tonos, to extend the scale to the whole, or

tetrachord, Hypaton.
is

The

known from

moreover,

Greek music,

it

Dorian

part, of the lower conjunct

lowest note in question

the Tonic of the Hypolydian Species

Plutarch

in all but the

Parhypate Meson,

occurs only twice in the second

part of the Ode, without modal significance, and there are no Hypolydian
closes.

THE FRAGMENT DISPLAYS ALL THE HYPOPHRYGIAN MODAL CHARACTERISTICS

AND FIVE CLOSES ON THE y.&Xa

The Harmonia is clearly Hypophrygian. The

Ode are first of all the frequent use of the two

decisive features in the

modal pivots

cardinal

Lichanus Meson, and keynote = Mese, used in both directions,

There are five of these closes, one on each of the xwXa,
rising and falling.

Tonic

denoted by the symbols A

A or

modal

ratios,

which

to

have added the

18 16 18

16 18 16

Tev-%rjg-i

besides a 6th, differing in form, in line 4 thus

18 16 16

The

other characteristics of the Hypophrygian

N used

raised 4th 18/13 (561 cents

Harmonia

are

its

poignant

from or

as leap or drop,

to the

*3

Tonic

and the augmented

the fourth degree, from a

16,

15,

13,

second of ratio 15/13

leap

from Tonic

is-

13

r
leading up to

Minor 3rd 18/15 on the Tonic,

12, the ratios of the first

e.g

18/18,

Hypophrygian tetrachord.
ri

-rn

0
V

to 4th occurs in line 4

on

18

a
13

must thus be recognized that the modal characteristics of the Hypophrygian Harmonia all occur strongly emphasized in the Greek version
It

of the Ode, but in Kircher's interpretation the errors in line 4 have obliterated

the 4th close on

The

t,o-jj,e-va.

first part, owing

and poignant but

ethos in the

to Tonic,

is lyrical

to the descending

motion from 5th

Ode, with

in the second part of the

the allure of the melos ascending, the ethos proper to the

itself

I and
up or down from one
of the

Mode

asserts

resolute, tense, poignant.

To find five modal

what may be claimed as
two

pivots,

closes in so short a fragment

is

remarkable, but

an exclusively Greek feature is the equal importance

of which may be finals, as the melos swings

M, both

to the other I.M.I, or

M.I.M.

In quoting Plato, Aristides Quintilianus

Gevaert, Mel. Ant., p. 13, fn. 3.
mentions his six ancient scales (p. 22M.) and indicates the additional degree in the
Doristi
2

which was known

as

Hyperhypate.

de Mus., Chap. 19, end, pp. 78-9, 183-3

^nl r <*> v hotnwv tovcov.

PLATE

Chorus Vocalis

ure

irirrei

irrei mi

eiMie r'erirreireierMiM
Xvrtt

lit

*Ti'fW

fi"r C

Tit's

pit

nsti

*'

i yt.*l*t

tit

<tSX*-

Chorus Inftrumentalis.

Apgj

Xf

Til/

Al

ftO

C*,

Ml'

41^4

TV

T*

1/= n
Intitprttatio

Mufica veterum

noftris notis muficis

Lydio
Monophonk

irirrei

eiMie

vox prsuk.

ure urei mi
i

er

r ei

re

..A.

atif'i'

ti

pM,

*d$ A

tm im

Choi us adCytharam.

?;ff sif*vSf*

Tii'/wri

tono

exprefla.

,Jius

Uf ll T l|
yn

rt

%*

t't.

*> ?f(t'#

pllifll
Atque ex hoc vnico paradigmate, reliqua nullo negotio patebuntj.modum ttaque
Vctcrum turn in cantando, turn (bnando obferuatum hoc antiquo ipecimine tradrdihinc quidde Vctcrum mufica fcntiendum lit, facile cuiiibct prudent*

mus. Vt vcl

muficoinnotefcere polHt.

FRAGMENT OF PINDAR'S FIRST PYTHIAN ODE

First published in Athanasius Kircher's

'

Musurgia Universalis

'

Vol.

I,

pp. 541 and 542

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

in

357

That the Ode should be thus emphatically Hypophrygian is significant

relation to the text in praise of the Golden Kithara 1 of Apollo, for the
Fig. 78.

The

(1)

Five Closes on the

n?.o-

16
1

( avv)

<5t-

16

iS

(2)

y.cb/.a.

by K.

(Ratios

S.)

y.d-

18

M
y.ov

18

/.ICOV

16

Mov--

car

16

IS

d-

yka-

lag

do

/a

15

13

18

16

18

not a close, but used

as a

melodic

figure

Note the drop from

ri

the

to

the

ill

Tonic

M
18

which

introduces the close

(3)

In Part II

'

Chorus Instrumentalis

CpQCOL-

/ne-

18

16

(4)

n
18

18

16

<See (6) below.

ffo-

16

(5)

vv-

eig

18

16

18

The

Orthography mid accents are Kirchcr's.

the middle of the line a close differing in form thus

rev-

yrjt;

18
1

afiev-

N.B.
(6) in

16

a
e

16

the Kithara so often mistranslated Lyre

the lyre was
Hermes, the Kithara of Apollo. They are two different instruand functions. The Kithara, the
instrument of the Kitharoedos, was the ancient prototype of the violin family, having
It is regrettable to' find

the instrument of

ments

differing widely in structure, resonance

box-shaped soundchest with separate ribs. It evolved through the Rotta, the
The Lyre had a hollow bowlshaped back over which was stretched a skin, it was the instrument of the amateur
and student, its resonance was feeble. From the lyre the noblest specimen evolved
was the lute family. The rebab tribe, hybrids, to which the bow was applied in
spite of the unsuitable structure of the soundchest of the rebab and rebec, had but
a transitory existence in the West.
For further details see The Precursors of the
Violin Family, Vol. ii of The Instruments of the Orchestra, by Kathleen Schlesinger
(W. Reeves, 1910) (Out of print).

Guitar, both plucked and bowed, and the Viols.

THE GREEK AULOS

358

Hypophrygian and Hypodorian Species were known to be favourite Harmoniai with the Kitharoedes. 1

As

Ode

the rhythmical element in the

is

determined by the scansion, so

by Boeckh, 2

there are several interpretations of the music of this fragment, viz.

Fetis,

Of
the

Westphal, Gevaert and others,

all

differing widely

from Kircher's.

these Gevaert's has been chosen (and I have added the symbols above

on account of

an authority
on the music of the Liturgy of the West. ConGevaert states that a careful examination of the
music revealed no peculiarity which could lead us to believe that the Ode
was a seventeenth- century fabrication. Judged solely on its merits, this
fragment of Ancient Greek music, inspired by the invocation to the Kithara
of Apollo with which the Ode opens, is a perfect model as it stands in
staff)

on Greek music, but

his special qualifications, not only as

also

cerning Pindar's Ode,

the Greek version

In the

(on

editio princeps of

p. 541) of composition based on the Harmonia.

Kircher, the music is noted in the Lydian Tonos

the species as Hypophrygian correctly placed in the Tonos, with the Tonic

on Lichanos Meson, and the keynote on Mese.

pivots of melody,

moreover, are

Those two Hypophrygian

both given the paramount importance

they bear in the Harmonia, not only as final cadence, but occurring five
times as closes on the xwXa. All the characteristic elements of the Harmonia

although they have gone wrong in

4 and
and
that these cardinal points
of the

are exhibited in the melos

of the alleged forgery

of the

lines

in spite

Harmonia had not found

fact

their

way

into the theory of music at that

date or since.

Regarded dispassionately by an unprejudiced critic, familiar with the

system of Greek music and its Notation, what would the verdict be on
the respective merits, as original and interpretation, of versions A and B ?
(Kircher's Mus., pp. 541 and 542).
My conviction that Pindar's Ode is
a genuine piece of Greek music is further strengthened by the fact that

Mesomedes Hymns

the three

acteristic features of the

all

exhibit in their composition the char-

Hypophrygian Harmonia by

closes,

and

in the

melodic elements and figures. It is not a question here of borrowing or

copying, nor is there actual resemblance between the melodies themselves
In the Christian
it is the basic principles in operation which are the same.
Hymn from the Treasure of the Oxyrhynchus and in the Schubart Berlin
still
dominate.
In the Delphic
fragments, the Hypophrygian characteristics
;

Hymns
is

the canons of the

Hypolydian in No.

Harmonia

still

and Dorian

in

prevail, although the

No.

2.

Extracts from

Mode
all

here

of these

follow in due course to enable these melodic elements and modal features
to

tell

their

own

story.

and 48
J. Pollux, Onom., iv, 64.
Boeckh, ap. Gesch. d. Mus., A. W. Ambros, Vol. i, 2nd edition (Leipzig, 1880),
with Greek symbols and interpretation in staff notation. Fetis, ibid.,
pp. 448-9
F. A. Gevaert,
P- 543. with scansion symbols but no Greek signs of notation.
La Mel. Ant. (Gand, 1895), pp. 32-3, fn. 4, and pp. 48-9. Staff notation without
symbols and Ode transposed to A, Westphal, Griech. Metrik, Rossbach and Westphal, Vol. i, pp. 626-47.
Reproduced also by Carl Lang, Kurzer Oberblick iiber die
Altgriech. Harmonik (Heidelberg, 1872).
1

Ps-Aristot., Probl., xix, 30

Fig. 79.

Fragment of Pindar's
by K.

ure

it

ai-

Xpv-

First

ure

<j>6p-

Pythian

01-

xo- ptv 6-

fiiy

-no-

Ode.

(Symbols of Notation added

HYPOPHRYGIAN HARMONIA)

'A-

ttoX- Acu-

iMierer

-yq-

S.,

rav

vos

i-

o-

mv

01-

Ke-

koX

npo-

pav-

vov

ttXo-

ay.-

jSo-

vv-

ofiev-

Range

of Notes in the LYDIAN TONOS with

the Symbols of Vocal and Instrumental No-

H <

tation and the Modal Ratios by K.S.

20

18

(Adapted from Gevaert's version)

359

ko.- [iojv

16

Ads

reu-

eis"

|~

15

13

12

THE GREEK AULOS

360

I see here, plainly exhibited evidences of the grip of the proportional

sequences of the Harmonia upon the musical consciousness of the Greeks.

What we
all

pronounce

retrospectively

be merely

to

be canons of composition, may after

during inspiration, of the

illustrations of the transmission,

psychological effect of the Ethos of the Harmonia.

Before we pass on to consider other extant fragments of Greek music,

made to the Ancient Greek foundations of Folk Music
by the unique Elgin Auloi preserved in the Graeco-Roman Department
of the British Museum may be recalled (see Chap, x, Plate No. 17),
The two pipes of Sycamore, one straight, the other slightly curved, each
have six fingerholes bored at approximately equal distances. When played
by means of primitive, untreated double-reed mouthpieces, the straight
specimen plays from the first hole, used as vent, the Dorian scale of M.D. 11
and of ratios 11/11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6. Several mouthpieces, inserted at the
same amount of extrusion from the resonator, have played the scale on a
the contribution

C=

fundamental

128 v.p.s. over a period of

many

years without variation

Other mouthpieces of the same type, when the amount of

play from the same fingerholes the Phrygian scale
of M.D. 12
the Lydian of M.D. 13 and the Hypolydian of M.D. 10.
The curved Aulos plays with mouthpieces of the same type in the Lydian
Harmonia of M.D. 13 and in the Mixolydian of M.D. 14. The performance of these Auloi, with dated tests, may be consulted in their Records.
in intonation.

extrusion

altered,

is

THE THREE HYMNS ATTRIBUTED TO MESOMEDES

1ST HYMN
IN THE HYPOPHRYGIAN MODE

'

The Hymns

TO THE MUSE

',

Mesomedes, a Cretan poet and musician living in the

and Antonine, are fully authenticated in several codices. 2
To the Muse is noted in the Hypolydian Tonos in
the following range of symbols.
The species is Hypophrygian.
of

reigns of Hadrian

The

first

hymn

'

'

Hypolydian Tonos

Hypophrygian Species

ail

ao

18

16

The same symbols appear

the ratios
28

15

13"!

12

(H) or
13

51}
Hypophrygian Species

22J

also in the

Z
nl

E
10

22J

Lydian Tonos,

in

which they bear

27

21

24

20

16

18

29(H)

28

27

of the Phrygian Species.

who

C. von Jan, Mus. Script Gr. (Lips, 1895), pp. 455 sqq.,
Eusebius ii, 2160, and Hieronymus, Antonini anno. vii.
2
The Hymns with mus. notation are given in several codices the earliest
Ven., vi, 10, xii and xiii
Mon., 215 Par. 2532, 69. They
in Neap., iii, Chap. 4
are published in V. Galilei, Dial, della Mus. Antica (Fiorenza, 1581), with Greek
Westphal,
mus. notation
see Jan, op. cit., p. 457, for full list, Bellermann
Gevaert, &c.
quotes Suidas,

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

There

are

in this

hymn

five

Hypophrygian

strictly

closes

361

(familiar

from Pindar's Ode) which would be meaningless in the Phrygian Species

Df the Lydian Tonos, viz.
Fig. 80.

From

The Hymn to the Muse,' Eig Movaav by Mesomedes.

Five Hypophrygian closes.
(Ratios by K. S.)
'

'

'

line

*
fxov -

18
line

4
<po& -

ad

flOl

c
%n
16

18

18

16

PM*

vac

do

18

16

(Use of modal tetrachord with

line

c
cpl -

vel -

T(D

IS 13 18

close, see also

11.

and

l6
7.)

,5

c
xat. -

16

h-

15

net -

16

13

c
-

<pa

l8

16

OO

16

line

flOV -

acov

71QO -

18

16

l6

16

line

xaQ

C
-

c
ye-

16

ll

4>

R
Tt

reg -

31

30

18

E63

naq

tie -

21

e -

18

13

13

are

/Ml

16

16

Final Cadence

3/2

This Hymn reveals once again, as in Pindar's Ode, the melodic structure
based upon the Canons of the Harmonia. The characteristic pentachord
ascending from the Tonic

|4>

Lg

I2

in line 7, with the striking

augmented 2nd 15/13 Greek symbols of Notation P and

seen in lines 4 and 8

the distinctive leap

M (rho and mu)

down from

is

in

to

j^j

j^gj

9 leads to the final cadence.

line

THE SECOND

HYMN

'

TO THE SUN

',

Elg "HXlOV, IN THE HYPOPHRYGIAN

SPECIES

The Hymn to the Sun has the same range of notes and must also
be read in the Hypolydian Tonos
the species is again Hypophrygian.
At line 7, the music sets in it is of an ambitious and exalted character
and makes frequent use of the second tetrachord, so that the tessitura is
high almost throughout. Hypophrygian closes occur at the beginning,
'

'

THE GREEK AULOS

362
line

and

at the end, line 25, as well as in various other parts of the

Hymn.

Full use

of the

Harmonia

made

is

melodically of the rise through the

to the raised 4th

When

read in the Lydian

^
Tonos

first

in lines

tetrachord

10,

11,

16,

Phrygian Species,
24, 25.
modulation into the Hypophrygian seems to be indicated, and it is not
impossible that the choice of the Mode may have been left to the singer,
when the Notation bears a double interpretation.
23,

in the

THE THIRD

HYMN

'

TO NEMESIS

Eig NdflSOlV,

IN THE

HYPOPHRYGIAN

SPECIES

The Hymn to Nemesis has the following scale of notes read in the
Hypolydian Tonos in the Hypophrygian Species.
Hypolydian Tonos

Hypophrygian Species

P*CPMA*I
20

18

i6_

51

13

15

ZEJS

12

10

Hypophrygian Species
Ratios

by K.

S.

The symbol

j^j

an enharmonic note, upward straining from

j

3,

As

two preceding examples, the Hypophrygian

in the

^j

occurs three times

10 and 13.

only in lines

closes

on
J^j

and the other characteristic intervals and figures proper to the Harmonia
abound, more especially in lines 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 15.
The melos breaks off before the final cadence is reached. Thus the
same principles seem to be active in the development of the melopoiia in
all

four examples.

THE EPITAPH OF SICILUS

This

IN

THE HYPOPHRYGIAN OR PHRYGIAN SPECIES

melody, discovered in the inscription to Seikilos by Mr.

W. M. Ramsay at Tralles (Aidin), in Asia Minor, is a very short, lively
song, which may be read in the Ionian and in the Hypoionian Tonos
the latter gives the better result in conformity with the close which is
Hypophrygian. There are slight irregularities in the melos, due to the
Tonoi of the Ionian group to which the Notation belongs. This group
represents the newest additions to the system of the Tonoi repudiated
by Ptolemy as foreign to the seven original Harmoniai. The Hypophrygian
Species of the song in the Hypoionian Tonos, has a Perfect 4th of ratio
little

C. v. Jan, op. cit., pp. 450-3,

Sicili Epitaphium ', song with symbols and
interpretation in staff notation.
Bulletin de correspondence Hellenique, vii, p. 277
'

Crusius in Philologus, Hi

(n.f. vi), p.

160

Bellermann, Monro, Gevaert, &c.

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

363

36/27 on Paranete Synemmenon, which has been substituted for the tense
raised 4th of ratio 18/13, proper to the Harmonia.
The melos bears
evidence that the Perfect 4th on the Tonic was intended, thus indicating
a weakening of the feeling for the Ethos of the Harmonia.
Fig.

81. The

Scale of the Epitaph to Sicilus

Hypophrygian Species

m$

Hypoionian Tonos

36/36

Denominator

22

27

24

21

20

18

1-3

constant

2!

opening leap of a 5th

Phrygian Species

Ionian Tonos

24/24

22]

20

18

28I

Z
27/48

HJ

211

24"!

opening leap of a 5th

FRAGMENT FROM THE ORESTES OF EURIPIDES IN THE HYPOPHRYGIAN

SPECIES, LINES

338-44

This fragment read in the Hypolydian Tonos has a Hypophrygian close

used melodically on lines 1 and 8, viz.

line

CP*

rt-

line 8

fiai

fia-

te

32

3_6

vd-(^ag)

[Sat-

18

16

29

30

and possibly

also in the final cadence,

xv

fia

<J>

<E>

18

18

if "3?

[uov]

C
32)
16 J

be admitted in the

aiv
<3>

18
(Crusius restoration)

last line

on

THE GREEK AULOS

3 64

Scale of the Notes used in the Orestes Fragment

Hypophrygian Species

Hypolydian Tonos

36

32

29

19

21

24

i_

(vocal

P)

{Doubtful instrumental symbols)

(R)

This form
may be the instrumental symbol
="L|_ and misunderstood by a Scribe (K. S.)

THE PAEAN FRAGMENT NO.

with the rhythmical j_ added

IN THE HYPOPHRYGIAN OR PHRYGIAN SPECIES.

BERLIN PAPYRUS DISCOVERED BY PROF. DR. W. SCHUBART,

These Berlin fragments

(date

a.d.

c.

156) yield

01

more examples

still

of the use of these favourite Hypophrygian and Phrygian Harmoniai ; the

the Paean alone will be quoted owing to exigencies of space
it occupies

first,

no

less than 12 lines.

Fragment 1, read in the Ionian Tonos, has Hypophrygian closes in lines 1-2
in lines 6, 7, 9 and in the final cadence, all
descending from the keynote to the Tonie. Read in the Hyperionian
;

Range of the Paean

Ionian Tonos.

Hypophrygian Species

18

31

Scale.

<f~

ej

C
21

The

27

24

22

15
21

27

24I

18

32J

Hypophrygian Species
Hyperionian
Tonos

27

24

21

20

16

18

28I
I4J

12J

Phrygian Species

C. v. Jan, op. cit., pp. 427-31 ; Jan suggests that the symbols 9 1 D placed in
the text before and after d(eiva>v novcov) refer to the entry of the Auloi at this point.
But with regard to the sign
which occurs at the end of every dochmius in the
papyrus (in lines 1, 3, 5, 7), it appears to me that the sign is meant for the instru-

mental

'

with -i- added to the

left

of the vertical limb, viz.

For Crusius restorations, see Philol., lii,

Greek Music in Papyri and Inscriptions

p. 183,
',

in

and

New

liii,

p. 148

~j

J.

F. Mountford,

Chapters in Greek Literature,

second series, 1930.

2
Sitz-berichte K. Preuss. Akad. d. Wiss., 1918, xxxvi, pp. 763 sqq.
lished with musical interpretation by Theodore Reinach,
Nouveaux
'

also pubFragments

de Musique Grecque ', Rev. Arche'ol., 1919, Tome x, pp. 11-27. Hermann Abert,
Der neue griech. Papyrus ', Arch. f.Mus. Wiss. (Jany., 1919), Heft 2, Leipz. Breitk.
8s Hartel
with facsimile of Papyrus and interpretation, pp. 313 sqq. Der Berliner
Notenpapyrus, nebst Untersuchungen z. rhythmischen Notierung und Theorie ', mit
'

Tafel-Beilage,

von Rudolf Wagner

(Fiirth).

J.F.M.

op.

cit.

in fn.

1.

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

Tonos, the Harmonia

Hypophrygian
line

is

Phrygian with cadences

the end of the Paean

is

missing.

some of the

365

closes are

A typically Phrygian phrase

.Tz

nm

ra

xo[rf\

TtUL

dv

20

24

ec

8^
OS

18-16

18

fiov

aa[v]

24
6/5

6/5

Hypophrygian closes on

4/3

(or 1Z)

16 18 16

occur also in lines

6, 8, 9, 10, 11.

3/2

minor 3rd 6/5 on the Tonic, the 4th and 5th on the Tonic
and the return by way of the minor 3rd. The Hypophrygian close 18, 16, 18,
is here a natural outcome of the Phrygian Harmonia.
The Phrygian close
IZ
Z 0n
proper, an interrupted leap to the dominant, occurs as c
24 18 16
rov Ad-Aou in line 2
Nevertheless the evidence,
and in line 11, Z O
occurs, with the

32 24
Tonos, Hypophrygian Species, is the
the suggestion that the choice lay with the singer.

in favour of a reading in the Ionian

stronger

the alternative

is

DISCOVERY OF A CHRISTIAN

HYMN

OXYRHYNCHUS PAPYRl)

(iN

HYPOPHRYGIAN

The

PSEUDO-

SPECIES

our very meagre survivals of Ancient Greek

musical composition (with the exception of one very small fragment 2 ) is
the Christian Hymn from the Treasure of the Oxyrhynchus, published
latest accession

to

The Range of Notes

(Christian

Hymn)

Hypophrygian Mode

Hypolydian Tonos

20

18/18

16

9/7
Ratios by K. S.

14I

27

28 J

21

12/

435

IO
3j

8/7
3/2

E
2o\

702

1
Oxyrhynchus Papyri, by Prof. Bernard Grenfall and Prof. Arthur Hunt, Vol. xv,
No. 1786 (Oxford, 1921). Interpretation of the music, and transcription in staff
notation by Prof. H. Stuart Jones, photograph, facsimile.
Theodore Reinach,' Un Ancetre de la Musique d'Eglise ', in La Revue Musicale
(Paris, 1922), third year, No. 9, pp. 8-25, with musical transcription, but without

symbols.

new Fragment of Greek Music in Cairo ', by Prof. J. F. Mountford, Jour,

of Hellenic Studies, Vol. li, 1931, pp. 91-100, with facsimile photograph.
This is
an account of the most recent discovery, a mere scrap (No. 59533 in the Catalogue
General of the Cairo Museum), unfortunately too small to reveal the modality.
2

'

THE GREEK AULOS

366

by Professor Arthur Hunt of Oxford the musical transcription by Professor

H. Stuart Jones. The fragment of papyrus, 0-30 m. X 0-05 m., dates
from the second half of the third century a.d. The symbols of notation
(given below with scale) are from the Hypolydian Tonos.
The Mode is once again Hypophrygian, but of the bastard form of the
Harmonia, beginning on Lichanos Meson, and omitting Synemmenon, it
passes over from Mese to the Diezeugmenon tetrachord.
This form denatures the Harmonia, giving it a Perfect 4th on the Tonic instead of the
;

raised 4th

striking

of

ratio

=561

18/13

cents;

231 cents, instead of the Augmented 2nd of

and a 9/7 3rd of 435 cents instead of a Minor
There are four Hypophrygian closes

a Septimal tone 8/7

15/13
247 cents
3rd 6/5 of 316 cents.

ratio

18

16

18

and

16

18

16

The

besides frequent melodic use of the intervals of the close.

leaps to the 4th have lost their characteristic ethos,

The melodic

interval 15/13.

of the

Harmonia

structure, however,

as displayed in the prototype

is

it

three

and one misses the

still

follows the canons

the scale that has

been changed, as revealed by the Notation.

THE TWO DELPHIC HYMNS

With the Delphic Hymns

MM.

Weil and Reinach

the

to the

DELPHIC

HYMN

NO.

date of which has been assigned

end of the second century

B.C.

the

by

melos

when regarded retrospectively from the limited range

of extant fragments.
The composition of the Hymn No. 1 is ambitious,
one of the longest we possess, and the end has not survived. The Harmonia

breaks fresh ground

is

Hypolydian noted in the Phrygian Tonos. There are in the Hymn some
a slight chromaticism is noticeable.
Whereas from bar 6 to bar 24 the tritonic 4th is greatly in evidence, e.g. in

curious features

28

27

32
Tritone

40

28
|~

[32]

M
I32I

(Ratio 28 marks the upper note of the Tritone)

and

in

many

other phrases, yet the perfect 4th, marked by ratio 30,

introduced in the chromatic figures from bar 36 to bar 62

and the

full

29

32

tetrachord with perfect fourth

is

e.g. in

O
35
is

used melodically thus, bars

50-51, &c.

35

32

32

35

4/3

5/4

498

4/3

386"

1
Bull, de Corresp. Hellenique, xviii, La Musique du Nouvel Hymne de Delphes
by H. Weil and Theodore Reinach, pp. 363 sqq., with plates.
'

',

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

The Scale

of

Hymn

No.

Hypolydian Species

O M

27

21

35

32

30

29

28

(b;

!5

27

26

24

22

21

A X
20

There are no
M or M
Y

16

16

39

23
Ratios by K. S.

20

3 67

Phrygian Tonos

than 10 Hypolydian closes of the major 3rd on the Tonic,

At a certain point towards the middle, a subtle Dorian

less

Y.

20

atmosphere pervades the melos, heralded by the advent of three new symbols
used in various combinations (K and

B at bar 42)

and

are not given

by Alypius

from bar 38

in the Phrygian

Tonos, but the alphabetical sequence of the vocal notation gives the clue
B
to the ratios alloted to those letters.

of ethos.

The symbol

and both

this interval,

An

used once only.

is

Hymn,

tion of these ratios, as used in the

investiga-

explains this reminiscent change

company with

occurs always in

the keynote

^-J

Ml

and

IK

also

are very close

approximates of

123 9
the characteristic Dorian ratio 11/10 on the Tonic 2
which means that a
singer familiar with the Dorian musical idiom, would probably sing all three
;

intervals as

closes are

After the entry of

11 /io.

symbols, the

these

Hypolydian

found to be Dorianized and now assume the forms

32

35

35

32

11/10 x 8/7

11/10

bar 60
bar 52)

(at

to

62

and

= 16?

5/4

Y
40

32

5/4

(at bar 56)

32

35

8/7

ii/'io

1
K. v. Jan, op. cit., pp. 433 sqq., and Musici Scriptores Graeci, Supplementum
Melodiarum Reliquiae
Lips., 1899, pp. 12-19.
The Hymn consists of 30 lines
of text and 28 of music in staff notation in the new recension of the Supplement
'

',

published in 1899.

32

29

10

319

In cents the differences are 11 /io

cents.

difference of 6 cents

11

32

16$

cents

32/29

the difference between

176

= iyi cents 35/32

286
and of 10 cents
285
;

=
=

155

6
168

THE GREEK AULOS

368

and these
(bars 38

also occur thus

(bar 60)

32

16/15

The

and 48)

O
35

11/10

29

30

33

35

11/10

extant fragments of Delphic

on bar 125 on note

15

THE 2ND DELPHIC

Hymn

There

G).

HYMN

is

(iN

no

No.

11/10

come

to an abrupt

end

final close.

THE DORIAN HARMONIA)

When compared

with von Jan's 1 first publication in 1894, the 2nd Delphic

published in the Supplement of 1899, comprising the complete
recension of all the Fragments, now consists of the old page 443 (bar 5 of
Jan's No. 3) down to the last line of page 448, and includes the whole of

Hymn,

pages 447 to 449. The revised arrangement numbers 168 bars with an
epilogue (No. x, p. 32) of 14 bars, which are undoubtedly in the Dorian
Harmonia. The Hymn is noted in the instrumental notation of the Lydian

Tonos and the Harmonia

The range
by K.

S.)

is

definitely Dorian.

of notes used in the

Hymn

is

the following (with ratios added

Range of the Hymn noted in the Lydian Tonos

dorian harmonia.

HYPATON

MESON

H'RBOL

DIEZEUG.

r
z
I*

< V

Original

Harmonia

28

24

22

20 J39 J18
16
J35
I44 1 36 {44

15

16

15

Later form
in the P. I. S. 28

24

21

* These two symbols

20

K and

[K**]

3g
do not belong

14

[27 12

11

*
10

I.44

to the

14 27/44 12

21

10

Lydian Tonos of Alypius.

The Dorian Harmonia is used with the full range of an octave and one
and with a descent to the Hypaton Tetrachord, and Trite Synemmenon
and Trite Diezeugmenon both come into play. It will be noticed that
note,

owing to the extensive use of the upper Dorian tetrachord 28

27

24

22

Hymn

the

has a high

tessitura.

Some scholars might feel inclined to diagnose the Mode as Mixolydian,

but a cogent objection to that view is raised by the leap from the Dorian
Tonic to the raised 4th of the keynote, which occurs four times in the last
1

C. Janus, Mus. Script. Gr.

Supplementum, Melodiarum Reliquae, Teubner

Series (Lips., 1899).

This Supplement contains the complete revised arrangement
of the Fragments, which agrees with the official version published in the Fouilles
de Delphes, and in the Bull, de Corresp. HelUnique, xviii, 1894, p. 345.

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

Hymn,

fragment of the
12 to 14

from bars 6

p. 32, x,

to 7

Closes in the Second Delphic

<

XV-

Slara

Hal

vairzaQ

23/22

20

16

IS

bars 6 to 7

by K.

Ratios

in bar 9

369

and in bars

S.

AeX(pa>v

16

Ratios

22/22

<

bar 9

dwfxa-

16

aw

20

22

agxav
22

20

24

<

14

Hymn
<

bars 12 to

Pco/xaicDv

20

16

c
odrcp

w20

nav

(tpege)

6dXk.

22

16

20

T
Final close

<

U
ayr\-

also

(p. 30, frags, ix.)

cue

bar 144

22

Examples of the use of the upper tetrachord (Diezeugmenon) may

be cited

xare- xr

rjQa

27/44 22

14 27/44

bars 148-9

05

(C)

<

(a)

vv

Qiy/A

22

11

27/44

(28)27/44 16

22

14 27/44

(Z)

bar 158

12

og

OL-

II

IO

ore(re)

fiavrog

o/J,

12

10

11

bar 164

As6

ijy^gg

28

27

24

27

12

44

44

44

12

44

dj-

fie-

({16)

(or 14)

u 1

27

(<)
0es

1-

%i(ovo<;)

10

11

Tetr. Diez.

At the end of the Hymn (Fragment x, p. 32), there is a modulation to

the Hypolydian, and back to a final close in the Dorian Harmonia (see
above, bars 9 to 14) and preceded by
:

Hypolydian Closes
Fragment

p. 32,

3 and 4

< C
16

14

<

<
(OV

deanoxi xgrjoi-

CUV

27/44

16

20

15

6ea

re

20

x, bars

16

L
maj. 3rd

tritone

perfect 4th

bar 11

<
71Q0Q-

nokoiai,

re

16

20
maj. 3rd

<
16

from bars
14 as given
above to close

continue
12 to

THE GREEK AULOS

370

Thus while

Hymn

the second Delphic

is

emphatically Dorian in con-

by the closes and the tessitura, the first Hymn exhibits

the strongly marked Hypolydian characteristic features (pervaded at times
by a suggestive Dorian influence), which later spread over Hellenistic Asia
and the Alexandrian musical culture witness the Enharmonic and Chromatic
ception, as revealed

tetrachords of Eratosthenes

40

to

38

39

The Hypolydian Harmonia

frets

io

is

and

20

19

15

iq
~
18

18

15

traced likewise in Arabian sources, as in the

on the neck of Al-Farabi's Tanbur of Bagdad and on

his

Aulos with

nine equidistant fingerholes.

Moreover, the lute with the accordance of Ishaq al-Mausili also supports
the Hypolydian modality (see Chap, vii, and Figs. 59 and 55).
From the same source may be quoted an Aulos with nine fingerholes,
on which we have traced a Hypophrygian Species as a majra through Wosta.
On another Aulos the Lydian Harmonia of M.D. 26 speaks from Hole 1
and from exit ratio 27
a lute having a fret for the Wosta of Zalzal, an
;

interval of ratio

27/22

= 355

frets allow the playing of the

by Al-FarabT. The
by ZalzaPs ratios.

cents, is also illustrated

Lydian

scale implied

THE PROTOTYPES OF GREEK MUSIC ALL EXHIBIT THE MODAL CHARACTERISTICS

OF THE HARMONIA

On reviewing our survey

of the prototypes of

Greek music,

it is

a remark-

able circumstance to find such a large proportion of the Fragments in the

Hypophrygian Harmonia

no possible doubt, for they

exhibit in the melos the striking characteristics of that Harmonia.
It is

of this there

is

all

not intended to suggest, however, that musical composition in the

Harmonia was

subject to rigid rules, but rather that since the intervals are

integral parts of the

the Harmonists

Harmonia which was the language of music used by

melos became naturally imbued with these salient

the

points.

In

my

ticity of

opinion, the evidence

is

overwhelming in support of the authen-

the Fragment of Pindar's First Pythian Ode, judged solely on the

merits of the music, as a piece of Ancient Greek melopoiia.

It is

doubtful

whether any chant, Gregorian or other, that might have been produced by
Kircher from any contemporary source whatever, could be brought forward
and proved to exhibit the unmistakable characteristics of the Hypophrygian
Harmonia, which occur so abundantly in the Ode, and in the other fragments derived from fully authenticated sources. Not a single chant has
actually been brought forward to my knowledge, by those who impugn the
authenticity of the document, that presents the remotest resemblance to
the style of composition exhibited in Pindar's Ode.
It is well to

remember

in Kircher's day,

that the melopoiia of the Harmonia was unknown

and that those who have contested the genuineness of the

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

Fragment

are unacquainted with the very existence of the

Harmonia

371
in our

sense of the word.

The

question

may now be

Fig.

Second

82.-

modal pivots and charHarmoniai are not pure concerns of the

raised whether the

acteristic intervals of the ancient

C =

Step in the Heptatonic Scale of the Harmonia on

Harmonia and
Modal Determinant

v.p.s.

128 v.p.s.

Ratio

Cents

11/10

165

Suggested Spondeiasmos

12/11

151

Three-quarter tone

13/12

138-5

27/24)
9/8 J

204

H/13

128

16/15

112

8/7

231

Cto

DORIAN

M.D.

140 *8

11

Cto

PHRYGIAN

M.D.

12

39'3
b

C
LYDIAN

M.D.

LYDIAN

M.D.

to

(l)

The Harmonia

138-66

13

The

144

(2)

27

bastard Harmonia in the

from Parh. Hypaton to

P.I.S.

Lich.

Hyp.

bb

Cto

MIXOLYDIAN

M.D.

I37-84

14

Cto
HYPODORIAN

M.D.

from

Harmonia

Mese

through Synemmenon

I36-S3

HYPODORIAN

M.D.

The

>b

(l)

16
(2)

146-28

No. 2. The bastard Hypodorian

from Proslambanomenos to
Hyp. Hypaton or the primitive modal flute with 3 holes
;

ratios

Cto
18

18/16
144

to

8/8, 7, 6, 5

HYPOPHRYGIAN

M.D.

204

(9/8)

HYPOLYDIAN

20/18

182

M.D. 20

142-22

theorist,

arising out of the systematized

(10/9)

Harmonia of Greek music, and

therefore consciously developed into canons of composition in the school

and passed on thence with the Hellenistic culture to

other lands and races
in fact, that where these modal characteristics are
observed in the music of the Folk, it is a case of survival by tradition.
The alternative conception is that these modal distinctions are inherent
of the Harmonists,

THE GREEK AULOS

372

Harmonia

in the essential nature of the

who

alive to the

is

that they manifest in the musician,

potency of the Harmonia, as a subconscious compelling

urge.

The answer
Fig. 83.- The

C =

Tonic

On

of Ratio 15/13

128 v.p.s.

Tonic

On

M.D.

22

on Tonic

Tonic

247

G =
The

Cents in Folk Music, on

192 v.p.s.
Ratios of the

Harmonia

g to a

DORIAN
Conjunct

be found in the analysis of the music

to this question will

Augmented Second

to e

22/22 20 18 16 15 13 12

1877

to 216-6

v.p.s.

140-8 to 162-4

II

'-'

11

v.p.s.
b

a\>

to b

to/#

PHRYGIAN
Conjunct
M.D. 24

153-6 to 177-2

B\> to

F to G

III

26/26 24 22 20 18 16 15 13

Disjunct
M.D. 26

221-8

tO

256

166-4

to

192
1

v.p.s.

v.p.s.
b

jDb to

A\> to

HYP ODORI AN
16

204-8 to 236-2

E\> to

fib to

III

18/18 16 15 13 12 11 10
153-6 to 177-23

to

230-4 to 265-8

v.p.s.

v.p.s.

to

III

20/20 18 16 15 13 12
170 6 to 196-9

128

to

147-7
1

v.p.s.

v.p.s.

HYPOLYDIAN

M.D. 20

v.p.s.

HYPOPHRYGIAN
18

III

16/16 15 13 12 11 10
136-53 to 157-5
v.p.s.

M.D.

II

v.p.s.

v.p.s.

LYDIAN

M.D.

24/24 22 20 18 16 15 13 12
204-8 to 236-4

11

10

Obviously the Mixolydian Harmonia cannot have an interval of ratio 15/13,

its M.D. is 14 and that in the diatonic genus 15 and 14 are alternatives.

since

N.B.

In the ratios of the Harmonia, the denominator is constant, and according to

the practice in this work, the numerators appear as ratios with the denominator understood.
Each Harmonia has its own characteristic genesis by virtue of a principle common to the
Seven Harmoniai. The vibration frequencies, ratios and cents result from the operation
of the principle (see Chap. i).

of unsophisticated folk, who can have had no theoretical knowledge of the

Harmonia, or of the traditions of the musical system of Ancient Greece.
The most decisive of all answers is the finding of traces of the modal pivots
in the music of primitive races.

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

373

THE CHARACTERISTIC INTERVALS FOUND IN FOLK MUSIC DEFINED BY RATIOS,

VIBRATION FREQUENCIES AND CENTS

we proceed

Before

to trace the

Harmonia

in the

following intervals that characterize the ancient

in tabulated
Fig. 84.

form

music of the Folk, the

Modes may now be

given

to assist investigators in their diagnosis.

The Interval of the 3rd on the Tonic in Folk Music.

G =

and
Tonic

Derivation of 3rd

E\>

='128

v.p.s.

Ratios and Cents

v.f.

E =

Derived from Cy. 4ths

Tonic

v.f.

Derived from Cy. Sths

Tonics

192 v.p.s.

162

1517

Bb =

243

4o8

32/27

294

81/64
ditone

227-4

156-4

Bb =

234-6

1/9

348

E\>

148-2

Bb =

222-2

22/19

2 54

E\>

153-6

Bb =

230-4

6/5

316

HYPODORIAN HARMONIA
M.D. 1 6 between maj.
and min.

E =

157-5

B = 2362

16/13

359-i8

LYDIAN HARMONIA
M.D. 13 and 26

E\>

151-26

Bb = 2268

158-5

B =

DORIAN HARMONIA

M.D.

E\>

11
b

DORIAN HARMONIA

M.D. 22
PHRYGIAN M.D. 12
HYPOPHRYGIAN M.D. 1 8 >
HARMONIAI
J
"1

MIXOLYDIAN HARMONIA

13/11

289-3

237-6

26/21

369-6

M.D.

E =
E\>

149-3

Bb =

224

14/12 (7/6)

160

B =

240

150-6

Bb =

225-8

5/4
20/17

164-57

B =

157

B =

267

14

HYPOLYDIAN HARMONIA
M.D. 10 and 20

E =
E\> =

NEO-LYDIAN M.D. 27

E =

ARABIAN LUTE

E =

=
=

386
281-3

246-8

27/21 (9/7) = 435-5

= 9/8 x 8/7

235-6

27/22

355

WOSTA
Neo-Lydian

zalzal's

There

are

on the Tonic

occur in Folk Music

at least

eleven 3rds, major, minor and neuter, which

they range between 254 and 435-5

cents.

may

Fig. 85.

(A)

Flat 4ths in Folk Music.

(B)

The Raised 4th

in Folk

Music

A
Gents

L
V

LYDIAN HARMONIA I3/1O On C

13/10 on g 249-6 v.p.s.

166-4 v.p.s.

= 454S6

162-9 v.p.s.

417-4

471

446

LYDIAN TONOS
)
2l/l6 n
Hyp. Mes. to Mese|
on G 237-6 to 312 v.p.s.

MIXOLYDIAN HARMONIA I4/11 On

14/11 on G 244-36 v.p.s.

A to D

158-5 to 208 v.p.s.

DORIAN HARMONIA 22/17 On C

22/17 on G = 124-2 v.p.s.

165-64 v.p.s.

B
Ori
rigm
in an
and Genesis
enesi

{Vibration frequencies in 4ths

|y a jue j n cents Q f mtervai on Tonic
Cents

Cycle of 5ths ascending the 7th 5th from

C = /# (or transposed to g C$)
:

dorian harm,

ratio

128 v.p.s.
182-24 v.p.s.

6og-i7

176 v.p.s.

551-26

1/8

C =
=

/#

/ =

on

G=C

of 132 v.p.s.
*

hypophrygian harm. 18/13

18/13 on G = 132 9 v.p.s.

i77'23 v.p.s.

561-23

/#

182-85 v.p.s.

617-38

179-9* v.p.s.

596-9

hypolydian harm. 10/7]

Tritone
on G 10/7

137 v.p.s.

fDiminished sth)b,
the 7th 4th
Cycle of 4 ths
(The 4th on the Tonic is always perfect
.

N.B.

gb

In the absence of vibration frequencies

in the notation of Folk Music,

and

of a statement of the method adopted in noting down the phonograms, it would be

unsafe to attempt to determine the question of origin on this characteristic interval
alone
the pentatonic and the extension to heptatonic should be consulted.
The modal keynote should be found strongly emphasized in modal tunes. The
second tetrachord may provide the clue, e.g. in the Hypolydian Harmonia.
:

20

18

16

14

13

* In Phrygian 24/17

374

12

11

1807.

10

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

Modes

Since the Ecclesiastical

moniai one would expect to find in

375

from the later form of the Harthem some trace of the incidence of the

derive

two cardinal pivots.

The Tonic or Final, as distinctive feature of the species, with the
dominant, i.e. the two pivots of the Phrygian Harmonia, loom large in the
canons of the Ecclesiastical Modes
and rightly so, since the Modes owe
their genesis to the change of modality which took place within the P.I.S.,
from Dorian to Phrygian (see Appendix), through the inclusion of Proslambanomenos 1 in the system of the tetrachords. This revolution came
to pass in Hellenistic Asia, in the opening centuries of our era or shortly
;

before.

How

long the two melodic pivots continued to dominate the music of

the Greek

Church

a question that

is

must be solved by more competent

investigators.

THE MODAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HARMONIA IN EARLY MEDIEVAL CHANTS

Let us see how the modal characteristics enumerated above fare in early
The few examples selected, regarded from the angle

medieval chants.

afforded by the Harmonia, throw a light

It is surprising to find in a

upon the

possibilities.

ninth-century Latin treatise evidence of a

knowledge of the Greek Musical System and its Notation applied

The writer, Hucbald, a travelled monk from
to the music of the Liturgy.
the monastery of St. Amand, near Tournai, has not been at pains to furnish
his approach is
a mere rechauffe of the Ancient Greek lore of Boethius
from a different angle. His De Harmonica Institutione 2 is an exposition,
according to his lights, of the theory underlying the Church music of his
day, which he aptly illustrates, here and there, with superscript alphabetical
Greek symbols belonging to the Lydian Tonos
or else in terms of the
degrees of the P.I.S.
In this way he establishes a correct relationship
between the musical system of the Greek Theorists and the Ecclesiastical
Modes in use in the Roman Liturgy, and he makes it quite clear besides
that no other alternative musical system of Western origin had as yet
emerged.
practical

HUCBALD 'S EVIDENCE

Hucbald, making a selection of Antiphons, groups them among the four
by the symbols of Greek Notation as seen
this Notation has unfortunately only survived in the group of the
below
Protus Authentus. The Tonic of this Mode (the D scale of the keyboard)
authentic Modes, accompanied
;

Aristides Quintilianus

is

eloquent on the subject of the function of Proslamas being outside the tetrachords of the P.I.S.,

banomenos among the Ancients,

and of having been included within them

in his day.

Harm., p. 10

M, and

note,

p. 208 sqq.

Published by Martin Gerbert in Script. Eccles. De Musica Sacra

printed at
the monastery of San-Blasius, 1784, Tome 1, pp. 103-22. Gerbert gives as source
of his printed version
Papyraceo bibliothecae Civicae Argentoratensis collate
2

'

cum

MSC

MSC

biblioth. Cesenatensis ord.

Minor Conventualium

'.

THE GREEK AULOS

376

marked by the sign

has been duly placed on Lichanos Hypaton, the

Tonic of the Phrygian Species.

Fig. 86.

The

sths in Folk

Music

Cycle of sths ascending the sths perfect of 702 cents

on
on
Cycle of 4ths ascending.

C =
G =

on

PHRYGIAN

v.p.s. for

C the 5th step

11/7

ratio

1/7

on C = 192
on g = 288

= G#

of ratio 22/15

201 v.p.s.

on C
on g

=
=

13/9

702"

636-5

582-3

6 49

702"

662-8

flat

flat.

268-8 v.p.s.

HYPOPHRYGIAN

Perfect 5th

on Tonic 18/12 on
18/12

Cf. 5th degree

v.p.s.

5th degree, of ratio 16/11

on C = 182 v.p.s.
on g 16/11 = 279-2 v.p.s.

288

C=

192 v.p.s.

v.p.s.

= 10/7 on C = 182-9 v.p.s.

10/7 = 274 v.p.s.
= on C = 189-6 v.p.s.
= 40/27 = 284-4 v.p.s.
20/13 = on C = 196-9 v.p.s.
on G = 20/13 = 295-4 v.p.s.

617-3

Tritone

on G
40/27
on G

The

187-7 v.p.s.

277-2 v.p.s.

HYPODORIAN

HYPOLYDIAN

782-56

184-3 v.p.s.

on C = 179-2
on g = 14/10

G =

Cycle of sths on g)

5th degree, of ratio 14/10 very

in Cycle of 4ths

on

(182-3)

v.p.s.
v.p.s. (cf.

5th degree, of ratio 13/9

MIXOLYDIAN

588

301-6 v.p.s.

Perfect 5th on Tonic

LYDIAN

Cents
702

In the parent Scale (on C) the 5th degree

has G\> of 179-8 v.p.s. flatter than the
Fit 4th of the Cycle of sths

dorian M.D. 11 the 5th degree of

on C
Dorian M.D. 22 on

G
D

192 v.p.s. for

388

group, as sketched, does actually function as

68o-8

8i3S

Mode

as well as

for the 5th, characteristic of the Authentus, starting

Tonos, however
from Lichanos Hypaton and descending to its Plagal on Proslambanomenos,
;

8
9

on
Dorian

9
10

relation

to

Ly-

15

on

rela-

16
10
11

the

in

of

flat

tetrachord

relation

scale

duplicated

the

18

duplicated

in

11

12

of
12

sharp

or

12

is

is

found

10

10

11

11

20
maj.

lei.
01S 000

Tonic

genesis
genesis

Hyperbolaeon

in
13

fiat

Harmonia

Tonic

Synemmenon

5th

15
found

our

16

15 to

the

of

very

whole

whole
Harmonia

or

the

to

Frequently

16/16

Tonic

4th

12

to
The

dian

12

a S>"
&.s n

passing

Genesis

tion

The

q O.

The

cents

cents

c-g

.a
+j

fO

702

JS
10
14/10

c-g

IS

co
to

JS
Si

20

cents

3rd

maj.

ft

M U

0- co

18/12

V1

~*

582-62

very

th

~ s
"

cents

flat

V-j

perfect

663

c e

5th
22/15

4th

c e
e c

flat

origin

co

tj

J3
+j
to

Frequently

O
-,2

Close

18

perfect

702

>,

S3

20/14

4th

4th

4th

cents

cents

J3
3-

(D
-

W
W
*

<0

4th

4th
cents

flat

cents

fit
ft

cents

<a

co
1H

28/21)

c-f

13/10

14/11

16/12

498

V)

K
^

cents

20/15

(perfect

perfect

perfect

454

flat

perfect

498

417-38

very

49<?

Tritone

617-38

IT)

CD

>

or

3rd
3rd

maj.

oh

maj

cents

min.

1/9

cents

6/5

CO

3rd

flattened

316

minor
between

and

cents

7/6

13/"

minor

16/13 '37

59

a
.a

and
between

<o

H
03

2/1
cents
cents

step
I

2nd

\M

d\>

three-quarter

i$i

13/12

'n
\o

a
co
Tf-

_<o

5th

perfect

-5

^>

J>

cents

702

ED

"

" 1

00

co

to

a ^
co8S

tone

~ I

cents

cents

9/8

M <M
H
H

<D

Characteristic

interval

tone

;j

\>o
Cj

138-6

tone

a
M W

co 10

26

Septimal

28g

cents

min.

CO

10/9
204

minor

maj.
J<?2

to
per-

2nd,
aug-

2nd

3rd
tone

cents

degree

and 4th,

cents

9/8

>p
i co
M 0
*

mented

o JS

fect

15/13.

20/16

204

3rd

maj.

jSt)

maj.

Octave

JCi

note

~rs

Key-

Tonic

24

22
or
Harmonia

or

11

12

13

16

14

HYPOPHRYGIAN

18

HYPODORIAN

20
HYPOLYDIAN

MIXOLYDIAN

PHRYGIAN

DORIAN

....

LYDIAN

M.D.

M.D.

M.D.

M.D.

377

M.D.

M.D.

M.D.

THE GREEK AULOS

378
is

given within

Tonos

in the

The

its

own

of the

octave, as was the case with the Dorian Harmonia

Graeco-Roman Theorists.

scheme, in short, bears the impress of the conversion of the P.I.S.

from the Dorian Harmonia to the Phrygian. The letterpress (p. 119a and b)
shows that Hucbald has accepted the revolution which acclaimed Lichanos
Hypaton, instead of Hypate Meson, as Tonic of the Protus Authentus, and
moreover, he has grasped the interrelation of authentic and plagal as
inherent in the Tonos.
Quatuor modis vel tropis, quos nunc Tonos dicunt,'
and that is why he introduces the scheme thus
Et autento quidem proto
et plagiis ipsius hae aptantur octavae, a quibus mela ordiri hoc ordine
pervidebis
(p. 120a and b).
Hucbald likewise recognizes, through the P.I.S. the double course of
the Tritus authentus with Tonic on Parhypate Meson (Hypolydian), through
Synemmenon with a perfect 4th, or through Paramese with the tritone
and he illustrates the mixture of the two tetrachords as used in the same
Antiphons (pp. 11 3-14) and introits
a point which has puzzled many
'

'

'

later Theorists.

Codex xxxi from the Library of the Ancient Spanish Cathedral of

Vich (Auson), photographed by M. Sablayrolles, 1 yields two examples.
The Codex contains a prose in honour of St. Thomas a Becket martyred in
1 170, which limits the age of the manuscript to the end of the twelfth century.
In the Epistola In Natale Domini on a four-lined stave, C clef on 4th
'

'

we

line,

find a long chant (30 lines).

The modality

is

revealed

by the

figure /, g, e, e, d, used more than twenty times as close before a double bar.
This figure comprises the first tetrachord of the Authentus Protus derived

from the Phrygian Harmonia, moreover, the minor triad d, f, a, rises four
times from the Tonic, as well as the octave leap D-d. There is, however,
no special emphasis on the dominant A as keynote. Towards the end, the
surprisingly modern phrase of the 7th c, e, g, b\>, occurs twice as though to
mark the march of time, and the infusion of new ideas into the ancient
canons of the Harmonia.
Another noticeable tendency, due to the character of this example as
Epistola, is the repetition of notes of the same pitch and value, some 14, 10
This, then, is an example of the D scale or Phrygian in which
or 7 times.
the second modal pivot
the keynote
is not stressed as such.
A second chant from the same MS. xxxi, contained also in the older

MS.

the Epistola, a Paschal Trope,

In die
Sco Paschae (pp. 229-31). This chant presents innumerable closes in the
Hypolydian Harmonia consisting of the major 3rd on the Tonic F, and
this major 3rd F-A is used melodically besides in almost every phrase,
cxi,

of the eleventh century,

'

is

'

as well as the perfect 4th F-B\y.

MS.

In

is

xxxi, folio 30,

we

note a Processional Trope with numerous

on A, G, in orthodox Hypophrygian

closes

B%
A

Style,

but the 3rd on the Tonic

which denotes the bastard Harmonia 18/18,

Recherche des MSS. Gregoriens Espagnols

Jan.-March, 1912, pp. 235 sqq.
1

'

la

',

16,

the

*g} 2 7>

I.M.G., Year

xiii,

Pt.

ii,

a
G
o
JS

o
a
o

U f5

a
S

T3

\0

3
-a
;s

M
00

1)
r*

3 N

Dom

O
S5

O
H

1)

C
o
,c

<

3
PS

379

fl K
K

a>

O O

4)

6 8

THE GREEK AULOS

380

43$ cents, and the perfect instead of raised 4th, all of which may
9/7 3rd
be traced in the P.I.S., when the Hypophrygian Species passed from Mese
to Diezeugmenon omitting Synenmenon.
Since no precise indications
of

shades of intonation are given in these

reading

is

manuscripts, this

liturgical

merely conjectural, but founded upon the basic system of the

Harmonia.
SURVIVAL OF

MODAL PIVOTS

It is interesting at this

modal pivots

IN EARLY MEDIEVAL LITURGICAL CHANTS

point to obtain confirmation of the survival of the

from an unexpected
through the ingenious diagnosis of Dr. W. H.
pivots of the ancient Harmonia strike a shrewd
and learned observer, as he traces them in statu quo, and in transition in
sacred, secular and Folk Music.
In his interesting paper, he unfolds his
theory of this musical phenomenon as an early manifestation of changes of

source

Frere

in liturgical chants of the thirteenth century

viz.

how

to observe

these

unknown

related keys within the

same chant.

Dr. Frere distinguishes the following types of key-relationships

modal

pivots)

identified by k.

Dr. Frere
(1)
(2)

(3)
(4)

(5)

(i.e.

Tonic and Subdominant

Maj. and Relative Min.
Tonic and Sub Tonic
Tonic and Dominant
Tonic and Mediant

s.

as

Phrygian and hypodorian harmonia.

hypophrygian in true or in bastard form.
hypophrygian harmonia.
Phrygian characteristic but in transitional
hypolydian.

use.

While it is beyond doubt that these observed types have sprung directly
from the modal pivots of the several Harmoniai, it must be left to others,
more competent on this ground, to decide whether changes of key in the
modern sense were actually involved, i.e. whether the two pivots were
invested by the early medieval musicians with the functions of two separate
tonics or finals.
In the case of Types 1 and 4 involving subdominant and
dominant, the treatment of these as related keys may easily spring from
the duplication of the first tetrachord, either conjunct on the subdominant,
or disjunct on the dominant, quite irrespective of modal pivots, which in
those scales of duplicated tetrachords are shelved, unless they occur in the
first

Hypophrygian and Hypolydian Harmoniai, an

account for their survival during the early Middle

tetrachord, e.g. in the

occurrence which

may

Ages in Ecclesiastical Music, and of

growth of polyphony and harmony.

their gradual disappearance with the

It

would be interesting to discover

latter two Modes, the emphasis
upper tetrachord, as in two of

whether, in the case of duplication in the

on the pivots is likewise duplicated

the examples given above.

in the

THE ERA OF POLYPHONIC MUSIC HERALDS THE WANE OF THE HARMONIA IN

LITURGICAL CHANTS

The dawn
for the
1

of the era of polyphony heralds the waning of the true feeling

Harmonia

in Ecclesiastical Music.

The two

Key-Relationships in Early Mediaeval Music

March, 1912, pp. 250 sqq.
'

',

pivots of the melos

I.M.G. Smbd.

xiii,

Jan. to

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

381

may

certainly still be traced, wandering here and there among spread triads
and 7ths, but they are halting and hesitant. In fact, the two pivots, instead
of forming a common bond emphasizing modality, tend to separate and to
engage in individual spheres of interest.
Dr. Frere states that the commonest key-relationship in early medieval
music is that of Tonic and Sub-Tonic (i.e. the two Hypophrygian cardinal
points,

Tonic and keynote

in evidence

when
The

the

first

K.

This relationship was found already

Music into classical Plain-Song

S.).

irruption of Folk

conspicuous in thirteenth-century compositions

of non-liturgical melodies, such as those known as
conductus '.
took place.

device

is

'

The

process of transformation from mere shadows of modal pivots into

stereotyped figures, used in and out of closes and cadences as aids to composition,

may be

observed in

MS.

xxxi of the Vich Codex.

From

a casual

glance at the three liturgical chants cited above, one would feel inclined to

diagnose the

Mode

Hypophrygian on account of the step of a major tone

as

up and down.
In the Epistola the Mode is finally revealed as Phrygian or D Mode
through the leaps to the dominant and the repeated use of the first tetrachord
as close.

In the Paschal Trope, in the F Mode, the two modal pivots,

are

and

is

at a

major 3rd,

F G A F F

accompanied by the step of a tone thus

A F
in the upper tetrachord, conjunct on B\>, there
CB]> used many times.

a melodic imitation

In the Processional, in the G Mode, A G G

accompanied by

G F G and as
cadence a leap to the dominant G D
followed by
DD D E D C on Puer Natus
obvious that nothing but a

Bfy

is

final

is

'

'.

It is

thorough knowledge of the Harmonia, and its principles, will clear the
ground of all the misconceptions which have grown intertwined in the
Ecclesiastical

Modes

essential differences

Greek and Roman Churches. When the

between Modes and Species receive practical

of the early

which

exist

recognition, a revision of the nomenclature of the Ecclesiastical

Modes

will

At present the nomenclature allows a tetrachord of the

S.T.T. to masquerade as Phrygian, and one of T.S.T. as
Dorian, with all their implications. Moreover, the purely functional and
incidental nature of Authentic and Plagal will lead to the disappearance of
be undertaken.
structure

these terms.
*

Reviewing evidence of the survival of the Harmonia in theory and

practice through the centuries, we may recall the set of 1 5 flutes with equidistant fingerholes, described by Sarangdev in the Ratnakara, a thirteenthcentury history of the Drama (see Chap. vii).
One of these, No. 12, on
examination of the measurements given, indicated the Hypolydian Harmonia
and as the flutes were graded, they could not fail to yield precise indications
of the other Harmoniai. 1
;

1
Traces of a further survival of the Harmoniai from those early days will be
found further on.

THE GREEK AULOS

38a

The same century in Europe provides evidence of paramount importance

concerning the Harmonia, found in a document known as the Harmonic
Canon of Florence, which is included in a Codex of the thirteenth century. 1
This Canon contains a description of the division of a monochord into
The value of the Canon of Florence is unique as an
connexion that exists between the modal division
by equal measure and the Systema Teleion Ametabolon (the P.I.S.) of
Ancient Greek Music. The manuscript also provides the only known
example of the practical use of the Onomasiai Kata Thesin and Kata Dynamin,
first introduced in those terms by Ptolemy. 2
The division of the Canon
by M.D. 28 suggests the Mixolydian Harmonia, but it is expressly stated in
the opening lines that the whole series is dependent upon Proslambanomenos
as 28
the modal octave from Hypate Meson, therefore, begins on ratio 20
and is Hypolydian. As the nomenclature according to the P.I.S. of each
segment is expressly stated, there is no possible doubt as to the identity of
the modal sequence which the scheme entails.
The provenance of the
ancient original manuscript of which the Canon of Florence is a thirteenthcentury copy, remains obscure.
In my opinion it is the work of two distinct
authors
the one dealing with a division into 28 equal segments
the
second with a division into 24 segments, both based upon Proslambanomenos.
28 equal segments.

illustration of the intimate

Meanwhile a third, a scribe, has amused himself by applying the ditonal

scale, tant Men que mal to the segments, thus, of course, entailing fractions
of segments with which he juggles with evident delight.
The peculiar significance of an aliquot division by a Modal Determinant
is that it tells its own tale, and can afford to disregard with complacency
all

such well-meaning but erroneous deductions. 3

This Canon suggests a brief review of references to the monochord which
Gaudentius states that Pythagoras divided the

bear upon our subject.

Canon

of his

that this

monochord

into twelve equal parts, 4 to

produced the Phrygian Harmonia of M.D.

Ptolemy's tetrachord Homalon,

viz.

x
X
10
11

which we may add

12,

the origin of

5
.

Cod. Graeci, Plut. Ivi, xiii in the Bibl. Laur. Medicea. See also Chap. v.
Harm., Lib. ii, Cap. xi. See also fn. 6 on the two pivots.
Re the two modal pivots. The relative positions of the two notes in the octave
eldrj are referred by Ptolemy {Harm., Lib. ii, Cap. xi) to the Onomasiai Kata Thesin
and Kata Dynamin. Hypate Meson is regarded as the common Tonic or initial
note of all the Species, Kata Thesin. The Mese, Kata Dynamin of each species,
is given the position of the real keynote, so many degrees above the Tonic, Hyp.
Mes.
thus, the Hypophrygian Mese, Kata Dynamin, is placed by Ptolemy on
Parh. Mes., i.e. on the 2nd degree of the octave species (which agrees with the
principles of the Harmonia according to K. S.).
These terms are sometimes considered to be confusing, but all difficulties disappear when the two terms are used in relation to the eight-stringed Kithara
Kata
Thesin represents the naming of the strings, as in the Meson and Diezeugmenon
tetrachords, Kata Dynamin represents the Harmonia to which the strings are tuned
by ratios, and recognized by the ear. (See in this connexion the Canon of Florence,
Chap, v.)
5
1
Harm. Eisagoge, p. 14 M.
Harm., Lib. ii, Cap. xvi.
2
3

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

Thrasyllus of Rhodes

is

recorded by

Theo

of

Smyrna

383

to have used the

same

division of the canon (ed. Hiller, p. 47).

From Arabian sources there is a description by Safi-ed-Din of this

same
1
(thirteenth century).
Still later comes the scheme of the division
monochord into forty-eight equal parts, published by Michael Praetorius. 2
The names of the notes corresponding to the numbered segments, although
division

of a

not carried out in extenso, are correctly allocated on

notes, a fact

which

testifies to

all

the characteristic

the familiarity of the original author of the

sketch with the genesis of the Phrygian

Harmonia

(not identified

on the

One may search in vain in the text of Praetorius for further information
concerning this precious evidence of the survival of the Phrygian Harmonia
plate)

Enharmonic Genus.

in the

Praetorius

is

greatly embarrassed,

to the subject in several places, but postpones the explanation

later if

God

will

'.

'

and refers
To be given-

The Phrygian
of Ptolemy,

is

tetrachord, 12/11 X 11/10 X 10/9 =4/3, the Homalon

considered at length in the treatise of George Pachymeres

on the Four Mathematical Sciences (or Quadrivium)

on pp. 507 sqq., and passim. 1
Pachymeres states that the best manner of using the monochord is by
a division into equal parts (p. 496) by means of a compass.
The evident
partiality exhibited in theory and practice for the Phrygian Harmonia is no
doubt due to its pure consonances of 4th and 5th, and to its minor 3rd on
the Tonic. Evidence has already been adduced elsewhere of the continued
(thirteenth century)

use as late as 1870 of the

the Greek

Homalon tetrachord,

duplicated, in the practice of

Church in Asia Minor, on the authority

brief reminiscent reference

of Tzetzes (op.

seems to be called for

cit.,

passim).

at this point to the

schemes published in the early sixteenth-century German treatises of

Sebastian Virdung, 151 1 (op. cit.), and of Martin Agricola, 1528 (op. cit.)
(see Chap, vii), in which flutes, bored for a Modal Scale, are brought into
line with the keyboard scales of the Ecclesiastical Modes by means of cross-

flute

fingering accurately described in detail.

The

writers display a very

petent knowledge of the technique of various flutes

The

com-

fipple and side-blown.

opening and closing the fingerholes corresponds accurately

with the resulting change from the modality (of flutes with equidistant
fingerholes) to one or other of the scales of the Ecclesiastical Modes.
effect of

CROSS-FINGERING

ON THE FLUTE

AS EVIDENCE OF THE SURVIVAL OF THE HAR-

MONIA IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

flute,

bored to give the Ancient Greek Dorian Harmonia,

is,

for

example, converted by cross-fingering to one playing the Authentic Deuterus,

1

he

Traite des Rapports musicaux, ou I'Epitre a Scharaf ed-Din,

par Safi-ed-Din,

M. le Baron Carra de Vaux (Paris, 1891). Division of string by 13, pp. 16 sqq.
2
Syntagma II Teil. Von den Instrumenten (Wolfenbuttel, 161 8), Theatrum
Instrumentorum, Taf. xxxix, ref. p. 71.
3
This pious hope was not realized, as far as my research goes, in his works or
in those of his predecessors.
4
A. J. H. Vincent, Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits de la Bibl. du Roi (Paris,

par

1847),

Tome

xvi, pp. 471 sqq., pp.

506 sqq.

THE GREEK AULOS

384

corresponding to the Dorian Species of the Graeco-Roman theorists.

Another specimen in the Hypolydian Harmonia of M.D. 20 (the Harmoniai
are diagnosed by K. S.) is changed by Agricola's skill into one that plays
in what may be recognized as the Authentus Protus, the Phrygian Species
of the Greek theorists. A Hypophrygian flute of M.D. 18 is converted into
one playing in the Tonus Secundus and so on. 1
Virdung 2 gives, at the end of his little treatise, full instructions in the
text for cross-fingering and for half-closing fingerholes, and he prints two
schemes, both of which undoubtedly relate to a Dorian Harmonia, converted
into scales of tones and semitones only the first by cross-fingering, the
second by half-covering certain holes to lower the pitch.
These quotations from the earliest German Musical Treatises reveal by
unmistakable implications the nature of the music of the Folk, in which

the survival of the

Harmonia

in the first half of the sixteenth century

is

clearly indicated.

On

the one hand, the Ecclesiastical Music in the

Modes adapted

to the

keyboard scale of tones and semitones of organs, harpsichords, clavichords

and stringed instruments with fretted necks, held sway in Church and State.
On the other hand, the Folk danced and sang to the music of the Harmonia,
played on the Schalmey, Shawm, Pommer and oaten pipe on Recorders
;

and

Flutes,

innocent of

accompanied by stringed instruments with finger-boards

and on the Sackbuts, Cromornes and Cornets of Town

frets,

Bands.

In the meanwhile, theorists were busy finding means of compromise

which would bridge the gaps between the two systems. We may now
proceed to give results of the identification of the Harmonia in the music
of the Folk.

THE DORIAN HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

EVIDENCE FROM THE INCAS OF PERU

The testimony of Virdung as evidence of the survival of the Dorian

Harmonia among the Folk up to the beginning of the sixteenth century may
be followed up by other examples of the use of this Harmonia among the
Folk of various nations.

From a volume devoted to the music of the Incas of Peru, 3 we shall

quote passages from a beautiful Hymn to the Sun appropriately sung by
Indians, descendants of the Incas, who styled themselves Children of the
'

'

'

Sun

This invocation to the Sun- God was sung in unison by a group

of Indians in the mountains of Huanuco (Peru).
The authors of this fine
volume disclaim any responsibility for the notation of the song, which was
communicated to them by a member of a French religious order in Callao
who had received it from M. A. Robles.
'.

See Chap, vii and on cross-fingering, with full refs.

Musica getutscht und Auszgezogen durch Sebastianum Virdung Priesters von
(Basel, 1511).
An edition of 200 copies in a Facsimile Reproduction was
published by Rob. Eitner for the Ges. f. Musikforschung, Bd. xi (Berlin, 1882).
2

Amberg
3

See d'Harcourt, op.

cit.

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

The

scale of the notes

used in the

the higher octave of the notes

Ratios

by K.

11/11

S.

hymn

385

the following, together with

is

8\

12

13

11

16J
#

The

No

as ratio

would be a sharpened G.

13

indications of the shades of intonation are given

which

ever, bears inherent evidence of its modality,

1

the

Fig.

89.

on the two Kena's

notched

the song
is

how-

itself,

confirmed by the

on
which the Hymn is playable from Hole 1 as vent with the help of the Harmonic register the high G as ratio 13 is obtained by overblowing an octave
from the exit fundamental.
scales

vertical

flutes of the Incas

AA, Sumak Kanlakchaska

'

Hymn

Line

Sun

to the

Collected by

'.

No. 10

Mr. A.

(op. cit. p.

'

Robles,

from Huanuco, Peru

247)

Line 2

Kay nl-mi

The Hymn

tu-kuy

wa

way

ki

begins with the leap from the Tonic

ku-na

ha-wa

to the raised 4th

as

(ratio 11/8, 551 cents), characteristic of the Dorian Harmonia, sung

twice impressively, and with a close on the keynote, to the words which

keynote

form the
and as a

title

of the

Hymn.

The

leap occurs twice again in lines 2

and 4

final cadence.

Dorian Harmonia (No. 198, pp. 523-4)

selected from this fine collection, was played on the Kena (flute) by an
Indian from the Highlands of the Peruvian province of Candarave, while
herding llamas.
1

pastoral

in

the

Record of Flute Inca No. 12, with six fingerholes bored

wherein the unusual features of the scale are explained.

Cf. Chap, x,

distances,

melody

25

at

equal

THE GREEK AULOS

386

THE SCALE OF THE DORIAN HARMONIA OF M.D.

AS PENT ATONIC
Fig. 90.

Pastoral

II

ERRONEOUSLY DIAGNOSED

(No. 195) played by Kapakuti on the Kena.

de Totora, Peru

Hacienda

librement

Tr'es

11

Last
line

The

used in the song

scale of notes

Tonic E. Keynote A.
E
Ratios and
11/11
(by K. S.)

Notes G, A,

At
ever, a

first

Cents

348

and

is

the following

ii/ii

would

231
267
151
204
be raised by superscript sharps.

all

sight the scale appears to belong to the Pentatonic

Modal

note of Hole

The

Scale.

1,

interval

between the

exit

frequently approximating to a 3rd,

accidentally, true to ratio

is

it is,

how-

fundamental and the

but rarely, and then

the reason being the intricate nature of the

formula for determining the position of Hole 1 hence the practice commonly
followed by flute-makers of discarding the exit note and using Hole 1 as
,

used as vent and never closed. Investigators

who pick up one of these primitive modal flutes, not being aware of this
fact, frequently assume that the scale begins with the interval of a 3rd, and
when they find another interval of a 3rd between two consecutive holes
further up in the scale as above between B and D, of a septimal 3rd they
Tonic, in which case,

it

is

enough consider their diagnosis of Pentatonic confirmed.

This simple flute tune, played by a llama shepherd of Peru, is an instance
of a Pentatonic arising naturally from the boring of fingerholes in obedience
to the progression of ratios initiated by the Modal Determinant 11.
It is a matter for regret that the authors of this volume on the music of
the Incas purposely abstained from giving exact values in the intonation of
songs and flute tunes, holding firmly to their belief that the Pentatonic scale
of tones and semitones and a heptatonic of similar structure formed the
No measurements of flutes are given,
basis of the Folk Music of the Incas.
but from the photographic plates it is evident that the Kenas have equicould
not
therefore
have produced the intervals
distant fingerholes, and
attributed to them.

naturally

EVIDENCE FROM HINDOSTAN, HUNGARY AND RUMANIA

Diary of Mr. A. H. Fox Strangways 1 in The

Music of Hindostan contains many examples of Folk Tunes suggestive of the

The

delightful Musical

The Music of Hindostan, by A. H. Fox Strangways (Oxford at the Clarendon

It must not be inferred that the author is in agreement with K. S.
:

Press, 1914).

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

387

Harmonia, e.g. No. 6, p. 21, in which on a Tonic G, C and d, with superscript

sharps, imply a raised 4th and 5th, the functions of which may be interpreted
thus

Ratios K. S.

11/11

10/11
182

^i6f~

Cents

11/7=
1

1/8

9/1

C
8/1

7/1

204

231

(doubly sharpened)

dorian harmonia of

782 cents

=55'

A and B would
require superscript flats for an accurate identification.
It may be
added that unless otherwise specified, the tunes (including No. 6) were taken
down by ear.
Turning now to Bela Bartok's collections of Folk Music, a somewhat
rare example of the duplication of the first tetrachord of the Dorian Harmonia
on the 4th occurs among the Rumanian folk of the Maramuros (a province
of Eastern Hungary separated from Galicia by the Carpathians). 1 The
author categorically disclaims the practice of the repetition of the augmented
2nd in the 2nd. half of the scale in Hungarian Folk Music, 2 although it is
common among the Rumanians this is an implicit stricture against the
duplication of tetrachords, ergo
the Hungarians favour the octave Harmonia, whereas the Rumanians might be credited with a partiality for the
In addition to the superscripts supplied by the author, the
also

musical practices of the Orient.

The

shades of intonation in this volume are represented by accidentals

divided by two, thus

tone, this

No.

is

%/z,

when

the intonation approximates to a quarter-

better than nothing, but

where modal

ceptions,

is still

too vague to exclude miscon-

characteristics are not unmistakable.

and

53c, p. 40, has the following scale

signature.

Rumanen von Maramures, by Bela Bartok (Munich,

Scale, ratios
and cents

by K.

S.

ii/ii
165"

ii/&=

The

182
55i

1st tetrachord of the

Our example

(See Volksmusik der

No.

1923),

53c, p. 40.)

ii/ii

204'

165"
11/8

182
55i

204

0
I

Harmonia would require Afr/z

g8

as well as Bfy/z,

(N.B. The B is flattened to the

Should there be any doubt felt about the
identification of the tune as Dorian of M.D. 11, on the strength of the raised
4th, since Hypophrygian and Hypolydian characteristics both include a

otherwise the identification

is

perfect.

extent of a quarter-tone only.)

1
Among the flutes in my collection is No. 3 from the Carpathians, presented
by Mr. George Kaufmann, M.A., bored for the Dorian of M.D. 11, i.e. the scale
of the song of which the closing line is quoted in Fig. 91.
2
See Hungarian Folk Music, pp. 54-55.

THE GREEK AULOS

3 88

They

raised 4th, the closes settle the point without appeal.

are neither

Hypophrygian nor Hypolydian, but Dorian. The last note of line i, the
Tonic G, leads up by a slide to the keynote C#/2, in line 2, to drop down
at the end of the bar to the Tonic
this is repeated in line 3, and in variant
;

Fig.

91.Rumanian Folk Song from

the Maramuros, No. 53c

(Collected by Bila Bartok {op.

Line
and

p. 40)

2, last bar
last line

Gan-de^

dn- na

No.

cit.

5 as a final cadence.

cadence to

is

ti,

ea-te-a

du-na

van

tu,

Gan-de^

ti,

ca-te

van

The

down from

slide

the Tonic in this final

merely to give an octave slide up to start the 2nd verse.

cit., p. 145) is another example of the survival or rebirth

No. 172 {op.

of the Dorian Harmonia embodied in the fluer
a Apple flute from 30 to
40 cm. in length with 6 equidistant fingerholes.
The fundamental of this specimen is evidently C
the signature is
given as B\?/z, F$/z
the harmonic register is extensively used.
The final
cadence does not introduce the keynote F$/2, but instead the D of the
characteristic 2nd step.
The tune is playable on a Dorian flute of M.D. 11.
It is a far cry from Rumania to the South Islands of New Mecklenburg. 1
Nevertheless, we recognize in the music of those remote islands the same
language of music, e.g. in No. iii, Hornbostel prints a tune from Lamassa
entitled
Magical Invocation for Rain with a range of a 7th thus
'

',

'

'

EVIDENCE

FROM NEW MECKLENBURG, TURKEY AND THE JEWS OF THE YEMEN

No. in from Lamassa,

S. Islands

of

New Mecklenburg

Panpipe Sequence (from the Dorian Harmonia)

The
v.f.

E.M.H.

K. S. and Ratios,
Dorian Harm.

217-5

3 00
299
8/1 1

348

405
406

217-5

v.f.

Scale

u/n

Cents

S5i

343
7/1 1
231

6/1

derived

Dorian
of

from
the
Harmonia

M.D.

11

z6f

Hornbostel obtained the scale from a phonographic record of natives

Other scales from the same source, given with the

playing on Panpipes.

modal in the Hypodorian, Mixolydian, Hypophrygian (two

and Phrygian Harmoniai. Needless to say, this scale could not
on the Panpipe. It is a flute scale, such as might be produced

tunes, are also

items)

originate

on

a long pipe having but three equidistant fingerholes, the first at a long

distance

from

exit
1

or from a flute having five fingerholes, bored at equal

See Hornb., 1922, Vergl. Mus., pp. 356-8.

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

389

on which the scale would be played from exit, Holes 3, 4 and 5.

from one pivot to the other, viz. down from D to A, occurs three
times in the tune and the closes are all on the keynote D.
In the same volume, Hornbostel 1 presents among phonographic records
of Turkish Folk Music, No. 1, which is in the Dorian Harmonia (K. S.).
distances,

The

leap

The Scale
v.f.

E.M.H.

K. S.
Dorian Har.
v.f.

M.D.

Tune No.

of Turkish

302
302

333

354

4io

455

351

415

4563

58
507

550

332-2

22/22

20/22

553

22

Ratios K.S.

19/22

and

l6/22
fl6/22
18/22
20/22
Duplicated first Tetra22/22
chord

N.B.

The

4th from

to

(if

correctly translated

from the record)

ratio n/8 and the perfect 4th 4/3.

Idelsohn's phonographic records No. 11 67, p. 85, 2

between the

lies

From
following

we quote

the

Scale used in a Prayer Chant of the Jews of the Yemen

Range, a Sixth
Idelsohn's

Modal

v.f.

5i5

25T5

620
310

702
35i

762
381

801
400-5

note 515)

256
22/22

312-5

352
16/22

375
15/22

401-5

18/22

v.f.

(octaves)

and

Ratios K. S.

Cents

1/9

348

204

(reciting

14/22

119-4"

The four Brazilian Panpipes which play the scale of the Dorian Harmonia
and the Xylophone from Burma (given in full in Hornbostel's Tables) may
be recalled at this point as well as the Elgin Auloi, the Bucheum GraecoRoman Flute, the Bali, and two Java flutes, and the Mond flute from Sicily,
and my Agariche (Peru-Bolivia). These all constitute evidence of the
3
survival or rebirth of the Dorian Harmonia among the Folk.
THE LYD IAN HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

The Lydian Harmonia of Ancient Greece originally had as Modal

Determinant 26. During the development of the Systema Teleion Ametabolon the Perfect Immutable System (P.I.S.) the Determinant was
lowered in pitch to 27, a change signalized by the tetrachords ascribed to
In the
Archytas, which began in all three genera with the ratio 28/27.

M. Hornbostel and O. Abrahams, op. ext., pp. 241 sqq.

See A. Z. Idelsohn, Gesange der Jemenischen Juden (Leipzig, 1914). Although
agreement, it cannot be claimed that the Dorian modal canons are
observed in this example.
3
See also Dr. Jaap Kunst's Tables of Results of personal investigation in Java,
Indonesia, &c, and the modem shepherd flute from Nauplia, Greece, in Prof.
Daj'ton C. Miller's collection (Chap, x, Record Nauplia).
1

E.

the

v.fs. are in

THE GREEK AULOS

390

system of the Harmonia, which

I suggest was the origin of the P.I.S., the

28/27 i s found between Hypate and Parhypate Hypaton, so that the
Lydian Species begins on ratio 27. There is evidence of the use of both
Determinants 26 and 27 27, however, is more especially traced to Hellenistic
Asia and the Alexandrian culture, and it was followed also by the Eastern
Arabs and perhaps also by the Persians (e.g. see Zalzal's Wosta of ratio

ratio

The characteristic modal interval of a 6th of ratio 13/8 of the

Lydian Harmonia forms a striking close (even when the Tonic is flattened
a quarter-tone) of which Tune No. 49 (p. 206) of Henebry's collection is a
truly remarkable and clear example, current everywhere in the Irish portions
The song is transposed to G, and the author is greatly
of Waterford
disturbed by the behaviour of the C, the intonation of which varies between
C and C# with M.D. 27, the C should be a comma sharper than the
27/22).

'

'.

perfect 4th f^L

x -

The two

closes

on J?

['

EEE and one on

an octave lower as keynote, together with the initial and

Tonic, indicate the Mode as Lydian. The scale is the following
Ratios and Cents

by K.

final

as

S.

Henebry's Collection

182

No reason can be advanced, so cogent as the modal keynote provides, for the
emphatic closes on E in the key of G.
The Tunes from

the Ring Promontory, 1 south-east of Dungarvan,

more specimens

(see Nos. 95 [vi] and 99 [x]) in which the charLydian interval of a 6th on the Tonic is indicated, not only in
and as modal pivots, but also by the vibration frequencies of the
phonograms with which, in most instances, the staff notation is entirely at
variance.
The Tune No. 99 is a fine example of the survival, not only of
the notes and intervals of the Modal Scale, but also of the inherent feeling
for the modal pivots
the Tonic G is emphasized eleven times and the

furnish two
acteristic

closes

keynote

of 410-5,

nine times

is strictly

moreover, in line

the

of a vibration frequency

in the ratio 13/8 to the keynote of 667-5 v.p.s.

THE PHRYGIAN HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

This Harmonia has remained a favourite in many lands, e.g. in Java, in
New Mecklenburg, in Turkey, in Mohammedan countries
among the Incas and Hebrews.
The modal pivots, the perfect 4th and 5th, as well as the minor 3rd on

Asia Minor, in
generally and

Phonographic records of these were taken, and forwarded to Dr. von Hornand

bostel for tonometric examination so that the v.f.s of the notes are indicated,

the values of intervals given in cents while

Henebry

is

responsible for the notation.

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

the Tonic, are also those of our

Mode

minor

Mode and

391

of the Ecclesiastical

erroneously called Dorian even at the present day, thus perpetuating

the blunder of Glareanus.

The one

decisive feature in

its

pure octave form of Determinant 12

septimal 3rd between the 6th and 7th degrees

the

the

is

latter as octave of the

Tonic.

The same interval occurs also as a distinguishing

Harmonia of M.D. 11, but between the 5th and 6th

feature in the Dorian

degrees.

The

three-

quarter tone 12/11 (151) on the Tonic of the Phrygian Harmonia, which
divides the

minor

3rd, can only

be identified with certainty when vibration

frequencies are available.

A scale identified as that of the Phrygian Harmonia is cited by Idelsohn

Mode of the Synagogue Melodies allotted to recitations
from the Prophets, Lamentations, Esther and the Psalms
the statement
is borne out by the vibration frequencies of the phonographic records of
the Persian Jews from the Book of Esther, sung to the reciting notes
as the traditional

326

v.f.

Josef Singer

(p.

i.e.

11/10
11)

the opening notes of the Phrygian

Harmonia

394

355

12/11

(see

Idelsoln,

op.

cit.,

p. 99, PI. 2127)

names the Mogen Awaus

C DE\> F G

K.

A\>

B\>

one of the three oldest Modes used in

the traditional songs of the Synagogue, and gives a melody No. 20 in
Neginoth in the Mode Mogen Owaus (he gives both spellings) for the
Book Esther, in which the minor 3rd on the Tonic and the two modal pivots
are used with great emphasis (see Tunes Nos. 15, 16, 21).
(or Phrygian conjunct-

S.) as

'

'

Henebry senses

modal unit of Tonic and

any well-established concept

a definite potency in the

Dominant, but without being able

to suggest

to explain the force of this connexion (see pp. 70-1, op. cit.).
When we turn to Turkish phonograms 2 we find two tunes in the

Phrygian Harmonia in both, modality is definitely and strongly emphasized.

For No. ii, the scale given by the record is the following
;

Scale of Turkish Song No.

II

(Phrygian Harmonia)

E.

M.

v.

H.
258-5

Phrygian
ratios (K.
1

v.f.

S.)

274-5

256 279-2
24/24 22

307
307
20

337
341
18

35S
361
17

3S7
384

420
410

16

15

465
472-8
13

521
512

548
558

613
614

12

11

10

Die Tonarten d. Traditionellen Synagogengesdnges (Steiger) (Wien, 1886).

2
Phonographierte Tiirkische Melodien ', von O. Abraham and E. von Hornbostel, first published in Zts. f. Ethnologie, 36, 1904, reprinted in Abh. z. Vergl.
Musikwissenschaft, Vol. i, 1922, pp. 233-50. Twenty songs with scale of notes
used and v.f.s.
'

THE GREEK AULOS

392

The agreement between

the recorded notes and the modal values was closer

Hypophrygian Harmonia, 1 but the tune itself did not bear out the
modal pivots and characteristic intervals, which are emphatically Phrygian,
with closes on Tonic and sub-dominant, a strongly stressed dominant
throughout, and a final cadence descending through the lower tetrachord
for the

to the Tonic.

EVIDENCE FROM SYNAGOGUE CHANTS, FROM NEW MECKLENBURG, RUMANIA,

THE PAWNEES, PERU, AND SUMATRA OF THE HYPOPHRYGIAN HARMONIA
IN FOLK MUSIC

Turning again

to Jos. Singer's

Synagogue Songs, we find examples of

Harmonia which

the Hypophrygian

display the characteristic leap to the

sharpened 4th 18/13 and the distinctive 15/13 augmented 2nd, notably
No. 7, which ends the following cadence, to which are added ratios by K. S.

Synagogue Song, No.

(Pismon Jisroel Noscha No.

7,

Joseph Singer

7)

last line

18

10

The modal

11 12 13

pivots are

Augmented 2nd

db to

18,

18

13

13

13

16

15

18

16

Tonic.

16, keynote.

= 15/13.
= B\? to

Raised 4th on Tonic 18/13

The

16 18

15

B\) =
C=

E.

phrase of Song No. 12, also strongly emphasizes the Hypophrygian modal pivots, and the last line quoted ends with the leap to the
sharp 4th followed by a return to the keynote through the augmented 2nd.
first

Nos. 14 and 23 are other examples of the use of this Harmonia.

Among the Panpipe tunes and songs reproduced from phonographic
records from New Mecklenburg, 2 there is a melody for the Sun festival
dance in King sung by a man who used alternately chest and falsetto
registers.

The

v.f.s

and

ratios of the

Hypophrygian Harmonia may be compared with

those of the Phrygian.

258-5

2737

310

e
332-7

18/18
2
E.

17

15

14

M. von

/#

358

387-7
12

422

464-5
10

13

11

b
516
9

548

620

17

15

Hornbostel, Notiz iiber die Musik der Bewohner von Sud-NeuMecklenburg ; published in Smb. f. Vergl. Musikwissenschaft, ed. by Carl Stumpf
and E. M. von Hornbostel, Bd. 1 (Munich, 1922), pp. 351 sqq., with illus. of Pan'

pipes.

'

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

Sun Festival Dance

The

M.

v.

N.B.

(227-8)

V.f.s of the

B
I

by K.

* 4/3

240-5

(275

309

Hypophrygian Harmonia on

367

411

481

(455-6)

618

555

227-8

243

280-4

by K.

S.

34' 8

34

4H

455' 6

81

4 86

56 1

15

13

623

S.

18/18

202-5

occurs a few times in Parts I and II, no v.f. for the note of the song is
have reduced the v.f. to the octave below in agreement with notation.

202-5
Ratios

falsetto

H.
202-5

* Although
given.

393

Mecklenburg)

scale with vibration frequencies is the following

chest

E.

New

King,

(in

16

15

13

12
or

The

first six lines

>

5th is sharpened to 23/36J

2 7 v.p.s.

The sharpened

10

l6j
in both octaves

(12

lor
(23/36

4th 18/13 occurs as an upward leap fourteen times in the

and eight times in the four lines of the 2nd part.
of ratio 15/13 innumerable times, a leap to the

of the song,

The augmented 2nd

is, with one exception, merely led up through the minor 3rd.
was uncertain about the intonation of the Tonic of 405 and
A few bars of the melody are given below.

sharpened 5th

The
411

singer
v.p.s.

Melody for the Sun

Festival

Dance

in King,

New Mecklenburg

Fig. 92

B =

chest voice,

F =

falsetto

Hypophrygian Harmonia
Modal Ratios by K. S.

N.B.

E.

M.

v.

should bear a superscript sharp in agreement with

H., p. 357, op.

cit.

v.f.s.

Among this collection of records from New Mecklenburg there are

Panpipe melodies in the Hypodorian and songs in the Dorian and Phrygian
Harmoniai. (The 5ths on the Tonic are sharp, not flat, and therefore do
not lend colour to Hornbostel's exploded theory of the Cycle of Blown 5ths.)
Bela Bartok's Collection of Rumanian Folk Songs contains several in the
Hypophrygian Mode. No exact values in vibration frequencies are given,


THE GREEK AULOS

394

and notes
but there are unmistakable indications in key signatures
sharpened or flattened by less than a semitone are thus marked \>/2, %/z.
;

have the two modal pivots,

Tonic and Keynote as closes on the caesurae, used either separately or in
sequence; and as finals. Leaps to the 4th 18/13 tne note f rat i *3
indicated by Gjf occur six times in No. 21b
in all of these examples the
augmented 2nd of ratio 15/13, indicated by b\) to c%, is in evidence
in
most of them the descending Hypophrygian lower pentachord or tetrachord,
f d\
c%
b\>
a
g is used melodically, as close, or as final cadence.
g
18
16
18
15
13
[12J
Eight Hypophrygian songs examined

all

Bocicoiel Erina Chiesa

A Rumanian

Folk Song, No. 21B

(B&a Bartok,

op.

Hypophrygian Scale with modal

ratios

cit.,

p. 12)

by K.

may be

cited as

(11)

(10)

an example.

S.

denominator
constant

The

18/18

16

15

13

12

group of Hora Lunga songs (Nos. 23 sqq.) are evidently based upon
Harmonia (op. cit., p. x, for scale and description). Bela Bartok
that they suggest an instrumental origin.
large

the Hypophrygian
states

In a few examples,

e.g. in

No. 21a, the perfect 4th on

Ct|,

of ratio 36/27,

appears instead of the characteristic 18/13 raised 4th.

This author's collection of Hungarian Folk Music likewise contains

melodies in the Hypophrygian Harmonia in which the same modal characteristics occur.
Bartok, 1 however, draws attention to a distinction affecting
the modality of the songs
whereas the ubiquitous augmented 2nd is
frequently found in both tetrachords (i.e. indicating duplication of the first
tetrachord on 4th or 5th degree) in Rumanian Folk Music of the Banat and
Maramuros, and is used to excess by the Gypsies, the author claims that
never do two different augmented 2nds appear in one [Hungarian] tune '.
Bartok adds that the intonation of the augmented 2nd is usually rather
uncertain, the lower note being a little too high, the upper note a little
too low (op. cit., p. 55).
The Hako, a song sung at a Pawnee ceremony, collected by Miss Alice
Fletcher, 2 is quoted in d'Harcourt's La Musique des Incas (p. 213). Although
noted in the Key of F, this is clearly an error, for the Tonic is C and the
keynote D. There are three closes on g and three of the following, which is
:

'

also the final.

Hungarian Folk Music,

trans,

by M. D. Calvocoressi (Oxf. Univ.

Press,

London,

i93i)2

'

The Hako

',

by

Alice Fletcher, Smithsonian Institution.

of Amer. Ethnology, Part

ii,

1900-1 (Washington, 1904).

Publ. of the Bureau

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

Fig. 93.

Closes

from The Hako Song of the Pawnees

Hypophrygian Harmonia (K.

Modal
Ratios

13/18
v
'

by K.

S.

No

S.)

395

13

16

18

18

other notes are used in the song, which consists of three lines only.

This

is

clearly a

with the leap

The music

Hypophrygian tune that exhibits the two pivots and begins

up from the

raised 4th to Tonic.

of the Incas provides several melodies in the Hypophrygian

Harmonia from which we may select the lively tune No. 194 (p. 521),
Ripusakme ', Je m'en vais played upon the Kena (notched flute with
1

'

',

The two

or seven fingerholes).

and
occupy a central
pivots
|^j
j^j
position throughout in alternate phrases, or in sequence as closes
there
six

are leaps

down from

B
to

but one misses the augmented 2nd 15/13.

No. 197 (p. 526) is a Hypophrygian pastoral

of Panpipes in the village of Totora, Peru.
Fig. 94.

Peruvian

melody played by an orchestra

Hypophrygian Harmonia

Pastoral (No. 197) in the

Orchestra of Panpipes
1 = 76 Bien rythme
line

line 7 (last)
18

[lj

|18j

1161

aim.
(Hacienda de Totora, Peru

The

scale of notes

used

from

'

La Mus.

',

D'Harcourt, p. 526)

|i8|

[i6|

13

12

11

10

18/13

561

4/3

the minor 3rd on the Tonic B\>/i 5

16/13

des Incas

359-3 cents

distinctive

11/9=

of

347

is

absent.

the 1st tetrachord

cents of the

is

The

characteristic interval

answered by the equally

2nd tetrachord.

THE GREEK AULOS

396

The

whole band of Syrinxes has been tuned to

fact that a

this

Harmonia,

implies that the scale forms part of the language of music of the Inca folk.

The Harmonia

not born on the Panpipe as

is

it is

on the Kena

the instru-

specially tuned. 1
There is in the portfolio of fine photogravure plates, issued with the volume, one representing an orchestra of

ments have to be

seventeen Panpipes from Peru providing an extended compass which would

enable the pipes to play in a number of Harmoniai without retuning.

The Jews

of the

Yemen

are partial to this

Mode,

if

we may judge from

the Folk song (Phonogram No. 1667, pp. 71-2).

The scale is limited to
the 1st tetrachord, the vibration frequencies of which are in agreement

with those of a section of the Hypophrygian Harmonia.

The
No.

/#

16

IS

8$
14

vibration frequencies of the lute scale of

Maqam

Rast on p. 118,

give a very close approximation but with the curious omission

1 60 1,

of the keynote (a tone above the Tonic), probably due to error, for the 1st

on the

fret

was

lute {Sabbaba)

frequencies agree within

tone above the open

and the 7th within 2

at a

v.p.s.

One more example in this Mode must be

music of the Kubus of Central Sumatra. 2
Fig.

95.Tune No.

9(a).

Six of the

string.
v.p.s.

given in conclusion from the

Music of the Kubus of Sumatra

Hypophrygian Harmonia

'

>

Modal

The

J]Jj

Ratios by K. S.

Scale of Notes used

I|l8|

|i6|

13

15

12

10

18/13

The double

56i

ties

indicate

slide of the voice.

(P. 373, op. cit.)

1

The Panpipes

many cases of open cylindrical reeds, having

pad which can be moved up to the correct height

of Peru consist in

as closure a closely fitting, thin

in the tube to produce various shades of intonation, or different intervals.

N.B. Shortening the resonant tube by 1 cm. produces in the fundamental

note a proportional

rise in pitch

four times as great.

die Musik der Kubu ', by E. M. von Hornbostel, Abh. zur vergl. Musik1922, pp. 361-77. The scales of the tunes, pp. 375-6, need to be drastically
revised ; in the scale of No. 9, (a) for example, the note d is given as a quaver (unimportant) ; g, as minim with pause, and a, which does not occur twice, as semibreve.
2

wiss.,

'

Ober

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

397

The two modal pivots C 18 and D 16 are strongly emphasized throughout

and form the final cadence. All the characteristic intervals of the harmonia
the minor 3rd E\> on the Tonic, the F, which as the leap up from the Tonic,
should be sharpened as 13, and even the augmented 2nd 15/13 are in
evidence.
The Kubus play on notched flutes with equidistant holes
therefore no surprise need be felt to find them so thoroughly at home in
(See also Tunes Nos. 15a, gb, 10 Tonic D,
the Hypophrygian Harmonia.
Keynote E).
The vibration frequencies of flute No. 3295 (op. cit., p. 364), as recorded
by Hornbostel, played the ratios of the Hypophrygian Harmonia 18/18, 16,
Thus it is found that this
15, 13, 12, 11, in very close approximation.
Modal Scale, in which the majority of the extant Fragments of Ancient Greek
Music were sung, reverberates through the succeeding centuries among the
:

folk of

many

nations.

THE HYPODORIAN HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

The Modal

Scale, with ratios

by K.

S.

L_

Keynote
and Tonic 16/16
Cents

The flattened B and

appear as flat or natural, sometimes both are
used in the same tune. The 3rd on the Tonic (ratio 16/13) lies between
major and minor at 359 cents.
In the Hypodorian Harmonia, there is no 2nd pivot
Tonic and keynote
are one, with ratio 16
the perfect 4th has the secondary emphasis
the
:

augmented 2nd 15/13

marked characteristic, on the 2nd and 3rd degrees

A song in the Hypodorian Harmonia is found among the
of the scale.
Hungarian Folk Songs collected by Bela Bartok (op. cit., p. 73, No. 271),
who gives this strange scale on p. 53 without shades of intonation.
The ratios of the Hypodorian fit the notes of the Modal Scale of this
song, and the emphasis laid upon C, the 4th on the Tonic and secondary
pivot, removes any doubt concerning the identity of the Mode, which is
so closely allied to the Hypophrygian
in No. 271, the solitary appearance
of F as passing note instead of Tonic, makes identification an easy certainty
and although the A\> as 15 and the B as 13 are both in use, they do not
occur to form an augmented 2nd 15/13.
'

is

'

the

From Jos. Singer (op.

Mode Jichtabach is

CDes
I

cit.), it is

learnt that in the

noted thus

EF GAS B C
I

music of the synagogue

(N.B.B

Bh),

with the 1st tetrachord duplicated, which may be identified as Hypodorian

(K. S.). Nos. 9 and 24 are good examples of melodies in the Hypodorian

THE GREEK AULOS

398

Mode and
d

Tonic

furnish another distinctive feature, viz. the

in the scale given above.

These

5th on the

fiat

distinctions are, of course,

T T
II

only important where neither vibration frequencies nor other shades of

intonation are provided.

No. 94, p. 290, of Henebry's songs from the Ring Promontory, must be
assigned a Hypodorian origin, in spite of its garbled notation and numerous
vibration frequencies for each note

for the song exhibits the

main modal

characteristics.

The most

from Wales.

hails

it

interesting

Hypodorian Folk Song has been kept

The emphasis

in this delightful

song

'

till

the last

Lliw

Gwyn

Rhosyn yr Haf duly lies on the Tonic, which in this Mode is also the
keynote, and in the secondary pivot, the perfect 4th, the thetic Mese.
The augmented 2nd 15/13, in the true modal version (see below), is
given full significance in the 2nd part of the song, and adds to its charm.
It is clear that the conventionalized form of the Mode was current in
Wales when the song was taken down in staff notation it had its prototype,
however, in the Ancient Greek musical system when, according to certain
Graeco-Roman Theorists, the Tonic of the Hypodorian Harmonia led from
Proslambanomenos through the tetrachords Hypaton and Meson to Mese,
thus falsifying the beginning of the Harmonia with a Tone instead of a
'

semi-tone. 1

This Welsh Folk Song was introduced by Mr. Alfred Daniel, M.A.,
LL.B., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., in his address on Certain Vocal Traditions in
'

to the Cymmrodorion Society and the Welsh Folk Song Society,

London in 1909. He was bent on discovering traces of the ancient scale
on which Welsh Folk Song was based. In his paper he has dealt with the

Wales

'

in

'

mixed character

'

of the intonation

by means of two symbols

accent for slightly sharp notes, and an obelus

of sharpness

j-

an acute

to indicate a greater degree

the symbols appear over nearly every note of the song, and

imply merely a

loss of bearings quite usual

translate the intervals of the

When, however,

when an attempt

the poignant sharp

made

to

given on p. 399),
some years later by
S.,

strictly accurate modal intervals was sung to him

Miss Isabel Dodds, 2 he pronounced the intonation correct and
A 13, both ascending and descending, was

with

is

Harmonia.

the modal version of the song (by K.

'

stated that

also correct,

1 Aristides Quintilianus, however

(p. 18 M.), states that the Hypodorian Species
from Mese. Ps-Euclid (p. 16 M) gives the 7th species from Mese to Nete
Hyperbolaion
or from Proslambanomenos to Mese, and states that this species
Bacchius (p. 19 M) also places the
is called Common Locrian and Hypodorian.
Hypodorian Species from Mese to Nete Hyperbolaion, passing through the tetrachord Synemmenon, which is in agreement with the position assigned in this work
to the Hypodorian Harmonia.
2
After a study of the ancient scales of the Harmonia, Miss Isabel Dodds became
known in the British Isles and the U.S.A. for her rendering, in their original ancient
scales, of the songs of the Hebrides and for her recitations of the ancient Celtic
romances and poems with improvised incidental accompaniment on a Celtic harp
tuned to the Harmonia ; (she was duly authorized by K. S. to use the scales).

starts

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

399

and as sung by his mother in the early 'eighties \ Needless to say, the song
loses all its charm and becomes commonplace when the modal intervals are
replaced by tones and semitones
e.g. in the second theme, the 15/13
:

augmented 2nd becomes

Fig. 96.

'

Lliw

a semitone.

Gwyn Rhosyn Yr Haf

Modal

'.

by K.

version

S. (as

sung by

Miss Isabel Dodds)

RB. The main

difference between the

interval instead of a semitone.

Dydd

da

fy

ti

fo'l

modal version and the ono published In 1009 consists In the

en

ser

llyw

leu

Rho-syn yr

ffwyn

'%j modal

haf

16
16

Wei waeth
16

Ceist

13

15

i'm

13

15

daweydy

12

16

16

ddwy

o'r

bla'n

18

15

16

15

13

g-wir

na

phei

20

20

18

bym

cei

16

13

- dio,

15

Mwy-na

et

to

er

13

24

18

gair

15

ar wyn-eb

io'd

Mewn

22 24 26

theg-

12

13

16

tir

18

20

thyn- a

'tir

22

13

24

g-wir

Other examples of the Hypodorian Harmonia have been given with the
frequency values of the notes from the records of Dr. Kunst (see Chap. viii).

THE MIXOLYDIAN HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

The Harmonia on Tonic

E.

12

13

Jl

151

The Mixolydian Harmonia

the 7th degree of the scale

16 5 0

JL
182"

2otf

231'

has a very high tessitura with its keynote on

the keynote is, therefore, frequently found

transferred to the lower octave as sub-Tonic.

many examples

MALKOS IN HINDOSTAN

AS RAG

IO

II

IL
138

S.)

fe

128

Cents

by K.

(Ratios

Our

restricted survey has

Mode. The Rag Malkaus (Malkos) of

Hindostan undoubtedly derives from the Harmonia of M.D. 14
its scale
is given thus by A. H. Fox Strangways (op. cit., p. 150, Table No. 26).

not yielded

of this

Ratios

by K. S.

14/14
tonic

eb
12

11

f
9

bb

Lil
keynote

In his Musical Diary, Mr. Fox Strangways records a flute tune from a
assuming the C to be in tune, the higher notes were
The Tune No. 29 (p. 30) has a range of a
all a little flat, the F most so '.

phonogram saying

'

THE GREEK AULOS

400

4th C-F, evidently from Hole

a practice
1, used as vent for the Tonic
which is usual with Indian flutes 1 the A below the Tonic was produced
from the exit, a note probably not in tune with the scale.
A very long piece of music in Rag Malkos is given by the same author
No. 380, pp. 287-99. The principal theme, built up on the characteristic
notes of the Harmonia, runs thus (p. 289)
;

Fig. 97.
{A.

Ratios of

H. Fox

Harmonia by K.

theme repeated with

The form
the Dhrupad

From

Song

Strangzoays, op.

cit.,

in

Rag Malkos

p. 28g, lines 3

and

4)

S.

variations

many

times

is the Khyal, a later form of

it consists of dozens of repetitions of the theme given above
(which begins after the double bar) interspersed with variations upon
it, and ending in virtuoso style with a long cadenza (suggestive of the
European Concerto). The little introductory phrase in our quotation was
given to show the use of the keynote B\? of ratio 8 in its place as 7th degree
above the Tonic as well as below it. The leap from the Tonic to F, as

4th, the

are

all

of this ambitious composition

amsa of Hindu theory, and the use of Tonic and keynote

as closes

consistent characteristics of the Mixolydian Harmonia.

The Mohammedan

origin of the song probably accounts for the absence

of the superscripts, which belong to the

Rag Malkos

(as

duly given in the

When they conquered India, the Mohammedan

p. 150).
musicians brought with them the Ditonal Scale borrowed from the Greek
Theorists and implanted it as they did in North Africa and in Spain.
The traces of the pre-Mohammedan System of the Harmonia have persisted
table facing

nevertheless in Hindostan, as implied in the Ratnakara of Sarangdev (see

Chap. vii).
Another example of a simple tune in Rag Malkos is given as No. 407,
p. 308, also with C as Tonic and B\> as keynote.
From the volume of Thirty Indian Songs recorded by Ratan Devi, and
edited by Ananda Coomaraswamy, 2
The Gopi's Complaint ', Tumri in
Rag Malkaus
tin tal (E is Sd) may be cited as further evidence of the
survival in Hindostan of the Mixolydian Harmonia.
The song was sung
'

1
See Chap, vii, the set of flutes described by Sarangdev. As already explained,
the finding of the correct position for the 1st hole is the main difficulty in boring the
fingerholes
in order to avoid a false relation, the general practice is to base the
:

on Hole 1 as Tonic, and used as Vent, always left uncovered.

Four hundred and five copies were printed for the authors at the Old Bourne
Press, 1913.
Sold by Luzac and Novello, p. 9, No. 2.

scale
2

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

by an Ustad, Abdul Rahim, the teacher of Ratan Devi.
are

given.

The Tonic

is

u
the
keynote
,

No

401

superscripts

the following excerpt

14

forms beginning and

close.

98. The Gopi's Complaint'

Fig.

'

(Recorded by Ratan Devi)

(Mixolydian Harmonia)

18

16

Ratios by K. S.

'

14

12

14

12,

11

12

'

14

J3J
14

In the 2nd part of the song the following phrase occurs

The two modal

the examples in

pivots,

duly emphasized, and

as

amsa show,

Rag Malkos given by Mr. Fox Strangways,

as in

that the feeling

Mode still survives in Hindostan.

upon the two modal pivots, the Mixolydian
be confused with the Hypophrygian, when the
keynote of the former, on the 7th degree of the scale, is transposed as subto E.
Tonic, since in uninflected staff notation both stand a tone apart, i.e.
There is nothing, either, to indicate that in Rag Malkos the 4th on the Tonic
is very fiat (of ratio 14/11 =417-4 cents), whereas the 4th on the Hypophrygian Tonic is very sharp (18/13 = 561 cents). The 15/13 augmented
2nd, moreover, is not obtainable in the Mixolydian. When the Harmoniai
are actually heard, however, no confusion is possible on account of the
sharply defined ethos proper to each of these two Modes.
for the cardinal points of the

From

a diagnosis based

Harmonia might

easily

THE HYPOLYDIAN HARMONIA IN FOLK SONG

Original Scale, East Greenland
Ratios by K. S.

|20|

18

14

13

Hypolydian Harmonia

Ratios

*The

should probably be D.

by K.

S.

THE GREEK AULOS

402

Since the Hypolydian Harmonia (when the first tetrachord is duplicated

on the Dominant) is practically identical with our modern major scale, it
will not be necessary to quote more than this one song taken down by
phonograph in East Greenland. 1
The phonograph was set to A 435 v.p.s. Song No. 40, Group iii, p. 71,
in original scale as above.
Fig. 99.

Recitative

Song from East Greenland

etc.

13

|i6|

(The

|i6j,

13

|20j

18, 20,

20

|i6|

symbol for C,

division

|i6]

|ao|

4- signifies

|i6|

I3

C#

a flattened

|l6|

13

ia 13 14 13

14

13

|i6|

(2o|

I3

with the close

|20j

occurs only as grace note.

El
Fig. 100.

Eskimo

(Collected by R. Stein.

16

The

12

13 11

by K.

Ratios

12 13

'

Song

same

(in

Eskimo Music

',

p.

scale transposed)

340

[ap. Thalbitzer, p. 35]

12

S.

ratios are merely suggested, in the absence of v.f.s,

The two

characteristic pivots of the

by the pivots of the melody.

Hypolydian Harmonia, the major

3rd on the Tonic, thus reveal the modality here

may be

also.

Burmese

scale noted by Hornbostel and

Hypolydian Harmonia of ratios 20/20,
See also Chap, x, Records of the Bucheum,
18, 16, 15, 13, 12, 11, 10.
Graeco-Roman flute and of Dr. Tucker's flute from the Sudan of M.D.10.
Henebry's Song, No. 40, p. 180, quoted from Petrie, is a good example
It

Kunst

of a

is

recalled that the

(from

v.f.)

that of the

Hypolydian tune on Tonic,

THE CLOSING OF THE CYCLE

Finally, as the

nears
1

its

W.

keynote,

16

FROM ANCIENT TO MODERN GREECE

modest survey in search of the Harmonia in Folk Music

from an honoured colleague on the scientific

close, there arrives

Thalbitzer and Hjalmar Thuren, op.

cit.,

p. 71,

and R.

Stein, ex., p. 35,

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

403

what may prove to be the copingmeasurements of three modern Greek

flutes from Olympia, Corinth and Nauplia, 1 played by shepherds.
The measurements worked out by our formulae establish the following
side, Professor

Dayton Clarence

Miller,

stone, viz. the scrupulously exact

facts

olympia flute.
corinth flute.

Phrygian M.D.
Phrygian M.D.

from Hole
from Hole

12,
12,

j.
1.

1234567
Scale

from the Fingerholes

Half

Fingerholes
Ratios

by K.

used as vent
12/12

S.

10

11

Inct.

6)
or 13 J

7)
or 15 J

denominator constant

Owing to the inner reactions of the air column, through what I have
termed the Incremental All. No. 7, which is cumulative, the normal modal
sequence is interrupted at the 7th Hole, with the result that this Hole speaks
the note of half an increment lower, viz. 13 instead of 12.
Hole 6 is bored
midway between Holes 5 and 7 and plays ratio 13.
The Specimen from Nauplia

has a Dorian Harmonia of

with the following scale of ratios

M.D.

1 1

from Hole

1234 5"7
Half

Hole
Ratios by K. S.

11/11

10

7]

Inct.

12

13

14J

Owing

to the operation of Incremental All.

[Holes 5 and

between^

6,

[Conjectural

Holes

^
n
Ratios

No.

The above

scales are conjectural,

which becomes

7,

7)

mould

15 14 13 J
speak notes corresponding in pitch to these ratios.

...

active
r

probably,
therefore,
r
J

founded on proven theory, and have

not yet been submitted to practical tests (for Measurements, see

Records).

Chap

x,

from Modern Greece thus form an auspicious ending for

the survey, which began with the scale of the Elgin pipes (Brit. Mus.) of
c. 500 B.C. and the analysis of the extant fragments of Greek music as
revealed by the System of Greek Musical Notation.
At the end of the journey through the centuries intervening, the Folk in
Greece are still piping in the same ancient Harmonia used by their ancestors.
Whether this may be claimed as a case of uninterrupted survival must be

These

left to

flutes

others to decide.

Olympia, specimen No. 18 on photograph No. 151, and No. 27 on photo

Exotic Flutes ', property of Prof. Dayton C. Miller of the Case School of Applied
Science, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.
Corinth.
Shepherd's pipe from the Acropolis. Idem.
Nauplia. Bought from Shepherd Boy in Greece by Mr. Jackson of Exeter
College.
Flute was formerly in Taphouse Collection and later in the

'

Brownsea Castle Collection.

THE GREEK AULOS

404

After reading the foregoing chapters,

it will probably be recognized that

made by this work to the study of the early
music in general, and more specifically to the
origin and development of modal systems, consists in the introduction of
the inherent and infallible testimony borne by reed-blown pipes and flutes
having equidistant fingerholes. It is evident, therefore, that the only hope
of being able to reconstitute the scales or musical systems of a bygone age,

the most significant contribution

stages in the evolution of

harmony with ascertained

mens of its pipes and flutes
in

facts, lies in the

;

the boring of their fingerholes

recovery of authentic speci-

own tale through

moreover, these are found placed at

these, at least, tell their

;

if,

we are at once put in possession of certain definite facts

without hearing a note from the instrument itself.
equal distances,

It is felt that

any conclusions formed on the music of the Ancients or

must inevitably be found related to

of primitive folk of the present day,

some

basic principle, capable of accounting in a reasoned, logical

manner

for the sequence of intervals detected.

It must, moreover, be such a basic

one embodied in the Aulos Harmonia, which
inevitably creates Modality.
Therefore, to attempt to establish the foundations of a scale or of a musical system upon mere conjecture, or by comparison with our keyboard scale, is to court failure.
As an apt application,
I may cite the pair of silver pipes (dating from 2800 B.C.), discovered in the
course of Sir Leonard Woolley's excavations at Ur of the Sumerians. They
are illustrated and described in the sumptuous volume by Canon Galpin on
The Music of the Sumerians, Babylonians and Assyrians '. 1 The two
slender, cylindrical silver pipes found at Ur have a bore of only 4 mm.
and there are four fingerholes at equal distances. One of these pipes is said
to be perfect except for about 3 mm. at the mouthpiece end (but see photograph and tests, Chap, x, Records). A facsimile of the pipe has been tested
by Canon Galpin, who used at first as mouthpiece a small Zummarah singleor beating-reed, which played from exit and the four holes, the notes

principle, for instance, as the

'

d, e, /#, g (the g decidedly sharp), the octave 2 being completed by the

use of the Harmonic register. Subsequently, with a double-reed mouthpiece
of straw, fitted with a ligature, 3 the same scale was again obtained with ease.
c,

These

many

are facts,

and judging from Canon Galpin's wide experience during

upon all kinds of wind instruments,

years in collecting and playing

Camb. Univ. Press, 1937. The pipes are illustrated on PI. XI, No. 3, and
described on pp. 40 sqq. and p. 94. The book has come to hand just as mine is
1

going to press, so that there is only time to add a few comments.

2
On a pair of pipes, the octave is completed on the 2nd pipe, as
in

Chap. ii.
3
See Victor Loret,

'

Sur Une Ancienne Flute Egyptienne

',

have suggested

Soc. d'Anthropologie

Canon Galpin was unfortunately misled by

(Juin, 1893), Fig. 2, p. 12.
Victor Loret's illustration of one of the two Ancient Egyptian wheaten double-reed

de

Lyon

which

appears to have a ligature both mouthpieces were found

by Maspero in Panopolis. Loret explains, however,
originally no ligature, and that he himself wound a thread
round the splitting straw to prevent the eventual destruction of such a precious
relic.
There are, however, traces of a slight natural constriction in the reed, the
two blades of which are flattened towards the tip.

mouthpieces

inserted in pipes discovered

in the text that there

was

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

405

in the results he obtained.

It is when we pass
from these facts to his deductions, which he avows are a matter of conjecture,
that the ground is felt to be insecure, and the serious consequence of this

we have every confidence

is

that the interpretation of notation

is

am

With Canon

thereby involved.

Galpin's adoption of the scale of the pipe of

the Sumerians, I

Ur

in complete disagreement.

as the standard scale of

Every reed-blown pipe

having equidistant fingerholes, inevitably implies modality, by virtue of the

principle embodied in the pipe itself, which I have defined and shown in

my first chapter. Moreover, modality is a fraternity of related

Harmoniai, and no single pipe with equidistant fingerholes, but lacking its
it is a specimen devoid of individuality until
mouthpiece, can stand alone
operation in

provided with a mouthpiece that will play

at a definite extrusion

it

from the

resonator.

No

recd-blown pipe with equidistant fingerholes can have a scale of

fixed intervals or pitch
its scale must always be regarded as a temporary
manifestation, for it can with ease be transformed into that of another Mode,
;

by merely pulling out or pushing

in the

stem of the mouthpiece, thereby

lengthening or shortening the total by the amount of one increment of

For it is the mouthpiece at a definite extrusion from
distance or more.
the resonator that decides which of the Harmoniai the pipe shall bring forth.
It

must not be assumed,

therefore, without definite evidence that

any pipe

has been bored specifically with intent to produce any one scale which, by
extension in both directions, might come to be generally adopted in any
land as a standard scale.

Among

primitives the pipe

may be

of any fancied length

and diameter

the spread of the fingers on the pipe fixes the position of the fingerholes

an equal increment of distance this prepares the way for the Harmonia,
brought to birth as soon as the piper adjusts his mouthpiece so that it plays
with ease. There may be a dozen or a hundred pipes of different dimensions
in the length and breadth of the land, with increments of distance varied
within limits, and mouthpieces at different extrusions, yet out of this mass
of heterogeneous dimensions there does eventually emerge a Modal System.
The wonder is that the Modal System, when traced and duly identified by
the flutes and pipes, or by the vibration frequencies of phonographic records,
inevitably does exhibit examples of the same seven Harmoniai of Modal
Determinants 16, 14, 13, 12, ri, 10, 9, as, for instance, in Ancient Egypt and
in present-day Java, Burma and Hindostan, &c.
Let us now return to the pipes of Ur
we left Canon Galpin playing
on his facsimile pipe with two different kinds of mouthpiece, of the singleor beating-reed, and of the double-reed types, and obtaining from both the
same scale with the tritone on the 4th degree. We must come down to the
practical side of this weighty matter and see what it all means.
The Ur
pipe had a length of -270 (like the Mond flute) and a diameter of only 4 mm.
the mouthpiece with which it was tested added another -0385
the resonator
thus now totals -3085, the increment of distance between the holes is of
at

031

therefore, in millimetres,

10, as

Modal Determinant, which

THE GREEK AULOS

406
is

that of the simplest form of the Hypolydian

9/10, 8/10, 7/10, 6/10

and g very sharp (or we

i.e.

may

Harmonia of ratios 10/10,

by the notes c, d, e, /#,

a scale represented

A, as septimal 3rd from F%,

also very sharp).
It is not necessary to go to India, China or Java to find an
analogous scale with raised 4th, for I know of three others, 1 and unless
definite data were available there could be no basis of comparison.
By
fitting a different mouthpiece with a long shank to the silver pipe, which
could be pulled out to an extrusion of about -071, the scale would then be
that of the Dorian Harmonia of M.D. 11 (-031 X 11 = -341 -270 = -071)
or, again, with an extrusion of -102, the Mode would be the Phrygian of
M.D. 12 (-031 x 12 = -372 -270 = -102). The ratios of the Dorian
Harmonia for the exit and four holes would be 11/ii, 10/11, 9/1 1, 8/1 1,
7/1 1, and of the Phrygian,
call it a flattened

12/12

11/12

10/12

9/12

8/12

minor 3rd
perfect 4th
perfect

The

trouble

is

that

use on the pipes of

5*

we can have no idea which of these three was

Ur. The same fingerholes would therefore give

turn three different series of intervals,

e.g.

last in

out in

the 2nd fingerhole would sound

a major 3rd on the Tonic in the Hypolydian

Mode,

a 3rd 11/9

between

major and minor, on the Dorian, and in the Phrygian a just minor 3rd,

all

in perfect tune.

The
between

factor of differentiation in these pipes

the. Increment of

Distance and

The Increment

mouthpiece).

imposed by the

its

is

proportion

i.e.

the relation

multiple (represented by resonator

of Distance

is

variable within

limits,

and the length of the resonator. Modality,

however, is ultimately the affair of the mouthpiece, the extreme importance
of which has not been sufficiently realized.
Its influence is paramount, not
only in the determination of the Mode, but also on Tonality quite independently of the factor of length through the phenomenon of resonance.
There is a remarkable resemblance between the pipes of Ur and those
of the Lady Maket, 2 discovered by Sir W. Flinders Petrie, and other similar
pairs shown in musical scenes on Egyptian Wall-paintings, as, for instance,
on the one from a tomb in Thebes in the British Museum (see Chap, ii,
lay of the fingers

1
These four scales with raised 4ths have been given with ratios and vibration
frequencies as Fig. 85(B) earlier in this chapter they are the Dorian with sharpened
4th of ratio 11/8
the Hypophrygian with a still sharper 4th of ratio 18/13, tne
Hypolydian 10/7, and the scale derived from a cycle of perfect 5ths which cannot
:

occur on a pipe having equidistant fingerholes.

See Chap, x, Records of Auloi, for measurements and photograph No. 18 of the

Ur

Pipes.

2
For further details, measurements and performance, see Chap, x, Records.
For a review by K. S. of Canon Galpin's book, Music and Letters (April, 1938). See
also luly and October Correspondence.

QUEST FOR THE HARMONIA IN FOLK MUSIC

No.
museums.
Plate

3)

and

The

distinguishable

in other similar

407

mural paintings preserved in continental

stalks of the wheaten mouthpieces at a long extrusion are

by their straw

colour,

whereas the reed resonators are painted

reddish brown.

my

reasoned opinion that further research into the Music of the

Sumerians and Chaldeans will reveal the existence of a Modal System based
upon the Harmonia. The practice and development of the Harmonia into
It is

Modal System, moreover, could hardly

fail

to

be strongly influenced by

the Sumerian and Babylonian astronomical and astrological sciences and

beliefs, so that the characteristic Ethos of each Harmonia,

appeal, might well suggest

the stellar spheres.

its

by

its

strong

dedication to a titular divinity or to one of

Apart from these strictures I have felt obliged to make on the subject
of the scale and notation, Canon Galpin's valuable investigations appear to
they will afford food for study and reflection.
be of absorbing interest
I must bring this long survey to a close with the following dictum
the discovery of pipes and flutes with equidistant fmgerholes must henceand when the establishment of a standard
forth invariably imply Modality
scale is contemplated, pipes of this type should be rigorously excluded.
;

cit., M., pp. 7 and 33 sqq., whose attribution to

Sun and Moon) of the seven degrees of the Harmonia,
by Sumerian and Chaldean traditions.

See, for instance, Nicom., op.

individual planets (including

may have been

inspired

CHAPTER X
RECORDS OF MEASUREMENTS AND PERFORMANCE (i) OF
AULOI, (2) OF FLUTES, PRECEDED BY EXPLANATORY
NOTES
:

THE RECORDS OF AULOI

Elgin Aulos

(straight) )

IPlate

Elgin Aulos 2 (curved)

'

Lady Maket

3.'

'

Lady Maket

4.'

No.

17.

Loret XXIII.
Cairo

'

Cairo

'

CM.'

Cairo

'

C.R.'

Cairo

'

C.G.'

C.F.'

Primitive

Oboe from N. Egypt.

Plate

Loret X.

Loret XII.
Loret XIII.
Loret

XV.

Loret XVI.
Loret XVIII.

Loret XIX.
Loret XXI.
Loret XXII.
Loret

XXIV.

Loret

XXV.

Loret

XXVI.

Loret XXVII.
Loret XXVIII.

Loret

XXX.

Loret

XXXI.
XXXII.

Loret

Loret

XXXV.

Loret

XXXVI.

The

Silver Pipes of Ur.

408

Table XIV.

No.

10.

RECORDS OF AULOI
EXPLANATORY NOTES

According to my invariable practice, the measurements given in

records of Auloi are taken from embouchure to the centre of each fingerhole,
therefore not as in Loret's list to the upper edge of each hole.

N.B.

CONCERNING THE NAMING AND NUMBERING OF THE MOUTHPIECE

AN

apology must be offered for the haphazard allotment to the mouthpieces

of their distinctive letters and numbers. These mouthpieces have been

made and

collected over a period of some twenty years, during which each

was measured, tested many times and recorded, before the principles and conditions
under which they operate had been discovered, and could provide a basis for classification.
This is regrettable, but time is lacking for the handling of such vast material
to change the labels would involve irremediable confusion.
:

THE FORMULAE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF PITCH FROM LENGTH IN PRIMITIVE

MOUTHPIECES

The D-R. Mouthpiece. The total length of the wheat or oaten stalk has no
bearing on pitch
it is, however, necessary that its length within the bore of the
Aulos should exceed that of extrusion, by an amount sufficient to resist the weight
and pressure involved in the manipulation of the mouthpiece.
The factor which determines pitch is the distance from the open end of the
straw at which the lips close upon it, and thus define the vibrating length (V.L.).
The vibrating length may then be converted by formula into pitch vibration frequency, an operation for which formulae are given in Chapter iii under suitable
headings for both types of mouthpiece ; see also Table of Formulae, pp. xliii-iv.
Where difficulty arises in obtaining the fundamental note of the Aulos, pressing
the lower lip against the stalk brings out the fundamental note at the selected vibraIn testing the modal sequence of an Aulos, note by note, great care
tion length.
must be taken to maintain unchanged this vibration length, which can be done
by keeping the thumb-nail on a line at the measured distance on the mouthpiece.
;

INCREMENT OF DISTANCE

The Mean I.D. This is stated with due regard to the point at which the scale
whether from exit, or from vent. The increment of distance
of the Aulos begins
between exit and vent is omitted from calculation as ostensibly unused, unless it
within a few millimetres of the increment of distance
is a multiple
for as a
the
multiple,
latent increments must, of course, be taken into account.
Actually,
the distances from centre to centre of fingerholes are rarely exactly equal
it is a
matter of great interest to discover the secret of the strength displayed by the proportional, propulsive impulse through the resonator of the Aulos which discriminates
between these increments. A case in point may be examined in the record of
:

Cairo R '. The mean I.D. = -03083 (= -031) but the pipe decides in
favour of I.D. 032. The significance of the mouthpiece extrusion is that of
'
adjuster in the aliquot division by the Modal Determinant productive of modality
the
increment
and
of distance. To obtain the best results, the Resonator L. + Mp.Ext. should form a multiple of the increment of distance, which appears to indicate
The mouthpiece extrusion, however, is the obstinate
a very simple proposition.

Aulos

'

'

it may be irreproachable on paper, but slip the mouthpiece into the Aulos,
and it may manifest its displeasure in various ways
it may play the fundamental
and the note of Hole 1, but on opening Hole 2, the note may drop down to the
fundamental which may unaccountably sound again
or else the mouthpiece may

factor

THE GREEK AULOS

410

sound at all. If the mouthpiece be of the D-R. variety the length of

extrusion may prove insufficient to admit of the requisite vibration length (e.g. in
the Maket Pipes 3 and 4). These difficulties and many others are more apparent
refuse to

than real, however, to any one who has experimented with the Aulos and they
should not act as a deterrent. Having selected a mouthpiece that will play freely
in the Aulos, the first step is to discover the lowest Modal Determinant compatible
with a multiple of the increment of distance, which will allow a mouthpiece extrusion
of at least -068 or -070 for a double-reed, or -50 as a minimum for a beating-reed
mouthpiece. Then the next M.D. in the series may be tested in theory and practice,
when the altered multiple resonator length (theoretical) minus the actual R.L.
gives as remainder the new mouthpiece extrusion.
The performance of the mouthpieces in these Records discloses the fact that
in spite of all the theories and formulae, it is the mouthpiece
and through it the
idiosyncrasy of the piper that has the casting vote.
The preamble explains why the mean increment of distance is useful on paper,
but that in practice the mouthpiece chooses the most useful of the increments, all
the factors in the case being implicit in mouthpiece and resonator.
The part played
by the pipes is the true crux and only after other experimentors have devoted
time and patience to these problems will it become known what results, other than
mine, are obtainable with these mouthpieces by another piper under like conditions.
Finally, those who would understand the nature and capabilities of the Aulos,
and who wish to derive useful material from data in the Records, are invited to
make a preliminary study of Chapter iii on the Aulos and more especially of pp. 91-99
(and of pp. 94-96 as of special importance)
of Chapter vi on the Flute including
Incremental All. No. 7 in its unsuspected cumulative aspect.

CONCERNING THE SOUND-WAVE LENGTH

In an open pipe, such as a flute, the sound-wave accomplishes its periodic journeys from embouchure to exit, and back again to embouchure. The complete
course is thus approximately twice the length of the flute, or to be exact, flute
length + diameter taken twice. For a closed pipe, such as the Panpipe, the Aulos,
and its mouthpieces, the product must be multiplied again by two
the complete
sound-wave in a closed pipe thus represents approximately four times the length
I say approximately because the influence of diameter (A) as added
of the pipe.
length, must be taken into account, with its implications in individual cases.
There is one point which frequently puzzles the student, and that is the relation
of the sound-wave whether complete or fractional to the visible and measurable
length of the instrument
it is only the complete sound-wave that is productive
of the vibration frequency of sound
and moreover, the length of the whole soundwave never corresponds to the length of the bore of the instrument. To speak of
a half- or quarter-sound-wave, or to quote its vibration frequency, is a pure convention for use merely on paper. The imaginary vibration frequency of a half- or
quarter-sound-wave is respectively twice or four times that of the whole sound-wave.
;

The term

'

effective

'

added

to

the whole or fractional sound-wave implies the

inclusion of diameter as added length.

The tongue

of the beating-reed mouthpiece (hinged with its base towards exit)

requires two movements for each pulsation ; the first, as the piper blows through
the second movethe mouthpiece, lifts the tongue free of the opening into the bore
ment draws the tongue back into place over the opening, which it completely closes
again.
The result of the two movements adds twice the length of the reed
tongue + diameter + (diameter tongue width) to the actual length of the reed
tongue
and in addition four times that aggregate since Aulos and mouthpiece
both react as closed pipes so that the length of the sound-producing wave is eight
times that of the aggregate actual length, and the vibration frequency of this i/
;

RECORDS OF AULOI
sound-wave
Nos. 8 and

is

times

eight

that

of

411

whole sound-wave.

the

Formulae

(See

9.)

Finally, the effective length of a half-sound-wave is equal to the actual flute

length plus diameter allowance taken once ; and for the complete sound-wave,
the sum of twice the length and twice the diameter is implied.

ELGIN AULOS No.

British

Museum

(Straight)

Dept. Graeco-Roman Antiquities

K. S.

Facsimile by

Owing to the delicate condition of the precious relic the measurements taken
in the Graeco-Roman Department at the British Museum were made by me without
actual contact with the wood of the instrument.
The pipe was fixed on a flat surface
supports were placed at both ends for the rule. The
measurements were taken with a millimetre rule, with the utmost care, and were
checked again and again, and then compared later with those made by Mr. William
Bentley, about 1915
and again in 1934. They substantially agree with these as
of white cartridge paper

may be

seen below.

Two
being

earlier facsimiles

sufficiently

December

The

exact

Elgin Aulos No.

(c)

Dorian Spondaic
Hypolydian
Phrygian

(d)

Lydian

(a)
(&)

made during
every

in

the war were discarded

detail

by K.

specimen

plays in the following Harmoniai

M.D.
M.D.
M.D.
M.D.

11.

Extrusion of mp. -108.

10.

-076.

12.

-140.

13.

,,

,,

,,

MEASUREMENTS BY

Two

present

the

S. as not

dates

from

15th, 1925.

K.

-105

Played from Hole

from

1.

exit.

S.

same year 1914-15

B. (William Bentley, Hon. Librarian, Birmingham
and Midland Institute) and by K. S. (author of present work).
separate sets of measurements were taken during the

at the British

Museum by W.

metres

Length of Aulos from exit to embouchure

Length of Aulos from vent (i.e. centre of Hole 1 left open)
Diameter of Aulos at exit and at mp. end of bulb
-007 or
Diameter of fingerholes
One bulb found entire with the Auloi
Another (incomplete) measures
.

........
.....
.......
.

The

distances have been

measured from the embouchure

fingerholes, since their diameters are equal

1

The

3n\

-244]
-008

-0 ^7
1

-007

'0425
-033

to the centre of the

bore of the Aulos at the bulb end or embouchure has been shaved off to admit of
introduction of bulb.
The diameter of the bore is approximately equal throughout the
Aulos, according to test, by means of a slip of paper inserted through the fingerholes.

THE GREEK AULOS

412

POSITION OF FINGERHOLES
Centre of Hole
Centre
Centre
Centre
Centre
Centre

from emb.

of Hole 2 from emb.

of Hole 3 from emb.

Hole 4 from emb.

of Hole 5 from emb.
of Hole 6 from emb.
of

=
=
=
=
=
=

-244

-204

'1715

'1405
-1085

-0805

I.D.

from

exit to

from
from
from
from
from

C.
C.
C.
C.
C.

C. of Hole

of Hole

=
=
=
=
=
=

of Hole 2
of Hole 3
of Hole 4
of Hole 5

-067
-040

-0325
'031

-032
-028

5H635
Increment of distance for

Mean, omitting

The

provisional

Remainder

first

I.D.

for the Resonator of

Aulos

ill

' 3Z

extrusion of

11

mp.

7 4- -020, &c.

-33

MD

mean =

-0327

thus found to be 7

is

(i.e.

For the Dorian Spondaic]

of

5 holes,

-0307

Modal Determinant (P.M.D.)

'

3S2

-020

len S th

mouthpiece

-244 length of resonator

-108

from

vent,

Increment of distance, -0327 mean. -032 adopted as better for working in practhe first I.D. -040 is obviously an error
mean for 4 holes, -0307 the
excess in the first increment does not affect the intonation of Hole 2, which is played

tice, since

in tune in each

Harmonia

in spite of

it.

MEASUREMENTS BY W.

B.

These were communicated in April, 1934, in the form of a diagram of the Elgin
Aulos, the actual size of the original Aulos, drawn by W. B. according to his measurements taken at the British Museum. These are practically the same as those of
K. S. given above. The slight differences within the same total length -311 are
probably due to the fingerholes not being centred on the diagram and having diameters
varying between -007 and -oio.

Length from

embouchure
centre of Hole 1 to embouchure
The distances are measured from embouchure
,,

exit to

-242

,,

Centre of Hole
Centre
Centre
Centre
Centre
Centre

-311

from emb.

from
from
of Hole 4 from
of Hole 5 from
of Hole 6 from
of Hole 2
of Hole 3

emb.
emb.
emb.
emb.
emb.

242
201

168

137

104

076

to centre of holes.

from

exit to

from
from
from
from
from

C.
C.
C.
C.
C.

C. of Hole

of Hole

of Hole 2
of Hole 3
of Hole 4
of Hole 5

=
=
=
=
=
=

'069
-041

-033
-031

-033
-028

166

Increment of distance mean for 5 holes = 033

for 4 holes mean = -0312
The first increment is obviously an error.
Since these measurements taken by
no separate facsimile was made.
1

W.

B. differ so slightly from those of K. S.,

Attention has already been drawn to the fact that in the Aulos played with primitive
reed mouthpieces of the double-reed or of the beating-reed types, length does not influence
pitch according to accepted formulae.
It is a fact that excess, either positive or negative,
in one increment does not affect the purity of the interval in question.
An explanation of
this surprising fact has been suggested in this section, see Chap. iii.

TABLE IX
Elgin Aulos

(Straight)

Record of Performance
(6 Holes, with ig Mouthpieces on 6 fundamentals)

Length from exit to embouchure = -311

Length from Hole I (Vent) = -244
Increment of Distance = -032 (mean). V.L. = vibration length
;

]VIp.

Type and

Number
D-R. Elgin

D-R.

D-R.

D.

'

Funda-

Deter-

mental
v.p.s.

C =

11

'

C=
C =

11
11

'

CI. 6

BB

'

Modal
minant

C =

12

065

from Hole 1

as vent

108

060

from Hole 1

as vent

108

7S
060

from Hole 1

as vent

108

070

from Hole 1

...01

060

'

CI. 18

D-R.

'

N.

128

128

M.

D-R.

'

Elg.

D-R.

'

N. 7

D-R.

'

Elg. 13

D-R.

'

12

C =

128

108

075

from Hole

11

C =

128

108

060

from Hole 1 as vent

108

060

from Hole 1

140

060

from Hole 1 as vent

105

067

from exit.
N.B. Elg.

12

'

as vent

40 J

'

'

from Hole 1 as vent

140/

D-R.

piece

128

138]

'

CI. 7

Mouth-

128

64

'

sion

108

128

12

D-R.

V.L. of
Extru-

11

1 as vent

as vent

64
'

27

12

128

Elg.

'

13

i 3a

'

plays at

13A

also

-076 in

Hypolyd. Harm, on

D 20
-

D-R.

'

Elg.

D-R.

'

CI.

D-R.

'

Elg.

DK.

r,lg.

DK.. 2

D. 10

'

10

076

070

from Hole 1

as vent

076

070

from Hole 1

as vent

076

060

from Hole 1 as vent

This mp. is now split
and is useless

076

000

from Hole 1

as vent

076

060

from Hole 1

as vent

108

from Hole 1

as vent

076

plays from Hole 1

108

from Hole 1

as vent

076

from Hole 1

as vent

01

'

10

128

JJ-K.

'

10

10

64

D-R.

'

H. 6

'

B-R.

'

E.E.

'

B-R.

'

Elg.

10

River Reed

D~

20

11

64
'

10

64

B-R.

'

Elg.

B-R.

'

D. 7

N
'

'

11

C =

128

10

128

413

THE GREEK AULOS

4 i4

PERFORMANCE OF ELGIN AULOS

WITH VARIOUS MOUTHPIECES OF

D-R.

AND

B-R. TYPES

condensed statement in tabulated form gives a bird's-eye view of the result

of many tests on this Aulos, and is followed by a detailed record of performance
with each mouthpiece.

TEST PERFORMANCE BY INDIVIDUAL MOUTHPIECES

(i)

V.L.
(T.)

Double-Reeds.

Vibration length determined on

D-R. by impact
Treated mp.

D-R. Mp. (T)

'

Elgin

Beating- Reeds

(2)

Untreated mp.
M.D. = Modal Determinant.
(U.)

of lips.

B.B:

M.D.

Dorian Spondaic

(11).

(A -004 exit; V.L. = 060. Ext. -108

(A -008, flattened.
The mouthpiece was treated by pressing the wheat stalk out gently at one end
to a fan-shape, while damp after a soaking of some hours
the mouthpiece
embouchure then measured -008 across, and the V.L. was accordingly reduced to
058.
Treatment is not necessary for testing an Aulos
the natural wheat stalk
speaks equally well, and may be used at once
but for a musical performance the
treated mouthpiece has a finer tone as a rule.
For accuracy and purity of intonation
both kinds give equally good results, but for testing, the untreated mouthpiece is
superior, being always instantly available and ready for use.
Mouthpiece Elgin B.B.' used alone (Dec. 16, 1925), after a good soaking played
.F 16/128, when held loosely in lips, and G 14/128 when pinched with lips
at
V.L. -035 gave D 20/256, &c. In the Aulos this mouthpiece (on same date) played
C = 128 v.p.s. from Hole 1 used as vent, the whole modal sequence (given below)
in perfect tune
the intonation of each note was stable time after time
whether
taken in the modal sequence, or haphazard from any of the fingerholes, the correct
note always came
at tests, repeated through the years, the result has never varied.
As a law-giver and for purposes of research the double-reed primitive mouthpiece
reigns supreme, but the tone is more hollow and muffled, less reedy and resonant,
and yet mellow, than that of the beating-recd mouthpiece of primitive type.
Repeated tests were made after this with the same enduring results
Sept. 27,
L.

133

'

'

1930

Feb. 10, 1931

March

6,

1933, &c.

The Modal Sequence

Holes

in Dorian Spondaic (11)

11

10

Ratios
11

THE ELGIN AULOS

IS

11

16 5 0

Cents

182

11

11

204

231

11

267

A DORIAN SPONDAIC AULOS FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS

be noticed that Elgin Aulos

1 has been claimed as a Dorian Aulos, and

may be played also in the Lydian, Phrygian and
explanation seems, therefore, to be due.
The fact is that the Dorian Spondaic Harmonia fits in best with the measurements of the Aulos resonator plus one bulb, found with the pipe, and fitting into
the bore exactly. The mouthpiece extrusion which produces the requisite length
for the eleven increments of distance for the Dorian Harmonia is -108, and of this
the bulb covers about -038 or -039 of the stem of the mouthpiece, thus leaving
070 for a possible V.L.

It will

yet the Record shows that the Aulos

Hypolydian Harmoniai.

Some

RECORDS OF AULOI

415

This extrusion of -108 appears from the tests (carried out by K. S.) to afford
and results. The extrusion of -140 required for the Phrygian
Harmonia, although unexceptionable on paper, when two bulbs are required
(038 x 2 = 076) leaves -064 for V.L. which does not give such good results in
practice, owing to the length of the slender shank of the mouthpiece and probably
also to less favourable conditions of resonance, set up between mouthpiece and
resonator these conditions might have been bettered by a V.L. of from -070 to
080 which are unobtainable here.
The most conclusive and convincing fact is, however, the modal sequence itself
which can only be rendered from the six holes of the Aulos in complete melodic
form in the Dorian Spondaic of M.D. 11 (see figure below). According to my
opinion, this form of the Dorian Harmonia can be no other than the one attributed
to Terpander, said to have contained a characteristic interval (of a septimal 3rd),
explained by the Theorists as due to the omission of Trite Diezeugmenon, whereas
the best conditions

clear that the interval is implicit in the

it is

Harmonia

part of the

itself as

modal

sequence proper to M.D. 11. This modal sequence is entirely satisfying when
played up and down, with or without the addition of the octave on Nete Diezeugmenon whereas the Phrygian Harmonia, breaking off on ratio 12/7 of the septimal
tone, leaves one in the air and sounds meaningless as a scale.
Had the Elgin Aulos
been primarily intended for the Phrygian Harmonia, it would undoubtedly have
;

from

started

exit

and ended

at

Hole 6 on the octave 12/6.

The Dorian, Phrygian, IIypolydian and Lydian Harmoniai on the Elgin Aulos
Fingerholes

Modal

0
spondaic.

D
Phrygian

123456

Exit

Ratios

^
Dorian

11

11

10

11

11

11

12

11

10

Harmonia.

12

12
,

10

Hypolydian Harmonia.

Lydian Harmonia.

7
11

11

12

12

12

10

10

10

7n

13

13

10

10

13

11

10

13

13

13

13

sept. 3rd

12

10

^-6

13

The Lydian Harmonia is obviously the Dorian from the vent at Hole 1, merely
extended downwards a flattened minor 3rd if sounded from exit
a note which was
probably unused although the distance from exit to Hole 1 is equal to two increments but the last note of Hole 6, overstepping the octave, is unconvincing in an
Aulos designed for the Lydian Harmonia.
;

D-R. Mp.
L. -172
at

07?

'

D. 1

'

(T.).

M.D.

(11).

-003, flattened to -006

Cn
__.

gl.=

Dorian Spondaic
proper note

at

V.L.

-059

= F 17-

V.L.

128

g 15

Tests Jan., 1926, 1930, 1931, 1933, and 8/1/34.

D-R. mp. D. I.' plays in Elgin Aulos 1 on C 11/128, at extrusion -108,
V.L. = -060. A note in the record early in 1933 states that this mouthpiece played
the whole series (as above) in perfect tune, with strong, firm notes
three days
later a second note states that the performance was not so satisfactory, the notes
were weaker and the note of Hole 6 difficult. There was nothing in the mouthpiece
to account for this deterioration, which was found to be due to the player's physical
condition which, from frequent observations, has been found responsible for
'

unsatisfactory results.

THE GREEK AULOS

4i 6

D-R. Mp.

M.D. (n).

(U.) CI. 6.

T^A

L. -i6i

Dorian Spondaic

TTT

-004

V.L. -079

C II

proper note

gl.

IS
-.

128

256
Played in Aulos

C =

above) on
128 v.p.s. at Ext. -108, V.L. -075, the sequence
in tune, all notes strong, but the mouthpiece did not speak quite freely and fluently
was needing practice. Evidently some slight detail was out of gear, probably
(as

was

the V.L.

at fault.

D-R. Mp. 'CI. 6

'

Harmonia M.D.

also plays in Phrygian

on

(12)

12
(see

64

scheme below

for CI. 7) at Ext. -140, at

D-R. Mp. (U.)

L. -161

M.D. (n).

CI. 18'.

'

-005

V.L.

079

V.L.

-060.

Dorian Spondaic

proper note

C =

256

and

v.p.s.

at -060

17

128

C =

on

128 v.p.s. V.L. -073, the sequence of the

Dorian Spondaic (11). When first tested it was found that the C and
of Holes 1
and 2 were very soft, and the C difficult to obtain, the tone strengthened, however,
as pitch rose in the sequence.
A test dated 4/5/34 was made with special attention
to Hole 2, ratio 1 1 /io
and it was discovered that the result at V.L. -060 was
excellent
the difficulty was due to the faulty relations of resonance between mouthPlays in Elgin

I,

at Ext. -108

piece and resonator.

D-R Mp.

at Ext.

'.
M.D. (n). Dorian Spondaic
proper note at V.L. -079 = C = 256

N. 1

'

(/.)

L. -131

-004

v.p.s. plays in

Elgin

on

-108, as above.

128

D-R. Mp.

(U.)

L. -145

'

CI. 7.'

004

M.D.

(11).

Proper note

at

Dorian Spondaic

V.L. -060

= F 17

-4 13
gl.

128

256

Plays in Elgin Aulos

on

but not with ease

gives better results

on

for all but

A
-

27

128

Hole 6

a change of

~-

128

128

Harmonia

on the same fundamental.

to Phrygian (12)

proved entirely satisfactory and the sequence was obtained in perfect tune

at Ext. -132
the negative
for 140, owing to the short stem of the mouthpiece
excess of 008 was not sufficient to upset the intonation of the Harmonia, since it
only amounts to one-quarter increment of distance.
:

The Modal Sequence

Holes

in the Phrygian
2

12

IO

II

12

12

151

D-R. Mp.
L. -157
startling

(T.)
;

'

N.

-004

7'.
;

M.D.

(12).

Proper note

power ^norm -^

12

165

at

13

13

182

204

(12)

Ratios

Cents

Harmonia M.D.

12

231

Phrygian Harmonia

V.L. -068 with

148 v.p.s.^.

ictus

F 16
=
128

176 v.p.s.

of

Tested 28/2/33.

Played in Elgin Aulos 1, at Ext. -140

V.L. -061 in the Phrygian Harmonia, at
with hesitation on the part of the mouthpiece newly treated a few hours only,
but each note as it came was steady and strictly in tune
this was more especially
noticeable with the notes issuing from Holes 5 and 6, which N. 7 played easily in
tune with monochord. Tested again on 1/3/33 with greatly improved result.
;

first

f
RECORDS OF AULOl
A

new

set of fresh tests in a

417

direction revealed further resourcefulness of the

reed-blown pipe.

D-R. Mp. (U.)

L. -138

D-R. Mp. (U.)

L. -156

A. 13(1)

Elg.

'

-006

Elg. A. 13 (2)

'

-006

M.D.

'.

at Ext. -105

Lydian Harmonia.

exit.

17

Both mouthpieces played in the Aulos in the Lydian Harmonia

at Ext. -105 all

A 13

notes in tune on

norm, and

Lydian Harmonia from

(13).

exit.

^~
norm.
lZo

V.L. -058

at

M.D.

'.

from

(13)

V.L. -059 proper note

at

from

(13)

exit

as below.

64

This mouthpiece
from Hole

The Modal Sequence

in the Lydian

Holes

Exit

II

10

Ratios

Hypolydian Harmonia

in the

D-R. Mp. (U.)

;

M.D.

D.jo'.

Elg.

'

204"

13

13

13
2 31

(13)

182 0

16 5

Harmonia M.D.

13

13

290

Cents

L. -ioi

120

on

also plays at Ext. -076

1.

13

26

Hypolydian Harmonia

(10).

-005.

Plays in Elgin Aulos

on

at Ext. -076, in the

Hypolydian Harmonia

(10)

125
all

notes in tune, even the high

The Modal Sequence

Holes

of Hole

of the sequence from Hole

in the Hypolydian

10
Ratios

10

Harmonia M.D.

10

10

182 0

Cents

6,

204

10

10

231

267

1.

(10)

10

316 0

Tests on 27/4/34 and 30/4/34.

D-R. Mp. (U).

Harmonia
L. -no;

'

Elg.

-006

Dk. 2

(Dk.

'

now

broken).

M.D.

(10).

Hypolydian

Ext. -076.

Plays in Elgin Aulos

1,

on

A- 13

at Ext. -076 in the

Hypolydian Harmonia

(10)

64
in perfect tune with

monochord

(for a double-reed) the

D-R. Mp.

(U.)

L. -no;

'

H.

all

holes easily, in a magnificent

two mouthpieces Elg. D.K.

M.D.

6'.

emb.

(10).

1,

booming tone

and 2 new on 27/4/34.

Hypolydian Harmonia

-005, exit '004.

Plays on Elgin Aulos

on

10
at Ext. -076 in the

Hypolydian Harmonia from

128

Hole 1 in tune with piano (tuned to Dorian Harmonia (22), of which Hypolydian
on D 10 is a species.) The fundamental D is a little weak and difficult but all the
other notes are played easily in tune and the mouthpiece plays with ease the last
37

THE GREEK AULOS

418
two holes

the 5th hole on

la

and the 6th hole on

from Hole

120

4, a septimal,

256

and a minor 3rd respectively.

Tested on 14/4/34, and again on 27/4/34.

D-R. (U.) Mp. M.12

'

L. -i2i

-006

M.D.

(new on 12/5/34).

'

V.L.

061

Dorian Spondaic

(11).

at Ext. -108.

B
12

Plays in Elgin Aulos 1, on

in the Dorian Harmonia (11) at Ext. io8, the
64
whole scale in tune without difficulty at first trial, when once the V.L. had been
carefully defined on the mouthpiece by the pressure of the lower lip, which helps
to steady the intonation, and to produce the notes of Holes 5 and 6 with ease in tune
without straining.
It will be noticed from the Table that mouthpieces numbered r, 2, 3, 4,

"

5, 6, all

play on

Hypolydian

D 20
in

in the

Dorian Harmonia, further that Nos.

11, 13, 15, play

120

120

in the

as species of the

Dorian

that Nos. 9 and 10 play

on

on

A
13
04

Lydian Harmonia and No. 3A, plays on

the Phrygian

Mode.

The difference in extrusion of the mouthpiece, corresponding in each case with

the difference in the Modal Determinants, thus produces each Harmonia in consequence as a species of the Dorian M.D. 11 on C, i.e. these have all been
tested with K. S.'s piano tuned to the Dorian Harmonia 22 on C = 128 v.p.s.,
by starting each scale from the note bearing the proper M.D. of the Harmonia in
question. These results indicate that the Aulos played by D-R. mouthpiece will
when due attention is paid to the laws of resonance operating between Aulos,
resonator, and mouthpiece
strictly conform to the proportional basic law of the
Harmonia to which the Aulos is subject.

ELGIN AULOS PERFORMANCE BY BEATING-REEDS

= tongue length
T.W = tongue width

T.L.

of

mp.

B-R. Mp. E.E.', of seasoned river reed, cut and fashioned 27/11/33 M.D. di)
the Dorian Spondaic Harmonia
'

L. -124

T.L. -046

T.W.

-0025

-004

in

A
27

norm

64

By formula

T.L. x 2

A x

A T.W.

x 3

=
=
=

092
-008
-003

{Length of sound-wave in
pipe = -103 x 4 = .412

340

825-2

103 1

008

-005

-003

length of

P u l se of the vibrating tongue

io 3 V -P- S

A
-

27

*4 v.p.s.

as closed pipe

The normal proper

note of B-R.

mp.

'

E.E.'

is

A
27

64

This is a beating-reed mouthpiece of very fine tone, rich and resonant. By dint
much scraping the tongue has been rendered resilient ; it is a remarkable instance
of what the beating-reed mouthpiece is capable of doing. This river-reed mouthpiece may be accepted as representing the type described by Theophrastus which
had, he stated, come into favour with Antigenidas. B-R. mp. ' E.E.' lends itself

of

admirably to the device of shortening the vibrating tongue by a half, a quarter, or

with the result that the pitch of the whole Aulos, fundamental and fingerholes, is raised an octave, a 4th, or a 5th.

third,

RECORDS OF AULOI
The

Elgin

419

the norm of the mouthpiece's proper notein the Dorian

on

64

1
Spondaic Harmonia (11). B-R. mp. E.E.' plays from Hole 1 at Ext. -108 the
modal sequence in tune, and produces very readily, in beautiful tone, all the notes
As stated above, moreover, on shortening the tongue of the mouthof the scale.

and continues the sequence

128
This, as already pointed out,
This device
is a feat which lies beyond the scope of the double-reed mouthpiece.
may be accounted, partly or wholly, responsible for the form of our major scale,
with the first tetrachord of the Hypolydian Harmonia, from which our major scale
is undoubtedly derived, repeated on the dominant.

by one-third, the Aulos fundamental

piece

B-R. Elg. B wheat straw.

Harmonia. 28/4/34
'

Ext. at -076

'

L. '127

rises to

in the tonality of the dominant.

end

in tune to the

-004

T.L. -048

Plays in Elgin Aulos

on

M.D.

T.W.

(10)

from Hole

in the

Hypolydian

-003.

12

Hypolydian Harmonia

aT Ext. -076 in the

.

(10)

64
all

D-R. mouthpieces),

notes strong and in tune (as given above under

B-R.

'

D. 7

L. -163

'

at Ext. -076

-0035

Plays in Elgin

M.D.

T.L. -049

on

from Hole

(10)

T.W.

in the

Hypolydian Harmonia

-0025 to -003 irregular in shape.

in the Hypolydian

Harmonia

(10) at Ext. -076

all

128

Hole

holes of the sequence in tune, even

B-R.

'

Elg. N.' at Ext. -108

M.D.

A -003; T.L. -034

Plays in Elgin 1 at once on C
L. -183;

the exception of Hole 6

(11),

6,

T.W.

the octave of the fundamental.

from Hole

128

in the

Dorian Spondaic.

-002.
v.p.s., all

which needs high

notes in good tune easily with

glottis action.

Elgin Aulos 1 being our most important document as evidence of the use of the
Harmonia in Ancient Greece (c. 500 B.C.), has been subjected to drastic and numerous
tests
some of which are here recorded. The relative brevity of the records of
other Auloi is merely dictated by the necessity for economy of space.
,

ELGIN AULOS No.

British

Museum

Facsimile by

chure

exit to

embou-

Resonator

-343

Length from centre of Hole

to emb.
Diameter of bore (A)
Diameter of fingerholes

1)

DISTANCES FROM EMBOUCHURE

TO CENTRE OF HOLES
Hole from emb. = -299 from exit to C. of

MEASUREMENTS
Length from

2 (Curved)

Dept. Graeco-Roman Antiquities

K. S. (See Elgin Aulos

-299
-008

Hole 1
Hole 2 from emb. = -246

=044
;

from C. of Hole

(two I.D.)

Hole 3 from emb. = 2i2 from C. of Hole 2

Hole 4 from emb. = 180 from C. of Hole 3
Hole s from emb.=-i49 from C. of Hole 4
Hole 6 from emb. = -112; from C. of Hole 5
For all I.D. Total -23
-

'0o8

;
;

7 -33

Mean
Mean
I.D. x

M.D. =

I.D. for the four regular I.D.

I.D. for the 7

= 053
=034
=032
=031
=-37
4l "i34

033

033

= '033

multiple length

033 X 14 = -462
Harmonia of M.D. 14.

-343 Resonator

119 Extrusion of

mp.

for the Mixolydian


THE GREEK AULOS

420

ELGIN AULOS
With D-R. Mp.

PERFORMANCE (FROM

2.

EXIT)

Curved
-007 at V.L, -060
G.14. K. S.' at Mp. Ext. -119
Plays the whole Sequence from exit in tune as below
'

'

14
G
64

The Mixolydian Harmonia on

Holes

Exit

Ratios

14/14

12

Hole

12

13

128

Cents

456

3
11

138-5

10

182

165

151

204

With D-R. Mp. Elgin 2K.S.' on

L. -138 ; A -006 at V.L. -060 Mp. Ext.

04
tone strong and resonant, in the Lydian Harmonia

'

Plays in Elgin 2 in tune

085.

of

M.D.

Tested April

13.

18, 26, 34.

12

Lydian Modal Sequence

Holes

Exit

Ratios

13/13

Cents
'

Mp.

12

11

138-5

D-R.Mp. K.
at

Hole

S. Elgin 3

Ext. -085.

182

165

151

A X3

'

10

plays on z
04

Length of mp. -156

the

V.L.

PERFORMANCE WITH BEATING-REED MP.

Length of straw

-103, A- 006,

T.L.

-043,

T.W.

'

204

same sequence

-007

in the

Lydian Harmonia

-060.

ELGIN

-0025.

231

2,

13'

Proper note of

G 14.
Mp. -y~
b^

B 12

to -2

64

BY FORMULA NO. 8

(A

T.L. X 2
A x 2
T.W.) x 2

=
=
=

-086
-oi2

-007
105

The Aulos

plays with

Mp.

x 4

-420

Ext. -085 on

=
34 o

LADY MAKET PIPE

G 14
= ~
64

Lydian Harmonia M.D.

04
with a fine resonant tone, all notes of the Sequence in tune
which was a little difficult to keep steady.

Berlin, in the Musikhist.

101 v.p.s.

-420
in the

13,

easily except the 6th note,

Museum, Charlottenburg.

(3 Fingerholes)

Discovered in 1890 by Sir W. Flinders Petrie in Kahun in the Fayum. 1

Facby Besson & Co., made after the originals in 1890. Facsimile by K. S.
in 1925 in river reed (English) bound with waxed linen thread.
The measurements
of this facsimile agree with those of Mr. Blaikley
From a letter dated August 28, 1917, addressed to me by Mr. D. J. Blaikley, I
quote the following interesting facts
simile in brass

enclose a copy of

my

results as given to the

Musical Association in the discussion

For a discussion on the date of the pipes see W. v. Bissing, Die Datierung des Maketgrabes ', Zts.f. Aegypt. Sprache (Leipzig, 1897), Tom. xxxv, pp. 94-7. Mus. Times, Dec,
1

1890.

'

THE ELGIN AULOI WITH BULBS, 5TH CENTURY

British

Museum.

By

courtesy of the Director

B.C.

RECORDS OF AULOI

421

following upon Dr. Southgate's paper, and published in the Proceedings for the Session
1890-1. The reeds I used were cut from wheat-straws, and although the absolute pitch
of the notes obtained would vary slightly with the stiffness, &c, of the reed, the relative
pitches or intervals between the notes would not, and the related pitch is the all-important
point in looking for scale systems.
observations were made by comparisons with a
carefully tuned harmonium and tuning-forks, and I do not think they can be more than
one or two vibrations in error.
The main point to my mind is that the notes of the
pipes agreeing with the notes 9, 10, 1 1, 12, on the Harmonic Scale ; or D, E, F, or F% and g
are in accordance with the bagpipe scale, and certain other scales, Arabic or Eastern.
In
any examination of these, we must accept the fact that notes in the ratios 10, II, 12 are used
and not attempt to force No. 1 1 (the trumpet or F%) into modern notation. In conclusion,
I would say that though I am certain about the pitches of the notes observed, I think it is
still open to question whether the reeds or the fingerings agreed with those for which the
flutes were made, and therefore there is room for uncertainty in the matter.
(Signed) D. J. Blaikley.

My

It is important to note that Mr. Blaikley, a shrewd and learned authority on wind
instruments and on Pitch in general, preserved an open mind on the intervals used
In his experiments with the Maket pipes, he used both Doublereed and Beating-reed mp.s
but the former were of the Oboe type, and the latter
were cut with the hinge of the tongue close up to the knot. The tongue was, moreover, wide and was stiff, producing harsh, high-pitched proper notes.
Mr. Blaikley
did not take into account the influence of the length of mouthpiece extrusion
he
did not realize the implications of fingerholes bored at equal distances, nor the
necessity for increasing the compression of breath, interval by interval, as the sequence
rises in pitch.
Finally, he had not experimented with the B-R, with hinge in direction of the holes, nor with reed tongues cut to a width of 1 or 2 mm.
He was amazed
to hear the strong, sonorous and beautiful reedy tone of a tiny mp. about 4 inches in
length, of a tongue-length of some -030 and of a width of only -0015, which boomed
out on an 8 ft. CI (in 191 7). His results are therefore those of the Harmonic
Series in its upward progression from 9, 10, 11, 12, and they may be compared with
mine.
This Aulos plays from exit the 1st tetrachord of the Mixolydian Harmonia with
D-R. mp.s and with many B-R. mp.s in a number of tonalities ; it also plays the

in Eastern scales.

Hypodorian Harmonia M.D. 16 on

1st tetrachord of the

MEASUREMENTS

F 16

THE FINGERHOLES

R.L. from exit to emb. J. D. Blaikley

and K. S.
(Besson
-448) -452

C. of Hole 1 from emb.

C. of Hole 2 from emb.

= -413
= -377

Hole 1
C. of Hole
Hole 2

= -343

exit

and emb.

'

5
128

-005

from exit
from C. of

I.D.

=-039

=036
3

from emb.

from C. of

=-034
3 >iQ9

0363

Increment
in practice

of

Distance (mean)

0363

036 and -037.

036 x 14 = -504 -452 = -052 Mp. Ext.

037 x 14 = -518 -452 = 066 Mp. Ext. (in practice up to -082).
The Mp. Ext. is often varied in practice to suit the idiosyncrasies of mouthpieces
this may be done without prejudice to intonation, so long as the variation does not
amount to a half I.D. The minimum Mp. Ext. of practical use is -047 and for
;

B-R. mp. only.

THE MOUTHPIECES AND THEIR PERFORMANCE

D~R. Mp.

'

E. 18

'

(treated).

L. -112

pressed out to fan-shape after soaking, to

THE GREEK AULOS

422
flat

'007

proper note

V.L. -o6o

at

= F 17
E

plays the Mixolydian tetrachord in

by monochord tuned

perfect tune

to

Tested 26/9/30.

123

The Mixolydian Tetrachord M.D. 14

The

Fingerholes

Hole

Exit

Ratios and Notes

14/14

D-R. Mp.

~g

'

C.21

L. -133

(treated).

D-R. Mp. 0-8

at

'

'

at

V.L.

mp.

of the

is

Mp.

F 17
-060,

151

flattened at tip to -0065

Ext. -112 (untreated).

a strong note

on

16

18

and on

Proper

'004 (round).

equally strong, the resonance

^

in octave relation with the glottis note

Harmonia M.D.

note,

gl.

proper note

easily in tune 14/5/26.

L. -179
JL

11

138-5

plays the Mixolydian Tetrachord as above on

Note

'

12

13

128

Cents

F 16
at

plays in Aulos in Hypodorian

Tested 15/1/34.

V.L. -055.

PERFORMANCE WITH BEATING- REED MP.S

B-R. Mp.
mp.s

'

44

whole tetrachord.

B-R. Mp.

C =

L. -099

'.

'

'.

L. -152

in pipe at

T. L. -029

T.W.

-002

Harmonia on

one of the best

with a fine tone, the

-003

at first a

T.L.

-035

T.W.

T.L. of -032 and

-00225

proper note

Proper Note

18
=-,

Ext. -047 on

correctly.

A further trial

at

Mp.

Ext. -062

series,

This

Mp.

trial

D.5 on November 7, 1925.

The Harmonic Register with B-R. Mp. of oaten straw, Harmonics
with which a harmonic register was obtained on May 14, 1926).
'

but was

125
the tongue on being cut to -035, then played with proper

but not with the same ease, and at Mp. Ext. -072 the series was
belongs to an early series (1925) before the exact significance
Ext. had been ascertained.
Similar tests were carried out by B-R. mp.

gave the

distorted.

of the

Mp.

This mp. had

not a success in the Aulos

still

-004

Tested 6/6/29 and 29/6/30.

K.3

128 v.p.s.

note

plays in the Aulos in the Mixolydian

'

'

This B-R. mp. plays in Maket

by pinching the

tip

on

with compressed

(the first

'

18
5- easily, all

holes closed, then quite easily

12s

lips

and breath the pipe gave out

Harmonic, and rose with the opening of each

C 22
,

512

C 21

and

D 20.

This

test

and

hole,

also others

2th

with reedy quality lessened to

with B-R. mp.

'

Lyd. 20

'

confirms

my

opinion that the harmonic compass can be obtained by the mp. alone without
use of a speaker-hole.
This same mp. also plays the series on the fundamental register on G 14/64.

B-R.

'

Lyd. 20

in the Aulos at

'.

Mp.

L. -068

T.L. 034

Ext. -047 the

mp.

T.W. 0025

plays on

A
(gl.

-004

proper note -j^-

note) the full harmonic

compass on the 12th with ease, hole by hole. Tested 1/7/34 and 11/7/34.
N.B. With this record, K. S.'s comments on A. A. Howard's study, The Aulos,
should be read (Chap, ii
see index).

RECORDS OF AULOI
LADY MAKET

423

For details of provenance, &c., see Lady Maket 3. (With 4 Fingerholes.)

This Aulos plays from Exit in the Mixolydian Harmonia M.D. 14 and from Hole
Phrygian M.D. 12
at Mp. Ext. -047.

in the

MEASUREMENTS
Proportions of
L.

1,

C. of Hole

J.

which

equal in value to

Maket

-005 at exit

3, which
and emb.

the fingerholes are elliptical, ranging' in

length from 006 to -003, decreasing in the
decrease in
direction of emb.
N.B.
8 implies a lengthening of the air column,
a fact which has but little significance on
S

I.D.

from
-076*

C. of Hole 2 from emb.

C. of Hole 1
C. of Hole 3 from emb.
C. of Hole 2
C. of Hole 4 from emb.
C. of Hole 3

flattened the pitch slightly,

measures -452.

FINGERHOLES
from emb. = -372

exit

1890].

with natural knot at exit

-448,

(pierced),

making

it

by D.

original pipe,

Blaikley [Mus. Times, Dec.

R.

= -340

from

= -305

from

= -270

from

=-032
='3S
=-Q35
5)-i78

0356

reed-blown pipes.
*

The

distance

from Exit

Hole

to

evidently covers two Increments of Distance,

Increment of Distance (mean) -0356

in practice '035.

I.D. -035 x 14 = 490

Mp. Ext. of B-R.s is -047.

= -042 ; the minimum distance in practice for

has been found that for this Aulos -050 and '052 give

-448

It

best results.

THE MOUTHPIECES AND THEIR PERFORMANCE

A -0035; T.L. -036; T.W.
L. -151
(2).

B-R. Mp. 'K'

Aulos

at

Mp.

Ext. -047

on ~^~>

plays in

-0025;

m tune wim modal piano, with fine

resonant tone.

Tested 30/10/30.

B-R. Mp.

Mp.

'

xxviii E.g
t4G-~,

on

Ext. 050

'.

L. -105

-003

T.L. -029

T.W.

-002

plays at

the whole series in tune.

The Mixolydian Sequence with

Fingerholes
Ratios and notes

1234

the Phrygian

Exit

14/14 (13)

from Vent as Species

Cents

Phrygian species
Cents

A -0035 T.L. -035 T.W. -0025

G.i '. L. -140
above
with full, reedy and sonorous tone.

B-R. Mp.
results as

'

gave the same

LORET
(Leyden

Museum

1,

473

(cf.

3 Facsimiles by K. S.

XXIII
Loret

xvii, note).

(4 Holes)

remarkable Record

on same fundamental note from Hole 1 in the Mixolydian M.D. 14 the

Lydian M.D. 13. The Phrygian M.D. 12 and from exit in the Hypodorian Harmonia.
and
All these Harmoniai are obtained with D-R. Mp. xxiii, N. 32 and N. 33
in addition the Dorian Harmonia of M.D. 11 with B-R. mp.s.
Plays,

'

'

'

'

THE GREEK AULOS

424

MEASUREMENTS
L.R. exit to emb.
emb. to C. of Hole 1
L.
A
at emb. -005
at exit

FINGERHOLES
from emb. = -265
C. of Hole 2 from emb. = '237
C. of Hole 3 from emb. = -2io
C. of Hole 4 from emb. = -i8o
C. of Hole

-0035

I.D.

(The distances are from emb.

-354
-265

to Centre of Holes.)
from exit
089
from C. of Hole 1 = 028
from C. of Hole 2 = 027
from C. of Hole 3 = 030
3) 085

0283

Increment of distance mean from Hole

0283
028
029

1,

(useful)
,,

It is

my

,,

from

,,

,,

exit

where the increment from

practice

exit to

Hole

is

greatly in excess of

the mean, without being, as here, a multiple of

it, to conclude that the note was

unused. With Aulos xxiii it is probable that the note from exit was used as lower
octave of the Lydian Mese, as explained further on.

THE MOUTHPIECES
D-R. Mp. N.32
D-R. Mp. N. 33
emb.
D-R. Mp. 'xxiii.'
'

'

at

A -004 V.L. -065.

Golden oaten straw, L. -139

L. -160

'.
'.

L. -222

'004

0033

at exit

and -004

fine wheat, silica, satiny, excellent tone,

strong.

B-R. Mp.

'

C.

xviii

L. -150;

-0035;

T.L. -035; T.W. -002s.

PERFORMANCE
With D-R. Mp. N. 32 '. Aulos xxiii played at first at Mp. Ext. -112 and V.L.
the tone was weak and hesitating. When the extrusion was reduced to -099
-060, the sequence was played in a firm tone, in tune with piano on
'

065

and the V.L. to

13
.

The

364 -265
show the

to

reason for this

[L.

emb.

to C.

is

plain

Hole

an exact

effect of

1]

Lydian M.D.

amount

13 I.D. -028

x 13

-364

This experiment is recorded

-099 Mp. Ext.
of Mp. extrusion ; it is, indeed, possible in

some

cases to play the sequence in tune with an approximate extrusion, but here
amounted to almost half an increment which disturbed the proportional
impulse. Tests 25-28 April, 1933, both characterized as very good.
A further important test, made with this Aulos, demonstrated that a change of

the excess

by the addition or subtraction of an I.D.- the visible graphic sign of which

the bulb added or taken off (see Plates 9 and 13, Chap, ii) may signify a change
more important still, a change of Harmonia when the fundamental
How this can be is a mystery, for which there is perhaps a
possible explanation.
extrusion,

is

of species, or

remains unchanged.

With D-R. Mp.

the Lydian

N. 32

'

'

at

Harmonia of M.D.

Mp.
13

Ext. -ogg.
13

on

A
120

The performance

of the Aulos in

was repeated many times.

234

The Modal Sequence

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes
Cents

13/13

12

138-5

10

11

151

165

This was followed immediately by another, on pulling out the mp. to Ext. '127,
while keeping the V.L. at -060. This new sequence was played without change of
fundamental on

I'x
,

in spite of the additional length of

g
extrusion prolonged to -127.

one increment through the

The Harmonia now became

Mixolydian.

RECORDS OF AULOI
The Modal Sequence
Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

234

14/14

12

13

128

Cents

425

Mp. Ex. 127

at

138-5

11

151

A phenomenon may now be observed on this Aulos, viz. from the same fundamental and through the same fingerholes, a change in the ratios of the intervals
has occurred
although the addition of an increment of length produced a response
from the open fingerholes in accordance with proportional length, this additional
:

lengthening in resonator

mp. did not

affect the pitch of the

fundamental

I'x

added length could not break through the paramount influence of the mouthpiece
on the pitch of the fundamental.
It has already been suggested that the fundamental resulting from the alliance
of Mp. + Aulos resonator is due to the law of resonance in this case investigation
has proved the correctness of the suggestion.
The proper note of D-R. Mp. N. 32 at V.L. -060 and A -004 may be computed thus
//S
34
= 33 2 v.p.s.
4O060 + -004) = -256 and
;

'

'

'

i.e.

the fundamental

2
P26
x U17
3

approximately a 5th below

is

52

~j

a difference of

34 cents

-1
51
Before proceeding to mention other remarkable manifestations connected with
this Aulos, we must note that a new D-R. Mp. N. 33 gives exactly the same results
'

as

N. 32 ', viz. Lydian of M.D. 13.

D-R. Mp. N. 33 ' A golden oaten straw

'

'

L. -139

'

at

-0035 at exit, and '004

13

emb., played at Extrusion -099 in Aulos on g-i on a strong fundamental, the

sequence as above, in the Lydian Harmonia. When pulled out to -127 (i.e. one
additional increment) Mp. N. 33 ' still plays on ^13/128 faultlessly in the Mixolydian Harmonia with good tone and in tune, thus duplicating the performance of
N. 32 '. It is, therefore, clear that the additional increment has the power to impose
a new division on the proportional impulse of the air column, but leaves the resonance
factor unchanged.
On investigation of the relation of length to pitch in Aulos xxiii when played by
D.R. Mp.s N. 32 and N. 33 ', the following results are obtained I.D. x 14

= -392 and 340 m./s. = 217 v.p.s., viz., 13

^, i.e. the pitch of the fundamental.
'

'

'

'

'

392

128
Thus accidentally, it is found that the length formula and the actual pitch elicited
in practical tests of Aulos + Mp. correspond exactly, which is a rare experience.
When worked out according to the same formula, for the Lydian Harmonia, the
m./s.
correspondence, of course, no longer exists, for I.D. X 13 = -364 and 3 4
304
= B 12 = 117 v.p.s.
The working out of the formula for each note of the modal sequence is shown
below for the Mixolydian of M.D. 14 in Table A, and for the Lydian 13 in Table B
(Nov. 6, 1933). Tested again a few days later (Nov. 25, 1933) with the same results.

With B-R. Mp. xviii C '.A new mp. L. -150 A -0035 T.L. -035 ; T.W.
0025 Aulos xxiii with mp. at Ext. -047, M.D. 11 played in the Dorian Harmonia
on C 128 v.p.s. in perfect tune, and fine tone. Pulling out the same mp. to -071,
the Aulos played on the same fundamental C = 128 v.p.s. in the Phrygian Harmonia
of M.D. 12, likewise in perfect tune and with a musical, resonant tone.
Thus this remarkable Aulos plays in four Harmoniai Dorian and Phrygian with
'

THE GREEK AULOS

B-R. Mp. and Lydian and Mixolydian with D-R. Mp.s. The short extrusion
for the Dorian Harmonia cannot, according to my experience, for obvious
reasons (viz. insufficient V.L.), be obtained with D.R. mp.s of primitive type. The
D-R. mp.s likewise refused to play in the Phrygian Harmonia, although the extrusion
was not then at fault.
Tests of the correspondence of length with pitch by formula in Auloi reveal the
fact that this correspondence, when present, can only be accidental.
This Aulos,
with a fundamental /I13/64 = 108-5 v.p.s. has a correspondence when used in the
Mixolydian Harmonia, but not when used in the Lydian Harmonia. This Test
means that a pipe having a fundamental sounding A 13 is only en rapport with the
fundamental when the length of resonator + mp. totals -392. With the Lydian
a

demanded

Harmonia, the

total is -364
J ^

116-7 v.p.s.,
1
'

^ 12

i.e.

instead of ^

64

64

'

TABLE A
Showing Correspondences Hole by Hole
Hole

1 at -265

Mp.

Ext. -127

m /s _

340
14/14

Hole 2

at -237

from Hole

=a

to tip of

mp.

13/128 (by Formula No.

1)

v.p.s. in practice.

217

^ ^~

-392

V- p S

392

+ Mp. Ext. -127 =

= z 33'4 v.p.s. = S

-364 Hole 2 to tip of

mp.

12/128 very slightly flattened

(exact

234-6

v.p.s.

by Formula).

=233-7

14/13 Hole 2

Hole 3

at -209

-127

^336^

v.p.s. in practice.

-336
S
'

Hole 4

at -182 4- -127

Hole

-309 Hole 4 to
340 m./s.

tip of

217 X 14/11

4.

( 2 53)

mp.

(theor.

by formula).

v.p.s. in practice.

"""309"

14/11 Hole

3 to tip of

2 ^ 2 ^ V -P- S

14/12 Hole 3 = 253 v.p.s.

217 v.p.s. X 7/6 = 253-16

mp.
(by formula)

v.p.s.

276

v.p.s. in practice.

TABLE B
The same test applied to Aulos xxiii in the Lydian Harmonia and played by the same
D-R. Mps. Nos. N. 32 and N. 33 at extrusion -099, on fundamental A 13 the tonic
of the Lydian species in the Dorian Harmonia
does not give resonance results in accordance
'

'

'

'

with the formula.

they are
I have only found a half-dozen of these correspondences among all the pipes
therefore the exceptions, not the rule.
That it cannot be the rule is proved by this Aulos,
for the change of extrusion destroys the correspondence.
;

Hole

1 at -265

340 m./s.

T~5
3

+ Mp. Ext. -099 = -364 from Hole

= 2 33'5 v.p.s. = B 12
g- by formula

13/13 Hole

Hole 2

at -237

to tip of

mp.
.

(no

correspondence

~"

A
217

-099

^~336~^~
217 X 13/12

=
=

in practice.

v.p.s.

-336

from Hole 2

2 ^ 2 ^ V -P- S-

(C

11

to tip of

256

235-08 v.p.s. in practice.

mp.

v.p.s.) (theoretical

between theory
and practice)

by formula)

RECORDS OF AULOI
Hole 3

at -209

'099

-308

from Hole

340 m./s.

217 X 13/11

Hole 4

at -182

-281

from Hole 4

276

v.p.s.

427

mp.

3 to tip of

(by formula)

256-4 v.p.s. in practice.

-099

340 m./s.

217 X 13/10

mp.

to tip of

'

301 v.p.s. (by formula)

282-1 v.p.s. in practice.

It is thus obvious that in case

B the practical results of resonance tests are not
agreement with the theoretical obtained by formula.
Two more facsimiles of Aulos xxiii were made in Malacca, in order to test still
further the persistence of the fundamental with mouthpieces at different lengths
'

'

in

These are the results :

Facsimile xxiii No. 2 {Malacca). Tested with
wheat silica, satiny, excellent tone, strong.

of extrusion.

D-R. Mp. 23

L. -222

-004

fine

PERFORMANCE
In Aulos

xxiii (2) at

Mp.

Ext. -099, played in the Lydian

Harmonia on

A
t
1

jp,

128
with modally tuned piano. The mp. was then pulled out to -127,
played on fundamental A 13 in the Mixolydian Harmonia with a strong tone.

easily in tune

and still
Tested April 10, 1934.
The same mp. and Aulos were then played with Mp. Ext. at -071 on the same
fundamental A 13, this time in the Phrygian Harmonia, in tune, and with a strong
tone. Tested April 10, 1934.
(I.D. -028 x 12 = -336 -265 = -071 Mp. Ext.)
In the 3rd facsimile xxiii (3), D-R. Mp. xxiii 3c ', played in the Mixolydian Harmonia M.D. 14 at Mp. Ext. -127 on C = 128 v.p.s. in tune (April 10, 1934). Tested
again, June 6, 1934, when the Aulos played as above, easily and in tune on the new
'

fundamental.

MUSEUM

CAIRO
Facsimile by

K. S.

No. 28

February, 1934.

10 and 23-5
'

C.

F:

(5 Holes)

Measured by M. F. Grant in Cairo

Wooden pipe, polished but worn there is
a slight nick in emb. 2X2 mm., not opposite fingerholes, seemingly due to accident.' M. F. G.
Plays from exit
Phrygian Harmonia M.D. 24
Lydian Harmonia M.D. 26
Mixolydian Harmonia M.D. 28
Dorian Harmonia M.D. 22.
'

MEASUREMENTS
L.R. from emb. to exit

-2255

-0055
-005, constant

FINGERHOLES
;

I.D.

(The, distances are from emb. to centre of holes)

= -1995
C. of Hole 1 from emb.
=-0265
C. of Hole 1 from emb. = -1995 from exit
C. of Hole 2 from emb. = -1745 from C. of Hole 1 =-025
C. of Hole 3 from emb. ==-1475 from C. of Hole 2027
C. of Hole 4 from emb. = -1335 from C. of Hole 3
;

C. of Hole 5 from emb.

= -1095

(i I.D.) = -oi 4
from C. of Hole 4 = -024

.1165

9)^330
0259

H. 3-4.

I.D. for half-increment

013 (mean).
(i.e.

-1165 X 2/9

nine half-increments)

026.

THE GREEK AULOS

428

THE MOUTHPIECES
D-R. Mp.

-286 [-026

D-R. Mp.

-312 ['026

-338 [-026

D-R. Mp.

II

x 12

L. -109

'.

13

-004

-004

R.L. -226

-060

Mp.

Ext.

086.

R.L. -226

-086

Mp.

Ext. -112.

R.L. -226

-na

Mp.

Ext.

R.L. -226

-138

Mp.

Ext. -060

L. -134

'.

-004

-338].

C.F. 12

'

'312],

C.F. 13 1 3

'

L. -074

'.

-286].

C.F. 13

'

D-R. Mp.

C.F. 13/2

'

L. -129

'.

x 14 = -364].
D-R. Mp. 'C.F. 14 (1)'.
x 14 = -364].
C.F. 14(2) '.
D-R. Mp.
[026 x 14 = -364].

-004

138.

-364 [-026

L.

-158;

-0035.

R.L.

-226

-138

'364

-004.

R.L.

-226

-138

-364

[026

L.

'

-151

PERFORMANCE

C =

D-R. Mp. C.F. 13(2) '. The Aulos plays on

Harmonia M.D. 22 in tune.
'

256

v.p.s. at

Mp.

Ext. -060

the Dorian

The Sequence
Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

Exit

22/22

20

18

16

ii/ii

10

182

165

Cents

D-R. Mp.

C.F. 13

'

'

plays

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

on

J/ 5^

13

15/22

13

112

204

247

Harmonia.

12345

in tune in the Phrygian

Exit

20

22

24/24

18

17

15

12/12
Cents

D-R. Mp. C.F. 13/3

monia M.D. 26 or 13.

plays

'

'

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

D-R. Mp.
'

C.F. 13

C.F. 12

'

played on

20

22

24

151

165

19

17

iga

8g

12 in tune in the Phrygian

Harmonia

(as

above

')

D-R. Mp. C.F. 14(1)

Harmonia from exit.
Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

128
C.F. 14(2)

'

14 at

Mp.

Ext. -138 in the Mixolydian

123 45

Exit

28/28
14/14

Cents
'

Played on

'.

'

D-R. Mp.

12345

26/26

13/13
138-5
'

216-4

gg

13 in tune (at once) in the Lydian Har-

Exit

Cents

for

on

182

163

151

as above.

26

24

13

12

138-5

22

All these

21

Mp.s

19

21/28

11

151

80-5

19/28

173-4

tested in the Aulos,

March

I934It will

be noticed that in

this Aulos, the

change in the extrusion by one I.D.

RECORDS OF AULOI

429

produces the species in order from Dorian to Mixolydian

proper tonic.
Cf. with Loret xxiii for a contrast.

MUSEUM

CAIRO
Measured

Museum

in Cairo

Nos. 28
by

Facsimile by
'

Bone pipe with

M.

Dorian Harmonia M.D.

from Exit on

11

MEASUREMENTS
=-i6i

L.R. Exit to emb.

exit -005

stant

-006,

depth -002 con-

13

'

flat at

g- =

their

mp. end

CM.

4'

underlip about

187-7 v.p.s.

FINGERHOLES

I.D.

(The distances are from emb.

to centre of holes)
from exit
=-0235
from Hole i=-023
from Hole 2 = -023
from Hole 3 = -023

C.
C.
C.
C.

emb. -004 X -007

F. Grant. (4 Fingerholes)
February, 1934.

K. S.

natural grooves back and front

longer than top-lip.' M. F. G.

mm.

on

in perfect tune

and 23

10

all

of
of
of
of

Hole 1 from emb. = -1375

Hole 2 from emb. = -115
Hole 3 from emb. = -092
Hole 4 from emb. = -0695

092s

The Increment

of Distance

023

THE FIVE D-R. MP.S

D-R.
D-R.
D-R.
D-R.
D-R.

Mp.
Mp.
Mp.
Mp.
Mp.

'

M. 11*
M. 11/2':
M. 11/A
'

'

'

'

'

In Aulos at
R.L.

'

H.S': L.

L. -145 ; A -004
V.L. -061.
L. -128; A -004; V.L. -061.
L. -131 ; A -004; V.L. -061.

-141

ARE.
L. -128
Mp. Ext. -092.
'

-161

Total length

-253

-006 (flattened);

V.L.

-061.

-007 (oval).

I.D. -023 X 11

-253.

PERFORMANCE
With D-R. Mp.
exit

on

*^ in tune

'

M.

11*

'

at

Mp.

Played in Aulos from

Ext. -092, V.L. -061.

notes fairly strong.

Hole

4, at -092

from

exit, is

past the middle

of the resonator and demands greater compression of breath, and the note 15/22
sounds instead of 7/11. Tested March 5, 1934.

IK

With D-R. Mp. 11/2 at Mp. Ext. -092. Plays in Aulos as above on
tone
;
120
not quite so strong but in tune with monochord ; and plays 7/1 1 ; the mp. overcomes
the slight difficulty due to the position of the Hole near emb. and plays Hole 4 without
When the tessitura is not too high, a little glottis action will enable a
straining.
flexible wheat straw of light texture to reach a note beyond the boundary (of the
half resonator) in tune, whereas with a stiffer reed, the half segment note will prove
-

the limit.

The Modal Sequence

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes
Cents

Exit
11/11

H.i

2
9

10

163

182

3
|_8J

231 7

204 Mese

"j

15/22J

112

THE GREEK AULOS

43

The result here is

D-R. Mp. ' M. 11 1 ' at Mp. Ext. -092, V.L. -061 on
15.
the same Dorian Sequence from exit. Ratio 7 is attacked in tune with only a very
slight glottis action.

D-R. Mp.

mp.

C 11

H.5

'

Mp.

plays the sequence on -j^- but at

'

With

Ext. -094.

this

the Aulos plays with precision ratio 15/22 instead of 7/1 1.

ARE

-098 on
' plays at Mp. Ext.
The Aulos with this Mp.
D-R. Mp. '
15.
plays the whole sequence with ratio 7 from Hole 4 in tune with ease and with a

good Tone.
'

MUSEUM

CAIRO

C.R.'

Facsimile

Measured
'

Brass pipe

brass

band

at

Nos. 27

10 and 23

made by K. S.

F. Grant.

(7 Fingerholes)

mm. from

about 14

way round.

holes for a quarter of the

M.

M.

in Cairo by

played from Vent 1

ornamented with a row

exit

Brass (or gold) band near thumb-hole.'

of

F. G.

MEASUREMENTS

FINGERHOLES
(The distances

R.L. from exit to emb.

-388
L. from exit to C. of
Hole 1
-251
A -0065 exit and emb.
S = -oo6 and 6 =-005 at Hole 6

C. of Hole

from

exit

to centre of Hole 1)
= '137
(from emb. -251)

I.D.

from emb.

are

-218
C. of Hole 2 from emb.
C. of Hole 3 from emb. = -184
C. of Hole 4 from emb.
-iss
C. of Hole s from emb. =-124
C. of Hole 6 from emb. =-0985
-066
C. of Hole 7 from emb.

from
from
from
from
from
from

of Hole 1 =-033
of Hole 2
'034
-020.
of Hole 3

C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.

=
=
=

of Hole 4 -03i
of Hole 5 ='0255
of Hole 6
-0325

6)-i8 5 o

03083

Increment

of distance (mean) -03083

Useful I.D. 031 (or better -032 in practice)

R.L. to C.

of.

H.

-251

+ Mp.

Ext. -ioi

-352

I.D. -032 X 11

-352.

THE MOUTHPIECES
D-R. Mp.

C.R. 11/1

'

'.

Fine

stiff

satiny wheat.

L. -123

-006

Mp.

Ext.

090 or better 101.

If I.D.

-031

11

-352.

-341, L. vent

+ Mp.

Ext. -090

-341,

and whereas with

L. Vent + Mp. Ext. = -ioi = -352.

D-R. Mp. C.R. 11/2 '. L. -159 A 006. Thin wheat, lined,
way a better mp. than the above. Tested March 7, 1934.
I.D.

-032

11

'

elastic, in

every

PERFORMANCE
With D-R. Mp. C.R. 11/1
Holes 6 and 7 difficult.
'

101

',

played in Aulos on

C =

128 v.p.s. at

Mp.

Ext.

234567

Modal Sequence
Fingerholes
Hole 1
Ratios and Notes
11/11

10

54

182 204 231 267 151

163
D-R. Mp. C.R. 11/2 '. Played the sequence as above on C = 128 v.p.s., and
gives the notes of Holes 6 and 7 very clearly and all in tune.
Tested March 7, 1934.
Cents

'

1
In the original pipe, there are two holes in the back, awkwardly placed for my fingers,
which I transferred to the front at the same distance from emb. In addition, I transferred
one fingerhole from front to back in a convenient position, while keeping the distance from
emb. correct. These changes entail no modification of modal increments of distance. K. S.

RECORDS OF AULOI
CAIRO

C.G.'

'

K.

MUSEUM

Measured

Plays the Phrygian

-005

at

emb. Knot
Hole 1, 2, 3
Hole 4, 5

Has been bound round

.

FINGERHOLES

-215

at exit

13

Exit.

MEASUREMENTS
A
A

S of

10 and 23

F. G.

Harmonia from

L. Resonator

S of

C.G.' (5 Holes)

'

M.

by

in Cairo

", polish slightly worn.

pipe similar to "
knot at emb.' M. F. G.

Wooden

'

with thread

Nos. 28

S. facsimile February, .1934.

43i

-003005

(The distances
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.

-005

-004

are

I.D.

emb. from centre of

from emb. = -1895

of Hole 2 from emb. = -1670
of Hole 3 from emb. = -1445
of Hole 4 from emb. = -1210
of Hole 5 from emb. =-0975
of Hole

holes)

=-0255
from exit
dist. from Hole 1 =-0225
dist. from Hole 2 = -0235
dist. from Hole 3 =-0235
dist. from Hole 4=^0235

dist.

5)21850
0237

Increment
D-R. Mp.

of Distance

Y.2'

'

0237 (mean)
023 useful mean

Wheat straw untreated

L. '143

at

emb.

-005

at exit

0045.

In Aulos R.L.

Mp.

Ext.

Total length

D-R. Mp. No. 144.

B13
138

276

-215

M.D.

033

-061

13.

Phrygian.

-276

L. -144

-0035

V.L. -059

Mp.

Ext. -061 plays

on

in the Aulos.

PERFORMANCE
With D-R. Mp.
gian Harmonia,

'

Y. 2

\from Exit

Mp.

Ext. 061.

Played on -7
64

in the Phry-

notes in tune.
note of the Resonator alone (blown across the top), was a
of
Therefore the adjustment by resonance between Aulos and mp. was in
1 152 v.p.s.
the proportion of 4 to 3, i.e. A to D.
-061
With D-R. Mp. No. 144 at Mp. Ext.
and V.L. -059. The Aulos played on
12
5- all the notes of the Phrygian Harmonia in tune.
125
all

The Resonance

The Modal Sequence

Exit Hole

13/13

Cents

With

By

also plays

forcing a glottis note from Hole

10

182

165

from Hole

Phrygian Harmonia on

M.D. 12

12345

11

151

mp. the Aulos

this

as species of the

Phrygian Harmonia

of the

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

of

204

as vent, the

of ratios

~,

231

Dorian Spondaic,

10, 9, 8, 7.

the septimal 3rd could be obtained from

5,

the same hole as 7.

003

'

C.G. 12 Is

'.

fine stiff

-003.

elastic
.

note

wheat straw ; L. -134 ; A -003 ; T.L.

T.W.
When tested on April 4, 1933, this mp., which has a very fine
tongue, played alone the harmonics
20 and F 17. The mp.'s proper normal
13
Gis

B-R. Mp.

64

.....

is

-~
with glottis
action

64

THE GREEK AULUS

432
B-R. Mp.

T.W.

'

C.G. 12/2

'.

-0025 (at base, -003).

Tested March

5,

Wheat straw lined

(the mp.'s

'

C.G. 12/5

'.

own proper normal

this

C.G. 12/2

Mp.

N.B.

11
g

-004

Mp.

T.L.

cut for

'

-004

C.G.'

'

CAIRO G

'

B
12

Harmonia on
64
from exit in perfect tune with rich resonant
128, the Dorian Species, giving the septimal 3rd
glottis action.

B 12

'

from Hole

plays on -7

This mp. plays from

=

A =

Ext. -061 in Phrygian

1,

04
mp. the septimal 3rd of the Dorian Spondaic

ence in length

note),

and from Hole 1 on C =

7-6 from Hole 5 by forcing with
'

B-R. MP.S IN

Played at

tone,

B-R.

L. -121

1934.

PERFORMANCE OF
B-R. Mp.

Plays as proper normal note

exit

on

the Dorian Harmonia, but with

is

mere

an d from Hole

staccato note.
also

on

differ-

-0225.

PRIMITIVE OBOE
Presented by

FROM

N.

EGYPT

H. A. Burgess

(See Photograph of the Instrument in Chap,

Plate 10)

Original Specimen used in Tests.

ii,

This Oboe, or Zamr, plays in the Dorian Harmonia from Vent, and also in the
Phrygian Harmonia
the Hypolydian is obtainable as species of the Dorian from
Holes 2 to 8.
;

MEASUREMENTS
L. from emb. to rim of bell, -381
L. from emb. to vent, i.e. 1st hole of sequence of 8 at equal distances of -226
A appears from exterior to be of conical bore, but when checked, hole by hole, gives
the following results

A
A
A

at
at
at

Holes 1 and 2
Holes 3 to 7
Holes 8

Hole 8

is

just

-020

8 of fingerholes

-019
-014

is

constant at -007

below the block that forms the support or holder for the mp.

THE BELL
There are 7 holes in the bell itself 3 of these centre at -053, 1 at -08, 3 at -105
from rim. These holes do not affect the pitch of the instrument when played from
including No. 7, as thumbhole
vent, the beginning of the series of 8 fingerholes
;

in the back.

The Double-reed
after closing the

tested at

Mp.

Ext. -080 gave

seven holes in the bell

^| from vent, both before and

the closing produced an increased fullness

of tone.

The emb. has a wooden rim pierced with a bore of A -oi at a distance below this
rim of -049, the emb. narrows to -007 when passing through the leather band, through
which the thumbhole is bored. Below this the A = -019.
This oboe or Zamr from N. Egypt is of a type with cylindrical bore as far as the
fingerholes extend, but widening out beyond into a bell, for the purpose of amplifying
the sound. The bell has no effect on pitch, since the 1st hole is always left uncovered
;

as vent.

;;

RECORDS OF AULOI

433

FINGERHOLES
c, of Hole

from emb.= 226

c. of Hole 2 from
c. of Hole 3 from

c. of Hole 6 from
c. of Hole 7 from
c. of Hole 8 from

to

emb.= 197
emb.= 168

of Hole 4 from emb.

139
c, of Hole 5 from emb.= in

emb.= 083
emb.= 070
emb.= 055

rim of

from
from
from
from
from
from
from

bell

C. of Hole

D,

155
029
029

C. of Hole 2
C. of Hole 3
A
C. of Hole T

029
028

1 __
028
C. of Hole
C. of Hole i\>
013I

c. of Hole

028

01 5j
171

0285

Increment

of Distance (mean) -0285

Useful increment -029

I.D. -029 x 11
I.D. -029 x 12

=
=

-319

-348

'226

-226

= Mp.
= Mp.

Ext. '093 (Dorian)

Ext. -122 (Phrygian)

THE MOUTHPIECES
D-R. Mp.
007

'

Mor. 1

V.L. -058

Wheat.

'.

proper note

D-R. Mp. Mot. 2 '.

D-R. Mp. Mor. 3
'

L. -165, later cut to -143

exit -005

emb.

F 17.

L. -165, later cut to -143 A exit -0045 emb. -005.

A exit -005 A emb. -007.
L. -182, later cut to -143

Wheat

'

'.

PERFORMANCE
With D-R. Mor. 1 ', the Aulos plays at Mp. Ext. -093 on C = 128 v.p.s. in the
Dorian Harmonia, every note in tune with the piano.
Hole 7 gives the octave of Hole 1. It was noticed that the stem of the mp. at
it was therefore cut down
165 was too long, and extended past the centre of Hole 8
to -143, when it was found that the pitch of the Aulos fundamental had not risen in
'

pitch in consequence.

2345678

The Dorian Sequence played by

Hole

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

It is

M.D.

Mor.

the

204

Oboe

231

'

that the

'

Mor. 2

mp.

',

it

was found

at length -165

from vent, but when cut down to

si

viz.

165

151

267

obvious that the 1st species of the Dorian Harmonia,

10, finds its octave through Hole 8 of ratio 5/11.

With D-R. Mp.

'

182

163

Cents

of

10

11/11

the Hypolydian

as a contrast to the experience

played in the Aulos a fundamental of

-143, the

with

12

11

fundamental rose to ~^g> and the mp.

played in excellent tune and tone all the notes with ease, giving a more satisfactory
performance than
Mor. 1 ', which experienced some difficulty in negotiating
Holes 7 and 8.
With D-R. ' Mor. 3 ' pulled out to Mp. Ext. -122, the Aulos played the sequence
of the Phrygian Harmonia on B 12/64.
'

23456

Phrygian Sequence
Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

Mp.
1

The

'

Mor. 3

11

151

Cents

4- -015.

12/12

'

10

165

182

204

78

231

24

experienced some difficulty in playing holes 7 and

distance between Holes 6 to 8 measures one

I.D. -028 and

13

128

is

138-5
8.

divided into -013

THE GREEK AULOS

434

LORET X
Turin Museum, No.

3 Fingerholes

6.

Second Facsimile, by K. S.

5/11/35

This Aulos plays in the Mixolydian Harmonia of M.D. 14 from Exit.

MEASUREMENTS
R.L. from

emb.

exit to

emb.
at emb. -007

C. of Hole

-518

L. from C. of Hole

= -432
= -392

C. of Hole 2 from emb.

C. of Hole 3 from emb.

-472
exit

(crushed)

I.D.

=-046
Hole 1
from C. of Hole 1 = -040
from C. of Hole 2 = -040

to

at

FINGERHOLES
from emb. = -472 from exit to C. of
;

'0045

3)

126
042

Increment of Distance (mean)

or practical

=
=

-042
'040

THE MOUTHPIECES
D-R. Mp.
B-R. Mp.
norm.

13

A -004
X. 5 '. L. 144
X.\ L. -167
D. -0025

'

'

D
20

gl.

Mp. Ext. -056.

T.W. -002. Proper

note

64

64

B-R. Mp.
B-R. Mp.
D-R. Mp.
Ext. -070

V.L. -050
T.L. -038

(i.e.

X. 4'.

'

X.
X.

'

'

7'.

mean =

I.D.

A
A
A

L. -133;
L. -134
L. -118
;

'.

T.L. -04; T.W. -0015.

-0035;

T.W. -002.
-0035
-006 emb.
exit -004

-042 x 14

-588

-518

V.L. -060

at

Mp.

-070).

PERFORMANCE
With D-R. Mp.
at

Mp.

Ext. -056

'

X. 5

'

the Aulos plays in the Mixolydian

Harmonia M.D. 14

~,

on

128

With B-R. Mp.

'

X.' the Aulos plays on

G
14

with fine resonant tone in tune.

64

The Mixolydian Harmonia.

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

'

H.

Exit

14/14

Tetrachord

13

128

Cents

With B-R. Mp.

1st

12

138-5

X. 4', the Aulos plays the sequence

11

151
as

E
19

with
4

above on

full rich tone.

With B-R.
all

'

X.

',

the Aulos plays at

Mp.

Ext. -065 (with

mean

I.D. -040),

fine rich notes.

With D-R.

'

X. D', the Aulos plays the Mixolydian tetrachord on

D20

at

Mp.

120

Ext. -070.

FINAL REMARKS

The great length of the Aulos and the wide I.D., together with the narrow bore
of the Aulos, contribute to determine and limit the modality at 14 increments (M.D.
The I.D. could not be less with a Mp. Ext. of -070. To try 16
14) Mixolydian.
as

M.D. would render

the length unmanageable and the resulting sequence, 16, 15,

Thus Loret
may be pronounced a Mixolydian Aulos.
not be forgotten that with a Beating-reed mp., the compass could be

14, 13, meaningless.

It will

RECORDS OF AULOI

435

extended to an octave, by repeating the tetrachord, 14, 13, 12,

on the dominant,
this device produces a scale
through shortening the vibrating tongue by a 3rd
which destroys the modality of the Harmonia by the repetition of the 1st tetrachord
instead of proceeding with the 2nd 10, 9, 8, 7, that would, of course, require four
more fingerholes. The Arabian practice at the present day still regards such scales
as pure Modes, and those of the Harmonia as mixed, a point of view with far-reaching
;

implications,

which

LORET
Museum No.

Turin
2 Facsimiles

by

are a revelation of the course followed

made by K.

S. xii

their musical evolution.

XII
4 Fingerholes

8.

and 12 (made during

War

the

while materials mere

scarce)

This Aulos plays in the Hypodorian Harmonia

MEASUREMENTS
from exit to
emb.
-450
R.L. from C. of Hole
1 to emb.
-403
A at emb. -005 at exit

at

Mp.

Ext. -059 and also at -078.

FINGERHOLES

R.L.

C.
C.
C.
C.

= -403
= -367
= -337
of Hole 4 from emb. = -304
of Hole

from emb.

of Hole 2 from emb.

of Hole 3 from emb.

;
;

I.D.

= -047
from exit
from C. of Hole 1 =-036
from C. of Hole 2 = -030
from C. of Hole 3 =-033

(mean) from exit -036

Hole 1 -033

036

-033

(A).
(B).

N.B. When playing the Aulos from Hole 1, the 1st I.D. from exit
and the mean (B), derived from the Holes only, is used in computation.

D-R.
D-R.
B-R.
B-R.

-033
3 >99

S constant at -004

of Distance

-030

4 )' 146

004

Increment

-036

is

omitted,

THE MOUTHPIECES
Mp. 12 F.'. L. -134 A at exit -0035 emb. -004.
A -004.
Mp. 12 F. 16
L. -149
Mp. X. L. -108 A -0035 T.L. -035 T.W. -002.
Mp. E3. L. -166 A -0035; T.L. -034; T.W. -002.
'

'

'.

PERFORMANCE
With D-R. Mp.

'

12 F.' from

exit,

the Aulos plays at

Mp.

Ext. -078

on

F
1

in the

16

28

Hypodorian Harmonia.

The Hypodorian Modal Sequence

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes
.

The same D-R. Mp.

Mp.

tune and readily, at

ii/ii, 10,

9,

8,

on

Exit

16/16

12 F.'

'

14

231

Cents

from C. of Hole

Ext. -059 in the Dorian

12

13

128

138-5

11

151

as Vent plays the Aulos in good

Harmonia 1st tetrachord of ratios
1

-.
128

D-R. Mp. 12 F. 16 repeats the performance of 12 F.'.

B-R. Mp. X. plays in the Aulos at Mp. Ext. -078 the Hypodorian tetrachord
'

from

exit

on

64

A- 13

'

'

THE GREEK AULOS

436

B-R. Mp. E 3 also plays in the Aulos the Hypodorion Sequence as above
with a fine musical tone.
'

'

LORET
Museum No.

British

Wooden
Facsimile

XIII
4 Fingerholes

6385.

flute

1917

made by K. S. {mottled bamboo)

This Aulos plays in the Mixolydian Harmonia from Exit.

MEASUREMENTS
R.L. from exit to emb.

exit -017

FINGERHOLES
C.
C.
C.
C.

-440

emb. -014

8 constant at 006

of Hole

from emb. = -400

I.D.

from exit
='040
from C. of Hole 1 =-035
from C. of Hole 2 = 033
from C. of Hole 3 = -0345

= -365
= -332
of Hole 4 from emb. = -297S
of Hole 2 from emb.
of Hole 3 fromemb.

;
;

4H25
0356

Increment

of Distance

(mean) -0356
useful -036

036 x 14

+ Mp.

R.L. -440

-504

=
Ext.

SI
-507
'

007 =

THE MOUTHPIECES
D-R. Mp.

Mp.

'

xiii

D.' wheat straw, untreated

L. -131

-005

V.L. -059

at

Ext. -076.

D-R. Mp.
D-R. Mp.
067

'

'

xiii

xiii

A '005 at Mp. Ext. -067.

G. 14 '. Untreated
L. -091
Untreated
A 007 V.L. -057 at Mp. Ext.
B.'.
L. -162
;

F 17

12S

glottis

proper note norm.

note

C11

120

PERFORMANCE
With D-R. Mp.

'

xiii

D.

',

the Aulos plays on

in tne Mixolydian

Harmonia

in tune but in a husky, unmusical tone, owing to the wide diameter of resonator
in relation to that of mp. which necessitated the addition of a socket to fit the resona-

The socket consists of a short length of bamboo = -040, fitting tightly into
the embouchure, and extruding by -007
the mp. shank passes through this socket
and is firmly held. (Cf. Chirimia of the Indians of Mexico, presented by Miss
Marian Storm [Chap, ii, Plate 10].)
tor.

1234

The Mixolydian Sequence

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

Exit

14/14

With B-R. Mp.

G
14

G. 14

xiii

'

in tune as above.

The

'

12

13

128

Cents

138-5

(untreated), the Aulos, at

tone

less

husky, but

still

10

11

151

Mp.

165
Ext. -067, played on

rough and unmusical.

64

With D-R. Mp.

'

xiii

B.

',

the Aulos played at

Mp.

Ext. -067 on

B 12

64

the sequence as above.

in tune

RECORDS OF AULOI

437

LORET XV
Turin No. 10.

8 Fingerholes

made by K.

Facsimile

S., Feb.,

MEASUREMENTS
435
369

L. Hole 1 to emb.
A -008 at exit and emb.
8 -004 constant

Exit.

FINGERHOLES
(The distances

R.L. exit to emb.

1934

Harmonia M.D. 18 from

Plays in the Hypophrygian

Hole 1
Hole 2
Hole 3
Hole 41
,>
thumb ,back J
C. of Hole s
C. of Hole 6
C. of Hole 7
C. of Hole 8
C.
C.
C.
C.

;.

of
of
of
of

are

I.D.

Hole)

to centre of

from emb. = 369

from emb. = 342
from emb. = 316

from exit
=-o66
from C. of Hole 1 = -027
from C. of Hole 2 = -026

from emb. = 284

from C. of Hole

from emb.

emb. =
emb. =
emb. =
emb. =

from
from
from
from

from Exit

Hole

to

from
from
from
from

257
232
206
174

C.
C.
C.
C.

of
of
of
of

=-032

Hole 4 = -027
Hole 5 = -025
Hole 6 = -026
Hole 7 = -032

two increments

9)-26i

029

Increment

of Distance

Mp. =

Ext. of

-087

+ -435

R.L.

522

M.D. 18

-029 (mean)

029 x 18

and

-522

Hypophrygian

MOUTHPIECES
D-R. Mp.
proper note

D-R. Mp.
at

xv

'

...
V.L. -059

(c)

256

xv

'

L. -181

'.

(d)

= F 17

v.p.s.

D-R. Mp.

'

17

note

and

exit -0055

normal

D 20.

emb. -005

V.L. -077

-007 exit;

256

L. -188

'.

at

glottis

proper normal note

D 20

V.L. -070

128

F
oS 8 =

emb.

-006

C =

128

xv

'

-I

S6

and emb. -006 (round);

exit

at

V.L.

L. -154;

T.L.

normal proper note of mp.

128

B-R. Mp. E. 18'. River

A -004.
T.W. -003
039
'

Mp.

reed, blue seal;

Ext. -087;

PERFORMANCE
With D-R.
at

M.D.

'

xv

(c)

'

at

Mp.

Ext. -087 plays

on

18 in the Hypophrygian Harmonia on

C = 128
C 11

v.p.s.

Played in Aulos

in tune with

Monochord.

128

The

about two I.D.s from exit and Hole 8 at -261 from emb.,
the length of resonator + Mp. Ext. which falls to ratio 9.

1st hole is at

at half

is

exactly

The Modal Sequence

Fingerholes

Exit

Ratios and Notes

octave

is

16

204

Cents

The

Hi

18/18

actually played

15

112

14

119-4

on Ratio 9

at

due to diameter) because there are 9 increments.

Hole 8

12

13

128

138-5

165

182

any influence
be seen that the Resonator

(regardless of

It will

10

11

151

THE GREEK AULOS

438

has a length of -435 + Mp. Ext. -087 = -522, half of which = -261 '087 = -174,
which marks the actual distance of the C. of Hole 8 from emb.
With D-R. Mp. xv (d) '. At V.L. -059 the proper normal note is
17, but at

'

120

V.L. -070 the mp. plays in the Aulos on

Mp.

12, in the

Ext. -087, the sequence given above in tune with

With D-R. Mp.

xv

'

'

at

Mp. Ext.

-087, the

Hypophrygian Harmonia

at

monochord, and the octave

Aulos plays the whole sequence

and sounds the octave clearly.

With B-R. Mp. E. 18 ', cut from a river reed, the Aulos played staccato, in
tune, the Modal Sequence as far as Hole 5, but could not be coaxed to continue
further in tune.
The interval of the 4th is the useful limit for the B-R. Mp., although
sometimes Hole 6 would sound ratio 11.

in tune

'

LORET XVI
Reed Pipe.

Paris, Louvre, E. 5404.

Facsimile

4 Fingerholes

made by K. S.

This Aulos plays from Vent (H. I.) in the Dorian Harmonia
and in the Phrygian at Mp. Ext. -087.

MEASUREMENTS
R.L. from exit to emb.

400

L. from C. of Hole

-309

-004

A
S1

emb. -005
and 8 2 -006

exit

S3

and S 4 -005

C. of Hole

Mp.

Ext. -060

= -272
= -2415
= -2105

I.D.

=-091

C. of Hole 2 from emb.

C. of Hole 3 from emb.
C. of Hole 4 from emb.

at

FINGERHOLES
from emb. = '309 from exit

from C. of Hole 1 ='037

from C. of Hole 2 = -0305
from C. of Hole 3 =-031

3)'Qo85

0328

Increment

of Distance

(mean) 0328
Useful I.D. -033

THE MOUTHPIECES
D-R. Mp.

Mp.

R. R'. Wheat stalk, fine silica, untreated (y).

V.L. -080
proper normal note C = 128.

'

Ext. -087

D-R. Mp.

L. -141

-003

'.

L. '137

-003

V.L. '061

normal proper note

17
'

256
gl.

128

Mp.

D-R. Mp.

'

Z. 7

'

Ext. -087.

H.8

L. -145

'.

-003

V.L. 061

Mp.

Ext. -087

norm.

Fin
256

D-R.
D-R.
D-R.
B-R.
note

L. -159
A '003.
Mp. R. 8
Mp. V. 3 ii'- L. -188 A -0035.
Mp. D. 1 (see Aulos xxi).
Mp. No. xvi. L. -098 A exit -003
'

'.

'

'

'

12/64;

T.L. -033

T.W.

-0023

proper

fine tone.

PERFORMANCE
With D-R. Mp.

'

R. R'.

Plays from Vent in Aulos at

Mp.

Ext. -087

on

12

128
at

V.L. '073

in the Phrygian

diameter of Mp.).

Harmonia

in tune, but

subdued tone (due

to narrow

RECORDS OF AULOI

439

The Phrygian Modal Sequence

H.

Fingerhoies
Ratios and Notes

12/12

Cents

With D-R. Mp.

Z. 7

'

The Aulos

'.

10

11

182

165

151

plays, as above,

B 12

on

Mp.

Ext. -087

Mp.

Ext. '087.

at

128
in tune.

With D-R. Mp.

H. 8

'

The Aulos

'.

plays, as above,

on

iz

at

128

Tone a little stronger.

With D-R. Mp. R. 8
'

at

Mp.

With D-R. Mp.

The Aulos

'.

128

on

Ext. -087,

and

Mp.

plays, as above, in the

on

Ext. -060

Phrygian Harmonia

in the

Dorian Harmonia.

256

V. 3

'

at

The Aulos

'.

Mp.

plays at

Ext. -087

on

in the

128

Phrygian Harmonia from Hole

Harmonia on

both with a

77.

as

above

fine,

and

at

Mp.

Ext. -060 in the Dorian

musical tone.

128

With D-R. Mp.

'

D. 1

Aulos plays on

(treated reed), the

'

at

Mp.

Ext.

64
sequence

087, the

as above.

With B-R. Mp. No.

xvi, the

Aulos plays in the Phrygian Harmonia on

128

The same Mp.

the sequence as above.

monia on

F
16

with
64

plays at

Mp.

Ext. -052 in the Dorian Hat-

a fine resonant tone, as below.

The Dorian Sequence (from

Fingerhoies
Ratios and Notes

H.

11/11

LORET

6416

10

165

Cents

Vent) on

4
8 (Mcse)

182

204

XVIII

Leyden I No. 479.

(4 Fingerhoies)
in 192$

K. S.

Facsimile by

11

This Aulos plays best from Vent in the Lydian Harmonia M.D. 13 on -7
64
it

Phrygian Harmonia

will also play in the

M.D.

12 on

likewise from

Hole

1.

64

MEASUREMENTS

FINGERHOLES

R.L. from exit to emb.

-397

L. from C. of Hole

-305

-005

A
A

at

emb.

at exit -0035 8 -003 to -0045;

C. of Hole

from emb. = -305

C. of Hole 2 from emb. = -272

C. of Hole 3 from emb. = -243
C. of Hole 4 from emb. = '215

from

I.D.
exit

=-092

from C. of Hole 1 =-033

from C. of Hole 2 = -029
from C. of Hole 3 = 028
3) -Q9

030

Increment
I.D.
I.D.

x 13

x 12

of Distance

=
=

-390
-360

(mean) -030

and practical -030

-305 + Mp. Ext. -085 =
-305 + Mp. Ext. -055 =

'390.

-360.

THE GREEK AULOS

44

THE MOUTHPIECES AND THEIR PERFORMANCE

With D-R. Mp.
V.L. -060

CI. 5

'

L. -130 reduced to -120

'.

proper note

17

note

gl.

A
13
-

Harmonia, M.D.

13

from Vent

at

Mp.

A emb.

-004

exit -005

plays in the Aulos in the Lydian

128

250

Ext. -085 and V.L. -060, on

A 13
~

(the glottis

128
note of the mp.) in perfect tune with modal piano. Tested Jan. 4, 1934.
With D-R. N. 8'. L. -155 ; A emb. round -0035 ; proper note at V.L.
'

060

P iy

note

gl.

With D-R. Mp.

V.L. -045

proper note

Harmonia on

L. -172

'.

120^

Mp.

at

128

the Aulos played at once in tune.

D. 1

'

-003 (flattened

V.L. -060062

at

Tested Jan.

by treatment

P^ys

128

1934.

8,

to -006) at

in the

Ext. -085, and at V.L. -080, in perfect tune.

Lydian
Tested

Jan. 8, 1932.

B-R. Mp.

-0035

made

xviii

T.L. 035

to supersede xviii

T.W. 0025

and B in October, 1930.

proper note

L. -150

plays in the Aulos at

Mp.

256

on

Ext. -085

A 13

in tune with

modal piano.

Tested Oct., 1930.

128

The

other two

B-R. mp.s bearing the same number (Roman) were not satisfactory in this Aulos.
xviii A
could not be pushed into the resonator farther than -060
and xviii B
'

'

when

did not speak freely until later

carefully

lengthened the Tongue to '032, clearing

on the underside, then the mp. improved greatly and spoke

freely

on

it

B
12

64

The Lydian Harmonia,

234

1st Tetrachord

Vent

Fingerholes

Ratios and Notes

13/13

Cents

12

138-5

10

11

165

151

LORET XIX
British

K.

Facsimile by

The Aulos
v.p.s.

and on

Museum No.

S., Feb., ig34-

plays at

12

Mp.

6388.

3 Fingerholes

One experimental

hole added at -031 from exit

Harmonia on

Ext. -104 in the Hypodorian

C=

128

from

exit.

32

MEASUREMENTS

FINGERHOLES
(The distances

R.L. from exit to

emb.

A
8

at exit

-392

and emb. -005

constant at

The

-003

C.
C.
C.
C.

addition of the Hole

0305;

are

f'o6i

LA.

=
=
=
=

3005
361
2675
2385

j;

-033;

of Distance -0307
ueeful I.D. -031

-029

I.D.

to centre of Holes)
;

from exit
=-0915
=-061
from exit
from C. of Hole 1 =-033
=-029
from Hole 2

gives the I.D. as follows

(two I.D.j

Average Increment

from emb.

of Hole 1 from emb.

of Hole 1 (added by K. S.)
of Hole 2 from emb.
of Hole 3 from emb.

Total sViS35

0307

RECORDS OF AULOI
D-R. Mp.
05s

'

proper normal note

=F

17
-

'

441

-104

with

glottis action

128

B-R. Mp.
norm.

xix C. 16

'

THE MOUTHPIECES
(untreated) at Mp. Ext.

L. -206

-006

V.L.

13
'

64

Z. 2' (oat straw).

L. -179

T.L. -038

T.W.

-003

-005

12

32

Scheme

of Aulos division I.D. 16

H. 1a

H.

H. 2

H.

061

Exit-

L. -392

(0305)

L
16/16

15

Ratios

at -0915

029

033

12

13

11

PERFORMANCE
Mp. Ext. -104, the Aulos played on C = ia8
v.p.s. in the Hypodorian Harmonia of M.D. 16, the 1st tetrachord and the dominant
or tone of disjunction. The extra hole added at -0305 from Exit produced the
2nd step in the Harmonia, omitted in the original specimen which may have been
used as a Lydian pipe of M.D. 13
but this seems pointless, since the sequence
With D-R. Mp.

xix C. 16

'

',

at

from vent would

consist only of the three notes 13/13, 12, 11.

The Modal Sequence

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

(with added

H. 1a

16

15

13

12

11

(two I.D.|

16

Cents

The Sequence is
With B-R. Mp.

is

I38-5

247

151

played in tune with monochord

first tested March 13, 1934.
Z. 2 ', the Aulos played the sequence in tune as above on
;

'

12

the tone

2nd Step)

Exit

powerful, reedy and rich at

Mp.

Ext. -104.

32

The extra fingerhole added to the facsimile forms an illustration of scale-building

on the Aulos in order to produce a specified Harmonia. The addition of a fingerhole at one I.D. above exit is also a proof that no allowance for diameter in the
determination of the position of Hole 1 is needed on the Aulos although this
allowance is an absolute necessity on the Flute. (See Chap, vi and Flute Records

further on.)

LORET XXI
Ley den I No. 477. Reed. 4 Fingerholes
Facsimile made by K. S. in igi6

The Aulos plays in the Phrygian Harmonia M.D. 12 with D-R. Mp.s from
Vent, and with B-R. Mp.s in the dorian Harmonia M.D. 11. From exit the Aulos
plays in the hypodorian Harmonia M.D. 16.

MEASUREMENTS
R.L. from exit to emb.

-357

L. from emb. to C. of

Hole 1 as Vent
emb. -005 ; exit

-271

-004

FINGERHOLES
;

C.
C.
C.
C.

of
of
of
of

Hole 1 from emb. = -27i

Hole 2 from emb. = -240
Hole 3 from emb. = -2io
Hole 4 from emb. = -183

I.D.

from exit, 3 (I.D.) = -o86

from C. of Hole i = '03i
from C. of Hole 2 = -030
from C. of Hole 3 = -027
6 )-i74
029

THE GREEK AULOS

442

Increment

of Distance

I.D. -029

-029

'029

x ii =
X 12 =
X 16 =

L. from Vent -271

Mp.

-348

Ext. -077

-464

-348

The Dorian Harmonia is not suitable

Mp. for the Mp. Ext. is too short to
V.L. The B-R. mp.s are the best

R.L. '357

Mp.

(mean) -029.

-319

Ext. -107
464

for use with

D.R.

allow the necessary

for this

Harmonia

(see Performance).

THE MOUTHPIECES

A '003 flattened at emb. to

L. -172
(See Table viii, Chap, iii.)
and treated. L. -140 ; A -0045 flattened to
01 at emb.
very responsive after soaking for a couple of hours.
D-R. ' CI. 4 ', wheat stalk. L. '154 A -004 V.L. -060. Proper normal note
20
F 17
A 13
,
,
glottis notes
and

128
128
256
D-R. Mp. O. 1'. Mp. Ext. -080. L. -161 ; A -0035 ; V.L. -080
proper
note C = 256 v.p.s. ; at V.L. -060. F 17/128.
D-R. Mp. xxi B ', at Mp. Ext. -107 V.L. -6o L. '125 ; A -0035 emb., '004
D-R. Mp.

D. 1

'

treated wheat stalk.

',

number

006 plays in a

D-R. Mp.

'

of Auloi.

xxvii (a)

flattened

',

'

'

exit.

Tested March 30, 1934.

B-R. Mp. No. 12

C =

B-R. Mp.

128

L. -210 ; A 004 ; T.L. '037 ; T.W. -0025 ; proper

tone ; the T.L. was extended from -034 to -037.
L. -185
T.L. -032 T.W. -002 ; A -003. Tested

v.p.s., fine

K. 12

'

wheat.

',

'

note norm.

wheat.

',

March

30, 1934.
B-R. ' K. 12 ' also plays in the Dorian Harmonia at Mp. Ext. -050, but not quite
so successfully as No. 12
the Mp. is at its best in the Phrygian Harmonia.
It
will just play the Hypodorian.
;

PERFORMANCE
With D-R. Mp.

'

D. 1

from Vent on

',

at

Mp.

Ext. -077080 and at V.L. -060, the Aulos plays

in the Phrygian

Harmonia

at

120

Mp.

Ext. -080 in tune with

monochord.

The Phrygian Modal Sequence

Vent

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

12/12

Cents

With Mp.
Vent on

B
12

'

xxvii (a)

the

151
at -077

'

Modal Tonic,

Mp.

Ext.,

34

12n

and

at

10

165
V.L.

182

-060, the

Aulos plays from

in the Phrygian Harmonia, the Sequence as above.

64

With D-R. Mp.

on

'

CI.

4'

in the Phrygian

at

Mp.

Ext. -080, V.L. -060, the Aulos plays from Vent

Harmonia,

as above, in tune with

modal piano.

64

With D-R. Mp.

from Vent on

'

B 12
in

O. 1

',

at

Mp.

the Phrygian

Ext. -080 and at V.L. -060, the Aulos played

Harmonia

as

above

in tune with

modal piano.

120

With D-R. Mp. xxi. B ', at Mp. Ext. -107 and at V.L. -060, the Aulos plays
from Exit in the Hypodorian Harmonia M.D. 16, but in the 1st tetrachord, only the
two fixed notes, Tonic and 4th of ratios 16 and 12. I.D. -029 x 16 = -464 -357
The 1st Hole being at -086 from Exit, includes
(L. from Exit) = -107 Mp. Ext.
'

three I.D.

RECORDS OF AULOI

443

The Hypodorian Modal Sequence

H.

Fingerholes

Exit

Ratios and Notes

16/16

13

12

11

10

L_JH

Jl

II

(i S)

4)_l
128

Cents

B-R. Mp.

138-5

359-2

12, wheat.

Tested Nov.

165

151

Plays in Aulos on

1925.

8,

F
16

and

freely

64
with sonorous, musical tone, in the Dorian Harmonia from vent, at Mp.
Ext. -050, tested April 22, 1933, and March 29, 1934
the same mp., at extrusion
'77> plays also from Vent in the Phrygian Harmonia.
correctly,

B-R. Mp. K.12

'

'

plays

from Vent in the Aulos

at

Mp.

Ext. -077 on

B
12

in the

64
Phrygian Harmonia, freely with a strong, sonorous tone and with

less success in

the

Hypodorian from exit.

[I.D. -029 x 12 = -348 -271 = -077 Mp. Ext.]
Thus Aulos xxi (4 Holes) plays in three Harmoniai from Vent (Hole 1) in
the Dorian Harmonia with a B-R. mp. only, owing to the short Mp. Ext. The
Aulos plays in the Phrygian Harmonia with four D-R. mp.s at -077 Mp. Ext., and
with one D-R. Mp. (xxi B) in the Hypodorian Harmonia at Mp. Ext. '107.
:

LORET XXII
Museum No.

British

Bronze pipe

12742.

Loret
line,

states that

spoilt

flute is

4 Fingerholes

an inscription in Demotic of a single

by the oxidation of the metal.

The Aulos
in the

engraved on the

(or flute).

K. S.

Facsimile by

plays in the Mixolydian

Lydian Harmonia M.D. 13

at

M.D.

Mp.

14 at

Mp.

Ext. -105 on

14 and

11

Ext. -072

on

128

MEASUREMENTS
R.L. from exit to emb.

FINGERHOLES

-357
-013

C. of Hole 1 from
C. of Hole 2 from
C. of Hole 3 from
C. of Hole 4 from

S -006 constant

emb. =-318
emb. = -391
emb. = 260
emb. = -224

I.D.

from exit
='039
from C. of Hole 1 =-027
from C. of Hole 2 = 03
from C. of Hole 3 = 034
4)'i3i

03275

Increment

Distance (mean) '03275.

of

useful -033.

+
=

R.L. -357
033

14

-105

-462

14

M.D.

33

-462.

THE MOUTHPIECES
D-R. Mp.
at

V.L. '077

D-R. Mp.
D-R. Mp.

22
L.C. 128 '.
proper note =

'

Wheat

;
'

'

xxii.
xxii.

stalk

at

Mp.

Ext. -105

L. -143

-005

128 v.p.s.

G. 14 '. Wheat stalk, bound with thread

L. -164
C. 13 '. Wheat stalk
Mp. Ext. -072 L. -142 ; A
;

-006.

-005.

1.

THE GREEK AULOS

444

PERFORMANCE
With D-R.

22 L.C.

'

at

',

Mp.

Ext. -105, the Aulos plays on

Harmonia M.D. 14

the Mixolydian

C =

128 v.p.s. in

monochord.

in tune with

The Mixolydian Sequence

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

H.

Exit

14/14

With D-R.

xxii G. 14

'

',

Mp.

at

138-5

12

13

128

Cents

10

165

151

on

Ext. -105, the Aulos played

*^

V.L.

at

128

The

070 in the Mixolydian Harmonia.

With D-R. Mp.

xxii C. 13

'

at

',

tone was

Mp.

mp. needs more

the

soft,

practice.

on

Ext. -072, the Aulos played

in

128
the Lydian

Harmonia

good tune, and gave better

in

results than in the

Mixolydian

Sequence.

The Lydian Modal Sequence

Fingerholes

H.

Exit

Ratios and Notes

1385

Cents

11

10

12

13/13

165

151

4
9

182

LORET XXIV
Leyden I No. 478.

4 Fingerholes

K.

Facsimile by

S.,

1925

This Aulos plays from Vent in the Lydian Harmonia, M.D. 13,
D 20
A 13
and on
and
062 with mouthpieces of both types.
On
128
128

M.D.

090 in the Mixolydian Harmonia,

MEASUREMENTS

B
12

04

on

Mp.

Ext.

at

Mp.

Ext.

and on G
04

A
27

14

128

FINGERHOLES

R.L. from exit to emb. -353

R.L. from C. of Hole 1 to
-302
emb.
-005
A emb.

-0045

exit

on

14,

at

C. of Hole

from emb. = -302

C. of Hole 2 from emb.

C. of Hole 3 from emb.
C. of Hole 4 from emb.

= 275
= -248
= 219

from

I.D.

exit

osi

from C. of Hole 1 =-027

from C. of Hole 2 = -027
from C. of Hole 3 = 029

3)W
0276

Increment

of

Distance (mean) -0276

practical -028

=
=

028 x 13
028 x 14

-364
-392

-302

-302

= Mp.
= Mp.

Ext. -062.
Ext. -090.

THE MOUTHPIECES
D-R. Mp.
D-R. Mp.

D. 1

'

'

'

(treated).

xxvii (a)

note at V.L. -060

'

A '003 flattened to 'Oo6 ; V.L. 'o6o.

L. -172
A -0045 flattened to -oi ; proper
L. '140
;

(treated).

= F 17

128

D-R. Mp.
proper note

'

at

CI.

6' (untreated).

V.L. -079

11
=C

250

L. -200 cut to -161

14

gl.

128

'004 exit

-005

emb.

RECORDS OF AULOI
D-R. Mp.
at

R. 3

'

F
=

17
256

-060

A emb.

445

-004

Proper note

exit '005.

13

gl.

L. '119

(untreated).

'

fine tone.

128

PERFORMANCE
With B-R, Mp. No.

Aulos plays on

xxiv, the

in the

Lydian Harmonia,

128

from Vent

at

Mp.

Ext. '062 with a good firm tone in perfect tune and without hesi-

with monochord. Tested Nov. 9, 1925, and Nov. 6, 1930.

With B-R. Mp. R. 3 ', the Aulos plays the Lydian Harmonia

tation,

M.D.

'

13,

on

with a singularly fine powerful tone, due probably to the fine elastic texture
128
of the straw, and to the fact that the mp. is in the octave relation of resonance with
the fundamental of the resonator on

Aw

128

With D-R. Mp.

CI. 6

'

M.D.

Mixolydian Harmonia

1st tetrachord,

14,

on

G14

Mp.

(at

Ext. -090 in the

V.L

-079.

Proper

128

and...

C
note

(untreated), the Aulos plays at

'

11

note

glottis

14.

128

256

...

in perfect tune with the

)
'

...

modal piano.

Tested

Jan. 6, 1934.

This same mp. 'CI. 6 also plays at Mp. Ext. -065 in the Lydian Harmonia
13 on A 13, V.L. -075. Tested Jan. 6, 1934, in tune with piano (for modal
sequence, see Loret xviii).
Since this mp. played in Aulos xxiv in both Harmoniai on their own Tonics as
species of the Dorian Harmonia and therefore in unison with modal piano, a special
test was carried out, giving one breath to each note, while keeping the thumb nail
at the correct V.L. in each case, for the whole sequence.
When the M.D. is the
next in arithmetical succession, the difference in the intervals is slight and a rigid
test becomes necessary.
'

M.D.

D-R. Mp.

xxvii (a) gave a similar result in the Mixolydian

Harmonia on

A
27
64

at

Mp.

Ext. -090

and V.L.

-060.

LORET XXV
Paris,

Louvre No.

The Aulos

Reed

5404.

Facsimile by
plays in the Mixolydian

K.

'351

-005

-0055

emb. -006

S -006

exit

pipe.

3 Fingerholes

1934

Harmonia M.D. 14 from

MEASUREMENTS
R.L. from exit to emb.

S.,

Exit.

FINGERHOLES
= -291 from exit

C. of Hole 1 from emb.

C. of Hole 2 from emb.
C. of Hole 3 from emb.

= '253
= -222

I.D.

=-o6o
from C. of Hole 1 =-038
from C. of Hole 2 = -031
4)-i29

0322

Increment

(mean) -0322.
Useful I.D. -032

of Distance

THE MOUTHPIECES
D-R.

'

xxv G. 14

note at V.L. -058

'.

Wheat

17
~.
120

L. -140

exit -006

emb. 'Oo8

proper normal

THE GREEK AULOS

446

Wheat straw

D-R. xxv

L. -172

A emb.

'006

exit -005

proper normal

= F17

note at V.L. -058

128

R.L.

+ Mp.

351

Ext.

097

.448

-448

M.D.

14

'033

-032 X 14

-448.

PERFORMANCE
With D-R. xxv

G. 14

'

at

',

Mp.

Ext. -097

on

14
-,

the Aulos played in the

120

Mixolydian Harmonia M.D. 14 in tune with modal piano and monochord. The
centre of Hole 1 is at about two I.D.s (within a few mm.) from exit and the Aulos
has no difficulty in playing the septimal 3rd 14/12 and the short sequence as follows
:

The Modal Sequence

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

at

Mp.

12

10

165

151

267

Cents

With D-R. Mp. xxv

as

H.

Exit

14/14

Ext. -098, the Aulos played on

D20 the

128

sequence

above in tune and with sonorous tone.

B-R MOUTHPIECES

B-R. '25 Z:
097

D 20

B-R.
on

Z. 2'.

'

L. -131;

(14).

proper note

28

plays

L. -169

-006;

T.L. -045;

Aulos on

Of

A
27

T.W. -0035; Mp.

Ext.

great power.

04
;

T.L. -039

T.W.

-003

Mp.

Ext. '097 plays in Aulos

C 11

64

B-R.

AA

-004

'

'.

norm.

Plays in Aulos on

Reed.

14

L. -139

T.L. '038

T.W.

-003

27
'

64

B-R.

blue seal mp.

trij
of river reed.
'

Plays in Aulos on

14

L. -154

T.L. -039

64

T.W.

-003

-006

PERFORMANCE

The performance with these 4 B-R. mp.s in the Aulos was noticeably more
powerful in tone
but the intonation was not so certain as with the D-R. mp.s.
Knowing the sequence one could get the note exactly in tune on opening the fingerhole but the B-R. mp. is the artist rather than law-giver.
;

LORET XXVI
Leyden I No. 480.

3 Fingerholes

Facsimile by K. S.
a crack about ij inches appeared at emb. and has been
repaired with brown bands and blue linen thread and is now airtight.
;

This Aulos plays from Exit in the Mixolydian Harmonia on

G
14

and

64

D
20
-7
64

and

27

64

also

on

RECORDS OF AULOI
MEASUREMENTS
-322

A emb.

-005

-0045

A.

exit

447

FINGERHOLES

R.L. from exit to emb.

-292
C. of Hole i from emb.
C. of Hole 2 from emb. =-264
C. of Hole 3 from emb. =-236

I.D.

=-030
from exit
from C. of Hole 1 =-028
from C. of Hole 2 = -028

3 )'o86

0286

of Distance (mean) 0286

practical -028

Increment

I.D. -028 x 14

-392.

-392

-322

Mp.

-070

Ext.

THE MOUTHPIECES
D-R. Mp.
V.L. -050

L. -140

xxvii (treated).

D-R. Mp.

Proper note

V.L.

17

and

176 v.p.s. (now

L. -098
xxvi.

B-R. Mp.

T.L. -034

C21

glottis

and

at

A 27

128

356

-070.

-0035
slightly cracked).
;

proper note

128

'

flattened -oi

(untreated).

CI. 0

16

-0045

-.
12a

A -003
L. -200 reduced to -161
B-R. xxvi No. 4 '. L. -154

T.L. -032

T.W.

T.W.

-0025

proper note

-002 (exit slightly crushed

no

importance).

D-R. Mp.
note

C =

'

V. 2

F 17
also at

256
256

(untreated).

'

L. -206

-0035 wide oval

and

.F 17

same V.L. the octave below

with

V.L. -060

glottis action a

proper
strong

128

v.p.s.

D-R. Mp.
proper note

Y. 1

'

C =

L. -181

(untreated).

'

256

v.p.s.,

strong tone

emb.

-0045

-004 exit

V.L. -060

also at

V.L. -079

17

PERFORMANCE
With D-R.

'

CI. 9

',

the Aulos plays from exit at V.L. -070, and with

Mp.

Ext.

needs a little
Mixolydian tetrachord on ^-77 the four notes in tune
128
coaxing at first, otherwise good. Tested April 28, 1933, and May 23, 1933. The
mp. is now fixed in Aulos, airtight. Tested March 8, 9, 11, 1933.
With B-R. Mp. xxvi, No. 4 ', the Aulos played the Mixolydian tetrachord
and the next day on D ao, with
in correct intonation on E 19, tested Nov. 5, 1925
Mp. Ext. -070, in tune with modal piano.
070, the

'

14
with a full, rich
With B-R. Mp. xxvi,
64
tone in tune with modal piano.
With D-R. Mp. xxvii, the Aulos plays at Mp. Ext. -080 and V.L. -050 the Mixoly27
Changing the V.L. to -069, proved
All in perfect tune.
dian Tetrachord on
the Aulos plays on

its

own Tonic

64

adverse

13
the ratio of Hole

was raised to

11
20
and Hole 3 from
to

25

28

14
there was wobbling.

14

The Mixolydian Tetrachord

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes
Cents

Exit

H.

14/14

128

138-5

3
11

12

151

20

at

Hole

THE GREEK AULOS

448

LORET XXVII
Turin No. 12.
Facsimile by

The Aulos
from

M.D.

emb.

from Vent, but

also

I.D.
(Distances from emb. to Centre of Hole.)
C. of Hole

C.
C.
C.
C.
C.

-278

-006
-004 constant

Increment

14,

16.

FINGERHOLES

R.L. from exit to emb.

-320
R.L. from C. of Hole 1 to

xxvii in 1925

Hypodorian Harmonia M.D.

exit in the

MEASUREMENTS

6 Fingerholes

K. S.

plays best in the Mixolydian Harmonia,

of
of
of
of
of

from emb. = 278

Hole 2 from emb. = 253

Hole 3 from emb. = 229
Hole 4 from emb. = 206
Hole 5 from emb.
182
Hole 6 from emb. = -155

;
;

from

exit

from
from
from
from
from

C.
C.
C.
C.
C.

of
of
of
of
of

='042
Hole 1 =-025
Hole 2 = -024
Hole 3 = -023
Hole 4=-o24
Hole 5 =-027

from Vent
(mean) -0275 from Exit.

of Distance (mean) -0246

Practical I.D.

Vent

X 14

-025

-350
-278

I.D.

-072

Mp.

Ext.

THE MOUTHPIECES
D-R. Mp.
to -oi

proper note norm.

L. -140

-0045 flattened at

F 17
128

A -004 round
R. 6 '. L. -158
fine satiny wheat stalk
normal note F 17
norm. C = 256 v.p.s.
at V.L. -075

D-R. Mp.
o6o-'64

V.L. -06065

xxvii (A) (treated).

'

emb.

'

Z. 1

'

L. -142

'.

at

V.L.

D-R. Mp.

-0035

V.L.

at -079

proper note

11

the

250
results are only passable in the Aulos.

A -003 flattened to -006 V.L. -062

L. -172
(for performance of this mp. in various Auloi see Chap, iii, Table viii).
D-R. Mp. H. 7'. Firm wheat, silica striped. L. -142; A -0045 round;
F 17
tt T
gl. note A 13

V.L,. -065
proper note
128
256
D-R. Mp.

D. J

'

'

(treated).

'

D-R. Mp.

F 17

and

also

and

at

D-R. Mp.
gl.

R.g'.

'

'

V.L. 075

H. 6

13

L. -158

'.

-004 round

proper note

L. -in

proper note

C=

-0045 round

at

060

17

250

256

v.p.s.

proper note

at -060

13

gl.

Tested June

120
10, 1933.

D 20

17

256

256

Fine strong tone.

128

D-R. Mp.
and

13

128

'

O. 6'.

L. -135

-004

V.L. -060

proper note

17
;

20

gl.

the best note, mellow and easy.

PERFORMANCE
D-R. Mp.

'

R. 6',

at

Mp.

Ext. -115 and V.L. -068, plays in the Aulos

on

G ~

14

125

;
;

RECORDS OF AULOI
Hypodorian Harmonia M.D. 16

mp.

B-R. Mp.

'

Aulos xxvii on

will also play in

449

at

V.L.

-074.

120
of hard thick reed, with sealing-wax on base.

'

47

at

Mp.

Ext. -063

plays in Aulos at

Mp.

Ext. -068

in the Mixolydian
128
notes in tune with modal piano. D-R.

all

Proper note

on

plays in Aulos the whole sequence at normal breath

Harmonia M.D. 14

this

12

356

'

Monochord

notes in good tune with

all

on

12

Harmonia M.D.

in the Mixolydian

64

Tested June

14.

With D-R. Mp. D.

4 holes

and

at

and again June

10, 1933,

at

Mp.

Mp.

V.L. -062

found correct

30, 1933 for pitch,

Ext. -065, V.L. -045 the Aulos played

at

12
B
7

04

Ex. -090 played in Mixolydian on

on

15

only

20 the whole series

and in tune.

strong, steady

Mixolydian Sequence M.D. 14

Fingerholes

H.

Ratios and Notes

14/14

13

12

11

10

128

Cents

138-5

165

151

182

The

majority of these mouthpieces play in Aulos xxvii the modal sequence as

above at Mp. Ext. '068.

Hypodorian Sequence M.D. 16

Fingerholes

H.

Exit

Ratios and Notes

16/16

15)

13

12

11

10

14}

Only D-R. Mp.

'

R. 6

plays the full sequence

'

or on

128

128

LORET

XXVIII

Paris, Louvre {unnumbered).

Facsimile by

6 Fingerholes

K.

S.

This Aulos plays from Exit in the Mixolydian Harmonia with a Mp. Ext. of

-078.

MEASUREMENTS

I.D.

FINGERHOLES
(The distances

R.L. from exit to emb.

A at emb.

on

at exit

Mp.

300

006
007

078

Ext.

C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.

of Hole
of Hole
of Hole
of Hole
of Hole
of Hole

all

from emb.

from emb. ='2735

2 from emb. =2475
3 from emb. = 2185
4 from emb. = 1905
5 from emb. = 1665;
6 from emb. =1415
1

to centre of Hole.)

from
from
from
from
from
from

= 0265
C. of Hole = 026
C. of Hole 2 029
C. of Hole 3 = 028
C. of Hole 4 = 024
C. of Hole 5 = 025
exit

6)-i 5 8 S

0264

Increment
I.D. -027

of Distance (mean) -0264

practical -027.

x 14

-378

-378

-300

= Mp.

Ext. -078.

THE MOUTHPIECES
D-R. Mp.

xxvii (wheat, treated).

note at V.L. -055

17

-.
128

L. -140

A emb.

-0045 flattened -oi

proper

THE GREEK AULOS

450
D-R. Mp. 'Cl.3'

L. -158

(untreated).

-004

V.L. -065

proper note

F
17
-~.
128

B-R. Mp.

L. -168

E. 5

'

-0035 exit

-0025 emb.

T.L. -030

T.W.

0025.

B-R. Mp.
042

T.W.

D. 7

'

Oaten

'.

L. -124

stalk.

exit -0035

emb. knot

T.L.

-0025.

PERFORMANCE
With Mp. D-R.

with monochord.

With D-R. Mp.

from

xxvii, plays

078 (and also at -067)

A 27
with

on

64
Tested Feb.

4,

exit in the
a

Mixolydian Harmonia

at

Mp.

Ext.

good, strong tone, every note in perfect tune

1933.

CI. 3 (untreated), plays from exit in the Aulos the Mixolydian

14
in tune with modal piano.
N.B.
14 is the Tonic of the
128
Mixolydian Species of the Dorian Harmonia to which the piano is tuned. Tested
March 8, 1933. A 2nd test, March 9, 1933, revealed the tone weak at first, but
with perseverance the Aulos again played on
14 ; Hole 6 was at first difficult
but the note came true and clear with the lips close up to emb., i.e. with a longer
V.L. Tested April 28, 1933.
With B-R. E. 5 ', the Aulos plays the whole sequence on
14 = 100 v.p.s.

Harmonia on

'

'

'

With B-R.

down many

modal piano.

Tested Nov. 5 and 6, 1925.

used with Elgin A), the Aulos gave similar results up and
times in tune with piano also.

quite correctly with

D. 7

'

'

(also

Mixolydian Sequence from Exit

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

H.

Exit

14/14

138-5

12

13

128

Cents

10

11

151

182

165

Mese

204

LORET XXX
No

Louvre.

Brownish black reed.

number.

Facsimile by

K.

S., Feb. 28,

5 Holes

ig34

Harmonia Mixolydian M.D. 14 from exit at Mp. Ext. in.

Harmonia Lydian M.D. 13 from exit at Mp. Ext. -075.

MEASUREMENTS

FINGERHOLES
(The distances

Length of Aulos R.
exit to emb.
A of bore emb. -004

-263

at exit

-0035

C.
C.
C.
C.
C.

of Hole

of Hole
of Hole
of Hole
of Hole

2
3

4
5

L.
L.
L.
L.
L.

are

I.D.

from emb.

from emb. =
from emb. =
from emb. =
from emb. =
from emb. =

2285
198
173
148
126

to centre of Holes)

L. from exit

dist.

dist.

dist.

dist.

from
from
from
from

=-0345
=-0305

Hole 1
Hole 2 = -025
Hole 3 = -025
Hole 4 = -022

5)-i37

0274

Increment

of Distance

D-R. Mp. xxx A.

060

norm.

Wheat

(mean) -027.
straw, untreated.

L.

149

A =

-004

V.L.

17

256

In Aulos at Mp. Ext.

L. of resonator
+

in

'374

263

027 (I.D.)

374

!4>

Mixolydian Modal Determinant

at

RECORDS OF AULOI
Mp.

In Aulos at

Ext.

-088

-351

-263

L. of resonator

451

Lydian Modal Determinant

13

02 y (I.D.)

35i

PERFORMANCE
With D-R. Mp. xxx A
'

(1)

Determinant

from

',

AtMp.Ex.

exit.

the Aulos had as

G14

Modal

in the tonality proper

120

Mixolydian species of the Dorian Harmonia on

to the

1 1 1

and played the Mixolydian Harmonia on

14,

(as

on

my

modal

piano).

Modal Sequence
H.

Fingerholes

Exit

Ratios and Notes

14/14

Played in tune with modal piano

(2)

With D-R. Mp.

rejected for -088.

xxx

'

The M.D.

The Aulos now

last

138-3

12

13

128

Cents

10

11

182

165

151

note needs practice.

again from exit, was tried at Mp. Ext. -075 and

of the Aulos was now 13 and the Harmonia Lydian.
',

played from exit on

A 13

the Lydian Tonic in the Dorian

128

Harmonia.

Modal Sequence
Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

H.

Exit

13/13

45

12

11

10

/jj^
Cents

138-5

151

182

165

204

Tests March, 1934

U) I.D.
(2)

I.D.

=
=

M.D.

x 13 M.D.

-027 x 14
-027

R.L.

-263

-351.

R.L.

-263

'378

+ Mp.
+ Mp.

Ext.

= -m = -374.
= -331.

Ext. -088

LORET XXXI
Louvre No. 1714

C. 22, No. 62.

Facsimile

The Aulos

6 Fingerholes.

made by K.

S., Feb.,

Reddish polished wood

1934

Harmonia M.D. 22 (half-segments)

with an Enh.-Chr. Pyknon with Mp. Ext. -075, and in the Phrygian Harmonia with

Mp.

plays from Exit in the Dorian

Ex. -102.

MEASUREMENTS

FINGERHOLES

L. from emb. to exit

-258

-oio

-005

and emb.
-004 except for Hole
at exit

C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.

of
of
of
of
of
of

Hole 1 from emb. = -245

Hole 2 from emb. = -2i9
Hole 3 from emb. = -iQ05
Hole 4 from emb. = -i57
Hole s from emb. = 126
Hole 6 from emb. = -096

;
;
;
;

;
;

I.D.

==-013
from exit
from C. of Hole 1 =-026
from C. of Hole 2 = -0395
from C. of Hole 3=0335
from C. of Hole 4= -031
from C. of Hole 5 = -030

11)1630
0148

Half Increment of Distance (mean) '0148

useful -015

The

1st distance

from

exit is obviously of a half-segment.

THE GREEK AULOS

452

THE MOUTHPIECES
D-R. Mp. xxxi

Mp.

Ext. -075

D-R. Mp. xxxi

Mp.

Ext. -075

C. i

'

C. 2

'

'.

V.L. 060

D-R. Mp. xxxi

D-R. Mp. xxxi

Wheat

'.

V.L. -060

straw, untreated, golden

proper normal note F17.
Wheat straw, untreated (dark)
proper note F 17.

L. -118

'

F.'.

'

B. 12

'

-005

Mp.

L. -117

(untreated).

Ext. -075
;

-0045

L. -128

L. -126

V.L.

Mp.

-004

-004

-059.

Ext. -102.

PERFORMANCE
With D-R. Mp. xxxi

256

v.p.s. at

Mp.

C. I

'

Played in Aulos in the Dorian Harmonia on C.

last note difficult.

'.

Ext. -075 in tune (but without enthusiasm)

Modal Sequence
Fingerholes

Exit

Ratios and Notes

H.

22/22

15

112

204

16

18

182

85

20

21

80-5

Cents

14

119-4

N.B. The note of ratio

Enh-Chr. Pyknon.

21, played from Hole 1, is the half-segment note required

from that hole to Hole 4, the ratios are double those
Ratio 16 heralds a new octave of genesis, and the arithmetical succession
This is a basic principle in these modal sequences, viz. a note interpolated from a half- segment demands the doubling of the M.D. as far as
the Mese, which always introduces a new octave of genesis.
With D-R. Mp. xxxi C. 2 '. The Aulos played in the Dorian Harmonia on
C = 256 v.p.s. at Mp. Ext. -075 and V.L. -060 as above, in tune more easily than
with Mp. C. 1. With a little forcing and glottis tension, the interval from Holes

for the

of

M.D.

is

by

11

one.

'

5-6 could be obtained as 15/13 (247 cents), instead of 15/14.

With D-R. Mp. xxxi F.'. The Aulos played the sequence in the Dorian Har'

monia

in tune with

monochord, but on

F 16

the last hole a

little difficult at first

128

with ratio

14.

With D-R. Mp.

'

xxxi B. 12

'

at

Mp.

Ext. -102.

The Aulos

played on

12

in

128
the Phrygian

Harmonia

easily in tune, the last note of ratio 15 a little difficult.

123456

The Phrygian Modal Sequence

Fingerholes

Exit

Ratios and Notes

24/24

Cents
It

must not be assumed

20

22

23
j4

165

77

16

18

182

Mp.

15

112

204

that the addition of an I.D. to the

Ext. invariably

has the result of lowering the fundamental (e.g. cf. Loret xxiii). The tonality of
that note will be found to be the affair of the mp. in its proportional relations of
resonance with the Resonator of the Aulos.

LORET XXXII
Louvre, No. 1714

C. 22, No. 63.

Facsimile

N.B.

6 Fingerholes.

made by K. S.

Auloi xxxi

Feb.,

Polished

wood

1934

and xxxii are companions

This Aulos plays from exit the 1st tetrachord of the Dorian Harmonia, M.D. 22,
with the Chrom-Enh. Pyknon. and the Phrygian Modal Sequence M.D. 24 at

Mp.

Ext. -ioo.

RECORDS OF AULOI
MEASUREMENTS
R.L. from exit to emb.
R.L. from C. of Hole 1
to

emb.

C. of Hole

-242
-oio
-004 constant

453

FINGERHOLES

-260

C.
C.
C.
C.
C.

of Hole
of Hole
of Hole
of Hole
of Hole

from emb. = 242

2 from emb. = 215
3 from emb. = 185
4 from emb. = 152;
s from emb. = 122;
6 from emb. = 098
1

I.D.

=-018
from exit
from C. of Hole i=-027
from C. of Hole 2 = -030
from C. of Hole 3 =-033
from C. of Hole 4 = -030
from C. of Hole 5 = -024
Il)-l62X2

= 0294
The

1st I.D. is of a half-segment

-162

x 2

324
-

-0294.

Increment

of Distance (mean) -0294, useful -029

Since the distance from exit to Hole 1 is obviously a half-segment,

to

now 22.
260 4- -075

it is

necessary

double the I.D.,

and '029 x

-335

11

-319

-335

discrepancy of over a half-increment

-319

016

The Aulos nevertheless plays in tune. A different mp. at extrusion -060 would
conform with theory, and would probably yield still better results.
THE MOUTHPIECES
A -006 split for a few mm. on
D-R. Mp. xxxii D.' (untreated). L. -133
one side of emb., which proves to be of no importance. V.L. -060
Mp. Ext. -075.
D-R. Mp. xxxii E. ig (untreated). L. -140 A 006 "V.L. = -060. Mp. Ext.
normal proper note F 17.
075
11
D-R. Mp. xxxii C.
(untreated).
L. -132 A 006
at V.L. 060
Mp. Ext.
normal proper note F 17.
075
'

'

'

'

'

PERFORMANCE
With D-R. Mp.

At Mp. Ext.

xxxii D.'.

'

-075 the Aulos played

on

in the

125

Dorian Harmonia with Enh.-Chrom. Pyknon. in tune

good and clear.

the notes from Holes 5 and 6

123456

The Modal Sequence

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

Exit

22/22

Cents

With D-R. Mp.

'

xxxii E. ig

',

20

21

80-5

18

182

85

'15

16

204

the Aulos played on

112

14

119-4

the Dorian Sequence

128
as

above

all

notes clear and in tune.

With D-R. Mp.

Dorian Sequence

as

'

xxxii C. 11 ', the Aulos played on

at 075 Mp. Ext., the
128
above in tune, and the top notes good and clear.

LORET XXXV
British

Museum.

Facsimile by

4 Fingerholes

K. S.

This Aulos plays from exit in the Dorian Harmonia M.D.

12 and in the Hypolydian M.D. 10.

M.D.

11

in the Phrygian

THE GREEK AULOS

454

MEASUREMENTS

FINGERHOLES

L. from exit to emb.

-222

-005

at

emb.

-003

at exit

C. of Hole

from emb. = -1795

C. of Hole 2 from emb.

C. of Hole 3 from emb.
C. of Hole 4 from emb.

'003 constant

= -1485
= 1 95
= -0935

I.D.

from exit
='0425
from C. of Hole 1 =-031
from C. of Hole 2 = -029
from C. of Hole 3 = -026

4>i28s
0321

Increment

of distance (mean) -0321

practical -029 for 3, or -028

I.D. -028 x 11
I.D. -028 x 12
I.D. 029 x 11
I.D. -029 x 12
I.D. -029 x 10

The

-308

-336

=
=
=

-319
-348
-290

=
=
=
=
=

-222

-222
-222
-222

-222

Mp.

Ext. 'o86 for Dorian.

Mp.

114

Mp.
Mp.
Mp.

Ext. for Phrygian

Ext. '097 for Dorian.

-126 for Phrygian.
Ext.
Ext.

=
=

-068 for Hypolydian.

tiny bore of only -003 in this Aulos creates difficulties for

D-R. mp.s.

THE MOUTHPIECES
D-R. mp.s have been
it

means -029 and

tested at the requisite extrusion for

-028

has been found that individual mp.s respond with good results at either one or
Mean Increments of Distance and Mp. Ext.
D-R. xxxv 10 '. L. = -083 ; A exit -003, emb. 0035 V.L. 055
Mp. Ext.

other of the
'

068.

D-R.
D-R.
D-R.
D-R.
B-R.
B-R.

Mp.
Mp.
Mp.
Mp.
Mp.
Mp.

note norm.

B-R.
norm.

'

xxxv
xxxv
'xxxv
xxxv
'xxxv
'xxxv

'

L. -122
A -003 emb. and exit.
A.A.'. New
A -003.
L. -130
A. 12'. L. -130; A '003.
11 '. L. -105
A 003.
B.'.
L. -154; T.L. -038; T.W. 001
A.'.
L. -134; T.L. -033; T.W. -0015;

A.'.

'

'

A = -003.
A -0025.

Proper

A
27

64
xxxv

L.

F.'.

128

003

T.L.

031

T.W.

-ooi

proper note

18

64

PERFORMANCE
With D-R. Mp. xxxv 10
The Aulos plays at Mp. Ext.
Harmonia M.D. 10 on C = 256 v.p.s., the sequence from

-068 in the Hypolydian

'.

'

exit.

Hypolydian Harmonia
H.

Exit

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

10/10

D-R. Mp.
_,

xxxv A.' plays in a 2nd facsimile

'

Harmonia on

'

204

xxxv

182

Cents

in the Phrygian

267

231

B.'

from

exit at

Mp.

Ext.

-i

14

B 12

120

With D-R. Mp.

the Phrygian

'

xxxv A. A.'

The Aulos

Harmonia the sequence

'

xxxv A.' plays from

exit

on

12

5
120

in

Phrygian Sequence
Exit

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

D-R. Mp.
Harmonia on

'

'

165

plays in facsimile B. with

the practical I.D.

is

10

11

151

xxxv A. 12

G 15

H.

12/12

Cents

here -028.

4
8

182

Mp.

204.

Ext. -114 in the Phrygian

RECORDS OF AULOI
With D-R. Mp.
on

'97

'

xxxv 11

'

455

the Aulos plays in the Dorian Spondaic at

Mp.

Ext.

11

-.

120

PERFORMANCE WITH
B-R. Mp.
on ~
128

exit

xxxv

'

Ext. -086 (I.D.

xxxv A.' plays in Aulos

at

B-R. Mp.

'

Mp.

MP.S

B.R.

Aulos in the Dorian Spondaic M.D. 11 from

B.', plays in the

-028) the full

modal sequence.

Dorian Spondaic on

in the

F16

at

Mp.

Ext.

64

No

from the positive excess

See remark above under Record Elgin Aulos, 1).
(i.e. of -042.
B-R. Mp. xxxv F.' plays in Aulos B, the Dorian Spondaic M.D.
086 in

full,

rich tone.

difficulty arises

in the 1st I.D.

11 at

'

086 on

^16

with a

fine, rich

tone of great sonority,

Mp.

Ext.

notes in tune.

all

64

The Dorian Spondaic, M.D.

Fingerholes
Ratios and Notes

H.

Exit

/n

11

11

10

4
6

with high
action

glottis

from

Hole 4
182

165

Cents

204

267

231

Tested again June 29, 1934.

LORET XXXVI
Berlin Kgl.

Mus. No. 6823.

Facsimile by

K.

Date ascribed

4 Holes.

S.

Feb.,

from

Exit.

to reign

Rameses II

1934

Harmonia Dorian M.D.

11

on

128

FINGERHOLES

MEASUREMENTS.
(The distances
Length of Aulos resonator
exit to emb.
A of bore at emb.

of bore at exit

C. of Hole
-214

-005

-0045

are

from emb

from emb. =-1695

C. of Hole 2 from emb. =-1425

C. of Hole 3 from emb. = 'i 1 15
-083 5
C. of Hole 4 from emb.

I.D.

to centre of Holes)

from

exit

=-0445
=-027

from Hole 1
from Hole 2 = '031
from Hole 3 =-028

3)086
0286

Increment

(mean) = -0286
Useful I.D. -029

of distance

D-R. Mp. xxxvi.

V.L.

at -060

Wheat straw untreated

Mp.

Mp.

-214
4- -105

Ext.

Total Length

Proper note of

+ Mp.

L. -214

at

emb. -005

at exit

-004

Ext. at -105.

In Aulos Resonator

Mp.

V.L. -060
4:3.

at

in the ratios of

-319

11

M.D.

i.d.

-319

=F

17 proportional resonance with Resonator

This Aulos was discovered at Thebes in a sarcophagus lying at the side of the mummy,
See Catalogue raisonne
it bore the number 565 in his collection.
by M. Passalacqua
et hist, des Antiquites decouvertes en Egypte (Paris, 1826), pp. 30 and 157, acquired later by
Berlin.
See Kgl. Museen zu Berlin, Ausfuhrliches Verzeichniss d. Aegyptischen Altertumer,
2nd ed. (Berlin, 1899), pp. 190 and 219, No. 6823.
1

THE GREEK AULOS

456

PERFORMANCE

With D-R. Mp. xxxvi on

v.p.s. in

Aulos

at

128

Dorian Harmonia M.D.

11

from

Mp.

Ext. -105 played in the

11

exit

on

in tune with

modal piano.

Tests

128

Feb. 28, March

and

2,

1934.

The Modal Sequence

Fingerholes

H.

Exit
11/11

Ratios and Notes

LIST OF FLUTES
Modal

"

(in

w'Mese"~'7
[8j

182 204

165

Cents

Classification of

10
'

231

order)

Flutes.

Balance between Proportional and Effective Allowance at Hole 1.

Notes concerning the Factor of Length in Pipes, Flutes and Mouthpieces.
Sensa A'. Hypophrygian Harmonia M.D. 18.
Sensa B'. Hypophrygian Harmonia M.D. 18.
Sensa C\ Hypophrygian Harmonia M.D. 18.
'

'

'

Flute No.

1.

The Mond

Graeco Roman (Bucheum)

Dorian Harmonia
.D 1 1
Flute No. 2. Phrygian Harmonia (Exit), Dorian Harmonia
.

Sicilian

(Vent).

Carpathian Flute No.

Java i Soeling No.
Soeling
No.
Java ii
'

'

'

'

3.

5.
6.

Dorian Harmonia M.D. 11.

Dorian Harmonia (Exit).
Dorian Harmonia (Vent).

Flute No. 10 (India). Hypodorian Harmonia (Vent) M.D. 16.

Inca Flute No. 12. Dorian Harmonia (Vent).
Japanese Flute No. 13. Lydian Harmonia M.D. 13 (Vent).
Bali Flute No. 20.
Dorian Harmonia (Exit).
Greek Flute No. 26 from Olympia (Modern). Phrygian Harmonia (Vent).
Greek Flute No. 27 from Nauplia (Modern). Dorian Harmonia M.D. 11
from Vent.

Dr. A. N.Tucker's 8 Flutes from the Sudan (Acholi Tribe, with measurements and
performance tabulated).
Eleven Flutes from N. Egypt, presented by Sir Robert Mond, with measurements
and performance tabulated.

PRELIMINARY NOTES
THE CLASSIFICATION OF MODAL FLUTES

ABSTRACT FROM CHAP.

VI

CLASS Ia and CLASS Ib. Flutes in which the length from exit or vent is a
multiple (within a few mm.) of the Increment of Distance, a distinguishes flutes having
a normal, uninterrupted sequence, b those in which the modal sequence
interrupted
by the operation of Inc. All. No. 7 plays an interpolated note due at a half-increment

lower.

CLASS Ha

and

b.

Flutes in which the actual length from

embouchure

to exit

or vent, with the addition of the allowance in respect of diameter due at exit (All.
No. 5) or at centre of Hole 1 (No. 3), is a multiple of the I.D. x the M.D. Flutes of
this class are free from interruptions in the Modal Sequence.
CLASS IIIa and b. Flutes in which the actual length of the Flute less Allow-

ance No. 3 or

s is

equal to the I.D. X

M.D.

or conversely, in which the I.D.

RECORDS OF FLUTES
X M.D.

Allowance

is

457

equal to the length of the flute at exit or vent.

of this class are rare (see Nos.

and

Examples

10).

The sub-divisions a and b in each class are determined by the Inc. All. No. 7.
(A) This cumulative allowance
actually on the flute between exit and c. of Hole

when it has not reached

a nodal point allows the sequence to proceed uninterrupted.

the accumulated allowance No. 7 has reached a nodal point, the note
issuing from the hole is that due at a half-increment lower, as a consequence of the
1

When

(B)

allowance having accrued as additional length to the effective half-wave.

THE BALANCE BETWEEN PROPORTIONAL ALLOWANCE BY RATIO FROM THE

STANDARD ALLOWANCE AT HOLE I, AND THE ALLOWANCE DEDUCED FROM
THE V.F. OF THE NOTE IS EFFECTED AS FOLLOWS
:

(1) In flutes belonging to Class IIa, in which the I.D. bears its share of Allowance, the excess of Actual I.D. over Prop. I.D. must be added per I.D. and per hole

to balance the Proportional

No. 13

'

watched

Allowance

(e.g. in

'

Sensa

'

and in Japanese Flute

')

The

(2)

latent

No. 7 should be carried forward increment by increment and

indicates that the accumulated amount has not reached a nodal

Inc. All.

the sequence is therefore unbroken.

Floating Allowance = the effective half-wave I.D. less the actual I.D.
amount of allowance available on the half-wave length, at the pitch
In flutes of class IIa, in which the actual I.D. bears an
in question per increment.
allowance, the excess of the effective i w. I.D. over the actual i.e. the Floating
point

(3)

it

The

represents the

Allowance
(4)

actual,

forms

The

a reserve.

No. 9 represents a length additional to the

which must be effectively borne whenever a sound is elicited it must be taken
effective half-wave I.D.

into account as a constituent of the sound-wave.

,

NOTES CONCERNING THE FACTOR OF LENGTH IN PIPES, FLUTES AND MOUTHPIECES

Length

as a factor in

wind instruments, more

especially in flutes

and

may

pipes,

absolute and proportional.

be considered from two aspects
Length, as an attribute resulting from pitch, is fixed in the flute in respect of any
given v.f. and has here been termed effective in contradistinction to actual visible
and measurable length.
In the I.D., length is considered in both aspects. The influence of length in the
concrete, e.g. in the tube, or in the diameter of the flute, takes effect in lowering the
pitch.
In the I.D. it is the reverse
the larger the I.D. between fingerholes, the
nearer to embouchure is any given hole, and therefore the shorter the wave length.
But on the other hand, since all the increments are of the same length, and yet bear
different ratios
further, since ratio determines pitch, and pitch results in wave
length, it is patent that the casting vote is with proportion.
Hence the curious
anomaly that although at every fingerhole, there is an actual position or length on the
surface of the flute, measured from exit or embouchure, which should, according to
formula, produce a note of definite pitch, yet it frequently happens that the modal
sequence is interrupted at that point by the intrusion of a note belonging by position
to a half or whole increment lower.
(See, for instance, flute Sensa B ', at Hole 4.)
What is the cause of this abnormal lengthening of the sound-wave at what I have
called the virtual position of the fingerhole ?
The length here seems to be determined, not so much by millimetres, as by the ratio between two pitch notes
the
measure of the increment counts for nothing. Thus the curious fact emerges that
on two flutes of the same length and diameter of bore, embouchure and fingerholes,
playing in the same Harmonia, at the same fundamental pitch, but differentiated by
their I.D., it will be found that notes bearing the same ratio number in that Harmonia,
consequently of the same v.f. and therefore of the same wave length, are issuing from
:

'

fingerholes centred at points

on the surface of the

flute,

which may

differ

by

as

much


THE GREEK AULOS

458

An example of this is exhibited by the three Sensa

A, B and C. The modal sequence in B and C proceeds for a few steps
without perceptible change in intonation
then, suddenly, in B ', at the 4th hole,
and in C at the 6th, comes a surprise
a note of different intonation sounds, not
out of tune, but of a definite intermediate ratio, due at one half increment lower,
between two consecutive fingerholes (e.g. in B ' the note between ratio numbers
14 and 13, viz. of ratio 27). The reason for this interruption in the modal sequence
seems to be connected with the correct placing of Hole 1, at a distance from exit
which includes two increments of distance representing the first step in the Harmonia
(i.e. 18
17
16), and besides this the whole amount of the diameter allowances at
as 20 or 30 millimetres.

'

flutes

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Thus, when

exit in concrete values.

this has

been correctly computed (Formula

3), and carried out on the flute, and then only, may the position of the rest of
the fingerholes be correctly bored to produce the modal sequence in integrity.

No.

Hole 1 has thus been made to bear the burden of the whole Allowance at exit
a burden which has a lengthening influence
and this has been paradoxically effected
by driving the centre of Hole 1 nearer to the embouchure by the amount of this

The paradox

only apparent since the physical laws, based upon the

nature of diameter, decree a proportional elongation of the wave length.
Compensation must be provided by decreasing the distance of the centre of Hole 1 from
embouchure by the same proportional length in order to maintain the exact ratio
between the notes of exit and vent. It is evident that not only Hole 1, but also
the other fingerholes in succession, all bear their share, increment by increment, in
this elongating and compensating process.
The wave length, determined by Formula No. 2 being fixed and unalterable for each v.f., and the actual distance of the
centre of each fingerhole from embouchure measurable, it follows that the allowance
for diameter thus displayed on the flute itself is likewise an indisputable fact.
It
seems worth while in the interests of modality on the flute, to endeavour to trace the
proportional allotment of the allowance per increment. The v.f., together with the
implications of length mentioned above, progresses by superparticular ratios.
A
proportional amount according to the same ratios based upon the allowance
accruing at Hole 1, should therefore correspond with the allowance comprised in
the effective wave length, ascertained by Formula No. 2.
In comparing these two
amounts, it is found that the Proportional Allowance in flutes belonging to Class II,
in which Hole 1 is correctly placed, shows a discrepancy that is cumulative by increment, but which is covered by what I have termed Incremental Allowance No. 7 ',
added for each increment of distance at the fingerhole in question. This allotment
may be followed in operation in records of flutes, hole by hole, and its results traced
as (a) normal or uninterrupted, or (6) a broken modal sequence.
allowance.

is

'

MODAL FLUTE RECORDS.

No. 18

SENSA A
Class IIa

Made

by Kathleen Schlesinger in 1918 {red vulcanite)

Hypophrygian Harmonia

Modal Determinant 18
on

312-8 v.p.s.

123456
Modal Sequence

Holes

Exit
18

16

15

14

13

12

11

18

18

18

18

18

18

18

Ratios
Cents.

204

112

119-4

128

138-5

All in perfect tune.

151

165

;;

;
;

RECORDS OF FLUTES

459

N.B.
In flutes belonging to Class IIa, in which the I.D. is not an exact aliquot of the
+ allowance for diameter, the following adjustment
made in balancing the allowance per fingerhole (derived from the pitchequivalent length of half-sound-wave) with the proportional allowance computed
by ratio of the note from the standard (= Std.) allowance at Hole I.
The actual I.D. between the fingerholes on the flute, in Class Ha, is in excess
of the proportional I.D., which is an exact aliquot of the length of the flute ; the
actual I.D. thus carries its proportion of the allowance for diameter, whereas the
actual length, but of actual length

has to be

proportional I.D. bears no allowance.

To the proportional allowance must be added the difference between the actual
and the proportional I.D., viz., in Sensa
-028 -0234 = -0046, cumulatively
per fingerhole.

I.D.

MEASUREMENTS
L.C. of emb. to exit
L.C. ,,
to c. H.
,,
L.C. H. 1 to exit
A of bore

= A of emb.
= A of fingerhole
= depth of walls
=

d
S

de
I.D.

H. 1
H. 2
H. 3
H. 4
H. 5
H. 6
H. 7

465
1

375
090

023

010

009

003

028

FINGERHOLES AND I.D.

=
emb. = -375
H. 1 to exit
= -347 H. 1 to H. 2 =

fr.

t>

j>

>)

>)

j>

>t

>>

j)

)>

>>

>>

=
=
=
=
=

-291

-263

H. 2
H. 3
H. 4

H. 5
H. 6

-319

-235

-207

to

to

to

to
to

H. 3
H. 4
H. 5
H. 6
H. 7

=
=
=
=
=

-090

-0275

028
-028

-028
-028

028

Increment of Distance -028.

Modal Determinant, 18 Hypophrygian Harmonia.
;

Note of Exit

(all

holes closed)

18

7-

312-8 v.p.s.

250

THE THREE
No.

i(a)

Incremental

-028 actual I.D.

No. 2
No.

THE THREE KINDS OF

No.

No.
to

i.

The

No.

No.

2.

No.

3.

(^21 =

-0234) Prop. I.D.

i.e.

(:*j2

0301) Eff. I w.l. I.D.

I.D.

039

Exit All.

002166

18

(GENERAL NOTES) TO BE FOUND IN MODAL FLUTES

flute

No.

own

i.e.

on the

i(a) carries its

NO.

0301

the Prop. I.D., and

actual I.D.

A,

between fingerholes

0234

No. 7

All.

IN SENSA

I.D. 1

may be

intermediate in length between No. 2

the Eff. J w.l. I.D.
i(b) is less than No. 2, and No. i(c) is equal

3,

allowance.

No.

Ex
M.D.

'

'

2.

The

Proportional I.D.

When Hole
The

Eff.

has been correctly placed

Vent L.

M.D.

i w.l. I.D. derived from the Eff. w.l. of the fundamental note of exit
Eff.

% w.l.

M.D.
Incremental Allow. No. 7 (cumulative)
Exit. All.

M.D.

Inc. All.

No.

7.

THE GREEK AULOS

460

The 'floating allowance ' is the difference between the

Prop. I.D. or the actual I.D. (whichever is the lesser)

Eff.

J w.l. I.D. and the

-0301

i.e.

-Q234
0067 Floating Allowance

The

multiplied by the Ratio number of Hole

or two) to the standard allowance at Hole 1, i.e.
0067 X 16 = -1072

floating allow.

be equal (within a

(Fl. All.)

should

mm.

7
Standard All. = -1079 difference
of a mm.
10
thus represents the difference between the Eff. w. I.D. and the actual
-028 = -oo2i + the difference between the actual I.D. and the
Prop. I.D., i.e. -028 -0334 = -0046 thus : -0021 + -0046 = -0067 Fl. All.

The

I.D.,

Fl. All.

-0301

i.e.

EXIT
L.

Note

-465

312-8 v.p.s.

250

Modal Ratio 18/18

BY PITCH FORMULA NO. 2

340 m./s.

-340

312-8 v.p.s. x 2

625-6 v.p.s.

-5434 Eff. i w.l. of

-465
L. of flute
0784 All. for

ANALYSIS OF DIAMETER ALLOWANCE AT EXIT

= 2A
= 2(A
006 = 2 de

E 18

FORMULA NO.

046

026

d)

078 theoretical Eff. All. for A.

Thus

the All. derived from pitch equivalent half-wave-length

All. based on the actual A of the flute.
Effective I.D. derived from J w.l.

is

in

agreement

with the theoretical

'i3
I o

LD

Eff

BY FORMULA NO.

A d
A 8
X 2

-013

-014
-056

0945 Position of H.
Hole

is

actually at -090 in this flute

that the Incr. All.

No. 7

(q.v.) for the

deducted: therefore Exit

0945 Pos. of

H.

All.

00216 x

at -375,

Ratio

^|

340 m./s.
352 v.p.s. X2

and

-465

at

-090

fr.

exit

H.

at

-375

fr.

emb.

Note
340

704

-0043,

L. of Flute

(9/8),

2=

H.

0902 correct actual Pos of H.

1.

since the I.D. carries its All.,

it is

clear

two I.D. included in the computation must be

0043

Hole

-0115
0

I.D.

C30I

POSITION OF HOLE

v.p.s.

~~
=
~

352

v.p.s.

-4829 L. Eff. i w.
'375

L. at H.

1079 (=

-108)

RECORDS OF FLUTES
A

Analysis of All. fr.

2A

2(A
2(A

d)
8)

+ de
+ de

461

by Formula No. 4

-046 (or with depth,

Stand. All.

-029

-003

-049

-109)

-031

106

Stand. All.

pitch

fr.

-108

-106

-002

diff.

Inc. All.

No. 7

-00216 latent

The

standard allowance from pitch equivalent L. is used for testing the proportional allowance, according to the ratio of the increment of distance for each successive
hole
should this proportional allowance not agree with the allowance derived from
pitch, adjustment will be indicated to balance the two.
:

Hole 2

-347, Ratio

at

Note

375-5 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.

34
751 v.p.s.

375 '5 v.p.s. x 2

4527

Eff. \ w.l.

'347 Act. L.

H. 2

1057 Stand. Vt. All.

Prop. All. tested from Stand. All. at Hole 1, to which must be added the difference
between the Actual I.D. -028 and the Prop. I.D. -0234 = -0046.
Prop. All.

108 x

15

'IOI2

16

-0046 Excess of Act. over Prop. I.D.

Agreement within one-tenth

1058

Inc. All.

Hole 3

-319, Ratio

at

(8/7)

14

Note

256^ =

mm.
No. 7

-00216 latent

402-2
v.p.s.
T
r

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
402-2 x 2

340

-4226 Eff.

804-4 v.p.s.

v.p.s.

'3

10
-

J-

w.l.

Act. L. to

1036

H.

Std. All. Vt.

Prop. All.

108
g

x 7

-945

-0092 Excess of Act. over Pr. I.D. x z

1037

Agreement within one tenth

Inc. All.

Hole 4

at

-291, Ratio

16

Note

No. 7

mm.

-00216 x 2

W~ =433-2

-00432 latent

/x

v.p.s.

256

13

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
433-2 x 2

v.p.s.

^~

34
866-4 v.p.s.

=
-

-3924 Eff. i w.l.

Act. L. at H. 4

'291

1014

Std. Vt. All. at

H. 4

THE GREEK AULOS

463
Prop. All.
108

13

16

-0877 Prop. All.

"0138 Excess of Act. over Pr. I.D. x 3
1015 Agreement within one-tenth mm.

Inc. All. No. 7

Hole 5

at -263, Ratio

12

Note

*,f

256

-00216 x 3

-00648 latent

469-2 v.p.s.
p

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
x 2

340

v.p.s. 469-2

938-4 v.p.s.

-3623 Eff. i w.L

-263 Act. L. at H. 5

H.

0993 Std. All. at

Prop. All.

108

-081

Prop. All.

-0184 Excess of Act. over Pr. I.D.

x 4

0994 Agreement within one tenth

mm.

Inc. All.

Hole 6

at -235, Ratio

Note

No. 7

11

-00216 x 4

513

-00864 latent

v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
512 x 2

v.p.s.

340
1024

-332 Eff. \ w.l.

-235 Act. L. at

097

H. 6

Std. All. at

H. 6

Prop. All.
108 x ir

074 Prop.

16

All.

-023 Excess of Act. over Pr. I.D.

Inc. All.

Hole 7

Agreement

097

at -207, Ratio

10

No. 7

Note
512

-00216 x 5

-01080 latent

563-2 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
v.p.s. 563-2

340

x 2

1126-4 v.p.s.

-3018 Eff. i w.l.

-2 7
Act. L. at

H. 7
H. 7

0948 Std. All. at

Prop. All.

108 x 5
8

=
+

-0675 Prop. All.

-0276 Excess of Act. over Pr. I.D.
0951

Agreement

N.B.

The Modal

Sequence

is

cumulatively reached a Nodal point

X 6

to three tenths of a

Inc. All.

No. 7

mm.

-00216

x 6

-01296 latent

uninterrupted, for the Inc. All. No. 7 has not

;

it

would do

so at the next I.D.

-028

-014.

RECORDS OF FLUTES
THE EFFECTIVE

I.D.

463

DERIVED FROM THE EFFECTIVE HALF-WAVE LENGTH, DIVIDED

BY THE MODAL DETERMINANT

Fingerhole

Eff.

Exit

Hole
Hole
Hole
Hole
Hole
Hole
Hole
N.B.-

0301

-4829

0601 (I.D. x 2)
0302

4527
4226

The

Formula 2

Eff. I.D.

i w.l.

-S43

half-wave-length

is

0301

-3924
-3623

0302

-332
-3018

0303
0302

0301

obtained for each hole from the operation of

so that the Eff. I.D. per hole forms independent evidence of accuracy in

theory and practice.

MODAL FLUTE RECORDS.

SENSA B
9 Fingerholes Experimental Flute
Cf. with Sensa

Class

made by K.

and Sensa

S.

IIIB

Modal Determinant 18
Hypophrygian Harmonia from

Exit.

Hypodorian from Vent

123456789
Modal Sequence

Hole

Exit
Ratios

18

16

15

27

14

26)

12

11)

22

13)

20

21

'
the three Sensa flutes,
Sensa
is the most perfect specimen
B and C
were designed in order to test the significance of the Increment of Distance (I.D.)
between the fingerholes, since the I.D. is the only factor which differentiates the 3

Of

'

Total length
position of Hole 1, diameter of bore, of embouchure and of
and depth of walls
notes of fundamental and vent, and Modal Determinants from exit and vent
all are identical in Sensa A, B and C.
Their differentia is the effect of a different I.D. on the modal sequence.
In the Sensa A with I.D. -028 the sequence is uninterrupted.
In Sensa B (with an I.D. of '023 equal to the diameter) at Hole 4, a note due at
half an increment lower, viz. of ratio 27, instead of 13 or 26, is interpolated in the
modal sequence the note proper to Hole 4 is now played from Hole 5 after which,
the sequence proceeds in order from that new basis.
In Sensa C (the actual I.D. and the Prop. I.D. are identical, viz. -0235) the break
in the modal sequence occurs at Hole 6, where ratio 11 is replaced by ratio 23, due
half-way between Holes 5 and 6.
My explanation of the cause of the broken sequence the progression of the
cumulative Incremental Allowance No. 7 from hole to hole is given in detail in
Chapter vii and passim in these records.

flutes

fingerholes

THE GREEK AULOS

4 64

MEASUREMENTS
L.
L.

fr.

emb.

A
d = A
8 = A
de

FINGERHOLES AND

to exit

to

of bore

c.

Hole

46s
375
023
010

of emb.
of fingerholes

009

Exit to c. Hole i
I.D.
-023 (-0005
Prop. I.D.)

N.B.
I.D.

-023

090

than

less

1-003

Holes 8 and 9 are

=

,[0025

depth of walls

the

fr.

'375

H.

fr.

j)

352

fr.

c.

H. 1
H. 2

))

)>

c.

>>

.329
306

fr.

>>

fr.

c.

j>

283

fr.

c.

260

fr.

c.

J*

j'

237

i)

j;

I.D.

emb.

i I.D. 225s
i I.D. 214

fr.

c.

fr.

c.

fr.

c.

exit

090
023
023

H. 3
H. 4
H. 5

023
023
023

023

H. 6
H. 7
H. 8

on;
on;

at a half-increment of distance.

x M.D. 18

H. 1
H. 2
H. 3
H. 4
H. 5
H. 6
H. 7
H. 8
H. 9

-414.

THE THREE INCREMENTS

2.

The Actual I.D.

The Proportional

3.

The

1.

The
The

=
=

I.D.

Effective I.D.

Actual Allowance is a minus quantity

Floating Allowance

and -0067 x 16
Vent Standard All.

The

reserve allowance

Inc. All.

is

practically the

same

as the Fl. All.

No. 7

E 18 =
-

Exit Note

=
( =
=
=
=
=
viz. =
=

-023

-0235

-03017
-0302)

-0005

-0067
-1072
-108

-0072
-00216

312-8 v.p.s.

256

BY FORMULA NO. 2

340 m./s.
312-8 x 2

v.p.s.

340

-543 Eff. \ w.l.

625-6

-465 Act. length

078 Eff. All. at exit

Exit Allowance by Formula No. 5

A
A d
de

=
=
=

-023
-013

-003

039 Exit

All.

at exit

Position of

Two ID

in agreement with Effective Allowance

078
2,

viz.

-039.

Hole 1 by Formula No. 3

having an I.D. -0005 below the Prop.
and therefore carrying no allowance, an
must be made for the two I.D. latent
between exit and H.I., viz.

For

0115

A d

by Formula No.

this flute

I.D.,

-0130

addition

-04.6

0845

+
(=

-090)

-00532
-08982

-00432
1^

-ooi

* -00532

Inc. All.

No.

7x2

negative excess of Act. below Prop. I.D. x 2

RECORDS OF FLUTES

46 5

Standard Allowance at Vent by Formula No.

2(A)

2(A
2(A

d)
S)

+
+
+

de

de
de

=
=
=

-046
-026
-028

+
+
+

=
=
=

-0025
-0025
-0025

4.

-0485
-0285
'0305
1075 Vt. Std. All.

t
Hole

at

-375

fr.

emb., Ratio

~
16

Note,

~ =

256

BY FORMULA N
340 m./s.
352 x 2

v.f.

340 _

704

-4829" Eff. i w.l.

Act. L. at
-375

v.p.s.

352

O. 2

H.

(=
Hole 2

at -352 fr.

emb., Ratio

.108)

~ =

Note

H.

1079' Eff. All. at

375-4 v.p.s.

256

IS

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
375-4 x 2

=
~~

v.f.

340
750-8

-4527 Eff. I w.l.

-352 Act. L. at

=
~

Prop. All.
fr.

Stand. All.

108 x

15

H. 2

Eff. All. at

H. 2

-1007 Eff. All. at

H. 2

0007

-0005 excess 1 to balance.

-IOI2

16

No. 7

Inc. All.

Hole 3

at -329 fr.

emb., Ratio

(8/7)

-00216 x 3

Note

-00648 latent

402-2 v.p.s.

256

14

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
402-2 x 2

340
804-4

v.f.

Prop. All.
fr.

X 7

-329

0937 Eff. All. at H. 3

-ooi
Neg. excess x 2
-0947

Std. All.
108

-4227 Eff. i w.l.

Act. L. at H. 3

945

Inc. All.

Hole 4

at -306

from emb.

Ratio

No. 7
;

13

Actual Ratio of note

Note

-00216 x 4

~256

instead of

-00864 latent

417-1 v.p.s

7?.

256

27

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
417-1 x 2

v.f.

340
834-2 v.p.s.

-4075 Eff. J w.l.

-306
Act. L. at

1015
1

The

Eff. All. at

nature of the excess has been explained at H.

H. 4
H. 4
1.

THE GREEK AULOS

4 66

This allowance is, of course, not regular

rupted by the interpolation of ratio 27, due

position at -306

Prop. All.

fr.

Std.

-0115 (')

land

x 27

108

32

==

is

satisfactory.

H. 4
Neg. excess x

-0900 All. at

-0911

-0015

> -0915

'

No. 7

Inc. All.

N.B.

at a

4075 Eff. \ w.l.

-3175 Virtual L.

All.-|

modal sequence has been interHalf I.D. lower. If the virtual

the

'3175 be substituted, the result

Hole 4 sounds the note due

-00216 x 5

-01080 active

an increment lower, thus necessitating

an adjustment in order to bring the allowance into agreement with the Proportional
Allowance, for the reason that the I.D. on Sensa B ', not only carries no allowance,
but also falls short of the Prop. LB. by -0005 cumulative per I.D.
Thus the Inc. All. No. 7, cumulative for 5 I.D. (including the two between
Exit and Hole 1, + what I have termed a negative excess), viz.
at half

'

7x5

0108 Inc. All. No.

Aggregate Cumulative

All.

+
=

-0015 neg. exc.

-0123 at Hole 4,

having reached the nodal point ('0115) at the half-increment, provides the requisite
stimulus for the production of the note of ratio 27/32, due at the half-increment
lower.
It may be recalled that accumulated length by increment means receding
from the embouchure, with the consequent lowering of pitch involved. The
Proportional Allowance is reckoned from the Standard Allowance of the Vent (Formula No. 4 at Hole 1), whereas Inc. All. No. 7, is cumulative from exit and at Hole 4,
therefore the I.D. is taken 3 times for the Proportional Allowance and 5 times for the

No.

Inc. All.

Hole 5

7.

-283

at

actual L.

Ratio

Note

~ =
250

13

),

433-2 v.p.s.

-023 virtual L.

306

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
v.f.

34o

433-2 x 2

866-4 v.p.s.

-3925 Eff. i w.l.

'36 virtual L. at

H.

0865

-0015
088

Eff. All. at

H.

(due at H. 4)

Eff. All.

Prop. All.
108

x 13
*

-0875

(=

-088)

Inc. All.

N.B.

As A

No. 7

-00216 x 6

-01296 active

is the normal note at Hole 4, that distance (-306) must be taken

the negative excess -0005 X 3 (number of I.D. at Hole 4) ; this
brings the two sources of allowance into agreement.

as Virtual

Hole 6

L.

13

at -260 (Virtual L.

-283), Ratio

(^-)
12
\

(one I.D. lower)

3'

Note
256

469-2 v.p.s.

RECORDS OF FLUTES

467

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
v.f.

469-2 x 2

-3623 Eff. \ w.l.

34.0

938-4

~~

Prop. All.

108

3
^

081

Virtual L. at Hole 6
Eff. All. at

-002

Neg. excess x

H. 6
4.

-0813

4
Inc. All.

Hole 7

'283

^797

at -237 Act.

No. 7

-00216 x 7

L. (-260 Virtual L.), Ratio

-01512 active

Note

=512

11

v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
512 x 2

340
1024 v.p.s.

v.f.

-332 Eff. i w.l.

20 Virtual L. at

H. 7

'

~~

072

Pn>.

yi/Z.

io8 x

-0025 Neg. excess

II

0742

16

-0745

Inc. All.

Hole 8

at -2255 (Virtual

No. 7

L. -2485) Ratio

-00216 x 8

Note

-01728 active

536-4 v.p.s.

(half I.D.)

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
v.f.

536-4 X 2

340
1072 v.p.s.

-3160 Eff. J w.l.

-2485 Virtual L. at H. 8
"^0675

Prop. All.
108

x 21

0709

Eff. All. at

H.

Neg. Excess x 6

-003

-0705

32
Inc.

Hole 9

at

AH. No. 7 = -00216 x 9 = -1944 active

-214 (at J I.D.), Act. L.

237 Virtual L.

Ratio

Note

D
S12

563 2 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s _
563 2

340

v.f.

126-4 v.p.s.

Prop. All.
108

16

10,
-(5/8)

-3018 Eff. i w.l.

Virtual L. H. 9
-237
0648 All. at H. 9
-0035 Neg. excess x 7
-0683 Eff. All. at H. 9

-0675

Inc. All.

No. 7

-00216 x 10

-0216 active

THE GREEK AULOS

EFFECTIVE HALF-WAVE-LENGTH

I.D.

AT EACH FINGERHOLE

Exit

H.
H.
H.
H.
H.
H.
H.
H.
H.

per

I.D.

Eff.

Half

fingerhole

w.-l.

-543

0601 (2 I.D.)

'4829

-4527

0302

-4227

030

-407S
-3925
3623

0152 (J I.D.)
0150 (4 I.D.)
0302

3320
3160
-3018

0302

7
8

qi6
0142

(J I.D.)

i.d.)

COMPARISON OF LENGTHS ON THE TWO SENSA FLUTES A AND B

Sensa

Note and

-465

16

F 16 =

-375

IS

G 15 =

-465

18

F 16

-375

Hole 2

G 15

'348

Hole

Sensa

Ratio

18

Exit

18

i~"

-352
.

..

G 14

-320

Hole 4

13

-291

13

G 14 =
A 27 =

Hole

iz

-264

12

13

-283

Hole

-329
-306

f
1

Hole 6

Cii

236

11

12,

-261

Hole 7

-208

10

11

-237

10

21/32

C 21 =

-2255

>

20

Like Ratios indicate identical pitch

lengths for several of the notes.

it

will

> 20

be noticed that

-214

this occurs at different

;;;

RECORDS OF FLUTES
MODAL FLUTE RECORDS No.

469
19

SENSA C
Experimental

9 Holes.

Facsimile of Sensa

except for the I.D.

made by Kathleen

Flute

in Sensa

therefore carries

made

the I.D.

proportional,

no allowance

September,

Schlesinger,

Includes explanatory
1934.
note on the virtual position of Fingerholes

Class IB

Modal Determinant 18
Hypophrygian Harmonia on

f =

312-8 v.p.s.

256

Modal Sequence
Holes

Exit
18
18

Cents

IS

16

13

12

23

22

21

20

18

18

18

18

18

36

36

36

36

112

204

128

119-38

Notes

138-5

it

466

376

023

010

009
J

Exit to c. H. 1
I.D. (proportional)
(,e.

vt

L. vent

090

=
=

H. 6
H. 7
H. 8
H. 9 ..

023 s

Increment

H. 1 fr. emb. 376

H. 2 ,,
3525
H. 3
329
H. 4
355
282
H. 5

-0025

1-003

376

THE THREE

No.

3.

2585

23s

2115

188

-090
from exit
c. H. 1 to H. 2
'0235
c. H. 2 to c. H. 3 -0235
c. H. 3 to c. H. 4 -0235
c. H. 4 to c. H. 5 -0235
c. H. 5 to c. H. 6 -0235
c. H. 6 to c. H. 7 -0235
c. H. 7 to c. H. 8 -0235
c. H. 8 to c. H. 9 -0235

at Exit 18
at Vent 16

I.D.

C-

Floating allowance
ent per I.D.

No.

256.

IN FLUTE NO. 19

Actual I.D. between fingerholes

Proportional I.D. aliquot of length from]
emb. to vent
/
Effective half-wave I.D.

1.

No.

'0235

023s
-0302

always pres-]
}

-0302 Eff. I.D.

-0235 Prop. I.D.

0067

The

Floating Allowance x

M.D.

=
is

equal to Allow. No.

4,

at

Vent

10
3

of one

mm.

-0067 x 16

termed

'

standard

vent allowance
exact within

d
I.D.

-0376

Hypophrygian Harmonia as Species of Dorian on

Note of Exit E 18 = 312-8 v.p.s.
Note of Vent F 16 352 v.p.s.

2.

84-4

c%

Constant at -0235

I.D. '0235 X 16

Modal Determinant

No.
No.

-0235)

of Distance

-376

FINGERHOLES AND

of bore

= A of emb.
= A of fingerholes
de = depth of walls

80-5

77
$

MEASUREMENTS
L. from emb. to exit
L.
to c. H.

73-6

f.

Gf

-1072

'

-107 (-1069)

Fl. All.

THE GREEK AULOS

47

Incremental Allowance No. 7 (Cumulative)

This allowance, No.

7,

-00216

/039\

\1S)

remains latent in Sensa C, as far as Hole

5 (ratio

which it becomes active, the cumulative allowance having reached a nodal

point at Hole 6. The effect of this stimulation of a nodal point at a half-increment
calls forth the note due at the half-increment lower, and thus the sequence is interrupted by the interpolation of notes belonging to half-increments.
after

EXIT
Exit

18

from emb., Ratio -x

at -466

Z?

Note

18

18

7-

-312-8 v.p.s.

256

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
v.f.

340
625 v.p.s.

312-8 x 2

'5434 Eff. J w.l.

Act. L.

-466

0774 Eff. All. at Exit.

ALLOWANCE FOR DIAMETER AT EXIT

A
A

=
=

de

-023
-013

-003

039 Act. diameter All. at Exit

POSITION OF HOLE

Determination by Formula No. 3

2 (I.D.)

047

A
0115)
2

= 039

(ah.

A - d
A - S

013

014s
086

-00432

All.

09032

Hole

at -376 fr.

emb., Ratio

-j^

Note

352

v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
352 x 2

340
704 v.p.s.

v.f.

-4829 Eff. J w.l.

Actual L.

-376

10 69 (10 7) Eff. All. of

H.

1.

Standard Allowance No. 4

2A
2(A
de
2(A
de

-046

d)

8)

-026
-003

-029
-003

107 in agreement with the All.

Floating All. -0067 x 16

(M.D.

at

H.

1)

from

pitch.

-1072, also in agreement.

1
N.B.
00432 represents the missing allowance for the two latent I.D., which being
-00216 taken twice and added
proportional increments, carry no allowance.
Inc. All. No. 7
to the computation for the determination of the position of Hole 1, provides the necessary
adjustment.

KiiUOKDS Ut bLU'lES
Hole 2

at -3525 fr.

Note

emb., Ratio

471
375'4 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.

340

375-4 x 2

v.f.

750-8 v.p.s.

-4527 Eff. I w.l.

-3525 Act. L.

1002

All. at

H. 2

Prop. All.

x 15

107

-1003 Pr. All. in agreement.

No. 7

Inc. All.

Floating All. -0067 X 15

Hole 3

at -329, Ratio

Hole

-1005 at

Note

-00216 latent

2.

402-2 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
402-2 X 2

-4227 Eff. \ w.l.

340

804-4 v.p.s.

v.f.

-329 Act.

1.

0937 All. at

H.

Prop. All.
-107
5

x 7

Floating All. -0067 X 14

.0938 at Hole

Hole 4

at '3055,

16

Ratio

Note

13

~g

3.

No. 7

Inc. All.

TT

H.

-0936 Prop. All. in agreement at

-00216 x 2

-00432 latent

433'2 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
v.f.

340

433 2 x 2

866-4 v.p.s.

-3925 Eff. 4 w.l.

-3055 Act. L.

0870

All.

at-H. 4

Prop. All.

107

x 13
-

_
,

-087 Prop. All. in agreement

.

16
Floating All. -0067 x 13

-0871 at

H.

Hole 5

at -282, Ratio

12

Note

4.

No. 7

Inc. All.

-00216 x 3

-00648 latent

469-2 v.p.s.

256

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
v.f.

340

469-2 x 2

938-4 v.p.s.

-3623 Eff. J w.l.

-282
Act. L.
0803 All. at

H.

Prop. All.
107

-08025

Floating All.

agreement.

-0067 x 12

-0804.

Inc. All. No. 7

-00216 x 4

-00864 latent

THE GREEK AULOS

472

Hole 6

at -2585 Act. position,

-0117

Ratio

T2

Note

B 21 =

489-7 v.p.s.

I.D./2

2702 virtual position

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.

4897 x

v.f.

-3471 Eff. i w.l.

-2702 Virtual L.

340
2

979'4 v.p.s.

0769 All. at

H.6

Prop. AIL

107 x 23

-0769

32

Floating All.

-0067 x 11

= -0737
= '0737
+ 00335
-

(Ratio due to

H.

6)

Floating AII./2

07705

Inc. All.

Nodal point

at -01175

No. 7

(i-D-

-00216 x 5

-01080 (= -011) active

EXPLANATION OF THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE

'

VIRTUAL POSITION

'

OF A HOLE

The virtual lengthening of the position of Hole 6 from -2585 to -2702 is a direct
consequence of the actual lengthening of the effective half-sound-wave at that Hole.
The cause of this lengthening is the sudden activity of the Incremental Allowance
No. 7 = -00216 being cumulative, this increment, taken 5 times for the five I.D.s
at Hole 6, has now reached the total of -0108 ( = -on), i.e. practically a half -increment
;

of distance.

With an I.D. which

is

directly proportional to the length

from emb. to vent,

i.e.

by the hollows in the

with regard to the Aulos),
finds itself further greatly stimulated by the Incremental Allowance No. 7.
As soon
as this accumulated allowance reaches an amount equal to a nodal point, at half an
increment (viz. -0117), the note is heard that belongs to that half-increment, i.e.
between Holes 6 and 5, although there is no fingerhole at that point.
0235, the proportional impulse, primarily aided, perhaps,

interior of the flute at the fingerholes (as already suggested

5!2

is

normally due at Hole 6 which has been usuroed by

*

and unexpected phenomenon (which

This curious

32

frequently observed in flutes having an actual

I.D. that measures less than the Proportional I.D.), is due apparently to the IncreThis Incremental
mental Allowance No. 7 becoming active at a nodal point.

Allowance No. 7

is

may be

regarded as a kind of reflection of the exit allowance on the

to Hole 1 as Vent.
But it must
is vested in Exit or Vent in trust for all the fingerholes, and that its significance is therefore cumulative.
On flute No. 19, after the interpolation of the B 23 at Hole 6, the sequence continues to proceed by half-increments as to ratios, but from holes at whole increments.
This constitutes a further evidence of the reality of the allowance for diameter at
exit and embouchure in every flute, whether represented or not in the correct placing
actual flute,

and a symbol of the allowance due

not be forgotten that this allowance

of Hole 1.
glance at the table of effective half-wave lengths of the notes (at the end of the
Record) shows that the first five of these Effective half-wave-length I.D.s are whole,

and that from Hole 6 onwards these increments are halved, thus confirming the break
in the modal sequence beginning with B 23 at Hole 6, which should normally produce
1

For an explanation of the significance of

this virtual position see further on.

RECORDS OF FLUTES
C

473

11

5*2

as indicated

by

position

its

on the

-258

flute at

from emb.,

i.e.

'0235

11

-258.
It is clear, therefore, that since the I.D. of the

half-wave-length includes diameter

allowance, and that at Hole 6 the half-wave-length has only advanced by '0152, i.e.
-j-", an explanation

due

is

for this half-increment length,

functional activity of Incremental Allowance

Hole 7

No. 7

16
1_
fRatio
f
.0
2505 virtual position J
11

at -235 actual position,

at a

XT

Note

which

Cn

provided by the

is

Nodal

point.

512 v.p.s.
3
r

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
512

v.f.

v.p.s.

340
1024 v.p.s.

X 2

-3320 Eff. i w.l.

-2585 Virtual L.

0735

H. 7

All. at

Prop. All.

107

11

'Q735 Pr. All. in agreement

16
Floating All.

-0067 x 11

-037.

Inc. All. No. 7

produce

-00216 x 6

-01296 active

Thus Hole

11, although normally it should

7, actually at '235 from emb., plays
10 from this hole, while
11 should issue from Hole 6 at -2585.

Hole 8

32
at -2115

+
+

actual position, Ratio

-0235 I.D.

14 1-U

-0117 I.D./2J

21

Note

B2 =
5^2

536-4 v.p.s.

2467 virtual position

BY FORMULA NO. 2
34 m./s.
536-4 x 2

34

1072

v.f.

v.p.s.

-3169 Eff. i w.l.

-2467 virtual 1.

0702

All.

due

at

H.

Prop. All.
107

x 21

32

-0702 Prop. All. in agreement

Floating All.

-0067

x 21

-0703.

Inc. All.

Hole 9

at -188 actual position,

-047 I.D.

235

']

No. 7

Ratio

=
;

-00216 x 7

512

X 2

Note

01512 active

563-2 v.p.s.

virtual position

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
563-2 x 2

v.f.

-3018 Eff.

340
1126-4 v.p.s.

-235

w.l.

Virtual L.

5>668 A1L

at

Prop. All.

107 x 10

-0668

16

Floating All. -0067 x 10

-067.

Inc. All.

No. 7

-00216 x 8

-01728 active

THE GREEK AULOS

474

PROGRESSION OF THE EFFECTIVE HALF-WAVE LENGTHS AND INCREMENTS OF

DISTANCE BY FINGERHOLES

Eff. | w.l. I.D.

half-wave-length

....

Fingerhole
Exit
i

2
3

0302
0605 2 I.D.
0302

-4527
-4227

Eff I D.

& w.l

-5434
-4829

M.D.

4-

Eff.

0300

-392S
3623

0302

-3471

0152 i I.D.
0151 1 I.D.

7
8

....

0302

3320
-3169
-3018

0151 i I.D.
0151 I I.D.

Thus

the effective half-wave lengths proceed from Hole 6

whereas the fmgerholes proceed by whole increments.

by

half-increments,

The I.D. on Sensa C, being proportional, carries no allowance, so that the

corresponding amount is lacking on the flute itself
and as the fmgerholes progress
by increments throughout the sequence, the lack accumulates likewise, hence the
aspect of allowance termed No. 7 which, in its accumulation, accounts for the break
in the sequence and affords compensation.
;

MODAL FLUTE RECORDS

No.

Grasco-Roman (Bucheum) Vertical or End-Blown Flute

Ia Vent

Class IIIa Exit, Class

Facsimile of Original

made by Mr. J. D. Coates

Modal Determinant 11
B12

7
256

on

469-2 v.p.s.

Modal Sequence
Holes

Exit

Ratios

10

11

_9
1

7.

Ratio

may be obtained as 3rd

Harmonic of Hole
182

165

Cents

Notes

204

Harmonic

12

256

F$

MEASUREMENTS
L. from emb. to exit
L.
to c. H. 1
,,

L.
c. H. 1 to exit
,,
A of bore at emb. and exit
8
A of fmgerholes
de
depth of walls
I.D.
increment of distance
I.D. X M.D., i.e. -0276 x 11

=
=
=

Mean

I.D.

B
exit

277

058
014

C. of H.

0015

0276

fr

C. H. 2
C. H. 3
C. H. 4

emb.

-277
-248
220

194

H. 1 to exit
H. 1 to H. 2
H. 2 to H. 3
H. 3 to H. 4

058

029
028

026

083/3

3036

-0276.

Modal Determinant,
Note of

(A)

FINGERHOLES
335

0055

2.

231

12

11

Harmonia

469-2 v.p.s.

Dorian Spondaic from Exit.

RECORDS OF FLUTES
THE THREE

I.D.

IN FLUTE NO.

475

AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE

No.

i.

Actual I.D. between fingerholes

No.

2.

Proportional I.D., aliquot of L. at exit

No.

3.

Effective I.D. (exit)

.-3-3

= ^=

Aliquot of the half-wave-length at

=
=

-0305

'329

-0276

exit.

N.B. The Actual I.D. on this flute is less than the Prop. I.D. therefore it carries
and in comparing the proportional allowance per hole with the allowno allowance
ance derived from pitch-equivalent-length, it will be necessary to add the missing
allowance, which has been termed in this work floating allowance
it consists in
the difference between the effective \ w. I.D. and the Actual I.D., i.e., here
;

'

'

0329

'0276
005 3

The

Incremental Allowance No.

IT
at

7,

taken cumulatively,

Allowance
(M.D.)

031

at exit

i.e.

'0028,

each hole, remains latent until the aggregate amounts to the length at a Nodal

point,

i.e.

at

distance at

The

(which does not occur on

an

Hole 4

-0028 x

-0084

this flute), for the three

increments of

'0138.

may be used to check the standard allowance for the

Hole i, q.v.) thus Fl. All. x by the ratio number of Hole 1
should be equal to the standard allowance, within a millimetre or

floating allowance

fingerholes (given for

(in this flute 10)

two, e.g.
Fl. All.

-0053 x 10

Standard

All.

Difference,

and similarly for each

'053

-0523

mm.

hole.

CLASSIFICATION
This
ance

=
=

yo of one

FLUTE NO.

BELONGS TO CLASS

IIIA

flute

present

belongs to Class III^4, for the length of the flute, minus the exit allowbetween exit and Hole 1 is the multiple of I.D. and M.D., viz.
'335 = L. of flute

-031 All. at exit

x M.D. viz. -0276 x u = -3036 = -304.

from which is derived Incr. All. No. 7, becomes,
by increment, instead of remaining
latent and cumulative until a nodal point has been reached
a contingency which
arises only when the actual I.D. carries an allowance for diameter.
The reason for this becomes apparent on examinaton of the three increments
304

The

I.D.

exit allowance, therefore,

in this class of flute, immediately active, increment

it is clear, therefore, that

of distance (v. supra). The actual I.D. is the shortest
the actual I.D. not only carries no allowance at all, but also falls short of the Pro:

portional I.D.

by

-0029, viz.

0305 Prop. I.D.

-0276 Actual I.D.

0029 difference

Since the Eff. \ w.l. includes the allowance for diameter, which, as we have seen,
functions as floating allowance, i.e. covering the allowance per increment (i.e. -0053),

should approximately correspond within a millimetre or so with Allowance No. 7

doubled (i.e. '0056) as relating to wave length and not to actual flute length only.
this

THE GREEK AULOS

476

It will be seen in the analysis of pitch values for each hole how accurately this
works out, when the Incr. All. No. 7 is added to the Prop. All. in order to balance

the allowance derived from pitch-equivalent-length values.

EXIT
Exit

emb., Ratio

at -335 fr.

11

Note

460-2 v.p.s.

256

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
469-2 x 2

~~

938-4 v.p.s.

-3623 Eff. w.l.

Act. L.

340

v.f.

-335

0273/2 Eff. All. at exit

-01365

Analysis of Allowance at Exit by Formula No. 5

014 A

mm.,

-0015 depth (difference 2

0155

or without

'

depth' none)

All. at exit

In comparing this allowance with that resulting from pitch given above, it must
be doubled.
N.B. The two allowances should be in agreement the slight difference implies
one of three causes
(a) the pitch inaccurately estimated
(b) the diameter of the
bore
(c) that depth has no significance.
The state in which the precious relic was
found, unsoldered down the length of the flute and the edges bent inwards, made it
impossible to estimate the diameter with greater certainty.

Both the fundamental

256

and the overblown octave

POSITION OF HOLE

By Formula No.
A
- +

008

de

A emb.
A S
LD.

0305

014

0085

0276

from

0581 position of H.i.

Hole

at -277, Ratio

Exit allowance actually transferred

to the flute between Exit and H.I.

~~

are in perfect tune.

Note

10

C =

exit

11

516-1 v.p.s.

10

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
v.f.

516-1 x 2

340

1032-2

-3293 Eff. i w.l.

Act. L.

-277

0523 Std. All. at

H.

Analysis of Standard All. by Formula No. 4

2(A + de)
2(A 8)
2( depth)

The

Floating All. x Ratio 10 at Hole

Std. All. at
1

This Exit

.03
i.e.

Hole

-jj-

within 7/10 of one

All. as -031

-0028.

and therefore

Hole

in exact

-031

-017
-003

1, i.e.

-0053 x 10

forms the basis of the Inc.

on

this

-053 in

agreement with

mm.
All.

Graeco-Roman Bucheum

agreement with theory.

No. 7 cumulative by increment,

flute is actually at -058

from

exit,

RECORDS OF FLUTES
Hole 2

477

at -248 (Act. I.D.

~;

029), Ratio

X 11
469-2 v.p.s.
"

Note

573-4 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.

340

v -f- S73'4 x 2

1146-8 v.p.s.

H.

-2965 Eff. | w.l. at

Act. L.

-248
"

"0485 All. at

H. 2

Prop. All. (from Std. All.)

x 9 _

0523

Ti

-0428 Prop. All.

-0053 Eff. I.D. - Act. I.D.

H. 2

0481 Adjusted All. at

-220 (I.D.

at

Ratio

-028),

469-2 X

Note

No. 7

Inc. All.

Hole 3

E =

-0028 latent

645-15 v.p.s.

1 1

(,e.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.

34

645-15 x 2

v.f.

1290-3 v.p.s.

-2635 Eff. i w.l.

Act. L. at

-220

0435 All. at

H.

H.

Prop. All.

Std

All

' 523

x 8

Prop

'3 8

11

A1L

'

-0053

H.

0433 Adjusted All. at

No. 7

Inc. All.

Hole 4

-194

at

(I.D.

026), Ratio

y;

-0028

Note

x 2

=-737

-0056 latent

3 v.p.s.

X n\
469-2 v.p.s. x
11^

/.

~7

'

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
v -f- 737-3 x 2

34

1474-6 v.p.s.

-23057 Eff. i w.l.

-194 Act. L.

0366
0523 x 7
=
~
11

All. at

H. 4

-0332 Prop. All.

-003 7 Eff. I.D.

Act. I.D. (-026)

0369 Adjusted All.

N.B. As the I.D. at H. 4 is only -026, i.e. -0016 further from emb., the
ment due to additional length from emb. may be stated thus

adjust-

194
-ooi6

-0350 All. at H. 4

1956 Act. L.

and

for Prop. All. thus

-2306 Eff. i w.l. at H. 4

-1956 Adjusted Act. L.

0369

-0016
0353

Inc. All.

No. 7

-0028 x 3

-0084 latent

THE GREEK AULOS

478

The
is

next note in the modal sequence, after the one given out through Hole

of ratio

~,

above the note

a fifth

D of Hole

2,

through which the note

4,

A may

be obtained as 3rd harmonic overtone. The complete sequence may thus be played
in the harmonic register by overblowing the fundamentals from exit and Holes 1
to 4, an octave, and Hole 2, a 12th.

Through Hole 2

D =
A =

at -248 Ratio

S73 4 v.p.s. X 3 =
469-2 v.p.s. X II
-

as 3rd

harmonic of D.

of 1720-4 v.p.s.

860-2 v.p.s. X 2

when overblown an

1720-4

octave.

BY FORMULA NO.
3. 2
340 m./s.

340

860-2 v.p.s. x 2

The

2965 x 2

and

THE EFFECTIVE

I.D.

Fingerhole

Exit

Hole 1
Hole 2
Hole 3
Hole 4

1976 Eff. i w.l.

1720-4

effective \ w.l. of the

D. of Hole

DERIVED FROM THE EFF. \ W.L. DIVIDED BY THE MODAL

DETERMINANT FOR THE FINGERHOLES

....

Eff.

Harm. Hole

2965

-1976.

w.l.

Eff. I.D.

3623

0329

"3293
-2965

0330
0328

-2635
2306

0329

-1976

0330

0330

No

break in the modal sequence is indicated by the Eff. I.D., or by the Incremental Allowance No. 7, which remains latent throughout.

MODAL FLUTE RECORDS No.

MOND SICILIAN FLUTE
:

Presented by the late Mrs. Ludtvig

Class

Mond

{made by a peasant)

IIB

Phrygian Harmonia from Exit.

Dorian Harmonia from Vent.

Modal Determinants 12 and

M.D.
M.D.

12
11

11.

Phrygian on

"
? and on Dorian

256

Modal Sequences

Hole

Exit

12/12

Increment

1234
10

11

151

Cents

165

182

204

512

bads.

(7)

231

15/24

128

13/24

12

138-5

of Distance -025.

SCHEME OF FINGERING

Exit

O = C =

back

0
o

O Harmonic

C =

IO24

V.p.:

12

1024

v.p.s.

RECORDS OF FLUTES
For explanatory matter on cross-fingering

479

Chap,

see

vi (Theoretical)

and

vii

(Historical).

N.B.
It will be noticed that in the computation of extra allowances for the adjustment
of Proportional Allowance, hole by hole, the number of increments has been increased
by one e.g. at Hole 4 adjustment is made by 4 times the Fl. All., whereas, from Holes
;

The reason for this proceeding lies in the curiously dis1 to 4 there are but 3 I.D.
proportionate diameter of the Mond Flute in relation to its length, and will be found
more fully stated further on.

FINGERHOLES AND

MEASUREMENTS
L. emb. to exit
L. emb. to c. of Hole
L. exit to c. of Hole 1
A of bore

-270
1

-214
-056
020

from emb. -214

C. of H.

C. of H. 2 from emb. -190

H.

009

S of fmgerholes

008

(constant);

I.D.

025

depth

0025

from

c.

024

H.

>

I.D.

from Exit -056

C. of H. 3 from emb. -165

H. 2
C. of H. 4 from emb. -140

d of emb.

from

c.

025
;

from c

from c

025

C. of H. s from emb. -115

H. 4
from
C. of H. 6 from emb. -090
H. S
C. of H. 7 (back) from emb. -080
from c. H. 6

025
c,

025
;

010 j

I.D.

134X2/11

-02436

= -02436.
practical -025.

Increment of Distance (mean)

x 12 M.D.

I.D. -025

Modal Determinant

-300.

at Exit

12.

Mode Phrygian.
Modal Determinant

Mode
Note of Exit

at Vent

=11.

Dorian.

(all

12
256'

holes closed)

THE THREE INCREMENTS OF DISTANCE

No.

1.

No.

2.

No.

3.

Fl. All.

Actual, between fmgerholes, centre to centre

270
Prop. I.D. from c. of vent.
12
Eff.

The

I w. I.D.

3623

03019

floating allowance is based

fthe Eff. \

wj A
)

V"

N.B.
0025 =

i w.l

The

-03019

I.D.

-025

-0225

-0302

-025

upon

-0052 Fl. All. per I.D.

viz.

3623
(Eff.

=
=

-0052

eff.

or -0026 actual]

12

I.D. at -025 thus consists of the Prop. I.D.

-0225

Fl. All. of

-025.

Inc. All.

No. 7

All.

from Exit

034
12"

-0028

Floating Allowance on the Mond Flute is thus equal to the difference

between the Actual I.D. and the Proportional I.D. =

The

025

Act. I.D.

-0225 Prop. I.D.

0025

actually,

on the

Flute, or -005 effective.


THE GREEK AULOS

480

Thus

the actual I.D. in this flute carries

requisite allowance in actual milli-

its

metres.

The

No. 7 is actually present likewise on the flute between exit and

remains latent, however, from increment to increment (being included
in the position of the hole centres, as length from emb.) until by accumulation it has
reached the extent of a nodal point at a half-increment, when it becomes operative
as an addition at half-increment of length and produces from the fingerhole the note
due half an increment further from emb. and therefore lower in pitch.
Hole

Inc. All.
It

1.

THE TRIPLE DIAMETER ALLOWANCE

The Mond

flute

has a wide diameter in relation to

I3i times, andatvent

2 4
020

- -^

its

length at

exit, i.e.

020

From the exact pitch of the exit note and

io| times.

from

its eff. \ w.l., it becomes evident that the usual formula No. 2 does not fit the
the allowance is -0923 instead of -0667, a difference of -0256 more than one
;
diameter, or equal to one I.D.
The diameter x 3 instead of x 2 is only a matter of
allowance on effective length, however, and does not affect actual length. It will be
seen from the record of each fingerhole that the Prop. All. works out accurately on

case

this basis.

THE DIAMETER ALLOWANCE FROM EXIT

L. from exit to emb.

BY FORMULA NO.

A
A -

=
=

d
de

-270.

-020

-on
-003

034 Allowance at Exit

I.D. -025 x 12

'300

L. from exit

Allowance

-270

-034
304

NOTE OF EXIT FUNDAMENTAL

12

^6
3

vi

^^

x 2

469-2 v p

= o3& =

'

3623

6ff
-

f
-

Sd - W3ve

3623 Eff. L.
270
Act. L.

N.B.

The

as a suggestion,

0923
068

Allowance based upon pitch

All. at exit X 2

0243

i.e.

an excess of more than one diameter.

tripling of the diameter for effective length

which has not yet been thoroughly

tested

is

merely brought forward

upon other specimens having

similar dimensions.

POSITION OF HOLE I AND STANDARD ALLOWANCE FROM VENT

Hole 1 Position of centre of Hole by Formula No. 3

=
=

A -d
A S
1

=
=

(I.D.)

Act. position of

H.

-oio

-on
-012

025

058 Theoretical

position of

-056, difference 2

mm.

Hole

centred at -058

RECORDS OF FLUTES

481

Standard Allowance for Diameter by Formula No. 4 (Mond)

3(A)

2(A
2(A

d)

-I-

de

8)

de

-060

-025

-027

112

Floating allowance -0052 x

Effective Standard All. for

(ratio of

1 1

H.

holes

all

057 actual, and

1)

14

-i

eff. is

there-

fore ample.

PITCH OF NOTE OF HOLH

Hole

Note

at -214

-056

,,

--

512

from cmb.
from exit.

ratio

v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
3 40
v.f.

m./ s.

-332 Eff.

340
1024

512 x 2

'

w.l.

214 Actual L.
118 Eff. Allowance

The

excess of the theoretical over the standard of -006 is doubtless due to the
Mond Flute in relation to its length.

abnormally wide diameter of the

Hole 2

at

(I.D. a
190
" v

Ratio
024),
r

10

Note of Hole 2

512

563 2 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
-

340

340
563 2 X 2

126 4 v.p.s.

30l8

Eff.

\ w.l.

-190 Act. L.

1118 Allowance

Prop. All.
112

St

A,L

X IO

MOl8

I-I20
=

II

-I

-0052

I-

-005

Fl. All.

Excess

2
-0025 x 2 for 2 (I.D.)

1 120 Adjustment of Prop.

No. 7

Inc. All.

Hole 3

at -165
3

-0028 x 2

from cmb., Ratio --, Note of H.

9

'

'

3
J

All.

-0056 latent

512

625 6

v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
34
v.f.

_
"

625-6 X 2

34
1251-2

-2717 Eff- i w.l.

Act. L.
165

v.f.

1067 Allowance
Prop. All.
St. All. -ii2

X 9/11 = L

-0916 St. All. for

H.

3.

0916
-I-

-0078

-0075 Excess X 3

Fl. All.

1069 Adjustment of Prop. All.

Inc. All. No. 7

-0028 x 3

-0084 latent

THE GREEK AULOS

482
Hole 4

^5

at -140, Ratio

Note ?J*L

v .p.s.

512

BY FORMULA NO. 2

_
~~

340 m./s.
704 X 2

340
1408

v.f.

-2414 Eff. I w.I.

-1400 Act. L.

~~

1014 All. at

H. 4

Prop. All.

x 8

ii2

-0814 Prop. All. at H. 4

-0104 Fl. All. x 4

11

-oioo Excess x 4
1018 Adj. of Prop. All.

at -115, Ratio

-0125

G 15 =

Note

No. 7

Inc. All.

Hole 5

-0028 x 4

-0112 latent

750-8 v.p.s.

I.D./2

1275 virtual position

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
v.f.

750-8 x 2

340

1501-6 v.p.s.

N.B.

The

increments

-2264 Eff. i w.I.

-1275 Virtual L. at
0989 All. at

H.

now number

4^.

H.

Prop. All.

ii2

-07636 Prop. All. at H. 5

-0117
Fl. All. x 4^

15 _

~ +
+

22

-01125 Excess x 4J
09931 Adjustment of Prop. All.

Inc. All.

point

(
\

No. 7

-0028

-0140 active, having reached and passed the nodal

=-0125) and the corresponding note of the half-increment,

sounds instead of 7

It is well to

remember

that in playing a

must be an increase of compression in the blowing

Hole 6

at

-090+
2

Ratio

22

'

-090

-0125

modal

now

flute there

as pitch rises.

-1025,

Actual

Ratio

Virtual

-.
13

Note of H. 6

866-4 v.p.s.

512

BY FORMULA NO. 2
34b

340 m./s.
v.f.

866-4 x 2

1732-8 v.p.s.

~~

-1962 Eff. i w.I.

-1025 Virtual L.
0937 All. at

St. All.

H. 6

Prop. All.

-ii2

a
22

- 661

+
+

-0143
'

01375

Prop. All. at Hole 6

Fl. All.

x 54

Exc. x 5%

09415 ^Adjustment
Inc. All.

No. 7

of Prop. All.

-0028 x 6

-0168 active

RECORDS OF FLUTES

483

The

incremental allowance is still active but has not reached a further nodal
Thus, although Hole 6 has been bored at one whole increment about Hole 5
the effect in sound is that of one half-increment, so that the hole is virtually at
090 + '0125 = -1025 from embouchure.
This curious position causes what has
been noticed also in other flutes (e.g. Sensa C), i.e. an interrupted sequence through
the interpolation of a note due at a half-increment lower.
This arises, as alreadyexplained, through the cumulative effect of Inc. All. No. 7, here stimulated into
activity by the accumulated length which has overtaken the nodal point, but not
sufficiently to cause a second interpolation.
The lowering effect has merely been
passed on from Hole 5.
point.

Hole 7

at -080

Actual L. from emb.

-0125 half-incr. lower.

0925 Virtual L. from emb.

Ratio 12/6 from
1 1/6 from
,,

Note of Hole 7'

12

512

938-4
yj
*

exit

vent.

v.p.s.
v

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
938-4 x 2

340

1876-8

-18115

-09250
08865

Prop. All.

j(

112

St. All.

-056

Prop. All.

~ +
+

-0156

Fl. All.

-0150

Exc. x 6

x 6

0866 * Adjustment of Prop. All.

Inc. All.

No. 7

-0028 x 7,

still

active as at Hole 5

-0196

is at -oio above Hole 6 instead of at a full halfnote played is undoubtedly B 12 in tune. The flutemaker has planned his boring scheme so efficiently so far probably by empirical
experiments aided by familiarity with the pure modal sequence that it cannot be
that he has suddenly become careless.
This may be regarded as the triumph of the
proportional impulse over the factor of length, which allows the
12 to sound

It will

increment

be noticed that Hole 7

-0125.

The

in tune.

THE EFFECTIVE HALF-WAVE LENGTH AT EACH FINGERHOLE, PER INCREMENT

Holes
Exit

Hole 1
Hole 2
Hole 3
Hole 4
Hole 5
Hole 6
Hole 7

iw.l.

per Inct.

Ratio Nos.
12

3623

0302

11

-332
-3018

0303

0302

10

-2717

0301

0303

..

-2414
2113

1962

0301 (-0151)
I.D.
0151

-1811

0151

7 (iS)
13

I.D.
12

7
Between Holes 5 and 7 the ratio is , i.e. of one I.D., as shown by the effective
o
half-wave length, but the actual holes on the flute are placed at one and a half incre-

ment.

THE GREEK AULOS

MODAL FLUTE RECORDS
From

No. 3

Mr. George Kaufmann, M.A. (7/9/33)

the Carpathians, presented by

Golden brown bamboo with

Class IIa

6 Fingerholes

from Vent

Dorian Harmonia of M.D.

(Spondaic)

23456

Modal Sequence
Fingerholes
Modal Ratios

10

11/11

165

Cents

This

~^

Vent on

Plays from

flute is

204

231

267

375-4 v.p.s.

ix in connexion with the Rumanian Folk Song

bordering on the Carpathians), which is also in the Dorian

mentioned in Chap,

(from the Maramuros

district

Tested on July

Harmonia.

182

26, 1934,

on
N.B.

Since the ratios of the intervals given by the fingerholes (and therefore by their
known and fixed, through the Modal Determinant (here 11), the theoretical
distance of the holes from the embouchure may be ascertained by reckoning the
this being a test of the value and correctI.D. as equal according to the average
ness of the formula.
The distance from Exit to Hole 1 = -086, i.e. two I.D. + -014 for allowance at

v.f.s) are

which should be

exit

The

-024.

=
A =

total length

Allowance for

-460

-024

484 All. at Exit (theoretical).

The
or

X 14

not an exact multiple of the I.D. (mean -036) X 13

total length is

-468

-504,

therefore

the flute's scale

of which note

may be

taken to

commence from

375-4

= -M

and the

is

ratio

250

as vent, the v.f.

MEASUREMENTS

FINGERHOLES

Total length from C. of emb. to

C. of vent
A of bore
A of emb. d

Total length -460 from emb.

C. of H. 1
to exit
C. of H. 1 at -374 from emb.
;

-460
-014
-008

A+

the centre of Hole

S of fingerholes (irregular circle)

average
Depth of walls

oo6
oo6

-086

C.
C.
C.
C.
C.

of H. 2 at -341
of H. 3 at -306
of H. 4 at -261

of H. 5 at -227
of H. 6 at -191

from C. of Hole
of H. 2
of H. 3
,, of H. 4
of H. 5

-033

-035
-045

-034
-036

-004

183
5)

I.D.

mean

-0366, useful

I.D. from vent

374

mean

-0366

,0 36.

-034.

11

036 X

11

=
=

actual position of Hole 1 at -374

-022 approximates to All. for diameter.

-396

Since the length from embouchure to vent + allowance is equal (within 2 mm.)
by the Modal Determinant, the flute No. 3 therefore belongs

to the I.D. multiplied

to Class IIa.

RECORDS OF FLUTES
The mean

I.D. at -036 includes -002 as allowance for

485

over the Prop. I.D. at

vent of '034.

THE THREE INCREMENTS OF DISTANCE

=
=

mean

Actual I.D. useful

'374

Proportional I.D.,

i.e.

Effective I.D.,

i.e.

-036

-034

11

412
034

'

Prop. I.D.

'0072
Floating Allowance -0072

024
Inc. All.

The

actual I.D. therefore bears

No. 7

-00218

allowance of -002 with a reserve of -005.

its

POSITION OF HOLE

By Formula No.

A
007

A - d
A S

-006)

006
008

2 (I.D.)

072

Theoretical position

93

(-014
(-014

-008)

actual position at -086

021

Hole

is,

from

exit

therefore, -007 too low, according to theory.

ALLOWANCE IN RESPECT OF DIAMETER

EXIT

=
=
=

A
A d
de

-014

006
004
024 diameter allowance at exit

Hole

at -374,

Ratio 11/11

Note

Ct

1 ^

j-

37s '4 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
v -f- 375'4 x 2

'4528 Eff.

340
7SO-8 v.p.s.

~ '374

W.l.

Act. L.

0788 All. at

Standard
2(A)

2(A
2(A

+ de =
d) + de
- 8) + de

All.

No.

4.

By Formula No.

H.

-032
-016
-020
068 Standard Allowance at

It will

H.

be seen that the Standard Allowance (theoretical)

is

-oio less than the

computed from the v.f. of the note. The

the position of Hole 1 was found to be
difference may be accounted for thus
actually -007 too low.
The I.D. between Hole 1 and Hole 2 = -033 is less than the

Effective Allowance at

Hole

1,

which

is

mean

pointing to irregularity in the boring of the

flute.

THE GREEK AULOS

486

Hole 2

at

from emb., Ratio 11/10;

-341

Note

=375-4

v.p.s.

X 11/10

412-9 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
412-9 x a

340

-4117 Eff. J w.l.

Act. L.

825-8 v.p.s.

v.f.

-341

0707
Prop. All. {from St. All. No. 4)
0788 x io
-780

All. at

H. 2

0709.

II

No. 7

Inc. All.

Hole 3

at -306

from emb., Ratio 11/9

-00218 x

B =

Note

(I.D.)

-00218 latent

375 4 x 11/9

458-8 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
458-8 x 2

34

'3705 Eff. \ w.l.

-306 Act. L.

917-6 v.p.s.

v.f.

0645 All. at

H.

Prop. All. (from St. All. )

0788 x 9

= -0644- /
'

Inc. All.

Hole 4

-261

at

from

emb.,

No. 7

Ratio

11/8;

-00218 x 2

-00436 latent

C =375-4

Note

v.p.s.

x 11/8

516-17 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
v.f.

516-17 x 2

340

1032-34

-3294 Eff. $ w.l. at H. 4

-261
Act. L. at H. 4
0684 All. at H. 4

Prop. All. (by Formula No. 4)

0788 x 8
0573

N.B.

The

higher than

it

-009

-0663 Adjusted Prop. All.

I.D. is here -045 instead of -036, therefore Hole 4 is placed -oog

should be, which accounts for the allowance being irregular.

Inc. All.

Hole 5

at -227, Ratio

11/7

No. 7

Note

D =

-00218 x 3 (I.D.)

-00654 latent

X 11/7

589-9 (590) v.p.s.

3754

v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
590 x 2

v.f.

340
180 v.p.s.

-2881 Eff. i w.l. at

Act. L.

H.

-227
061

All. at

H.

Prop. All. by Formula No. 4

0788

The

x 7/1 1

-05014 Prop. All.

difference of

iomm.

is

due

to the irregular position of

Inc. All. No. 7

-00218 x 4

Hole

5.

-00872 latent

RECORDS OF FLUTES
Hole 6

at -191, Ratio

11/6

Note

F =

487

375-4 v.p.s. x 11/6

688-2 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
688-2 x 2

-247 Eff. i w.l.

-191 Act. L. at

340

1376-4 v.p.s.

v.f.

~~

056 All. at
Prop. All. by

H. 6
H. 6

Formula No. 4

0788 x 6/1 1

-04298

-043

-on

diff.

above

as

OS4

N.B.

The

No. 7

Inc. All.

nodal point

-00218 x 5

THE EFFECTIVE HALF-WAVE LENGTHS AND

Hole I
Hole 2
Hole 3
Hole 4
Hole 5
Hole 6

-4528

-041

-4117

-0411

-37H

-0403

-3293
-2881

-0412

-247

-0411

MODAL FLUTE RECORDS

JAVA
from

S2i

No. 5

Side-blown Flute (Soeling)

6 Fingerholes.
Facsimile

-1090 latent

I.D.

at -018.

is

from Batavia belonging to Mrs. Elizabeth Ayres Kidd, of

Winnetka, U.S.A.

original

Class Ia from Vent

Class IIIa from Exit

Modal Determinant 11 from Exit and 10 from Vent

Dorian Harmonia

Modal Sequence

12345

Exit Hole
10
ii/ii

182

165

Cents

231

5H 11 )

204

151

267

The fundamental

note of exit

emb. to exit
emb. to C. Hole 1 (Vent)
(internal) from exit to stopper
stopper from centre of emb.

of bore

-310

8 of fingerholes (constant)
de depth of walls

006

Exit to C. of Hole
I.D. (constant)

052

is

This

of -045

-258 ;
-3165
-0065

0115
008

d of emb.

eff.

494

v.p.s.

D
20
=

563-2 v.p.s.

512

FINGERHOLES AND

MEASUREMENTS
L.
L.
L.
L.

=C

vent=

L.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.

C.
of
of
of
of
of

Hole
H. 2
H. 3
H. 4
H. 5
H. 6

from emb. -258

232
206
180

154
128

I.D.

-052
from ext.
from C. H. 1 -026
from C. H. 2 -026
from C. H. 3 -026
from C. H. 4 -026
from C. H. 5 -026

002
;

026

I.D. in excess of all others draws attention to the actual I.D. at Hole 4 which
mean -036
-009.

THE GREEK AULOS

488

I.D. Constant

-026.

Modal Determinant from

Interval

from Exit

Note of

exit

H.

to

exit 11.

slightly sharpened.

Note of Vent
I.D.
I.D.

=
=

=C

fundamental

-026

-026

512
x 10
x 11

-404 v.p.s.

ii

512

=
=
=

563-2 v.p.s. (exact)

-260 (actual -258 L.
-286 L. exit to

emb.

emb.

Hole

to C.

1)

-310

(according to ratio the fundamental note

is

flattened).

THE THREE INCREMENTS OF DISTANCE

(1)

The Increment

(2)

The

of Distance (I.D.) between the fingerholes

Proportional I.D., aliquot of the length from emb. to vent

2 e8

-026

-0258

-0302

-0044

-0019

10

half-wave length 551^

10
Floating Allowance = No. 3 No. 2 = -0302

(3) I.D. of the Effective

The

Inc. All.

No. 7

= Vent

-0019 x 5

All.

-0258

-0095

(This allowance does not approach a nodal point (-013) and therefore causes no
Modal Sequence.)

interruption in the

EXIT
BY FORMULA NO.

= -310 from
= -0115
= -0035
= -002

L.

A
A -d
de

017

exit to

x 2

All. at exit (-017

L. from exit to emb.

emb.

-034, Eff. All. at exit)

-310

-034 Eff. All. at exit

344 Eff. i w.l.

BY FORMULA NO.
340

./s.

X ~2
344 ~

340
"aqq
-058

I
.

POSITION OF HOLE

By Formula No.
A
A - d
A -S

=
=
=

2 {de)

(I.D.)

Cn\)
512'

3.

-00575
-0035
-0055
-004

01875
1

494'i v.p.s.
fundamental at exit (a flattened
c
\

(=

-019)

-045)

-026

04475

Actual distance from exit of C. of Hole 1 = -052, which is 7 mm. higher than
the theoretical. The flute-maker has obviously allowed two I.D. between exit and
Hole 1, which provides a surplus of -007 (or of -014 for pitch values or effective
length).

The implication is that there can be no commensurate ratio between

The table giving the Eff. J w. I.D. confirms the implication.

vent.

exit

and

RECORDS OF FLUTES
Hole

Standard Allowance No.

489

4.

BY FORMULA NO. 4

=
=
=
=

2A
2(A
2(A

d)
S)

2 (de)

-023
-007

-on
-004
045 Standard allowance (cf. with above)

N.B.

The Actual

I.D. is practically equal to the Vent proportional I.D., and

therefore carries no allowance.
The Floating Allowance therefore becomes operative
at each Hole.

Hole 2

from emb., Ratio

at -232

1-0/9

Note

',

18

625-6 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
625-6 x 2

v.f.

340

1251-2

'

~~

-2718 Eff. w.l.

-232 Act. L.

0398 All. at H. 2

Prop. All.

0438 x 9
10

i
=
= -3942
-

10

...

_.

-0394
ovr Prop.
v All.

Inc. All.

Hole 3

from emb., Ratio 10/8

at -206

(eff.)

No. 7

5/4

-0019 x 2

Note

16

-0038 latent

704

512

v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
704 x 2

340

v.f.

1408 v.p.s.

"24147 Eff. \ w.l.

Act. L.

-206

0355

Prop. All.

0438

x 4/5

H.

-03504

Inc. All. No. 7

Hole 4

Eff. All. at

"

G7

from emb., Ratio 10/7; Note

at -180

-0019 x 3

-0057 latent

804-4 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
v.f.

340
1608 8 v.p.s.

804-4 x 2

2H3

Eff.

i w.l.

-180 Act. L.

0313 All. at

Prop. All.

0438 x 7/10

03o66

H. 4

/
.

03I

10
Inc. All.

No. 7

-0019 x 4

-0076 latent

THE GREEK AULOS

490

Hole 5

from emb., Ratio io/6

at -154

Note

S 12

938-4 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
v.f.

938-4 x 2

340

~~

1876-8 v.p.s.

-1811 Eff. i w.l.

-154 Act. L.

H.

0271 All. at

Prop. All.

026s

Inc. All. No. 7

Hole 6

11

from emb., Ratio

at -128

/
x 6/10 (= 3/5)

0438

^
10

-0019 x 5

Note

-0095 latent

v.p.s.

1024

-OI3 i (I.D.)
141 virtual L.

from emb.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
v.f. 1024 x 2

-166 Eff. w.l.

340
2048 v.p.s.

-141 Virtual L.

= (+

-013)

025

Prop. All.

^
x

43 8

" =

oa

20

Prop. All.

Inc. All.

No. 7

-0019 x 6

becomes active
Nodal point = -013

-0114

SCHEME OF FLUTE FOR NOTE OF HOLE 6

O =C

.-,

exit

11 of 1024 v.p.s. in tune

= C of 494-1

O =

D
IO10 v.p.s.
1024

512
v.p.s.

N.B. Thus although Hole 6 is at a whole I.D., the note is that of a half I.D.
Hole 5 = B 6 or 12 and Hole 6 should have ratio number 5 or 10. But instead, a
pure C 11 is played, although the Inc. All. No. 7 had by accumulation = -0114 not
reached the nodal point which occurs at -013. This unusual activity of Inc. All.
No. 7 may have been stimulated by the position of Hole 6 at a whole I.D. past the
middle length of the flute. This influence of the upper half of the flute (at the same
diameter as the lower half) has been found operative in halving the ratio in other
flutes, e.g. in

The

Sensa

fact that in

are equal,

(q.v.).

both the

and the proportional I.D.

included in the position of the holes

flutes in question the actual

and that therefore no allowance

may, on the other hand, prove

to be the

is

predominant

factor.

RECORDS OF FLUTES
EFFECTIVE HALF-WAVE LENGTH

49 1
I.D.

Hole's

Exit

0312

'344
2mR
JUiO

Hole i
Hole 2
Hole 3
Hole 4
Hole s
Hole 6

actually 4 L.LJtJ

3718
"7 A T C

'CJ02
.

-1811

166

O302

of one-half I.D.

0151 (note

al-

though the hole is actually

at one whole I.D. on the
flute)

MODAL FLUTE RECORDS

JAVA
K. S.

Facsimile by

No. 6

II

With 6 Fingerholes

Side-blown Flute (Soeling).

front Mrs. Elizabeth Ayres Kidd's original

Class IIa

from Batavia

from Vent

Modal Determinant II

C =

Dorian Spondaic on

512 from Vent

Modal Sequence
Holes

Exit
true

ratio

11

2
10

11

11

11

11

11

11

No
Ratios

to

vent

182

165

Cents

204

L.

from emb. to exit

from emb. to C. of Hole 1
from exit (internal)
from C. of emb.

L. stopper

-335
-2805

C. H.

-342
-007

-013

d of emb.

'0085
-0065

de depth of walls

'0015;
'0545
-0278

L. Vent -2805

from emb. -2805

C. H. 2
C. H.3
C. H.4
C. H. s
C. H. 6

8 of fingerholes (constant)

Exit to C. of Hole
I.D. (mean) -028

FINGERHOLES

L. stopper

of bore

267
#

MEASUREMENTS
L.

231
*

Notes

253

2245
197
169
1415

from

exit

H. itoH.
H. 2 to H.

;
;

0275

3 = '0285
3 to H. 4= '0275

H.
H. 4 to H. 5= 028
H. 5 to H. 6 = '0275

I.D. mean -0278

useful I.D. -028
-028
I.D. X 11

=-0545

2=

I39/S

-0278 (-028)

allowance -0255
11.

-306.

Modal Determinant

Harmonia Dorian Spondaic from Vent.

Note of Vent c = 512 v.p.s.

THE THREE
No.
No.
No.

I.D.

IN FLUTE NO. 6

Actual I.D. between fingerholes

Proportional I.D., aliquot of length from Vent
Effective w.l. I.D. (Vent)

1.

2.
3.

I.D. (Exit -031))

Floating All. = No. 3 No. 2

Prop. All. always present per I.D.
(

-0302

-0255

0047 Fl. All.

028

0255
03018

492

THE GREEK AULOS

The

X M.D.

Floating Allowance

-0047

11

should equal the

-0517,

allowance No. 4, termed Standard Vent Allowance = -0513 q.v. exact in this flute
within -J- of one mm.
0I
Incremental All. No. 7 = -0016, i.e.
= 0016 cumulative.

at

J^
This allowance remains latent in this flute, not approaching the nodal point even
Hole 6
viz. -0016 x 5 = -008.
Nodal point -014. Therefore the Modal Sequence follows a normal course
:

without interruption.

EXIT
Exit at -335.
The position of Hole

should thus bear the ratio

a flattened

of

theory demands

from Hole

4557
(a

v.p.s.,

paradox

12

owing

Hole

to

the note of which

exit,

But the fundamental of Java

469-2 v.p.s.

II is

having been placed -009 higher than

To be in tune with the modal sequence

see further on).

have measured from emb. to exit -3243

as Vent, the flute should

from

indicates one I.D. only

BlZ

would then have given a fundamental ^-^ of 469-2

The

v.p.s.

distance

is

it

thus too

long by -009.

As
thus

the flute stands,

its

correct pitch at

B =

455-7 v.p.s.

Allowance for diameter at

=
=

A
A d
de.

L.

-0045 (-013
-0015

allow

=
+

by Formula No. 5

exit

-013

Allow, inalterable for a flute]

of this diameter!

-0085

If

340
455 "7

746

Eff.

v.p.s. instead of 469-2,

which proceeds from the Vent

To

give the

256
shorter, as

v.p.s.

would
at

which

is

distort the

Hole

shown by Formula No.

469-2 v.p.s. x 2

1,

the

v.f.

2,

on ~~~

viz.

of the flute at exit.

12, the exit note, as flattened jB 12

Harmonia of the Dorian Spondaic,

correct intonation, the flute

340

-0045)

w.l.

used for a modal sequence of determinant

4557

-335 at exit
-038 Eff. Allow.

373

34om./s.
373 x 2

X 2

BY FORMULA NO.

may be verified by formula

perfect tune.

would have

to be at least -009

'3243

340
938-4 v.p.s.

'3623 Eff. w.l.

-0380 Eff. All.
3243 Act. L.

The

length, however, could not be altered after the fingerholes

had been bored

without causing distortion of the Harmonia.

therefore

the pitch of exit note, as determined by theory, must be, and is, of a frequency of
455 7> f an effective half-wave length of -373 with an allowance fixed by formula
from the diameter of the bore at -038 as shown above.

It is clear that since the I.D.

taken 12 times (as determinant of modal genesis)

RECORDS OF FLUTES

493

= -336, a flute having a length of -335 could carry no allowance. Moreover, the
Vent, as Modal Tonic at -2805 = I.D. x 10 while playing the sequence of determinIt is our task now to discover how
ant 11, carries an allowance equal to one I.D.
nearly this allowance approximates to the amount required by theory.
I.D. = -028 xii
length emb. to H.

-308

-2805

0275 allowance actually available

theoretically at Vent

Act. Position of Hole

from

exit

'0545

I.D.

028
0265 difference

It is seen,

however, that this position of Hole

mm.

does not conform with the one

demanded by formula.
POSITION OF HOLE

AT -2805 FROM EMBOUCHURE

By Formula No. 3
A
-

-0065

=
=

-0045
-0065

A - d
A 8

('Oi3
(-013

-0085)
-0065)

Allowance

One
by theory

+
=

I.D.

Distance exit to H.
actual distance

-0545 (difference

'oi7S
-028

-0455

-009

as

2805 from emb., Ratio

at

^j-

Note C11

below).

ALLOWANCE AT HOLE

PITCH, EFFECTIVE HALF-WAVE LENGTH AND STANDARD

AS VENT

Hole

shown

=512

v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
512 X 2

340
1024 V.p.S.

V.f.

'332 Eff. J w.l.

'2805

0515 Standard All.

Standard Allowance at Vent by Formula No. 4

=
=

2A
2(A

d)

2 (A
de

-026
-009

Fl. All.

0047

8)

position of

-0517

0015
correct

Inc. All.

The

-013

0510

by the present

11

00 15

de

Hole

1,

as

No. 7

-0016 latent

determined by theory (and tested in practice repeatedly

whereas in actuality it is nearer the emb., viz. at

writer), is at -0455,

0545 Act. distance from exit

-0455 Theoretical distance
009

excess length of flute according to the requirements of the Vent,

THE GREEK AULOS

494

The Floating Allowance

Standard Allowance at Vent

in relation to the

Floating Allowance

-0302 Eff. I.D.

-0255 Prop. I.D.

0047 Floating All.

Fl. All.

Hole 2

-0047

11

10

from emb., Ratio

at -253

-0517 Allow, at Hole

Note

512

1.

563-2 v.p.s.
r

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 metres
563-2 x 2

340

1126-4 v.p.s.

v.f.

-3018 Eff. $ w.l.

-253
Act. L.

-0488 (-049)

Prop. All.
0515

X 10 _

11

-0468 Prop. All.

-0025 Actual Prop. I.D.

0493 Difference

mm.

half of one

Inc. All.

Hole 3

at -2245

1 1

from emb., Ratio

Note -j^-

No. 7

-0016 latent

625 6 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 metres
v.f.

625-6

x 2

34Q

1251-2 v.p.s.

-2718 Eff. w.l.

-2245 Act. L.
Q473 All. at

Prop. All.
0515 x 9

11

H.

-0421 Prop. All.

Prop.

-0050 Act.

I.D.

x 2

0471 Adjusted All.

Fl. All. -0047

x 9 M.D.

at

H. 3

0423 Prop.

Hole 4

at -197

from emb., Ratio

^8

Note

H.

All. at

Inc. All. No. 7 -0016

x 2

-0032 latent

-704 v.p.s.

512

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 metres
704 x 2

v.f.

340
1408

~ -

-2414 Eff. $ w.l.

-197 Act. L.
0444
-0005 (I.D. only -0275)
0449 All. at

H. 4

Prop. All.
0515
11

x 8

=
_

-0374 Prop. All.

-0Q75 Act.
Prop. I.D.

-0025

0449 exact

Inc. All.

No. 7

-0016 x 3

-0048 latent

RECORDS OF FLUTES
Hole 5

from emb., Ratio

at -169
v

495

Note

;
'

804 4

512

v.p.s.

BY FOr.VIULA NO. 2
340 metres
804-4 x 2

v.f.

340

-2113 Eff. w.l.

-169 Act. L. at

1608-8 v.p.s.

0423 All. at

H.

H.

Prop. All.

=
+

0515 x 7
11

-0327 Prop. All. at H. 5

Prop. I.D. =-0025
-oioo Act.

0427
Fl. All.

M.D.

at

H.

Inc. All.

Hole 6

from emb., Ratio

at -1415

x 4

Prop. All. adjusted

-0047 x 7,

-0329

No. 7

-0016 x 4

12

Note

-g-

Prop. All. at H.

5.

-0064 latent

938-4 v.p.s.

512

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 metres

1812 Eff. i w.l.

1415 Act. L. at

340

938-4 x 2

v.f.

1876-8 v.p.s.

0397

All. at

H. 6

H. 6

-040

Prop. All.

x 6

0515

0281 Prop. All. at

+ 0125

Act.

H. 6

Prop. I.D.

-0025

0406 Prop. All. adjusted

Fl. All.

x 6 M.D.

-0047

at

H. 6

Inc. All.

THE EFFECTIVE

I.D.,

-0282

Prop. All. at H.

No. 7

-0016 x 5

6.
1

-008

latent

DERIVED FROM THE EFFECTIVE HALF-WAVE LENGTH, DIVIDED

BY THE MODAL DETERMINANT

Fingerhole

Eff.

w.l.

Eff. I.D.

Ci? 373

031

Hole 1
Hole 2
Hole 3
Hole 4
Hole 5
Hole 6

333

041

3018
2718

0302
0300

2414

0304

21 13

0301

1811

0302

N.B.The

-0302,

The

effective

and the

12

from Vent

i w.l. for

Eff. I.D.

-3623,

the Eff. I.D. should be

N.B.

The Modal

for the Incremental

3623

12

332

p =

-03018.

discrepancies are only apparent ; they are caused

it should be, so that the M.D. 12

a few mm. longer than

the exit note.
is

-3.)

Exit

by the fact that Java II

assumed is not exact for

Sequence is thus allowed to run its course without interruption

Allowance No. 7 has not approached the nodal point at -014.

THE GREEK AULOS

496

MODAL FLUTE RECORDS

Long White

No. 10

Vertical Flute (scratched zig-zag lines with red dots).

6 Fingevholes
Class IIIA

Modal Determinant

Hypodorian Harmonia on

16

from Vent

16

23456

Modal Sequence (Chromatic Genus)

Hole

Ratios

16/16

12

14

15

Cents

267

")

MEASUREMENTS
L. exit to emb.
L. emb. to C. of Hole
L. exit to C. of Hole 1

C,
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.

464
ips
-013
008

A
8

de

002

H.

II.

H.

11.

On F

chromatic genus

in

>>

is

'437
'410

>>

H. 5
H. 6

Increment of Distance -027 mean.

The Modal Determinant from Vent

The Harmonia

from emb. -464

..

(8)

765

AND

FINGER! tOLES
569

10

11

75/

339

..

..

'312

-2855

from
from
from
from
from
from

I.D.

exit

105

H. 1
H. 2
H. 3
H. 4
C. H. 5
C.
C.
C.
C.

027
027
071

027

0265

16.

Is

Hypodorian.

176 difficult to obtain except as overblown Octave.

THE THREE INCREMENTS OF DISTANCE

No.

1.

The

Actual (Act. I.D.)

No.

2.

The

Proportional from Vent

No.

3.

The

Effective J w.l. I.D.

Inc. All.

No. 7

028
"16

027

I nc -

00175

029

from Vent

4829
0302
16

All.

No. 7 (cumulative) per increment.

iV.fi.
The Actual I.D. (-027) not only carries no allowance, but is less by 002
than the Prop. I.D. (-029). This difference of -002 is cumulative per I.D. and
must be deducted for each fingerhole in order to balance the Prop. Allowance.
The Inc. All. No. 7
for -00175 x 7 increments (=2
'00175 remains latent
-

between Holes 3 and 4)

There

is,

therefore,

027

-01225

no break

I-Din the

-0135.

modal sequence.

Exit Allowance, by Formula No. 5

A exit
A emb.

013

013
0025

de

0285 exit allowance

3 I.D. (latent)

081

1095 Theor. dist. between exit

105

Actual

dist.

from

exit to

and C. H.
H. 1

0045
1

The

of -017.

I.D. -071 between Holes 3 and 4 contains two I.D. latent

054

allowance

RECORDS OF FLUTES

497

were to be used as fundamental, the 3 I.D. would produce a

unused as a Harmonia.
The modal sequence is based on the Vent, Hole 1, which is correctly placed
If the exit note

M.D.

19,

shown below.

according to theory, as

POSITION OF HOLE

By Formula No.

A
-

A ( d) no emb.
A S
from

3 I.D.

-0065

-013
-005
-081

exit

1055 actual dist. of C. of

H.

from

Exit.

Standard Allowance

2A

-026

2 (A
2de

Hole

1 at -464,

Note

-oio

8)

-005

Allowance

St.

F 16 =

-041

v.p.s.

352

Ratio 16/16

BY FORMULA NO. 2
rn./s.

34

353 x 2

v.f.

34
704 v.p.s.

-4829 Eff. \ w.l.

-464 Actual L. at

0189 All. at

Hole 2

Note

at -437,

G 15 =

375-4 v.p.s.

Vent

Vent

Ratio 16/15.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m. /s.
375-4 x 2

v.f.

Prop. All.

= V0192
-004

x 15/16

340

750-8

4528

Eff.

i w.l.

Act. L.

-437

-0158 All. at

H. 2

3_

041

0384

Prop. All.

between Prop. I.D. and Actual I.D. x 2 for two

Holes

Diff.

0152 Adjusted Prop. All.

Hole 3

at -410,

Note

14

402-2 v.p.s.

Ratio 16/14 (8/7)-

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
402-2 x 2

v.f.

340
804-4 v.p.s.

-4226 Eff. i w.l.

-410 Act. L.
0126 All. at

H.

-036

Prop. All.

=
041

x 7/8

=
-

-018 Prop. All.

-006 Diff. Pr. I.D.

act.

012 Adjusted Prop. All.

I.D. X 3 for 3 holes

THE GREEK AULOS

498

Hole 4

at -339, Ratio

16/12

Note

12

469-2 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
v.f. 469-2 x 2

34

-3623 Eff. \ w.l.

Act. L.
-339

938-4 v.p.s.

0233

H. 4

All. at

Prop. All.

041

-03075 Prop. All.

3 _

~ -

-oio

Diff. Pr. I.D.

Act. I.D.

02075

Hole 5

Extra All. on flute between H. 3 and 4

02275 Adjusted Prop. All.
-002

11

at -312, Ratio

Cn

Note

512

v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2

./s.
340
512 x 2

-332 Eff. \ w.l.

340_

~ -312 Act. L.

1024

v.f.

H.

020 All. at

Prop. All.

041 x

-028 Prop. All.

11 _

16

012

Diff. Prop. I.D.

Actual I.D. x 6

016

on Flute

-004 Extra All.

two I.D.

for

H. 3-4

at

020 Adjusted Prop. All.

Hole 6

at -2855,

Note

10

563-2 v.p.s.

Ratio 16/10.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
563-2 x 2

340
~~

v.f.

1126-4

-3018 Eff. I w.l.

-2855 Act. L.
0163 All. at

H. 6

Prop. All.
041

x 10/16 (= 5/8)

-025 Prop. All.

- ^014

Diff. Pr. I.D.

Act. I.D. x 7

011

006 Extra
3

All.

on

flute

between H.

and 4 fo

D.

017

EFFECTIVE

I.D.

OF HALF-SOUND WAVE
Eff.

Hole 1
Hole 2
Hole 3
Hole 4
Hole 5
Hole 6

w.l.

I.D.

-5178

0324

-4854

0324

-4529
-3968

0325

-3S6
3236

Between Holes

and

there

is

an

Eff.

0969

0561

0408

-0323

0324

L. of -0969 for

3 I.D.

-0323 per I.D

RECORDS OF FLUTES
The
2 I.D.

actual distance

(=

on the

"017

carry an excess allowance of

499

3 and 4 is -071, an excess over

I.D. (with the hole due for ratio 13 missing)

between Holes

flute

The two

'054) of -017.

actually on the flute, a sufficient additional provision

between exit and Hole 1 and the 6 I.D. between Hole 1 and 6 (incluHence the exact correspondences between
sive of two between Holes 3 and 4).
theory and practice in this flute.
for the 3 I.D.

MODAL FLUTE RECORDS

No. 13

JAPANESE
Loaned 1 by Miss V. C. C. Collum.

7 Fingerholes

Class IIa

Modal Determinant

(Vent) 13

Lvdian Harmonia

Modal Sequence
Vent

Hole

Ratios

138-5

10

165

151

Plays from Vent

on

-373

-294

-on

mean

(-0085

11

231

182

204

256

v.p.s.

FINGERHOLES AND

MEASUREMENTS
Total length, exit to emb.
L. C. of Hole 1 to emb.
L. exit to C. of Hole 1
S

12

13/13

Cents

-079
-008

-0065)

C. H.

C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.

-on

de negligible

-0005

H.
H.
H.
H.
H.
H.

from emb. 294

269

245

220

196

171

146

I.D.

Q79
H. 1 025
H. 2 024
H. 3 025
H. 4 = 024
H. 5 = 025
H. 6 = 025

from

exit

from
from
from
from
from
from

C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.

6)-i 4 8

02466

Increment
025 (I.D.)

of Distance (mean)
(practical)

x M.D.

13

'02466.
-025.

-325.

THE THREE INCREMENTS OF DISTANCE

Actual I.D.

025

Proportional I.D.

(Vent)

294

0226

13

Effective I.D.

on \

w.l.

-332
13

0255

Floating All.

0005

0226
Inc. All.

No. 7

00173
13

remains latent throughout.

In this flute tlfie Actual I.D. -025 carries its own allowance of -0024, which must
be added per I.D. to the Prop. All. as an adjustment, in comparing it with the Allowance computed by Formula 2.
1

Tested as on

this record

22/9/33.

THE GREEK AULOS

500

POSITION OF HOLE

A
0055

A - d
A S

on
0025
019

2 (I.D.)

Theoretical position

-050
(actual

-069

from

position

exit

at

079 incommensurable)

STANDARD ALLOWANCE AT VENT

2(A)

A d
2A

(emb.

-022

-on

A)

-005

(de negligible)

038 Standard All. at

Hole

Note

at -294,

C =

512

v.p.s.

Vent

Ratio 13/13.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
512 x 2

v.f.

340
1024 v.p.s.

-333 Eff. \ w.l.

-294 Act. L.

038 All. at

Hole 2

at

D =

Note

-269,

554-6

H.

and Prop.

All.

Ratio 13/12.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
554 6 x 2

340

1109-2

v.f.

-3065 Eff. \ w.l.

-269
Act. L.
0375 All. at

H. 2

Prop. All.
038

x 12/13

-035

Prop. All.

-0024

All.

0374 *

borne by I.D. X

Adjusted Prop.

All.

Inc. All. latent throughout,

i.e.

-00173 x 6 I.D.

1*1 =

-01038
-0125

Hole 3

at -245,

Note

E {

512

v.p.s.

x 13/n)

605-1 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
605-1 x 2

v.f.

-2809 Eff. i w.l.

340
i2io-2 v.p.s.

-245 Act. L.

0359 All. at

Prop. All.
038

x n/13

-0321 Prop. All. at H. 3

-0048 All. borne by 2 (I.D.)

0369 Adjusted Prop. All.

H.

Ratio 13/11.

RECORDS OF FLUTES
Hole 4

Note

at -220,

F=

665-6 v.p.s.

50I

Ratio 13/10.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
665-6 x 2

340

-2554 Eff. w.l.

-220 Act. L.

1331-2

v.f.

H. 4

-0354 All. at

Prop. All.

x 10 _

038

13

-0292 Prop. All.

-0072 All. borne

by

3 (I.D.)

0364 Adjusted Prop. All.

Hole 5

Note

at -196,

G =

737-2 v.p.s.

Ratio 13/9.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.

-2306 Eff. w.l.

340

737-2 x 2

v.f.

1474-4

~~

'

Act. L.

IQ 6

0346

All. at

H.

Prop. All.
038

x 9/13

=
+

-0263 Prop. All.

-0096 All. borne

by 4

(I.D.)

0359 Adjusted All.

Hole 6

at -171,

Note

=832

13

v.p.s.

Ratio 13/8.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
832 x 2

v.f.

340
1664 v.p.s.

~~

-2043 Eff. J w.l.

-171
Act. L.
0333 All. at

H. 6

Prop. All.

038 x 8/13

=
+

-0234 Prop. All.

-oi2o All. borne

by

5 (I.D.)

0354 Adjusted Prop. All.

difference of 2

mm.

due

to the

two I.D.

at -024 instead of -025

assumed by the

Prop. All.

Hole 7

at -146,

Note

B =

950-8 v.p.s.

Ratio 13/7.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
_
340
1901-6 v.p.s.
950 8 x 2

v.f.

-178 Eff. J w.l.

146 Act. L.
032 All. at

H. 7

Prop. All.
038

x 7/13

=
+

-0204 Prop. All.

-0144 All. borne

by 6

(I.D.)

0348 Adjusted Prop. All.

1

It will be noticed that at Hole 4 the I.D.

Prop. All. assumes equal I.D.

is

only -024,

mm.

less

than mean, while the

THE GREEK AULOS

502

EFFECTIVE

OF HALF-SOUND WAVE

I.D.

I.D.

w.l.

i
Exit

-4287

TT
Hole
Hole
Hole
Hole
Hole
Hole
Hole
1

'332
3065

2809

0255

6
7

0255

-2SS4
2306

255
0248

-2043

-178

0263
026

M.D.

13 at

Vent

0255

MODAL FLUTE RECORDS

No. 20

BALI No. 20
Notched

7 Fingerholes

Flute.

M.

Presented by
Class Ib

Soekawati

from Exit

Modal Determinant 11

exit

Dorian Harmonia

Modal Sequence

Hole

Exit

ii/ii

Ratios

123
10

182

165

Cents

56

4
15/22

204

112

13

247

11

138-5

151

Class ib

The
x
Hole

(033
at

I.D.

-033)

11

=-363).

4,

where

is

contained eleven times in the total length of the flute 4- -007

I.D. thus carries no allowance.
The Series is interrupted

The

ratio

15/22

is

produced instead of 7/1 1.

FINGERHOLES AND

MEASUREMENTS
L. from C. of fipple (or notch)
'37

to exit

From

fipple to exit

C. H.

L. from C. of fipple to C. of

Hole 1
C. of Hole

-300
1

of bore
Centre of fipple
d

'0035
-005
-007
-006

8 of 6 front fingerholes

thumb hole (back)

I.D. (useful mean) -033
S of

M.D. from

C. H. 2 from C.
C. Hole 1
C. H. 3 from C.
C. H. 2
C. H. 4 from C.
C. H. 3
C. H. 5 from C.
C. H. 4
C. H. 6 from C.
C. H. 5
C. H. 7 from C.
C. H. 6

-070
-023

to exit

-033
11

exit

from C.

I.D.
-370

fipple -300

from
070

exit

fipple -267

from

fipple -235

from

fipple -202

from

fipple -168

from

033

032
'33

034
fipple -149

from

fipple -136

from

019

I.D.
013

7')234

0334

Increment of Distance, mean

useful

mean

I.D.

The

length from exit to C. Hole

-033

11

-0334.

033.

-363.
1,

although amounting to two I.D., only repreHoles 6 and 7 divide one I.D.

sents one I.D., the remainder being allowance at exit.

unevenly between them -019

-013

-032.

RECORDS OF FLUTES

53

THE THREE INCREMENTS OF DISTANCE

Actual I.D. between the Fingcrholes (mean)

-033

'37

Proportional I.D. at exit

-==

'0336

Difference between Actual and Prop. I.D.

Floating Allowance

Per I.D. not cumulative

Inc. All.

No.

7,

0435

-0415

-0079

0079

Exit All. -00395

-0006

-457/11 eff. w.l. at exit

'0415 Eff. I.D.
0336 Prop. I.D.

Effective (i w.l.) T.D.

-004.

N.B.
the Prothe least of the three increments
No. 1 (actual) not only carries none, but
below the Proportional I.D. by 0006, which should therefore be added cumu-

The

actual I.D.

on

Bali

033

is

portional I.D. carries no allowance, and

falls

by hole to balance the Proportional Allowance, since it means displacement of each hole by 0006. The displacement of Holes due to Hole 1 being placed
at 0065 too near exit, therefore too low, must be taken into account in the analysis.
-120 on the
Standard Allowance at 118 is based on the actual position of Hole 1
latively hole

theoretical.

EXIT
L. from C. of Apple to exit

Note

1
l

(flattened

-370

by one

v.p.s.)

22
ISY

340 m./s.
372 x 2

v.f.

372

v.p.s.

FORMULA NO. 2

340 _
744

-457 Eff.

"

w.l.

-37 Act. L.

087

Eff. All.

BY FORMULA NO.

--

-0435 actual)

Alloivance at Exit

A of bore
A - d

-023

-018

002

de

043 All. at exit in

All.

POSITION OF HOLE

agreement with the

by Formula No. 2

FROM EXIT

by Formula No. 3

ons

A - d
A S

018
-016

-)-

0455 All. at H.
033 One I.D.

0785 Theoretical

-070

H.

position of

Actual position of H.

0085 too near exit

THE GREEK AULOS

54

Hole

at -300

from

Ratio 11/10

fipple,

Note

375 4 x
10

v.f.

^ I2 .g v _p

(=413)-

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
413 x 2

-4116 Eff. w.l.

-300 Act. L. from fipple

340

826

v.f.

~~

v.p.s.

H.

1116 All. at

and

-ii

16 All. at H.

-0076 Floating All. per Hole

1192 Effective All. at H.

070 Act. position of H.

Standard

(cf.

from

-118)

All.

exit

0085 too near exit, therefore length

from

should be

fipple to exit

300

-0085
29 15 virtual position of

H.

from

fipple

BY FORMULA NO. 4
Standard Allowance at Hole 1

=
=
=

2(A)

2(A
2(A

d)
8)

-046
-036
-032

-004

2 de

118 Standard All.

No. 4

N.B. The results of analysis based upon the actual position of Hole 1 may be
compared with those derived from theory. The Standard Allowance No. 4 is based
upon the Allowances in respect of diameter with all its implications at Hole 1.
It forms the basis of the Proportional Allowance, computed hole by hole, as allocated
by the ratio of each hole to the fundamental of the sequence. To balance the
effective allowance for each hole, derived by Formula No. 2 from pitch, the Floating
Allowance must, for the Bali flute, be added at each Hole not cumulatively.

Hole 2

at

-267,

Note

v.f.

375-4 x 11/9

=458-8

v.p.s.;

Ratio

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
458-8 x 2

340

917-6

v.f.

-3705 Eff- i w.l.

- -267 Act. L.
1035 Eff. All. at

H. 2

Prop. All.
St.

AH.

118 x 9/11

-0965

-0076

Prop. All. at H. 2
Floating All.

1041 * Adjusted Prop.

Inc. All.

Hole 3

at -235, Ratio ^-

Note

C =

No. 7

All. at

-004

H. 2

x 2

-008 latent

516-17 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
516-17 x 2

v.f.

340
1032-34 v.p.s.

'3293 Eff. \ w.l.

-235

Act. L.

0943 Eff. All. at

H.

RECORDS OF FLUTES

505

Prop. All.
"

g*j
ah
btd. All.

Ir8 x 8 _
-

- 8 58

+
+

ix

oo76

Prop. All.

Fj A1L

-OQI2 Diff. Pr. I.D.

Act. I.D.

0946 Adjusted Prop. All.

Inc. All.

Hole 4

22

at '202, Ratio

C# =

Note

No. 7

202

Act. position of

H. 4

-0165

No. 7

Inc. All.

-004

x 3

-012 latent

550-66 v.p.s.

active at nodal point

H. 4

2185 Virtual position of

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
550 66 x 2

'3 8 7 Eff. i w.l.

340

v.f.

1101-32

~~

H. 4

-2185 Virtual L. at

0902 Eff. All.

Prop. All.

118 x

15 _

~ +
+

22

-0804 Prop. All.

-0076 Fl. All.

-0018' Prop. I.D.

Act. I.D.

-0006

x 3 increments

0898 Adjusted Prop. All.

Inc. All.

No. 7

'033

Nodal point

Hole 5

-004

x 4

Note

E=

635-3 v.p.s.

-016 active

-0165.

at -168

-017

(^ )

Hole

at

5,

Ratio 22/13

185 Virt. position

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
v.f.

635-3

-2648 Eff. i w.l.

340
~~

x 2

1270-6

-185 Virt.

~~

L. at H. 5

0798 Eff. All. at

H.

Prop. All.
St. All. -118

x 13/22

=
+
+
,

-0695 Prop. All.

-0076 Fl. All.

-0024

- Act. I.D.
-0006 x 4 increments

/Prop. I.D.
^
,
^
I

0795

Inc. All.

Hole 6

at -149

Half I.D.

at

Hole

6,

No. 7

-004

Note of Hole

6,

x 5

v.f.

019
168 Virt. position

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
688-2 x 2

_
~

340
1376-4

~ -

-2472 Eff. i w.l.

-168

Virt. L. at

-020 active

375-4 x 11/6
= 688-2 v.p.s.

H. 6

0792 Eff. All. at H. 6

;
;

;;;

THE GREEK AULOS

So6
Prop. All.

118 x

St. All.

6/n =

-0643 Prop. All.

+
+

-0076 Fl. All.

0075 Surplus

from Inc.

No. 7

All.

0794

No. 7 = 004 x 6
Nodal Point at

Inc. All.

=
-

-024
-0165

0075
Hole 7

active surplus

Note 375-4 x 2 = 750-8 v.p.s.

This hole gives the octave of the fundamental when
holes are open below it.
149

at -136,

-013

EFFECTIVE

OF HALF-SOUND-WAVE M.D.

I.D.

II

Fff Is.
J
IjJJ.

Exit

Hole 1
Hole 2
Hole 3
Hole 4
Hole 5
Hole 6
Hole 7

I.D.

"457

0415

4116

0454

'375

041
0412

3293
3087
2648

-2472
2264

MODAL FLUTE RECORDS

all

0206

I.D.

0439
0176

I.D.

0208

I.D.

No. 12

INCA FLUTE (KENA)

Presented by Miss Anita Berry

The

Flute was copied in Bolivia from an ancient Inca Specimen

Class IB Vent

Modal Determinant 11
Dorian Ilarmonia

Modal Sequence
Vent

Exit

IT.

ii/m
Sequence interrupted

234

10

Hole

at

5,

by the

15(7)

CO

13

No. 7

active operation of Inc. All.

at n

nodal point.

,.

Vent Note

iz
,

C.
C.

370
(fipple) to C. of

Iole

327

(vent)

of bore

015

L. of fipple or notch
of fipple

007

Width

007

8 fingcrholes

007

de

0025
1

The

Prop. All.

1/1

1.

FINGERHOLES AND

Total length, extremity at exit to

cmb.
L. cmb.

as

256

MEASUREMENTS

surplus from Inc. All. No. 7

from cmb. 327

II.

II.

CM.

297
267

C.I I. 4

237
208

c. 11. s
C. H. 6

must be added

177

from
from
from
from
from
from

to the Floating

I.D.

exit

43

030

C.

11.

C.
C.
C.

II.

2 030

II. 3

C.

IT. 5

II.

030

4 029
031

AH. to balance the

RECORDS OF FLUTES
Increment

of Distance

507

(Mean) -030.

The

diameter of the bore -015 has been constricted at exit to -004, which exercises
lengthening effect of -on (-015 '004 = -on) and that must be added to allow-

ance at exit.

THE THREE INCREMENTS OF DISTANCE

Actual I.D.

-030
2 2*7
= ^^

Proportional I.D. at Vent

Effective J w.l. I.D.

Floating All.

'0297

Vent J*i22

11

(=

-030)

0 - 2g

-0329 Eff. i w.l. I.D.

-0297 Prop. I.D.

0032 Floating All.

Inc. All.

No. 7

Exit All.)

-002

13

N.B.

The actual I.D.

equal to the Prop. I.D. and therefore carries no allow"0072

= -0016 must be added to the
ance in respect of diameter
the Floating All.
2
Inc. All. No. 7 at each hole in order to estimate the activity of the sound-wave at the
Nodal point which occurs at -015.
Thus
Inc. All. No. 7 = -002 x 5 I.D. = -oio
Fl. All. = -oo 1 6 x 5 = -008
is

018

EXIT
Exit at -370;

Note

G =40215

v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
v.f.

-4227 Eff. I w.l.

340

402-15 x 2

804-3

-370 Act. L.
0527/2 = -026

Eff. All. at exit

Exit Allowance by Formula No. 5

A
A

-015

-004 at exit

-on

the
of

is

constricted at exit to -004

a lengthening
-015
-004
(viz.
-on) therefore
;

sound-wave

results

026^
POSITION OF HOLE

A
-

-7S

A S
A d

(width of Apple) -008

All. at

Vent

-008

(I.D.)

-0235
-030

Theoretical position at -0535

THE GREEK AULOS

5 o8

Standard Allowance
3(A)

2(A
2A

2A

030

-004 = -on)
-8
d (fipple width)

022
016
016

004

2 de

^088 Eff.
044 Act.

Hole

1 at -327,

Ratio i|

B =

Note

469-2 v.p.s.

BY FORMULA NO. 2
340 m./s.
469-2 x 2

340

=
~

v.f.

938-4

-3623 EfT. i w.l.

-327 Act. L.
0353 Eff. All. at H.
-on for constriction

0463

Standard

All.

-044.

The other fingerholes

the preceding records.

may

THE

easily

be worked out from the indications given

OF THE FINGERHOLE NOTES

V.F.

Hole 2
Hole 3
Hole 4
Hole s
Hole 6

The
Hole

1,

exit

and

in

516-1 v.p.s.

Ratio 11/10

573-4

...

64ST

>.

,,

704

>.

..

804-3

,,

1 1/9
11/8
22/15
22/13

note stands in no commensurable ratio with the Modal Sequence from

is

therefore of

no

practical use.

RECORDS OF MODAL FLUTES VERTICAL FLUTE

(SYRINX MONOCALAMUS), No. 26
:

Greek Shepherd's Flute (Modem) from Olympia, in the Collection of Professor Dayton C.
Miller, Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.
7 Fingerholes
Class 11b

from Vent

Modal Determinant 12
Phrygian Harmonia

23456

Modal Sequence from Vent

Vent
Ratios

1
i

12/12

10

151

Cents

165

Note of Vent
N.B.

The Modal Sequence

cumulative Inc. All. No. 7

at a

is

182

204

15 (7)

112

F 16 =696

13 (6)

247

v.f.

interrupted at Hole 6 by the active operation of

when instead of ratios 7 and 6 at Holes

nodal point,

6 and 7, ratios 15 and 13, respectively, due at a half increment lower, sound from
those holes.

RECORDS OF FLUTES

59

FLUTES NOS. 26 AND 27 FROM GREECE

The measurements
ately reached

me

of these two shepherd flutes from

modern Greece unfortun-

too late to allow of facsimiles being made.

results of tests.

The

records are there-

and lack

fore incomplete

MEASUREMENTS

FINGERHOLES AND

I.D.

Supplied by courtesy of Professor Dayton C. Miller

Total L. exit to emb.
Total L. C. of Hole 1 to emb.

-2461

-2189

A +

-0155

de

Aofbore{

atemb

C. of H.

C. of H. 2
C. of H. 3
C. of H. 4
C. ofH. 5
C. of H. 6

- IO;

-on

lat exit

Knot near

exit only partially

through, opening at

bored
exit

-005,

-006,

added

to

.".

A -on

from emb. '2189

from

0272

exit

from
from
from
from
from

C. H. 1 -0214
C.
2 -0204
1581
C. H. 3 -019
C. H. 4 -0189
1392
1298
C.
5 I -0094
1 188; fromC.
6) 'on
1975
1771

C. of H. 7

H
H

-005

S)-iooi

which
must be
form virtual length

of flute
S

(mean)

"0055

Increment of Distance (mean)

Modal Determinant 12.

020.

THE THREE
(1)
(2)

The Actual
The

Prop.

I.D.

030

I.D.
I

.D.

C^12

01824

(3)

The

(4)

Inc. All.

Eff.

No. 7 C~~ 5
\

(5)
(6)

No.
No.

Nos. 5

The

2443

w. I.D

All.

02036

02036^

at

H.

-oo2i

12

=
=
=

No. 2 = -02000 -01824

No. 2 = -02036 -01824
+ 6 = -00176 + -00036

-00176
-00212 Floating All.

-002I2

No. 4

6 factors are used to balance results of comparison theoretical and practical.

See Records in

full.

POSITION OF HOLE

By Formula No.
A

oS5

A(-d)

611

QQ55

0220
1

(I.D.)

0200
H. 1
0272 Actual
0148 excess distance from emb. of
Hole 1, and loss of Act. All.
0420 Theoretical position of
,,

The

Ratio between exit and Hole

mensurate

1 is

incom-

,,

,,

THE GREEK AULOS

5*

RECORDS OF MODAL FLUTES VERTICAL FLUTE

(SYRINX MONOCALAMUS), No. 27
:

Greek Shepherd's Flute {Modern) from Nauplia, in the collection of Professor Dayton C.
Miller, Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A., by whose courtesy
the measurements have been supplied
7 Fingerholes
Class

Modal Determinant

Ia

(original)

22 (converted)

Dorian Harmonia (Spondaic)

2345

Modal Sequence from Vent

Hole

thumb

at

il.D.
Ratios

ii/ii

13/22

182

165

Cents

204

231

128

138-5

N.B. The interpolation into the Modal Spondaic of ratio 13 at Hole 6, bored
half-way (approximately) between Holes 5 and 7, is not to be regarded as interference
due to Inc. All. No. 7 (as was the case with Flute No. 26). This is a deliberate
extension of compass obtained by actually halving a segment between Holes 5 and 7
and.introducing a thumb-hole. The fact that Inc. All. No. 7 reaches a nodal point
at Hole 6 merely facilitates the playing of the intermediate ratio 13.

MEASUREMENTS
Total L. exit to emb.
Total L. C. of Hole 1 to emb.
L. C. of Hole 1 to exit
A bore at emb.
A bore at exit
A (bore de) emb.

(bore

+
+

FINGERHOLES AND
C. of H.

36s

3226

0424
0124

0085

019
018

de) exit

from emb. 3226

C. ofH. 2
C. ofH. 3
C. ofH. 4
C. of H. s
C. of H. 6
C. of H. 7

of fingerholes varies from

0071 to -0081 at H. 1 mean -0075
In this flute the exit broadens out
bell-shaped from an inner bore of
0085 to -oi 8.
The difference in the

2936
2618
227

196

1787

165

I.D.

from

exit

from
from
from
from
from
from

C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.

0424

H. 1
H. 2
H. 3
H. 4
H. 5
H. 6

029

0318

0348
031

0173
QI37

5)2576
0315

diameter of the bore between emb. and

at bell exit does not affect the Modal
Sequence.

=
=

Increment of Distance (mean)

(practical)

-0315.
-031.

THE THREE INCREMENTS OF DISTANCE IN FLUTE NO. 27

(1)
(2)

Actual I.D. (mean useful)

Proportional I.D.
J w. I.D. at Vent

-031

'293

-0319

(3) Eff.

Inc. All.

No. 7

No. a

No. 3

I.D. -031

M.D. from

0026

0026

Floating All.

x M.D.

11

-341

3226 L.

at

35i4
Eff.

\ w.l.

031
therefore

Flute No. 27 belongs to Class ia.

Vent

-0184

TABLE

123

SCALES OBTAINED FROM THE ELGIN AULOS

X.

(Type of Mp. used Double-reed)

Fingerholes

(the straight one)

AT THE BRITISH MUSEUM

(p

mp.s D.I.

108-3

CI. 6

128

E 156-4

140-8

F 176

G 201

B 234-6

The

^n'
(if)

'

Mp.

Mouthpiece

11

10

11

11

11

11

7.

cir.

-0425 in length

v.f.

CI. 18

CI. 7

N.B.

4^-

(p

Bulb

KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER

Cp

(p

V.f.

by

Reed or straw mp.

11

Mode on

Through Hole

11

used as vent
Dorian

C.

left

always open

Pulled out to extrusion

-no

108 to

165

182

cents

204

231

267

cents

one bulb

A
from

Mp.

exit

108-3

v.f.

128

140-8

156-4

G 201

176

13

11

10

_9

_8

13

13

13

13

13

B 234 6

v.f.

13 Mode on
from the exit.
Lydian

Mode on

The
13

13

extrusion

105

one bulb

Aulos
'

+ Mp.

v.f.

-j

Elgin D. 10

and
mp. H.

'
I

140-

F 176

156-4

234t

Notes and Comments

fundamental
at extrusion

10

9_

10

10

078

10

7^

_6

10

10

The

10

through Hole

10

* If the

182 cents

Aulos

+ Mp.
on A

series

sion -078

v.f.

no bulb
also B.R.

on

204

231

208 -6

B 231-7

C 260-7

10

316

267

cents

CI. 1 plays the same

208-6 v.p.s. at extru-

at

078

10

whole sequence

v.f.

Azo&

v.p.s.

pulled out to extrusion

A 417

10

mp. does not play Hole

play the lower octave

from the 6th

hole.

The

10 Mode on
Hypolydian

The

11

10

10

(>

204

cents

B 229-5

11

10

11

231

316

267

C255

D 287

g_

_8

6_

11

E 327-8

6382-4

v.f.

Mode on A

through Hole

used as vent

results of

my tests,

researches and experiments

since August, 19 14, prove conclusively that in

the resonator of the Aulos, the factor of length is

easily, it will

v.f.

10

The

used as vent

cents

182

64

Aulos + Mp. CI. 7

fundamental A = 208 6

F 347-6

D298

_8

10

no criterion whatever of the pitch of the fundamental of the Aulos or of the notes obtained by
opening the fingerholes, when the pipe is played
byj means of a double-reed, or of a beating-reed
mouthpiece. The proper note of the mouthpiece, by accommodation through the law of
resonance with the resonator or pipe of the
Aulos, provides the fundamental produced
through the exit or through the first hole used as
vent and left open.
It will be noticed from the
Table that each pair of fingerholes gives out an
intjerval of different ratio in each of the Modes,
occasionally on the same fundamental (as with
ClJ 7 ; or on a different fundamental, as with

mouthpiece CI.

6).

one bulb

165
Aulos + Mp. CI. 7
fundamental A = 208 6
extrusion of

Mp.

182

cents

204

231

267

cents

Bulbs
v.p.s. v.f.

208 6

C 250-3

227-5

D278

312

F 357-6

The
12

two bulbs

151

Aulos + Mp. CI. 6

fundamental B = 117-3

The complete bulb found with the Elgin Auloi

v.f.

-138

v.f.

v.p.s.

at extrusion -138

B 117-3

11

10

12

12

12

182

cents

D140

C128

13

11

10

12

12

12

12

12

204

E 156-4

_8

231

through Hole 1 used as vent

Phrygian

G 201

12

1.
12

v.f.

The

131

The

cents

165

names of the Notes

82

204

are approximate only

231
:

the

v.f.

12

through Hole

two bulbs

N.B.

Mode on A

cents

F 176

j>
13

12

cents

gives the exact intonation.

Mode on
1

used as vent

measures

From the

vase paintings, it is
evident that these bulbs were used to hide the
portion of the straw mouthpiece not retained in
Auletes are shown putting on
the piper's mouth.
an extra bulb, or removing one according to the
length of extrusion of the mouthpiece from the
resonator demanded by the Mode.
c.

-0425.

RECORDS OF FLUTES
POSITION OF HOLE

By Formula No.

'0003

A emb.
A S

-012
-004

0222 All. at H.

-031

actually

on the

flute

one I.D.

0532 Theoretical position of

H.

-0424 Actual
0108 too near exit according to formula

H. 1
emb. and

Act. L. to

2A at
A S

Eff. i w.l. at

-3226

exit -0248

-004

H.

-3514 and

by Formula No.

241-4 v.p.

13

.,

.Sw

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cfl

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00

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M
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TABLE
of the

Record oi
Notched Flutes of the
Presented by

^ength

Fipple

No. and Class

of Flute

No.

Class IIIa

from

Diameter

Exit

from Vent

f fipple

to Exit

f.

emb.

062

018

Exit

017 Exit

395

emb.

Width
or

Notch

007

Note of
Funda-

A of
Fingerholes

I.D.

007

037

M.D.

mental
Exit or

Vent

256

386

No. a

Exit to Vent
064

345

Class Ia

on
=-019

006

013

004

008

036

All.

12

256

34
fipple

No.

Class IIa

33

from

f.

320

No. 4
Class IIa

337

from
Notch

276
to Exit

006

037

Vent

23
256

054

276
to Exit
054

015 emb.
016 Exit

005

279

016

emb.
017 Exit

004

emb.
015 Exit

005

280

014 emb.

006

Vent to Exit

016 Exit

Vent

006

041

(mean)

12

256

330

No.

341

Class IIa

Vent
332

No. 6

f-

330
323

f-

35i

Class IIa
346

No. 8

271
to Exit

Vent

Class IIa

No. 7

to Exit

f.

284
279

f.

042

B
256

014

0O7

042

B
256

053

007

039

mean

B
256

066

226

Vent

Class IIIa

007

053

to Exit

on emb.
013 Exit

053

514

006

007

026

10

D 20
512

XII
Performance
Acholi Tribe of the S. Sudan
Dr. A. N. Tucker

Modal Sequence

9/98765
Hypophrygian

Cents

204

231 267 316

All. at Exit

-386

-033 ^ '353

4.

020

037

A
on A -Apple -037X9 = -333

018

004 de
33

9/98765
Hypophrygian
as

above

~=
"?4.0

All. at

Exit

9(

+ 16

for Allowance)

on A
005

A fipple

-036x9 =-324

003 de

019
as

above

All. at Exit

013

-320 + -025

"345

=T^ =9( + -oi2

for All.)

009
003 de

f.

025

as

above

All. at Exit

-041

X9 -369

-33O

--=9(--oo9)
+ -03o=
041

360

016

011

A-f.

003 de

030
365

as above

All. at Exit

017 A
013
-003 de

f.

332

+ -033= 042 =9( '013)

-042x9 =-378

33

8/87654
Hypodorian

All. at Exit

-042

=-336

=8( +

-323+-028=-3

015

010

042

-oi5 for All.)

f.

003

702

9/98765
Hypophrygian

All. at Exit

oi5 A
009
003 de

f.

-039

X9=-35i

-346

+ -027 = -S-L^ =9(4- -022

-

39

027

9876

Hypolydian
10/10

All. at Exit
'

-026

x 10

= -260

OI1

A t

005 A
003 de

f.

26

;=IO

026

019

-279 -019=

for All.)

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mean

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from

emb.

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from

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emb.

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1

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from

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60

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CD

PLATE

iS

THE SILVER PIPES OF UR

From the Royal Cemetery, 2700
'

University

Museum,

Philadelphia.

By

B.C.

courtesy of Dr. Legrain

APPENDIX

A BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE MODAL BASIS OF THE

SCHEME OF GREEK NOTATION
The Older Accepted

by Bellermann. The System of Notation

Priority of the Vocal Notation.
The Main Features
Important Facts indicated by the System of Notation.
Mese as the Modal Nucleus of the System of Notation in each Tonos. Tests as a
Challenge to the Accepted Interpretation of Bellermann. Test I. Test II. Test
III.
Test IV. Test V
Interpretation

based upon Modality.

of the Vocal Notation.

The

THE OLDER ACCEPTED INTERPRETATION BY BELLERMANN

only a brief exposition of the main features of the
appendix
SINCE
modal basis of the systems of Greek musical notation, acquaintance with the
this

is

symbols used in the Vocal and Instrumental Notations must be presumed.

Both systems are set forth in von Jan's Musici Scriptores Graeci, pp. 368-406 (with
the text of Alypius) and in Macran's Aristoxenus, pp. 46-6 1. 1 It must also be
taken for granted that there is some knowledge of the main hypotheses upon which
Dr. Friedrich Bellermann 2 founded his interpretation of the Tables of Alypius.
At the outset it must be stated that a careful analysis of his material, tested in the
light of the hypotheses, values and correspondences he himself adopted, yields
the following surprising results
(1)

Out

of the 75 tetrachords contained in the 15 Tonoi, only six are found to be

most of the others work out as tritones.
;

perfect 4ths
(2)

The

tetrachordal unit,

which on Bellermann's theory should be

identical

in structure for all five tetrachords of the P.I.S., can be traced only in the notation

of the Lydian and Hypolydian Tonoi.

(3)

The scheme

of Alypius does not yield a single example of the ditonal

scale applied in all five tetrachords of the P.I.S.

Moreover, an analysis of the notation of the 15 Tonoi allows only six

ditonal tetrachords among the 75.*
Since the publication of Bellermann's work,
(4)

1
They may be very conveniently consulted, more especially for Test V, as arranged
by Macran. There is in the vocal notation of the Hypoionian a misprint in the
symbol for Hypate Hypaton which should be U not n an<i also in the Hypolydian
for Nete Hyperbolaion, which should be M (eta).
2
Die Tonleitern und Musiknoten der Griechen (Berlin, 1847). Similar results were
reached by C. Fortlage in his Das Mus. System der Griechen, 1847.
3
These four facts, based upon the equivalence suggested and adopted by Bellermann himself, may be ascertained and confirmed by anyone who will take the trouble
to get acquainted with Bellermann's arguments and hypotheses, no sooner laid down
than hedged round with qualifications and contradictions necessitated by the
endeavour to force the ditonal scale, based upon a single tetrachordal unit, into a
framework devised for the Aulos-Harmoniai, with their varied series of intervals.
Bellermann's naive reasoning and approach to the subject throws the onus of inconsistencies and ambiguities upon the Greeks, whose lack of intelligence, displayed

in evolving a

deplores.

system of notation that

Cf. op.

cit.,

fits

in so badly with our keyboard scale, he

pp. 45, 47, 53, &c.

519

THE GREEK AULOS

520

by Hugo
Riemann and Curt Sachs but none of them has yet ousted the earlier one, and
most of them are based fundamentally on the assumption of a ditonal scale. In the
later part of this Appendix the theory of Bellermann is subjected to a number of
tests which will make its inadequacy plain to all.
other theories of Greek musical notation have been expounded, notably
;

THE SYSTEM OF NOTATION BASED UPON MODALITY

so, it would seem that there is need for a new interpretation conwith the historical development of the Greek musical system through the
modality of the Aulos-Harmoniai. The assembling of all the symbols used in the
for each symbol involves a ratio
15 Tonoi into a standard scale is meaningless
which is not fixed but differs according to the Tonos in which the symbol is used.
The whole scheme, as found in the Tables of Alypius, is concerned solely with the
Harmoniai, as the following facts indicate
(1) In the seven ancient Tonoi, treated in the P.I.S. as curtailed Modes, the

This being

sistent

octaves containing the

Homonym

Species are

all

noted within the same range of

T (viz. in 22 letters), and Omega falls on the Tonic of the

proper to the octave of Arche, functioning as Mese in the
Tonos, is found in place on the correct degree duly recorded by Alypius which
it occupies in the Harmonia and Species.
the alphabet from SI to

The

species.

letter

(2)

Through the Chromatic Pyknon

of the

Synemmenon

tetrachord in the

seven ancient Tonoi, the Greek Ionian alphabet unrolls in groups of triplet letters
beginning with the Hypodorian Tonos on 2 *F X and ending with T B A in the
Hyperphrygian Tonos, the octave of the Hypodorian. There is indeed a break
in the sequence at the Dorian Tonos, the reason for which will be explained later.
(3) The full range of symbols from 2 to r has been allotted in the Dorian

Tonos

to the octave

from Hypate Meson

to

the nucleus of the P.I.S., and in which, in this

Kata Thesin and Kata Dynamin are identical

Nete Diezeugmenon, which forms

alone, the two nomenclatures
and thus the Dorian Tonos con-

Tonos
;

stitutes the prototype of the species.

THE PRIORITY OF THE VOCAL NOTATION

we may discuss in some detail the principles on which

As our exposition
become evident that just as vocal music was accorded the first
place in the Art of Music in Ancient Greece, so did Vocal Notation precede the
instrumental in the first conception of the scheme which is ascribed to Pythagoras
by Aristides Quintilianus (p. 28M.) and to the Harmonists by Aristoxenus in one
of his polemics against that body (pp. 39-40M., and Macran, transl., pp. 194-5).
The question of the priority in age, imputed to the instrumental notation, advanced
by Westphal, Gevaert, Maurice Emmanuel and others, was based mainly upon the
form of certain of the instrumental symbols which these writers refer to archaic
alphabets.
This argument, even if it were based upon indisputable facts, could
carry no weight unless it could also be shown that the instrumental notation
had been constructed out of such materials upon some logical principle, operating
through the musical system of the Tonoi, and demonstrating by the order of the
symbols some definite relationship to the evolution of the Greek musical system.
No such claim, however, can be made for the Instrumental Notation. As for the resemblance of some of the symbols to the forms of more ancient letters, we should not
After these preliminaries

the allocation of the letters to the Tonoi has been carried out.
develops,

it

will

forget that imitation of the archaic in the arts was a well-known device in Greece as the

word

d.Q%at^(o testifies

convention

if,

nor would the use of archaic symbols be an inconvenient

more normal alphabet had already been allocated to a

as I believe, the

Fig. ioi.

The

Katapyknotic Apparatus in Operation in Three Tonoi

THE DORIAN TONOS

KATAPYKNOTIC

64

62

60

58

56

er>

\ T

11

X * Y T

54

52I

50

49

48

46

45

44

401

47

38

32

28

27

ri

26

24

82

21

CPnOSNMAK

36
35

37

39/

34

33

32

no

20

86

32

MESON

HYPATON

29

30

31

28

27

26I

E A

44

42

4o\ 38

N M A K

31

27 26
DIEZEUGMENON

29 28

SYNEM.

S 2
s a
.-

"

I 5

A 1 0'
33

36]

34

S' N'

M' A' K'

I'

32

35J

r B

20

88

32

H YPERBOLAION
K

X
O
ft,

o a
z z
< o
X H
O <
2 Q

5 <
3 w

ft,

CONJUNCT.

APPARATUS

A X 0
37

22 21

Z
a
S
< t
- c

15

39j

51J

z <

ii

ENTRY OF THE
HYPODORIAN

DISJUNCT.

CONJUNCT

J3ISJUNCT .

SPECIES

THE PHRYGIAN TONOS

KATAPYKNOTIC

32

30

29

28

27

~1

26I

R
50

51

X *

49

48]

23

52J

24/

22

21

YTCPnOZNMAK

zo\ 39

28

27

z6\ 51
52

38

36

37

35

34

33

32

30

29

40J

* Y T

32

28

27

26

24

21

20

39

M A K

36

32

MESON.

30

28

29

Z E
50

A r

B A

49

23

22

15
21

Si

X & A

20l

39

24

4 Oj

U A X

27

26

24

21

20

37

1
36

0'

S'

35

34

N' M'
33

39

DIEZEUGMENON

SYNEM.

38

32

M'

36

HYPERBOLAION

X H
U <

X
ft,

K
g
H

O <
3 3

Z
J w

i
<

X
z

z
ft.

X
zw

z 5

z z

APPARATUS

THE LYDIAN TONOS

KATAPYKNOTIC

\?

32

30

29

28

27

VJ2X*YT CPHO SNMAK

26

51

50

49

48I

23

22

21

20

39

38

37

36

35

34

33

32

0 R Z

A T B

AUAX^A

28

27

26!

49

30

29

27

26

24

It

21

20

39

35

32

a
S

S
a.

50

Q
Z
<

21

20

S' N'

39

37

38

36

M' A' K'

35

e A

M'

27

26

51

24

21

39

35

29

DIEZ

EUGMENON

34

33

I'

32

20

HYPERBOLAION

K
O
O

O
Q

z
<

z
<

22

24J

0 H

48] 23

30

SYN.

p <

51

52/

24J

9 P
a

0 5
3 2

ftt

z z z S
D
H
ft.

ft)

ft,

zjQ
ft,

APPARATUS

Homonym

Species
alternative ratio numbers bracketed do not signify that both are found in use in that particular Tonos, but that they occur in other Tonoi, since there is the same range of symbols allotted in all the Tonoi to the
this ratio number suggests an endeavour to compromise between 30/26 (15/13 augor Harmoniai, which by virtue of their characteristic M.D. differ to some extent in the genera. Ratio 51 is used in the Lydian Tonos for Paranete Synemmenon
60
2
60
13
52
in this case seems to be an attempt to provide for that note the same rise in pitch as the diacritical accent gives to
a difference of 33-6 cents and 34-27 cents respectively.
The
and
,
X
x 4
mented 2nd) and the minor 3rd
5i
0
5i
15
51
51

The

it

in the

'

Enharmonic-Chromatic genera of that Tonos.

MODAL

BASIS OF

GREEK MUSICAL NOTATION

521

Instrumental Notation with its groups of letters in three positions,

normal for the barypyknon, recumbent for the mesopyknon, and reversed for
the oxypyknon, e.g. E 111 3, suggests an emphasis on the Enharmonic- Chromatic
pyknon, and is perhaps reminiscent of the skill attributed to Pronomus, the Theban,
who could produce three dieses from each hole of his Aulos. We may assume that
this was accomplished by partially covering a fingerhole in three progressive movements of his finger (see Chap, ii and Chap, vii, Bharata). As it is my firmly grounded
opinion that inherent in Vocal Notation by virtue of its recognized alphabetical
sequence a solution is to be found for the many points at issue, the remainder of
this appendix will be confined to a discussion of the symbols of Vocal Notation.
vocal notation.

THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE VOCAL NOTATION

Modes are concerned, the system

In so far as the seven original

the brain of a Harmonist

who was

of notation

it probably emanated as a whole from

versed in the genesis of the Harmoniai and in the

does not bear traces of gradual aggregation

modal principle.
Modality operates in Notation through the allocation of the letters from A to
by means of what I shall call the Katapyknotic Apparatus. The mechanism of
the scheme is as follows. Every succession of two letters in alphabetical order
represents one diesis, but since the dieses vary in magnitude according to their
position in the scale, and to the modal genesis, a number (which forms one element
of a modal ratio) 1 peculiar to each Tonos can be assigned to every letter. Not
every letter, of course, is used in every Tonos, because there are always some
practical operation of the

SI

undivided intervals of greater magnitude than a

original

scheme the allotment of

accuracy, for

all

contingencies

letters to

diesis.

It is clear that in

the

the Harmoniai provided, with rigorous

for there are

even

now

in the latest

form of the

scheme as presented by Alypius very few exceptions to the rule, that for every
letter symbol there is a corresponding modal ratio number (or note) in each Tonos.
Letters and ratios occur in their own inevitable sequence.
In spite of a few slight irregularities and modifications brought about by time
and evolution, sufficient indications remain to suggest that originally the scheme
was regular. This, for instance, is the way in which the Katapyknotic Apparatus
works out in the Dorian, Phrygian and Lydian Tonoi.

The diagram displays a perfect correlation of alphabetical symbols (as described

by Alypius for each step in the P.I.S. in all the Tonoi) and of the ratio numbers
by the author as a suggestion, based upon strong presumptive evidence.
It will be noticed that at certain points in the Katapyknotic Apparatus, two
numbers, one double the other, are assigned to a single symbol the lower value
belongs to the Chromatic genesis, its double to the Enharmonic- further, that the
arithmetical sequence to the left follows one of these and the sequence to the right
follows the other. This is a simple and legitimate device by which it becomes
possible to use integers even for the intermediate notes of the Enharmonic or
Chromatic genus. Thus, for example, in the Phrygian and Lydian Tonoi, the
Enharmonic Lichanos Meson indicated by 39 (respectively T and II) is a diesis

allotted

above the Par hy pate.

The numbers, then, placed under the symbols, are those of the arithmetical
1
The number here signifies the number of a note in the modal sequence. The
by the Modal Determinant results in a series of equal
segments, each bearing a number indicating its position and value in the ensuing
sequence, which is expressed in full by a proper fraction having the M.D. as constant
denominator and the order number of the segment as numerator. See fuller statement under Abbreviations and Formulae.

division of a given length

THE GREEK AULOS

522

sequences of the Enharmonic or Chromatic genesis, not of the Homonym Harmonia of the Tonos, but of Proslambanomenos or Mese, the Modal Determinant
of which

is 64 or 32 respectively in all the Tonoi.

The Apparatus of the Dorian Tonos appears to be less regular than that of
Phrygian or Lydian. At three points alternative numbers or notes are assigned
to a single symbol, and the sequence of numbers to the right follows the lower
of the two, e.g. 52, 51, 50, &c, on Hypaton Lichanos Enharmonic and again on
1

this may indicate merely that at some time both

An alternative explanation of this irregularity is that it was
due to the intrusion into the progression of the seven original Tonoi, of the Ionian
Tonos, as lower Phrygian, whereby the Dorian Mese, which should be indicated
by O was shifted one diesis lower to II, so that the Synemmenon Pyknon is found
noted as TO.N instead of OSN which has been allotted to the Ionian Tonos.
This hypothesis is strengthened by the fact that if the Dorian Mese O be
restored as 32, and the sequence to the left be continued, the 35 as alternative on
the Diatonic Lichanos Meson now falls into line. Moreover, continuing to the right
from the Dorian Mese O as 32, the Synemmenon Pyknon is now seen to consist
of the same numbers 32
O, 30
E and 29 = N as in the other two Tonoi.
Such a Katapyknotic Apparatus provided elasticity for the notation of compositions, permitted modulation into species, and also the use of delicate shades
of intonation. By way of illustration, we may mention the First Delphic Hymn
(see Chap, ix, p. 25) noted in the Phrygian Tonos, but composed in the Hypolydian
Species.
Two symbols foreign to the Phrygian Tonos are introduced towards the
end of the Hymn
O and B, which can immediately be traced by means of the
Katapyknotic Apparatus. To O falls the ratio 35, and to B ratio 23, as implied
in Alypius.
The introduction of these two extra notes tends to create a Dorian
atmosphere, as already suggested in Chapter ix.
If the inner structure of the P.I.S. by dieses be carefully examined it is found
that the norm, at the time of Alypius was 9 dieses or 10 covering letters to the
tetrachord
3 dieses or 4 covering letters for the interval of disjunction making an
invariable total of 21 dieses and 22 letters to the octave.
This and other flagrant breaches in the original order suggest modifications
introduced at the time, perhaps, when the P.I.S. had assumed a Phrygian modality.
This transformation was not brought about by altering the Notation or the ratios,
but merely by the inclusion of Proslambanomenos as the beginning of the lowest
of the tetrachords, a change of modality which marks the 4th stage in the development of the P.I.S. (see Chap. iv).
its

octave in

Diezeugmenon

notes were in use.

IMPORTANT FACTS INDICATED BY THE SYSTEM OF NOTATION

The

following conclusions can be drawn from an examination of the scheme of

Notation
(1)

The Tonoi,

as revealed

by the Tables of Alypius, do not invariably comprise

same octave.

tetrachords identical in structure within the

(2)

A striking fact is revealed by a study of Notation (as exhibited by the Tables

of Alypius)

a pair of consecutive symbols

the same

has

for the three genera

first two notes of each of the 75 tetrachords of the

genus, therefore, can only be determined in Notation by the

invariably been allotted to the

15 Tonoi.

The

Lichanos or the Paranete. 1

1

This strange treatment of the genera seems to imply either

a reminiscent

influence of the tetrachords ascribed to Archytas by Ptolemy (ii, 14) or to the dying
out in practical music of the feeling for the Enharmonic genus, since a diesis of that

MODAL
The modal

GREEK MUSICAL NOTATION

BASIS OF

523

work to the degrees of the P.I.S. in each

Tonos throw some light upon this difficult point. For instance, in the Hypaton
and Diezeugmenon Pykna of the 7 ancient Tonoi, the ratios 28, 27, 26, might be
taken to indicate the Enharmonic Genus although, strictly speaking, the Enharmonic octave of genesis begins on 32. In the Ionian Tonos these tetrachords have
KI.H to which we must assign the modal ratios 28, 27, 25, or 51, since is not
used. We thus have a mixed Pyknon which starts as Enharmonic and ends as
ratios assigned in this

Chromatic.

is

In the Dorian Tonos, the Meson Pyknon SIWX with ratio numbers 22, 21, 20,
Chromatic, while the Synemmenon Pyknon IIO.N
32, 31, 29, affords
Chromatic. 1 With the

clearly

another example of mixed genera, viz. Enharmonic

suggested restoration of the Dorian

Mese O,

it

has been

shown

that this

Synem-

N of ratios 32, 30, 29, in conformity with those of

and Lydian in Fig. 101, i.e. Chromatic
Enharmonic. In the
actual modal progression of the Dorian Tonos, either the genera tend to merge into
one another, or the same octave contains one Pyknon of each genus, 2 so that at
times it is difficult to pronounce upon the genus, the students mentioned by
Aristoxenus (35M., tr. Macr., p. 191) who failed to answer the question, At what
point does the Enharmonic begin to pass into the Chromatic ? have all our sympathy.
The Mesai of the Harmoniai (indicated by the number 32 or 16) are represented
by their individual symbols, as described by Alypius, duly placed upon the characteristic modal degree of the scale, counted from the Tonic bearing the ratio of the
Modal Determinant. The scheme for the allocation of symbols thus brings about
the perfect correlation of the letters with the ratios at Mese, by means of the progression of the Synemmenon Pykna shown in Fig. 102.
The progression, starting
from each Mese in turn, is therefore emphatically inspired by Modality.
The provision of 21 dieses to the octave is in itself remarkable and may indicate
menon Pyknon becomes O S

the Phrygian

'

'

upon each of the seven degrees of the scale, regardless

magnitude of the intervals between the degrees.
Let the Katapyknotic Apparatus help to work this out. The first note in every
group of three dieses is the Tonic of one of the species.

that three dieses are seated

of the

uuu uuu uuu uuu

UUU uuu uuu

44

42

43

22

41

40

DORIAN

56

28

37

53;

52

51

26

14 MIXOLYDIAN

LYDIAN

13

36

34

35

18

HYPOLYDIAN

54

55

33

39

20

33

32

HYPOPHRYGIAN

49;

48

29

HYPODORIAN

46

47

31

16

45!

44
22

24

12

PHRYGIAN

1 1

DORIAN

unsuitable for use as a Diatonic Parhypate or Trite. Which genus has

exercised the predominant influence in Notation ?
The clue must probably be
referred to modal exigencies
e.g. 28, 27, 26, conditioned by the adoption of 27
(instead of 26) as the revised Tonic of the Lydian Species
while 32, 30, 29, implies
deference to the Diatonic tetrachord of the Hypodorian species 16, 15, 13, 12, used
as Synemmenon, in which the pair of consecutive symbols has been definitely allotted
to the Diatonic genus, leaving the Chromatic Enharmonic Pyknon to follow suit

genus

is

with 32, 30, 29.

x

The

interval

31/29 of 115-4

ce nts exceeds the just

semitone 16/15

= 114 cents.
Hypaton and Diezeugmenon are Enharmonic (28, 27,
bolaion are Chromatic (22, 21, 20), Synemmenon mixed

112

cents

and the apotome

2

4-

Chromatic.

26),

Meson and Hyper-

(32, 31, 29)

Enharmonic

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MODAL

NOTATION

BASIS OF GREEK MUSICAL

525

MESE AS THE MODAL NUCLEUS OF THE SYSTEM OF NOTATION IN EACH TONOS

It has already been shown how Modality has been emphasized in the Notation
by marking the Tonic of the species of the Harmonia the Lydian
and Hypolydian excepted 1 with the sign 2 as token that the end of the genesis
from Arche has been reached at that point i.e. at the fundamental note common
Omega is the beginning and the end as absolute fundamental,
to all the Harmoniai
have their being, and the end to which
as Harmonics
in which all the Archai
on a monochord, for instance, the descending
each genesis inevitably comes
progression from Arche can go no further than the string sounding as a whole,
at the beginning and at the end.
Thus does every stage in our investigation of this amazing concept of the
Greek genius, bring us back to the inherent potency of the Harmonia, justifying
to the full Aristotle's encomium (see Chap. v).
It will have been noticed, further, in Fig. 102, that the break in the progression
at the Dorian Pyknon already signalized, has a repercussion at the Mixolydian

of the P.I.S.

Synemmenon Pyknon.

The

Tonos at this point again

Pyknon should by right be Z E A. The

intrusion of the Aeolian

upsets the order, for the Mixolydian

exception presented by the Lydian and Hypolydian Tonoi has already been discussed, 1 but it may be recalled that in the Tables of Alypius the substitution of

27 for 26 as Parhypate Hypaton, the Modal Determinant of the Lydian Harmonia,

implied, 26 being indicated by the next symbol as Oxypyknon in the Hypaton
"1
R V and in the Diatonic
It is a remarkable
tetrachord thus

is

"IMC.

28 27 26
within the modes or species,
precise

amount

28 27 24 21

21 letters from SI to

fact that in the

when used

as

lie

the sole means of differentiation

Tonoi.

of these differences, reference

In order to determine the

must be made

to

the

Tonos

in

question.

When

remembered that the Synemmenon bears the ratios of the first

tetrachord of the Hypodorian Harmonia, it is seen that this forms another link in
the unification of the seven Modes into a co-ordinated system. The Hypodorian
tetrachord is thus thrust through the modal disjunct octave at Mese, the Hypodorian's own Tonic and Mese, coinciding with that of the P.I.S., and thus providing an alternative conjunction. But when the disjunct octave, passing from
Mese through Paramese, is in use, the Hypodorian species disappears from the
Tonos, and the Mese is thus dispossessed of its species. The so-called Hypodorian
of the theorists based upon Proslambanomenos is but a bastard, lacking the ratios
proper to the Harmonia
yet it is known from the theorists 2 that the Hypodorian
or ancient Aeolian species, extended from Mese, through Synemmenon and Hyperbolaion it therefore had its tone of disjunction between these two tetrachords
through the omission of Diezeugmenon.
During the period when the Tonos was merely the Dorian species taken in
turn in all the other Modes, the succession of ratios was necessarily the same in all
it

is

the Tonoi.
conditions,

The Tables
show

of Alypius, however, while implying these pre-existing

clearly that the feeling for

strong as the Art of music developed, and had

Notation.

The

ratios of the P.I.S.,

Tonos, usually showing

affinities

independent modality had grown

impress upon the scheme of
to vary with the

left its

no longer uniform, are seen

within those of groups bearing the same

See Chap, iv, pp. 146, 149 and 163 Chap,

Chap, ix, p. 389.
281
a
e.g. Ps-Eucl., Intr. Harm., p. 16M.
1

v, p.

201

Chap,

vii,

common

pp. 280 and

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MODAL

GREEK MUSICAL NOTATION

BASIS OF

name. (Turn
and to Chap, v, Fig.

also to

tribal

37,

'

Chap,

Fig. 34,

iv,

'

The Seven Harmoniai

The Tonos

as curtailed

TESTS AS A CHALLENGE TO THE ACCEPTED INTERPRETATION OF

No

within the Octave

to

527

Mode
F '.)

'

BELLERMANN

Greek System of Notation can fail to bring to light

and inconsistencies between the testimony of Alypius and
Bellermann's interpretation. Many symbols of notation are in direct conflict
analytical study of the

certain contradictions

One of the glaring difficulties in Bellermann's theory is

which he represents as identical and which should, therefore,
have the same symbol, not only have different symbols in the tables of Alypius,
but in many instances the symbol which we should expect for a given pitch is
found actually in use for some other functional note. It is proposed to introduce
here a few test cases, partly as a challenge to Bellermann's theory, and partly as
examples of the correlation that exists between modal ratios and the allocation of
the symbols.
with that interpretation.
that points of pitch

TEST

Paramese and PN.S. Chromatic are both supposed to be at an interval of one

Mese in each Tonos the same symbol for these two notes only occurs
in 4 out of the 15 Tonoi, viz. in the Hypoionian, and in the three Tonoi of the
Aeolian group, while 1 1 Tonoi are ranged against the implication of Bellermann.
A comparison of the example from the Aeolian Synemmenon tetrachord with those
from non-conforming Tonoi the formulae of which differ among themselves
reveals the working of the Katapyknotic Apparatus.
tone from

The Formula for the Aeolian Group

N.S.

PM.

Aeolian

Modal Ratios

32

30

28

24

28

Mese

PN.

Tr. S.

112

Cents

S.

Chr.

267

119-4

In the Hyperaeolian, Hypoaeolian and Hypoionian (which of course have a

different set of symbols), a similar formula of ratios accounts for the identity of

PN.S. Chromatic and Paramese.

Formulae of Non-conforming Tonoi

PM.

-Synem.-

Hypodorian

SI

Modal Ratios

32

112

Cents

Six other Tonoi

30

29

24

28

327S

58-7

Hypophrygian, Hypolydian, Phrygian, Lydian, Hyper -

phrygian, Hyperlydian, have a similar formula of ratios which accounts for the
different

symbols allotted to PN.S. Chromatic and Paramese.

Synem.

PM.

Ionian

Modal Ratios

32

31

30

24

28

Cents

55

56-7

386

THE GREEK AULOS

528

Hyperionian has a similar formula of

ratios

and similar divergence of symbol.

PM.

-Synem.-

Dorian

Modal

Ratios

32

31

29

24

-28

Cents

115-4

55

TEST

The

32T5

II

older interpretation professes to present a single standard scale, the ditonal,

Proslambanomenoi of which rise successively by a leimma

therefore, the Mese of the higher of
apotome) from the Hypodorian Tonos
two consecutive Tonoi should be of the same pitch as the Trite Synemmenon of
the lower Tonos, and these two notes should be represented by the same symbol.
in 15 different keys, the
(or

Only 6 of the 14
6

pairs of

Tonoi

fulfil

these conditions.

CONFORMING PAIRS

Aeolian
Ionian

The

pairs are

NON-CONFORMING PAIRS
Hyperaeolian 1
HyperphrygianJ
Hyperphrygianl
Hyperionian
J
Mixolydian

Hyperlydian
Hyperaeolian
Hyperionian \
Mixolydian
J
Lydian
1

Lydian

Aeolian
Phrygian
Phrygian
Ionian

Dorian
J
Hypolydian 1
Hypoaeolian J
Hypophrygian)
Hypoionian J

Dorian
Hypolydian
Hypoaeolian

Hypophrygian
Hypoionian
Hypodorian

Moreover, an analagous identity in symbols might be expected in every tetrachord

but even in the 6 conforming pairs of Tonoi, complete identity in all 5 tetrachords
It is to be noted that in the 6 conforming Tonoi,
exists only in 4 of the pairs.
one of each pair belongs either to the Aeolian or to the Ionian group.
A further divergence from the older interpretation is revealed by 6 of the nonconforming pairs, in which Mese's symbol in the higher Tonos is found in the
lower, but allocated to PN.S. Chromatic, supposed to be a semitone higher than

Trite.

These

six pairs of

The Hyperaeolian
Mixolydian
Aeolian

Dorian
Hypoaeolian
Hypoionian

and
and
and
and
and
and

The modal explanation

Tonoi are

Hyperphrygian
Lydian
Phrygian
Hypolydian
Hypophrygian
Hypodorian

of the lack of identity revealed

by

this test is of a twofold

nature, (1) the progression of the Proslambanomenoi is not by a uniform step, but
between each pair of Tonoi by an interval fixed by the Modal Determinants of the

two adjacent Tonoi

1

It will

thesis that

'

11/10 between the Dorian and the Hypolydian;

14/13

be remembered that Ptolemy devotes a chapter (Lib. ii, Chap, xi) to the
The Tonoi ought not to be increased by the semitone method '.

MODAL

BASIS OF

GREEK MUSICAL NOTATION

529

between Mixolydian and Lydian, and so on. We must remember that members
of the newer groups were interposed between the 7 original Tonoi.
The second
cause is the genus of the Synemmenon Pyknon, definitely Enharmonic in some
Tonoi, and Chromatic in others. 1
The other tests, only the purport of which can be given, owing to exigencies
of space, will be seen to present no insuperable difficulties when judged in the light
of the Modal System of the Harmonia, since the solution lies with the ratios of
several functional notes each in its own Tonos.

TEST in
In the Diatonic genus, Trite Diezeugmenon should, according to the older
Synemmenon, both being at an
interval of a minor 3rd above Mese (ditonal 32/37
294 cents). Actually, however,
different symbols are used to express these two functional notes in no less than 9
of the 15 Tonoi
once again, the conforming Tonoi belong to the Aeolian and
Ionian groups. But the non-conforming Tonoi include the Homonyms of the
interpretation, correspond in pitch with Paranete

and in addition, the octaves of the

7 original Tonoi
18, are also included in the Hyper groups.
;

two lowest of these, of M.D. 16

and

Tests IV and

both turn again on the mistaken conception that the progression of the Proslambanomenoi is by means of a constant step of a semitone or
leimma.

TEST IV

This test reveals the fact that in the Diatonic Genus, Lichanos Meson, one tone
above the PH. Meson, which should be identical with the PH. Meson of the
Tonos next but one higher, is actually only expressed by the same symbol in 5 pairs
of

Tonoi

(of the Aeolian

and Ionian groups).

TEST V

This

test is a valuable

banomenos of each Tonos

other interval) than

the

same symbol

And

be correct.

in

one and yields extraordinary results. As the Proslamsupposed to start higher (whether by semitone or any

is

its predecessor, the same functional notes ought never to bear

two successive Tonoi, if the accepted interpretation of Notation
numerous instances a single symbol does indicate the same

yet in

functional note in 2 successive Tonoi.

The bearing of the apparent anomalies in Notation expressed by this Test

upon our claim that this system was designed originally for the Harmoniai, as they
had evolved in the P.I.S., must now occupy our attention.
Test v affords traces of no less than 7 different structures among the Enharmonic
and Chromatic genera of the 1 5 Tonoi and therefore, if the older interpretation
;

were

one instance of identity of symbol in these 7 differentiated strucSuch correspondences of symbol have in themselves no
portentous significance. These seven formulae traced in the system of the 15
Tonoi, however, yield absolute proof that the scale to which Notation applies
could by no possibility consist of tetrachords identical in structure, and five in
correct, not

tures should exist.

1
Four Tonoi have, in all 5 tetrachords, a notation indicative of the Chromatic
genus, and 7 Tonoi of the Enharmonic ; while the following 4 have Pykna of both
genera in the same octave
:

Dorian
Mixolydian
Ionian

in 3 tetrachords,

in 3
in 1

Hyperionian in 3
-<4

Enh. Pykna. in

,,

,,

2,

Chromatic

in 2,
in 4,

in 2,

THE GREEK AULOS

53

number

For these correspondences, affecting the intonation of

do not occur in all 5 tetrachords of the same pair of Tonoi they
all involve
with only three exceptions the Aeolian and Ionian groups. In
some Tonoi the correspondence is in the Hypaton tetrachord and its octave the
Diezeugmenon, implying an octaval structure, since the 2nd tetrachord of the octave
does not follow suit (see, for instance, the Lichanos Hypaton T of the Hyperphrygian and of the Hyperionian). In other examples, all 5 tetrachords are affected
in the Oxypykna (ex. the V and II and the A and 1 in Lydian and Aeolian), and
in the Hyperlydian and Hyperaeolian
in the Hypolydian and Hypoaeolian
and in the Hypophrygian and Hypoionian pairs. In all these anomalies between
pairs of Tonoi, the mystery is solved at once on examining the ratios of the correspondences in question, which will be found to differ. The proportional relation
of the Modal Determinants of the pair of Tonoi, operating through Mese and
Proslambanomenos, must also be taken into consideration, in the following manner.
Chromatic Paranete Synemmenon, for example, has the symbol N allotted to it in
both Dorian and Ionian (the higher of the two), and the explanation is simple
the Dorian genesis turns upon number 22
and the Ionian upon 23, so that the
ratios of the Dorian sequence are lower by 23/22 than those of the Ionian having
the same functional and numerical value. The Ionian Mese is thus higher by a
small semitone than the Dorian Mese
but in the Ionian Tonos, Chromatic
Paranete Synemmenon has ratio 30, whereas the Dorian bears ratio 29
thus the
higher pitch of the Ionian Tonos and the lower ratio of its Paranete tend to keep
the balance, so that the same symbol serves for both functional notes. The
absolute pitch indicated by the vibration frequencies is for the Dorian Paranete
Synemmenon 133-J-r and for the Ionian Paranete Synemmenon 134x5- v.p.s.,
a difference of approximately i v.p.s. in the octave below middle C.
This brief outline includes but a small part of what there is to be said on the
subject of Greek Musical Notation. 1
The modal interpretation, of which the main
principles only have been adumbrated here, provides a working basis which admits
of many tests of a positive nature, and falls into line with the evidence already
submitted in the foregoing chapters.
in the P.I.S.

certain intervals,

Among

other important evidence, for which space

is

lacking, there are the con-

made by Aristides Quintilianus, Bacchius and Gaudentius ; the discussion

of the relation between the principles underlying Vocal and Instrumental Notation ;
the evidence afforded by the MSS. which is of an extraordinarily interesting nature ;
tributions

and the notation of the Fragments of Greek Music

(see

Chap.

ix).

APPENDIX

II

THE ORIGIN OF THE ECCLESIASTICAL MODES THEIR

RELATION TO THE MODAL SYSTEM OF THE HARMONIAI
:

Recapitulation of Stages in the Development of the P.I.S.

The Modality of the
P.I.S. transformed from Dorian into Phrygian.
The Rise of a New System of
Conjunct Modal Scales
The Birth of the Plagal Modes. Two Examples of the
New Independent Conjunct Modal Scales based upon Proslambanomenos. The
Octoechos in use in the Greek Church in the Fourth Century A.D. Confirmation
from Arabian Sources. Ishaq's Majra through Wosta identified as Phrygian Modal
:

Species.

Confirmation of the Origin of the Ecclesiastical

of Early Medieval Theorists

now proposed

Modes from

the Writings

System of the Harmoniai upon the

vexed question of the origin of the Ecclesiastical Modes, and to offer an explanation of their derivation from the classical modes of Ancient Greece. We
are not concerned here to sketch the rise and development of the music of the early
Greek Church, nor to state the rival theories that have held the fiesd at different
times.
The main points indicated in this brief outline are
(1) The origin of the Ecclesiastical Modes in the fourth and latest development
of the P.I.S. (see Chap. iv).
(2) Kinship of the Harmoniai and the Octoechos of the Greek Church of Asia
Minor and Northern Africa.
(3) Confirmation through Arabian sources.
(4) Confirmation through the treatises of early medieval writers.
is

IT

to turn the light of the

RECAPITULATION OF STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE

In order to trace the structural development of the P.I.S. which

Fourth Stage, we must

as the
I

consider that

modal
thus

species,

DORIAN

(M.D. n)

MESON AND
Lich.

DIEZ.

Hypolydian (M.D. 20)

Phryg. (M.D. 12)

Hyp.

Parh.

Lydian (M.D. 13)

Parh. Hyp.
Mixolydian (M.D. 14)
Hyp. Hypaton

Meson

Hypophr. (M.D.
Lich.

18)

Meson

Hypodor. (M.D.
Mese Synem.!
Hyperbol.

To

P.I.S.

have described

what had already been accomplished in Stage ii.

Stage ii came about on the Kithara through the grouping of the
one by one, round the Dorian Harmonia by practical musicians
recall

the theorists, this

new

scale,

accommodating

all

16)

the seven Harmoniai, involved

besides an extension of the nomenclature, two fundamental changes.

now began on Hypate Hypaton,

structure was changed

Firstly,

from disjunct,
(Meson + Diezeugmenon) to conjunct (Hypaton + Meson to Paramese) whereby
Hypate Hypaton became the starting-point of the Lesser Complete System (later

the scale

its

53i

THE GREEK AULOS

S32

expanded into the Greater Complete System). The second change was a momentous one from the Dorian to the Mixolydian species.
The new scale was seen to comprise two conjunct octaves, and this transformation of the Greek System eventually led to Stage Hi.
The third development
occurred when Proslambanomenos, the added note, while standing outside the
system of the tetrachords, was admitted as lower octave of Mese to complete the
disdiapason. Proslambanomenos then came to be regarded as leading to a tone
of disjunction, analogous to the tone between Mese and Paramese. But Hypate
Hypaton was still recognized in some obscure sense as the beginning of the modal
system with the octave from Hypate Hypaton as first species.

THE MODALITY OF THE

P.I.S.

TRANSFORMED FROM DORIAN INTO PHRYGIAN

Stage iv was reached when Proslambanomenos was eventually drawn into the
system of the tetrachords, as implied by Ptolemy in the exposition of the Shades of
the Genera (Lib. ii, c. 15) in the form of Modes, distinguished as Apo Meses '.
This innovation was entirely non-modal, however, and created a pseudo-Hypo'

dorian species, since the interval between Proslambanomenos and Hypate Hypaton
in the P.I.S. is always a tone, whereas from the Hypodorian tonic to the 2nd degree
in the

Harmonia and modal species, there

on to consider a happening

We now pass

is

the just semitone 16/15.

domain of Modality which was

in the

The newly found independence of the

Harmoniai developed into new conjunct Modes (xara avva<f>y)v). At some

fraught with far-reaching consequences.

original

time, as yet undefined, and in a region deeply

imbued with Phrygian

Mode developed and

Modes in the Hellenistic

influences

(and traditional), the Phrygian conjunct

flourished

gaining ascendancy over

world,

all

the other

firmly established in musical composition, as instanced by the

Nome

it

and
became
;

of Athene. 1

The theorists then discovered what had taken place and by them the change
may have been chronicled as the passing of the classical P.I.S., or as the advent of
a new system embodying the Phrygian modality.
Through the incidence of its M.D. 24 upon Lichanos Hypaton, the Phrygian
Mode in its conjunct form was driven to use the old Proslambanomenos in an
;

entirely

new

capacity.

banomenos 2 was
of

Mese bore

Rescued from

its

isolation outside the tetrachords, Proslam-

now admitted into the tetrachordal structure itself, to form the Tonic

and starting-point

for the conjunct

the ratio 32

P.I.S. has, thus,

which

now become

is

modal

the

octave.

M.D.

of the

Proslambanomenos as octave
Hypodorian Harmonia. The
upon Proslambanomenos.

a Phrygian system based

This transformation is an ideological and rhythmical one involving neither

change of ratios nor of Notation
it is merely a change of mode and incidentally
;

of pivot.

This figure displays the Phrygian Harmonia in conjunct form, in full possession
of the P.I.S., and tuned to the Hypolydian Tonos. This new conjunct Phrygian
scale exhibits all the most significant features of the Ecclesiastical Modes at the
time of their first appearance in the theoretical writings of the Western World.
From Lichanos Hypaton to Proslambanomenos is a 4th, and from the same note
to Mese, a 5th.
The importance assigned to the dominant in the Ambrosian and
Gregorian Modes is seen to be a reflection of the characteristic Phrygian modal
interval on the Tonic, expressed by ratio 24/16.
The 3rd degree above the Tonic
1

Plut., de

Mus., Chap, xxxiii (ed. Weil and Rein., 367-87

and

cf.

Intro.,

p. xviii).
2

new

See Hucbald,

De Harm. .Inst.,

Gerbert, Script. Eccl.

function of Proslambanomenos

is

indicated.

i,

pp.

uzb

sqq.,

where the

w
a

H
I

"3

ca

Kg
Q

C 0

IS
1*8
15

O
"
o
fa

o
0
o

THE GREEK AULOS

534

it the just minor 3rd 24/20.

When the scale is continued upwards for
an octave from Lichanos Hypaton through Diezeugmenon to Paranete (of ratio
number 24 or 12), the Authentos Protos on
lies before us, complete and correct

forms with

in structure, viz. a 5th

+a

4th,

and exact

as to ratio in the

use in several Greek Churches in Asia Minor. 1

The Plagios

modal form

still

in

Protos likewise appears

from Proslambanomenos to Mese, duly composed of the 5th superimposed upon

the 4th, and having Mese as true final on the 8th degree, and thus justifying the
tonality of the Ecclesiastical Modes as handed down through the early Middle Ages.
In this way the mysterious origin of the Plagal Modes is revealed as the independent conjunct modal octave, spreading out below the Authentic, overlapping
in its upper 5th, and retaining kinship with it through the common Modal
Genesis
this fact is apparently recognized in the earliest known nomenclature,
e.g. Authentos Protos, Plagios Protos.
The lower plagal tetrachord is, of course,
merely a transposition an octave lower of the upper tetrachord of the Authentic.
In relation to the Modal System, it is the Phrygian Mode which is the prototype of the early Modes of the Greek Church. The momentous change thus
effected through the 4th stage of the P.I.S. signifies a new orientation
the Dorian
Mode was displaced in favour of the Phrygian, within which other Modes, authentic
and plagal, were taken as species of the Hypolydian Tonos.

it

THE

RISE OF A

NEW SYSTEM

OF CONJUNCT MODAL SCALES

THE BIRTH OF THE

PLAGAL MODES

The

had been focused upon the conjunct octave, as a

prelude to a new series of conjunct modal species. This is no new feature, since
it formed part of the original P.I.S.
it merely provides a new Onomasia Kata
Thesin, Phrygian in modality. The division of the Modes of the Greek Church
into authentic and plagal is a natural outcome of this development.
The fundamental change is a modal one, and it establishes modality upon a
new footing for the modal species become modes in their own right, and the
nomenclature of the P.I.S. is open to all on equal terms. The species are henceforth emancipated from the domination of the Dorian Harmonia.
This epoch-making change raises the question whether any evidence exists of
similar modal independence
in other w-ords, of the use in other Modes also, by
musicians, of this form of conjunct scale based upon Proslambanomenos ?
attention of the theorists

TWO EXAMPLES

OF THE

NEW INDEPENDENT CONJUNCT MODAL

SCALES BASED

UPON PROSLAMBANOMENOS
The answer
so used

in the affirmative,

is

and evidence

is

forthcoming of two modes

In the first proposition of the Harmonic Canon of Florence (Chap, v) in which

an aliquot division announced but not carried through by Modal Determinant 28
based upon Proslambanomenos created the conjunct form of the Hypolydian
species
but still within the Dorian modality.

'

'

PROSL.
28

or in the
28

H.H.

26

PH.H.

24

new Phrygian modality

26

24

L.H.

22

H.M.
20

PH.M.

L.M.

MESE.

l8

l6

14

of a conjunct Dorian Species

22

20

18

16

According to the testimony of Dr. Joh. Tzetzes, pp. 77 and passim.,

Altgriechische Musik in der Griechischen Kirche
(Munchen, 1874).
'

14

'

tJber die

ORIGIN OF THE ECCLESIASTICAL MODES

535

two interpretations both legitimate with a Modal Determinant 28,

was originally intended, remains problematical,
By a further use of the same Canon, a second
proposition was launched and a fully described division by M.D. 24 was also based
upon Proslambanomenos. As this stands in the Canon, the ratios proclaim the
scale to be the conjunct form of the Hypophrygian Harmonia, as in No. 1 below.
But if the sequence were merely noted in the A keyboard scale stated without
ratios, it would, as one of the Ecclesiastical Modes, apply equally well to the
Protos Subjugalis described by the eleventh- century Abbot Berno 1 of Reichenau,
or to the Plagal of the 4th Authentic, transposed a 4th down to D. When accompanied by the modal ratios, as in No. 2 below, the meaning is unmistakable.

Which

of these

based upon Proslambanomenos

for reasons given in Chapter v.

Aliquot Division from the Harmonic Canon of Florence by M.D. 24

PROSL.

No. X

24

H.H.
22"!

PH.H.
20

L.H.

H.M.

PH.M.

L.M.

MESE

l8

16

IS

13

12

CONJUNCT FORM OF THE HYPOPHRYGIAN HARMONIA OR FOURTH PLAGAL

e
c
d
a
b
g$
K. S. =
f

II

COMPARED WITH
No. 2

("?2

28

26

22

24
II

20

18

16)

II

THE FIRST PLAGAL MODE

N.B.

This

figure

shows how

easy

it

was

to confuse the first

and fourth plagals in

staff notation.

Hypophrygian Harmonia is revealed by the ratios of

the aliquot division, based upon Proslambanomenos, as an instance of the independent use in other modes of the conjunct forms of the Harmoniai based upon
Proslambanomenos
No. 1 may besides be regarded as the prototype of the 4th Plagal of the Greek
Church, and also of the minor Mode of the West.

The conjunct form

of the

THE OCTOECHOS IN USE IN THE GREEK CHURCH IN THE FOURTH CENTURY

In a survey of the immense

Modes

field of

A.D.

research into which the quest for the

with the early

In the domain of musical
centuries of our Era becomes immediately apparent.
notation between the Christian Hymn, 2 c. third century A.D., and the earliest
origin of the Ecclesiastical

leads, the paucity of data dealing

Greek MSS. in Neums of the tenth and eleventh centuries, data are lacking. And
from the wealth of material available for research such as Chronicles, historical
accounts of the Greek Church, Exegesis, Decretals 3 and Acts, it is known that
yet

1
Cf. Bernonis Prologus in Tonarium (xi C), ap. W. Brambach, Das Tonsystem
und die Tonarten d. Christl. Abendlandes im Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1881), p. 43, 7,
where Berno (or an interpolator) describes the descent from Lichanos Hypaton to
Proslambanomenos by tone, semitone, tone as the conjunct limb of the Protos
See also Martin Gerbert, Script. Eccl., ii, p. 60&.
subjugalis or Tonus Secundus.
2
Oxyrth. Pap., xv, 1786. The hymn is noted in the vocal Greek notation of the
Hypolydian Tonos and composed in the Hypophrygian mode.
3
See F. A. Gevaert, Les Origines du Chant Liturgique de VEglise Latine (Gand,
'

1890).

'

THE GREEK AULOS

53 6

Modes (whether the classical Tropoi, or the Hellenistic Echoi evolved

from them) were in use in the early Greek Church of Hellenistic Asia and
Egypt. As evidence we may cite the incident recorded concerning S. Pambo,
the Egyptian Abbot, by Gerbert 1 from a fourth-century Greek MS. in the Hofbibliothek in Vienna, a German translation of which is given by Oskar Fleischer. 2
From this document it is learnt that a novice, returning from a visit to the Church
of St. Mark in Alexandria, relates that the Troparia were being sung in that Church.
S. Pambo, however, peremptorily refused his request to allow chants and Modes
(ao/uata xal rj%ovg) to be sung in the more austere services of the monastery. Dom
Jeannin 3 quotes a similar instance from the fourth century a.d. of a mention of
the Octoechos in the days of St. Ephraim
when a monk, conversing with Abbot
Silvanus of Sinai, said, Since I have become a hermit I have chanted the order
of the Office and the Hours, and have sung the Hymns of the Octoechos (xal ra
the Greek

directly

'

rf)g

dxxmri%ov ipdXXco).

In another case, a hermit in the desert of Nitria,

who when

him ('ra rgondgia xal xavdvag

4th incident is related by Fleischer on the
concerning a visit by the Abbots Johannes and

receiving a visit from Paul of Cappadocia, sang to

ydXXeiv xal rj%ovg

/ne)J(eiv.' 4 )

authority of Cardinal Pitra

Sophronius to the aged hermit Nilus on Mt. Sinai, who belonged to the old school
and did not permit the singing of Songs and Tropes after Evensong, but allowed
only the Doxology and the Kyrie Eleison.
Anthymus and Timokles, composers of Troparia, who flourished during the
reign of the Emperor Leo the Great (457-74 a.d.), are cited by Cedrenus, 6 eleventh
century, and Theodoras. 7 According to a twelfth-century writer, Zonaras, 8
the Troparia were Greek songs in the ancient Harmoniai, and were used in the
Office of the Greek Church in conjunction with the Tropes and the Hirmus.
Zonaras mentions the Modes by their classical name Harmonia, not Echos
Eig/nog de Myeraimg axoXovQiav rtva xalrdiv /usXovg xal dg/Liovtag didovg xolg
fisx' avrov rgojiaoioig.
A Hirmus is defined as giving a sequence and order of melos and Harmonia to
:

it.
Indeed, these receive their rhythm according
Melos of the Hirmoi and they are tuned and sung to them, and they follow
Harmonia of that Melos, so that the Hirmos makes the Troparion dependent
upon its Melos and binds it to itself.'
These data establish the use of the Echoi and of the forms of Hymnody known as
Tropes and Troparia, based upon the Harmoniai in a specified Church in Alexandria
in the fourth century a.d. and elsewhere in the services of the Greek Church.

the Troparia that follow after

'

to the

the

i,
pp. 1-4, Greek and Latin extract from xiii c. Greek codex
Caesar. Vindob.
See also Oskar Fleischer, Neumen Studien, Vol. i and ii passim, and Vol. ii,
A. J. Vincent, Notices et Extraits, p. 6, Note ib, who also cites Gerb.,
pp. 53-3
De Canta, 1, p. 207.
3
Melodies Liturgiques Syriennes (Paris, 1924), p. 93. See also Nau, Ple'mophories

Script. Eccl.,

Bibl.
2

de Jean de
4
6
6

Maimouma (Majuma)

in P.O.,

viii,

p.

170-80.

Dom

Pitra, Hymnographie de VEglise grecque, p. 43.

Juris Ecclesiastici Graecorum historia et Monumenta, Tom. 1, p. 220.
Migne, Vol. 1, p. 612, line 16 (349c).
Georgius Cedrenus
:

Migne, Vol. 86, Pt. 1, p. 174, 567. See also Du Fresne and Du Cange, Gloss,
Mediae et Infime Graecitatis, s.v., roonaQiov and also Fleischer, op. cit.,
p. 53 and p. 119.
8 Canones Anastasimos Damasceni Intr.
de AkoSee also Nicolaus Rayaeus,
See also Fleilouthia ', in Acta Sanct. Junii, Bd. ii, pp. xv sqq. (Antwerp, 1698).
scher, ii, p. 119, who quotes two passages from Zonaras in Greek.
7

ad

Script.

ii,

'

ORIGIN OF THE ECCLESIASTICAL MODES

CONFIRMATION FROM ARABIAN SOURCES

now provides an important piece of evidence of a circumorigin of the Ecclesiastical Modes which centres round the
Arabian musician Ishaq-Ibn-Ibrahim-al-Mausili (Mosul, 767-850
A.D.), whose reputation as a theorist rests mainly upon his introduction of a new
accordance for the lute, which has already been fully described, 1 and still more
upon his revision of the Classification of Songs according to Rhythm and Modality.
It will not be possible to show the connexion of these data with the Modes of
the Greek Church without assuming a familiarity with the names of the frets of the
lute, which may be identified on Fig. 55 (Ch. vii).
Ishaq's classification by Modes is expressed through the courses (majarI,
sing, majra) on the lute, passing either through Wosta, the middle finger fret, a
minor 3rd above the open string, or else through Binsir, the ring-finger at a major
3rd above the open string (= motlaq). By following Ishaq's instructions with
care, it is revealed that these courses correspond with the species of the Greek
Modes, Harmoniai or Echoi. This important evidence is derived from Ishaq's
Our

investigation

stantial nature

on the

figure of the

enthusiastic Chronicler, Al-Ispahani.

ISHAQ'S

MAJRA THROUGH WOSTA IDENTIFIED AS PHRYGIAN MODAL SPECIES

Numbers

4, 5, 6, 7, selected

from Ishaq's Classification by majari (Fig. 105)

Greek Church, consisting of 8 modal species,

display the complete Octoechos of the

indicated by Ishaq but not so named.

obtained by taking the P.I.S. in

Mode.

The

its

Following his directions, the 8 species are

4th stage in the conjunct form of the Phrygian

Hypaton

in the original Onomasia Kata Thesin)

based upon Proslambanomenos, or according to the phraseology of the Arabs,
borrowed from the lute, in the majra of Wosta on bamm (lowest string). Taking
the lute accordance of Ishaq (Fig. 55, Chap, vii), tuned from the motlaq (open
string) of Matna as i'mad or a'mad, the fundamental or arche (here hypothetically
equated in pitch with our A), corresponding with Mese or with Proslambanomenos,
in the Hypolydian Tonos, the species are thus obtained
if the frets are followed
step by step in Fig. 105 as indicated, an exact succession of the four Authentic
and four Plagal Modes is obtained in the form and order in which they are first
traced in the West.
We are thus confronted with the remarkable fact that an early ninth-century
classification of Arabian Songs, according to explicit directions, exhibits sequences
identical in structure with the early Modes of the Greek Church.
Al-Ispahani
(tenth century) has, moreover, accepted these 8 Modes
which did not have
fanciful names like those of Persia and Greece, but were named after the fingers
3
The question which arises is obviously
(i.e. frets).
From what source did
Ishaq derive his knowledge of the majari or species ? Ishaq, himself, disclaimed
any knowledge of the Greek theorists, but it is probable that he had become
familiar in practice with the modal sequences during the years he spent in Bagdad
1st

tetrachord (the

is

'

'

with his father.

Al-Ispahani, moreover, mentions instances of Arabian lutenists and singers
1

Ch.

vii,

and

Fig. 53.

2
Abul Faraj Ali Ibn Hossein Al-Ispahani, tenth century a.d. ; see Kosegarten's
Latin translation, Alii Ispdhdnensis liber Cantilenarum Kitab Al-Aghani (Gripesvoldiae,

see also J. Rouanet,

La Musique Arabe
1840)
Musique, p. 2694.
3
Kosegarten, op. cit., pp. 179 sqq.
'

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ap. A. Lavignac, Encyc. de la

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'

THE GREEK AULOS

540

who

modified their modes through contact with the Christian monks

to the Syrian monasteries).

(belonging

The

exact correspondence exhibited in Fig. 105, between Ishaq's courses 4 to

the four Authentic and four Plagal Modes of the early Greek Church certainly

7 and
suggests a

common origin, viz. the Ancient Greek Modal System of the Harmoniai, traced in this Appendix through the four stages in the development of
the P.I.S.
It is, therefore, reasonable to suggest that Ishaq was one of the abovementioned lutenists who learnt something of value by contact with the Christian
monks, and that he was indebted to them for the means of codifying the courses on
the lute, which in their order as species and in their modality coincides with those

and of the Ecclesiastical Modes, known already in the West in

on Alcuin) at the court of Charlemagne as authentic
and described in the next century by Hucbald, placed on the correct

of the Octoechos,

the eighth century (see further

and

plagal,

degrees in the P.I.S.

From

these Arabian sources one other interesting point arises

which bears on

Was there a significant relation between the

major or minor, and the Arabian classification
by Ishaq of species passing alternatively on the frets of the lute through Wosta,
the minor 3rd, or through Binsir, the major 3rd ?
Ishaq's Classification would
have the prior claim.
the development of music in the West.
later

Western conception of Mode,

as

CONFIRMATION OF THE ORIGIN OF THE ECCLESIASTICAL MODES FROM THE

WRITINGS OF EARLY MEDIEVAL THEORISTS

brief reference to the evidence afforded

be added.
Alcuin (eighth century)

by

early medieval treatises

may now

Greek names of the four Tonoi and adds

the names in use amongst us ', i.e. in Latin as used at the court of Charlemagne
and in the schools of music established by him. Hucbald 3 (ninth to tenth centuries)
states that from Lichanos Hypaton, Hypate Meson, Parhypate Meson and Lichanos
Meson, Quatuor modis vel Tropis quos nunc Tonos dicunt, hie est protus
Lichanos Hypaton scilicet autentum protum et plagium eiusdem, id est primum et
secundum hypatemeson autentum deuterum et plagium eius, id est tertium et
quartum, &c.' Further on he alludes to the newer system with its orientation from
Proslambanomenos (p. 11 96).
Usque ad has enim metam inchoandi declinant
hae sunt Proslambanomenos ad Lichanos Hypaton, Hypate Hypaton ad Hypate
Meson sed id raro
parypate [sic] hypaton ad parypate meson, &c.'
The eleventh-century description by the Abbot Berno of Reichenau in his
Prologus in Tonarium has already been mentioned (see ante).
gives the

'

'

'-

Koseg, pp. 199-200 sqq.

3

Gerb.,

ibid., p.

Gerbert, Script. Eccl.,

119a.

i,

p. 26.

APPENDIX

III

A NEW LANGUAGE OF MUSIC: POSSIBILITIES OF THE

ANCIENT MODES FOR USE IN MODERN COMPOSITION
t

"^HE Art
Music

of

Music seems

since

to be at the crossways seeking a

new language

The most important

innovations have led to bitter controversy.

from the older

of

none of the attempts tojinfuse some new element into Music

has so far met with any general measure of success, while

M.

dialect

and forms,

atonality with

adherents, but scores no decisive victory.

On

its

some

of the

of these departures

variants,

still

has

many

the other hand, the quarter-tone

and 7th-tone excursions into indefinite microtonal intonation may appear logical
enough on paper, determined by logarithms on a basis of equal temperament
but, in practice, they are merely conjectural for as far as I know, no method has
yet been discovered for converting the graphically measured values into actual
sounds of demonstrable vibration frequencies, as may so easily be accomplished by
The composer may know what he intends, but has
ratios on a monochord.
no means of expressing this so that he may make it known to his executants.
Meanwhile, inspiration and genius stand by unconcerned.
The Harmonia, as it is presented in this work, forms a new language of Music
;

possessing

many

distinct advantages, e.g.

it is

established

upon

a positive,

demon-

modal monochord having a rule accurately marked,

and numbered segment by segment, can be used by a child even. The notes of
scale or intervals are easily obtained by means of a movable bridge (having a knife
edge) placed under the string, the effect being to cut off the segments to the left of
the bridge, held in position by the left hand, while the length of string comprised
The correin the remaining segments is plucked or bowed by the right hand.
sponding note in exact intonation may then be produced.
A monochord rule bearing an aliquot division by the Modal Determinant of
each Harmonia forms an efficient guide for the piano tuner in giving the modern
instrument the accordance of one of the ancient Harmoniai
my choice is the
Dorian of Modal Determinant 22, with eleven notes to the octave of ratios 22/22
21/22 20/22 19/22 18/22 17/22 16/22 15/22 14/22 13/22 12/22 11/22.
Many musicians demur when introduced to the ratios of this modally tuned
piano, for they consider that a scale containing intervals such as 12/11, 11/10,
15/13, forms a proposition impossible to bring into opera ion in practical music.
That is an objection that comes naturally enough from modern musicians born
and brought up in the atmosphere of our major and minor scales, with their more
strable basis, which, given a

is an entirely individual matter, for many there are

immediately in delight on hearing this new language of music.
now to introduce the subject of the work of Miss Elsie Hamilton,

or less false relations, but this

who

react

It is

time

from Adelaide (South Australia), who studied composition with Andre

Gedalge in Paris for five years. In the latter part of 1916, she became acquainted
with this new language of music and at once adopted it because, she averred, it
provided a natural basis, which she felt was lacking in the modern system. She
hailing

54i

THE GREEK AULOS

542
mastered the

new

intonation in a few weeks and began at once to

compose in it. 1
was to realize the necessity for abandoning the intricate
elaborations of composition, which although quite in place in the well-worn language of modern music, were not adapted to first steps in the practice of intervals
so strangely related to each other and to their tonic, for to lose one's bearings in
the matter of tonality is an inevitable experience for both executant and listener.
It was here that the path of the pioneer began to exhibit its thorns during the
rehearsal of compositions, a painful task which could only be shouldered by the

Her

chief difficulty at

first

composer.

As yet Elsie Hamilton is the only composer who has had the courage and we
might perhaps add the freedom, to grapple with the intonation of the new scales, for
although many musicians and composers have displayed great interest and enthusiasm, the economic question bars the way.
Attention may now be turned to certain practical questions concerned with
composition for which I select the following from the composer's notes on the
Harmonic System she has devised. Since all the eleven notes of the Dorian
Harmonia are proportionally related to each other and to the Tonic, they may all
be used melodically, harmonically and contrapuntally together. In fact, harmonies
which would result in cacophony on a piano, normally tuned in equal temperament,
produce instead, on the modally tuned piano, a delightfully stimulating and arresting effect, entirely devoid of beats.
To each individual composer the choice lies
open between (i) a standard scale to be extended at will in both directions, and used
1

The

following

is

a brief account of the early activities of the courageous pioneer,

some of which may be mentioned here

(1) First

demonstration given

at the

request of Dr. York Trotter in Princes

Street in 1917.

A second

demonstration of the composer's works was given at Steinway Hall

in 1917. Amongst other items a Septet for Violins (1st and 2nd), Viola, 'Cello,
Flute, Oboe and Horn, played by members of the Queen's Hall and London Sym(2)

phony Orchestras.
(3) A Trio for Oboe, Viola and Pianoforte (in which the Greek Dorian scale was
approximated to the intervals of the piano) played by McDonagh, Waldo Warner
and the Composer at an L.S.Q. concert at Aeolian Hall in 1918. This approximation to the ordinary piano intonation proved a great success, for apart from the exact
intonation these ancient Modes possess a characteristic Ethos of which a novel
semblance is obtainable even in the approximation.
(4) In 1919 three crowded performances were given at Etlinger Hall, Paddington,
of the drama of Sensa (a play of ancient Egypt by Mabel Collins and Maud Hoffman), with incidental music in the Greek Modes by Elsie Hamilton for harps, flutes,
oboe and voices.
Agave ', a mystical mime by Eva Papp, with incidental music by
(5) In 1924
Elsie Hamilton, was given three times in Madame Matton-Painpare's studio, by a
chamber orchestra of string quartet, flutes, oboe cor anglais, harps and kitharas.
The difficulties in the way of such performances will be realized, when it is stated
that not once, even at the final rehearsal, were all executants able to attend.
Nevertheless, the reception was enthusiastic.
(6) The Seven Scorpions of Ysit, by Terence Gray, incidental music by Elsie
Hamilton, choreography by Ninette de Valois, was also given at the Court Theatre
in 1929, oboe and cor anglais by McDonagh, harp by Miss McDonagh, chanting by
the composer.
In 1935 Elsie Hamilton introduced the new' language of Music in Germany.
At
Stuttgart, a small chamber orchestra has been trained to play in the Greek Modes,
and performances have been given there and at Freiburg-in-Breisgau.
'

'

'

THE HARMONIA AS A NEW LANGUAGE OF MUSIC

543

modal compass used consciously in accordance with

Harmonia with the object of
capturing some of the charm and individual Ethos of these ancient Modes.
The unity of the system of the Harmoniai used as species, for the present, in
view of technical and practical exigencies reveals itself as the harmonic system
develops, for each of the notes of the diatonic Harmonia is the Tonic of one of the
modal species, so that the basis of any chord, if emphasized by its vocal or instruwith utmost freedom, and

modal

the

(2) a

characteristics of the seven species of the

mental treatment,

may evoke

a reminiscent association, or even actually interpose

a dominating or suggestive savour belonging to another

Mode.

the composer says,

the two systems, the modern and the modal,
represent two distinct musical worlds, each quite complete in itself, and which only
prove inimical one to the other if one tries to compare them by holding both in the
'

In fact

'

',

at the same time instead of allowing each to work upon one through its own
inner logicality.
Although the common chord is also to be found for instance on the ratios 12,

mind
'

and on

Harmonia, it cannot be obtained on any and every

new harmonic system is required.
have been made by building up chords on the fixed notes
of the modal tetrachords, for example in Fig. 106.
10, 8

15, 12, 10, of the

note of the scale.

Attempts

It is evident, therefore, that a

in this direction

Fig.

Ratio numbers

106.

'

Sunrise

'

(from

'

Agave

').

Ratio numbers

70Hypophrygian

Lydian

Dorian

Hypodorian

Lydian

Hypolydian

Secondly, by forming a chord from the two dissimilar tetrachords of two related
Harmoniai, and by resolving it by the tetrachord they have in common (see Fig. ioy).
'

Fig. 107.

Funeral

March (from

'

Agave

')

Ratio numbers

Mixolydian

'Thirdly,

features in

by sounding together chords taken from various modes which have

common,

e.g. in Fig. 108.

THE GREEK AULOS

544

Fig. 108.

'

Sunrise

'

(from

Agave

'

S3L.

')

Phrygian

Hypolydian

Dorian

10

Tl

Phrygian

'

Hypodoriaa

Mixolydian

Another interesting feature in the Harmoniai

is

-O-

18

Hypoparygian

the unique possibility they offer

of varying the Ethos or psychological character of one and the same melody by playing
The changes in experience brought about in so simple a manner
in different modes.

it

are far

beyond what

melody

in different

Fig. 109.

From

'

is

attainable in our

Keys

Agave

'

',

(see Fig.

modern

scale

by merely playing the same

log).

with allowances for pianoforte approximation.

of Dorian Mode (C 22).

Species

Hypolydian
Ratio numbers

Hypophryg-ian
Ratio numbers

Phryg-ian
Ratio numbers

Miss Isabel Dodds has also been making excellent use for some years of the
language of the Harmonia in restoring to songs of the Hebrides their pristine modal
intonation,

and singing them in the British Isles, in the U.S.A. and on the Conaccompaniments on her Celtic harp tuned to the Harmonia

tinent of Europe, with

Chap.

(see

The

ix).

first

desideratum for a study of

this

making of which presents no difficulty.

good results. The monochord consists of
the

made of pine
The depth of
is

narrow box 1-120 m. in length,

The soundboard has a width of -06 m.
m. a solid block of beech -07 X -06 X -06
each end to take the tension of the strings on the

or birch, for resonance.

the box

inserted inside the

tuning pins.

new language of music is a monochord,

The following dimensions have given
a long

is

likewise -06

box

bridge of

at

wood

in triangular section (with a knife edge)

is

fixed

each end at -045 from the tuning pin. A movable bridge with a handle of
convenient shape for sliding under the strings
sound-holes in back and front
complete the monochord. It will be found convenient to give the monochord two
at

its name), tuned to C of 128 v.p.s. and F of 176 v.p.s.

Contrary to expectations, the production of those somewhat strange intervals
with few
entirely different scale does not
exceptions entail difficulties that cannot be overcome by expert musicianship and

strings (in defiance of

on modern instruments embodying an

good

will.

It will not be generally recognized by musicians, for instance, how small is the
margin of difference between most of the ratios of intervals, which are used daily
in our major and minor scales, and the intervals of the Harmoniai
nor how easily
the executant himself can bring about the necessary modifications on his instrument.
;

THE HARMONIA AS A NEW LANGUAGE OF MUSIC

In

545

most of the instruments of the orchestra can reproduce the intonation

Greek Modes by slight manipulations, such as cross-fingering on certain

fact,

of the

wind-instruments.

merely a counsel of expediency, for use

new language of Music.
may be plotted and bored
specifically for the harmonia required (hence references to the
Sensa flute '),
oboe and cor anglais prove by no means intractable
trombones, slide trumpets
and horns are amenable to reason. Clarinets can be coaxed. It is not, of course,
claimed that this can be accomplished without a certain loss in tone colour. But
as soon as structural changes in the instruments are compatible with economic
exigencies, there will be a definite gain in beauty of tone, produced by dependence
upon proportional impulse instead of upon empirical dalliance with misunderThis, of course,

is

until instruments are constructed specially for the

As matters stand

at present, cylindrical keyless flutes

'

stood factors.

'

INDEX
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
All.

B-R. mp.

allowance
beating-reed mouthpiece

Chr.
Conj.

chromatic
conjunct

Cr-f.
Dlsj.

cross-fingering
disjunct

D-R. mp.

A
A

All.
Eff. L.

double-reed mouthpiece
diameter
diameter allowance
effective length

Extr.

extrusion (of

Fl.

flute

F.M.

folk music
folk tune

F.T.
G.C.S.

Hornb.
Ho.
Inct.
I.D.

M.D.
Mp.
P.I.S.
Prosl.

sd-w.
sd-w.l.

Mp.)

=
=

v.f.
v.l.

harmonia

M. von Hornbostel
hypo, as hypodorian
increment
increment of distance
modal determinant
mouthpiece
Erich.

Immutable System
Proslambanomenos
sound-wave (J or J or i)
sound-wave length (J or

Perfect

or i)
vibration frequency
vibrating length

Greater Complete System

A.
abert, Hermann, Der neue griech. Papyrus
(with facsimile), refs., 364
absolute equidistance not essential for
production of Harm., 96
accordance of Kithara determined by Mese
(Ps-Arist., Probl. XIX, 20), 183
acoustic principle falsified by Hornbostel's
theory, 317
problems presented by Aulos overlooked, 36-7
significance of Aulete's two movements
avaoTrav and Kajamrav, 54, 55, 62, 74
theory, equal measure in, 3
does not allow overblowing of impure harmonics, 318
acoustics of modal fl., five factors in, 242
action of Speaker-Key compared with shift
on B-R. mp., Chas. Draper and K.S.
on, 1 18-19
activity of new Factor in interior of Aulos,
99
actual fl. length plus A All. = i sd-w.l., 86
fl. length relation of J sd-w.l. to, Ch. x,
Fl. Records, passim
I.D., relation to fl. length and to the
Modal Sequence of the, 231
Prosl. stands outside
added note ', the
the tetrachordal system, 151
adrastus (2nd c.) quoted by Theo of
Smyrna, 145
agariche, Bolivian
Panpipe,
overblows
pure 5ths, 331
tests
Pitch agrees with Formula,
331 sq.
agathocles, Harmonist, 190
aged singers not to pursue the high and
the syntonon in their songs' (Plut., an
seni, c. 18), 189
agenor of Mitylene, 190
aggregate All. for A fixed by pitch of the
'

agricola, martin, and Seb. Virdung,

testimony of fl. schemes by, 383 sqq.
practical evidence on cr-f. from, 253 ;
Fig. 49, p. 254
Fig. 50, p. 258
agricola 's cr-f. tested in practice, 256
demonstration of the uses of cr-f.,
sq.
252
schemes of cr-f. analysed, 257
drnXovBCa
sequence distinctive of the
Harmoniai, 177
;

aKoXovdlav rtvd Kai rdiv /xeXovs Kal apiiovlas.

(Zonaras, q.v.), 536
alcuin (viii C.) gives Greek names and
names in use among us ' to Eccles.
.

tant fingerholes (Koseg., 9S), 274

describes 3 accordances of the lute, 275
frequencies of fl. notes do not always
correspond with distances (Koseg, p.
98),

229

273-4
in Aulos and

on A

on the Aulos and

al-farabi's

'

2, xliii,

Modes, 540
al-farabi and Al-Kindi of Kufa stress the
ditonal scale, Ishaq the Harm., 285
approximates fl. scales to lute scales
{D'Erl., p. 276), 275
describes flutes and pipes with equidis-

Formula No.

'

'

note,

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

Harm.

sq.

547

Aulos

fl.,

fl.,

273

272 sqq.

with Arabian Notation,

Fig. 58, p. 282
Aulos suggests the Ho.phrygian Harm.,
Fig. 6o, p. 286
cardinal error on diameters, 273
flutes and pipes have equidistant fingerholes (spatiis interiectis aequalibus), 274
aliquot division (see equal measure)
aliquot division by M.D. tells its own tale
in Canon of Florence, 382
AL-ISPAHANI on Octoechos
Modes
.
named after the fingers ', 537
allowance at Exit an integral element of the
Modal fl., 242
scale

'

THE GREEK AULOS

54
allowance

arche

(contd.)

for A, a concrete visible factor in the

222
determines position of Hole I on fl.,
222
for A in Flutes, Proportional and
Standard, 457
for A or end-correction, 222
inherent in the fl. itself, 221
in respect of A in flutes, nine aspects
of, 85 sqq., Ch. x, passim, 233
No. 1 of sd-w., 233
No. 2 at exit by Formula No. 5, 233
No. 3 determines position of Hole 1,233
No. 4, or Standard All. at Vent, 233
No. 5, proportional per ratio at each
fingerhole, 233
No. 6, Proportional All., 233
No. 7, Incremental and cumulative,
233 sq.
No. 8, of the ideal I.D., 234
fi.,

No. 9, the Floating All. on the fl., 234

on the fl.. the doubling of, in relation to
sd-w. 237

aXoyais = without ratio, 113

alternative ratios 14 and 15, the, 152

alypius, tables of, in the sources (refs.), 353

Greek Notation, 140, 520 sq.
ambros,
re Pindar's Ode ', Gesch. d.M.,
2nd ed., Leipz., 1880, Vol. i,pp. 448-9, 358
afte-re'/ioAov
immutable
i.e. the
Dorian
extended scale in the Tonoi, 167
ANALYSIS of results in Hombostel's Table 1,
323
avaoirav and Karaoirav, suggested explanation in relation to Syrinx of Aulos, 54,
'

55,62,74
avaoirai^4vT]s

ovpiyyos

kXivo^vtjs

Auletics, 106
in Greek Notation by Hucbald
(first line of) (op. cit., p. 120 sq.), 375 ;
Fig. 88, p. 379
apollo's Golden Kithara in Pindar's Ode,
praise of, 357
dwo vrrnqs : scales beginning on Hypate
Meson, so-called by Ptolemy, 161

antiphons

A priori contention re Aulos, 37

APPROXIMATELY EQUAL INTERVALS, examples

'

edited E. H. Barker, 1820, p. 188,

sliding bands of the Aulos, 74

1.

12,

on

ap/iow'ay, aKo\ovBiav (q.v.)

(Zonaras), 536
I.D. in Aulos, 99-101
dominates inner reactions of Aulos
resonator, 99-101
formative power of, the solution of

arche

as

mean

218
of Arabian

difficulties,

'1

mad

190

ist ?),

aristides quintilianus attributes scheme of

Notation to Pythagoras (de Mus., 28

M.), 156, 520
(12 3M.) confirms use of ratio 11/10 as
first diesis on Tonic, 199

lute,

277

differentiated

defines

starting-note

of

Harmoniai (Greek), 146, 177

defines the diesis, 204
Fig. 41, p. 205
(p. 15M.) identification of dieses in the
diagram faked by Meibomius, 215
intervals used by Ancients for their
Harmoniai according to, 177
names order in which Species occur, 200
(28M.) on Eklysis and Spondeiasmos,
204
on function of Prosl., 375
on starting-note of the Tonos, 39-40,
;

146

on the

six Harmoniai of Plato, 219

(p. 18M.), re starting note invested with
different value or ratio for each mode,

146

1 05,

17-18M.) reveals difference between species and modes, 39-40, 105,

(pp.

146

same sign taken as starting(p. 18M.)

note implies the Harm., 39-40, 105, 146
scheme of Greek Notation ascribed to
Pythagoras by (Mb., 28), 156, 520
(p. 28M.), Spondeiasmos an interval of
3 dieses according to, 205
(Mb., 18) states that the Ho. Dor. species
extends from Mese to Nete Hyperb., 398
the common starting note according to
(Gk.) (see Rud. Schafke), 146, 176
twenty-eight dieses of, 212
Aristophanes on the bumble-bee pipers of
Thebes (Acharnians, I. 866), 62
Aristotle and Plato on Harmonia con'

'

trasted, 171

defines

223

Arabian names of Lute strings and frets, 275

theorists regard Harmoniai as mixed
modes, 271
ARABS adopt ditonal scale, 269
arcadius (2nd c. a.d.),
De Accentibus ,'

ARCHIlochus first introduced accompaniment above the Melos (Plut., q.v.), 352
archytas formula for diatonic in agreement
with Modal P.I.S., 200 Fig. 40, p. 201
of Tarentum, Theorist (and Harmon-

39-40,
rijs

drawing up and letting down the Syrinx

(Plut., non posse suav., 1096a), 62
ANCIENT to Modern Greece, closing of the
Cycle of, 402
anthymus and Timokles, composers of
Troparia, 536
antigenidas (4th c.) heralds new tendency in

mp.

of,

(contd.)

located in interior of Aulos, 99-101

Mese always bears octave relation to, 142
Mese as Arche in the Problems of
Ps-Aristotle, 183 sqq.
Mese as Tjyepuuv and, 182, 184
of Harm, as latent force in Resonator of
Aulos, 99-101
on Aulos with fingerholes closed, 100

Harm,

as exhibited by a number
(laop^Tpiav), 170 sqq.

and equal measure

definition

measure

of

Harm,

(ap. Plut., de

through equal
Mus., C. 23), 48,

171-3
43, Bekker), Harm, results from
equal measure, 171 sqq.
(de audib., 804a), harmonics on reed
(Fr.

mp. of Aulos according to, 48

high pitch produced on Aulos, according
to,

48

in accord with Modal System based on

equal measure, 173
(de audib., 804a) k<h KaTaomcrr) rls ras
ovpiyyas, 64

INDEX
ARISTOTLE (contd.)

on

Dorian

(Pol.,

on

iii,

3,

equal

Plut., de

'

and Phrygian Ilarmoniai

1276B), 180
measure (laop-erplav) (ap.

Mus., C. 23

a, 38),

135

180

Aulos
drawn down, or the Zeuge pinched, 62, 64
Aristotle's two means, arithmetic and Harmonic, 172
Ps-, concerning Magadizing (Probl. xix,
39b), 139

aristoxenian ditonal scale cannot explain

the quanta in 4th and 5th (73-4M.),
180 sq.
aristoxenus alleges that Harmonists are not
agreed on the Tonoi, 192 sq.

Plates 4-8
of his two movements in opposite
directions dvaa-rrdv Karaairdv, 55
for raising pitch used by,
69 sqq.

aulete's playing, erroneous judgement of

Aristoxenus on, 194 sq.

two movements, acoustic

ing,

equal, 1 80-1
consisting

of

all

the quanta un-

unequal quanta

(p.ey49rj), 1 80
(73-74M.) implies a Dorian pentachord
with 4 unequal quanta, 181
(21M.) Karaanav of the syrinx of the
Aulos, 62
on production of high pitch on Aulos, 54
(73-74M.), on the four quanta of the
5th, implies Modality, 180-81
(ap. Plut., C. 16,
and E) on the Mixolydian conjunction with Dorian, 216
polemic No. 5, concerning Notation, by,

193

polemic No. 6

and pipe

scales,

de Mus., C. 278,

two expedients

defines the Spondeiasmos (ap. Plut., de

Mus., C. 3S, p. 1145C.), 205
erroneous judgement of Aulete's play-

4th

(Plut.,

alongside again, 61
playing in archaic style (ap. Plut., de
Mus., C. 38), 207 and Fig. 42
significance of head bent over slanting
Aulos by, 54-5, Plates 4, 5 and 6
of head thrown back and Aulos
raised to horizontal by,
54 sqq.,

(de audib., 804a), the syrinx of the

1 Q4
(73-74M.) sth with

'

p. 1144F.), 181

171 sqq.

on Harm. (Pol., iii, 3, i2y6B),

on the Aulos and its mp., 64
on two tetrachords of Harm., 173

dprlos Kal irepiaaos

ascending and Descending Harmonic Series,

Link between the, 98-9
ao-juara koL rjx ov5 ( see St. Pambo), 536
athenaeus (XIV, 63ie) on the feat of Pronomus, 73
augmented seconds of F.M. defined on C
and G, 372 and Fig. 83
aulete defines position of Spondeiasmos in
the P.I.S., 207 and Fig. 42
draws the Auloi apart and brings them

Bekker, Fr. 43),

on Ethos of Harmoniai quoted (Pol., viii,

4-8), Intro., p. xv sq.
on Ethos of the Harm. (Pol., v (viii),
5,P- 1340,

549
locus classicus of (Aristot., Fr. 43,
Bekker), 171-3 and title-page

apjiovla,

(Fr. 43, ap. Plutarch) laofisrplav quoted,

171 sqq. and title-page

the theory of the Aulos

193

polemic No. 7, on the Aulos against

Harmonists with comments by K. S.,
57 sqq.
polemic No. 10, on Eratocles and the
Species, 196
polemic No. 11 on use of ratios and
v. f.s by Harmonists, 196 sq.
quoted on agencies used in sound production on Aulos (p. 24 M.), 37 sq.
rethe Harmonists' 28 consecutive
dieses, 212-13
reveals use of v.f. by Harmonists
(Polemic 11), 196 sq.
strictures on Aulos (Polemic 7), 194
Twelve Polemics against the Harmonists, 189-90
treatise on Aulos
irepl avXatv rprfaews
(not extant), 60
twenty-eight dieses of the Harmonists,
212
arithmetic and geometric means are incom;

'

patibles, 172

and Harmonic means, 172

progression of Harm., 172

significance of,

54 sq., 62, 72 sq.

auloi and Aulos-scales of paramount importance (Polemic 6), 193
devices
92 sqq.

for

increasing

compass

on,

Harmoniai all played by Pronomus

from same pair of, 72 sqq.
harmonics on pairs of, 67
pair of, bored to give Ho.dorian modal
octave, 68 and Fig. 26
of, in theory and practice, 67 sqq.
of equal length, 64 sqq.
the drone on, 68
Plato on the buzzing, 62 and fn.
Plutarch on the, 61 sq.
Pompeian, described by Howard, A.A.
(q.v.) (phot. Brogi), 75 and Plate No. 12
results of equidistant finger-holes on,
illustrated, 40 and Fig. 22, p. 42
strings differ in their modal reactions

from, 96
twv tacov avXcov Plut. (non posse suaviter,
p. 1096B.), 67
aulos, a fallacy that equidistance produces
equal intervals, 40
Al-Farabi on the, 270, 272 sqq.
dvaaTTav and Karaairav, opposite move-

ments of mp. produce identical

on the, 54
and its mp., Aristotle on, 64
and pipe-scales, Polemic No. 6
toxenus), 193
located

Arche

results

(Aris-

in interior plan of, 99100

as foundation of the order of Harmony,
Polemic No. 7, 58, 194 sq.
as law-giver imposes its scale, 45
as mode-bringer, as a record, and in
relation to acoustics, 36 sq.
as origin of the Harmoniai, 31
as Record, 83

THE GREEK AULOS

ds (contd.)
attitude of Aulete in playing the, illustrated by Vase Paintings, 53 sqq.

B-R. mp. of, 49 sqq.

double movement of tongue

of,

108

the determination of
pitch on the, 113 sq.
influence on pitch of, 51
in the making, 51
result of shortening vibrating tongue
of, Fig. 24, pp. 52 sqq
113
tongue shortened by one-third of, 1 16
bulbs on, a sign of change of Harm., 104
change of Modality with same mp. on
viii for

the, 95 sq.

change of Mode effected on, 69

change to elaborate playing on, Theophrastus on, 65 sq., 114 sq.
claim by Harmonists in Polemic No. 6
re scales of, 193

compression of breath in, the analogue

of Tension on string, 83 sq.
computation of v.f. by Formula from
resonator useless on, 88 sq.
cr-f. in Ancient India, 76
determination of pitch from length in
mp. of, 410
diameter of bore of, = -irAaToy (see
Ptolemy), 130 sqq., 273 and fn.
different regulation of breath-stream
required in playing the, 42 sqq.
D. and B-R. mp. both react as closed
pipes on, 87 sq.
D-R. mp., main features of, 104
D-R mp. of, in the making, 45-8
effect of excess in one I.D. on intonation, 92 sq., 409 sq.
equal intervals not obtainable with equidistant fingerholes on, 40
equidistant fingerholes on, 40 sqq.
explanation of the genesis of Harmoniai
the, 3r sqq.
extension of compass by half-stopping

on

54

of mp., the determinant of Modality

in the, 69 sq.
feat of Midas of Agrigentum on the,
sqq.
79
feat of Pronomus on the, Fig. 27, p. 70
first steps in facture of, 45-8
fi. compared and contrasted with, 289
foundation of Harm, and harmonic
science fixed in the (see Polemic), 58 sq.
fragments from Candia of, see Myres,
J. L., Fig. 29, p. 77
fragments of, found at Meroe by Prof.
extr.

John Garstang, 78
function of bulbs on, 70 sq.
function of A in mp. of the, 85 sq.
function of glottis in playing modal,
42 sqq.

gave birth to Harm., 222

half and quarter covering of fingerholes
on the, 72
Harm, installed on, 220
produced by proportional law on the,
96
Harmonics on, discussed, 45 sqq.
how to judge the modality of the,
103

Fig. 60, p. 286

Implications of the I.D. in fl. and, 409-10

of, 37 sq., 88
incidence of A in mp. of, 85
influence of length on pitch (see Ptol.,
1, 8 and 11, 12), 72, 130, 273 and fn.

importance of mp.

formula

the,

{contd.)

Hypholmion (vioXfilov) on the, 71

Ho. phrygian species suggested by AlFarabi's, 285

sqq.

on

aulos

Loret XXIII, schemes for Lydian and

Mixolydian Harmoniai on, 94-6 and fn.
strange phenomenon observed on, 95
sq. with B-R. mp., tongue shortened
by one-third on, 116
Loret XXVII, performance of, with 7
m.p.s, 121 sq.
Table VI, p. 126, see
also p. 408
;

Macrobius on position of fingerholes on

the,

77

sq.

management of breath on, 43 sq.

method of changing Mode on, Fig.

27,

pp. 69 sq.

Modality embodied in the, 69

mp., Loret's illustration of, misleading,
38 and fn.
stem concealed within the Holmos
71

(oAfios),

Theophrastus on, 65 sqq.

two types

of, 45
92 sq.
drawing up and drawing down
both produce rise in pitch of, 54 sq., 62
essential for determination of pitch
of fundamental, 38, 88
must be included in the length, 45
same for length at all fingerholes, 43

as Dictator in,
'

'

musical and technical

the double, 67 sq.

'

possibilities

of

naming and numbering of m.p.s of, 409

octave relation on
Porphyry's Comm.
on Ptolemy (op. cit., 1, 8), 130
only two mp.s of, have survived, 38
;

or Tibia, A. A. Howard on, 44

part played by compression of breathstream in playing the, 43 sq.
t-nneivziv re Kai aviivai ir$VKe
pitch
1

'

(Aristox, 42M.), 57

pitch of, lacking

mp. cannot be

deter-

mined, 38
determined

not
by formula, 61
plan of Harm, in interior of, 101
Plato on the (Rep., 399C), 72
polemic by Aristoxenus against the,
comments by K.S., 57 sqq.
Polemic on, its significance, 194
Primitive D-R. mp. of, 46 sqq.
without ligature, 38 and fn.
production of high pitch on (see also
Aristotle, Aristoxenus and Plutarch),
55 sq.

proper note of mp. of, 89

proportion the significant
length in, 69

aspect

of

Ptolemy recognizes influence of the A of

the bore (v-XaTos) in the, 130, 133
Ptolemy's reference to B-R. mp. of, 71
puzzling properties of mp. of, 98 sq.
reactions of reed-blown pipes, 82
reed mp.s, performance of, 119
relation to Tonoi of fingerholes on
(Polemic 4), 92 sq.

55.1

Hjlos (contd.)

resonator, determination of pitch byFormula No. i, not practicable on, 87-8

pitch cannot be computed from length
of, 61
scale

by Al-Farabi with Arabian Notaand 59, p. 282

tion of, Figs. 58

Harmonists claim knowledge of

theory of (Polemic 6), 193 sq.
method of production of, known to
Harmonists (Polemic 6), 193 sq.
significance of Aulete's two movements
of mp., avaairav and KaraoTrav, producing

authentus protus, Hucbald accepts Lich.

Hyp. instead of Hyp. Mes. as Tonic of,
378
obtained by cr-f. Ho.lydian fl. (Agricola),
Fig. 49, p. 254
257 sq.
ayres-kidd, Mrs. Elizabeth, measurements
of Java flutes, 225
;

scales,

identical results, 54
significant attitude of Aulete while playing the, 53
sliding bands used on (see Proclus and

Arcadius), 73 sqq.
speaker-hole on the, views of A. A.
Howard and K. S. on, 75 sq.
speaking length in, defined, 38
starting note of modal sequence on

39 sq.
syrinx as speaker-hole on the, suggestion

by A. A. Howard, 75 sq.
B-R. mp.s for regional pitch on,
64 and Fig. 25
the a priori contention and the con-

tests of

clusive facts re, 37

the Arche dominates the inner reactions

of resonator of, 99 sqq.
the closed pipe's fundamental resonance

on

the, 87

the D-R. mp. of the, 89

the making of the, described, 47
of Shakespeare (see
the ' oaten pipe
also Virgil, Virdung, Chaucer, Finland)
'

46 sq.

Theory

'

Se ttjv irepl tovs avXovs

(Aristox., p. 39M.), 57

oi

dempiav
theory- of, the goal of Harmonic according to Harmonists (Polemic 6),i93
the syrinx of the, drawn up or let down,
Plutarch and Aristotle on the, 62
three factors combine in production of
.

pitch on, 42
two types of mp. defined, 45
unique feat of primitive mp. of, 96 sq.
unsuspected co-ordinating factor in,

99 sq.
use of clarinet or oboe mp. on, leads to
modal sequence, 44 fn.

falsification of

used

as criterion

mics, 4,

5, 6),

by Harmonists

(Pole-

192 sq.

each Harm., before Pro(Athenaeus, XIV, 63ie), 73

variable factor in pitch production is
compression of breath, 43 sqq.
with D-R. mp., evidence of origin of
octave harm, on, 48
creates the Harm., 47 sq.
AvXaiv TTo\v(f>a}VLai KaTa.KoXov8rjoas, ( Trji
tu>v), (see Plat., de Mus., W. and R.,
on Lasos), multiplicity of Aulos
293,

notes, 106
hoc ordine
autento qui dem proto
pervidebis (Hucbald, op. cit.,p.i2o), 378
authenticity, re, of Pindar's First Pythian

used

for

nomus

'

'

Ode, 354

authentus denotes disjunct form of Harm.,

532

bacchius and Plutarch on

ratio 11/10, 207

confirms ratio of Eklysis through Notation (Introd., Artis., Mus., p. 11M.), 211
names order in which the species occur
(p.
(p.

12-13M.), 200
11M.) on Eklysis and Ekbole, 209-11
ig) places Ho. dorian Species
Mese through Syn. to Nete

(Mb.,

from

Hyperb., 398
and Pelog scales of, based on
the Harmoniai, 337 sq.
balinese Music, Records of, by Dr. Jaap
Kunst, 334
bantu folk use Harmonics of both open and
closed pipes, 345 sq.
bartok, bela, repudiates duplicated tetrachords in Hung. Mus., 308, 387
Rumanian (Maramures) FT., Dor.
Harm. Ex. from, Fig. 91, p. 388-9.
basic intervals in F.M. defined, Figs. 82-7,
bali, Slendro

P- 373
basic principle embodied in pipes produces
Modality, Pr. VII
of equal measure, implications of, 172-4
basis of F.M., 301
seven scales or systems suggested,
301 sq.
of the Species (dS-ij), 144 sq.
bastard Ho. dorian from Prosl. to Mese,
30, 152 sq.
beating-reed mouthpiece, actual vibration
of tongue observed in the, 110
bearing on pitch of factors of tongue
length and width of the, 50 sq.
behaviour of various specimens of, 119
sqq.
brings about fundamental structural
change in Harm., Fig. 24, p. 52
defined by Ptolemy (Harm., I, 3), 71
double movement of tongue of, 108-10

encourages virtuosity, 114

evidence of use in Pindar's day by professional Auletes of straw (not reed), no
examples of Regional Pitch of, 119 sqq.
implication of shortening tongue of,
Fig. 24, pp. 52 sqq.
narrow tongue of, productive of lew
pitch, 51, 107
No. 5 ', B 11 and R 11 ', performance compared by Formula VIII of,
112 sq.
No. 65, length 130, Tongue -031,
Tongue width $$ mm., played 8 ft. C,
107
of Aulos, making of, described, 49,
106-7
object of long stem of, 49
of reed compared with straw, 115
powerful constituent harmonics of, 106
'

'

'

'

properties of, 49, 51 sqq.

Ptolemy's reference to the

TrXerrovros ', 7 1
tests with,

63-4

(I,

3)

'

'

roC

THE GREEK AULOS

552
BEATING-REED MOUTHPIECE

(contd.)

tongues, regional pitch of, Fig. 25, pp.

64. 113
ushers in Era of elaborate technique, 106
BELLERMANN and Fortlage on Greek Mus.
Notation, Intro., p. xxiii sq.
bellermann, Fried., Die Tonleitern und
Musiknoten der Griechen
Berlin,
1847, 519 and App. 1, passim
interpretation of Greek Notation un'

satisfactory, 353
identical points of pitch, not
represented by identical symbols of

bellermann's

Notation, 527-30
inadequate theory of Greek Notation, 4
facts elicited re, 519
interpretation of Notation challenged by
tests, 527
interpretation
the newer Tonoi sometimes conform, the original seldom,
:

S27-30
Berlin papyrus

'

'

'

'

falsifies acoustic principle, 317

of Hornb., final rejection of theory of, 333
of B-R. mp., 37 sqq.
the, of Panpipes proves the undoing of
the Blasquintenzirkel, 332

blowing

BLOWN-5THS, theory of, based upon faulty

blowing of Panpipes, 332-3
theory of rejected by Dr. M.Bukofzer,
328
boeckh's setting of Pindar's Ode (see Ambros), 358 fn.
Bolivian Panpipe, overblows pure 5ths, 329
bombyxes and sliding bands on Auloi (see
Arcadius), 74

increase of, results in

dynamic

intensity,

43-5
tested on ' Lady Maket pipe, 63-4
regulation of, parallel from organ-pipes,

43
bukofzer, Dr. Manfred, strictures on Hornbostel's Blasquintenzirkel by, 328-9
bukofzer 's, dr. M., debatable method of
blowing panpipes rejected, 328-9
Praezisionsmessungen
valuable article
'

',

c
principle of equal measure, 174
custodian of the Modal System, 174
equal measure by M.D. 28 and 24 in the,

171-2
evidence

of

practical

use

of

Equal

Measure in the, 174-5

ex. of Kata Thesin and Kata Dynamin
in the, 176, 382
ex. of new conj. or plagal scale in the,

534-5

Dorian Plagal from Hypate

Hypaton and Ho. dorian Harm., 176
exhibits modal sequence from Prosl.,
exhibits

176 sqq.
four lines of (Greek), 174
French translation of, 174 and fn.
opening lines of (Gk.), 174, 176
presented in Codex as something new
with a great future, 176
seven salient points of the, 174-6
Text and Translation of
see Ruelle,
C. E., and Stamm, A., 174 and fn.
the Harmonic (Codex ref.), 174
canons of composition, are modal characteristics in the Fragments due to ? 360
causative power of Mese, 182
;

slack, applied by Plato to the

XaAapai
Ionian and Lydian Harmoniai, 136
change in constituent Harmonics and in
Arche implied by shift of mp., 99
of Harm., in Aulos. Loret XXIII
:

scheme

I,

Lydian, 95

in Aulos. Loret

XXIII

scheme

II,

Mixolydian, 95
or of Species results from change in
extr. of mp., 93 sqq.
of Pivot in the Tonos ? can we trace a,
161, sqq.

on the Aulos, bas-relief exhibits, PI. 14

reference by Arcadius to, 74
Brazilian panpipes, Harm, as basis of scale
of, 325
tested and blown by Hornb., Fig. 67,
p. 321
break in Modal Sequence by interpolation,
cause of, 228
breath pressure and compression on Aulos
and organ pipes, 43-4
effect on B-R. mp. alone of increased,
62-3

(see Aristo-

phanes), 62

first

discovered by Dr. W.
Schubart, 1918) (refs.), 364
bharata, evidence on fl. in the
Natyashastra of, 265
bharata's
Natya-shastra
translated by
Joanny Grosset 1897, 265
blaikxey, d. j., on the B-R. mp., 107
blasquintenzirkel, Hornbostel's, 314 sqq.
Cycle of Blown 5ths, Basis of the, 315

bumble-bee pipers of Thebes

Candia museum, drawing of Aulos by Prof.

J. L. Myres, in, 77 and Fig. 29
canon of Florence bears witness to Modal

Scheel's Zts. f. Physik, Berlin,

1936 (Bd. 99, 9 and 10), 328-9

bulbs of Elgin Aulos in Brit. Mus., 96 and fn.
on Aulos, function of, Plates 9 and 13,
pp. 70 sqq.

of Species and of Ethos in Mixolydian

Harm, and Tonos, 162-3
changing the Mode on Aulos, 69 sq.

characteristic intervals of seven Harmoniai, p. 373, Fig. 84

ratio of Dorian Harm, on the Tonic
= 11/10, 198
characteristics of Harmoniai responsible
for Ethos, 34
chaucer,
Pypes of grene corne
(Hous
of Fame, I. 1224), 46, 193 fn.
primitive Auloi (oaten pipes), 46
Chinese formula for octave relation in
cylindrical fl.s in operation, 261-3
versus Inc. All. No. 7, 261-3
chipika singers of Mashonaland, gramophone Records of, 350
X^ipta = Choria equal segments in Canon of
Florence, 174
= segments. (See Canon of Florence),
174 sqq.
christian hymn (3rd c a.d.), Range of
Notes with symbols and ratios of, 365-6
Oxyrhynchus, with four Ho.phrygian
closes, 365-6
noted in Ho. lydian Tonos, Ho.phrygian Mode, 365-6
'

'

INDEX
Chroai are sections of the Modal P.I.S.,
evidence that the,

58

chromatic syntonon, see Syntonic Chr.,

15S-9
CICERO (Tusc. Disp., 1, 18) recognizes the
Harm, from the intervals, 180
clarinet and oboe, mp.s used on modal
Aulos, effect of, 44 fn.
closed pipes, alleged flatness of overtones
from, 318 sqq.
fundamental resonance of, 87
interior or exterior A in ? 331-2
re A influence on pitch in, 331-2
close-packed scales of Harmonists, Polemic
No. 3, by Aristoxenus on, 192
CLOSES, in the
Christian Hymn
(Oxyrhynchus), Four Ho.phrygian, 365-6
see Pindar's Pythian Ode, Mesomedes
Hymns, Delphic Hymns, &c.
common starting note of the seven Harmoniai defined by Aristides Quint.,
'

'

176-7
compass of Auloi and

fl.s

increased

by

half-

and quarter-stopping, 244

compression in breath-stream, part played
by, in Aulos, 42-4
of Breath

variable factor in pitch pro-

duction on Aulos, 43-4

of wind in organ pipes fixed for
pitches,
'

modal

',
Ho.phrygian
conspicuous in the, 381

conjunct Modal or Plagal

of,

all

43-4

conductus

scales,

pivots

examples

534

tetrachords,
(Eucl., Intr.

must be of the same species

Harm., 17M.), ambiguous

statement on, 152-3

contrapuntal facilities offered by system

of the Harm., 542-3
coomaraswamy, Ananda,
Thirty Indian
'

Songs (Novello, 1913), 400-2

correct method of blowing Panpipes, 319320
cross-fingered note lowered a septimal
3rd 7/6 (267 cents), 251
treated as Vent and tested by Formulae
No. 3 and No. 1, 246-52
cross-fingered notes, pitch of, 247-9
cross-fingering as a means of transition into
a different musical system (see Virdung
and Agricola), 252-3 and Fig. 49
as the gnomon between two systems, 252
'

(doigt6-fourchu, Gabelgriff.), 245

in Practice, evidence by Martin Agricola
and Sebastian Virdung on, Figs. 49 and
50, pp. 252-61
on fl., evidence recalled of, 3834
on modal fl., produces a note of the
genesis, 249
theoretical basis of, 246 sqq.

on

'

Sensa

'

fl.,

scheme

of,

250-2

significant factors in, 247 sqq.

tested in practice by Martin Agricola,

256-7

553

ctesibius, reputed inventor of the Hydraulis

or Water Organ by {Athen., 174B),

131-3
curtailed modes, the Tonoi as, Fig. 34, p. 167
custodian of Modal System, 174
cycle of blown fifths, Blasquintenzirkel,
Hornbostel's, 315 sqq.
Eight essential points of Hornbostel's,

3H-I5
Hornbostel's,

363-4

prin-

sqq.

cylindrical closed pipes, inner reactions of,

317-18
X
DAMON of Athens, 190 fn.
daniel, dr. Alfred, on Certain Vocal Traditions in Wales ', 398-9
DELPHIC HYMN NO. I (refs.), 366
noted in Phrygian Tonos, Ho.lydian
Species, 366
pervaded from bar 38 by Dorian atmosphere, 367
scale with symbols and ratios of, 366-7
ten Ho.lydian closes of, 366-7
DELPHIC HYMN NO. 2 (refs.), 368-9
Dorian closes at beginning and end of,
368-70
noted in the Lydian Tonos, and used
in Dorian Mode, 368-70
range of notes with symbols and ratios
of, 368-70
delphic hymns, modality of, 368-70
the two, 366-70
depth of wall of fl., influence of, 229 fn.
descending arithmetic progression implied
by equal measure, 170-2
sequence from Mese to Tonic, Fig. 38,
'

P- 185

determinant eleven alone, can place Mese

on 4th degree of scale, 198
determinants, Modal, 4
of pitch
actual and Eff. L., 224-5
device for increasing compass on Auloi, 94-6
:

SiaipetTac Se els x w P^a K V

aa T0 ' s
SiaoT^fiaar' : Canon of Florence, 173-5
diameter as lengthening factor in the fl., 220
example of effect of, 273
exterior or interior in Panpipes ? 331
in Aulos mp., 85
in Aulos re ttMtos (Ptol., I, 8), 130-1,
272 fn.
in B. and D-R. mp.s stabilizes intonation, 85
in cylindrical fl.s and the octave relation,
.

'

261-2

tested

acoustic

influence of,

on Mond fl., 246 sqq.

transforms Ho.lydian scale into Authentus Protus, 257-8 Fig. 49, p. 254
Virdung's and Agricola's precise evidence on, 253-6
crusius, restoration of Orestes Fragment
(Philol, Hi, p. 183, and liii, p. 148) by,

falsifies

ciple, 316-17
cycle of fifths, ditonal scale from, or Ho.lydian Harm. ? 306
scales derived from, 302 sqq.
cycle of fourths
prototype of Ditonal
Dorian Species, 305
cycles of ascending 4ms and 5ths yield the
ditonal scale, Figs. 63 and 64, pp. 302

in

on

Pitch, 317

recognized by Ptolemy, 272-3

fl.
additional not proportional fac:

272-3
of bore (A)
tor,

a tyrant in the fl., 85

of Fingerhole, pitch lowered by reduction of, 245

significance of, in modal

slight importance in the

fl., 220-1
Aulos of, 85

THE GREEK AULOS

554
DIAMETER

{contd).

dorian Harm,

unjustly blamed for flat overblown 5ths,

315 sqq.
DIAMETER ALLOWANCE IN FLUTE, nine aspects

of

{contd.)

M.D.

tion,

11, as Pentatonic in transi-

305

of M.D. 11 erroneously diagnosed as

Pentatonic, 386
Prayer chant of Jews of Yemen
(Idelsohn) scale and ratios, 389
ref. to several exs. as evidence of
survival, 384 sqq.
Terpander's, or the spondeion, 39
and Fig. 21
the nucleus of the G.C.S. established
on Kithara, 142 and Fig. 30

of, 233-4
diapemptos, Hyperhypate, or Diatona, 206,
212 and fn.
'Sta Tt evapftouTorepov (Ps*Arist., ProbL, XIX
33), 186
diatona = Hyperhypate according to Theo
of Smyrna, 212
Hyperhypate or Diapemptos, 206, 212
diatonic and chromatic scales, alleged
neglect by Harmonists of, (see Polemics
1 and 2), 192
diatonon homalon of ptolemy, formula
of, in agreement with Modal P.I.S.,
202-3
on Lute of Ishaq, 280
= the Phrygian Harm., 203-4
didymus, formulae in agreement with Modal
P.I.S., 201 and Fig. 40
diesis defined by Aristides Quint., 204-5 and
1

Turkish F.T. scale and

389

ratios in the,

Mese on 4th degree of scale, 199

mode, G.C.S. represents the dominance
of the, 166

Pentachord of four unequal quanta implied by Aristoxenus, 180-1

Phrygian and Lydian Auloi before Pronomus {Paus., IX, 12), 73
Plagal from Hypate
of Florence, 176

Fig. 41

Hypaton

Canon

in

different instrument used at first for each

Harm., 144
differentiated unit, e.g. 11/11 applied to
fundamental of Aulos, significance of, 98
dio chrysostom of Prusa (a.d. 40-115) (Or.
68 de Gloria), on Harm., 184
discovery of Arche in interior of Aulos, 99
disjunction differs in Harm, and species, 216
follows Mese in Dorian Harm, only, 216
ditonal scale adopted by Arabs, 270

11/10, fivefold evidence for the,

198 sqq.
species, associated by conjunction with
the Mixolydian, 216
of the P.I.S. Sibelius Theme as example of the, 308 and Fig. 66
dorianised hypolydian closes in First

derived from Timaeus of Plato, 171

from cycle of 5ths or from Ho.lydian

double nomenclature, Kata Thesin and

Kata Dynamin, discussion on, 188
double-reed mouthpiece as custodian of the
purity of the Harm., 106
'D.I.', performance in eight Auloi and
in five Harmoniai of, 129 and Table viii

'

'

Harm., 306
geometrical progression
equal intervals, 172
Al-Farabi
stressed

by

of,

produces

and Al-Kindi of

ratio

Delphic

double modality of an Aulos instanced by

Iamblicus, q.v.,

of Aulos, primitive type of, 47

of untreated, cylindrical wheat or oat
straw, 89

dorian and Phrygian Harmoniai differentiated by Aristotle, 180

atmosphere pervades First Delphic
Hymn from bar 38, 367
closes at beginning and end of second
Delphic Hymn, 369
Harm., genesis and scale of, 23
converted by cr-f. into Authentus
Deuterus (Agricola), 257 and Fig. 50
converted by Virdung into Keyboard

performance compared
xxiii
with that of B-R. mp., 117
primitive mp., has compass of one octave,
harm., 48
octave
plays
48
preserves integrity of modal sequence,

on Loret

Mcse only

Xew

and Ratios of, 395-6

in first Period of modal P.I.S. began
on Hypate Meson, 140
in F.M., 384 sqq.
Hymn to the Sun ',
in F.M. Peru
384"5
v.f.s

'

of,

determined
89-90
92

by the

(v.l.),

significant property of,

ten points in reactions of, 104-5

testimony of the, 105
the three kinds of proper note produced

in the,

ex. from Rumanian F.T. (Bartok) in

the, 388-9
Meckl.
F.T. for Panpipes from

note

vibration length

384

ten ratio characteristic of the,

47'

proper

216
:

of,

92

'

other Folk Songs, 398 fn.

eleven
198

17-18

how

two
meet in Spain, 270
ditonal or Pythagorean scale, Nicomachus
implies two forms of the, 306 and fn.
dodds, Isabel, see Rhosyn yr Haf ', 398-9
use of syst. of Harm, in Hebridean and

disjunction follows

era defined of, 106

to produce the Norm, 89-90
in Aulos creates the Harmoniai, 48
in Modal Aulos, constant pitch

Kufa, 276-7, 285

streams

scale (refs.),

Hymn, 366-8

by the, 90-1
treated and untreated, 47
/draper, charles, on clarinet playing, 11 8-1
drawing of Fragments of Aulos from Candia
Museum by Prof. J. L. Myres, 77 and
Fig. 29
drone on the double Aulos, Fox Strangways
on, 68
ovvajus as M.D., 182-3

'

<f>66yyov (Ps-Eucl.,

19),

182-3

Introd.,

Harm., 18-

1 11

INDEX
DUPLICATED TETRACHORDS in Hung. Mus.,
repudiated by Bartok, 308, 387
duplication of first tetrachord, and its
implications, 307
in octave scale, 270

'Els "HXiov'
'

13
ples from, 299

by W. Thalbitzer and Hjalmar

Thuren, 296, 402 and Fig. 99
each harmonia commences upon Omega in
its Homonym Tonos, 139
each mode has one implicit Key (Tonos),
of,

fn.

Second Meso-

Hymn

Els Movaav '

to the Muse ;
to Mesomedes, 361
Els Nepeoiv '
to Nemesis

ascribed
;

Meso-

Spondeiakos Tropos, 207

decides issue between

Mean and

first

I.D., 101-2
excess in first I.D. causes no distortion
of modal sequence in the, 10 1-2
in Brit. Mus., a bulb of the, 96
plays a Dorian Spondaic modal scale
at mp. extr. 108, 409 sqq.
ellis, A. J., M.A., Brit. Mus., Preface, xiii
ellis, alex. JOHN, protagonist of equal-

53778

from Medieval sources,

54.
origin in 4th development of the P.I.S.,
533-4 and Fig. 104
in the light of the classical Greek Modes,

stepped scales, 310-11

emmeleia, Ptolemy's conception of the, 200
empiricism in Aulos music, Plato on, 1 1
end-correction see All. for A, 222 and fn.
Izv&eKa. Xoyos
the ratio 11 /io on the Tonic
(Arist. Quint., p. 123M.), 198-99
:

53i

Phrygian
532 sqq.

question

of

I.S.,

the prototype of the,

enharmonic
derivation

from

Greek

Modes, Intro., p. xvi

relation to the system of the Harmoniai,
53I.-2
tonic and dominant of, as the Phrygian
Modal Pivots, 375, 380
Mode (see App. II, Eccles. Modes),
fyos

174
aa/iara

K0.1

appovlai

(see St.

vi,

x,

passim
EFFECTIVE SOUND-WAVE LENGTH equals actual
fl. L. + A All. taken twice, 409
from pitch by Formula No. 2, 226

two constituents of

Modal

ttSi;

axqiuiTa.

1817

tou Sta Traawv

the, 221-2
species, 140 fn.

Greek

Notation,

rj on, tfoav at ap^iovtat to 77aAatdv.

(Ps.-Arist., Probl., xix, 44), 183

7rraxopSoi,

EQUAL intervals produced by geometrical

rogression, but not by equal measure,
r/2
sequences

of, a

myth, 310-11

equal measure and the M.D. produce seven

Harmoniai, 173

species of the octave,

aKoXovdlav . .
/cat apfiovlas
(Zonaras), see also Hirmus, 536
.

in

521 sqq.
of Ancients compared
with Aristoxenian, 206-7 and Fig. 42
epigoneios, Harmonist, 190 fn.
epitaph of sicilus, alternative readings,
Ho.phrygian and Phrygian in the, 363
sfcale with symbols and ratios in two
Tonoi and Species in the, 362-3 and

enharmonic pyknon

by a number, implications

Intro., p. xviii
.

Genus

Pambo),

536
EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF SOUND-WAVE, xlix, p. 85
passim
Ch.
Flute Records,

establishes practical relationship between, 375-8

confirmation of origin from Medieval
sources, 540
evidence of Ishaq confirms origin of,
Fig. 105, p. 108
277 fn.
537
from Arabian sources, Fig. 105, pp.

Elpfios

'

198-9
Dorian ratio on Tonic, 198
eleventh string added to Kithara by
Timotheus of Miletus, 143
Scale and ratios given by
ELGIN auloi
Mr. A. H. Smith and by K. S. compared, 76
unique record of, 360, 410 sqq.
elgin aulos (Brit. Mus.) bored to give the

1 6 1-2

Ch.

Sun

each species has an implicit Key in each

Mode .'. seven Keys, 161-2
early elements of Vocal Music, 294-5
early vocal music from instinctive intervals
of speech, 294-5
intervals as separate units derived from
emotional experience in, 294-5
ecclesiastical modes and theory, Hucbald

JjX<*vs,

the

medes No. 3, 362

ekbole, interval of five dieses (references to
Plut., Arist.
Quint, and Bacchius),
209-11
eklysis occurs in the Hypolydian Harm, as
first descending interval, p. 209-1
and ekbole, Bacchius on the, 209-1
and spondeiasmos, identified as of ratio
11/10, Figs. 42 and 43, 207-8
intervals of three dieses of ratio
11/10, 207 sqq.
elements of scale, permanence of primitive,
295
eleven
the only M.D. that could place
Mese on 4th degree, 198-9
eleven/ 10, as first diesis on Tonic confirmed by Aristides Quint, (p. 123M.),

19M), 182-3

To

Hymn

'

east Greenland, Records of Songs, exam-

origin confirmed

'

medes Hymn, 361

of tetrachord on dominant by action of

B-R. tongue, 1 13-14
of tetrachords repudiated by Bela Bartok in Hungarian music, 308, 387
during ingmar, Porph. Comm. in CI. Ptol.,
ref., 71 fn-72, 130 fn.
re Ptol. I, 8, 130-3, 273
dynamic intensity increased by stronger
breath pressure, 42-4
dynamis of Mese as M.D. (see Ps-Eucl.

F.M.

555

Elaaywyq of (Ps.-Euclid, 18 M.,), 182 and

of, 171 sq.

evidence of practical use of, see Canon
of Florence', 174
Harm, results from, Aristotle on,
170 sqq.
'

THE GREEK AULOS

556
EQUAL MEASURE

{contd.)

implications of (in brief), 172-3

implies descending arithmetical progression, 172
in acoustic Theory, 3
or aliquot division responsible for
creation of Harm., 170-1
equal-spacing productive of equal intervals

a fallacy, 233

equal-stepped

A.

scales,

J.

Ellis

the pro-

tagonist of, 310-1

claim examined and disproved, 311
so-called a Myth, 310
equidistant fingerholes cannot possibly
produce even two equal intervals, 223
erroneous implications of, by Hornb.
Curt Sachs and Kornerup, 401
in Javanese and Balinese fl.s, Fig. 72,
337-8
p- 336
invariably imply modality, 407
on Auloi, results of, illustrated, 42-3
and Fig. 22
produce the Harmoniai, 42 and Fig.
22
;

provide definite incontrovertible

200-2 and Fig. 40

rd^ecDs,

Harmony

'

ri}v

tov,

(Polemic

(refs.), 363
evidence from Greenland, 299
of Canon of Florence, 174
of use of Harm, in Ancient Greece, 352-3
of practical use of Equal Measure (see
Canon of Florence '), 174-5
of Vedda Music, 296-8
excess in one I.D. does not distort modal
'

sequence, 97
exterior versus interior measurements of
pan-pipes, 331

extrusion of mouthpiece, a variable factor

in Modality of Aulos, 103
discovery by primitive piper of, 96-7
in Aulos, results of change in, 94
Modal significance of, 48 sqq., 96
the ultimate determinant of Modality in
Aulos, 69
facilities for changing

eratocles, according to Aristoxenus treats

only of the octave, 195 sqq.
Polemic No. 10 by
and the species
Aristoxenus, 195 sqq.
determined the systems mathematically
by recurrence of intervals {Polemic 10,
Aristox.), 195-6
Harmonist, Polemic 10 by Aristoxenus,
195 sqq.
treats of the Octave only {Aristox.,
Polemic No. 8), 195
ERATOSTHENES AND THRASYLLUS used both
forms of the ditonal scale {Nicom., 1,
24), 307-8 and fn.
his formula in agreement with Modal
P.I.S.,

Mese to Nete Hyperb. through Synem.

{Mb., 16), 398 and fn.
Euripides, the Fragment of the Orestes of

facts,

404
era of D-R. mp. defined, 106

qpiiooixdvov

euclid, division of the Monochord, treatise

by (KaTaTOftij kuvovos), Intro., p. xix
(Ps-)
gives Ho. dorian species from

'

7),

the

order of

58, 194

Eskimo music in Greenland ' by Hjalmar

Thuren, Copenhagen, 1914, 299
Eskimo song
R. Stein ap. Thalbitzer,
Ho.lydian Harm., 402, and Fig. 100
rj6iK<xiTa.TaK = the most ethical
Aristotle's
selection of Harmoniai for education,
'

Intro., p. xvi

Mode

logical basis ?i35

86
fingerhoi.es, effect in Modal Aulos of uncovering, 96, 98 sqq.
Macrobius quoted on, comment by
K.S., 77-8 and fn.
of Aulos, Harm, revealed by locus of,
98 sqq.
ratio of intervals between, 93
fipple flute, notched fl., earlier form of, 261
first tetrachord, duplication and implications of, 306-7 and fn.
fivefold evidence for the Dorian ratio
1 1/10, 198 sqq.
flat fifths of Ilornbostel's theory disproved,
318-19 and sqq.
flat fourths on Tonic in F.M., Fig. 85A, p.

374
due to faulty blowflat overblown 5THS
ing of Panpipes, 319 and fn. and sqq.
flat overtones from closed pipes, Hornbostel's claim repudiated re, 31819
flatness of overtones from closed pipes
alleged, 318 sq.
Neumen Studien ', 3
Fleischer, oskar,
vols., Leipz., 1895, 1897, Breitk. and
Hartel
vol. 3, Berlin, Reimer, 1904,
536
Hako song
Fletcher, miss A., Pawnee
(Ho.phryg. Harm.), collected by, 394 and
'

relaxed (fiaAawk) or tense {ovvtovos),

'

of harmoniai, Plato on, Intro., p. xvi,

136
of the Mixolydian Harm, according to
iviii), 5,

p. 1340a, 38),

136
(

'

irpos

rfjv

on

ethos based upon characteristics of Harm.,

34
of Harm., due to essential nature of
Mese, 182
grips through Modal characteristics,
360
had this a physical as well as psycho-

Aristotle {Pol., v.

available

Aulos but not on fl., 224

factors of length and width in tongue of
B-R. mp., bearing on pitch of, 50
faulty methods of blowing Panpipes, 320
feat of Midas, implications of the, 51, 79, sqq.
fktis re Pindar's Ode (see Ambros, p. 543),
358
fifths on Tonic in F.M., 375-6 and Fig.

tos aVL[xevos Se ras [iaAaKa>Tepa)s

{Aristot., Pol. V {viii), 5,
'

Sidvoiav

p. 1340a, 38), p. 136

and tessitura, the affair of Mese, 145

'

Fig. 93, P- 395

Florence, evidence of canon of, Fig. 63,
pp. 174-6
flinders petrie, sir w., discovery of the

Lady Maket pipes by, 107

= Rumanian fipple fl., bored for Dor.
Harm. (Bartok No. 172), 387-8 and

fluer

Fig. 91

INDEX
flute and Panpipe in different categories,
32S-6
and pipe accompany both lute and
voice (Al-Farabi), 275
Antique Peruvian, 328
as origin of major scale in common with
Aulos, 271
Carpathian,' bored for Dor. Harm. (cf.
Rumanian F.T., No, 53C), 387 and fn.
change of Mode not possible on, 224
classification of Modal, 234-5, 456-7
A as lengthening factor in the, 221-2
earliest data on structure and scale by
Virdung and Agricola, 253
factor of length in, 457-8
Formula No. 1, v.f. from length, 225
Formula No. 2, length from v.f., 226
Formula No. 3
to find position of
;

Hole

1,

227

Harm, on

the,

224

Implications of the I.D. in Aulos and,

409-10
importance of A
'

interiectis
aequalibus '
(AlFarabi), 274
influence of A for fixing position of Hole
spatiis

in the, 85

Modal,

Proportional
and Standard
457 and passim
music played by Swazi, using harmonic
overtones on, 346 and Fig. 75
Karanga
All. in,

ombgaie of
of S. Africa, scale
and tune of the, 349-50 and Fig. 77
position of Hole 1, determined by all.

A on

for

the,

221-2

Proportional impulse stimulated by Hollows at fingerholes on inner surface of,

224

sq.

flute-scales approximated to lute scales by

Al-Farabi (D'Erl.,p. 276), 276
flute schemes of Virdung and Agricola,
testimony of, 383-4
sensa A ' has the ideal I.D., 229,
flute
'

235, sqq.
pitch and effective sd.-w.l. length of,
.

229
position of Hole 1 by Formula No. 3
on, 229-30, Ch. x (2)
working out of measurements on,
'

(xiiith c.) recalled, Figs.

51-4, pp. 266,

381 sqq.
three experimental
Sensa ', 235 sqq.,
458 sqq.
types other than transverse of, 264
with equidistant fingerholes, Table of,
in ancient India, 266-7
a musical Babel, 292
folk music
'

augmented seconds in, Fig. 83, p. 372

basic intervals defined in v.f. ratios and
cents, of, Fig. 87, p. 377.
basis of, 292-3
Dorian Harm,

384-9

in,

early stirrings of, 292 sqq.

5ths on Tonic in, Fig. 86, p. 376
in 16th c, brief reference to instruments
in use in, 383-4
in the Ho.dorian Harm., scale and

397-9

ratios of,

Origin of Scales used

in, 85
increment of distance (I.D.) on, 231 sqq.
in dorso foramina septem terebrantur

557

flutes (contd.)
set of 15 modal, described by Sarangdev

229-30 and Ch. x (2)

sensa c demonstration of cr-f on, 250
on the factor of length in the,
'

sidelights

457-8

Pawnee Hako
'

'

in, 293-6
song (Fletcher) in Ho.-

phryg. mode, ex. from, 394-5 and Fig.

93
Phrygian Harm, in, 390-92
raised 4ms on Tonic in, Fig. 85B, p. 374

related to some basic principle, 404

scales forming basis of, 301 sqq.
3rds on Tonic in, Fig. 84, p. 373
folk-songs of Greenland, 299-301
folk tune from Hindostan, scale in Dorian
Harm.of (A.H.F.S., op. cit.,No. 6), 386-7
f or c, which of these was the pivot of the

Tonos

162-3

formant, mp. of Aulos as, 45 sqq.

formative power of Mese as Arche, 218
formula no. 1, useless on Aulos Resonator,
xliii-iv, 88-9
formula no. i (a) for open pipes, xliii and
liv, 86-7
formulae nos. i and 3 used for testing
cross-fingered note, xliii-iv, 245 sqq.
2, to find effective sd-w.l.
from v.f. by, xliii-iv, 226
3, to find position of Hole 1,

formula no.

formula no.

225
used in pitch determination of crossfingered notes, xliii-iv, 247 sqq.

xliii-iv,

formula vi for computing proper note of

D-R. mp., xliii-iv, 91 (see Errata)
formula vii for pulse length of B-R. mp.,
xliv,

90-1

formula no.

Aulos B-R. mp.,

8 for

xlix,

108-9

survival of Harm, ensured by durable

structure of, 289
the making and testing of a Modal,
228 sqq.

formula

unlike Aulos, cannot transpose tonality,

Greek Notation unsatisfactory, 353

four members of Aristotle's Harm., 172
four periods in development of Greek

56
flutes from Java and Bali embody the Harmoniai, 342 and Ch. x, Fl.s Nos. 5, 6,
20
with equidistant fingerholes described
by Al-Farabi, 274
of Ancient India, Tables of Sarangdev's
scheme of 15, Figs. 51-54, pp. 265 sqq.
Phrygian and Dorian, modern Greek
from Olympia and Nauplia, 402-3, 5095ii

of

viii, for working out performance

B-R. mp.s
B 11 and R 11 ',

108-9,
dr. c.

xliii-iv,

fortlage,

'

'

1
:

'

13-16
his

interpretation

of

Musical System, 140

four stages in development of

P.I.S. re-

capitulated, 531-2

fourth period, the conj. tetrach. (Hypaton)

now based on Prosl. in the, 140
fourths and fifths
perfect sharp and
:

found in records of Hornbostel's

blowing, 319
versus octave as scale unit, 270

flat,

fourth

THE GREEK AULOS

558
FOX STRANGWAYS,

A. H.
F.T. (op. Clt.) No.
Dor. Harm, collected by,

6, p. 21, in

GREATER COMPLETE SYSTEM, I39

evolution ~\>f, from the species of the

386^7

on the drone for double Aulos, 68

The Music of Hindostan (Oxf.
'

'

seven Harmoniai, 138, Fig. 30, p. 142

represents period of the dominance of
the Dorian Mode, 166
greek alphabet unrolls through the Chrom.
Syn. Pyknon in the seven ancient Tonoi,
524-5 and Fig. 102
greek modes, St. Ambrose adopted four

Clar.

Press, 1914), 386 fn.

fragment of Pindar's

1st Pyth. Ode in Ho.phryg. Harm., 355 sqq.

of the Orestes of Euripides in Ho.phryg. Species, 363-4

Intro., p. xvi

fragments of greek music dependent upon

the interpretation of Greek Notation,
Intro., p. xxiv
may in some cases

be read in more than

one mode, 355

frere, dr. w. H., on Key-relationships

(refs.),

greek music, Anecdotes by Plutarch and

Athenaeus on, Intro., p. xix
brief survey of Modern Sources of,
Intro., p. xxiv
changes in nomenclature,
1817 o-uoTij/xciTa,

e.g. apjioviai,
T0V01 in scales of, Intro.,

xx

380
friedlander, paul, defender of authenticity
of Pindar's Ode (ref.), 355 and fn.
function of A in the mp.s of the Aulos, 85

p.

fundamental

for Ideal State (Plato, Rep., 398c

5th by shortening

raised to

tongue of B-R. by

J,

Fig. 24, p. 52

Intro., p.

'

(ref),

yap

sq.),

xv
to,

Intro.,

xvii

reactions to, Intro., p. xvi

modern

404 sqq.
ra

8val rerpaxophois pvdfil^erai

(Arist., Fr. 43, Bekker), 171,

pUXr]'

172-3
garstang's, prof, john, finds of Auloi at

Meroe, Pr. xii, p. 78.

gaudentius
(Mb., p. 14) records division
:

by 12 of monochord of Pythagoras,

writers on, Westphal, Gevaert,

summed up by Winnington&c.
Ingram, Intro., pp. xxvi and sq.
necessary to learn new. musical language
in order to understand, Intro., p. xviii
;

octave species

of, Intro., p. xxii

172,

no agreement reached during three centuries on mysteries of, Preface, p. vii

genesis of Harm, on the Aulos, explanation

Prototypes of, all exhibit the characteristics of the Harm., 374

Pythagorean and Aristoxinian schools of,

382
31 sqq.
of the Harm, not recorded by Ptolemy,

of,

269 fn.
of the
yivrj

Intro., p.

Modal Material of the Mixolydian Harmonia, 8

the Genera of Greek musical system,

Intro., xxii sq.

geometric and arithmetic means are incompatibles in genesis, 172

GEOMETRICAL

progression produces equal

intervals, 172
gerbert, martin, Script. Eccles. De Mus.
Sacra (San-Blasius, 1784), 375 fn.
GEVAERT, F. A., AND J. C. VOLLGRAFF, Les
Problemes musicaux d'Aristote ', Gand,
;

1903, 183 fn.

GEVAERT,

de la Theorie de la
I'Antiquite, 1875, Intro., p. xxvi

F. A., Histoire

Mus. de

re Pindar's

Ode La

mel. Ant.,

Gand,

FN. 4 and pp. 48-9,

1895, pp. 32-33
358-9 and Fig. 79
du Chant Liturgique,
Les Origines
;

Gand, 1890,

fn.

535
gevaert's conception of tuning from Mese,
184
(GLOSSA) ovp.fivet,v Se to arofia twv yXcorrajv. .'
reference to the operation of D-R. mp.,
66
yXwamSiov = little tongue (Porphyry Comm.,
During, p. Jig, I. 14 sqq.), 130-1
GLOTTIS, function of, proportionally regulated in playing modal Aulos, 90
note of Aulos mp. not subject to computation by length, 92
of D. and B-R. mp., 90
gopi's complaint ', 'The, in the Mixolydian Harm., Fig. 98, pp. 400-1
'

'

of, Intro., p. xvii

Medieval Music indebted

galpin, canon f. w.,

The Music of the
Sumerians, Babylonians and Assyrians
'

concerning nature of, Intro., p. xv

definite information requisite re scales

xx

sq.

sources of material evidence discussed

xix sq.
System of Notation of, Intro., p. xxiii
Testimony of wind instruments. (See
Theophrastus, Pliny the Elder, A. A.
Howard), Intro., p. xxiv
the Genera
yevrj, Intro., pp. xxii-xxiii
the avarrj^a reXecov afisrd^oXov
the

re, Intro., p.

'

P.I.S., Intro., p.

xvii

What

the Greeks have told about,

Intro., p. xix
What did it sound like ? Intro., p. xvii
greek musical system, four stages in development of the, 139

greek notation (see Bellermann, Fortlage,

Riemann, Gevaert, Westphal, Greif,
Torr), Intro., pp. xxv sqq.
based upon modal ratios of Harm., 519
sqq.

breaches in regularity of original scheme

Fig. 102, p. 524
of, 523-5
;

correlation exists between modal ratios

and the allocation of symbols in, 521-5 ;
Fig. 101, p. 524
correspondence in each Tonos between
_

symbol and ratio number in,

521-2
Dorian Tonos displaced in Greek Notation of Alypius, 522 and Fig. 102
each symbol involves a ratio dependent
on the Tonos, 521-2
Five tests disproving Bellermann 's
interpretation of, 527 sqq.
full range Q to f allotted to Dorian
letter

INDEX
GREEK NOTATION (cOlltd.)
Tonos from Hyp. Mes.

559
r. and m., La Mus. des Incas,
give no pitch values in collection of
tunes, p. 327

d'harcourt,
in, p.

520 and

Fig. 101

genus determinable by Lichanos and

Paranete in, 522
implies an octave unit for the P.I.S.,
519 sqq. passim
lack of support for tetrachords identical
in structure in, 522
mixed pykna (Enh. and Chr.) in same
octave of the Tonoi in, 523
of Lydian Tonos used by Hucbald, 375
and Fig. 88
operation of scheme through Katapyknotic Apparatus in, 521 and Fig. 101

refs., 327 and fn., 384-5

harmonia, according to Aristotle (F. 43,
Bekker) results from Number and Equal
Measure, 170-1
alternative use of ratios 15 and 14 in

the, 152
and species, disjunction differs in, 216
and Fig. 46
Aristotle's definition of, through equal

measure, 49, 170 sqq.

Arithmetic progression

mental, 519
the Arche-Mese symbol found on correct degree in each species in, 520
the formula of Archytas and its significance in, 202
the same functional notes should not
bear the same symbols in two successive
Tonoi in, do they ? 529
the symbols of the P.I.S. conflict with
Bellermann's interpretation of, 527
Greenland, evidence from, 299
Folk songs of, 299
Greenland, east, Recitative song in the Ho.lydian Harm, from, 402 and Fig. 99
Gregory, pope, added four Modes to the

Ambrosian, Intro., p. xvi

greif, a.'s, Interpretation of Gk. Notation
in Rev. d. Etudes Grecques, 1909, Intro.,
p. xxvi
grenfell, Bernard, and Arthur Hunt
Oxyrhynchus Papyri (refs.), 365, fn.
GROUND-PLAN IN INTERIOR OF AULOS, Arche
located in, 101 and Fig., p. 99

JHC

half sound-wave length equals

+ A All. taken once, 87

(onde simple s.v.f.), 86 and
relation of actual length

length

fl.

All. to,

457-8
half-stopping fingerholes
device for extending compass of Aulos, 54
results on the Modal fi. of, 244-5
half-wave length and v.f. are reciprocals,
86-7, 251-2
has unalterable v.f. value, 252
Hamilton, elsie
only modern composer
in the Harm., 542
performances of compositions in the
Species of the Harm, by, 542 fn.
:

practical possibilities of eleven notes of

Dorian Harm, exploited by, 542

new language of Music
based on Harm., 542
pupil of Andr6 G^dalge, born Adelaide,
S. Australia, 541
protagonist of

172

325-6
as origin of the

Music of Java and

Bali,

Fig. 72, PP 334. 336-7

based upon proportional law on Aulos,
96
born on Aulos, claim by Harmonists
(Polemic 7), 194
Cicero on the, 180
created by Aulos with D-R. mp., 48
descending sequence from Mese in,
184 and Fig. 38
Dio Chrysostom on, 184
Dorian, or Pentatonic in transition, 305
Terpander's or Spondeion, 39 and
Fig. 21

D-R. mp.

preserves the purity of the,

106

embodied in fl.s of Java and Bali, Figs.

73 and 74, pp. 337-43
embodied in the Kena of the Incas, 385
Ethos influenced by physical features in

!the, 135-7
3thos of the, 135-7
evidence of origin on Aulos of, 48
evidence of practical use in Ancient
Greece of the, 352
foundation of, fixed in Modal Aulos
(see Polemic 7), 57-60
fundamental structural change in, 52
Harmonists investigate (Aristoxenus),

190-91
Ho.dorian, Figs. 18 and 19, pp. 28-9
Ho. lydian, or Ditonal scale ? 306-7
Ho.phrygian, 27-8 and Figs. 16 and 17
in F.M., indications of survival and
rebirth of, 351-2 sqq.
installed
intervals

fn.

and A

of,

as origin of scales of Brazilian Panpipes,

outline of Modal Basis of scheme of,

Figs. 101-2-3, PP- 5 I 9~3
principle on which allocation of letters
to Tonoi is based, 523
priority of Vocal Notation, 520
proves that the P.I.S. did not contain 5
tetrachords identical in structure, 529
refs. to authorities on, 519 fn.
significance of progression of Synem.
Pykna in, 525 and Fig. 102
symbols used for vocal and instru-

on Aulos and
of,

Plato

fl.,

on

220-21

(Philebus,

17),

177-80
Lydian, 17-18 and Figs. 5 and 6
manifest on Aulos, 99-102
Melopoiia of the, unknown in Kircher's
day, 370
modal distinctions or values of the
starting-note (Arist. Quint., M., p. 18),
39-40 and fn., 105, 146, 177, 218
no change of, allowed in the Nomos
(see Plutarch), 56
of Aristotle depends upon the arithmetic progression, 172
of the Ancients, Mese in relation to the,
(Ps- Arist., Probl. xix, 44), 183-8
on Aulos, change of, indicated by use
of bulbs, 104
on the fl., 224
origin on the Aulos, 222-3

THE GREEK AULOS

560
HARMONIA

HARMONIAI

{contd).

or species, changed by extr. of mp., 94-5

outline of the theory of the, 2 sqq.
plan of, in interior of Aulos, 98-101
Plato and Aristotle, contrasted re, 171
quoted by Plutarch on, 171
Polemics by Aristoxenus concerning the,
190 sqq.
Polyphonic Music heralds wane of,
38o-x
power of changing, 96
practice of, by musicians implied by
Plutarch, 181-2
presented at seven points of pitch by
the Tonos, 142 and Fig. 30
146 sq.
principle of equal measure confirmed by
Aristotle, 170
Pythagoras persuades piper to change,
from the Phrygian to the Dorian Spondaic, 1 1 7-1
revealed by ratio of Mese to Tonic in
any Fragment, 355
second step in the Heptatonic scale of
the, 371 and Fig. 82
survival in Hindostan, Hungary and
Rumania of the, 386 sqq.
the fl.'s evidence of the survival of the,
;

385-6
the two tetrachords of the, implied by
Aristotle, 172-3
traced in Roman Liturgy by Hucbald,
37S sqq.
Tropos, Tonos, species are in essence
Modes differentiated as to function,
188 sq.
Tropos, Tonos, species express phases
of Modality (see also Plut., De. E.
Apud Delphos, C. 10, p. 475), 188-9
Was its Ethos based upon physical as
well as psychological experience ? 135-7
harmonia's Arche as latent force in Aulos.
100 sqq.
characteristics exhibited by prototypes
of Greek Music, 370 sqq.
harmoniai, all seven embodied on Xylo-

phones from Burma, 327

and Tonoi, order of, the reverse of that
of Species, Fig. 31, pp. 147-8
defined by Aristides Quint, 176-7
detected in the scales of Panpipes, 325-7
and Fig. 69
develop into new conj. modes (rara
531 sqq. and Fig. 104
differentiated by Ratio of Tonic (Arist.
Quint., 18M.), 39-40
identified in Dr. Kunst's records from
Java and Bali, Figs. 73 and 74, pp. 337
owa.<j>T)v),

sqq.
intervals

of,

used

by Ancients

Aristides Quint.), 177

new language of Music based

upon

(see
the,

543
Origin of, on Aulos, 31 and Fig. 20
result from equidistant fingerholes, 42
and Fig. 22
seven octave scales called by the Har-

monists (Polemic 9), 195

Slndro and P61og scales of Java and
Bali based on the, 334 and Figs. 72-4
so-called by the Harmonists (Polemic 9),
195

{contd.)
their kinship with the Octoechos of the

Gk. Church, 531 sqq.

Tropes, Hirmoi and Troparia in St.
Mark's, Alex., 4th C, based upon the,
536
HARMONIC CANON OF FLORENCE ', 13th C,

Gk. MS. (Bibl. Laurent., Plut. LVI),

174-5 and Fig. 36 382, 534
;

harmonic compass with B-R. mp. without

speaker-hole, 53-4
mean in Harm., Aristotle on, 172
overtone induced at any of equal segments on Aulos, implications of, 98-101
series as origin of Musical Systems of
S. African tribes, 345 sqq.
connecting link between two aspects
of,

98-9

proceeds through principle of equal

measure, 17 1-3

harmonics, ex. from fl. played both open

and closed of, 345-7
obtainable with B-R. mp. T 3' without
'

speaker-hole
Pipes), 120

(see

also

Lady

Maket

on D. and B-R. mp.s (see Aristotle), 48

on pairs of Auloi, 67
HARMONISTS accused by Aristoxenus of
neglecting Diatonic and Chromatic (see
Polemic 1 and 2), 191
and interrelationship of the Tonoi
(Polemic 3), 193
as custodians of the Modal System of
the Harm., 190
attach great importance to study of
notation (Polemic No. 5), 193-4
claim in respect of notation (Polemic 5),
193
claim knowledge of theory of Aulosscales (Polemic 6), 193-4
close-packed scales of the,

(Polemic

No.

3 by Aristoxenus), 192
exhibit twenty-eight dieses

in

their

diagrams, 197-8
investigated the Harm. (Aristoxenus),
1 90-1
list of eleven of the principal known,
1 90-1 and fn.
modal system of the Harm., 189-91
order of the tonoi according to the, 193
pitch determined by ratios and rates of
vibration by, 196-7
Polemic on Aulos by Aristoxenus against
the (with comments by K.S.), 57 sqq.
polemics by Aristoxenus against the,
190 sqq.
possessed knowledge of theory of the
Auloi (Polemic 6), 193-4
production of Aulos-scales known to,
(Polemic 6), 193-4
scales exhibited complete system of
musical intervals, says Aristoxenus, 191
which they call
seven octave scales
Harmoniai ', 195
stress study of Notation and Aulosscales (Polemic 6), 193
taught mysteries of the Modal System,
'

90-

twelve

polemics

from

Aristoxenus

against the, 190 sqq.

28 dieses, 28 notes of the P.I.S. no

INDEX
HARMONISTS

(contd.)

HORNBOSTEL'S
cycle of

used ratios and rates of vibration to

determine pitch (Polemic 11), 196-7

pipes,

313-H

of, according to
Aristoxenus (tov rjpfMooi^dvov reikis), 6
simultaneous, implied by Porphyry, 131

erroneous theories on pipes, 41 and fn.

erroneous theory the result of faulty
blowing of Panpipes, 318-21
4ths which should all be sharp, but are

sqq.

not,

harmony, natural laws

hegemon, Mese

as Arche and, 184

HENEBRY, Richard, A Handbook of Irish
Music, Cork Univ. Pr. and Longmans,
Green & Co. Ltd., 1928, 390 and fn.
song No. 94 based on Ho.dorian Harm.
collected by, 398
henebry's Ring Promontory,' Nos. 95 and
99 Lydian Mod. Chars.) scale and
ratios of, 390 and 398
heptatonic Harm., second step in, 371-2
and Figs. 82 and 83
scale not derived from Pentatonic, 308-9
hermit of nitria sang the Troparia to
Paul of Cappadocia, 536
hermosmenon, Ptolemy's conception of the,
200
hindostan
F.T. in Dor. Harm., scale of,
386-7
survival of Harm, in, 386-7
hipkins, Alfred james, acknowledgement of
indebtedness to, 310
collaborated with A. J. Ellis on Nonharmonic scales, 310
hippasus of Metapontum, 190 and fn.
hirmus, the, gives sequence and order of
melos and Harm, to the Troparia
(Zonaras), 536
Greek definition of, 536
histaeus of colophon adds 10th string to
'

Kithara, 143

hole

(vent), significance of position in

Aulos and

of,

fl.

86

hollows on inner

surface of fi. stimulate

proportional impulse, 224
holmos (oA/xo;), cup-shaped device for concealing stem of mp. of Aulos, 71
homalon diatonic, formula of, that of
Authentus Protus of early Greek
Church, 158 and Fig. 33
of Ptolemy
Phrygian Harm., 1 58 and

Fig. 33

homonym
'

(contd).

Blown 5ths, basis of, 314 sqq.

falsifies an acoustic principle, 317
erroneous estimate of Loret's Egyptian

connection with, 212 sqq.

use of Katapyknosis in scales (Polemic
3), 192

tonos, each Harm, commences

upon Omega in its, 139
hora lunga
Rumanian F.M. based
upon the Ho.phrygian Harm., 394
'

hornbostel, dr. erich M. von, an appreciation of, 313-iS

blames A for his flat overblown 5ths,
3I5-I7
erroneous implications of equidistance

on pipes

by, 41 fn.
his cycle of Blown 5ths (refs. to works),

313
on Music of the Kubus of Sumatra,
396 and fn. and Fig. 95
HORNBOSTEL's 'Blasquintenzirkel,' basis in
his own words of, 315-16 and fn.

(German)
final rejection
'

Blown

sths

of theory

of,

of theory of by K. S., 333

statement and analysis
315 sqq.

'

324
Records of Brazilian Panpipes exhibit
pure, flat and sharp overtones, 319
results (Tab. 1), analysed, 322 and 323
and Figs. 67 and 68
sharp 4th, 319
theory
cylindrical pipes overblow flat
5ths disproved by himself, 316 sqq.
how harmonia of Aulos is manifested, 101
:

sqq.

HOW

mese and tonic of a species stand in

the Tonos, 150

Howard,

on Aulos or Tibia,' examina44 and fn., 75-6

A. a.,

tion of,

'

re ' Syrinx ' reference to harmonic

register by, 98 fn.
hucbald establishes practical relationship

between theory and Eccles. Modes, 375

sqq.
gives

Mode, Tropos and Tonos

synonyms (ref. and Quatuor ') 378

as

'

illustrates alternative

perfect 4th (op.

cit.,

use of Tritone and

113-14), 375 sqq.,

378
Lich. Hyp. instead of Hyp. Mes. as
Tonic of Auth. Protus accepted by, 378
Lichanos Hypaton scilicet Autentum
'

protum, et plagium, id est primum et

secundum,' 540
recognizes Tritone and perfect 4th as
alternatives
through
Synem.
and
Diezeug, 378
(op. cit.

from

ng)

'

the newer syst. orientated

Prosl.,' 54.

quatuor modis vel Tropis quos

dicunt,' 540
hucbald's evidence in De Harm. Institutione
(refs.), 37s and fn.
use of Greek Notation in Antiphons of
Roman Liturgy, 378-9 and Fig. 88
Hungarian folk music (bartok), examples
of Ho.phrygian tunes found in, 394
HUNGARY, survival of Harm, in, 387-8
hunt, Arthur, and Bernard Grenfell,
Oxyrhynchus Papyri (refs.), 365 fn.
hydra = Hydraulis or Water Organ (Porph.
Comm. on Ptol.), 131-3
hymn to the muse (Mesomedes), Five
Ho.phrygian closes in the, 360-1 and
Fig. 80
noted in Ho.lydian Tonos, in Ho.phrygian species, 3601
scale with symbols and ratios of the, 360
hymn to nemesis, scale, symbols and ratios
of the, 362
hymn to the sun (Mesomedes) noted in
Ho.lydian Tonos and Ho.phrygian
Species, 361-2
of the Incas in the Dorian Harm., 385
and Fig. 89
Peru, scale of notes with ratios of the,
385
(ixx c.)

'

nunc Tonos

THE GREEK AULOS

562
HYPATE

hypaton

end

lowest or

186-7
:

as

number

ratio

and

highest

as

(reXevrq),

hypolydian

becomes modal pivot

Tonic

of

in Stage

of

ii

Tonos, 162
in Second Period system began on,
with Mese on 7th degree, 140
starting note of Mixolydian Species
with ratio 28 in Modal P.I.S., 213
Meson as starting note and modal pivot,
162
in 1st period the Dorian Harm, begins
on, 140
position on Kithara and Aulos of, (Plut.,
Plat., Quaest. ix, 2, p. 1234), 188 and fn.
topmost on lyre, lowest on Auloi (Plut.,
Plat., Quaest. ix, 2), 188 and fn.
HYPATON as highest and first (Plut.), 188
'

(Bastard) Closes in Processional Trope

(Vich, Cod. xxxi), 378-80
Closes : five on the Tonic in Pindar's
Ode (with ratios by K.S.), 357
Harm., 27-8 and Figs. 16 and 17

converted

Secundus

Ptol,

I, 3), 71
first step a semitone: Mese to Tr. Synem., 397, 532
genesis and modal scale of the, 28-30,
and Figs. 18 and 19
Henebry's No. 94 based on, 398
Hungarian Song, Bartok No. 271 in

397

Synagogue Songs
24 in the, 397
thrust through

Fig. 36

Singer Nos. 9 and

disj.

octave at

'

Rhosyn yr Haf

'

in

398-9 and Fig. 96

hypodorian species, from Mese through
Synemmenon to Nete Hyperb., 152-3
importance of, in scheme of Notation,
the,

153

Mese

to Nete Hyperb. (see Arist.

Quint., Ps-Eucl., and Bacchius), 398
birth of our major scale
on, illustrated, Fig. 24, p. 52
closes in XI th C. Paschal Trope (Vich

hypo lyd ian Aulos,

cxi),

378

cross-fingered give Authentus Protus

(Agricola), 257 and Fig. 49
Harm., 25-6 and Figs. 14 and 15
as origin of the major scale, 270
converted by Agricola into Authentus
fl.s

Protus

(refs.),

384

Eklysis and Ekbole both occur in the,

(Plut., C. 29), 209-11
in

characteristics in Pindar's Ode

strongly emphasized, 356
modal pivots abound in 13th C. Conductus, 381
Species, Epitaph to Sicilus, noted in
the, 362-3 and Fig. 81
the three Hymns of Mesomedes noted

F.M., 401-2

on Ishaq's lute displays

Modal Species, 278 and

tonics of the

Fig. 55
or ditonal scale, 306-7
original scale in East Greenland with
ratios, 401 and Fig. 99

scheme of, in MS. Monachus Cod.,

gr. 104, fol. 289, 209-10 and fn.
No. 1,
Ten Closes in Delphic

Hymn

367
with Tritone,
306-7

in

ratios

and

cents,

360-2 and Fig. 80

used in Fragment of the Orestes of

Euripides, 363-4
tetrachord obtained on Pedi transverse
fl., 347-9 and Fig. 76
hypothetical episode at Pythian Games, 147

Mese,

525

Welsh Folk Song

Tonus

modal

in the,
of,

into

'

397

in F.M., scale and ratios

on Canon of Florence, 175-6 and

one Modal Pivot only in, 397

by Agricola
384

(refs.),

favoured by
Kitharoedes (refs.),
357 fain F.M., 392 sqq.
on fl. Sensa C,' 238-9
Panpipes from Peru, tuned to the,
395 and Fig. 94
Singer's Synagogue Songs Nos. 7, 12,
in the, 392
14, 23

'

HYPODORIAN HARMONIA.,

MS.

lute, Fig. 55, p. 278

Modes as species of
Phrygian Harm, in the, 532-3 and
Fig. 104
with Tritone resembles Ditonal tetrachord from Cycle of 5ths, 307
hypophrygian and Mixolydian, confusion
avoidable between, 401

tonos, the Eccles.

and fn.
hyperhypate = Diatona according to Theo
of Smyrna, 206 and fn., 211
or Lichanos Hypaton, 144
hypholmion on the Aulos (== Bulb ?) (see

the,

(contd.)

sequence on Ishaq's

Mixolydian
212-19

28,

iamblicus, instance of double modality of

Aulos given by (Vita Pythag., cap 25),

17-18
ictus note of D- and B-R. mp., 90
idelsohn, a. z., Phonogr. Records of Music
of Jews of the Yemen (refs.), 389 and
fn. 2
identical features of teaching of Harmonists and of Modal System of Harm.,
189
'imad of Arabian Lute = Greek Arche, 277
Fig. 61, p. 287
implications of Aristoxenian quanta in 4th
and 5th, 180
of basic principle of Equal Measure,
172-3
inca fl., Kena, 327
INCREMENTAL ALLOWANCE NO. 7, cumulative
powerful effect in operation of, 243-4
example of its operation, 244
increased pressure of breath, effect on
pitch and Harmonics of, 63-4
INCREMENT OF DISTANCE and members oi
reversed Harmonic Series, mutual relationship of, 99-102
1

effect of excess negative or positive in

one, 232
examples of significance in various fl.s
of the, 231-3
importance in plotting fingerholes in fl.
of the, 23
on fl., four aspects of, 231-3
in Aulos and fl., implications of, 409-10

INDEX
INCREMENT OF DISTANCE

(contd.)

in Aulos,unsuspected co-ordination of, 99

in Modal fi. responsible for an unin-

563

ishaq-al-mausili {contd.)
Majari ' probable

monks

Christian

(8th cent.),

229

new

in Modal fl.s introduces an element of

subtlety, 243

5th, 4th of, 276

treatise on trie

No.

lute,

from

wave-length operative in every fl., 232-3

important function in the fl. of, 232
No. 4 the ideal inct. for production of
Modal Sequence, 233
effective

Notes on, Introd., p. x

on Aulos, puzzling properties

from

Majra through Wosta indicates Phrygian

modal species, 537-40 and Fig. 105

terrupted modal sequence, 243-4

total length of Aulos a multiple of the,

derivation
of Syria, 537-40

'

277 and

lute accordance in 4th,

and fn. and sqq.

Majari or courses on

fn.

and 2

equal in bore, 131

equal measure, Aristotle (Fr.
43, Bekker), the basic principle of
Modal System, 171-3

iooKoiXiovs naAa.ij.ovs
laoiierpiav

Reinach substitutes yeofierptav for

(Aristotle, Fr. 43, Bekker), 171 and fn. 2

looiitTpiav,

of,

98-9
98

total length of Aulos a multiple of the,

variation in

number

of,

implies change

and Pelog scales of, based on

the Harmoniai, 337
and Bali, Dr. Jaap Kunst on the Music
of, 334 sqq. and Figs. 72-4
Harm, as origin of Music of, 334 sqq.,

Java, Slndro

of M.D. and Harm., 96

when incommensurable with total length
of

243
influence of Fingerholes on inner reactions
of Aulos resumed, 100-1
in natale domini ', Vich, Cod. xxxi, exfl.,

'

Phrygian modal characteristisc,

378
inner reactions of cylindrical closed pipes,
317-18
instrumental greek notation, deliberate
archaism accounts for symbols of, 520
order of symbols not based upon any
discovered principle, 520-1
Pykna triplets suggested by Aulos
fingering, 522-3
instruments in use in F.M. in 16th century,
383-4
mostly amenable to modal intonation
hibits

by

slight manipulation, 545

of orchestra and sys. of the Harm., 545

value as Records, 271
interior versus exterior measurements of
Panpipes, 331

intervals used in Vedda music, 293-8

intonation of aulos
Adjustment required
obscure statement by Ptolemy,
i 8, 130-34
INT0NATIONAL language as origin of song,
293 and fn-296
IN what sense was Mese a beginning (apxrj)

and Figs. 72-4

Javanese music, Harmoniai identified in,
pp. 337 sqq., Figs. 73 and 74, p. 344
Records by Dr. Jaap Kunst of, 334

KaXdiios vyT)?,

Fig. 105

Innovations introduced by, 276-8 and

fn. 1 and 2 ; Fig. 55
insists on value of octave unit and
classification by Majari, or species,

276-8 and Fig. 55

lute accommodates Phrygian Species,
(duplicated tetrachord), 279-80
lute accordance described by Al-Farabi,
Al-Kindi and Yahia (refs.), 275-6
lute displays the Ho.lydian Harm, and
the species, 284 and Fig. 59
Majari Nos. 4-7 correspond with the
four Authentic and four Plagals, 537-9

and Fig. 105

(Canon of

Florence), 174

Canon

Avvap.iv in

KaraTTVKvtaais= genesis of
by K.S.), 140 fn. 2

Harm,

of

(suggestion

katapyknotic apparatus applied to Gk.

Notation, 521 and Fig. 101
= correlation of Greek Alphabet and
Modal Ratios, 521 and Fig. 101
in operation described, 521 and Fig. 101
katapyknotic diagrams, implied in Polemic 2, example of, 192 (see also Fig.
101, p. 521)
of the Harmonists (Aristox., p.
Macron, see Polemic 3), 192

Majari (species), 277, 537

(Mosul, a.d. 767-850), important evidence on Modal Species, 537 sqq. and

toCvvv 6 Kavaiv

Kara 9emv and rara

Florence, 176

and the Hypate an end (TeAeurij) ? (see

Monro), 186-7
ion of chios used a ten-stringed Kithara to
play in three Harmoniai, 143-4
ishaq-al-mausili, classification of songs by

powerful reed mp. of Aulos,

65-6, 80-1
KaTaypdcfierai

'

KaraaTTaGi] ris ras avpiyyas ko.v

8'

one grasps the syrinx.)

Audib., 804a), 64-5
*

KaTaoTTaoQzloris

ye

rijs

ovpiyyos

170,

emAajS??.'

(Arist.,

(if

'

de

(Aristox.,

Harm. 21M.), suggested explanation by

K.S., 120-1
t<x? yXdyrras?
suggested explanation by Gevaert re Theophrastus
on, 66 and fn. 2, 1 14-15
Kararoiir) Kavovos
Division of the Monochord by Ps-Euclid, Intro., p. xix
kaufmann, Geo., presented fl. No. 3 Carpathians, bored Dor. Harm., 387 and
'

KaraoTrdaiiara

fn.

= Inca fl., 325-7 and Fig. 69

= notched fl. of Incas of Peru, 385-6
kenas (flutes), the scale of the, are Modal
327 and Fig. 69
kena

'

Kepaoi tioiv
q-v.).

t]

fioiifiv^iv

v<f>oXp.lovs

'

(Arcadius

74

Kepara
rings on horns of the sliding bands
of the Aulos (see Arcadius) 74
key-relationships in chants, questions
arising out of (see Frere), 380-1
kirby, prof, percival r., The Musical Instruments of the Native Races of S.
Africa, Oxf. U.P.,1934, &c, 345 and fn. 1

THE GREEK AULOS

564
KIRBY

(contd.)

on

international languge, 294, fn. 1

kircher, athanasius, Musurgia Universalis,
Rome, 1650, 541-2, 353, fn. 3
first
1 st

discovered and published Pindar's

Pythian Ode, 354

interpretation exhibits errors, 355, fn.

1,

356
interpretation of Pindar's 1st Pythian

Ode, facsimile of, 353-4, PI. 16

kithara fuses vocal and instrumental
elements in practice, 352
(mistranslated

357 and fn.

'

lyre

'

in Pindar's Ode),

modal implications

of,

development

of,

I43
,

KtBapaiSos

Kitharoedes, 357, fn.

den Indianern, 1910, 315 sqq.

:

Fig. 95'.

Four songs in Ho.phrygian Harm. (Hornb., one Ex.), 396

:

and Fig. 95

De Toonkunst van Java,

The Hague, 1(834, two vols.,

kunst, dr. jaap,

M.

Nijhoff,

'

334 sqq.

on Music of Java and Bali, 334 sqq.

in Pindar's Ode marked by Ho.phrygian modal closes, 356-8
:

ii

lady maket pipes discovered by

Flinders Petrie, 107 and fn. 1

now
and

Sir

Museum,

in Charlottenburg
fn. 1

language

of

the

3,
1

Al-Farabi's

Al-Kindi and Yahia, 275, and

276-7 and fn. 1 and 2 285 and
;

Arabian names and ratios of, 275-6

of Zalzal of ratio 27/22 implies
P.I.S., 202
innovations in accordance and courses
(majari) by Ishaq of, 276-7
strings, Arabian names for the, 275
lydian and hypolydian exceptions in
scheme of notation (refs.), 149, 202,
279 389-9
lydian harmonia and Genesis, 17-18
identified in Henebry's No. 49, Mod.
Characteristics, Scale and ratios of, 390
in F.M., 389-90
see Wosta of Zalzal 27/22, 390
lydian modal pivots by v.f.s in Henebry's
frets,

Wosta

Lydian Species in

Song No.
lydian tonic

27

the Mixolydian disjunction

C. 16), 165, 216-17 and Fig. 45

adoption

al-Mausili, 276
accordance, 4th, 5th, 4th
fn.

W.

discovers

of Athens, 190 and fn.

erroneous conclusions on, 313

illustration of Aulos mp. misleading,
38 and fn. 2, 404 and fn. 3
LUTE, accordance by 4th, 5th, 4th of Ishaq-

107

test on, 65-6

lamprokles chronicles Mixolydian change
of rhythm in the Tonos, 165
(Plut.,

43 Bekker), Title-page and

pp. 171 sqq.

Fig. 61

kornerup, thorwald pamphlet on Acoustic ^aws, 40, fn. 3

kubu songs of Sumatra in Ho.phrygian
Harm./ scale with ratios of, 396 and

KuiAa

(Aristot., Fr.

locus of fingerholes on aulos reveals the

Harm., 97-8
loret's Aulos xxiii, performance of, 116-17
and ch. x, Records.
Victor, Egyptian pipes, Hornbostel's

No.

KOCH-GRUNBERG, theodor, Zwei Jahre unter

kubus of Sumatra

living in music, before the making of

Music, Man is, 292
LOCUS CLASSICUS OF HARMONIA (aftuow'a)

99, line

harmonia
universal
by economic ex:

delayed

410-4 X 13/8

from 26

to

lydian tonos, Greek Notation of, used by

Hucbald for Antiphons, 375-9 and Fig.88
IVI

macran, h.

s.,

implications of a movable
by, 160

Mese unrecognized

7, does not imply Modal160

overlooked Factor ', 34-5
ii,

ities,
'

macrobius on position of Fingerholes (Comm.

igencies, 542, 545

lasos of hermione, Music Master of Pindar

(ap. Plut., de Mus., W. and R., 293),
106 and fn., 190
obsessed by multiplicity of notes on
Aulos, 106
LATENT HARMONICS IN AULOS, part played
by, 99
length and mp., variables for pitch determination in organ pipes, 44
and pitch, relation in Auloi and fl.s

between 85-8
and width of tongue of B-R. mp.,
significance of, 50 sqq.
factor in Auloi, erroneous views by
Porphyry on, 130-3
in Aulos must include mp., 45
in Aulos, proportion the significant

aspect of (tested), 69, 133-5

influence on pitch of, discussed

(G

in P.I.S. lowered
.149, 202, 279, 389-90

on Ptolemy,

666-6 v.p.s.), 390

by

Ptolemy (Harm., i, 8 and ii, 12), 72,

130-3. 273
libation hymn, Spondeiakos Tropos, 205
Liverpool Inst, of Archaeol, Garstang's
Meroe Auloi in, 78-9

in Scip.,

ii,

quoted),

4, 5,

comment

on,

by K. S., 77-8 and sqq.

pipes, Brit. Mus. (see Plagiauloi), 79
magadizing, playing in octaves on Kithara,
188-9 and fn. 3

maenad

use of Harmonic octave overtones (see

Ps- Aristotle, XIX, 39b), 188-9 and fn. 3
magical invocation for rain in new
Mecklenburg, Hornb. refs. and scale of,

388

major and minor modes obtainable on lute

of Ishaq, 278 and Fig. 55
major scale, in just intonation, origin of, 270
produced from Ho.lydian Aulos with 3
finger-holes by shortening tongue of
mp., 52 and Fig. 24, p. 270
making a B-R. mp. for Aulos, 49-50
maspero, g., found Ancient Egypt. D-R.

mp. at Panopolis, 404, fn. 3

mathematical basis a vantage-point in the
Modal System, 170-1
mean increment of distance, facts concern:

ing the, 409

uses of, overruled

by the mp., 410

INDEX
medhurst, w.
149, fn.

H., tr. of the

'

Shoo-King by,
'

Kithara, 143
'

melodies rhythmised in two tetrachords

(Aristot., Fr. 43, Bekker), 172-3
= melodic composition, 370
menander (Canon of Florence) amongst ex'

AfeAojroua

from Rhetorica of, (V. Rose,

Anecdot. Graec, 1, 27), 174 and fn. 2,
cerpts

176
meroe, find by Prof. John Garstang of fragments of Auloi at, 78
1

a7T-o

Se ttjs pAa'qs kox rajv

al Suvafxei? yvcopi&VTtu

182, fn. 2
as apxq and
as Arche,

r/yep-civ,

'

Aot7raii' <j>$6yy<x)v

(Ps-Eucl., 18M.),

182

Hegemon and Sundesmos,

184^

Hypate as i-eAetmf (Ps-ArisPr. xix, 33) discussed, 186

as common Pivot in modulation, 162
as power or value of note, Ps-Euclid
(p. 18M.), 182
as Synechon, the key-note as cohesive
element, 188
causative power, attributed to, by Ps-

as apxtf,
totle,

Aristotle (Probl.

xix,

20, 25, 36,

44),

183-4
descending sequence to Tonic from,
184 and Fig. 38
determines accordance of Kithara (PsArist., Probl. xix, 20, 44), 182-3

'
Se pttoy <ji96yyov tvvajxis ' (Ps-Eucl.,
Introd., 18, I. 26), 182, fn. 2
five different aspects of, in Ps-Aristotle

Problems (36, 33, 20, 44,

25), 187-8

faulty,

Games, 50 and

fn.

(refs.),

184-6

183
of same absolute pitch in all Modal
Species, 146
on different degree in each Harm.
(Plut., Plato, Quaest., ix, 2), 188
on 4th degree of scale, eleven the only
determinant that can place, 199
the essence of the Modes, responsible
for Ethos and Tessitura, 145, 182
the modal nucleus of system of notation
of,

in each tonos, 525

the power causative and qualitative or

dynamis of, 145

mesomedes, the three Hymns of, (refs. to
sources), 360 and fns. 6 and 7
all in Ho. phrygian Species, 360-2
and Fig. 80

1,

at Pythian
79-81, no, 285-6

plight at Pythian Games and feat of

{Pindar, Pyth. xii and Schol. 1), 285-6
scholiast on Pind., 12th Pyth. Ode
(Gk.), 79, fn. 5

miller, prof, dayton c, Measurements of

three Greek fl.s in collection of, 402-3
mistuning of mese (Ps-Arist., Probl. xix,

183-4
and lydian harmoniai on
Loret xxiii, 94-5 and Ch. x,
Records
mixolydian, associated with Dorian species
by conjunction, 216-17 and Fig. 45
disjunction discovered by Lamprokles,
216-17 and Fig. 45
Harm, and Genesis of, 6-16 and Figs. 2,
3 and 4
in F.M., 399 sqq.
in Hindostan as Rag Malkos, scale
with ratios of, 399 sqq., Figs. 97 and
98
44),

mixolydian
Aulos,

invention attributed to
Aristoxenus of, 216
Pivots, confusion
in, 401

Modal

Sappho by
with Ho.-

phryg. avoidable

species from Hypate Hypaton in Plutarch's day, 215-16

Tonic of ratio number twenty-eight, 213
MODAL BASIS OF PERFECT IMMUTABLE SYSTEM
no hint in the Theorists of its existance ? 156
MODAL CHARACTERISTICS as psychological
effect of Ethos in the Harm., 356-60
in the Fragments, due to Canons of

Why

Composition

356-60

MODAL DETERMINANT, 4-7

Dynamis of Mese

in relation to Harm, of the Ancients

(Ps-Arist., Probl. xix, 20, 44,), 183
conception in Ps-Arist. Problems

mon-

of agrigentum, his feat

(see Ps-Euclid, 19M.),

new

and

320-1

SiWfus
182-3

182-3

correct

midas, feat of, implies use of Syrinx

calamos in Greece, 285-6

fixes value of other notes in the scale

Gevaert's conception of tuning from,

184- 6
inherent value in relation to Tonic of

by Aris-

ratios implied
tides Quint, of, 203

methods of blowing Panpipes,

medieval chants, Modal Pivots in, 371-5

and Fig. 87, p. 377
Mtyedr] = quanta (Aristox., 73-74M.) in 4th
and 5th all unequal, 180
meibomius faked the diagram of 28 dieses
given by Aristides Quint., p. 15, 215
melanippedes, Dithyrambist and Musician
(454-413 B.C.) added a 12th string to

MESE

565

meson tetrachord,

MEASURE, equal, in acoustic theory, 3-4

(Ps-Eucl.,

18M.),

as (Ps-Euclid,

19M),

<j>66yyov

183
eleven alone can place Mese on 4th
degree of scale, 212
the all-important factor in Modality, 222
used with equal measure produces seven
Harmoniai, 173
MODAL DISTINCTIONS INHERENT IN THE
HARMONIA, FigS. 83-7, pp. 272-4
modal ethos based on characteristics of

Harm., 34

modal

flute, breaks

new ground, 289

on

the, 245 sqq.

in the, 233 sqq.
the acoustics of, 242-3
half-stopping on the, 244
Harm, installed on, 220
in Arabia, 270, 272 sqq.
in Syro-Arabic sources (see Al-FarabI),

cr-f.

all.

five factors in

272 sqq.
integral element of the, 242-3,

No. 4

significance of A in, 220 sqq.

modal flutes divided into three classes, 234-5
modal genesis explains Hypate as highest

and lowest or end

(tcAcutij),

187

THE GREEK AULOS

66

modal hypolydian and modern major

scale,

difference between, 52-3 and fn. 1

modal implications of the Wosta of Zalzal,

279-80
modal material, Genesis of
Mixolydian Harm., 810

the,

of the

modal monochord,

the making and dimensions of the, 544 and Fig. 1

uses of, 166 and Fig. 1
planet's sphere of influence in, defined by Nicomachus

modal octave, each

(q.v.),

modal system

modal tonos,

Hypaton

starts with Mixolydian ratio

28, 213
in agreement with Archytas, Didymus,

Eratosthenes and Ptolemy, 200 sqq. and

Fig. 40
in agreement with Ptolemy's Diatonon

origin

Harm, used

and

fn. 3

principle, important features of,

supported by Theorists, 218
of equal measure (see Canon of Florence), 174-6

modal

ratios, correspondence in each

of Notation
and, 521 and fn. 1
of strings and pipes differ,

Tonos between symbols

modal reactions
96

SCALE, integrity

of,

preserved by D-R.

mp., 47

modal sequence,
fl.s of,

cause of interruption in

233-4

Prosl. (see Canon of Florence),

174-5 and Fig. 36
integrity of, preserved by primitive

from

presented as
Tonos, 139

Harm,

in

homonym

its

presented as species in 7 tonalities in the

original Tonoi, 42, 139, 155, Figs. 30, 32
tropos and tonos given as synonyms

by Hucbald (ref. and cit.), 378

modern system and the Mod. Sys. represent
two distinct musical worlds
543
modes and species
confusion in the order
'

',

D-R. mp., 47

of their succession explained, 147

evidence on order in which they occur

(ref. only), 200
order reversed in, 147, 161

modulation through Mese

as

common Key-

note of the Species, 161

mon. cod. gr. 104, fol. 2891;, gives scheme of

Ho. lydian mode, 210
mond flute, cr-f. tested on the, 246-50
monochord, not mentioned by Aristoxenus
but indispensable to Harmonists, 197-8
of division by M.D. 12 described by
Thrasyllus, 3823
of M.D. 12 described by Safi-ed-Din,
383
of Praetorius with division by M.D. 48,
383

modal

of Pythagoras with division by

modal

or

sequences mistaken for Equalstepped scales, 310-11

species each identified with one of
the planets by Nicomachus (7 and
33M.), 48
noted within range of symbols from
Omega to Gamma, 520
three important features of the, 146
united through common keynote or

Mese, 161
modal starting-note, Common, 176-7
MODAL system, based on Equal Measure, 33
based on equal measure by Determinant

number

in

69

of,

modal

MODAL

from basic principle embodied

working basis of, 270-2

mode, change of, effected on string and
Aulos, 69
in Greek Music revealed by ratio of
Mese to Tonic, 354

in Ecclesias-

Phrygian, perfect 4th and 5th, minor

3rd on Tonic, 375, 390-1, 378
two, implied in Ptolemy's Kata Thesin
and Kata Dynamin (lib. ii, c. xi), 382

found among

of,

Aulos, Preface, p. vii

ultimate determinant in Aulos

Modes, 375, 378

tical

sections

with same mp., 94-6

40

modal

13/8, 39
of Phrygian

confirmed by Ps-

of Aulos, how it may be judged, 103-4

of Delphic Hymns, 366 sqq.
of Harm., the basis of the scheme of Gk.
Notation, 520
of P.I.S. changed from Dorian to
Phrygian, 532 and Fig. 104
on Aulos, changed on same fundamental

in agreement with Modal P.I.S., 158-9

MODAL PERFECT IMMUTABLE, SYSTEM Hypate

Fig.

of,

(see Aristoxenus), 180-1

in Aulos dependent upon mp., 88-9
inevitably implied by every pipe with
equidistant fingerholes, 404

48

the degrees have a sevenfold differentiation in the, 146

of Ptolemy's Syntonic Chr.

pivot, changes in the main stages in

Evolution of the, 165-8
modal pivots, Dorian raised 4th on Tonic,
ratio 1 1 /8, 385
Ho.phrygian Tonic and Keynote, ratio
18/16, 392 sqq.
in early Liturgical Chants, 375 sqq.
Lydian Tonic and minor 6th of ratio

Ptolemy's shades of Genera (op. cit., ii,

14), 2002 and Fig. 40
modality embodied on Aulos, 69
implied by the four quanta of the 5th

modal origin

Homalon, 200 sqq. and

(contd.)

of Harm., features

Aristotle, 183 sqq.

the, involves a new musical fact, 166
modal tetrachords in scales of S. African
native fl.s, 347-9 and Fig. 76

in accord

with Aristotle, 17 1-2

M.D.

12,

382
Kanon of Ptolemy an Octachord,
with division into 125 equal segments
(Harm., ii, 12, 13, 16), 166
see also Canon of Florence, 174
;

rols KaXd^xois rponu)

(of Midas), 79, fn. 5

Ixovols

ovpiyyos

avXijaai

monro, The Modes

of Ancient Greek Music,

Clar. Press, 1894, 186

mountford, prof. J. f., comments on Ethos

of Harmoniai by, Intro., p. xvi
estimate

of value

Greek Aulos by,

and

scope

Intro., p. xxvii

of

The

INDEX
MOUNTFORD, PROF.

J. F.

(cotltd.)

'

Inscriptions

'

(refs.),

mouthpiece and length

with pitch, 43-4

364
in organ pipes vary

(7 and 33M.) on Planets' sphere

Modal octave, 48
right and wrong forms of the Pythagorean (ditonal) scale, 306
re twenty- eight- sounding universe, 213

of influence in

on

NINE ASPECTS OF DIAMETER ALLOWANCE IN

FLUTES, 233-4

NINTH STRING OF KITHARAADDED BY PHRYNIS,

H3

and resonator of Aulos, struggle for

mastery between, 92
B-R. of Aulos, reference by Ptolemy to
the, 71-2
dominant power of, demonstrated by
tests, 132-3
D. or B-R., has casting vote in Modality
and Tonality in Aulos, 134-5
D-R., illustrated by Victor Loret (refs.),

404 and

567

nicomachus

Introduction to The Greek Aulas, Intro.,

pp. xv-xxvii
on Crusius restorations of Orestes Fragment (with refs.), 364
on Orestes, Greek Music in Papyri and

nodal point,
mental

All.

with

inter-relation

No. 7

nomenclature by

of,

Incre-

244
Plutarch

position,

(Plat., Qitaest., ix, 2), 188

of the degrees of the scale,

on

140

nomos, no change of Harm, rhythm or tonality {raais)

NOMOS

allowed in (see Plut.), 56

pytiiikos (Strabo,

ix,

3,

duced bv Sacadas of Argos

10), intro-

(c.

590

B.C.),

81

fn.

without ligature, Ancient Egyptian,

found by Maspero, 404 and fn.
extr., from Aulos resonator,
significance of, 50
of Aulos, Aristotle on, 64-5

norm, ictus and glottis notes of mouthpieces, 90

norm of double-reed mouthpiece indicated
by formula (no. vi), 90, 91 and fn.
notation affords only clue to exact intona-

as Dictator, 93
as formant in production of pitch,
quality and amplitude, 42

tion (claim of Harmonists) (Polemic 5),

check on mastery by resonator and by

Modality of, 92-3
importance of, 37-8, 92 sqq.
naming and numbering of, 409
proper note of, 8990
Theophrastus on, 65-6
two specimens only have survived of,

(Aristoxenus), 193
complete scheme of (see Alypius), 353
considered of greatest importance by
Harmonists (Polemic 5), 193
evidence on origin of, 352-3
Harmonists stress study of, (Polemic 6),
193
(see App. No. 1 and Ch. v, Figs. 34 and
37), 519 sqq.
System of, emanated from Pythagoras
or the Harmonists, 353
notched flute, a primitive form of Fipple fl.
(see Inca fl. No. 12), 261 and fn. 3
notes of wosta and binsir alternatives
(minor or major), 276 and 280
notes on the increment of distance, 409-10
number coupled with equal measure implies
causative process (Aristotle's Harm.), 172
in Tropos or Tonos, according to Harmonists (Polemic 4), 192-3

38, fn. 2
two types defined of, 45
specification of, essential for determination of pitch of Aulos, 88
the, overpowers the mean I.D., 40910
two types of, on Aulos, 45
movable mese, implications of a, 160
multiplicity of notes on Auloi (Plut., de

&

Mus., W.
R.,pp. 112-15), 106
musical systems of S. African Tribes, Har-

monic

Series origin of, 345

underlying F.M., Chs. viii and ix, passim
myers, dr. c. s., Vedda Music, 296-8
myres, prof. j. l., drawing of Aulos in
Candia Mus. by, 77 and Fig. 29

KT

NARROWING OF

EXITS ON FLUTE LENGTHENS

SOUND-WAVE, 221
natural LAW OF harmony, Aristoxenus on
(see Polemic 7 on Atdos),

60 sqq.

fl.
modern Greek from
Dayton C. Miller), 403 and fn.
and Ch. x (F), Records
NAY, VERTICAL FLUTE OR SYRINX MONO-

nauplia,

Dorian

(Prof.

CALAMUS, 79-81

new language of music

based upon posi-

demonstrable values, 541

based upon the harmoniai, 541

Monochord

Harmonic

divisions

of,

new-mecklenburg
FT. in Dor. Harm,
from Lamassa, v.f.s and ratios of,
:

388
(Hornb.), Sun Festival Tune in Ho.phryg. Harm., 393 and Fig. 92
tunes in Ho. dor., Dor. and Phry.
Harm, (refs.), 393

Polemic No.

oaten pipe from Finland, presented by

Carita Stenbeck, 46 fn.
of Shakespeare, see also Virgil, Chaucer,

Virdung, 46, 293, fn. 3

specimens in Helsingfors

Museum

of,

46, fn.

octave

compass,

property

of

primitive

D-R. mp., 48
octave relation

in

Chinese formula

cylindrical
for,

fl.s,

the

261

on Aulos, Porph.'s Comm. on Ptol. (op.

cit., 1, 8) comment by K. S., 130-33
OCTAVE" scale, duplication of

tive,

exact values from

54i

193
as the goal of

first

tetrachord

in, 270
octave scales, Polemic No. 8 by Aristoxenus

on, 195

from Arabian
confirmation
sources of origin of the, 537 and Fig. 105
in 4th c. Gk. Church (with refs.), 535
sqq.
in position on Lute of Ishaq, 537 and
Fig. 105
of early Greek Church, 174 and Fig. 36

octoechos,

THE GREEK AULOS

568
'

Krai

rarijs oKrcuijx ov > ^aAAco,'

Abbot

Silvanus,

536
of the Gk. Church derived from the
Mod. Species of the Tonos in 4th

development, 534
traced through Ishaq's accordance and

283
cup-shaped device fitted into the
oA/^of
v(f>6A[j.iov (bulb) on the mp of the Aulos, 7
olympia, Phrygian fl. modem Greek from
(Prof. Dayton C. Miller), 403 and fn. 2
OMBGWE fl. of the Karanga of S. Africa,
scale and tune of the, 349-50 and Fig. 77
omega (Q) indicates end of Modal Gen. and
absolute fundamental of the Harmoniai,
525
the common Tonic of the Harmoniai,
147-9
to gamma, sole differentiation of Modes
and Species in theTonoi lie between, 525
ONDE simple = s.v.f.
simple or half -waveclassification,

=
length, 86, fn. 2,
6vo[Macjla Kara Svvap.iv Dynamic Nomencla-

ture by value, 142, 176, 188

6vop,aoiai Kara Seoiv and Kara Sviiapt.iv (see
Ptol., ii, 11), 143 and fn. 3, 188
onomasia kata dynamin represents the
emancipation of the species, 216
represents the tuning of Kithara strings,

217

and Kata Thesin discussed (Ptolemy

and Plutarch), 143 and fns. 3 and 4, 188
represents order of Kithara strings, 217
represents the species enthralled by
Dorian Harm., 216
open and closed pipes, Bantu Folk use Harmonics from both (see Tilinca), 346-7
orestes of Euripides, Fragmentfrom the, in
the Ho. phrygian Species and Ho.lydian

navapjioviov {Plato, Rep., p. 399),

with transl. (ref.), 151 and fn.

Tonos, 363-4

organ

pipe, variable pitch factors are length

in the, 43-4

and mp.

organ-pipes, compression of wind invariable

placed in order of Pitch to ascertain

scale of,
napacrqiiavriK-q
'

Species, 364
in the Schubart-Berlin Papyrus, 364

Fragment

323-4
= Notation (see Polemic

paschal trope

MS., C.

(Vich.

'

xi

5),
;

193

nth

many

Ho.lydian closes in the, 378

pastoral (Peru), Kena scale of, 385 andfn.
pausanias (ix, 12), on the feat of Pronomus
c),

'

'

on the Aulos, 73
Hako song in Ho. phrygian Harm. (Fletcher), 395 and Fig. 93
pelog and Sl^ndro scales of Java and Bali
based on the Harmoniai, 334 sqq.
Heptatonic modal scale of Java and
Bali, 334
pentatonic and Heptatonic, separate origin

pawnee, Indian

'

'

308, 386
Dorian Harm, erroneously diagnosed

of,

308, 386
in transition
as,

prevalence

minor

of,

or Dorian Harm. ? 305

indicates partiality for

3rds, 308

irevre touj irpuirovs

eVre rovovs

rj

rpo-irovs

et#'

appovias, &c. (Plut., De. E Apud Delphos, C. 10, p. 47 j), 189 and fn. 1 (Gk.).
perfect immutable system a grouping of
Tonoi into a Modal System, 150 and
:

Fig. 105

Phrygian system based upon Prosl.,

532-4 and Fig. 104
changes from Dorian to Phrygian Mode
in Stage IV, 166-7
as

exhibits three orders of scales or systems, 150

modal basis of, confirmed by Ptolemy's
formulae, 154 and Fig. 32

Modality changed from Dorian to

Phrygian in the, 532
stages in development recapitulated,
531-2

oxyrhynchus, Christian Hymn, from the

PAEAN(Berlin- Papyrus), alternative readings in

two Tonoi and Modes of the, 364 and fn. 2
noted in Ionian Tonos, Ho. phrygian

see
on,

',

72
panpipe scales
the majority prove to be
Harmoniai, 324-7
panpipes, correct method of blowing, 320
exterior
and interior measurements
tested on, 329-32 and Fig. 70
faulty blowing of, suggests false theory,
332-3
orchestra
plays
Ho. phrygian tune
(Peru), 395 and Fig. 94
Pitch in agreement with Formula for,
329-30 and Fig. 70

for all pitches in the, 434

origin of plagal modes revealed as conj.
species of P.I.S., 532 sqq. and Fig. 104
origin of scales, 293 sqq.
origins of folk music, inquiry into, 292-3
overblown fifths, pure, from Bolivian Panpipe, 329-30
overtones from closed pipes, alleged flatness of, 318
pure, flat and sharp in Hornbostel's
records, 319 and fn.

Treasure of the (refs.), 365-6

musical interpretation by Sir H.
Stuart Jones of (refs.), 365-6
Papyri, pubd. by Profs. Bernard Grenfell and Arthur Hunt (Vol. XV, No.
1786, Oxf., 1921, or refs.), 365
JP
PACHYmeres, George
his treatise on the
Quadrivium
pubd. by A. J. H. Vincent (refs.), 383 and fn. 4

text
(Gk.),

'

'

'

Gk.

177 and fn.

panharmonia,
imitation of Auloi
Proclus and Plato (Rep., 399c.)

outcome

of

species on Kithara, 139

unique structure favours modulation

in

(avar-qpa rtXeiov aperdfioXov),

modal

the, 1 60
avXcov rprjotcos
irepl

Treatise by Aristoxenus on Aulos (not extant), 60, fn. 2

periodicity of sound-wave appreciated by
the ear, 312
tov evotKa Adyos
Trepi
(concerning the
number eleven) (Arist. Quint., 123M.),
*

',

'

199 and fn. 3

Persian Jews' chant from Esther in the
Phrygian Harm, (by v.f.s.), 391
PERU, Panpipe tune in Ho. phrygian Harm.
from, 395 and Fig. 94

INDEX
Peruvian flute, San Ramon, scale of, 336-7
and Fig. 69
philebus (56A), Harmonizing by conjecture
instead of by measure, see, 111 and
fn.

in

(s6a), implications of,

(17) on intervals of the

and

Harm., 177-80

fn.

on Harm, in, 177-80 and fn.

Phrygian Enharmonic Species in the P.I.S.
unobtainable, 196 and Fig. 39
Genesis of Harm., see Pythagoras,
Plato

Gaudentius, Thrasyllus, Safi-ed-Din,

Ptolemy, Praetorius, Pachymeres, Chr.
Syntonon (IV, 158-9) on, 383 and fns.
Phrygian harmonia, Genesis and scale of,
19-20 and Figs. 7 and 8
(from v.f.s) in chant from ' Esther
sung by Persian Jews (Idelsohn), 391
in F.M., 390-2
(of M.D. 12), the Septimal 3rd 7/6 between 6th and 7th degrees in the, 391
phrygian-homalon tetrachord still in use
in Greek Church according to Tzetzes
(q.v.), 383
PHRYGIAN modal pivots
Henebry senses
potency in unit of Tonic and Dominant,
39i
'

species (duplicated tetrachord) on Lute

of Ishaq, 280 and Fig. 56
tj>86yym earaiTes i.e. fixed notes of two tetra-

chords
172
f

Terpa/iep^s

(Aristot.,

Harm),

tj>86yyaiv atcoXovdlas rrjv tt}s apfiovlos ttoiottjto.

tfavepdv yevearOat avp-fialvei-' (Arist. Quint.,

18M.), 177
phrynis OF mytilene, 9th string of Kithara
added by (Plut., de Mus.), 143
physical basis of Ethos in the Harm., 135-7
pindar (Pyth. 12 and Schol. 1) celebrates
victory of Midas of Agrigentum (q.v.),
5-i
feat of

Midas (Pyth. XII,

Schol. 1, Gk.),

79
pindar's first pythian ode, correctly noted
in Lydian Tonos, 355
displays all the Ho.phrygian characteristics and s closes on the KasXa, 356-7
has undeniable Ho.phrygian modality,

356-7
a genuine
(K. S.), 358
Kircher's
is

piece

of

interpretation

Greek Music
of,

354 and

PL 16(B)
Plate 16, facsimile of, 354
re Authenticity of, 354 sqq.

piper removing a bulb from Aulos, implication of, 104 and PI. 9
pipes and fl.s with equidistant fingerholes tell
their

own

tale,

404

erroneous theories on, by Hornb., 40-1

and Fig. 22
of Ur, Canon Galpin's conjectural conclusions as to scale and Notation of,

404-7
with equidistant fingerholes, inherent
significant testimony of, 404
pitch and Harmonics, effect of breath pressure on, 62 and sqq.
pitch cannot be computed from length of
Aulos resonator, 61

569

pitch

(contd.)

determination by Formula, 83-4, 409,

225-6
determined in organ pipes by length and
pp., 43-4, fn. 1
influence of A on, lay view of, 317-18
length as determinant of, 83-4, 225-6
of Arche due to mp. of Aulos as determinant factor, 98-100
of Aulos cannot be determined by formula, 61

mp. indispensable

for determination

38

of,

on Aulos, three

factors

combine

to pro-

duce, 38-9

on

fl.

determined by two kinds of

length, 225-6

two expedients used by Auletes for

raising,

65

Mese

pivot,

transposition

in

scales

as,

162

plagal denotes
plagiauloi,
78

conj.

form of Harm., 534

Maenad

pipes (Brit.

Museum),

plan of harmonia in interior of Aulos, 99101 and Fig. (unnumbered)

planets, spheres of influence in Modal
octave defined by Nicomachus (q.v.),
48, 407 and fn.
nXdret :
Kai rd irepara
TrapaftdWeiv, iv
.

wAai-ei tto>s
130, fns. 1 and 2, 273,
fns. 1 and 2
^plato and Aristotle on Harm, contrasted,
1 7 1-2
description of the Panharmonia by
(Greek text) (Rep. 399, c and d), 117,
151 and fn. 1 (Gk.)
(Philebus, 5 a), harmonizing by conjecture instead of by measure in, in and
.

fn.

on empiricism

in Aulos music, 151

and

fn. 2
(Philebus, p. zy)

on Harm., 177-80
on Harm, quoted by Plutarch, 171
on intervals of the Harm. (Philebus, 17)
177

on Panharmonia

(Rep., 399c) (see also

Proclus), 72
(Rep., 399c)

on the Aulos, 72
on the Ethos of the Harm., 136-7
six ancient Harmoniai of, noted by
Aristides Quint., 219
theory of the Creation of the Soul in the
Timaeus of, 171
(Crito, 54D) the sound of Auloi buzzing,
62 and fn. 1
plato's
Timaeus ', ditonal scale derived
from, 171
nXdros, re Aulos, used by Ptolemy as width
or A of the bore, 130-1 and fns. 1 and 2,
273 and fns. 1 and 2
used by Ptolemy for A of bore (1, 8),
1 30-1 and fns. 1 and 2, 273 and fns.
'

1
TrActotrt

and 2
re <f>96yyois Kai hicppipLpUvois xpr/CTa/xevos.
de Mus., W. and R., 294, on

(Plut.,

Lasos), 106
nX-qTTovros, tov

(Ptol., 1, 3),

the B-R.
71

pliny the Elder (Nat.

mp.

in the Aulos

Hist., 16, 36, 171),

paraphrase of Theophrastus, 65-6

THE GREEK AULOS

57

plutarch (non posse suaviter, C. xiii, p.

1096B) dvafyirco^ivTjs tt]S vvpiyyos
'

k\lvoijlvt]s'

tion, 193

'

'

'

fn.

polemic (contd.)
No. 5 by Aristoxenus concerning Nota-

p. 62

and Bacchius on ratio 1 1 / 1 o, 207

an seni sit gerenda (Greek), C. 18
(quoted), 189 and fn. 2
De E. Apud Delphos ', c. 10, Greek
quoted from Didot, I, p. 475, 189 and
1

Eklysis and Ekbole created by Polymnestos according to, (de Mzis., C. 29),

Harmonists claim that exact intonais

only ascertainable through
Notation, 193
on Notation (Parasemantike), 193
No. 6, claim that the theory of the
Auloi is paramount, 57, 193 and fn. 3,- 194
re Aulos and its scales provides the
tion

crux, 57, 194

207-8 and Fig. 43

No.

evidence of the practice of the Harm, by

musicians (De Mus., C. 27-28, 1144F),
181

quotation in full with comments, 57

sqq., 194-5
on Aulos, significance of, 57 sqq., 194-5

'

Hypaton

as highest

Quaest., ix, 1

and

Didot,

IX,

(Plat., Quaest.,

ii,

first

'

in (Plat.,

1233), 187

Mese on

2),

different

88 and fn. 2 (Gk.)

(de Mus., W. and R., pp. 26-8), no
change of Harm., rhythm or tuning
(toots) in Nomos, 56
on Archilochus (de Mus., R. and W., pp.
107-11), 352, fn. 3
(non posse suaviter, c. xiii, p. 1096B) on
drawing up and letting down the syrinx
of the Aulos, 62
on Harm., Tropos, Tonos (De E. Apud
Delphos., c. 10, p. 47s) (Gk.), 189 and
degrees in Harmoniai,

fn.

(Plat., Quaest., IX, f)

highest and first ', 187

on

'

Hypaton

as

on nomenclature
by virtue of position, 187 and fn. 1 (Gk.)
on production of high pitch on Aulos
(Plat., Quaest.,

IX,

2)

(see also Aristotle, Aristoxenus), 546

(non posse suaviter, c. xiii, p. 1096B) on
the Auloi, 61 and fn., 62
(an seni sit gerenda, c. 18, Didot, ii,
Tonos, Tropos which
p. 968) on
musicians call Harmoniai ', 189 and
fn. 2 (Gk.)
Pythagoras judged by the proportional
Harm. (deMus., C. 27-8, p. 1144F), 181
quotes Aristotle on Harm, and Equal
Measure, 171
re Spondeiasmos (Ch. ii, p. 11 3 5), 205-6
(de Mus., C. 16E), states that the Ho.lydian (Epaneimene Lydisti) is the
opposite of the Mixolydian, 217-18 and
'

46
non posse

Fig.
('

1139A)

suaviter

',

1096B,

and

syrinx ', 54
(de Mus., C. 16D and E), the Mixolydian species from Hyp. Hypaton, 216'

217 and Fig. 45

polemic No. 2 implies use of Katapyknotic
diagrams, 191-2
No. 3 on the close-packed scales of the
Tonoi, which are a Modal not a Tonal
concern, 192
4, Aristoxenus

No.

fails

to provide a

constructive basis in, 192-3

No. 4 by Aristoxenus concerning the

Tonoi, 192-3

on the Tonoi
three-quarter tone
intervals due to fingerholes of Aulos,
:

192-3
'

the

Number

of the

Tonos

'
:

the

double significance of the number,

193 and fn.

7,

by Aristoxenus on the Aulos,

No. 8, by Aristoxenus on Eratocles and

the Octave, 195
No. 9
the seven octave-scales which
the Harmonists called Harmoniai ', 195
No. 10, by Aristoxenus on Eratocles
and the species, 196 and Fig. 39
No. 11, against use by Harmonists of
ratios and rates of vibration, 196-7
No. 12, on the use by Harmonists of
28 consecutive dieses, 197-8
on Aulos, by Aristoxenus against the
Harmonists, with comments by K.S.,
57 sqq.
polemics Nos. i and 2 concerning the
'

Harm., 191
Nos. 1 and 2, Tables exhibit complete
system of Musical intervals ', 19 1-2
by Aristoxenus provide valuable data on
'

the teaching of Harmonists, 197

polymnestos, credited with introduction of
Ho.lydian Harm, and of the Eklysis and

Ekbole (Plutarch), 207

reputed inventor of the Eklysis and
Ekbole (Plut., de Mus., C. 29), 207

porphyry (Comm. on Ptol. I, 8), comments

by K.S. on), 130-33, 272-3 and fns. 1
and 2

on length in Auloi,
130-3, 272-3 and fns. 1 and 2
on function and performance
little tongues
(Comm. on Ptol.,

his erroneous views

his silence

of

'

'

I, 8),

132

Notes by K.S. on debatable points in

Commentary on Ptol., I, 8, by, 130-3
octave relation on the Auloi according
to, comment by K.S. on, 130-3
on Water Organ
vSpavXis, 133
simultaneous harmony implied by, 132
position of hole i found by Formula No. 3,

227
praetorius, michael, illustrates a Canon
divided into 48 equal parts (refs.), 383

prayer chant of Jews of Yemen in Dor.

Harm., v.f.s and ratios of scale of, 388
primitive dorian mode of scale attributed
to Terpander, 183
primitive D-R. mp. preserves integrity of
Modal Scale, 47
primitive mouthpiece of aulos, unique
feat of, 96
primitive musicians build their tower of
Babel, 292
PROCLUS, on the Panharmonia (Comm. in
Alcib., 68) (see also Plato), 72
use of sliding bands on Aulos implied
by (Comm. on Alcib., 68), 73

INDEX
pronomus, Athenaeus on the

feat of, 73
Pausanias (q.v.) on the feat of, 73
the Theban, feat on Aulos of, 72-4 and
fn. 1
his three
fn. 1

Modes on one Aulos,

74,

ii,

ps-aristotle (Pr. xix, 33) confirms features

of Modal system, 186-7
five aspects of

Mese

in Problems xix,

20, 25, 33, 36, 44, pp. 187-8

(Pr. xix, 33) Mese as apxtf
reXevT-rj,

Hypate

(Pr. xix, 44)

Mese

in relation to

of the Ancients, 183

new conception of

Mese

in Problems
xix, 20, 25, 36, 44. PP- 183 sqq.
(Pr. xix, 20, 25, 36, 44) the Mese as
Arche, 182 sqq.
ps-euclid (19, M.), Mese fixes value of the
other notes, 182 and fn. 2 (Gk.)
(igM.) on the Dynamis of Mese, 182
and fn. 2 (Gk.)

ptolemy and Plutarch on nomenclature by

position and dynamis, 188 and fn. 2 (Gk.)
189 and fns. 1 and 2 (Gk.)
commentary by Porphyry on the octave
relation in Auloi (Harm., i, 8), 1303

(Harm., i, 3) concerned with both

Syrinx and Aulos, 130-3, 273
concerning adjustment of intonation in
Aulos due to A of bore, 130-3
confirms use of ratio 11/10, 200-1 and
Fig. 40
defines the B-R. mp. (Harm., i, 3), 71-2
discusses influence of length on pitch,
71, 130-3, 273
has restored the Seven Ancient Modes

(Harm.,

ii,

7),

159-60

(i,

8,

ii,

12),

(key) quoted,

160

on Kata Thesin and Kata Dynamin

(Harm.,

11),

ii,

382

on Modulation (Harm, ii, 7) quoted, 160

on the Hypholmion (Harm., i, 3), 71
on the influence on pitch of A of bore
(Harm.,
'

nXdras

i,
'

8) (see irAaroj below)

in the Aulos (Harm.,

130-1, 142, 173 and fns.

practical
knowledge of

the

i,

8),

Modal

System implied by (Harm., ii, 11), 156

recognized 4 possible starting notes for
the Tonos (Harm., ii, 7), 161 sqq.
records formulae of modal tetrachords

(Harm., ii, II), 156-8 and Fig. 33

reference to B-R. mp. of Aulos (see
TrXqTTOVTOS , 71
restores the seven Harmoniai through

mechanism of Tonoi, 159

shades of Genera exhibit sections of the
Modal Tonos, 200-2 and Fig. 40
of, in agreement with
P.I.S., 200-4 and Fig. 40
two modal pivots implied by use of
Kata Thesin and Kata Dynamin by, 382
Ptolemy's syntonic chromatic, evidence
sifted concerning, 157 and Fig. 33
pure harmonics from Bolivian Panpipe,
329-30
puzzling reactions of air column in Aulos,

Syntonic chr.

Modal

98 sqq.

pypes of grene corne in Chaucer's Hous

of Fame (1. 1224), 293
Pythagoras, division by 12 of monochord
of, (Gaud., Mb., p. 14), 382
genesis of Phrygian Harm, on Monochord of, 382
judged by the
proportional Harm,
not by ear (Plut. deMus., C. 27-28), 181
of Zacynthus, 190
persuades Piper to change Harm, from
Phrygian to Dorian Spondaic, 1 17-18
'

Harm.

Pitch,

on function of the Tonos

as

discussion on, 186-8

176

84-5

'

370-1 and Fig.

11),

on determination of

means added note,' 151

modal sequence in Canon of Florence

characteristics,

monia by, 269, fn. 2

on common Tonic of Modes (Harm.,

69
the factor of differentiation in pipes
with equidistant fingerholes, 406
the significant aspect of length in Aulos,
69
proportional and standard all. in Modal fl.,
457
impulse stimulated by hollows at fingerholes in fl., 98-101, 224
I.D. No. 2, An exact aliquot of length
from emb. to exit, 232
influence of length in Aulos alleged by
Porphyry tested, 131, 133
proslambano menos as modal Pivot marks
third stage of the sys. of Tonoi, 165-6
included in system of tetrachords in
Greek Church Modes, 375
in 4th Period admitted into system now
become Phrygian, 140
in 3rd or Ptolemaic Period, P.I.S. began
on, 140

Harm.'s
84

(contd.)

his conception of Emmeleia and Hermosmenon, zoo

his formulae confirm modal basis of the
P.I.S. 154-5 and Figs. 32-3
his syntonic chr., modal origin of, 1 58-9
no theory of the genesis of the Har-

PROPER NOTE OF DOUBLE-REED MOUTHPIECE,

computed by Formula, 89 sq.
determined by the v.L, 8990
proportion, the determinant of Modality,

begins on, 174

ushers in the bastard Ho. dorian species,
140
prototypes of greek music exhibit the

S7i

ptolemy

'

'

'

irvOayopov toiv aToi^a'cav oXov, eK0eaLs rujv

Terpoirajv Kara ra rpia y&vt) ' (Arist. \Quint.,

de Mm., M., p. 28), 156, fn. 1 (Gk.)

PYTHOKLEIDES OF CEOS (No. 3), 19O

quanta, divisions of 5th and 4th by

(Aristox.,

73-4 Macr.), 1 80-1

quest for a new language of Music Atonality,
Microtonic, &c, 541
for the Harm, in F.M., 291 sqq.

quintilian (Inst. Orator,

cr-f., 76-7

I,

11, 6

and

7)

on

ragmalkos, ex. from a Khyal (No. 380),

cited by A. H. Fox Strangways (refs.),
400 and Fig. 97

THE GREEK AULOS

572
RAGMALKOS

(contd.)
scale of, by A.

'

H. Fox Strangways, 399

simple tune No. 407 in, cited by A. H.
Fox Strangways, 400
raised fourths on Tonic in F.M., 374-5
and Fig. 85A
ratan devi recorded Thirty Indian Songs
Gopi's Complaint
in Rag Malkos,
400-1 and Fig. 98
RATIO 11/10 as first diesis on Tonic confirmed by Arist. Quint, (q.v.), 199
;

'

'

'
IvSe/ca Xoyos
tt]v Trpanrjv hUoiv
(Ar. Quint., 123M), 199 and fn. 3 (Gk.)
evidence from Ptolemy of use of, 200
of Dorian Harm, as Spondeiasmos and
.

Eklysis, 205
fivefold evidence for, 1989
on Tonic characteristic of the

Dorian

Harm., 198
use in the Tonos by Ptolemy of the,
200-1 and Fig. 40
ratio is, alternative use in the Harm, of
14 and, 139 and fn. 3, 152-4
significance of the, 152, 154
ratio number of Tonic reveals the Harm.,

rhosyn yr haf

',
introduced by Dr. Alf.
Daniel in 1909 before Cymmrodorian
Soc, 398
Llyw gwyn, Welsh song in the Ho.dorian Harm., 398-9 and Fig. 96

rhythm,

Lunga based on Ho.phrygian Harm., 394

Rumanian folk tune (Bartok), No. 2 ib, in
Ho.-phrygian Harm., Scale and ratios,
394
No. 53c. in Dor. Harm., scale of, 397-8
and Fig. 91

MSS.

significance of a, 52021

Mixolydian Species on Hypate

Hypaton of, 212-13
ratio of Intervals between fingerholes of
Aulos, 92-3
ratio 27/22, Wosta of Zalzal, 202
ratio 26, Original M.D. of Lydian Harm.
28,

traced in Notation, 525

ratios and v.f.s, Polemic No. 11 by Aristoxenus against use of, 196-7

used

v.f.s

(Polemic

12),

by

the

Harmonists

Gk.

'

'

substitutes

m.,

(refs.),

on Spanish Gregorian
378, fn.

sacadas of argos (c. 580 B.C.) introduced

the Nomos Pythikos at the Games, 81
sachs, curt, erroneous implications of equidistant fingerholes, 41, fn.

safi-ed-din describes division by M.D. 12

(ref.), 383
ST. Ambrose adopted four modes from the
Greeks, Intro., p. xvi
S.

PAMBO bans

'

dop-ara kcu ijxovs

'

from

services

of his monastery, 536

invention of Mixolydian Harm.
attributed to, 216
sarangdev (13th cent.) describes modal fl.s,

sappho,

197

Notation depend upon the

Tonos in which symbols are used, 521
of Modal Ho.lydian and modern Major
compared, 523
use of, by Harmonists (Polemic 11),
196-7
ratnakara, 13th cent, work on Drama by
Sarangdev recalled, 265-7, 381 and
Figs. 51-53
reactions of D-R. mp. N. 32 in Aulos
(Loret xxiii, schemes i and ii), 94 sqq.
of D-R. mp., Ten points in, 104-6
of open and closed pipes discovered by
natives of S. Africa, 346-7
rebirth of Harm, in F.M., 351 sqq.
RECIPROCAL VALUES of J-W.l. and V.f., 91-2,
252
records of Brazilian Panpipe scales are from
Hornbostel's own faulty blowing, 3183i9
of performance of Auloi and fl.s, 409
and passim
reed-blown pipe with equidistant fingerholes cannot have scale of fixed intervals,
405
reinach, Theodore, Nouveaux Fragments de
Musique grecque (refs.), 364, fn. 2
in

Tonal and Modal species

E. G., Acoustics of Orchestral

Instruments, 1930, by, 245-6
riemann, hugo, Hdb. d. Musikgeschichte,
pts.,
Leipzig,
1904-12, Intro., p. xxvi
4
ruelle, c. e.,
Introduction harmonique de
Cleonide,
Coll.
des Auteurs Grecs
relatifs a la Musique, Paris, 1884, 174-5
translation of Canon of Florence, into
French by, 1745
Rumania, survival of Harm, in, 387-8
Rumanian folk music. (Bartok.), the Hora

sablayrolles,

39-4

and

effect in

of, 217
Richardson,

ymjierpiav

for

looperpiav

{Plut., de Mus.,p. go), 171-2

resonance, accommodation in Aulos fundamental through, 93 and fn. i
results of Hornbostel's Table I analysed,
322-4 and Fig. 68

264
Sarangdev's

evidence on fl. in Sangitaratnakara (13th cent.), 264 sqq.

Ratnakara, 13th cent, work on Drama

and Music recalled, 270

Table of fl.s with measurements, comments by K.S., 264-8, Figs. 51-3
SCALE and Tune played on Transverse fl.
by Pedi musician (S. Africa), 348-9
derived from a cycle of seven ascending
perfect 4ms, Fig. 63, p. 302
elements, were these first vocal or
instrumental ? 293-4
of antique Peruvian fl., 326-7
of Paean of Berlin Papyrus, with symbols and ratios, 364-5
or system, three orders in the P.I.S. of,

symbols and ratios used in Fragment of

Orestes, 363-4
unit, 4th or octave ? 270
Vocal or instrumental first in the field ?
293-4
SCALES derived from cycle of 5ths, 304-5 and
Fig. 65

forming basis of F.M., 292 sqq.

origin of, 293
with raised 4ths,
and fn. 2

how

to judge, 405-6,

German transl. of Aristides

Quint. (Hesse, Berlin, 1907), 215

schXfke, rudolf,

INDEX
scheme of notation based on Ho. dorian
'Species, 153

evidence of alterations since its inception, 153-4

inception attributed to Pythagoras of
the, 156
was F or C the basis at the inception
of the, 162-3
schlesinger, Kathleen, on significance of
Wind Instruments in evolution of
Music,' 43-4 and fn. 2
Researches into Origin of Organs of the
Ancients, 62, fn. 1
Scope and estimate of The Greek Aulos
'

by J. F. M., Intro., p. xxvii

Modal implications
SCHOLIAST on Midas
of the feat, 79-80, fn. 5 (Gk.)
on Pindar's 12th Pyth. Ode (Greek and
transl.), 79-80 and fn. 5
schubart, dr. w., discovered the Berlin
papyrus in 1918 (refs), 364-5
second step in Heptatonic scale of the
Harm., 371 and Fig. 82
:

urjp,eiov

irpdiTov,

aAAoTe aXXrj Suvajuet ([>9oyyov

KaTovoiMa^ofievov (Arist. Quint., iSM.),

39-40 (ref.), 146 (transl.), 177, fn. 1 (Gk.)
sensa C flute, cr-f. on the, 250 sqq.
sensa flutes a, b and c, experimental, 235
sqq. reveal importance of I.D., 235 sqq.
separate auloi for each Harm, according to
Athenaeus {xiv, 631c), 73
separate origin for Pentatonic and Heptatonic, 308-9
septimal third 7/6 in Dor. Harm. M.D.
11 and in Phryg. Harm. M.D.
12,
passim
seven harmoniai, characteristic intervals of,
376-7 and Fig. 87
restored
by Ptolemy through the
mechanism of the Tonoi, 159-60
united through a common Tonic, 161
with ratios and Notation symbols, 178179 and Fig. 37
seven octave scales which they called
Harmoniai (Aristox., 36M.), 166, fn.,
195
SEVEN ORIGINAL MODAL SPECIES noted within
range of symbols Omega to Gamma, 520
seven scales or systems suggested as basis
of F.M., 301 sqq. and Figs. 63, 64, 65,
SHAKESPEARE'S oaten pipe (see also Virgil.
Virdung, Chaucer), 46-7
on Aulos, 46-7
shift of mouthpiece in aulos, implications
of, 98-101
SHIFT ON TONGUE OF BEATING-REED MOUTHPIECE on Loret xxiii, working out of, 1 1 5'

'

'

'

Synagogue
dorian

Mode

corresponding to Ho.-

Harm. (Songs Nos.

9 and 24),

397-8

Synagogue Song No. 7

ex. of Ho.phrygian Modal Pivots (see also Nos. 12,

14 and 23), 392
Sinhalese songs, intervals of, 296-8
six double-reed mouthpieces play in Elgin
Aulos on C = 128 v.p.s., 413, Tab. ix.
slendro and Pelog scales of Java, derived
from Harmoniai, 343 sqq.
identified as Modal from v.f.s, 312
the pentatonic scale of Java and Bali,
342-4
sliding bands on auloi in Candia and
Cyprus Museums, 77 and Fig. 29
effect of (see Proclus and Arcadius), 73-4
smith, a. h. (Gr.-Rom. Dept. Brit. Mus.),
measurements of Elgin Aulos, Pr. xiv
and p. 76

sound-wave length

in open and in closed

pipes, 410-11
relation of visible measurable fl. length
to the, 410-1

sound-wave periodicity, appreciated by the

ear,

312

south African natives discover reactions of

open and closed pipes, 346-7
southgate, dr .t. lea, Paper on Meroe Auloi
(Jrnl. Hell. St., xxxv, Pi. 1), 1915, 78-9
Gregorian mss., M. Sablayrolles
on (refs.), 378
speaker-hole not required on Aulos with
B-R. mp., 53-4
speaker-key on modern Clarinet, function
of (Chas. Draper), 1 18-19
speaking length in Aulos defined, 38
SPECIES AND modes, confusion in the order
of their succession explained, 147-8
and Fig. 31
order reversed in, 146-7
species consequent on arithmetical progression of ratios formed the G.C.S., 138
Eratocles and the, Polemic No. 10 by
Aristoxenus, 196 and Fig. 39
Harm., Tropos, Tonos all essentially
Modes, 189
in Notation indicated by ratio of first
diesis of Pyknon, 523-5 and Fig. 102
of Harm., determined mathematically
by Eratocles (Polemic 10), 196 and Fig.

Spanish

39
in use
(eiSij),

by Ishaq, 285

order

of,

reverse

of

that

of

Harmoniai and Tonoi, 147

17

standard Chinese Pipe (tr. by

W. H. Medhurst, Senr.), 149 and fn.
SHORTENING TONGUE OF BEATING-REED MOUTHPIECE, implications of, 5 1 sqq. and Fig. 24
produces rise in pitch, 50 sqq. and Fig. 24
Sibelius, theme as example of Dorian species
of the P.I.S., 308 and Fig. 66
SIGNIFICANCE OF FINGERHOLE BORING ON FL.
22 i sqq.
SIGNIFICANT FACTORS IN CROSS-FINGERING,
246 sqq.
SILVANUS, abbot of Sinai, sings in the
Octoechos (days of St. Ephraim), 536

SHOO-KING,

573

singer, JOSEF, names Mogen Awaus (Phryg.

Conj.) as one of three oldest modes of
the Synagogue (refs.), 391

practical basis of, 144-5

re

of the Harm., worst possible approach

to understanding of the, Intro., p. xviii

System, seven Tonics and one Mese in

the, 146

Mese has the same absolute pitch

all the Modal, 146
the Tonic is the element of change in
the, 146
to change, affects compass and tessitura,
192
speech, the instinctive intervals of, 294-5
speech-song from man's subliminal self, 294
the
in

THE GREEK AULOS

574

= DORIAN, Pythagoras
persuades Piper to change from Phrygian
to, 1 1 7-1
spondeiakos
tropos,
ancient
Libation
Hymn, 205
oTTovSetaKos 173077-05, libation song (Plut., de
Mus., W. and R., 174, 177), 205
Elgin Aulos bored to give, 411 sqq.
and passim
or Spondeion, the auletic libation mode
{Plut., C. II and 19), 205
spondeiasmos and Eklysis, Aristides Quint,
on, 205
identified as of ratio 11 /10, 205
SPONDAIC HARMONIA

intervals of three dieses (see Aristides

Quint.), 205
occur in Dorian and Ho.lydian Harmoniai, 2058 and Fig. 43
of ratio 11 /io, 205 sqq.
characteristic interval of Spondeiakos

Tropos, 205 sqq.

position in the P.I.S. defined by an
Aulete, 206-7 and Fig. 42
crTOvSeiaoyxds
interval of 3 dieses (Plut., de
Mus., W. and R., 111, 113), 189, 205
sqq.
spondeion or Spondeiakos Tropos, libation
its

mode, 205
the Dorian Harm, or Terpander's
Harm., 39 and Fig. 21
I in development of Tonos, 16 1-2
marked by Hypate Meson as starting-

stage

note, 161
11 in development of Tonos, 162
marked by Hypate Hypaton as modal
pivot, 162
stage in, modal pivot now Prosl. as startingnote, 165
Stage iv, the P.I.S. changes from Dorian to

stage

Phrygian

in,

166-7

stamm,

A., Tres Canones Harmonici, Berlin,

1881, Text and Tr. (see Canon of
Florence), 174 and fn. 2
starting-note (Tonic) according to Aristides Quint., 146, 176
marks the four stages in development of
the Tonos (Ptol., ii, 7), 161
same sign taken as, implies the Harm.
(see Arist. Quint. 18M.), 39, 105, 146,
177
stein, r., Eskimo Song,' Ho.lydian Harm,
1

in, Fig. 100, p.

402

stenbeck, carita, oaten pipes from Finland

presented by, 46
Sumatra, Kubu Songs (four) in Ho.phrygian Harm. (Hornb., one ex.), 396

and Fig. 95
sumerian notation, conjectural interpretation of, by Canon Galpin, 405, 406,
fn. 2

implies
(ref.),

Modality,

not standard

scale

406

=
=
=

110, 205
vpiv
B-R.

ovvatp'tfv or eXaaaov = the

Lesser Perfect or Conj. system, 152
riXeiov
ftet^ov = Greater
Perfect
System, Intro., pp. xxi-xxii
synagogue song from Esther No. 20 with

avarrjua reAeiov Kara

ovoTTjixa

Phrygian Mod. Pivots (Singer,

refs.),

39i

synemmenon

is

the

first

Ho. dorian Species,

fn.

tetrachord of the
153, 203, 523 and

modal

significance

of the tetrachord,

152

synemmenon

conjunction

alone

causes

Why ? 152
change of Species
syntonic chromatic, modal basis of
Ptolemy's, 158-9, 204
of Ptolemy in agreement with Modal
P.I.S., 201-4
of Ptolemy, Phrygian genesis of, 158-9
syntono-lydisti of Plato and Aristotle was
the Lydian Species of the P.I.S., 137
syntonon modes not suitable for aged
singers (Plut.), 189
not synonymous with high-pitched, 189
= Tense, implies raised intervals, or
Mese on high degree in scale, 189
syntonoteros raised diesis in spondeion
:

(see Plut.), 189

syrinx, as the mp. of the Aulos, 62
Ka-Taairdof} rls ras ovpiyyas Kav 0" eiriXa^-q
(if one grasps the syrinx) (Arist., de
Audib., 804a), 64
Monocalamus (Athen, 184A), 79
nay or vertical fl., 79
use in Greece implied by Feat of
Midas of the, 80-81
mp. of Aulos, drawn up or drawn down
both produce rise in pitch, 54-5, 62
of the Aulos, drawn up or let down,
Plutarch on, 62-4
on Aulos, the two movements of the, a
knotty point, 55
views of A. A. Howard and of K.S.,

75-6
Telephanes of Megara's dislike of the,
(Plut., de Mus., C.21), 80-1
system of the harmonia, common chord
not obtainable on every degree in the, 543
first

desideratum a Modal Monochord

1, p. 5
544

for the, Fig.

four suggestive features of the, 542-4

new harmonic system required for the,

541-2
reveals the significance of Ethos, 543
rich contrapuntal possibilities of the,

542

two notes sounded simultaneously (Porph., Comm. on Ptol., i, 8), 132

conjunction, 140, fn. 2
ovvafyrj
keynote as cohesive element, 188
owe-xpv
avvTovos
tense, Ethos of Harm., 135
ovvTovu)Tpos o7rov$eiaop.6s (Plut., de Mus., W.
and R., 11113), the raised diesis,
ov/tjxovla

survival of harmonia, the fl. as evidence of

the, 383-4
in F.M., indications of, 351 sqq.
ovoTTjfia. reXeiov auerafioXov = P.I.S., passim
crucmjfia reXewv eXarrov = Lesser Perfect System, Intro., p. xxii

mp.

of Aulos (see Plut.), 54

system of modes, one

common Tonic and

seven varieties of the degrees in the, 146

system of the tonoi, common original

Dorian tetrachordal structure in the, 525
systems mathematically determined by
Eratocles, 196
Polemic No. 9 by Aristox., 195
swazi flute with narrow bore, example
music on the, 346 and Fig. 75

of

INDEX

'

'

'

'

theo of Smyrna, editions J. Dupuis (pp.

re Hyper144 and 150) and Hiller

hypate, 211
quotes Adrastus on the distribution of
the Species, 145
theophrastus, change to elaborate playing
on Aulos, chronicled by, 66, 106
on Aulos mp. paraphrase by the elder
Pliny, 65
on rise and decline of pure modal music,
66, 106
on the mp. of the Aulos, 65-66
theory of blown fifths, Hornbostel's, unequivocal rejection of, 333
theory of the harmoniai, Outline of the, 2
thetic nomenclature no existence apart
from the Dynamic, 143
thirds on tonic in F.M. defined, 373,
;

Fig. 84
thrasyllus and Eratosthenes, used both
forms of ditonal scale (Nico?n., 1, 24),
306 and fn. 1
thrasyllus of Rhodes (ap. Theo of Smyrna),
on division of Canon by M.D. 12, 145,

211, 306, fn.

thrasyllus

v.

theo of Smyrna,

P- 47, 145, 211, 36, fn. 1,

thuren,

hjalmar,

and

W.

ed. Hiller,

383
Thalbitzer,

Melodies from East Greenland, Copenhagen, 1914, 296, fn. 2, 301

Nos. of
Tunes 70 and 79
TILINCA, Rumanian fl. with or without fipple
and used both open and closed, 347
TIMAEUS of plato, ditonal scale derived
from the, 171-2
timotheus of miletus adds eleventh string
to the Kithara, 143
to yap avoj /cat rrpwrov vrrarov oi 7raAacoi
npoarjyopuvov
(Pint., de Mus., p. Iviii),
;

'

'

'

187, fn.

575

tonality

tables OF alypius contain scheme of the

Tonoi in Vocal and Instrumental Notation, 519 and Figs. 34 and 37
refs. to sources, 353 and fn.
rdms = tension, 183 and passim
taylor, sedley, Sound and Music ', Macmillan, 1883, 56
(Plut.,
Tjj 8' avaXoyiKrj apfwvia
de Mus.,
C. 27-28, p. 1144F), 181
telephanes of megara
his dislike of the
Syrinx, 80-1
teAcutij = end
apxr) = beginning, 186
tension applied in Aulos through compression of breath stream, 83 and fn.
ten-stringed kithara used by Ion of Chio
to play in three Harmoniai, 143
tenth string added to Kithara by Histaeus
of Colophon, 143
terpander's, Dorian Harm, or Spondeion
attributed to, 183
tessitura of Harm, due to nature of Mese, 1 82
The foundation
rrjs rov r)pp>Gp.vov rdcos,
of the order of Harmony (Polemic 7),
58-9, 194
tests as challenge to Bellermann's interpretation of Notation, 527
with B-R. mp.s, 63-4 and Fig. 25
tetrachord,
all
slackened
notes
by
Musicians (see Plut., de Mus., C. 27-8,
1144F), 181

(raffi?),

Nomos

no change allowed in the

of (see Plut.), 56

tonality or modality
extr. of

mp.

Does change

in

involve, 100

Toiv hiaypap.pia.Toyv Kara-rrvKvajaeo'LV,

Katapyknotic diagrams of the

Harmonists, 213
tongue of beating-reed mouthpiece, double
the

movement of, 108

tongue of mouthpiece shortened by 1/3
produces rise in pitch of
to the 5th, Fig. 24, p. 52
Tovialov SiaroviKov
the Tonic

Ptolemy, Fig. 40, p. 201

tonic as starting note in the
Quint., 18M.), 39-40 and

fundamental
Diatonic of

Mode
fn.

(Arist.

ratio in each Mode

18M.), 40 and fn. 1
is the element of change in the Species,
146

bears

different

(Arist. Quint.,

and Dominant
are Phrygian

in Ecclesiastical
Pivots, 375

Modes

Modal

tonoi and tropoi

call
Harmoniai

'

'

'

',

which Musicians
&c." (Plat., An seni
.

sit gerenda, C. 18, p. g68), 189

TONOI, as curtailed Modes confirmed by
Notation, 167-8 and Fig. 34
complete scheme of, in Tables of
Alypius, 140 and fn. 2
Harmonists ^jnot agreed on, alleges

Aristoxenus, 193
inter-relationship of the, alleged neglect

by Harmonists

of, (Polemic No.

3),
192
common fundamental F (Omega),
seven different Cs as Hypate Hypaton,

one
161

order of the, according to the Harmonists, 192-3

polemic No. 4 by Aristoxenus concerning the, 192-3
relation among Harmonists
fingerholes to, 193

of Aulos

systems melodized on (Polemic 4), 192-3

the newer, cause breach in original
scheme of Notation, 522
tonos as starting-note in modal sequence of,
Aristides on, 39-40, fn. 1
birth of the, 150
correspondence between symbols and
modal ratios in Notation for each, 521
each Harm, at seven points of Pitch
presented by the, 149-50
first step in, Hyp. to Parh. Meson, importance of, 219
Harm., Tropos mean same thing
(Plutarch, q.v.), 189
torr, Cecil, On the Interpretation of Greek
Music, 1896, Intro., p. xxvi
rov rjpfj.oap.4vov rats, the order of Harmony
(see Polemic on Aulos), 58-61
TRANSVERSE FLUTE in ancient India (see
Bharata and Sarangdev), 264
in evolution in Europe, 268
in use by S. African, natives, ex. of
Music for, 347
tritonic and perfect fourths illustrated as
alternatives

by Hucbald

(op.

cit.,

113-14), 378
tritonic fourth in Ho.lydianand Cycle
5ths, 306

pp
of

THE GREEK AULOS

576

troparia defined by Zonaras as based on the

Harmoniai, 536
(modal chants) sung in early Greek
Churches and by Hermits, 536

Greek quotations, Fleischer, Neumen Studien, ii, p. 119, 536, fn. 2

sung in St. Mark's Church, Alexsee

andria, in 4th c. a.d., 536

*

TpoTrapCa, Lpp.6s

Kai

apfxovlas,

biBovs

(Zonaras), 536
'
i/raAAv Kai tjxov ? pcMlciv
Hermit
of Nitria, 536
tropos, Harm., Tonos, meaning same thing
(see Plutarch), 189
Species are Modes differentiated in
function, 188
Mode and Tonos given as synonyms by
'

Hucbald, 378
or Tonos, the number according to
Harmonists (Polemic No. 4) in the, 193
Tonos, Harm., Plutarch on (an seni sit
gerenda), 189
f

rpoTraj avptyyos, avXijaai

'

Midas)

(of

(see

(Hornb.

v.f. ratios

refs.),

391

1 in Dor. Harm. (Hornb.), scale and

389
string added to Kithara by
Melanippedes, 143
twelve polemics against the Harmonists

No.

ratios,

twelfth

from Aristoxenus, 19 1-8

twenty-eight consecutive
Harmonists (Polemic

of the
implications

dieses

12),

of the, 197 sqq.

Harmonist's diagram

of, 212-13
44
of Harmonists (see Aristides Quint.
and Meibomius), 213-15 and Fig.

dieses,

and

Fig.

44
of Harmonists, suggested explanations of, 213-15 and Fig. 44
two for each Pyknon of seven Harmoniai, 213-14, Fig. 44
of the Harmonists according to Aris-

toxenus and Arist. Quint, and Mb,

213-15 and Fig. 44
Canon of Florence by, 174,

division in

213-15 and Fig. 44

notes of P.I.S. no connection with 28
dieses of Harmonists, 215
notes required for the P.I.S., 215
significance of the number, 212 sqq.
sounding universe
of
Egyptians
(Nicomachus, 2j8, Jan), 213
the ratio number of the Mixolydian
Tonic, 212 and 217, Fig. 45

two harmoniai on
fundamental

Loret

mp.

at

xxiii

two

on same

extr.,

94-6

tzetzes, dr.. joh, the Ho.lydian Harm, in

Mon. Cod., gr. 104, fol. 289W., 210
Vber die Altgriechische Musik in der
griechischen Kirche, Munchen,
1874,
280, fn. 1

XJ
uninterrupted modal sequence depends
upon the I.D., 243
unique structure of Greek Scale system or
P.I.S. I54-S- Fig- 32 and sqq.
UNITS OF song, separate instinctive, not pro,

vedda music, evidence from, 296

examples from, by Dr. C.

S.

Myers,

296-8
solely vocal
compass restricted, 296
velocity of sound in air, computations by
Formulae of, 225, 317-18
vent in Aulos or fl. = Hole 1 left uncovered,
87, 100 and passim
verdict of elgin aulos on Mean versus first
;

I.D., 102
verdict of pipe with equidistant fingerholes
is final,

also /wots), 79, fn. 5

tuning block for Kithara, 145

Turkish folk tune in Phrygian Harm., scale
with

unsuspected co-ordinating factor'in Aulos, 99

factor in interior of Aulos, 99
UR pipes, no standard scale to be deduced
from the, 404 sqq. and fns. 1-3
resemble the Lady Maket pipes discovered by Flinders Petrie, 406, 408 sqq.
unequivocally imply
a Modal System,
'
406-7
UR silver pipes, mp. indispensable for determination of tonality or modality of the,
405

Preface, p.

vertical flute and Panpipe, correct method

of playing the, 86-7
vincent, A. J. H., treatise of George Pachymeres (13th c.) (refs.) presented by, 383
vibrating length in double-reed mouthpiece, effect through
resonance on
fundamental of, 91
the determinant of pitch, 89-90
the most useful, are -058 to -063 and
075 to -08, 91

frequency to determine by
Formula No. 1 effective sd-w.l. length

vibration

in pipes from, 87
of fl. notes, determined

by Formula

No.

1, 225
does not always correspond to the
lengths (Al-Fdrdbl, Koseg., p. g8), 274
of half -wave length inalterable, 252
vibration frequencies, use of by Harmonists
revealed by Aristoxenus, 196-7
vich cathedral (spain), codex xxxi, evidence from, 378
vich cod. ex xxxi (12th c), contains Epistola
In Natale Domini ', 378
processional trope with Ho.phrygian
modal pivots in, 378
virdung, Sebastian, evidence on cr-f. by,
353, 384
mentions the strawpipe (strohelm), 46,
'

fn. 1

and Martin Agricola, testimony of

schemes of, 384 and Figs. 49 and 50
virdung's Strohelm (oaten pipe) in use
'

'

his day, 46, fn.

virgil's

'

fl.

in

tenui avena

'

oaten pipe

(Eel., 1,

2), 46, fn.

vital points concerning the Modal

fl.,

242

sqq.

vocal and instrumental elements fused

ir.

practice of Kithara, 352

vocal music, early elements of, 293-4
origin sought in early intonational lan-

guage, 293-5

vocal notation, Main

features of, 521

probable origin of scheme

vocal scale, quest

of,

520-1

for origin of, 293 sqq.

wagner, rudolf, Der Berliner Notenpapyrus

INDEX
wantzloeben, sigfrid's Das Monochord als
Instrument und als System, Halle, 191 1,

WATER-ORGAN (vSpavhrnv

(contd.)
ratio 27/22, implies the
of the P.I.S., 279

xxvi

wind instruments

their testimony to be
founded on theory and practical
records, Intro., p. xxiv
winnington-ingram, r. p., Preface, p. vii
his pithy summing up of development

of Greek Music, Intro., pp. xxvi sq., and

88, fn. 2
Mode in Ancient Greek Music, Camb.
Univ. Press., 1936, Intro., pp. xxvi sq.
woolley, sir Leonard, discovered silver

pipes of Ur, 404

wosta of zalzal, of ratio 27/22, significance
of, 202
Figs. 56, 57 and 58
279, fn. 3
;

xylophones from Burma, evidence

of,

327

*v
'

174B)
to vSpavXwov
Athen., 174C), 131
water-organ,

vSpavXis (Athen.,
opyavov.'

Lydian species

opyavov) invention

attributed to Ctesibius (Athen, 17 4B),

133 (11)

westphal, rudolf, services to Greek Music

of, Intro., p.

577

wosta of zalzal

269, fn. 2

v&pavXos (vhpavXis)

Hydraulus,

131

bulb concealing
mp., 70-1

i<j>oXfiiov

stalk

of Aulos

z
zalzal,

Wosta

of,

ratio 27/22,

fret of

202 and

Lute of Arabs

fn. 1

Wosta of ratio 27/22, implies

Lydian Species of the P.I.S., 279
ZEUGE, the D-R. mp. (see Aristotle), 62
zonaras (12th c), Canones Anastassmos
Damasceni, Intr. defines the Troparia

zalzal's

(refs.),

536, fn. 8

TABLE XV OF REFERENCE. RATIOS AND

CFG CFG
Dorian Harmonia

v.f.s

128
22/22

112
1 6 /22

124-2
1*7 122

128
24/24

24"2

1 / /

/22

134
21/22

Lydian Harmonia

v.f.s.

128
26/26

133-56

l6/22

JJ J

17/24

120-4

138-28
x 4/

148-2

0
140-9

19/22

13/22

G
124-8
on I oft

133-12

19 /26

I48S

139-63

140*8

138-6

138-6

22/24

T C loA.

24/26

18/26

25/26

21/24

j6
150-8

153-6

14/24

20/24

*43

2R/2fi

16/26

151-27

152-5

22/26

15/26

156-4

158-47

162-4

161-68

162-4

12/22

13/22

19/24

13/24

165-6

163-4

14/24

14/26
166-4

17/22
170-6

13/24

118-1

22/28

22/32

26/32

i34'i

25/32
128
24/32

21/32

133-5

128
21/28

130 0
io/2o

192

v.p.s.

CFG CFG
Hypophrygian Harmonia

v.f.s

128
36/36

126-7

119-1

25/36

29/36

122-88

136-5

131.6

35/36

132
24/36

45

141-4

19/28

141-2

149-3

149-3

24/28

18/28

146-3

I58-I

151-7

17/28

27/32

155-9

154
16/28

132-9

135-5

140-8

139-6

20/32

22/32

162-9

164-2

22/28

IS/28

146-2

19/32

139-6

23/36

183-8

1*056

25/32

17/32

168
16/28

178
28/28

178-2

179-2

14/26

20/28

192
16/24

192

22/24

192
24/24

179-2

170-6

15/28

135-3

38/40

26/40

142
36/40

25/40

144
22/36

144
24/36

150-8

150-2

21/36

23/36

31/36

204-8

14/22

216-6

13/22

200-18

200-2

21/24

23/24

15/24
203-8

20I-I

19/22

21/22

209-4

2II-2

22/24

215-1

2 1 1-

219-4

20/24

219-4

14/24

222-2

21/24

18/22

20/22

227-6

222-2

17/22

19/22

19/24

234-6

234-6

12/22

18/22

242
16/22

140-8

158-9

158-4

157-09

19/32

29/36

20/36

22/36

164-6

166-7

164-5

19/36

21/36

170-6

170-6

18/32

27/36
177-2

146-28

146-6

142-2

24/40

27/40

230-4

236-39

234-6

13/24

18/24

20/24

181-66

23/40

J53-6

160
32/40

160

160
24/40

17/24

25/40

22/40

20/36

16516
31/40

167-6

21/40

167
23/40

30/40

17/32

181-9

181

184-3

35/36

19/36

174-5

176
29/40

22/40

182-8

182-8

28/40

21/40

185-26

192
26/26

38/40

188-6

1895

19/28

26/28

189-6

198-94
199-6

197-1

25/26
208
24/26
217
23/26

1991

228-8

226-8

17/28

20/26

22/26

208
22/26
217-8

221-86

21/26

15/26
237-7

25/28

18/28

199
27/28

195

194-2

21/32

29/32

204

201

198-2

28/32

31/32

205-3

207-6

23/28

26/28
215
25/28

224
22/28

224
24/28

214-2

237-6

33/36

200-34

32/36

27/40

192

190-2

37/40

197-4

35/36

196-9

208-3

30/32

27/32

2II-8

204-4

203-2

204-8

29/32

31/36

34/36

25/40

215-58

2166
19/32

26/32

21/26

219-4

224
16/28

192
24/36

195-4

196-9

36/40

39/40

201

35/40

202
38/40

207
34/40

207-5

204-8

24/28
210-8

227-55

225-2

28/32

25/32

227-4

18/32

248-4

26/40
153

155
33/36

170-6

1877

23/26

14/26

147-7

172-8

176
36/36

23/32

30/32

24/26

208
16/26

132
29/40
137
28/40

35/40

34/40
161-6

178

183

195-76

17/26

2011

128
30/40

134-7

18/32

25/26

190-6

(33/48)
193-6

20/22

27/40

138-2

186

21/22
187-7

15/28

130-3

123/8
31/40

25/36

186-34

18/26

131-28

120

32/40

150-58

31/32

184-3

33/40

K257
28/40

148-64
153-6

153-6
156-4

21/28
176

144
32/36

20/32

157-5

182

183-6

29/40

39/40

180-7

23/24

116-3

26/36

21/32
148-2

27/28

17/24

121-39

128
27/36

34/36

17/ ^0

(13/26)
(26/26)

180-7

128
40/40

28/36

23/32

30/

182-4

184-38

Hypolydian Harmonia

v.f.s

1377

170-6

19/26

128

134-4

15/26

17515
177-2

AND G =

29/32

166-4

20/26

176
24/24

176

CFG

v.f.s

15/32
137-8
9RI 98

17/26

18/24
I76
12/22

29 7

y / o

23/28
164-5

F=

146-8

156
16/26

21/26
161-3

I22-I8

20/28

15/24

18/22

I23-2
20/ 2o

128

Hypodorian Harmonia

132-7

25/28

14/22

176
22/22

128
28 /9ft

I50-8

176
16/22

CFG

27/28

144-7

HARMONIAI ON C

123-4

I si 22
*Jl

146-28

v.f.s

16/2,4.

ratio in squares.)

23/24

1 II

140-8

20/22

OF THE

Mixolydian Harmonia

19/26
127
18/26

128
l8! 2d

x 29*06
IK

I21'2
TO l%A

v.fs.

(The M.D. and

Phrygian Harmonia

234-6

233-6

21/28

23/28

27/32

209-45

21

209-4

213-3

22/36

30/36

33/36

24/40

218-4

29/36

216
32/36

222-6

226-2

222-6

28/36

31/36

234-6

33/40

23/40

24/32

241
17/32

37/40
213-8

2194

232-7

22/40

244-4

23/32

234-6

230-4

27/36

30/36

213-2

36/40
220
32/40
219-4
227-1

35/40

31/40
225-8
234-6

242-5

243-6

243-8

19/36

26/36

21/40

30/40

34/40

v.f.s